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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Byzantine Empire + +Author: Charles William Chadwick Oman + +Release Date: October 14, 2011 [Ebook #37756] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Byzantine Empire</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Charles William Chadwick Oman, M.A., + F.S.A.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Author of</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span class="tei tei-q" + style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">Warwick the + Kingmaker,</span><span style="font-size: 120%">”</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">“</span><span style="font-size: 120%">The Art of + War in the Middle Ages,</span><span style= + "font-size: 120%">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 120%">Etc.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Third Edition</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adelphi Terrace, + London</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York: G. P. Putnam's + Sons</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1902</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">I. Byzantium.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">II. The Foundation Of Constantinople. + (<span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> + 328-330.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">III. The Fight With The Goths.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc9">IV. The Departure Of The Germans.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc11">V. The Reorganization Of The Eastern Empire. + (<span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> + 408-518.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc13">VI. Justinian.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc15">VII. Justinian's Foreign Conquests.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc17">VIII. The End Of Justinian's Reign.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc19">IX. The Coming Of The Slavs.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc21">X. The Darkest Hour.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc23">XI. Social And Religious Life. (<span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> 320-620.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc25">XII. The Coming Of The Saracens.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc27">XIII. The First Anarchy.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc29">XIV. The Saracens Turned Back.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc31">XV. The Iconoclasts. (<span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> 720-802.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc33">XVI. The End Of The Iconoclasts. (<span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> 802-886.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc35">XVII. The Literary Emperors And Their Time. + (<span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span> + 886-963.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc37">XVIII. Military Glory.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc39">XIX. The End Of The Macedonian + Dynasty.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc41">XX. Manzikert. (1057-1081.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc43">XXI. The Comneni And The Crusades.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc45">XXII. The Latin Conquest Of + Constantinople.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc47">XXIII. The Latin Empire And The Empire Of + Nicaea. (1204-1261.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc49">XXIV. Decline And Decay. (1261-1328.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc51">XXV. The Turks In Europe.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc53">XXVI. The End Of A Long Tale. + (1370-1453.)</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc55">Table Of Emperors.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc57">Index.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc59">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiv">[pg iv]</span><a name="Pgiv" id= + "Pgiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Interior of St. Sophia" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Interior of St. Sophia + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name= + "Pgvii" id="Pgvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fifty years ago + the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Byzantine”</span> was used as a + synonym for all that was corrupt and decadent, and the tale of the + East-Roman Empire was dismissed by modern historians as depressing + and monotonous. The great Gibbon had branded the successors of + Justinian and Heraclius as a series of vicious weaklings, and for + several generations no one dared to contradict him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two books have + served to undeceive the English reader, the monumental work of + Finlay, published in 1856, and the more modern volumes of Mr. Bury, + which appeared in 1889. Since they have written, the Byzantines no + longer need an apologist, and the great work of the East-Roman Empire + in holding back the Saracen, and in keeping alive throughout the Dark + Ages the lamp of learning, is beginning to be realized.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The writer of this + book has endeavoured to tell the story of Byzantium in the spirit of + Finlay and Bury, not in that of Gibbon. He wishes to acknowledge his + debts both to the veteran of the war of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "pageviii">[pg viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Greek Independence, and to the young Dublin + professor. Without their aid his task would have been very heavy—with + it the difficulty was removed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The author does + not claim to have grappled with all the chroniclers of the Eastern + realm, but thinks that some acquaintance with Ammianus, Procopius, + Maurice's <span class="tei tei-q">“Strategikon,”</span> Leo the + Deacon, Leo the Wise, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Anna Comnena and + Nicetas, may justify his having undertaken the task he has + essayed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Oxford</span></span>,</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">February</span></span>, + 1892.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexx">[pg xx]</span><a name="Pgxx" + id="Pgxx" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/front-map.png" alt="Illustration" /></div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">I. Byzantium.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two thousand five + hundred and fifty-eight years ago a little fleet of galleys toiled + painfully against the current up the long strait of the Hellespont, + rowed across the broad Propontis, and came to anchor in the smooth + waters of the first inlet which cuts into the European shore of the + Bosphorus. There a long crescent-shaped creek, which after-ages were + to know as the Golden Horn, strikes inland for seven miles, forming a + quiet backwater from the rapid stream which runs outside. On the + headland, enclosed between this inlet and the open sea, a few hundred + colonists disembarked, and hastily secured themselves from the wild + tribes of the inland, by running some rough sort of a stockade across + the ground from beach to beach. Thus was founded the city of + Byzantium.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The settlers were + Greeks of the Dorian race, natives of the thriving seaport-state of + Megara, one of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg + 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + most enterprising of all the cities of Hellas in the time of colonial + and commercial expansion which was then at its height. Wherever a + Greek prow had cut its way into unknown waters, there Megarian seamen + were soon found following in its wake. One band of these venturesome + traders pushed far to the West to plant colonies in Sicily, but the + larger share of the attention of Megara was turned towards the + sunrising, towards the mist-enshrouded entrance of the Black Sea and + the fabulous lands that lay beyond. There, as legends told, was to be + found the realm of the Golden Fleece, the Eldorado of the ancient + world, where kings of untold wealth reigned over the tribes of + Colchis: there dwelt, by the banks of the river Thermodon, the + Amazons, the warlike women who had once vexed far-off Greece by their + inroads: there, too, was to be found, if one could but struggle far + enough up its northern shore, the land of the Hyperboreans, the + blessed folk who dwell behind the North Wind and know nothing of + storm and winter. To seek these fabled wonders the Greeks sailed ever + North and East till they had come to the extreme limits of the sea. + The riches of the Golden Fleece they did not find, nor the country of + the Hyperboreans, nor the tribes of the Amazons; but they did + discover many lands well worth the knowing, and grew rich on the + profits which they drew from the metals of Colchis and the forests of + Paphlagonia, from the rich corn lands by the banks of the Dnieper and + Bug, and the fisheries of the Bosphorus and the Maeotic Lake. + Presently the whole coastland of the sea, which the Greeks, on their + first coming, called <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg + 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Axeinos—<span class="tei tei-q">“the Inhospitable”</span>—became + fringed with trading settlements, and its name was changed to + Euxeinos—<span class="tei tei-q">“the Hospitable”</span>—in + recognition of its friendly ports. It was in a similar spirit that, + two thousand years later, the seamen who led the next great impulse + of exploration that rose in Europe, turned the name of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Cape of Storms”</span> into that of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Cape of Good Hope.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Megarians, + almost more than any other Greeks, devoted their attention to the + Euxine, and the foundation of Byzantium was but one of their many + achievements. Already, seventeen years before Byzantium came into + being, another band of Megarian colonists had established themselves + at Chalcedon, on the opposite Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus. The + settlers who were destined to found the greater city applied to the + oracle of Delphi to give them advice as to the site of their new + home, and Apollo, we are told, bade them <span class= + "tei tei-q">“build their town over against the city of the + blind.”</span> They therefore pitched upon the headland by the Golden + Horn, reasoning that the Chalcedonians were truly blind to have + neglected the more eligible site on the Thracian shore, in order to + found a colony on the far less inviting Bithynian side of the + strait.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-01.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Early Coin Of Byzantium." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Early Coin Of Byzantium. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-02.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Late Coin Of Byzantium Showing Crescent And Star." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Late Coin Of Byzantium Showing Crescent And Star. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the first its + situation marked out Byzantium as destined for a great future. Alike + from the military and from the commercial point of view no city could + have been better placed. Looking out from the easternmost headland of + Thrace, with all Europe behind it and all Asia before, it was equally + well suited to be the frontier fortress to defend the border + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" + id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the one, or the basis of + operations for an invasion from the other. As fortresses went in + those early days it was almost impregnable—two sides protected by the + water, the third by a strong wall not commanded by any neighbouring + heights. In all its early history Byzantium never fell by storm: + famine or treachery accounted for the few occasions on which it fell + into the hands of an enemy. In its commercial aspect the place was + even more favourably situated. It completely commanded the whole + Black Sea trade: every vessel that went forth from Greece or Ionia to + traffic with Scythia or Colchis, the lands by the Danube mouth or the + shores of the Maeotic Lake, had to pass close under its walls, so + that the prosperity of a hundred Hellenic towns on the Euxine was + always at the mercy of the masters of Byzantium. The Greek loved + short stages and frequent stoppages, and as a half-way house alone + Byzantium would have been prosperous: but it had also a flourishing + local trade of its own with the tribes of the neighbouring Thracian + inland, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name= + "Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and drew much profit + from its fisheries: so much so that the city badge—its coat of arms + as we should call it—comprised a tunny-fish as well as the famous ox + whose form alluded to the legend of the naming of the + Bosphorus.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href= + "#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As an independent + state Byzantium had a long and eventful history. For thirty years it + was in the hands of the kings of Persia, but with that short + exception it maintained its freedom during the first three hundred + years that followed its foundation. Many stirring scenes took place + beneath its walls: it was close to them that the great Darius threw + across the Bosphorus his bridge of boats, which served as a model for + the more famous structure on which his son Xerxes crossed the + Hellespont. Fifteen years later, when Byzantium in common with all + its neighbours made an ineffectual attempt to throw off the Persian + yoke, in the rising called the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ionic + Revolt,”</span> it was held for a time by the arch-rebel Histiaeus, + who—as much to enrich himself as to pay his seamen—invented strait + dues. He forced every ship passing up or down the Bosphorus to pay a + heavy toll, and won no small unpopularity thereby for the cause of + freedom which he professed to champion. Ere long Byzantium fell back + again into the hands of Persia, but she was finally freed from the + Oriental yoke seventeen years later, when the victorious Greeks, + fresh from the triumph of Salamis and Mycale, sailed up to her walls + and after a long leaguer starved out <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the obstinate garrison [<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 479]. The fleet + wintered there, and it was at Byzantium that the first foundations of + the naval empire of Athens were laid, when all the Greek states of + Asia placed their ships at the disposal of the Athenian admirals + Cimon and Aristeides.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">During the fifth + century Byzantium twice declared war on Athens, now the mistress of + the seas, and on each occasion fell into the hands of the enemy—once + by voluntary surrender in 439 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, once by treachery from + within, in 408 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> But the Athenians, + except in one or two disgraceful cases, did not deal hardly with + their conquered enemies, and the Byzantines escaped anything harder + than the payment of a heavy war indemnity. In a few years their + commercial gains repaired all the losses of war, and the state was + itself again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We know + comparatively little about the internal history of these early + centuries of the life of Byzantium. Some odd fragments of information + survive here and there: we know, for example, that they used iron + instead of copper for small money, a peculiarity shared by no other + ancient state save Sparta. Their alphabet rejoiced in an abnormally + shaped Β, which puzzled all other Greeks, for it resembled a Π with + an extra limb.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href= + "#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> The chief + gods of the city were those that we might have expected—Poseidon the + ruler of the sea, whose blessing gave Byzantium its chief wealth; and + Demeter, the goddess who presided over the Thracian and Scythian corn + lands which formed its second source of prosperity.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Byzantines + were, if ancient chroniclers tell us the truth, a luxurious as well + as a busy race: they spent too much time in their numerous inns, + where the excellent wines of Maronea and other neighbouring places + offered great temptations. They were gluttons too as well as + tipplers: on one occasion, we are assured, the whole civic militia + struck work in the height of a siege, till their commander consented + to allow restaurants to be erected at convenient distances round the + ramparts. One comic writer informs us that the Byzantines were eating + young tunny-fish—their favourite dish—so constantly, that their whole + bodies had become well-nigh gelatinous, and it was thought they might + melt if exposed to too great heat! Probably these tales are the + scandals of neighbours who envied Byzantine prosperity, for it is at + any rate certain that the city showed all through its history great + energy and love of independence, and never shrank from war as we + should have expected a nation of epicures to do.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not till + the rise of Philip of Macedon and his greater son Alexander that + Byzantium fell for the fifth time into the hands of an enemy. The + elder king was repulsed from the city's walls after a long siege, + culminating in an attempt at an escalade by night, which was + frustrated owing to the sudden appearance of a light in heaven, which + revealed the advancing enemy and was taken by the Byzantines as a + token of special divine aid [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 339]. In commemoration + of it they assumed as one of their civic badges the blazing crescent + and star, which has descended to our own days and is still used as an + emblem by the present <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg + 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + owners of the city—the Ottoman Sultans. But after repulsing Philip + the Byzantines had to submit some years later to Alexander. They + formed under him part of the enormous Macedonian empire, and passed + on his decease through the hands of his successors—Demetrius + Poliorcetes, and Lysimachus. After the death of the latter in battle, + however, they recovered a precarious freedom, and were again an + independent community for a hundred years, till the power of Rome + invaded the regions of Thrace and the Hellespont.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Byzantium was one + of the cities which took the wise course of making an early alliance + with the Romans, and obtained good and easy terms in consequence. + During the wars of Rome with Macedon and Antiochus the Great it + proved such a faithful assistant that the Senate gave it the status + of a <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">civitas libera et + foederata</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“a free and + confederate city,”</span> and it was not taken under direct Roman + government, but allowed complete liberty in everything save the + control of its foreign relations and the payment of a tribute to + Rome. It was not till the Roman Republic had long passed away, that + the Emperor Vespasian stripped it of these privileges, and threw it + into the province of Thrace, to exist for the future as an ordinary + provincial town [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 73].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though deprived of + a liberty which had for long years been almost nominal, Byzantium + could not be deprived of its unrivalled position for commerce. It + continued to flourish under the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Pax + Romana</span></span>, the long-continued peace which all the inner + countries of the empire enjoyed during the first two centuries of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" + id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the imperial <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">régime</span></span>, and is mentioned again and + again as one of the most important cities of the middle regions of + the Roman world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But an evil time + for Byzantium, as for all the other parts of the civilized world, + began when the golden age of the Antonines ceased, and the epoch of + the military emperors followed. In 192 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, Commodus, the unworthy + son of the great and good Marcus Aurelius, was murdered, and ere long + three military usurpers were wrangling for his blood-stained diadem. + Most unhappily for itself Byzantium lay on the line of division + between the eastern provinces, where Pescennius Niger had been + proclaimed, and the Illyrian provinces, where Severus had assumed the + imperial style. The city was seized by the army of Syria, and + strengthened in haste. Presently Severus appeared from the west, + after he had made himself master of Rome and Italy, and fell upon the + forces of his rival Pescennius. Victory followed the arms of the + Illyrian legions, the east was subdued, and the Syrian emperor put to + death. But when all his other adherents had yielded, the garrison of + Byzantium refused to submit. For more than two years they maintained + the impregnable city against the lieutenants of Severus, and it was + not till <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 196 that they were + forced to yield. The emperor appeared in person to punish the + long-protracted resistance of the town; not only the garrison, but + the civil magistrates of Byzantium were slain before his eyes. The + massive walls <span class="tei tei-q">“so firmly built with great + square stones clamped together with bolts of iron, that the whole + seemed but one block,”</span> were laboriously cast down. The + property <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg + 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the citizens was confiscated, and the town itself deprived of all + municipal privileges and handed over to be governed like a dependent + village by its neighbours of Perinthus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Caracalla, the son + of Severus, gave back to the Byzantines the right to govern + themselves, but the town had received a hard blow, and would have + required a long spell of peace to recover its prosperity. Peace + however it was not destined to see. All through the middle years of + the third century it was vexed by the incursions of the Goths, who + harried mercilessly the countries on the Black Sea whose commerce + sustained its trade. Under Gallienus in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 263 it was again seized + by an usurping emperor, and shared the fate of his adherents. The + soldiers of Gallienus sacked Byzantium from cellar to garret, and + made such a slaughter of its inhabitants that it is said that the old + Megarian race who had so long possessed it were absolutely + exterminated. But the irresistible attraction of the site was too + great to allow its ruins to remain desolate. Within ten years after + its sack by the army of Gallienus, we find Byzantium again a populous + town, and its inhabitants are specially praised by the historian + Trebellius Pollio for the courage with which they repelled a Gothic + raid in the reign of Claudius II.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The strong + Illyrian emperors, who staved off from the Roman Empire the ruin + which appeared about to overwhelm it in the third quarter of the + third century, gave Byzantium time and peace to recover its ancient + prosperity. It profited especially from the constant neighbourhood of + the imperial court, after Diocletian <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> fixed his residence at Nicomedia, only sixty + miles away, on the Bithynian side of the Propontis. But the military + importance of Byzantium was always interfering with its commercial + greatness. After the abdication of Diocletian the empire was for + twenty years vexed by constant partitions of territory between the + colleagues whom he left behind him. Byzantium after a while found + itself the border fortress of Licinius, the emperor who ruled in the + Balkan Peninsula, while Maximinus Daza was governing the Asiatic + provinces. While Licinius was absent in Italy, Maximinus + treacherously attacked his rival's dominions without declaration of + war, and took Byzantium by surprise. But the Illyrian emperor + returned in haste, defeated his grasping neighbour not far from the + walls of the city, and recovered his great frontier fortress after it + had been only a few months out of his hands [<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 314]. The town must + have suffered severely by changing masters twice in the same year; it + does not, however, seem to have been sacked or burnt, as was so often + the case with a captured city in those dismal days. But Licinius when + he had recovered the place set to work to render it impregnable. + Though it was not his capital he made it the chief fortress of his + realm, which, since the defeat of Maximinus, embraced the whole + eastern half of the Roman world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was accordingly + at Byzantium that Licinius made his last desperate stand, when in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 323 he found himself + engaged in an unsuccessful war with his brother-in-law Constantine, + the Emperor of the West. For many months the war stood still beneath + the walls of the city; but Constantine persevered in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the siege, raising great mounds which + overlooked the walls, and sweeping away the defenders by a constant + stream of missiles, launched from dozens of military engines which he + had erected on these artificial heights. At last the city + surrendered, and the cause of Licinius was lost. Constantine, the + last of his rivals subdued, became the sole emperor of the Roman + world, and stood a victor on the ramparts which were ever afterwards + to bear his name.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name= + "Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">II. The Foundation Of Constantinople. + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">328-330.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the fall of + Byzantium had wrecked the fortunes of Licinius, the Roman world was + again united beneath the sceptre of a single master. For thirty-seven + years, ever since Diocletian parcelled out the provinces with his + colleagues, unity had been unknown, and emperors, whose number had + sometimes risen to six and sometimes sunk to two, had administered + their realms on different principles and with varying success.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine, whose + victory over his rivals had been secured by his talents as an + administrator and a diplomatist no less than by his military skill, + was one of those men whose hard practical ability has stamped upon + the history of the world a much deeper impress than has been left by + many conquerors and legislators of infinitely greater genius. He was + a man of that self-contained, self-reliant, unsympathetic type of + mind <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name= + "Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which we recognize in + his great predecessor Augustus, or in Frederic the Great of + Prussia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-03.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Constantine the Great" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Constantine the Great + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though the strain + of old Roman blood in his veins must have been but small, Constantine + was in many ways a typical Roman; the hard, cold, steady, unwearying + energy, which in earlier centuries had won the empire of the world, + was once more incarnate in him. But if Roman in character, he was + anything but Roman in his sympathies. Born by the Danube, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" + id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> reared in the courts and camps + of Asia and Gaul, he was absolutely free from any of that + superstitious reverence for the ancient glories of the city on the + Tiber which had inspired so many of his predecessors. Italy was to + him but a secondary province amongst his wide realms. When he + distributed his dominions among his heirs, it was Gaul that he gave + as the noblest share to his eldest and best-loved son: Italy was to + him a younger child's portion. There had been emperors before him who + had neglected Rome: the barbarian Maximinus I. had dwelt by the Rhine + and the Danube; the politic Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia as his + favourite residence. But no one had yet dreamed of raising up a rival + to the mistress of the world, and of turning Rome into a provincial + town. If preceding emperors had dwelt far afield, it was to meet the + exigencies of war on the frontiers or the government of distant + provinces. It was reserved for Constantine to erect over against Rome + a rival metropolis for the civilized world, an imperial city which + was to be neither a mere camp nor a mere court, but the + administrative and commercial centre of the Roman world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For more than a + hundred years Rome had been a most inconvenient residence for the + emperors. The main problem which had been before them was the + repelling of incessant barbarian inroads on the Balkan Peninsula; the + troubles on the Rhine and the Euphrates, though real enough, had been + but minor evils. Rome, placed half way down the long projection of + Italy, handicapped by its bad harbours and separated from the rest of + the empire by the passes of the Alps, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was too far away from the points where the + emperor was most wanted—the banks of the Danube and the walls of + Sirmium and Singidunum. For the ever-recurring wars with Persia it + was even more inconvenient; but these were less pressing dangers; no + Persian army had yet penetrated beyond Antioch—only 200 miles from + the frontier—while in the Balkan Peninsula the Goths had broken so + far into the heart of the empire as to sack Athens and + Thessalonica.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine, with + all the Roman world at his feet, and all its responsibilities + weighing on his mind, was far too able a man to overlook the great + need of the day—a more conveniently placed administrative and + military centre for his empire. He required a place that should be + easily accessible by land and sea—which Rome had never been in spite + of its wonderful roads—that should overlook the Danube lands, without + being too far away from the East; that should be so strongly situated + that it might prove an impregnable arsenal and citadel against + barbarian attacks from the north; that should at the same time be far + enough away from the turmoil of the actual frontier to afford a safe + and splendid residence for the imperial court. The names of several + towns are given by historians as having suggested themselves to + Constantine. First was his own birth-place—Naissus (Nisch) on the + Morava, in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula; but Naissus had little + to recommend it: it was too close to the frontier and too far from + the sea. Sardica—the modern Sofia in Bulgaria—was liable to the same + objections, and had not the sole advantage of Naissus, that of being + connected in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg + 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + sentiment with the emperor's early days. Nicomedia on its long gulf + at the east end of the Propontis was a more eligible situation in + every way, and had already served as an imperial residence. But all + that could be urged in favour of Nicomedia applied with double force + to Byzantium, and, in addition, Constantine had no wish to choose a + city in which his own memory would be eclipsed by that of his + predecessor Diocletian, and whose name was associated by the + Christians, the class of his subjects whom he had most favoured of + late, with the persecutions of Diocletian and Galerius. For Ilium, + the last place on which Constantine had cast his mind, nothing could + be alleged except its ancient legendary glories, and the fact that + the mythologists of Rome had always fabled that their city drew its + origin from the exiled Trojans of Æneas. Though close to the sea it + had no good harbour, and it was just too far from the mouth of the + Hellespont to command effectually the exit of the Euxine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Byzantium, on the + other hand, was thoroughly well known to Constantine. For months his + camp had been pitched beneath its walls; he must have known + accurately every inch of its environs, and none of its military + advantages can have missed his eye. Nothing, then, could have been + more natural than his selection of the old Megarian city for his new + capital. Yet the Roman world was startled at the first news of his + choice; Byzantium had been so long known merely as a great port of + call for the Euxine trade, and as a first-class provincial fortress, + that it was hard to conceive of it as a destined seat of + empire.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg + 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When once + Constantine had determined to make Byzantium his capital, in + preference to any other place in the Balkan lands, his measures were + taken with his usual energy and thoroughness. The limits of the new + city were at once marked out by solemn processions in the old Roman + style. In later ages a picturesque legend was told to account for the + magnificent scale on which it was planned. The emperor, we read, + marched out on foot, followed by all his court, and traced with his + spear the line where the new fortifications were to be drawn. As he + paced on further and further westward along the shore of the Golden + Horn, till he was more than two miles away from his starting-point, + the gate of old Byzantium, his attendants grew more and more + surprised at the vastness of his scheme. At last they ventured to + observe that he had already exceeded the most ample limits that an + imperial city could require. But Constantine turned to rebuke them: + <span class="tei tei-q">“I shall go on,”</span> he said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“until He, the invisible guide who marches before me, + thinks fit to stop.”</span> Guided by his mysterious presentiment of + greatness, the emperor advanced till he was three miles from the + eastern angle of Byzantium, and only turned his steps when he had + included in his boundary line all the seven hills which are embraced + in the peninsula between the Propontis and the Golden Horn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rising ground + just outside the walls of the old city, where Constantine's tent had + been pitched during the siege of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + 323, was selected out as the market-place of the new foundation. + There he erected the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Milion</span></span>, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“golden milestone,”</span> from which all the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" + id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> distances of the eastern world + were in future to be measured. This <span class="tei tei-q">“central + point of the world”</span> was not a mere single stone, but a small + building like a temple, its roof supported by seven pillars; within + was placed the statue of the emperor, together with that of his + venerated mother, the Christian Empress Helena.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The south-eastern + part of the old town of Byzantium was chosen by Constantine for the + site of his imperial palace. The spot was cleared of all private + dwellings for a space of 150 acres, to give space not only for a + magnificent residence for his whole court, but for spacious gardens + and pleasure-grounds. A wall, commencing at the Lighthouse, where the + Bosphorus joins the Propontis, turned inland and swept along parallel + to the shore for about a mile, in order to shut off the imperial + precinct from the city.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-04.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "The Heart of Constantinople" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + The Heart of Constantinople + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">North-west of the + palace lay the central open space in which the life of Constantinople + was to find its centre. This was the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Augustaeum,”</span> a splendid oblong forum, about a + thousand feet long by three hundred broad. It was paved with marble + and surrounded on all sides by stately public buildings. To its east, + as we have already said, lay the imperial palace, but between the + palace and the open space were three detached edifices connected by a + colonnade. Of these, the most easterly was the Great Baths, known, + from their builder, as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Baths of + Zeuxippus.”</span> They were built on the same magnificent scale + which the earlier emperors had used in Old Rome, though they could + not, perhaps, vie in size with the enormous Baths <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Caracalla. Constantine utilized and + enlarged the old public bath of Byzantium, which had been rebuilt + after the taking of the city by Severus. He adorned the frontage and + courts of the edifice with statues taken from every prominent town of + Greece and Asia, the old Hellenic masterpieces which had escaped the + rapacious hands of twelve generations of plundering proconsuls and + Cæsars. There were to be seen the Athene of Lyndus, the Amphithrite + of Rhodes, the Pan which had been consecrated by the Greeks after the + defeat of Xerxes, and the Zeus of Dodona.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adjoining the + Baths, to the north, lay the second great building, on the east side + of the Augustaeum—the Senate House. Constantine had determined to + endow his new city with a senate modelled on that of Old Rome, and + had indeed persuaded many old senatorial families to migrate eastward + by judicious gifts of pensions and houses. We know that the assembly + was worthily housed, but no details survive about Constantine's + building, on account of its having been twice destroyed within the + century. But, like the Baths of Zeuxippus, it was adorned with + ancient statuary, among which the Nine Muses of Helicon are specially + cited by the historian who describes the burning of the place in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 404.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Linked to the + Senate House by a colonnade, lay on the north the Palace of the + Patriarch, as the Bishop of Byzantium was ere long to be called, when + raised to the same status as his brethren of Antioch and Alexandria. + A fine building in itself, with a spacious hall of audience and a + garden, the patriarchal dwelling <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was yet completely overshadowed by the imperial + palace which rose behind it. And so it was with the patriarch + himself: he lived too near his royal master to be able to gain any + independent authority. Physically and morally alike he was too much + overlooked by his august neighbour, and never found the least + opportunity of setting up an independent spiritual authority over + against the civil government, or of founding an <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">imperium in imperio</span></span> like the + Bishop of Rome.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-05.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "The Atmeidan Hippodrome And St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + The Atmeidan Hippodrome And St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All along the + western side of the Augustaeum, facing the three buildings which we + have already described, lay an edifice which played a very prominent + part in the public life of Constantinople. This was the great + Hippodrome, a splendid circus 640 cubits long and 160 broad, in which + were renewed the games that Old Rome had known so well. The whole + system the chariot-races between the teams that represented the + <span class="tei tei-q">“factions”</span> of the Circus was + reproduced at Byzantium with an energy that even surpassed the + devotion of the Romans to horse racing. From the first foundation of + the city the rivalry of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> + and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Greens”</span> was one of the most + striking features of the life of the place. It was carried far beyond + the circus, and spread into all branches of life. We often hear of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Green”</span> faction identifying itself + with Arianism, or of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Blue”</span> + supporting a pretender to the throne. Not merely men of sporting + interests, but persons of all ranks and professions, chose their + colour and backed their faction. The system was a positive danger to + the public peace, and constantly led to riots, culminating + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" + id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the great sedition of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 523, which we shall + presently have to describe at length. In the Hippodrome the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Greens”</span> always entered by the + north-eastern gate, and sat on the east side; the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> approached by the north-western gate and + stretched along the western side. The emperor's box, called the + Kathisma, occupied the whole of the short northern side, and + contained many hundreds of seats for the imperial retinue. The great + central throne of the Kathisma was the place in which the monarch + showed himself most frequently to his subjects, and around it many + strange scenes were enacted. It was on this throne that the rebel + Hypatius was crowned emperor by the mob, with his own wife's necklace + for an impromptu diadem. Here also, two centuries later, the Emperor + Justinian II. sat in state after his reconquest of Constantinople, + with his rivals, Leontius and Apsimarus, bound beneath his footstool, + while the populace chanted, in allusion to the names of the + vanquished princes, the verse, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt + trample on the Lion and the Asp.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Down the centre of + the Hippodrome ran the <span class="tei tei-q">“spina,”</span> or + division wall, which every circus showed; it was ornamented with + three most curious monuments, whose strange juxtaposition seemed + almost to typify the heterogeneous materials from which the new city + was built up. The first and oldest was an obelisk brought from Egypt, + and covered with the usual hieroglyphic inscriptions; the second was + the most notable, though one of the least beautiful, of the + antiquities of Constantinople: it was the three-headed brazen serpent + which Pausanias and the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg + 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + victorious Greeks had dedicated at Delphi in 479 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, after they had + destroyed the Persian army at Platæa. The golden tripod, which was + supported by the heads of the serpents, had long been wanting: the + sacrilegious Phocians had stolen it six centuries before; but the + dedicatory inscriptions engraved on the coils of the pedestal + survived then and survive now to delight the archæologist. The third + monument on the <span class="tei tei-q">“spina”</span> was a square + bronze column of more modern work, contrasting strangely with the + venerable antiquity of its neighbours. By some freak of chance all + three monuments have remained till our own day: the vast walls of the + Hippodrome have crumbled away, but its central decorations still + stand erect in the midst of an open space which the Turks call the + Atmeidan, or place of horses, in dim memory of its ancient use.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Along the outer + eastern wall of the Hippodrome on the western edge of the Augustaeum, + stood a range of small chapels and statues, the most important + landmark among them being the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Milion</span></span> or central milestone of the + empire, which we have already described. The statues, few at first, + were increased by later emperors, till they extended along the whole + length of the forum. Constantine's own contribution to the collection + was a tall porphyry column surmounted by a bronze image which had + once been the tutelary Apollo of the city of Hierapolis, but was + turned into a representation of the emperor by the easy method of + knocking off its head and substituting the imperial features. It was + exactly the reverse of a change which can be seen at <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Rome, where the popes have removed the + head of the Emperor Aurelius, and turned him into St. Peter, on the + column in the Corso.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-06.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Building A Palace (from a Byzantine MS.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Building A Palace (from a Byzantine MS.) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">North of the + Hippodrome stood the great church which Constantine erected for his + Christian subjects, and dedicated to the Divine Wisdom (<span lang= + "el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hagia Sophia</span></span>). It was not the + famous domed edifice which now bears that name, but an earlier and + humbler building, probably of the Basilica-shape then usual. Burnt + down once in the fifth and once in the sixth centuries, it has left + no trace of its original character. From the west door of St. Sophia + a wooden gallery, supported on arches, crossed the square, and + finally ended at the <span class="tei tei-q">“Royal Gate”</span> of + the palace. By this the emperor would betake himself to divine + service without having to cross the street of the Chalcoprateia + (brass market), which lay opposite to St. Sophia. The general effect + of the gallery must have been somewhat like that of the curious + passage perched aloft on arches which connects the Pitti and Uffizi + palaces at Florence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The edifices which + we have described formed the heart of Constantinople. Between the + Palace, the Hippodrome, and the Cathedral most of the important + events in the history of the city took place. But to north and west + the city extended for miles, and everywhere there were buildings of + note, though no other cluster could vie with that round the + Augustaeum. The Church of the Holy Apostles, which Constantine + destined as the burying-place of his family, was the second among the + ecclesiastical edifices of the town. Of the outlying civil buildings, + the public <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg + 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + granaries along the quays, the Golden Gate, by which the great road + from the west entered the walls, and the palace of the praetorian + praefect, who acted as governor of the city, must all have been well + worthy of notice. A statue of Constantine on horseback, which stood + by the last-named edifice, was one of the chief shows of + Constantinople down to the end of the Middle Ages, and some curious + legends gathered around it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-07.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Fifteenth-Century Drawing Of The Equestrian Statue Of Constantine." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Fifteenth-Century Drawing Of The Equestrian Statue Of + Constantine. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 328 or 329—the exact + date is not easily to be fixed—that Constantine had definitely chosen + Byzantium for his capital, and drawn out the plan for its + development. As early as May 11, 330, the buildings were so far + advanced that he was able to hold the festival which celebrated its + consecration. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg + 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Christian bishops blessed the partially completed palace, and held + the first service in St. Sophia; for Constantine, though still + unbaptized himself, had determined that the new city should be + Christian from the first. Of paganism there was no trace in it, save + a few of the old temples of the Byzantines, spared when the older + streets were levelled to clear the ground for the palace and + adjoining buildings. The statues of the gods which adorned the Baths + and Senate House stood there as works of art, not as objects of + worship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To fill the vast + limits of his city, Constantine invited many senators of Old Rome and + many rich provincial proprietors of Greece and Asia to take up their + abode in it, granting them places in his new senate and sites for the + dwellings they would require. The countless officers and + functionaries of the imperial court, with their subordinates and + slaves, must have composed a very considerable element in the new + population. The artizans and handicraftsmen were enticed in thousands + by the offer of special privileges. Merchants and seamen had always + abounded at Byzantium, and now flocked in numbers which made the old + commercial prosperity of the city seem insignificant. Most + effective—though most demoralizing—of the gifts which Constantine + bestowed on the new capital to attract immigrants was the old Roman + privilege of free distribution of corn to the populace. The + wheat-tribute of Egypt, which had previously formed part of the + public provision of Rome, was transferred to the use of + Constantinople, only the African corn from Carthage <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> being for the future assigned for the + subsistence of the older city.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the completion + of the dedication festival in 330 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> an imperial edict gave + the city the title of New Rome, and the record was placed on a marble + tablet near the equestrian statue of the emperor, opposite the + Strategion. But <span class="tei tei-q">“New Rome”</span> was a + phrase destined to subsist in poetry and rhetoric alone: the world + from the first very rightly gave the city the founder's name only, + and persisted in calling it Constantinople.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name= + "Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">III. The Fight With The + Goths.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine lived + seven years after he had completed the dedication of his new city, + and died in peace and prosperity on the 22nd of May, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 337, received on his + death-bed into that Christian Church on whose verge he had lingered + during the last half of his life. By his will he left his realm to be + divided among his sons and nephews; but a rapid succession of murders + and civil wars thinned out the imperial house, and ended in the + concentration of the whole empire from the Forth to the Tigris under + the sceptre of Constantius II., the second son of the great emperor. + The Roman world was not yet quite ripe for a permanent division; it + was still possible to manage it from a single centre, for by some + strange chance the barbarian invasions which had troubled the third + century had ceased for a time, and the Romans were untroubled, save + by some minor bickerings on the Rhine and the Euphrates. Constantius + II., an administrator of some ability, but gloomy, suspicious, and + unsympathetic, was able to devote his leisure to ecclesiastical + controversies, and to dishonour himself by starting the first + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" + id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> persecution of Christian by + Christian that the world had seen. The crisis in the history of the + empire was not destined to fall in his day, nor in the short reign of + his cousin and successor, Julian, the amiable and cultured, but + entirely wrongheaded, pagan zealot, who strove to put back the clock + of time and restore the worship of the ancient gods of Greece. Both + Constantius and Julian, if asked whence danger to the empire might be + expected, would have pointed eastward, to the Mesopotamian frontier, + where their great enemy, Sapor King of Persia, strove, with no very + great success, to break through the line of Roman fortresses that + protected Syria and Asia Minor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was not in + the east that the impending storm was really brewing. It was from the + north that mischief was to come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-08.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Gothic Idols. (From the Column of Arcadius.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Gothic Idols. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From the + Column of Arcadius.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a hundred and + fifty years the Romans had been well acquainted with the tribes of + the Goths, the most easterly of the Teutonic nations who lay along + the imperial border. All through the third century they had been + molesting the provinces of the Balkan Peninsula by their incessant + raids, as we have already had occasion to relate. Only after a hard + struggle had they been rolled back across the Danube, and compelled + to limit their settlements to its northern bank, in what had once + been the land of the Dacians. The last struggle with them had been in + the time of Constantine, who, in a war that lasted from <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 328 to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 332, had beaten them in + the open field, compelled their king to give his sons as hostages, + and dictated his own terms of peace. Since then the appetite of the + Goths for war and adventure seemed <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> permanently checked: for forty years they had + kept comparatively quiet and seldom indulged in raids across the + Danube. They were rapidly settling down into steady farmers in the + fertile lands on the Theiss and the Pruth; they traded freely with + the Roman towns of Moesia; many of their young warriors enlisted + among the Roman auxiliary troops, and one considerable body of Gothic + emigrants had been permitted to settle as subjects of the empire on + the northern slope of the Balkans. By this time many of the Goths + were becoming Christians: priests of their own blood already + ministered to them, and the Bible, translated into their own + language, was already in their hands. One of the earliest Gothic + converts, the good Bishop Ulfilas—the first bishop of German blood + that was ever consecrated—had rendered into their idiom the New + Testament and most of the Old. A great portion of his work still + survives, incomparably the most precious relic of the old Teutonic + tongues that we now possess.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Goths were + rapidly losing their ancient ferocity. Compared to the barbarians who + dwelt beyond them, they might almost be called a civilized race. The + Romans were beginning to look upon them as a guard set on the + frontier to ward off the wilder peoples that lay to their north and + east. The nation was now divided into two tribes: the Visigoths, + whose tribal name was the Thervings, lay more to the south, in what + are now the countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Southern Hungary; + the Ostrogoths, or tribe of the Gruthungs, lay more to the north and + east, in Bessarabia, Transylvania, and the Dniester + valley.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg + 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But a totally + unexpected series of events were now to show how prescient + Constantine had been, in rearing his great fortress-capital to serve + as the central place of arms of the Balkan Peninsula.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About the year + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 372 the Huns, an + enormous Tartar horde from beyond the Don and Volga, burst into the + lands north of the Euxine, and began to work their way westward. The + first tribe that lay in their way, the nomadic race of the Alans, + they almost exterminated. Then they fell upon the Goths. The + Ostrogoths made a desperate attempt to defend the line of the + Dniester against the oncoming savages—<span class="tei tei-q">“men + with faces that can hardly be called faces—rather shapeless black + collops of flesh with little points instead of eyes; little in + stature, but lithe and active, skilful in riding, broad shouldered, + good at the bow, stiff-necked and proud, hiding under a barely human + form the ferocity of the wild beast.”</span> But the enemy whom the + Gothic historian describes in these uninviting terms was too strong + for the Teutons of the East. The Ostrogoths were crushed and + compelled to become vassals of the Huns, save a remnant who fought + their way southward to the Wallachian shore, near the marshes of the + Delta of the Danube. Then the Huns fell on the Visigoths. The wave of + invasion pressed on; the Bug and the Pruth proved no barrier to the + swarms of nomad bowmen, and the Visigoths, under their Duke + Fritigern, fell back in dismay with their wives and children, their + waggons and flocks and herds, till they found themselves with their + backs to the Danube. Surrender to the enemy was more dreadful to the + Visigoths than to their eastern <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> brethren; they were more civilized, most of + them were Christians, and the prospect of slavery to savages seems to + have appeared intolerable to them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pressed against + the Danube and the Roman border, the Visigoths sent in despair to ask + permission to cross from the Emperor. A contemporary writer describes + how they stood. <span class="tei tei-q">“All the multitude that had + escaped from the murderous savagery of the Huns—no less than 200,000 + fighting men, besides women and old men and children—-were there on + the river bank, stretching out their hands with loud lamentations, + and earnestly supplicating leave to cross, bewailing their calamity, + and promising that they would ever faithfully adhere to the imperial + alliance if only the boon was granted them.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this moment + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 376) the Roman Empire + was again divided. The house of Constantine was gone, and the East + was ruled by Valens, a stupid, cowardly, and avaricious prince, who + had obtained the diadem and half the Roman world only because he was + the brother of Valentinian, the greatest general of the day. + Valentinian had taken the West for his portion, and dwelt in his camp + on the Rhine and Upper Danube, while Valens, slothful and timid, shut + himself up with a court of slaves and flatterers in the imperial + palace at Constantinople.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The proposal of + the Goths filled Valens with dismay. It was difficult to say which + was more dangerous—to refuse a passage to 200,000 desperate men with + arms in their hands and a savage foe at their backs, or to admit them + within the line of river and fortress that protected the border, with + an implied <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg + 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + obligation to find land for them. After much doubting he chose the + latter alternative: if the Goths would give hostages and surrender + their arms, they should be ferried across the Danube and permitted to + settle as subject-allies within the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Goths accepted + the terms, gave up the sons of their chiefs as hostages, and streamed + across the river as fast as the Roman Danube-flotilla could transport + them. But no sooner had they reached Moesia than troubles broke out. + The Roman officials at first tried to disarm the immigrants, but the + Goths were unwilling to surrender their weapons, and offered large + bribes to be allowed to retain them: in strict disobedience to the + Emperor's orders, the bribes were accepted and the Goths retained + their arms. Further disputes soon broke out. The provisions of Moesia + did not suffice for so many hundred thousand mouths as had just + entered its border, and Valens had ordered stores of corn from Asia + to be collected for the use of the Goths, till they should have + received and commenced to cultivate land of their own. But the + governor, Lupicinus, to fill his own pockets, held back the food, and + doled out what he chose to give at exorbitant prices. In sheer hunger + the Goths were driven to barter a slave for a single loaf of bread + and ten pounds of silver for a sheep. This shameless extortion + continued as long as the stores and the patience of the Goths lasted. + At last the poorer immigrants were actually beginning to sell their + own children for slaves rather than let them starve. This drove the + Goths to desperation, and a chance affray set the whole nation in a + blaze. Fritigern, with many <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg + 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + his nobles, was dining with Count Lupicinus at the town of + Marcianopolis, when some starving Goths tried to pillage the market + by force. A party of Roman soldiers strove to drive them off, and + were at once mishandled or slain. On hearing the tumult and learning + its cause, Lupicinus recklessly bade his retinue seize and slay + Fritigern and the other guests at his banquet. The Goths drew their + swords and cut their way out of the palace. Then riding to the + nearest camp of his followers, Fritigern told his tale, and bade them + take up arms against Rome.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There followed a + year of desperate fighting all along the Danube, and the northern + slope of the Balkans. The Goths half-starved for many months, and + smarting under the extortion and chicanery to which they had been + subjected, soon showed that the old barbarian spirit was but thinly + covered by the veneer of Christianity and civilization which they had + acquired in the last half-century. The struggle resolved itself into + a repetition of the great raids of the third century: towns were + sacked and the open country harried in the old style, nor was the war + rendered less fierce by the fact that many runaway slaves and other + outcasts among the provincial population joined the invaders. But the + Roman armies still retained their old reputation; the ravages of the + Goths were checked at the Balkans, and though joined by the remnants + of the Ostrogoths from the Danube mouth, as well as by other tribes + flying from the Huns, the Visigoths were at first held at bay by the + imperial armies. A desperate pitched battle at Ad Salices, near the + modern Kustendje thinned the ranks of both sides, but led to no + decisive result.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next year, + however, the unwarlike Emperor, driven into the field by the clamours + of his subjects, took the field in person, with great reinforcements + brought from Asia Minor. At the same time his nephew Gratian, a + gallant young prince who had succeeded to the Empire of the West, set + forth through Pannonia to bring aid to the lands of the Lower + Danube.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The personal + intervention of Valens in the struggle was followed by a fearful + disaster. In 378 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, the main body of the + Goths succeeded in forcing the line of the Balkans; they were not far + from Adrianople when the Emperor started to attack them, with a + splendid army of 60,000 men. Every one expected to hear of a victory, + for the reputation of invincibility still clung to the legions, and + after six hundred years of war the disciplined infantry of Rome, + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">robur peditum</span></span>, whose day had + lasted since the Punic wars, were still reckoned superior, when + fairly handled, to any amount of wild barbarians.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But a new chapter + of the history of the art of war was just commencing; during their + sojourn in the plains of South Russia and Roumania the Goths had + taken, first of all German races, to fighting on horseback. Dwelling + in the Ukraine they had felt the influence of that land, ever the + nurse of cavalry from the day of the Scythian to that of the Tartar + and Cossack. They had come to <span class="tei tei-q">“consider it + more honourable to fight on horse than on foot,”</span> and every + chief was followed by his war-band of mounted men. Driven against + their will into conflict with the empire, they found themselves face + to face into the army that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg + 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had + so long held the world in fear, and had turned back their own + ancestors in rout three generations before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Valens found the + main body of the Goths encamped in a great <span class= + "tei tei-q">“laager,”</span> on the plain north of Adrianople. After + some abortive negotiations he developed an attack on their front, + when suddenly a great body of horsemen charged in on the Roman flank. + It was the main strength of the Gothic cavalry, which had been + foraging at a distance; receiving news of the fight it had ridden + straight for the battle field. Some Roman squadrons which covered the + left flank of the Emperor's army were ridden down and trampled under + foot. Then the Goths swept down on the infantry of the left wing, + rolled it up, and drove it in upon the centre. So tremendous was + their impact that legions and cohorts were pushed together in + hopeless confusion. Every attempt to stand firm failed, and in a few + minutes left, centre, and reserve, were one undistinguishable mass. + Imperial guards, light troops, lancers, auxiliaries, and infantry of + the line were wedged together in a press that grew closer every + moment. The Roman cavalry saw that the day was lost, and rode off + without another effort. Then the abandoned infantry realized the + horror of their position: equally unable to deploy or to fly, they + had to stand to be cut down. Men could not raise their arms to strike + a blow, so closely were they packed; spears snapped right and left, + their bearers being unable to lift them to a vertical position; many + soldiers were stifled in the press. Into this quivering mass the + Goths rode, plying lance and sword against <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the helpless enemy. It was not till forty + thousand men had fallen that the thinning of the ranks enabled the + survivors to break out and follow their cavalry in a headlong flight. + They left behind them, dead on the field, the Emperor, the Grand + Masters of the Infantry and Cavalry, the Count of the Palace, and + thirty-five commanders of different corps.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The battle of + Adrianople was the most fearful defeat suffered by a Roman army since + Cannæ, a slaughter to which it is aptly compared by the contemporary + historian Ammianus Marcellinus. The army of the East was almost + annihilated, and was never reorganized again on the old Roman + lines.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This awful + catastrophe brought down on Constantinople the first attack which it + experienced since it had changed its name from Byzantium. After a + vain assault on Adrianople, the victorious Goths pressed rapidly on + towards the imperial city. Harrying the whole country side as they + passed by, they presented themselves before the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Golden Gate,”</span> its south-western exit. But the + attack was destined to come to nothing: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“their courage failed them when they looked on the vast + circuit of walls and the enormous extent of streets; all that mass of + riches within appeared inaccessible to them. They cast away the siege + machines which they had prepared, and rolled backward on to + Thrace.”</span><a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href= + "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> Beyond + skirmishing under the walls with a body of Saracen cavalry which had + been brought up to strengthen the garrison, they made no hostile + attempt on the city. So forty years after his death, Constantine's + prescience was for the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg + 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + first time justified. He was right in believing that an impregnable + city on the Bosphorus would prove the salvation of the Balkan + Peninsula even if all its open country were overrun by the + invader.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The unlucky Valens + was succeeded on the throne by Theodosius, a wise and virtuous + prince, who set himself to repair, by caution and courage combined, + the disaster that had shaken the Roman power in the Danube lands. + With the remnants of the army of the East he made head against the + barbarians; without venturing to attack their main body, he destroyed + many marauders and scattered bands, and made the continuance of the + war profitless to them. If they dispersed to plunder they were cut + off; if they held together in masses they starved. Presently + Fritigern died, and Theodosius made peace with his successor + Athanarich, a king who had lately come over the Danube at the head of + a new swarm of Goths from the Carpathian country. Theodosius frankly + promised and faithfully observed the terms that Fritigern had asked + of Valens ten years before. He granted the Goths land for their + settlement in the Thracian province which they had wasted, and + enlisted in his armies all the chiefs and their war-bands. Within ten + years after the fight of Adrianople he had forty thousand Teutonic + horsemen in his service; they formed the best and most formidable + part of his host, and were granted a higher pay than the native Roman + soldiery. The immediate military results of the policy of Theodosius + were not unsatisfactory; it was his Gothic auxiliaries who won for + him his two great victories over the legions of the West, when in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" + id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 388 he conquered the + rebel Magnus Maximus, and in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 394 the rebel + Eugenius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-09.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Gothic Captives. (From the Column of Arcadius.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Gothic Captives. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From the + Column of Arcadius.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But from the + political side the experiment of Theodosius was fraught with the + greatest danger that the Roman Empire had yet known. When barbarian + auxiliaries had been enlisted before, they had been placed under + Roman leaders and mixed with equal numbers of Roman troops. To leave + them under their own chiefs, and deliberately favour them at the + expense of the native soldiery, was a most unhappy experiment. It + practically put the command of the empire in their hands; for there + was no hold over them save their personal loyalty to Theodosius, and + the spell which the grandeur of the Roman name and Roman culture + still exercised over their minds. That spell was still strong, as is + shown in the story which the Gothic historian Jornandes tells about + the visit of the old King Athanarich to Constantinople. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“When he entered the royal city, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Now,’</span> said he, <span class="tei tei-q">‘do I at + last behold what I had often heard and deemed incredible.’</span> He + passed his eyes hither and thither admiring first the site of the + city, then the fleets of corn-ships, then the lofty walls, then the + crowds of people of all nations, mingled as the waters from divers + springs mix in a single pool, then the ranks of disciplined soldiery. + And at last he cried aloud, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Doubtless the + Emperor is as a god on earth, and he who raises a hand against him is + guilty of his own blood.’</span> ”</span> But this impression was not + to continue for long. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 395, the good Emperor + Theodosius, <span class="tei tei-q">“the lover of peace and of the + Goths,”</span> as he was called, died, and left the throne to his two + weakly sons Arcadius and Honorius.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name= + "Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">IV. The Departure Of The + Germans.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Roman Empire, + at the end of the fourth century, was in a condition which made the + experiment of Theodosius particularly dangerous. The government was + highly centralized and bureaucratic; hosts of officials, appointed + directly from Constantinople, administered every provincial post from + the greatest to the least. There was little local self-government and + no local patriotism. The civil population was looked on by the + bureaucratic caste as a multitude without rights or capacities, + existing solely for the purpose of paying taxes. So strongly was this + view held, that to prevent the revenue from suffering, the + land-holding classes, from the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">curialis</span></span>, or local magnate, down + to the poorest peasant, were actually forbidden to move from one + district to another without special permission. A landowner was even + prohibited from enlisting in the army, unless he could show that he + left an heir behind him capable of paying his share in the local + rates. An almost entire separation existed between the civil + population and the military caste; it was hard for a civilian of any + position to enlist; only the lower classes—who <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were of no account in tax-paying—were + suffered to join the army. On the other hand, every pressure was used + to make the sons of soldiers continue in the service. Thus had arisen + a purely professional army, which had no sympathy or connection with + the unarmed provincials whom it protected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The army had been + a source of unending trouble in the third century; for a hundred + years it had made and unmade Cæsars at its pleasure. That was while + it was still mainly composed of men born within the empire, and + officered by Romans.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Theodosius had + now swamped the native element in the army by his wholesale + enlistment of Gothic war-bands. And he had, moreover, handed many of + the chief military posts to Teutons. Some of them indeed had married + Roman wives and taken kindly to Roman modes of life, while nearly all + had professed Christianity. But at the best they were military + adventurers of alien blood while at the worst they were liable to + relapse into barbarism, cast all their loyalty and civilization to + the winds, and take to harrying the empire again in the old fearless + fashion of the third century. Clearly nothing could be more dangerous + than to hand over the protection of the timid and unarmed civil + population to such guardians. The contempt they must have felt for + the unwarlike provincials was so great, and the temptation to plunder + the wealthy cities of the empire so constant and pressing, that it is + no wonder if the Teutons yielded. Cæsar-making seemed as easy to the + leaders as the sack of provincial churches and treasuries did to the + rank and file.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg + 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the personal + ascendency of Theodosius was removed, the empire fell at once into + the troubles which were inevitable. Both at the court of Arcadius, + who reigned at Constantinople, and at that of Honorius, who had + received the West as his share, a war of factions commenced between + the German and the Roman party. Theodosius had distributed so many + high military posts to Goths and other Teutons, that this influence + was almost unbounded. Stilicho <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> + (commander-in-chief) of the armies of Italy was predominant at the + council board of Honorius; though he was a pure barbarian by blood, + Theodosius had married him to his own niece Serena, and left him + practically supreme in the West, for the young emperor was aged only + eleven. In the East Arcadius, the elder brother, had attained his + eighteenth year, and might have ruled his own realm had he possessed + the energy. But he was a witless young man, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“short, thin, and sallow, so inactive that he seldom + spoke, and always looked as if he was about to fall asleep.”</span> + His prime minister was a Western Roman named Rufinus, but before the + first year of his reign was over, a Gothic captain named Gainas slew + Rufinus at a review, before the Emperor's very eyes. The weak + Arcadius was then compelled to make the eunuch Eutropius his + minister, and to appoint Gainas <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> for the East.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gainas and + Stilicho contented themselves with wire-pulling at Court; but another + Teutonic leader thought that the time had come for bolder work. + Alaric was a chief sprung from the family of the Balts, whom the + Goths reckoned next to the god-descended <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Amals among their princely houses. He was + young, daring, and untameable; several years spent at Constantinople + had failed to civilize him, but had succeeded in filling him with + contempt for Roman effeminacy. Soon after the death of Theodosius, he + raised the Visigoths in revolt, making it his pretext that the + advisers of Arcadius were refusing the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">foederati</span></span>, or auxiliaries, certain + arrears of pay. The Teutonic sojourners in Moesia and Thrace joined + him almost to a man, and the Constantinopolitan government found + itself with only a shadow of an army to oppose the rebels. Alaric + wandered far and wide, from the Danube to the gates of + Constantinople, and from Constantinople to Greece, ransoming or + sacking every town in his way till the Goths were gorged with + plunder. No one withstood him save Stilicho, who was summoned from + the West to aid his master's brother. By skilful manœuvres Stilicho + blockaded Alaric in a mountain position in Arcadia; but when he had + him at his mercy, it was found that <span class="tei tei-q">“dog does + not eat dog.”</span> The Teutonic prime minister let the Teutonic + rebel escape him, and the Visigoths rolled north again into + Illyricum. Sated with plunder, Alaric then consented to grant + Arcadius peace, on condition that he was made a <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> like Stilicho and + Gainas, and granted as much land for his tribesmen as he chose to + ask. [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 396.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the next five + years Alaric, now proclaimed King of the Goths by his victorious + soldiery, reigned with undisputed sway over the eastern parts of the + Balkan Peninsula, paying only a shadow of homage to the royal phantom + at Constantinople. There <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg + 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + appeared every reason to believe that a German kingdom was about to + be permanently established in the lands south and west of the Danube. + The fate which actually befell Gaul, Spain, and Britain, a few years + later seemed destined for Moesia and Macedonia. How different the + history of Europe would have been if the Germans had settled down in + Servia and Bulgaria we need hardly point out.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But another series + of events was impending. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 401, Alaric, instead of + resuming his attacks on Constantinople, suddenly declared war on the + Western Emperor Honorius. He marched round the head of the Adriatic + and invaded Northern Italy. The half-Romanized Stilicho, who wished + to keep the rule of the West to himself, fought hard to turn the + Goths out of Italy, and beat back Alaric's first invasion. But then + the young emperor, who was as weak and more worthless than his + brother Arcadius, slew the great minister on a charge of treason. + When Stilicho was gone, Alaric had everything his own way; he moved + with the whole Visigothic race into Italy, where he ranged about at + his will, ransoming and plundering every town from Rome downwards. + The Visigoths are heard of no more in the Balkan Peninsula; they now + pass into the history of Italy and then into that of Spain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Alaric's + eyes were turned on Italy, but before he had actually come into + conflict with Stilicho, the Court of Constantinople had been the seat + of grave troubles. Gainas the Gothic <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> of the East, and + his creature, the eunuch Eutropius, had fallen out, and the man of + war had no <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg + 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + difficulty in disposing of the wretched harem-bred Grand Chamberlain. + Instigated by Gainas, the German mercenaries in the army of Asia + started an insurrection under a certain Tribigild. Gainas was told to + march against them, and collected troops ostensibly for that purpose. + But when he was at the head of a considerable army, he did not attack + the rebels, but sent a message to Constantinople bidding Arcadius + give up to him the obnoxious Grand Chamberlain. Eutropius, hearing of + his danger, threw himself on the protection of the Church: he fled + into the Cathedral of St. Sophia and clung to the altar. John + Chrysostom, the intrepid Patriarch of Constantinople, forbade the + soldiers to enter the church, and protected the fugitive for some + days. One of the most striking incidents in the history of St. Sophia + followed: while the cowering Chamberlain lay before the altar, John + preached to a crowded congregation a sermon on the text, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Vanity of vanities, all is vanity,”</span> emphasizing + every period of his harangue by pointing to the fallen + Eutropius—prime minister of the empire yesterday, and a hunted + criminal to-day. The patriarch extorted a promise that the eunuch's + life should be spared, and Eutropius gave himself up. Arcadius + banished him to Cyprus, but the inexorable Gainas was not contented + with his rival's removal; he had Eutropius brought back to + Constantinople and beheaded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span lang= + "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> now brought his + army over to Constantinople, and quartered it there to overawe the + emperor. It appeared quite likely that ere long the Germans would + sack the city; but the fate that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> befell Rome ten years later was not destined + for Constantinople. A mere chance brawl put the domination of Gainas + to a sudden end. He himself and many of his troops were outside the + city, when a sudden quarrel at one of the gates between a band of + Goths and some riotous citizens brought about a general outbreak + against the Germans. The Constantinopolitan mob showed itself more + courageous and not less unruly than the Roman mob of elder days. The + whole population turned out with extemporized arms and attacked the + German soldiery. The gates were closed to prevent Gainas and his + troops from outside returning, and a desperate street-fight ranged + over the entire city. Isolated bodies of the Germans were cut off one + by one, and at last their barracks were surrounded and set on fire. + The rioters had the upper hand; seven thousand soldiers fell, and the + remnant thought themselves lucky to escape. Gainas at once declared + open war on the empire, but he had not the genius of Alaric, nor the + numerical strength that had followed the younger chief. He was beaten + in the field and forced to fly across the Danube, where he was caught + and beheaded by Uldes, King of the Huns. Curiously enough the officer + who defeated Gainas was himself not only a Goth but a heathen: he was + named Fravitta and had been the sworn guest-friend of Theodosius, + whose son he faithfully defended even against the assault of his own + countrymen, [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 401.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The departure of + Alaric and the death of Gainas freed the Eastern Romans from the + double danger that has impended over them. They were neither + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" + id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to see an independent German + kingdom on the Danube and Morava, nor to remain under the rule of a + semi-civilized German <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Magister + militum</span></span>, making and unmaking ministers, and perhaps + Cæsars, at his good pleasure. The weak Arcadius was enabled to spend + the remaining seven years of his life in comparative peace and quiet. + His court was only troubled by an open war between his spouse, the + Empress Ælia Eudoxia, and John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of + Constantinople. John was a man of saintly life and apostolic fervour, + but rash and inconsiderate alike in speech and action. His charity + and eloquence made him the idol of the populace of the imperial city, + but his austere manners and autocratic methods of dealing with his + subordinates had made him many foes among the clergy. The patriarch's + enemies were secretly supported by the empress, who had taken offence + at the outspoken way in which John habitually denounced the luxury + and insolence of her court. She favoured the intrigues of Theophilus, + Patriarch of Alexandria, against his brother prelate, backed the + Asiatic clergy in their complaints about John's oppression of them, + and at last induced the Emperor to allow the saintly patriarch to be + deposed by a hastily-summoned council, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Synod of the Oak”</span> held outside the city. The + populace rose at once to defend their pastor; riots broke out, + Theodosius was chased back to Egypt, and the Emperor, terrified by an + earthquake which seemed to manifest the wrath of heaven, restored + John to his place.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next year, + however, the war between the empress and the patriarch broke out + again. John took the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg + 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + occasion of the erection of a statue of Eudoxia in the Augustaeum to + recommence his polemics. Some obsolete semi-pagan ceremonies at its + dedication roused his wrath, and he delivered a scathing sermon in + which—if his enemies are to be believed—he compared the empress to + Herodias, and himself to John the Baptist. The Emperor, at his wife's + demand, summoned another council, which condemned Chrysostom, and on + Easter Day, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 404, seized the + patriarch in his cathedral by armed force, and banished him to Asia. + That night a fire, probably kindled by the angry adherents of + Chrysostom, broke out in St. Sophia, which was burnt to the ground. + From thence it spread to the neighbouring buildings, and finally to + the Senate-house, which was consumed with all the treasures of + ancient Greek art of which Constantine had made it the + repository.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile the + exiled John was banished to a dreary mountain fastness in Cappadocia, + and afterwards condemned to a still more remote prison at Pityus on + the Euxine. He died on his way thither, leaving a wonderful + reputation for patience and cheerfulness under affliction. This + fifth-century Becket was well-nigh the only patriarch of + Constantinople who ever fell out with the imperial Court on a + question of morals as distinguished from dogma. Chrysostom's quarrel + was with the luxury, insolence, and frivolity of the Empress and her + Court; no real ecclesiastical question was involved in his + deposition, for the charges against him were mere pretexts to cover + the hatred of his disloyal clergy and the revenge of the insulted + Aelia Eudoxia. [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 407.]</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name= + "Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">V. The Reorganization Of The Eastern + Empire. (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">408-518.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feeble and + inert Arcadius died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 408, at the early age + of thirty-one; his imperious consort had preceded him to the grave, + and the empire of the East was left to Theodosius II., a child of + seven years, their only son. There was hardly an instance in Roman + history of a minor succeeding quietly to his father's throne. An + ambitious relative or a disloyal general had habitually supplanted + the helpless heir. But the ministers of Arcadius were exceptionally + virtuous or exceptionally destitute of ambition. The little emperor + was duly crowned, and the administration of the East undertaken in + his name by the able Anthemius, who held the office of Praetorian + Praefect. History relates nothing but good of this minister; he made + a wise commercial treaty with the king of Persia; he repelled with + ease a Hunnish invasion of Moesia; he built a flotilla on the Danube, + where Roman warships had not been seen since the death of Valens, + forty years before; he reorganized the corn supply <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Constantinople; and did much to get + back into order and cultivation the desolated north-western lands of + the Balkan Peninsula, from which Alaric and his Visigothic hordes had + now taken their final departure. The empire was still more indebted + to him for bringing up the young Theodosius as an honest and + god-fearing man. The palace under Anthemius' rule was the school of + the virtues: the lives of the emperor and his three sisters, + Pulcheria, Arcadia, and Marina, were the model and the marvel of + their subjects. Theodosius inherited the piety and honesty of his + grandfather and namesake, but was a youth of slender capacity, though + he took some interest in literature, and was renowned for his + beautiful penmanship. His eldest sister, Pulcheria, was the ruling + spirit of the family, and possessed unlimited influence over him, + though she was but two years his senior. When Anthemius died in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 414, she took the title + of Augusta, and assumed the regency of the East. Pulcheria was an + extraordinary woman: on gathering up the reins of power she took a + vow of chastity, and lived as a crowned nun for thirty-six years; her + fear had been that, if she married, her husband might cherish + ambitious schemes against her brother's crown; she therefore kept + single herself and persuaded her sisters to make a similar vow. + Austere, indefatigable, and unselfish, she proved equal to ruling the + realms of the East with success, though no woman had ever made the + attempt before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Theodosius + came of age he refused to remove his sister from power, and treated + her as his colleague and equal. By her advice he married in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> 421, the year that he came of age, the + beautiful and accomplished Athenaïs, daughter of the philosopher + Leontius. The emperor's chosen spouse had been brought up as a pagan, + but was converted before her marriage, and baptized by the name of + Eudocia. She displayed her literary tastes in writing religious + poetry, which had some merit, according to the critics of the + succeeding age. The austere Pulcheria—always immersed in state + business or occupied in religious observances—found herself ere long + ill at ease in the company of the lively, beautiful, and volatile + literary lady whom she had chosen as sister-in-law. If Theodosius had + been less easy-going and good-hearted he must have sent away either + his sister or his wife, but he long contrived to dwell affectionately + with both, though their bickerings were unending. After many years of + married life, however, a final quarrel came, and the empress retired + to spend the last years of her life in seclusion at Jerusalem. The + cause of her exile is not really known: we have only a wild story + concerning it, which finds an exact parallel in one of the tales of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Arabian Nights.”</span></p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + emperor,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">so runs the tale,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">was one day met by a peasant who presented him with + a Phrygian apple of enormous size, so that the whole Court marvelled + at it. And he gave the man a hundred and fifty gold pieces in reward, + and sent the apple to the Empress Eudocia. But she sent it as a + present to Paulinus, the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Master of the Offices,</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">because he was a friend of the emperor. But + Paulinus, not knowing the history of the apple, took it and gave it + to the emperor as he reëntered the Palace. And Theodosius having + received it, recognized it and concealed it, and called his wife + and questioned her, saying,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Where is the apple that I sent + you?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">She answered,</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">I have eaten it.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Then + he bade her swear by his salvation the truth, whether she had eaten + it or sent it to some one. And Eudocia swore that she had</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name= + "Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">sent it to no man, but had herself eaten it. Then + the emperor showed her the apple, and was exceedingly wrath, + suspecting that she was enamoured of Paulinus, and had sent it to + him as a love-gift; for he was a very handsome man. And on this + account he put Paulinus to death, but he permitted Eudocia to go to + the Holy Places to pray. And she went down from Constantinople to + Jerusalem, and dwelt there all her days.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That Paulinus was + executed, and that Eudocia spent her last years of retirement in + Palestine, we know for certain. All the rest of the story is in + reality hidden from us. The chief improbability of the tale is that + Eudocia had reached the age of forty when the breach between her and + her husband took place, and that Paulinus was also an official of + mature years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodosius' long + reign passed by in comparative quiet. Its only serious troubles were + a short war with the Persians, and a longer one with Attila, the + great king of the Huns, whose empire now stretched over all the lands + north of the Black Sea and Danube, where the Goths had once dwelt. In + this struggle the Roman armies were almost invariably unfortunate. + The Huns ravaged the country as far as Adrianople and Philippopolis, + and had to be bought off by the annual payment of 700 lbs. of gold + [£31,000]. It is true that they fell on Theodosius while his main + force was engaged on the Persian frontier, but the constant + ill-success of the imperial generals seems to show that the armies of + the East had never been properly reorganized since the military + system of Theodosius I. had been broken up by the revolt of Gainas + forty years before. His grandson had neither a trustworthy body of + German auxiliaries nor a sufficiently large <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> native levy of born subjects of the empire to + protect his borders.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-10.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Angel Of Victory. (From a Fifth-century Diptych.) Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Angel Of Victory. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From a + Fifth-century Diptych.</span></span>) <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par + Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reconstruction + of the Roman military forces was reserved for the successors of + Theodosius II. He himself was killed by a fall from his horse in 450 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, leaving an only + daughter, who was married to her cousin Valentinian III., Emperor of + the West. Theodosius, with great wisdom, had designated as his + successor, not his young-son-in-law, a cruel and profligate prince, + but his sister Pulcheria, who at the same time ended her vow of + celibacy and married Marcianus, a veteran soldier and a prominent + member of the Senate. The marriage was but formal, for both were now + well advanced in years: as a political expedient it was all that + could be desired. The empire had peace and prosperity under their + rule, and freed itself from the ignominious tribute to the Huns. + Before Attila died in 452, he had met and been checked by the + succours which Marcianus sent to the distressed Romans of the + West.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Marcianus and + Pulcheria passed away, the empire came into the hands of a series of + three men of ability. They were all bred as high civil officials, not + as generals; all ascended the throne at a ripe age; not one of them + won his crown by arms, all were peaceably designated either by their + predecessors, or by the Senate and army. These princes were Leo I. + (457-474), Zeno (474-491), Anastasius (491-518). Their chief merit + was that they guided the Roman Empire in the East safely through the + stormy times which saw its extinction in the West. While, beyond the + Adriatic, province after province was being lopped <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> off and formed into a new Germanic + kingdom, the emperors who reigned at Constantinople kept a tight grip + on the Balkan Peninsula and on Asia, and succeeded in maintaining + their realm absolutely intact. Both East and West were equally + exposed to the barbarian in the fifth century, and the difference of + their fate came from the character of their rulers, not from the + diversity of their political conditions. In the West, after the + extinction of the house of Theodosius (455 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>), the emperors were + ephemeral puppets, made and unmade by the generals of their armies, + who were invariably Germans. The two <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magistri militum</span></span>, Ricimer and + Gundovald—one Suabian, the other Burgundian by birth—deposed or slew + no less than five of their nominal masters in seventeen years. In the + East, on the other hand, it was the emperors who destroyed one after + another the ambitious generals, who, by arms or intrigue, threatened + their throne.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While this + comparison bears witness to the personal ability of the three + emperors who ruled at Constantinople between <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 457 and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 518, it is only fair to + remember they were greatly helped by the fact that the German element + in their armies had never reached the pitch of power to which it had + attained in the West; the suppression of Gainas forty years before + had saved them from that danger. But unruly and aspiring generals + were not wanting in the East; the greatest danger of Leo I. was the + conspiracy of the great <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Magister + militum</span></span> Aspar, whom he detected and slew when he was on + the eve of rebelling. Zeno was once chased out of his capital by + rebels, and twice <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg + 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + vexed by dangerous risings in Asia Minor, but on each occasion he + triumphed over his adversaries, and celebrated his victory by the + execution of the leaders of the revolt. Anastasius was vexed for + several years by the raids of a certain Count Vitalian, who ranged + over the Thracian provinces with armies recruited from the barbarians + beyond the Danube. But, in spite of all these rebellions, the empire + was never in serious danger of sinking into disorder or breaking up, + as the Western realm had done, into new un-Roman kingdoms. So far was + it from this fate, that Anastasius left his successor, when he died + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 518, a loyal army of + 150,000 men, a treasure of 320,000 lbs. of gold, and an unbroken + frontier to East and West.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main secret of + the success of the emperors of the fifth century in holding their own + came from the fact that they had reorganized their armies, and filled + them up with native troops in great numbers. Leo I. was the first + ruler who utilized the military virtues of the Isaurians, or mountain + populations of Southern Asia Minor. He added several regiments of + them to the army of the East, but it was his son-in-law and + successor, Zeno, himself an Isaurian born, who developed the scheme. + He raised an imperial guard from his countrymen, and enlisted as many + corps of them as could be raised; moreover, he formed regiments of + Armenians and other inhabitants of the Roman frontier of the East, + and handed over to his successor, Anastasius, an army in which the + barbarian auxiliaries—now composed of Teutons and Huns in about equal + numbers—were decidedly dominated by the native + elements.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg + 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last danger + which the Eastern Empire was to experience from the hands of the + Germans fell into the reign of Zeno. The Ostrogoths had submitted to + the Huns ninety years before, when their brethren the Visigoths fled + into Roman territory, in the reign of Valens. But when the Hunnish + Empire broke up at the death of Attila [<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 452], the Ostrogoths + freed themselves, and replaced their late masters as the main danger + on the Danube. The bulk of them streamed south-westward, and settled + in Pannonia, the border-province of the Western Empire, on the + frontier of the East-Roman districts of Dacia and Moesia. They soon + fell out with Zeno, and two Ostrogothic chiefs, Theodoric, the son of + Theodemir, and Theodoric, the son of Triarius, were the scourges of + the Balkan Peninsula for more than twenty years. While the bulk of + their tribesmen settled down on the banks of the Save and Mid-Danube, + the two Theodorics harried the whole of Macedonia and Moesia by + never-ending raids. Zeno tried to turn them against each other, + offering first to the one, then to the other, the title of + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span>, and a large + pension. But now—as in the time of Alaric and Stilicho—it was seen + that <span class="tei tei-q">“dog will not eat dog”</span>; the two + Theodorics, after quarrelling for a while, banded themselves together + against Zeno. The story of their reconciliation is curious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodoric, the son + of Theodemir, the ally of Rome for the moment, had surrounded his + rival on a rocky hill in a defile of the Balkans. While they lay + opposite each other, Theodoric, the son of Triarius [he is usually + known as Theodoric the One-Eyed], <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> rode down to his enemy's lines and called to + him, <span class="tei tei-q">“Madman, betrayer of your race, do you + not see that the Roman plan is always to destroy Goths by Goths? + Whichever of us fails, they, not we, will be the stronger. They never + give you real help, but send you out against me to perish here in the + Desert.”</span> Then all the Goths cried out, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The One-Eyed is right. These men are Goths like + ourselves.”</span> So the two Theodorics made peace, and Zeno had to + cope with them both at once [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 479]. Two years later + Theodoric the One-Eyed was slain by accident—his horse flung him, as + he mounted, against a spear fixed by the door of his tent—but his + namesake continued a thorn in the side of the empire till 488 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In that year Zeno + bethought him of a device for ridding himself of the Ostrogoth, who, + though he made no permanent settlement in Moesia or Macedonia, was + gradually depopulating the realm by his incursions. The line of + ephemeral emperors who reigned in Italy over the shrunken Western + realm had ended in 476, when the German general Odoacer deposed + Romulus Augustulus, and did not trouble himself to nominate another + puppet-Cæsar to succeed him. By his order a deputation from the Roman + Senate visited Zeno at Constantinople, to inform him that they did + not require an emperor of their own to govern Italy, but would + acknowledge him as ruler alike of East and West; at the same time + they besought Zeno to nominate, as his representative in the Italian + lands, their defender, the great Odoacer. Zeno replied by advising + the Romans to persuade Odoacer to recognize as his lord Julius Nepos, + one of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg + 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + dethroned nominees of Ricimer, who had survived his loss of the + imperial diadem. Odoacer refused, and proclaimed himself king in + Italy, while still affecting—against Zeno's own will—to recognize the + Constantinopolitan emperor as his suzerain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 488 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> it occurred to Zeno to + offer Theodoric the government of Italy, if he would conquer it from + Odoacer. The Ostrogoth, who had harried the inland of the Balkan + Peninsula bare, and had met several reverses of late from the Roman + arms, took the offer. He was made <span class= + "tei tei-q">“patrician”</span> and consul, and started off with all + the Ostrogothic nation at his back to win the realm of Italy. After + hard fighting with Odoacer and the mixed multitude of mercenaries + that followed him, the Goths conquered Italy, and Theodoric—German + king and Roman patrician—began to reign at Ravenna. He always + professed to be the vassal and deputy of the emperor at + Constantinople, and theoretically his conquest of Italy meant the + reunion of the East and the West. But the Western realm had shrunk + down to Italy and Illyricum, and the power of Zeno therein was purely + nominal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the departure + of the Ostrogoths we have seen our last of the Germans in the Balkan + Peninsula; after 488 the Slavs take their place as the molesters of + the Roman frontier on the Danube.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name= + "Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VI. Justinian.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Emperor + Anastasius died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 518 at the ripe age of + eighty-eight, and his sceptre passed to Justinus, the commander of + his body-guard, whom Senate and army alike hailed as most worthy to + succeed the good old man. The late emperor had nephews, but he had + never designated them as his heirs, and they retired into private + life at his death. Justinus was well advanced in years, as all his + three predecessors had been when they mounted the throne. But unlike + Leo, Zeno, and Anastasius, he had won his way to the front in the + army, not in the civil service. He had risen from the ranks, was a + rough uncultured soldier, and is said to have been hardly able to + sign his own name. His reign of nine years would have been of little + note in history—for he made no wars and spent no treasure—if he had + not been the means of placing on the throne of the East the greatest + ruler since the death of Constantine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinus had no + children himself, but had adopted as his heir his nephew Justinian, + son of his deceased brother Sabatius. This young man, born after his + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" + id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> father and uncle had won their + way to high places in the army, was no uncultured peasant as they had + been, but had been reared, as the heir of a wealthy house, in all the + learning of the day. He showed from the first a keen intelligence, + and applied himself with zeal to almost every department of civil + life. Law, finance, administrative economy, theology, music, + architecture, fortification, all were dear to him. The only thing in + which he seems to have taken little personal interest was military + matters. His uncle trusted everything to him, and finally made him + his colleague on the throne.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian was heir + designate to the empire, and had passed the age of thirty-five, + giving his contemporaries the impression that he was a staid, + business-like, and eminently practical personage. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“No one ever remembered him young,”</span> it was said, + and most certainly no one ever expected him to scandalize the empire + by a sensational marriage. But in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 526 the world learnt, + to the horror of the respectable and the joy of all scandal-mongers, + that he had declared his intention of taking to wife the dancer + Theodora, the star of the Byzantine comic stage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So many stories + have gathered around Theodora's name that it is hard to say how far + her early life had been discreditable. A libellous work called the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Secret History,”</span> written by an enemy + of herself and her husband,<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> gives us + many scandalous details of her career; but the very virulence of the + book makes its tales incredible. It is indisputable, however, that + Theodora was an actress, and that Roman actresses <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> enjoyed an unenviable reputation for + light morals. There was actually a law which forbade a member of the + senate to marry an actress, and Justinian had to repeal it in order + to legalize his own marriage. There had been scores of bad and + reckless men on the throne before, but none of them had ever dared to + commit an action which startled the world half so much as this freak + of the staid Justinian. His own mother used every effort to turn him + from his purpose, and his uncle the Emperor threatened to disinherit + him: but he was quietly persistent, and ere the aged Justinus died he + had been induced to acknowledge the marriage of his nephew, and to + confer on Theodora the title of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Patrician.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-11.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "The Empress Theodora And Her Court. Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + The Empress Theodora And Her Court. <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par + Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodora, as even + her enemies allow, was the most beautiful woman of her age. + Procopius, the best historian of the day, says <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that it was impossible for mere man to describe her + comeliness in words, or imitate it in art.”</span> All that her + detractors could say was that she was below the middle height, and + that her complexion was rather pale, though not unhealthy. It is + unfortunate that we have no representation of her surviving, save the + famous mosaic in San Vitale at Ravenna, and mosaic is of all forms of + art that least suited to reproduce beauty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever her early + life may have been, Theodora was in spirit and intelligence well + suited to be the mate of the Emperor of the East. After her marriage + no word of scandal was breathed against her life. She rose to the + height of her situation: once her courage saved her husband's throne, + and always she was the ablest and the most trusted of his + councillors. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg + 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + grave, studious, and hard-working Emperor never regretted his choice + of a consort.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It cannot be said, + however, that either Justinian or Theodora are sympathetic + characters. The Emperor was a hard and suspicious master, and not + over grateful to subjects who served him well; he was intolerant in + religious, and unscrupulous in political matters. When his heart was + set on a project he was utterly unmindful of the slaughter and ruin + which it might bring upon his people. In the extent of his conquests + and the magnificence of his public works, he was incomparably the + greatest of the emperors who reigned at Constantinople. But the + greatness was purely personal: he left the empire weaker in + resources, if broader in provinces, than he found it. Of all the + great sovereigns of history he may be most fairly compared with Louis + XIV. of France; but it may be remembered to his credit in the + comparison that Louis has nothing to set against Justinian's great + legal work—the compilation of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pandects</span></span> + and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Institutes</span></span>, and that Justinian's + private life, unlike that of the Frenchman, was strict even to + austerity. All night long, we read, he sat alone over his State + papers in his cabinet, or paced the dark halls in deep thought. His + sleepless vigilance so struck his subjects that the strangest legends + became current even in his life-time: his enemies whispered that he + was no mere man, but an evil spirit that required no rest. One + grotesque tale even said that the Emperor had been seen long after + midnight traversing the corridors of his palace—without his head.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Justinian + seemed hardly human to those who <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> feared him, Theodora is represented as entirely + given up to pride and ambition, never forgiving an offence, but + hunting to death or exile all who had crossed her in the smallest + thing. She is reproached—but who that has risen from a low estate is + not?—of an inordinate love for the pomps and vanities of imperial + state. High officials complained that she had as great a voice in + settling political matters as her husband. Yet, on the whole, her + influence would appear not to have been an evil one—historians + acknowledge that she was liberal in almsgiving, religious after her + own fashion, and that she often interfered to aid the oppressed. It + is particularly recorded that, remembering the dangers of her own + youth, she was zealous in establishing institutions for the + reclaiming of women who had fallen into sin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The aged Justinus + died in 527 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, and Justinian became + the sole occupant of the throne, which he was destined to occupy for + thirty-eight years. It was less than half the century, yet his + personality seems to pervade the whole period, and history hardly + remembers the insignificant predecessors and successors whose reigns + eke out the remainder of the years between 500 and 600.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The empire when + Justinian took it over from the hands of his uncle was in a more + prosperous condition than it had known since the death of + Constantine. Since the Ostrogoths had moved out of the Balkan + Peninsula in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 487, it had not + suffered from any very long or destructive invasion from without. The + Slavonic tribes, now heard of for the first time, and the Bulgarians + had made raids across the Danube, but <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> they had not yet shown any signs of settling + down—as the Goths had done—within the limits of the empire. Their + incursions, though vexatious, were not dangerous. Still the European + provinces of the empire were in worse condition than the Asiatic, and + were far from having recovered the effects of the ravages of + Fritigern and Alaric, Attila, and Theodoric. But the more fortunate + Asiatic lands had hardly seen a foreign enemy for centuries.<a id= + "noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> Except in + the immediate neighbourhood of the Persian frontier there was no + danger, and Persian wars had been infrequent of late. Southern Asia + Minor had once or twice suffered from internal risings—rebellions of + the warlike Isaurians—but civil war left no such permanent mark on + the land as did barbarian invasions. On the whole, the resources of + the provinces beyond the Bosphorus were intact.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinus in his + quiet reign had spent little or none of the great hoard of treasure + which Anastasius had bequeathed to him. There were more than 300,000 + lbs. of gold [£13,400,000] in store when Justinian came to the + throne. The army, as we have had occasion to relate in the last + chapter, was in good order, and composed in a larger proportion of + born subjects of the empire than it had been at any time since the + battle of Adrianople. There would appear to have been from 150,000 to + 200,000 men under arms, but the extent of the frontiers of the empire + were so great that Justinian never sent out a single army of more + than <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name= + "Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> 30,000 strong, and + forces of only a third of that number are often found entrusted with + such mighty enterprises as the invasion of Africa or the defence of + the Armenian border. The flower of the Roman army was no longer its + infantry, but its mailed horsemen (<span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cataphracti</span></span>), armed with lance and + bow, as the Parthian cavalry had once been of old. The infantry + comprised more archers and javelin-men than heavy troops: the + Isaurians and other provincials of the mountainous parts of Asia + Minor were reckoned the best of them. Among both horse and foot large + bodies of foreign auxiliaries were still found: the Huns and Arabs + supplied light cavalry, the German Herules and Gepidæ from beyond the + Danube heavier troops.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The weakest point + in the empire when Justinian took it over was its financial system. + The cardinal maxim of political economy, that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“taxes should be raised in the manner least oppressive to + those who pay them”</span> was as yet undreamt of. The exaction of + arbitrary customs dues, and the frequent grant of monopolies was + noxious to trade. The deplorable system of tax-farming through + middlemen was employed in many branches of the revenue. Landed + proprietors, small and great, were still mercilessly overtaxed, in + consideration of their exemption from military service. The budget + was always handicapped by the necessity for providing free corn for + the populace of Constantinople. Yet in spite of all these drawbacks + Justinian enjoyed an enormous and steady revenue. His finance + minister, John of Cappadocia, was such an ingenious extortioner that + the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name= + "Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> treasury was never + empty in the hardest stress of war and famine: but it was kept full + at the expense of the future. The grinding taxation of Justinian's + reign bore fruit in the permanent impoverishment of the provinces: + his successors were never able to raise such a revenue again. Here + again Justinian may well be compared to Louis XIV.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian's policy + divides into the departments of internal and foreign affairs. Of his + doings as legislator, administrator, theologian, and builder, we + shall speak in their proper place. But the history of his foreign + policy forms the main interest of his reign. He had determined to + take up a task which none of his predecessors since the division of + the Empire under Arcadius and Honorius had dared to contemplate. It + was his dream to re-unite under his sceptre the German kingdoms in + the Western Mediterranean which had been formed out of the broken + fragments of the realm of Honorius; and to end the solemn pretence by + which he was nominally acknowledged as Emperor West of the Adriatic, + while really all power was in the hands of the German rulers who + posed as his vicegerents. He aimed at reconquering Italy, Africa, and + Spain—if not the further provinces of the old empire. We shall see + that he went far towards accomplishing his intention.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But during the + first five years of his reign his attention was distracted by other + matters. The first of them was an obstinate war of four years' + duration, with Kobad, King of Persia. The causes of quarrel were + ultimately the rival pretensions of the Roman and Persian Empires to + the suzerainty of the small <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg + 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + states on their northern frontiers near the Black Sea, the kingdoms + of Lazica and Iberia, and more proximately the strengthening of the + fortresses on the Mesopotamian border by Justinian. His fortification + of Dara, close to the Persian frontier town of Nisibis, was the + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">casus belli</span></span> chosen by Kobad, who + declared war in 528, a year after Justinian's accession.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Persian war + was bloody, but absolutely indecisive. All the attacks of the enemy + were repelled, and one great pitched battle won over him at Dara in + 530. But neither party succeeded in taking a single fortress of + importance from the other; and when, on the death of Kobad, his son + Chosroës made peace with the empire, the terms amounted to the + restoration of the old frontier. The only importance of the war was + that it enabled Justinian to test his army, and showed him that he + possessed an officer of first-rate merit in Belisarius, the victor of + the battle of Dara.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This famous + general was a native of the Thracian inland; he entered the army very + young, and rose rapidly, till at the age of twenty-three he was + already Governor of Dara, and at twenty-five <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Magister militum</span></span> of the + East.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> His + influence at Court was very great, as he had married Antonina, the + favourite and confidante of the Empress Theodora. His position, + indeed, was not unlike that which Marlborough, owing to his wife's + ascendency, enjoyed at the Court of Queen Anne. Like Marlborough, + too, Belisarius was ruled <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg + 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + bullied by his clever and unscrupulous wife. Unlike the great Duchess + Sarah, Antonina never set herself to thwart her mistress; but after + Theodora's death she and her husband lost favour, and in declining + years knew much the same misfortune as did the Marlboroughs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The year which saw + the Persian War end [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 532], saw also the rise + and fall of another danger, which while it lasted was much more + threatening to the Emperor's life and power. We have already noticed + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Greens,”</span> the great factions of the Byzantine + Circus.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> All + through the fifth century they had been growing stronger, and + interfered more and more in politics, and even in religious + controversies. To be a <span class="tei tei-q">“Green”</span> in 530 + meant to be a partisan of the house of the late Emperor Anastasius, + and a Monophysite.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href= + "#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> The + <span class="tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> posed as partisans of the + house of Justinus, and as strictly orthodox in matters + ecclesiastical. From mere Circus factions they had almost grown into + political parties; but they still retained at the bottom many traces + of their low sporting origin. The rougher elements pre-dominated in + them; they were prone to riot and mischief, and, as the events of 532 + were to show, they were a serious danger to the State.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In January of that + year there was serious rioting in the streets. Justinian, though + ordinarily he favoured the Blue faction, impartially ordered the + leaders of the rioters on both sides to be put to death. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Seven were selected for execution, and + four of them were duly beheaded in the presence of a great and angry + mob, in front of the monastery of St. Conon. The last three rioters + were to be hung, but the hangman so bungled his task that two of the + criminals, one a Blue the other a Green, fell to the ground alive. + The guards seized them and they were again suspended; but once + more—owing no doubt to the terror of the executioners at the menaces + of the mob—the rope slipped. Then the multitude broke loose, the + guards were swept away, and the half-hung criminals were thrust into + sanctuary at the adjacent monastery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This exciting + incident proved the commencement of six days of desperate rioting. + The Blues and Greens united, and taking as their watchword, + <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nika</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“conquer,”</span> swept through the city, crying for the + deposition of John of Cappadocia, the unpopular finance minister, and + of Eudemius, Praefect of the city, who was immediately responsible + for the executions. The ordinary police of the capital were quite + unable to master them, and Justinian was weak enough to promise to + dismiss the officials. But the mob was now quite out of hand, and + refused to disperse: the trouble was fomented by the partisans of the + house of the late emperor, who began to shout for the deposition of + Justinian, and wished to make Hypatius, nephew of Anastasius, Cæsar + in his stead. The city was almost empty of troops, owing to the + garrison having been sent to the Persian War. The Emperor could only + count on 4,000 men of the Imperial Guard, a few German auxiliaries, + and a regiment <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg + 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + 500 <span class="tei tei-q">“Cataphracti,”</span> mailed horsemen, + under Belisarius, who had just returned from the seat of war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Belisarius was + placed in command of the whole, and sallied out to clear the streets, + but the rioters, showing the same pluck that the Byzantine mob + displayed against the soldiers of Gainas a hundred and twenty-five + years before, offered a stout resistance. The main fighting took + place around the great square of the Augustaeum, between the Imperial + palace and the Hippodrome. In the heat of the fight the rebels set + fire to the Brazen Porch by the Senate House. The Senate House caught + fire, and then the conflagration spread east and north, till it was + wafted across the square to St. Sophia. On the third day of the riot + the great cathedral was burnt to the ground, and from thence the + flames issued out to burn the hospital of Sampson and the church of + St. Irene.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href= + "#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> The fire + checked the fighting, and the insurgents were now in possession of + most of the city. But they could not find their chosen leader, for + the unfortunate Hypatius, who had no desire to risk his neck, had + taken refuge with the Emperor in the palace. It was not till he was + actually driven out by Justinian, who feared to have him about his + person, that this rebel in spite of himself, fell into the hands of + his own adherents. But on the sixth day of the riots they led him to + the Hippodrome, installed him in the royal seat of the Kathisma, and + crowned him there with a gold chain of his wife's, for want of a + proper diadem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-12.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Theodora Imperatrix. From the Painting by Val. Prinsep. The copyright is in the Artist's hands." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Theodora Imperatrix. <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From the + Painting by Val. Prinsep. The copyright is in the Artist's + hands.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile there + was dismay and diversity of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg + 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + councils in the Palace. John of Cappadocia and many other ministers + strove to persuade the Emperor to fly by sea, and gather additional + troops at Heraclea. There was nothing left in his power save the + palace, and they insisted that if he remained there longer he would + be surrounded by the rebels and cut off from escape. It was then that + the Empress Theodora rose to the level of the occasion, refused to + fly, and urged her husband to make one final assault on the enemy. + Her words are preserved by Procopius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“This is no occasion to keep to the old rule that a woman + must not speak in the council. Those who are most concerned have most + right to dictate the course of action. Now every man must die once, + and for a king death is better than dethronement and exile. May I + never see the day when my purple robe is stripped from me, and when I + am no more called Lady and Mistress! If you wish, O Emperor, to save + your life, nothing is easier: there are your ships and the sea. But + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I</span></em> agree with the old saying that + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Empire is the best + winding-sheet.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Spurred on by his + wife's bold words, Justinian ordered a last assault on the rebels, + and Belisarius led out his full force. The factions were now in the + Hippodrome, saluting their newly-crowned leader with shouts of + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Hypatie Auguste, tu + vincas,</span></span>”</span> preparatory to a final attack on the + palace. Belisarius attacked at once all three gates of the + Hippodrome: that directed against the door of the Kathisma failed, + but the soldiery forced both the side entrances, and after a hard + struggle the rebels were entirely routed. Crowded into the enormous + building with only five exits, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> they fell in thousands by the swords of the + victorious Imperialists. It is said that 35,000 men were slain in the + six days of this great <span class="tei tei-q">“Sedition of + Nika.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is curious to + learn that not even this awful slaughter succeeded in crushing the + factions. We hear of the Blues and Greens still rioting on various + occasions during the next fifty years. But they never came again so + near to changing the course of history as in the famous rising of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 532.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name= + "Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VII. Justinian's Foreign + Conquests.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the Persians + had drawn back, foiled in their attempt to conquer Mesopotamia, and + after the suppression of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> + sedition had cowed the unruly populace of Constantinople, Justinian + found himself at last free, and was able to take in hand his great + scheme for the reconquest of the lost provinces of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The enforced delay + of six years between his accession and his first attempt to execute + his great plan, was, as it happened, extremely favourable to the + Emperor. In each of the two German kingdoms with which he had first + to deal, the power had passed within those six years into the hands + of a weak and incapable sovereign. In Africa, Hilderic, the king of + the Vandals, had been dethroned by his cousin Gelimer, a warlike and + ambitious, but very incapable, ruler. In Italy, Theodoric, the great + king of the Ostrogoths, had died in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 526, and his grandson + and successor, Athalaric, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 533. After the death of + the young Athalaric, the kingdom fell to his mother, Amalasuntha, and + she, compelled by Gothic public <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> opinion to take a husband to rule in her + behalf, had unwisely wedded Theodahat, her nearest kinsman. He was + cruel, scheming, and suspicious, and murdered his wife, within a year + of her having brought him the kingdom of Italy as a dowry.<a id= + "noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> Cowardly + and avaricious as well as ungrateful, Theodahat possessed exactly + those vices which were most suited to make him the scorn of his + warlike subjects; he could count neither on their loyalty nor their + respect in the event of a war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both the Vandals + in Africa and the Goths in Italy were at this time so weak as to + invite an attack by an enterprising neighbour. They had, in fact, + conquered larger realms than their limited numbers were really able + to control. The original tribal hordes which had subdued Africa and + Italy were composed of fifty or sixty thousand warriors, with their + wives and children. Now such a body concentrated on one spot was + powerful enough to bear down everything before it. But when the + conquerors spread themselves abroad, they were but a sprinkling among + the millions of provincials whom they had to govern. In all Italy + there were probably but three cities—Ravenna, Verona, and Pavia—in + which the Ostrogoths formed a large proportion of the population. A + great army makes but a small nation, and the Goths and Vandals were + too few to occupy such wide tracts as Italy and Africa. They formed + merely a small aristocracy, governing by dint of the ascendency which + their <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name= + "Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fathers had won over + the minds of the unwarlike populations which they had subdued. The + only chance for the survival of the Ostrogothic and Vandal monarchies + lay in the possibility of their amalgamating with the Roman + provincial population, as the Franks, under more favourable + circumstances, did with the conquered inhabitants of Gaul. This was + seen by Theodoric, the great conqueror of Italy; and he did his best + to reconcile Goth and Roman, held the balance with strict justice + between the two, and employed Romans as well as Goths in the + government of the country. But one generation does little to assuage + old hatreds such as that between the conquerors and the conquered in + Italy. Theodoric was succeeded by a child, and then by a ruffian, and + his work ended with him. Even he was unable to strike at the most + fatal difference of all between his countrymen and the Italians. The + Goths were Arians, having been converted to Christianity in the + fourth century by missionaries who held the Arian heresy. Their + subjects, on the other hand, were Orthodox Catholics, almost without + exception. When religious hatred was added to race hatred, there was + hardly any hope of welding together the two nationalities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another source of + weakness in the kingdoms of Africa and Italy must be noted. The + Vandals of the third generation and the Goths of the second, after + their settlement in the south, seem to have degenerated in courage + and stamina. It may be that the climate was unfavourable to races + reared in the Danube lands; it may be that the temptations of + unlimited luxury offered by Roman civilization sufficed to demoralize + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" + id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them. A Gothic sage observed + at the time that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Goth, when rich, tends + to become Roman in his habits; the Roman, when poor, Gothic in + his.”</span> There was truth in this saying, and the result of the + change was ominous for the permanence of the kingdom of Italy. If the + masters softened and the subjects hardened, they would not preserve + for ever their respective positions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The case of the + kingdom of Africa was infinitely worse than that of the kingdom of + Italy. The Vandals were less numerous than the Goths, in proportion + to their subjects; they were not merely heretics, but fanatical and + persecuting heretics, which the Goths were not. Moreover, they had + never had at their head a great organizer and administrator like + Theodoric, but only a succession of turbulent princes of the Viking + type, fit for war and nothing else.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian declared + war on King Gelimer the moment that he had made peace with Persia, + using as his <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">casus belli</span></span>, not + a definite re-assertion of the claim of the empire over Africa—for + such language would have provoked the rulers of Italy and Spain to + join the Vandals, but the fact that Gelimer had wrongfully deposed + Hilderic, the Emperor's ally. In July, 533, Belisarius, who was now + at the height of his favour for his successful suppression of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> rioters, sailed from the + Bosphorus with an army of 10,000 foot and 5,000 horse. He was + accompanied, luckily for history, by his secretary, Procopius, a very + capable writer, who has left a full account of his master's + campaigns. Belisarius landed at Tripoli, at the extreme eastern limit + of the Vandal power. The town <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was at once betrayed to him by its Roman + inhabitants. From thence he advanced cautiously along the coast, + meeting with no opposition; for the incapable Gelimer had been caught + unprepared, and was still engaged in calling in his scattered + warriors. It was not till he had approached within ten miles of + Carthage that Belisarius was attacked by the Vandals. After a hard + struggle he defeated them, and the city fell into his hands next + clay. The provincials were delighted at the rout of their masters, + and welcomed the imperial army with joy; there was neither riot nor + pillage, and Carthage had not the aspect of a conquered town.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Calling up his + last reserves, Gelimer made one more attempt to try the fortunes of + war. He advanced on Carthage, and was met by Belisarius at + Tricameron, on the road to Bulla. Again the day went against him; his + army broke up, his last fortresses threw open their gates, and there + was an end of the Vandal kingdom. It had existed just 104 years, + since Genseric entered Africa in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + 429.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gelimer took + refuge for a time with the Moorish tribes who dwelt in the fastnesses + of Mount Atlas. But ere long he resolved to surrender himself to + Belisarius, whose humanity was as well known as his courage. He sent + to Carthage to say that he was about to give himself up, and—so the + story goes—asked but for three things: a harp, to which to chant a + dirge he had written on the fate of himself and the Vandal race; a + sponge, to wipe away his tears; and a loaf, a delicacy he had not + tasted ever since he had been forced to partake of the unsavoury + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" + id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> food of the Moors! Belisarius + received Gelimer with kindness, and took him to Constantinople, along + with the treasures of the palace of Carthage, which included many of + the spoils of Rome captured by the Vandals eighty-six years before, + when they sacked the imperial city, in 453. It is said that among + these spoils were some of the golden vessels of the Temple at + Jerusalem, which Titus had brought in triumph to Rome, and which + Gaiseric had carried from Rome to Carthage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-13.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Cavalry Scouts. (From a Byzantine MS.) Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Cavalry Scouts. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From a + Byzantine MS.</span></span>) <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">Reproduced + from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The triumphal + entry of Belisarius into Constantinople with his captives and his + spoils, encouraged Justinian to order instant preparations for an + attack on the second German kingdom, on his western frontier. He + declared war on the wretched King Theodahat in the summer of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 435, using as his + pretext the murder of Queen Amalasuntha, whom, as we have already + said, her ungrateful spouse had <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> first imprisoned and then strangled within a + year of their marriage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The king of the + Goths, whether he was conscience-stricken or merely cowardly, showed + the greatest terror at the declaration of war. He even wrote to + Constantinople offering to resign his crown, if the Emperor would + guarantee his life and his private property. Meanwhile he consulted + soothsayers and magicians about his prospects, for he was as + superstitious as he was incompetent. Procopius tells us a strange + tale of the doings of a Jewish magician of note, to whom Theodahat + applied. He took thirty pigs—to represent unclean Gentiles, we must + suppose—and penned them in three styes, ten in each. The one part he + called <span class="tei tei-q">“Goths,”</span> the second + <span class="tei tei-q">“Italians,”</span> and the third <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Imperialists.”</span> He left the beasts without food or + water for ten days, and bade the king visit them at the end of that + time, and take augury from their condition. When Theodahat looked in + he found all but two of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Goth”</span> + pigs dead, and half of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Italians,”</span> + but the <span class="tei tei-q">“Imperialists,”</span> though gaunt + and wasted, were all, or almost all, alive. This portent the Jew + expounded as meaning that at the end of the approaching war the + Gothic race would be exterminated and their Italian subjects terribly + thinned, while the Imperial troops would conquer, though with toil + and difficult.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Theodahat + was busying himself with portents, actual war had broken out on the + Illyrian frontier between the Goths and the governor of Dalmatia. + There was no use in making further offers to Justinian, and the king + of Italy had to face the situation as best he could.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the summer of + 535, Belisarius landed in Sicily, with an even smaller army than had + been given him to conquer Africa—only 3,000 Roman troops, all + Isaurians, and 4,500 barbarian auxiliaries of different sorts. + Belisarius' first campaign was as fortunate as had been that which he + had waged against Gelimer. All the Sicilian towns threw open their + gates except Palermo, where there was a considerable Gothic garrison, + and Palermo fell after a short siege. In six months the whole island + was in the hands of Belisarius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodahat seemed + incapable of defending himself; he fell into a condition of abject + helplessness, which so provoked his warlike subjects, that when the + news came that Belisarius had crossed over into Italy and taken + Rhegium, they rose and slew him. In his stead the army of the Goths + elected as their king Witiges, a middle-aged warrior, well known for + personal courage and integrity, but quite incompetent to face the + impending storm.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the fall of + Rhegium, Belisarius marched rapidly on Naples, meeting no opposition; + for the Goths were very thinly scattered through Southern Italy, and + had not even enough men to garrison the Lucanian and Calabrian + fortresses. Naples was taken by surprise, the Imperialists finding + their way within the walls by crawling up a disused aqueduct. After + this important conquest, Belisarius made for Rome, though his forces + were reduced to a mere handful by the necessity of leaving garrisons + in his late conquests. King Witiges made no effort to obstruct his + approach. He had received news that the Franks <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were threatening an evasion of Northern + Italy, and went north to oppose an imaginary danger in the Alps, when + he should have been defending the line of the Tiber. Having staved + off the danger of a Frankish war by ceding Provence to King + Theuderic, Witiges turned back, only to learn that Rome was now in + the hands of the enemy. The troops of Leudaris, the Gothic general, + who had been left with 4,000 men to defend the city, had been struck + with panic at the approach of Belisarius, and were cowardly and + idiotic enough to evacuate it without striking a blow. Five thousand + men had sufficed to seize the ancient capital of the world! + [December, 536.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next spring King + Witiges came down with the main army of the Goths—more than 100,000 + strong—and laid siege to Rome. The defence of the town by Belisarius + and his very inadequate garrison forms the most interesting episode + in the Italian war. For more than a year the Ostrogoths lay before + its walls, essaying every device to force an entry. They tried open + storm; they endeavoured to bribe traitors within the city; they + strove to creep along the bed of a disused aqueduct, as Belisarius + had done a year before at Naples. All was in vain, though the + besiegers outnumbered the garrison twenty-fold, and exposed their + lives with the same recklessness that their ancestors had shown in + the invasion of the empire a hundred years back. The scene best + remembered in the siege was the simultaneous assault on five points + in the wall, on the 21st of March, 537. Three of the attacks were + beaten back with ease; but near the Prænestine Gate, at the + south-east of the city, one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + storming party actually forced its way within the walls, and had to + be beaten out by sheer hard fighting; and at the mausoleum of + Hadrian, on the north-west, another spirited combat took place. + Hadrian's tomb—a great quadrangular structure of white marble, 300 + feet square and 85 feet high—was surmounted by one of the most + magnificent collections of statuary in ancient Rome, including four + great equestrian statues of emperors at its corners. The Goths, with + their ladders, swarmed at the foot of the tomb in such numbers, that + the arrows and darts of the defenders were insufficient to beat them + back. Then, as a last resource, the Imperialists tore down the scores + of statues which adorned the mausoleum, and crushed the mass of + assailants beneath a rain of marble fragments. Two famous antiques, + that form the pride of modern galleries—the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dancing Faun”</span> at Florence, and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Barberini Faun”</span> at Munich—were found, a thousand + years later, buried in the ditch of the tomb of Hadrian, and must + have been among the missiles employed against the Goths. The rough + usage which they then received proved the means of preserving them + for the admiration of the modern world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A year and nine + days after he had formed the siege of Rome, the unlucky Witiges had + to abandon it. His army, reduced by sword and famine, had given up + all hope of success, and news had just arrived that the Imperialists + had launched a new army against Ravenna, the Gothic capital. + Belisarius, indeed, had just received a reinforcement of 6,000 or + 7,000 men, and had wisely sent a considerable force, under an officer + named John, to fall on the Adriatic coast.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The scene of the + war was now transported further to the north; but its character still + remained the same. The Romans gained territory, the Goths lost it. + Firmly fixed at Ancona and Rimini and Osimo, Belisarius gradually + forced his way nearer to Ravenna, and, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 540 laid siege to it. + Witiges, blockaded by Belisarius in his capital, made no such skilful + defence as did his rival at Rome three years before. To add to his + troubles, the Franks came down into Northern Italy, and threatened to + conquer the valley of the Po, the last Gothic stronghold. Witiges + then made proposals for submission; but Belisarius refused to grant + any terms other than unconditional surrender, though his master + Justinian was ready to acknowledge Witiges as vassal-king in + Trans-Padane Italy. Famine drove Ravenna to open its gates, and the + Goths, enraged at their imbecile king, and struck with admiration for + the courage and generosity of Belisarius, offered to make their + conqueror Emperor of the West. The loyal general refused; but bade + the Goths disperse each to his home, and dwell peaceably for the + future as subjects of the empire. [May, 540 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>] He himself, taking the + great Gothic treasure-hoard from the palace of Theodoric, and the + captive Witiges, sailed for Constantinople, and laid his trophies at + his master's feet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Italy now seemed + even as Africa; only Pavia and Verona were still held by Gothic + garrisons, and when he sailed home, Belisarius deemed his work so + nearly done, that his lieutenants would suffice to crush out the last + embers of the strife. He himself was required in the East, for a new + Persian war with Chosroësroës, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> son of Kobad, was on the eve of breaking out. + But things were not destined to end so. At the last moment the Goths + found a king and a hero to rescue them, and the conquest of Italy was + destined to be deferred for twelve years more. Two ephemeral rulers + reigned for a few months at Pavia, and came to bloody ends; but their + successor was Baduila,<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> the + noblest character of the sixth century—<span class="tei tei-q">“the + first knight of the Middle Ages,”</span> as he has been called. When + the generals of Justinian marched against him, to finish the war by + the capture of Verona and Pavia, he won over them the first victory + that the Goths had obtained since their enemies landed in Italy. This + was followed by two more successes; the scattered armies of Witiges + rallied round the banner of the new king, and at once the cities of + Central and Southern Italy began to fall back into Gothic hands, with + the same rapidity with which they had yielded to Belisarius. The fact + was, that the war had been a cruel strain on the Italians, and that + the imperial governors, and still more their fiscal agents, or + <span class="tei tei-q">“logothetes,”</span> had become unbearably + oppressive. Italy had lived through the fit of enthusiasm with which + it had received the armies of Justinian, and was now regretting the + days of Theodoric as a long-lost golden age. Most of its cities were + soon in Baduila's hands; the Imperialists retained only the districts + round Rome, Naples, Otranto, and Ravenna. Of Naples they were soon + deprived. [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 543.] Baduila invested + it, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name= + "Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ere long constrained + it to surrender. He treated the inhabitants with a kindness and + consideration which no Roman general, except Belisarius, had ever + displayed. A speech which he delivered to his generals soon after + this success deserves a record, as showing the character of the man. + A Gothic warrior had been convicted of violating the daughter of a + Roman. Baduila condemned him to death. His officers came round him to + plead for the soldier's life. He answered them that they must choose + that day whether they preferred to save one man's life or the life of + the Gothic race. At the beginning of the war, as they knew well, the + Goths had brave soldiers, famous generals, countless treasure, + horses, weapons, and all the forts of Italy. And yet under + Theodahat—a man who loved gold better than justice—they had so + angered God by their unrighteous lives, that all the troubles of the + last ten years had come upon them. Now God seemed to have avenged + Himself on them enough. He had begun a new course with them, and they + must begin a new course with Him, and justice was the only path. As + for the present criminal being a valiant hero, let them know that the + unjust man and the ravisher was never brave in fight; but that, + according to a man's life, such was his luck in battle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the + justice of Baduila; and it seemed as if his dream was about to come + true, and that the regenerate Goths would win back all that they had + lost. Ere long he was at the gates of Rome, prepared to essay, with + 15,000 men, what Witiges had failed to do with 100,000. Lest all his + Italian conquests should be lost, Justinian was obliged to send back + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" + id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Belisarius, for no one else + could hold back the Goths. But Belisarius was ill-supplied with men; + he had fallen into disfavour at Court, and the imperial ministers + stinted him of troops and money. Unable to relieve Rome, he had to + wait at Portus, by the mouth of the Tiber, watching for a chance to + enter the city. That chance he never got. The famine-stricken Romans, + angry with the cruel and avaricious Bessas, who commanded the + garrison, began to long for the victory of their enemy; and one night + some traitors opened the Asinarian Gate, and let in Baduila and his + Goths. The King thought that his troubles were over; he assembled his + chiefs, and bade them observe how, in the time of Witiges, 7,000 + Greeks had conquered, and robbed of kingdom and liberty, 100,000 + well-armed Goths. But now that they were few, poor, and wretched, the + Goths had conquered more than 20,000 of the enemy. And why? Because + of old they looked to anything rather than justice: they had sinned + against each other and the Romans. Therefore they must choose + henceforth, and be just men and have God with them, or unjust and + have God against them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baduila had + determined to do that which no general since Hannibal had + contemplated: he would destroy Rome, and with it all the traditions + of the world-empire of the ancient city—to him they seemed but + snares, tending to corrupt the mind of the Goths. The people he sent + away unharmed—they were but a few thousand left after the horrors of + the famine during the siege. But he broke down the walls, and + dismantled the palaces and arsenals. For a few weeks <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Rome was a deserted city, given up to the + wolf and the owl [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 550].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For eleven unquiet + years, Baduila, the brave and just, ruled Italy, holding his own + against Belisarius, till the great general was called home by some + wretched court intrigue. But presently Justinian gathered another + army, more numerous than any that Belisarius had led, and sent it to + Italy, under the command of the eunuch Narses. It was a strange + choice that made the chamberlain into a general; but it succeeded. + Narses marched round the head of the Adriatic, and invaded Italy from + the north. Baduila went forth to meet him at Tagina, in the + Apennines. For a long day the Ostrogothic knights rode again and + again into the Imperialist ranks; but all their furious charges + failed. At evening they reeled back broken, and their king received a + mortal wound in the flight [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 553].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the death of + Baduila, it was all up with the Goths; their hero's knightly courage + and kingly righteousness had not sufficed to save them from the same + doom which had overtaken the Vandals. The broken army made one last + stand in Campania, under a chief named Teia; but he was slain in + battle at Nuceria, and then the Goths surrendered. They told Narses + that the hand of God was against them; they would quit Italy, and go + back to dwell in the north, in the land of their fathers. So the poor + remnant of the conquering Ostrogoths marched off, crossed the Po and + the Alps, and passed away into oblivion in the northern darkness. The + scheme of Justinian was complete. Italy was his; but an Italy + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" + id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> so wasted and depopulated, + that the traces of the ancient Roman rule had almost vanished. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The land,”</span> says a contemporary + chronicler, <span class="tei tei-q">“was reduced to primeval + solitude”</span>—war and famine had swept it bare.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-14.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Details Of St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Details Of St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is strange to + find that the Emperor was not tired out by waging this desperate war + with the Goths; the moment it ended he began to essay another western + conquest. There was civil war in Spain, and, taking advantage of it, + Liberius, governor of Africa, landed in Andalusia, and rapidly took + the great towns of the south of the peninsula—Cordova, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Cartagena, Malaga, and Cadiz. The + factious Visigoths then dropped their strife, united in arms under + King Athangild, and checked the further progress of the imperial + arms. But a long slip of the lost territory was not recovered by + them. Justinian and his successors, down to <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 623, reigned over the + greater part of the sea-coast of Southern Spain.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name= + "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VIII. The End Of Justinian's + Reign.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The slackness with + which the generals of Justinian prosecuted the Gothic war in the + period between the triumph of Belisarius at Ravenna in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 540, and the final + conquest of Italy in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 553, is mainly to be + explained by the fact that, just at the moment of the fall of + Ravenna, the empire became involved in a new struggle with its great + Eastern neighbour. Chosroës of Persia was seriously alarmed at the + African and Italian conquests of Justinian, and remembered that he + too, as well as the Vandals and Goths, was in possession of provinces + that had formerly been Roman, and might one day be reclaimed by the + Emperor. He determined to strike before Justinian had got free from + his Italian war, and while the flower of the Roman army was still in + the West. Using as his pretext for war some petty quarrels between + two tribes of Arabs, subject respectively to Persia and the empire, + he declared war in the spring of <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + 540. Justinian, as the king had hoped, was caught unprepared: the + army of the Euphrates was so weak that it never dared face the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" + id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Persians in the field, and the + opening of the war was fraught with such a disaster to the empire as + had not been known since the battle of Adrianople, more than a + hundred and sixty years before. Avoiding the fortresses of + Mesopotamia, Chosroës, who led his army in person, burst into + Northern Syria. His main object was to strike a blow at Antioch, the + metropolis of the East, a rich city that had not seen an enemy for + nearly three centuries, and was reckoned safe from all attacks owing + to its distance from the frontier. Antioch had a strong garrison of + 6,000 men and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“Greens”</span> of its circus factions had + taken arms to support the regular troops. But the commander was + incompetent, and the fortifications had been somewhat neglected of + late. After a sharp struggle, Chosroës took the town by assault; the + garrison cut its way out, and many of the inhabitants escaped with + it, but the city was sacked from cellar to garret and thousands of + captives were dragged away by the Persians. Chosroës planted them by + the Euphrates—as Nebuchadnezzar had done of old with the Jews—and + built for them a city which he called Chosroantiocheia, blending his + own name with that of their ancient abode.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This horrible + disaster to the second city of the Roman East roused all Justinian's + energy; neglecting the Italian war, he sent all his disposable troops + to the Euphrates frontier, and named Belisarius himself as the chief + commander. After this, Chosroës won no such successes as had + distinguished his first campaign. Having commenced an attack on the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" + id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Roman border fortresses in + Colchis, far to the north, he was drawn home by the news that + Belisarius had invaded Assyria and was besieging Nisibis. On the + approach of the king the imperial general retired, but his manœuvre + had cost the Persian the fruits of a whole summer's preparation, and + the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 541 ended without + serious fighting. In the next spring very similar operations + followed: Belisarius defended the line of the Euphrates with success, + and the invaders retired after having reduced one single Mesopotamian + fortress. The war lingered for two years more, till Chosroës, + disgusted at the ill-success of all his efforts since his first + success at Antioch, and more especially humiliated by a bloody + repulse from the walls of Edessa, consented to treat for peace + [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 545]. He gave up his + conquests—which were of small importance—but regarded the honours of + the war as being his own, because Justinian consented to pay him + 2,000 lbs. of gold [£108,000] on the ratification of the treaty. One + curious clause was inserted in the document—though hostilities ceased + everywhere else, the rights of the two monarchs to the suzerainty of + the kingdom of Lazica, on the Colchian frontier, hard by the Black + Sea, were left undefined. For no less than seven years a sort of + by-war was maintained in this small district, while peace prevailed + on all other points of the Perso-Roman frontier. It was not till + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 556, after both parties + had wasted much treasure and many men on the unprofitable contest, + that Chosroës resigned the attempt to hold the small and rugged + mountain kingdom of the Lazi, and resigned it to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Justinian on the promise of an annual + grant of £18,000 as compensation money.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But although + Justinian had brought his second Persian war to a not unsuccessful + end, the empire had come badly out of the struggle, and was by 556 + falling into a condition of incipient disorder and decay. This was + partly caused by the reckless financial expedients of the Emperor, + who taxed the provinces with unexampled rigour while forced to + maintain at once a Persian and an Italian war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main part of + the damage, however, was wrought by other than human means. In + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 542 there broke out in + the empire a plague such as had not been known for three hundred + years—the last similar visitation had fallen in the reign of + Trebonianus Gallus, far back in the third century. This pestilence + was one of the epoch-making events in the history of the empire, as + great a landmark as the Black Death in the history of England. The + details which Procopius gives us concerning its progress and results + leave no doubt that it operated more powerfully than any other factor + in that weakening of the empire which is noticeable in the second + half of the sixth century. When it reached Constantinople, 5,000 + persons a day are said to have fallen victims to it. All customary + occupations ceased in the city, and the market-place was empty save + for corpse-bearers. In many houses not a single soul remained alive, + and the government had to take special measures for the burial of + neglected corpses. <span class="tei tei-q">“The disease,”</span> says + the chronicler, <span class="tei tei-q">“did not attack any + particular race or class of men, nor prevail in any <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> particular region, nor confine itself to + any period of the year. Summer or winter, North or South, Greek or + Arabian, washed or unwashed—of such distinctions the plague took no + account. A man might climb to the hill-top, and it was there; he + might retire to the depths of a cavern, and it was there + also.”</span> The only marked characteristic of its ravages that the + chronicler could find was that, <span class="tei tei-q">“whether by + chance or providential design, it strictly spared the most + wicked.”</span><a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href= + "#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian himself + fell ill of the plague: he recovered, but was never his old self + again. Though he persevered inflexibly to his last day in his scheme + for the reconquest of the empire, yet he seems to have declined in + energy, and more especially to have lost that power of organization, + which had been his most marked characteristic. The chroniclers + complain that he had grown less hopeful and less masterful. + <span class="tei tei-q">“After achieving so much in the days of his + vigour, when he entered into the last stage of his life he seemed to + weary of his labours, and preferred to create discord among his foes + or to mollify them with gifts, instead of trusting to his arms and + facing the dangers of war. So he allowed his troops to decline in + numbers, because he did not expect to require their services. And his + ministers, who collected his taxes and maintained his armies were + affected with the same indifference.”</span><a id="noteref_13" name= + "noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One feature of the + Emperor's later years was that he took more and more interest in + theological <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg + 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + disputes, even to the neglect of State business. The Church question + of the day was the dispute on Monophysitism, the heresy which denied + the existence both of a human and a divine nature in Our Lord. + Justinian was not a monophysite himself, but wished to unify the sect + with the main body of the Church by edicts of comprehension, which + forbade the discussion of the subject, and spent much trouble in + coercing prelates orthodox and heretical into a reconciliation which + had no chance of permanent success. His chief difficulty was with the + bishops of Rome. He forced Pope Vigilius to come to Constantinople, + and kept him under constraint for many months, till he signed all + that was required of him [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 554]. The only result + was to win Vigilius the reputation of a heretic, and to cause a + growing estrangement between East and West.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gloom of + Justinian's later years was even more marked after the death of his + wife; Theodora died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 548, six years after + the great plague, and it may be that her loss was no less a cause of + the diminished energy of his later years than was his enfeebled + health. Her bold and adventurous spirit must have buoyed him up in + many of the more difficult enterprises of the first half of his + reign. After her death, Justinian seems to have trusted no one: his + destined successor, Justinus, son of his sister, was kept in the + background, and no great minister seems to have possessed his + confidence. Even Belisarius, the first and most loyal soldier of the + empire, does not appear to have been trusted: in the second Gothic + war the Emperor stinted him of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> troops and hampered him with colleagues. At + last he was recalled [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 549] and sent into + private life, from which he was only recalled on the occurrence of a + sudden military crisis in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 558.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This crisis was a + striking example of the mismanagement of Justinian's later years. A + nomad horde from the South Russian steppes, the Cotrigur Huns, had + crossed the frozen Danube at mid-winter, when hostilities were least + expected, and thrown themselves on the Thracian provinces. The empire + had 150,000 men under arms at the moment, but they were all dispersed + abroad, many in Italy, others in Africa, others in Spain, others in + Colchis, some in the Thebaid, and a few on the Mesopotamian frontier. + There was such a dearth of men to defend the home provinces that the + barbarians rode unhindered over the whole country side from the + Danube to the Propontis plundering and burning. One body, only 7,000 + strong, came up to within a few miles of the city gates, and inspired + such fear that the Constantinopolitans began to send their money and + church-plate over to Asia. Justinian then summoned Belisarius from + his retirement, and placed him in command of what troops there were + available—a single regiment of 300 veterans from Italy, and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Scholarian guards,”</span> a body of local + troops 3,500 strong, raised in the city and entrusted with the charge + of its gates, which inspired little confidence as its members were + allowed to practice their trades and avocations and only called out + in rotation for occasional service. With this undisciplined force, + which had never seen war, at his back, Belisarius <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> contrived to beat off the Huns. He led + them to pursue him back to a carefully prepared position, where the + only point that could be attacked was covered with woods and hedges + on either side. The untrustworthy <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Scholarians”</span> were placed on the flanks, where + they could not be seriously molested, while the 300 Italian veterans + covered the one vulnerable point. The Huns attacked, were shot down + from the woods and beaten off in front, and fled leaving 400 men on + the field, while the Romans only lost a few wounded and not a single + soldier slain. Thus the last military exploit of Belisarius preserved + the suburbs of the imperial city itself from molestation; after + defending Old Rome in his prime, he saved New Rome in his old + age.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even this last + service did not prevent Justinian from viewing his great servant with + suspicion. Four years later an obscure conspiracy against his life + was discovered, and one of the conspirators named Belisarius as being + privy to the plot. The old emperor affected to believe the + accusation, sequestrated the general's property, and kept him under + surveillance for eight months. Belisarius was then acquitted and + restored to favour: he lived two years longer, and died in March, + 565.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> The + ungrateful master whom he had served so well followed him to the + grave nine months later.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of Justinian as + conqueror and governor we have <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> said much. But there remain two more aspects of + his life which deserve notice—his work as a builder and his + codification of the laws. From the days of Diocletian the style of + architecture which we call Byzantine, for want of a better name, had + been slowly developing from the old classic forms, and many of the + emperors of the fourth and fifth centuries had been given to + building. But no previous monarch had combined in such a degree as + did Justinian the will and the power to launch out into architectural + experiments. He had at his disposal the hoarded treasures of + Anastasius, and his tastes were as magnificent as those of the great + builders of the early empire, Augustus and Nero and Hadrian. All over + the empire the monuments of his wealth and taste were seen in dozens + of churches, halls of justice, monasteries, forts, hospitals, and + colonnades. The historian Procopius was able to compose a + considerable volume entirely on the subject of Justinian's buildings, + and numbers of them survive, some perfect and more in ruins, to + witness to the accuracy of the work. Even in the more secluded or + outlying portions of the empire, any fine building that is found is, + in two cases out of three, one of the works of Justinian. Not merely + great centres like Constantinople or Jerusalem, but out-of-the-way + tracts in Cappadocia and Isauria, are full of his buildings. Even in + the newly-conquered Ravenna his great churches of San Vitale, + containing the celebrated mosaic portraits of himself and his wife, + and of St. Apollinare in the suburb of Classis, outshine the older + works of the fifth-century emperors and of the Goth + Theodoric.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg + 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-15.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Columns In St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Columns In St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-16.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Galleries Of St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Galleries Of St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian's + churches, indeed, are the best known of his buildings. In Oriental + church-architecture his reign forms a landmark: up to his time + Christian architects had still been using two patterns copied + straight from Old Roman models. The first was the round domed church, + whose origin can be traced back to such Roman originals as the + celebrated Temple of Vesta—of such the Church of the Holy Sepulchre + at Rome may serve as a type. The second was the rectangular church + with apses, which was nothing more than an adaptation for + ecclesiastical purposes of the Old Roman law-courts, and which had + borrowed from them its name of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Basilica</span></span>. St. Paul's Outside the + Walls, at Rome is a fair specimen. Justinian brought into use for the + first time on a large scale the combination of a cruciform + ground-plan and a very large dome. The famous Church of St. Sophia + may serve as the type of this style. The great cathedral of + Constantinople had already been burnt down twice, as we have had + occasion to relate: the first time on the eve of the banishment of + John Chrysostom, the second in the great <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nika”</span> riot of 532. Within forty days of its + destruction Justinian had commenced preparations for rebuilding it as + a monument of his triumph in the civil strife. He chose as his + architect Anthemius of Tralles, the greatest of Byzantine builders, + and one of the few whose names have survived. The third church was + different in plan from either of its predecessors, showing the new + combination which we have already specified. It is a Greek cross, 241 + feet long and 224 broad, having in its midst a vast dome, pierced by + no <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name= + "Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> less than forty + windows, light and airy and soaring 180 feet above the floor. In the + nave the aisles and side apses are parted from the main central + spaces by magnificent colonnades of marble pillars, the majority of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">verde + antique</span></span>. These are not for the most part the work of + Justinian's day, but were plundered from the chief pagan temples of + Asia, which served as an inexhaustible quarry for the Christian + builder. The whole of the interior, both roof and dome, was covered + with gilding or mosaics, which the Vandalism of the Turks has covered + with a coat of whitewash, to hide the representations of human forms + which are offensive to the Moslems' creed. Procopius describes the + church with enthusiasm, and his praises are well justified—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">It presents a + most glorious spectacle, extraordinary to those who behold it, and + altogether incredible to those who know it by report only. In height + it rises to the very heavens, and overtops the neighbouring buildings + like a ship anchored among them. It towers above the city which it + adorns, and from it the whole of Constantinople can be beheld, as + from a watch-tower. Its breadth and length are so judiciously chosen, + that it appears both broad and long without disproportion. For it + excels both in size and harmony, being more magnificent than ordinary + buildings, and much more elegant than the few which approach it in + size. Within it is singularly full of light and sunshine; you would + declare that the place is not lighted from without, but that the rays + are produced within itself, such an abundance of light is</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" + id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-size: 90%">poured into it. The gilded ceiling adds glory to + its interior, though the light reflected upon the gold from the + marble surpasses it in beauty. Who can tell of the splendour of the + columns and marbles with which the church is adorned? One would + think that one had come upon a meadow full of flowers in bloom—one + wonders at the purple tints of some, the green of others, the + glowing red and glittering white, and those, too, which nature, + like a painter, has marked with the strongest contrasts of colour. + Moreover, it is impossible accurately to describe the treasures of + gold and silver plate and gems which the Emperor has presented to + the church: the Sanctuary alone contains forty thousand pounds + weight of silver.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian was + almost as great a builder of forts as of churches, but his military + works have for the most part disappeared. It may give some idea of + his energy in fortifying the frontiers when we state that the + Illyrian provinces alone were protected by 294 forts, of which + Procopius gives a list, disposed in four successive lines from the + Danube back to the Thessalian hills. Some were single towers, but + many were elaborate fortresses with outworks, and all had to be + protected by garrisons.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus much of + Justinian as builder: space fails to enumerate a tithe of his works. + Of his great legal achievement we must speak at even shorter length. + The Roman law, as he received it from his predecessors was an + enormous mass of precedents and decisions, in which the original + basis was overlaid with the various and sometimes contradictory + rescripts <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg + 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + five centuries of emperors. Several of his predecessors, and most + especially Theodosius II., had endeavoured to codify the chaotic mass + and reduce it to order. But no one of them had produced a code which + sufficed to bring the law of the day into full accord with the spirit + of the times. It was no mean work to bring the ancient legislation of + Rome, from the days of the Twelve Tables down to the days of + Justinian, into strict and logical connection with the new Christian + ideas which had worked their way into predominance since the days of + Constantine. Much of the old law was hopelessly obsolete, owing to + the change in moral ideas which Christianity had introduced, but it + is still astonishing to see how much of the old forms of the times of + the early empire survived into the sixth century. Justinian employed + a commission, headed by the clever but unpopular lawyer Tribonian, to + draw up his new code. The work was done for ever and a day, and his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Institutes”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pandects”</span> were the last revision of the Old Roman + laws, and the starting-point of all systematic legal study in Europe, + when, six hundred years later, the need for something more than + customary folk-right began to make itself felt, as mediæval + civilization evolved itself out of the chaos of the dark ages. If the + Roman Empire had flourished in the century after Justinian as in that + which preceded him, other revisers of the laws might have produced + compilations that would have made the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Institutes”</span> seem out of date. But, as a matter of + fact, decay and chaos followed after Justinian, and succeeding + emperors had neither the need nor the inclination <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to do his work over again. Hence it came + to pass that his name is for ever associated with the last great + revision of Roman law, and that he himself went down to posterity as + the greatest of legislators, destined to be enthroned by Dante in one + of the starry thrones of his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Paradise,”</span> and to be worshipped as the father of + law by all the legists of the Renaissance.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name= + "Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">IX. The Coming Of The + Slavs.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thirty years + which followed the death of Justinian are covered by three reigns, + those of Justinus II. [565-578], Tiberius Constantinus [578-582], and + Maurice [582-602]. These three emperors were men of much the same + character as the predecessors of Justinian; each of them was an + experienced official of mature age, who was selected by the reigning + emperor as his most worthy successor. Justinus was the favourite + nephew of Justinian, and had served him for many years as + Curopalates, or Master of the Palace. Tiberius Constantinus was + <span class="tei tei-q">“Count of the Excubiti,”</span> a high Court + officer in the suite of Justinus: Maurice again served Tiberius as + <span class="tei tei-q">“Count of the Fœderati,”</span> or chief of + the Barbarian auxiliaries. They were all men of capacity, and strove + to do their best for the empire: historians concur in praising the + justice of Justinus, the liberality and humanity of Tiberius, the + piety of Maurice. Yet under them the empire was steadily going down + hill: the exhausting effects of the reign of Justinian were making + themselves felt more and more, and at the end of the reign + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" + id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Maurice a time of chaos and + disaster was impending, which came to a head under his successor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The internal + causes of the disaster of this time were the weakening of the empire + by the great plague of 544 and still more by the grinding exactions + of Justinian's financial system. Its external phenomena were + invasions by new hordes from the north, combined with long and + exhausting wars with Persia. The virtues of the emperors seem to have + helped them little: Justin's justice made him feared rather than + loved; Tiberius's liberality rendered him popular, but drained the + treasury; Maurice, on the other hand, who was economical and + endeavoured to fill the coffers which his predecessors had emptied, + was therefore universally condemned as avaricious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The troubles on + the frontier which vexed the last thirty years of the sixth century + were due to three separate sets of enemies—the Lombards in Italy, the + Slavs and Avars in the Balkan Peninsula, and the Persians in the + East.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The empire held + undisputed possession of Italy for no more than fifteen years after + the expulsion of the Ostrogoths in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 553. Then a new enemy + came in from the north, following the same path that had already + served for the Visigoths of Alaric and the Ostrogoths of Theodoric. + The new-comers were the race of the Lombards, who had hitherto dwelt + in Hungary, on the Middle Danube, and had more frequently been found + as friends than as foes of the Romans. But their warlike and + ambitious King Alboin, having subdued all his nearer neighbours, + began to covet the fertile plains of Italy, where <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he saw the emperors keeping a very + inadequate garrison, now that the Ostrogoths were finally driven + away. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 568 Alboin and his + hordes crossed the Alps, bringing with them wife and child, and + flocks and herds, while their old land on the Danube was abandoned to + the Avars. The Lombards took possession of the flat country in the + north of Italy, as far as the line of the Po, with very little + difficulty. The region, we are told, was almost uninhabited owing to + the combined effects of the great plague and the Ostrogothic war. In + this once fertile and populous, but now deserted, lowland, the + Lombards settled down in great numbers. There they have left their + name as the permanent denomination of the plain of Lombardy. Only one + city, the strong fortress of Pavia, held out against them for long; + when it fell in 571, after a gallant defence of three years, Alboin + made it his capital, instead of choosing one of the larger and more + famous towns of Milan and Verona, the older centres of life in the + land he had conquered. After subduing Lombardy the king pushed + forward into Etruria, and overran the valley of the Arno. But in the + midst of his wars he was cut off, if the legend tells us the truth, + by the vengeance of his wife Queen Rosamund. She was the daughter of + Cunimund, King of the Gepidæ, whom Alboin had slain in battle. The + fallen monarch's skull was, by the victor's orders, mounted in gold + and fashioned into a cup. Long years after, amid the revelry of a + drinking bout, Alboin had the ghastly cup filled with wine, and bade + his wife bear it around to his chosen warriors. The queen obeyed, but + vowed to revenge <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg + 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + herself by her husband's death. By the sacrifice of her honour she + bribed Alboin's armour-bearer to slay his master in his bed, and then + fled with him to Constantinople [<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + 573].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the death of + Alboin did not put an end to the Lombard conquests in Italy. The + kingdom, indeed, broke up for a time into several independent + duchies, but the Lombard chiefs continued to win territory from the + empire. Two of them founded the considerable duchies of Spoleto and + Benevento, the one in Central, and the other in Southern Italy. These + states survived as independent powers, but the rest of the Lombard + territories were reunited by King Autharis, in 584, and he and his + immediate successors completed the conquest of Northern Italy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, during the + reigns of Justin, Tiberius II., and Maurice, the greater part of + Justinian's Italian conquests were lost, and formed once more into + Teutonic states. The emperor retained only two large stretches of + territory, the one in Central Italy, where he held a broad belt of + land, extending right across the peninsula, from Ravenna and Ancona + on the Adriatic, to Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea; the other + comprehending the extreme south of the land—the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“toe”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“heel”</span> of + the Italian boot—and comprising the territory of Bruttium and the + Calabrian<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href= + "#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> towns of + Taranto, Brindisi, and Otranto. Sardinia and Sicily were also left + untouched by the Lombards, who never succeeded in building a fleet. + The Roman territory which stretched across Central Italy cut the + Lombards <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg + 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + two, the king ruling the main body of them in Tuscany and the valley + of the Po; while the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento maintained an + isolated existence in the south.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-17.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Cross Of Justinus II. (From the Vatican.) (From "L'Art Byzantin," Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Cross Of Justinus II. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From the + Vatican.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin," Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name= + "Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This partition of + Italy between the Lombards and the empire is worth remembering, from + the fact that never again, till our own day, was the whole peninsula + gathered into a single state. Not till 1870, when the kingdom of + United Italy was completed by the conquest of Rome, did a time come + when all the lands between the Alps and the Straits of Messina were + governed by one ruler. Justinian had no successor till Victor + Emmanuel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the Lombard + conquest the imperial dominions in Italy were administered by a + governor, called the Exarch, who dwelt at Ravenna, the northernmost + and strongest of the imperial fortresses. All the Italian provinces + were nominally beneath his control, but, as a matter of fact, he was + only treated with implicit obedience by those of his subordinates who + dwelt in his own neighbourhood. He found it harder to enforce his + orders at Naples and Reggio, or in the distant islands of Sicily and + Sardinia. But it was the bishops of Rome who profited most by his + absence: although a <span class="tei tei-q">“duke,”</span> a military + officer of some importance, dwelt at Rome, he was from the first + overshadowed by his spiritual neighbour. Even during the days of the + Ostrogoths the Roman bishops had acquired considerable importance, as + being the chief official representatives of the Italians in dealings + with their Teutonic masters. But they spoke with much more freedom + and weight when they had to do, not with a King of Italy dwelling + quite near them, but with a mere governor fettered by orders from + distant Constantinople. Gregory the Great [590-604] was the first of + the popes who began to assume an independent attitude <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and to treat the Exarch at Ravenna with + scant ceremony. He was an able and energetic man, who could not bear + to see Rome suffering for want of a ruler on the spot, and readily + took upon himself civil functions, in spite of the protests of his + nominal superior the Exarch. In 592, for example, he made a private + truce for Rome with the Lombard Duke of Spoleto, though the latter + was at war with the empire. The Emperor Maurice stormed at him as + foolish and disobedient, but did not venture to depose him, being too + much troubled with Persian and Avaric wars to send troops against + Rome. On another occasion Gregory nominated a governor for Naples, + instead of leaving the appointment to the Exarch. In 599 he acted as + mediator between the Lombard king and the government at Ravenna, as + if he had been a neutral and independent sovereign. Although he + showed no wish to sever his connection with the Roman Empire, Gregory + behaved as if he considered the emperor his suzerain rather than his + immediate ruler. He would never give in on disputed points, issued + orders which contradicted imperial rescripts, and maintained a bitter + quarrel with successive patriarchs of Constantinople, who possessed + the favour of Maurice. When the patriarch John the Faster took the + title of <span class="tei tei-q">“œcumenical bishop,”</span> Gregory + wrote to Maurice to tell him that the presumption of John was a sure + sign that the days of Antichrist were at hand, and to urge him to + repress such pretensions by the force of the civil arm. This is one + of the first signs of the approach of that mediæval view of the + papacy which imagined that it was the pontiff's duty to censure and + advise kings <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg + 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + emperors on all possible topics and occasions. Gregory's immediate + successors were not men of mark, or a breach with the empire might + have been precipitated. The final disavowal of the supremacy of the + Constantinopolitan monarch was to be still delayed for nearly two + hundred years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wars between + the Exarchs of Ravenna and the Lombard kings were little influenced + by interference from the East. The emperors during the last thirty + years of the sixth century were far more engrossed with their Persian + and Slavonic wars. Contests with the Great king of the East occupied + no less than twenty years in the reigns of Justin II., Tiberius, and + Maurice. War was declared in 572, and did not cease till 592. Like + the struggle between Justinian and Chosroës I., thirty years before, + it was wholly indecisive. There were more plundering raids than + battles, and the frontier provinces of each empire were reduced to a + dreadful state of desolation and depopulation: if the Persians pushed + their ravages as far as the gates of Antioch, Roman generals + penetrated deep into Media and Corduene, where the imperial banner + had not been seen for two hundred years. The net result of the whole + twenty years of strife was that each combatant had seriously weakened + and distressed his rival, without obtaining any definite superiority + over him. Forced to make peace by the pressure of a civil war, + Chosroës II. gave back to Maurice the two frontier cities of Dara and + Martyropolis, the sole trophies of twenty campaigns, and ceded him a + slice of Armenian territory. But these trivial gains were far from + compensating the empire <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg + 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for + the fearful losses caused by dozens of Persian invasions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Persian war + was exhausting, but successful: on the northern frontier, however, + the Roman army had been faring far worse, and serious losses of + territory were beginning to take place. The enemies in this quarter + were two new tribes, who appeared on the Danube after the Lombards + had departed from it to commence their invasion of Italy. There were + now no Teutons left on the northern frontier of the empire: of the + incoming tribes, one was Tartar and the other Slavonic. The Avars + were a nomadic race from Asia, wild horsemen of the Steppes, much + like their predecessors the Huns. They had fled west to escape the + Turks, who were at this time building up an empire in Central Asia, + and betook themselves to the South Russian plains, not far from the + mouth of the Danube. To cross the river and ravage Moesia was too + tempting a prospect to be neglected, and ere long the Avaric cavalry + were seen only too frequently along the Balkans and on the coast of + the Black Sea. Their first raid into Roman territory fell into the + year 562, just before the death of Justinian, and from that time + forward they were always causing trouble. They were ready enough to + make peace when money was paid them, but as they invariably broke the + agreement when the money was spent, it was never long before they + reappeared south of the Danube.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Slavs were + a far more serious danger to the empire than the Avars. The latter + came only to plunder, the former—like the Germans two centuries + before—came pressing into the provinces to win themselves + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" + id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a new home. The Romans knew at + first of only two tribes of them, the Slovenes and Antae, but behind + these there were others who were gradually to push their way to the + south and make their presence known—Croats, Servians, and many more. + The Slavs were the easternmost of the Aryan peoples of Europe, and by + far the most backward. They had always lain behind the Germans, and + it was only when the German barrier was removed by the migration of + the Goths and Lombards that they came into touch with the empire. + They were rude races, far behind the Teutons in civilization; they + had hardly learnt as yet the simplest arts, knew nothing of defensive + armour, and could only use for boats tree-trunks hollowed out by + fire—like the Australian savages of to-day. They had not learnt to + live under kings or chiefs, but dwelt in village communities, + governed by the patriarchs of the several families. Their abodes were + mud huts, and they cultivated no grain but millet. When they went to + war they could send out thousands of spearmen and bowmen, but their + wild bands were not very formidable in the open field. They could + resist neither cavalry nor disciplined infantry, and were only + formidable in woods and defiles, where they formed ambuscades and + endeavoured to take their enemy by surprise, and overwhelm him by a + sudden rush. We are assured that one of their favourite devices was + to conceal themselves in ponds or rivers by lying down in the water + for hours together, breathing through reeds, whose points were the + only things visible above the surface. Thus a thousand men might be + concealed, and nothing appear except <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> a bed of rushes. This strange stratagem would + seem incredible, if we had not on record one or two occasions on + which it was actually practised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Slavs had + begun to make themselves felt early in the sixth century, but it was + not till the death of Justinian that we hear of them as a pressing + danger. But when the Lombards had passed away westward, they came + down to the Danube and began to cross it in great numbers, in the + endeavour to make permanent settlements on the Roman bank. The raids + of the Slavs and the Avars were curiously complicated, for the king, + or Chagan, of the Tartar tribe had made vassals of many of his + Slavonic neighbours. They, on the other hand, sometimes acted in + obedience to him, but more frequently tried to escape from his power + by pushing forward into Roman territory. Hence it comes that we often + find Slav and Avar leagued together, but at other times find them + acting separately, or even in opposition to each other. A more + chaotic series of campaigns it is hard to conceive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Down to this time + the inland of the Balkan peninsula had been inhabited by Thracian and + Illyrian provincials, of whom the majority spoke the Latin tongue, + though a few still preserved their ancient barbaric idiom.<a id= + "noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> They + formed the only large body of subjects of the empire outside Italy, + who still spoke the old ruling language, and as they were about a + quarter of its population, they did much to preserve its Roman + character, and to prevent it from becoming <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Greek or Asiatic. Their pride in their Latin + tongue was very marked: Justinian, born in the heart of the district, + was fond of laying special stress on the fact that Latin was his + native language.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this Latinized + Thraco-Illyrian population the invasion of the Slavs and Avars fell + with unexampled severity. The Goths had afflicted them before, but + they, at least, had been Christian and semi-civilized, while the + new-comers were in the lowest grade of savagery. It is not too much + to say that between 570 and 600 the old population was almost + exterminated over the greater part of the country north of the + Balkans—the modern Servia and Bulgaria—and very sadly cut down even + in the more sheltered Macedonian and Thracian provinces. The + Latin-speaking provincials almost disappeared: the only remnants of + them were the Dalmatian islanders and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Vlachs”</span> or Wallachians who are found in later + times scattered in small bodies among the Slavs who had swept over + the whole country-side. The effect of the invasion is well described + by the contemporary chronicler, John of Ephesus—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The year 581 was famous for the invasion of the accursed + people called Slavonians, who overran Greece and the country by + Thessalonica, and all Thrace, and captured the cities and took many + forts, and devastated and burnt, and reduced the people to slavery, + and made themselves masters of the whole country, and settled in it, + by main force, and dwelt in it as though it had been their own. Four + years have now elapsed, and still they live at their ease in the + land, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name= + "Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and spread themselves + far and wide, as far as God permits them, and ravage and burn and + take captive, and still they encamp and dwell there.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The open country + was swept bare by the Slavs: the towns resisted better, for neither + Slav nor Avar was skilled in siege operations. Relying upon the + fortified towns as his base the great general Priscus, whom Maurice + placed in command, was able to keep his ground along the Danube, and + to perform many gallant exploits. He even crossed the river and + attacked the Slavs and Avars in their own homes beyond it; but it was + to no effect that he burnt their villages and slew off their + warriors. He could not protect the unarmed population in the open + country within the Roman boundary, and the girdle of fortresses along + the Danube soon covered nothing but a wasted region, sparsely + inhabited by Slavs. The limit of Roman population had fallen back to + the line of the Balkans, and even to the south of it, and the Slavs + were ever slipping across the Danube in larger and larger numbers, + despite the garrisons along the river which were still kept up from + Singidunum [Belgrade] to Dorostolum [Silistria].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The misfortunes of + the Avaric and Slavonic war were the cause of the fall of the Emperor + Maurice. He had won some unpopularity by his manifest inability to + stem the tide of the barbarian invasion, and more by an act of + callousness, of which he was guilty in 599. The Chagan of the Avars + had captured 15,000 prisoners, and offered to release them for a + large ransom. Maurice—whose treasury was empty—refused to comply, and + the Chagan massacred the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg + 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + wretched captives. But the immediate cause of the emperor's fall was + his way of dealing with the army. He was unpopular with the soldiery, + though an old soldier himself, and did not possess their respect or + confidence. Yet he was an officer of some merit and had written a + long military treatise called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Strategicon,”</span> which was the official handbook of + the imperial armies for three hundred years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maurice sealed his + fate when, in 602, he issued orders for the discontented army of the + Danube to winter north of the river, in the waste marshes of the + Slavs. The troops refused to obey the order, and chased away their + generals. Then electing as their captain an obscure centurion, named + Phocas, they marched on Constantinople.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Maurice armed the + city factions, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Blues”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“Greens,”</span> and strove to defend + himself. But when he saw that no one would fight for him, he fled + across the Bosphorus with his wife and children, to seek refuge in + the Asiatic provinces, where he was less unpopular than in Europe. + Soon he was pursued by orders of Phocas, whom the army had now + saluted as emperor, and caught at Chalcedon. The cruel usurper had + him executed along with all his five sons, the youngest a child of + only three years of age. Maurice died with a courage and piety that + moved even his enemies, exclaiming with his last breath, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou art just, O Lord, and just are thy + judgments!”</span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name= + "Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">X. The Darkest Hour.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the first time + since Constantinople had become the seat of empire the throne had + been won by armed rebellion and the murder of the legitimate ruler. + The break in the peaceful and orderly succession which had hitherto + prevailed was not only an evil precedent, but an immediate disaster. + The new emperor proved a far worse governor than the unfortunate + Maurice, who, in spite of his faults and his ill luck, had always + been hard-working, moderate, pious, and economical. Phocas was a mere + brutal soldier—cruel, ignorant, suspicious, and reckless, and in his + incapable hands the empire began to fall to pieces with alarming + rapidity. He opened his reign with a series of cruel executions of + his predecessor's friends, and from that moment his deeds of + bloodshed never ceased: probably the worst of them was the execution + of Constantina, widow of Maurice and daughter of Tiberius II., whom + he slew together with her three young daughters, lest their names + might be used as the excuse for a conspiracy against him. But even + greater horror seems to have been caused when <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he burnt alive the able general + Narses,<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> who had + won many laurels in the last Persian war. Narses had come up to the + capital under safe conduct to clear himself from accusations of + treason: so the Emperor not only devised a punishment which had never + yet been heard of since the empire became Christian, but broke his + own plighted oath.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moment that + Phocas had mounted the throne, Chosroës of Persia declared war on + him, using the hypocritical pretext that he wished to revenge + Maurice, for whom he professed a warm personal friendship. This war + was far different from the indecisive contests in the reigns of + Justinian and Justin II. In two successive years the Persians burst + into North Syria and ravaged it as far as the sea; but in the third + they turned north and swept over the hitherto untouched provinces of + Asia Minor. In 608 their main army penetrated across Cappadocia and + Galatia right up to the gates of Chalcedon. The inhabitants of + Constantinople could see the blazing villages across the water on the + Asiatic shore—a sight as new as it was terrifying; for although + Thrace had several times been harried to within sight of the city, no + enemy had ever been seen in Bithynia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Plot after plot + was formed in the capital against Phocas, but he succeeded in putting + them all down, and slew the conspirators with fearful tortures. For + eight years his reign continued: Constantinople was full of + executions; Asia was ravaged from sea to sea; the Thracian and + Illyrian provinces were overrun more and more by the Slavs, now that + the army <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg + 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + Europe had been transferred across the Bosphorus to make head against + the Persians. Yet Phocas still held on to Constantinople: the + creature of a military revolt himself, it was by a military revolt + alone that he was destined to be overthrown.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Africa was the + only portion of the Roman Empire which in the reign of Phocas was + suffering neither from civil strife nor foreign invasion. It was well + governed by the aged exarch Heraclius, who was so well liked in the + province that the emperor had not dared to depose him. Urged by + desperate entreaties from all parties in Constantinople to strike a + blow against the tyrant, and deliver the empire from the yoke of a + monster, Heraclius at last consented. He quietly got ready a fleet, + which he placed under the orders of his son, who bore the same name + as himself. This he despatched against Constantinople, while at the + same time his nephew Nicetas led a large body of horse along the + African shore to invade Egypt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Heraclius the + younger arrived with his fleet at the Dardanelles, all the prominent + citizens of Constantinople fled secretly to take refuge with him. As + he neared the capital the troops of Phocas burst into mutiny: the + tyrant's fleet was scattered after a slight engagement, and the city + threw open its gates. Phocas was seized in the palace by an official + whom he had cruelly wronged, and brought aboard the galley of the + conqueror. <span class="tei tei-q">“Is it thus,”</span> said + Heraclius, <span class="tei tei-q">“that you have governed the + empire?”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Will you govern it any + better?”</span> sneered the desperate usurper. Heraclius spurned him + away with his foot, and the sailors hewed him to pieces on the + deck.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg + 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next day the + patriarch and the senate hailed Heraclius as emperor, and he was duly + crowned in St. Sophia on October 5, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 610.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius took + over the empire in such a state of disorder and confusion that he + must soon have felt that there was some truth in the dying sneer of + Phocas. It seemed almost impossible to get things into better order, + for resources were wanting. Save Africa and Egypt and the district + immediately around the capital, all the provinces were overrun by the + Persian, the Avar, and the Slav. The treasury was empty, and the army + had almost disappeared owing to repeated and bloody defeats in Asia + Minor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius seems at + first to have almost despaired of the possibility of evolving order + out of this chaos, though he was in the prime of life and + strength—<span class="tei tei-q">“a man of middle stature, strongly + built, and broad-chested, with grey eyes and yellow hair, and of a + very fair complexion; he wore a bushy beard when he came to the + throne, but afterwards cut it short.”</span> For the first twelve + years of his reign he remained at Constantinople, endeavouring to + reorganize the empire, and to defend at any rate the frontiers of + Thrace and Asia Minor. The more distant provinces he hardly seems to + have hoped to save, and the chronicle of his early years is filled + with the catalogue of the losses of the empire. Mesopotamia and North + Syria had already been lost by Phocas, but in 613, while the imperial + armies were endeavouring to defend Cappadocia, the Persian general + Shahrbarz turned southwards and attacked Central Syria. The great + town of Damascus fell into his hands; but worse <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was to come. In 614 the Persian army + appeared before the holy city of Jerusalem, took it after a short + resistance, and occupied it with a garrison. But the populace rose + and slaughtered the Persian troops when Shahrbarz had departed with + his main army. This brought him back in wrath: he stormed the city + and put 90,000 Christians to the sword, only sparing the Jewish + inhabitants. Zacharias, Patriarch of Jerusalem, was carried into + captivity, and with him went what all Christians then regarded as the + most precious thing in the world—the wood of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“True Cross.”</span> Helena, the mother of Constantine, + had dug the relic up, according to the well-known legend, on Mount + Moriah, and built for it a splendid shrine. Now Shahrbarz desecrated + the church and took off the <span class="tei tei-q">“True + Cross”</span> to Persia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This loss brought + the inhabitants of the East almost to despair; they thought that the + luck of the empire had departed with the Holy Wood, which had served + as its Palladium, and even imagined that the Last Day was at hand and + that Chosroës of Persia was Antichrist. The mad language of pride and + insult which the Persian in the day of his triumph used to Heraclius + might also explain their belief. His blasphemous phrases seem like an + echo of the letter of Sennacherib in the Second Book of Kings. The + epistle ran:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chosroës, greatest of gods, and master of the whole + earth, to Heraclius, his vile and insensate slave. Have I not + destroyed the Greeks? You say you trust in your God: why, then, has + he not delivered out of my hand Caesarea, Jerusalem, and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Alexandria? Shall I not also destroy + Constantinople? But I will pardon all your sins if you will come to + me with your wife and children; I will give you lands, vines, and + olive groves, and will look upon you with a kindly aspect. Do not + deceive yourself with the vain hope in that Christ, who was not even + able to save himself from the Jews, who slew him by nailing him to a + cross.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The horror and + rage roused by the loss of the <span class="tei tei-q">“True + Cross”</span> and the blasphemies of King Chosroës brought about the + first real outburst of national feeling that we meet in the history + of the Eastern Empire. It was felt that the fate of Christendom hung + in the balance, and that all, from highest to lowest, were bound to + make one great effort to beat back the fire-worshipping Persians from + Palestine, and recover the Holy Places. The Emperor vowed that he + would take the field at the head of the army—a thing most + unprecedented, for since the death of Theodosius I., in 395, no + Caesar had ever gone out in person to war. The Church came forward in + the most noble way—at the instance of the Patriarch Sergius all the + churches of Constantinople sent their treasures and ornaments to the + mint to be coined down, and serve as a great loan to the state, which + was to be repaid when the Persians should have been conquered. The + free dole of corn which the inhabitants of the capital had been + receiving ever since the days of Constantine was abolished, and the + populace bore the privation without demur. It was indeed observed + that this measure not only saved the treasury, but drove into the + army—where <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg + 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + they were useful—thousands of the able-bodied loiterers who were the + strength of the circus factions and the pest of the city. If the dole + had been continued Heraclius could not have found a penny for the + war. Egypt, the granary of the empire, had been lost in 616, and the + supply of government corn entirely cut off, so that the dole would + have had to be provided by the treasury buying corn, a ruinously + expensive task.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the aid of the + Church loan Heraclius equipped a new army and strengthened his fleet. + He also provided for the garrisoning of Constantinople by an adequate + force, a most necessary precaution, for in 617 the Persians had again + forced their way to the Bosphorus, and this time captured Chalcedon. + Heraclius would probably have taken the field next year but for + troubles with the Avars. That wild race had long been working their + wicked will on the almost undefended Thracian provinces, but now they + promised peace. Heraclius went out, at the Chagan's pressing + invitation, to meet him near Heraclea. But the conference was a + snare, for the treacherous savage had planted ambushes on the way to + secure the person of the Emperor, and Heraclius only escaped by the + speed of his horse. He cast off his imperial mantle to ride the + faster, and galloped into the capital just in time to close its gates + as the vanguard of the Chagan's army came in sight. The Avars kept + the Emperor engaged for some time, and it was not till 622 that he + was able to take the field against the Persians.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This expedition of + Heraclius was in spirit the first <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the Crusades. It was the first war that the + Roman Empire had ever undertaken in a spirit of religious enthusiasm, + for it was to no mere political end that the Emperor and his people + looked forward. The army marched out to save Christendom, to conquer + the Holy Places, and to recover the <span class="tei tei-q">“True + Cross.”</span> The men were wrought up to a high pitch of enthusiasm + by warlike sermons, and the Emperor carried with him, to stimulate + his zeal, a holy picture—one of those <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">eikons</span></span> in which the Greek Church + has always delighted—which was believed to be the work of no mortal + hands.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius made no + less than six campaigns (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 622-27) in his gallant + and successful attempt to save the half-ruined empire. He won great + and well-deserved fame, and his name would be reckoned among the + foremost of the world's warrior-kings if it had not been for the + misfortunes which afterwards fell on him in his old age.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His first campaign + cleared Asia Minor of the Persian hosts, not by a direct attack, but + by skilful strategy. Instead of attacking the army at Chalcedon, he + took ship and landed in Cilicia, in the rear of the enemy, + threatening in this position both Syria and Cappadocia. As he + expected, the Persians broke up from their camp opposite + Constantinople, and came back to fall upon him. But after much + manœuvring he completely beat the general Shahrbarz, and cleared Asia + Minor of the enemy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his next + campaigns Heraclius endeavoured to liberate the rest of the Roman + Empire by a similar plan: he resolved to assail Chosroës at home, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" + id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> force him to recall the armies + he kept in Syria and Egypt to defend his own Persian provinces. In + 623-4 the Emperor advanced across the Armenian mountains and threw + himself into Media, where his army revenged the woes of Antioch and + Jerusalem by burning the fire-temples of Ganzaca—the Median + capital—and Thebarmes, the birthplace of the Persian prophet + Zoroaster. Chosroës, as might have been expected, recalled his troops + from the west, and fought two desperate battles to cover Ctesiphon. + His generals were defeated in both, but the Roman army suffered + severely. Winter was at hand, and Heraclius fell back on Armenia. In + his next campaign he recovered Roman Mesopotamia, with its fortresses + of Amida, Dara, and Martyropolis, and again defeated the general + Shahrbarz.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But 626 was the + decisive year of the war. The obstinate Chosroës determined on one + final effort to crush Heraclius, by concerting a joint plan of + operations with the Chagan of the Avars. While the main Persian army + watched the emperor in Armenia, a great body under Shahrbarz slipped + south of him into Asia Minor and marched on the Bosphorus. At the + same moment the Chagan of the Avars, with the whole force of his + tribe and of his Slavonic dependants, burst over the Balkans and + beset Constantinople on the European side. The two barbarian hosts + could see each other across the water, and even contrived to exchange + messages, but the Roman fleet sailing incessantly up and down the + strait kept them from joining forces.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the June, July, + and August of 626 the capital <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was thus beset: the danger appeared imminent, + and the Emperor was far away on the Euphrates. But the garrison was + strong, the patrician Bonus, its commander, was an able officer, the + fleet was efficient, and the same crusading fervour which had + inspired the Constantinopolitans in 622 still buoyed up their + spirits. In the end of July 80,000 Avars and Slavs, with all sorts of + siege implements, delivered simultaneous assaults along the land + front of the city, but they were beaten back with great slaughter. + Next the Chagan built himself rafts and tried to bring the Persians + across, but the Roman galleys sunk the clumsy structures, and slew + thousands of the Slavs who had come off in small boats to attack the + fleet. Then the Chagan gave up the siege in disgust and retired + across the Danube.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius had + shown great confidence in the strength of Constantinople and the + courage of its defenders. He sent a few veteran troops to aid the + garrison, but did not slacken from his attack on Persia. While + Shahrbarz and the Chagan were besieging his capital, he himself was + wasting Media and Mesopotamia. He imitated King Chosroës in calling + in Tartar allies from the north, and revenged the ravages of the + Avars in Thrace by turning 40,000 Khazar horsemen loose on Northern + Persia. The enemy gave way before him everywhere, and the Persians + began to grow desperate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next year King + Chosroës put into the field the last levy of Persia, under a general + named Rhazates, whom he bid to go out and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“conquer or die.”</span> At the same time he wrote to + command Shahrbarz to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg + 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + evacuate Chalcedon and return home in haste. But Heraclius + intercepted the despatch of recall, and Shahrbarz came not.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Near Nineveh + Heraclius fell in with the Persian home army and inflicted on it a + decisive defeat. He himself, charging at the head of his cavalry, + rode down the general of the enemy and slew him with his lance. + Chosroës could put no new army in the field, and by Christmas + Heraclius had seized his palace of Dastagerd, and divided among his + troops such a plunder as had never been seen since Alexander the + Great captured Susa.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Nemesis of + Chosroës' insane vanity had now arrived. Ten years after he had + written his vaunting letter to Heraclius he found himself in far + worse plight than his adversary had ever been. After Dastagerd had + fallen he retired to Ctesiphon, the capital of his empire, but even + from thence he had to flee on the approach of the enemy. Then the end + came: his own son Siroes and his chief nobles seized him and threw + him in chains, and a few days after he died—of rage and despair + according to one story, of starvation if the darker tale is true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new king sent + the humblest messages to the victorious Roman, hailing him as his + <span class="tei tei-q">“father,”</span> and apologizing for all the + woes that the ambition of Chosroës had brought upon the world. + Heraclius received his ambassadors with kindness, and granted peace, + on the condition that every inch of Roman territory should be + evacuated, all Roman captives freed, a war indemnity paid, and the + spoils of Jerusalem, including the <span class="tei tei-q">“True + Cross,”</span> faithfully restored. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Siroes consented with alacrity, and in March, + 628, a glorious peace ended the twenty-six years of the Persian + war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius returned + to Constantinople in the summer of the same year with his spoils, his + victorious army, and his great trophy, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Holy Wood.”</span> His entry was celebrated in the style + of an old Roman triumph, and the Senate conferred on him the title of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“New Scipio.”</span> The whole of the + citizens, bearing myrtle boughs, came out to meet the army, and the + ceremony concluded with the exhibition of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“True Cross”</span> before the high altar of St. Sophia. + Heraclius afterwards took it back in great pomp to Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was, perhaps, + the greatest triumph that any emperor ever won. Heraclius had + surpassed the eastern achievements of Trajan and Severus, and led his + troops further east than any Roman general had ever penetrated. His + task, too, had been the hardest ever imposed on an emperor; none of + his predecessors had ever started to war with his very capital + beleaguered and with three-fourths of his provinces in the hands of + the enemy. Since Julius Caesar no one had fought so incessantly—for + six years the emperor had not been out of the saddle—nor met with + such uniform success.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius returned + to Constantinople to spend, as he hoped, the rest of his years in + peace. He had now reached the age of fifty-four, and was much worn by + his incessant campaigning. But the quiet for which he yearned was to + be denied him, and the end of his reign was to be almost as + disastrous as the commencement.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great Saracen + invasion was at hand, and it was at the very moment of Heraclius' + triumph that Mahomet sent out his famous circular letter to the kings + of the earth, inviting them to embrace Islam. If the Emperor could + but have known that his desolated realm, spoiled for ten long years + by the Persian and the Avar, and drained of men and money, was to be + invaded by a new enemy far more terrible than the old, he would have + prayed that the day of his triumph might also be the day of his + death.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name= + "Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XI. Social And Religious Life. + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">320-620.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reign of + Heraclius forms the best dividing point in the history of the empire + between what may roughly be called Ancient History and the Middle + Ages. There is no break at all between Constantine and Heraclius, + though the area, character, social life, and religion of the empire + had been greatly modified in the three hundred years that separated + them. The new order of things, which commenced when Constantine + established his capital on the Bosphorus, had a peaceable and orderly + development. The first prominent fact that strikes the eye in the + history of the three centuries is that the sceptre passed from + sovereign to sovereign in quiet and undisturbed devolution. From the + death of Valens onward there is no instance of a military usurper + breaking the line of succession till the crowning of Phocas in 602. + The emperors were either designated by their predecessors or—less + frequently—chosen by the high officials and the senate. The + regularity of their sequence is all <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the more astonishing when we realize that only + in three cases in the whole period was father succeeded by son. + Saving Constantine himself, Theodosius I., and Arcadius, not a single + emperor left male issue; yet the hereditary instinct had grown so + strong in the empire that nephews, sons-in-law, and brothers-in-law + of sovereigns were gladly received as their legitimate heirs. + Considering this tendency, it is extraordinary to note that the whole + three hundred years did not produce a single unmitigated tyrant. + Constantius II. was gloomy and sometimes cruel, Valens was stupid and + avaricious, Arcadius utterly weak and inept, Justinian hard and + thankless; but the general average of the emperors were men of + respectable ability, and in moral character they will compare + favourably with any list of sovereigns of similar length that any + country can produce.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief + modifications which must be marked in the character of the empire + between 320 and 620 depend on two processes of gradual change which + were going on throughout the three centuries. The first was the + gradual de-Romanization (if we may coin the uncouth word) alike of + the governing classes and the masses of population. In the fourth + century the Roman impress was still strong in the East; the Latin + language was habitually spoken by every educated man, and nearly all + the machinery of the administration was worked in Latin phraseology. + All law terms are habitually Latin, all titles of officers, all names + of taxes and institutions. Writers born and bred in Greece or Asia + still wrote in Latin <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg + 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + often as in the Greek which must have been more familiar to them. + Ammianus Marcellinus may serve as a fair example: born in Greece, he + wrote in the tongue of the ruling race rather than in his own idiom. + Moreover there was still in the lands east of the Adriatic a very + large body of Latin-speaking population—comprising all the + inhabitants of the inland of the Balkan peninsula, for, except Greece + proper, Macedonia, and a scattered line of cities along the Thracian + coast, the whole land had learnt to speak the tongue of its + conquerors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the seventh + century this Roman element was rapidly vanishing. It is true that the + Emperor was still hailed as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Pius, Felix, + Perpetuus, Augustus”</span>: it was not till about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 800 that he dropped the + old style and called himself <span class="tei tei-q">“Ἐν Χριστῷ + πιστὸς βασιλεὺς τῶν Ῥωμαίων.”</span> Nor were the old Roman official + titles yet disused: men were still tribunes and patricians, counts + and praetors, but little more than the names survived. Already in the + sixth century a knowledge of Latin was growing unusual even among + educated men. The author Johannes Lydus tells us that he owed his + rise in the civil service mainly to this rare accomplishment. + Procopius, the best writer of the day and a man of real merit and + discernment, was absolutely ignorant of the rudiments of Latin, and + blunders when he tries to translate the simplest phrase. Justinian + was the last emperor who spoke Latin as his mother tongue, all his + successors were better skilled in Greek.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The gradual disuse + of Latin has its origin in the practical—though not formal—solution + of the continuity <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg + 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + between Rome and the East, which began with the division of the + empire between the sons of Constantine and became more complete after + Odoacer made himself King of Italy in 476. In the course of a century + and a half the Latin element in the East, cut off from the + Latin-speaking West, was bound to yield before the predominant Greek. + But the process would have been slower if the Eastern provinces which + spoke Latin had not been those which suffered most from the + barbarians. The Visigoths and Ostrogoths harassed and decimated the + Thracians, Illyrians, and Moesians, but the Slavs a century later + almost exterminated them. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 400 probably a quarter + of the provincials east of the Adriatic spoke Latin; in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 620 not a tenth. The + Romanized lands of the Balkan peninsula had now become Slavonic + principalities: only the Dalmatian seaports and a few scattered + survivors in the Balkans still used the old tongue. The only + districts where a considerable Latin-speaking population obeyed the + Emperor were Africa and the Italian Exarchate, now reunited to + Constantinople by the conquests of Justinian. But they seem to have + been too remote from the centre of life and government to have + exercised any influence or delayed the de-Romanizing of the East. The + last notable author, who being a subject of the empire wrote in Latin + as his native tongue, was the poet Flavius Corippus who addressed a + long panegyric to Justinus II.: as might have been expected, he was + an African.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the empire + was losing its Roman characteristics, it was at the same time growing + more and more <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg + 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Christian at heart. Under Constantine and his immediate successors + the machinery of government was only just beginning to be effected by + the change of the emperor's religion. Though the sovereign personally + was Christian, the system remained what it had been before. Many of + the high officials were still pagans, and the form and spirit of all + administrative and legal business was unaltered from what it had been + in the third century. It is not till forty years after Constantine's + death that we find the Christian spirit fully penetrating out of the + spiritual into the material sphere of life. Attempts by the State to + suppress moral sin no less than legal crime begin with Theodosius I., + whose crusade against sexual immorality would have been + incomprehensible to even the best of the pagan emperors. The old + gladiatorial shows, one of the most characteristic and repulsive + features of Roman life, were abolished not long after. They survived + for sixty years at Rome, though Christian Constantinople never knew + them. But this was not the work of the State, but of a single + individual. One day in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 404 the games had + begun, and the gladiators were about to engage, when the monk + Telemachus leapt down into the arena and threw himself between the + combatants, adjuring them not to slay their brethren. There was an + angry scuffle, and the good monk was slain. But his death had the + effect that his protests might have failed to bring about, and no + gladiatorial show was ever given again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-18.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "General View Of St. Sophia. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + General View Of St. Sophia. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In other provinces + of social life the work of Christianity was no less marked. It put an + end to the detestable practice of infanticide which pervaded + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" + id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the ancient world, resting on + the assumption that the father had the right to decide whether or not + he would rear the child he had begotten. Constantine made the State + assume the charge of feeding and rearing the children of the + destitute, lest their parents should be tempted to cast them forth to + perish in the old fashion, and Valentinian I. in 374 assimilated + infanticide to other forms of murder, and made it a capital + offence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Slavery was also + profoundly affected by the teaching of the Church. The ancient world, + save a few philosophers, had regarded the slave with such contempt + that he was hardly reckoned a moral being or conceived to have rights + or virtues. Christianity taught that he was a man with an immortal + soul, no less than his own master, and bade slaves and freemen meet + on terms of perfect equality around the baptismal font and before the + sacred table. It was from the first taught that the man who + manumitted his slaves earned the approval of heaven, and all + occasions of rejoicing, public and private, were fitly commemorated + by the liberation of deserving individuals. Though slavery was not + extinguished for centuries, its evils were immensely modified; + Justinian's legislation shows that by his time public opinion had + condemned the characteristic evils of ancient slavery: he permitted + the intermarriage of slaves and free persons, stipulating only for + the consent of the owner of the servile partner in the wedlock. He + declared the children of such mixed marriages free, and he made the + prostitution of a slave by a master a criminal offence. Hereditary + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" + id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> slavery became almost unknown, + and the institution was only kept up by the introduction of barbarian + captives, heathens and enemies, whose position did not appeal so + keenly to the mind of their captors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The improvement of + the condition of all the unhappy classes of which we have been + speaking—women, infants, slaves, gladiators—can be directly traced + back to a single fundamental Christian truth. It was the belief in + the importance of the individual human soul in the eyes of God that + led the converted Roman to realize his responsibility, and change his + attitude towards the helpless beings whom he had before despised and + neglected. It is only fair to add that the realization of this + central truth did not always operate for good in the Roman world of + the fifth and sixth centuries. Some of the developments of the new + idea were harmful and even dangerous to the State. They took the form + of laying such exclusive stress on the relations between the + individual soul and heaven, that the duties of man to the State were + half forgotten. Chief among these developments was the ascetic + monasticism which, starting from Egypt, spread rapidly all over the + empire, more especially over its eastern provinces. When men retire + from their duties as citizens, intent on nothing but on saving their + own souls, take up a position outside the State, and cease to be of + the slightest use to society, the result may be harmless so long as + their numbers are small. But at this time the monastic impulse was + working on such a large scale that its development was positively + dangerous. It was by thousands and ten thousands that the men + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" + id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who ought to have been bearing + the burdens of the State, stepped aside into the monastery or the + hermit's cave. The ascetics of the fifth century had neither of the + justifications which made monasticism precious in a later age, they + were neither missionaries nor men of learning. The monastery did not + devote itself either to sending out preachers and teachers, or to + storing up and cherishing the literary treasures of the ancient + world. The first abbot to whom it occurred to turn the vast leisure + of his monks to good account by setting them systematically to work + at copying manuscripts was Cassiodorus, the ex-secretary to King + Theodoric the Goth [<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 530-40]. Before his + time monks and books had no special connection with each other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When a State + contains masses of men who devote their whole energies to a + repulsively selfish attempt to save their own individual souls, while + letting the world around them slide on as best it may, then the body + politic is diseased. The Roman Empire in its fight with the + barbarians was in no small degree hampered by this attitude of so + many of its subjects. The ascetic took the barbarian invasions as + judgments from heaven rightly inflicted upon a wicked world, and not + as national calamities which called on every citizen to join in the + attempt to repel them. Many men complacently interpreted the troubles + of the fifth century as the tribulations predicted in the Apocalypse, + and watched them develop with something like joy, since they must + portend the close approach of the Second Advent of our Lord.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This apathetic + attitude of many Christians during <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the afflictions of the empire was maddening to + the heathen minority which still survived among the educated classes. + They roundly accused Christianity of being the ruin of the State by + its anti-social teaching which led men to neglect every duty of the + citizen. The Christian author Orosius felt himself compelled to write + a lengthy history to confute this view, aiming his work at the pagan + Symmachus whose book had been devoted to tracing all the calamities + of the world to the conversion of Constantine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was fortunate + for the empire that its governing classes continued to preserve the + old traditions of Roman state-craft, and fought on doggedly against + all the ills of their time—barbarian invasion, famine, and + pestilence, instead of bowing to the yoke and recognizing in every + calamity the righteous judgment of heaven and the indication of the + approaching end of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paganism had + practically disappeared by the end of the fifth century as an active + force; none save a few philosophers made an open profession of it, + and in 529 Justinian put a formal end to their teaching, by closing + the schools of Athens, the last refuge of the professors of the + expiring religion. But if open heathenism was dead, a large measure + of indifferentism prevailed among the educated classes: many men who + in the fifth century would have been pagans were Christians in name + in the sixth, but little affected by Christianity in their lives. + This type was extremely common among the literary and official + classes. There are plenty of sixth-century authors—Procopius may + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" + id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> serve as an example—whose + works show no trace of Christian thought, though the writer was + undoubtedly a professing member of the Church. Similar examples could + be quoted by the dozen from among the administrators, lawyers, and + statesmen of the day, but all were now nominally Christian. As time + went on, such men grew rarer, and the old stern, non-religious Roman + character passed away into the emotional and superstitious mediæval + type of mind. The survival of pre-Christian feeling, which appeared + as indifferentism among the educated classes, took a very different + shape among the lower strata of society. It revealed itself in a + crowd of gross superstitions connected with magic, witchcraft, + fortune-telling, charms, and trivial or obscene ceremonies practised + in secret. The State highly disapproved of such practices, treated + them as impious or heretical, and imposed punishment on those who + employed them: but nevertheless these contemptible survivals of + heathenism persisted down to the latest days of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been usual + to include all the Eastern Romans of all the centuries between + Constantine I. and Constantine XIV. in one sweeping condemnation, as + cowardly, corrupt, and effete. The ordinary view of Byzantine life + may be summed up in Mr. Lecky's irritating statement<a id= + "noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the universal verdict of history is that it + constitutes the most base and despicable form that civilization ever + assumed, and that there has been no other enduring civilization so + absolutely destitute of all the forms and elements of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> greatness, none to which the epithet + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">mean</span></em> may be so emphatically applied. + It is a monstrous story of the intrigues of priests, eunuchs, and + women; of poisoning, conspiracies, uniform ingratitude, perpetual + fratricide.”</span> How Mr. Lecky obtained his universal verdict of + history, it is hard to see: certainly that verdict can not have been + arrived at after a study of the evidence bearing on the life of the + persons accused. It sounds like a cheap echo of the second-hand + historians of fifty years ago, whose staple commodity was + Gibbon-and-water.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-19.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Illuminated Initials. (From Byzantine MSS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Illuminated Initials. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + Byzantine MSS.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we must sum up + the characteristics of the East Romans and their civilization, the + conclusion at which we arrive will be very different. It is only fair + to acknowledge that they had their faults: what else could be + expected when we know that the foundations of the Eastern Empire were + laid upon the Oriental provinces of the old Roman world, among races + that had long been stigmatized by their masters as hopelessly effete + and corrupt—Syrians, Egyptians, and Hellenized Asiatics, whom even + the degenerate Romans of the third century had been wont to despise. + The Byzantine Empire displayed from its very cradle a taint of + weakness derived from this Oriental origin. It showed features + particularly obnoxious to the modern mind of the nineteenth + century—such as the practice of a degrading and grovelling court + etiquette, full of prostrations and genuflexions, the introduction of + eunuchs and slaves into high offices of State, the wholesale and + deliberate use of treachery and lying in matters of diplomacy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But remembering + its origins we shall, on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> whole, wonder at the good points in Byzantine + civilization rather than at its faults. It may fairly be said that + Christianity raised the Roman East to a better moral position than it + had known for a thousand years. With all their faults the monks and + hermits of the fifth century are a good substitute for the priests of + Cybele and Mithras of the second. It was something that the + Government and the public opinion of the day had concurred to sweep + away the orgies of Daphne and Canopus. Church and State united in the + reign of Justinian to punish with spiritual and bodily death the + unnatural crimes which had been the open practice of emperors + themselves in the first centuries of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vices of which + the East Romans have most commonly been accused are cowardice, + frivolity, and treachery. On each of these points they have been + grossly wronged. Cowardice was certainly not the chief characteristic + of the centuries that produced emperors like Theodosius I. and + Heraclius, prelates like Athanasius and Chrysostom, public servants + like Belisarius and Priscus. It is not for cowardice that we note the + Byzantine populace which routed Gainas and his mercenaries, and + raised the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">Nika</span></span> sedition, + but for turbulence. If military virtue was wanting to the East-Roman + armies, how came the Ostrogoth and Vandal to be conquered, the + Persian and the Hun to be driven off, how, above all, was the + desperate struggle against the fanatical Saracen protracted for four + hundred years, till at last the Caliphate broke up?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Frivolity and + luxury are an accusation easy to bring against any age. Every + moralist, from Jeremiah to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg + 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Juvenal, and from Juvenal to Mr. Ruskin, has believed his own + generation to be the most obnoxious and contemptible in the world's + history. We have numerous tirades against the manners of + Constantinople preserved in Byzantine literature, and may judge from + them something of the faults of the time. It would seem that there + was much of the sort of luxury to which ascetic preachers take + exception—much splendour of raiment, much ostentatious display of + plate and furniture, of horses and chariots. Luxury and evil living + often go together, but when we examine all the enormities laid to the + charge of the Byzantines, there is less alleged than we might expect. + When Chrysostom raged against the contemporaries of Arcadius, his + anathemas fell on such crimes as the use of cosmetics and dyes by + fashionable dames, on the gambling propensities of their husbands, on + the immoral tendencies of the theatre, on the drunken orgies at + popular festivals—accusations to which any age—our own included—might + plead guilty. The races of the Circus played a disproportionate part + in social life, and attracted the enthusiastic attention of thousands + of votaries; but it is surely hard that our own age, with all its + sporting and athletic interests, should cast a stone at the sixth + century. We have not to look far around us to discover classes for + whom horse-racing still presents an inexplicable attraction. When we + remember that the Constantinopolitans were excitable Orientals, and + had no other form of sport to distract their attention from the + Circus, we can easily realize the genesis of the famous riots of the + Blues and Greens.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the darker + forms of vice great cities have <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> never been free, and there is no reason to + think that Constantinople in the sixth century differed from London + in the nineteenth. It is fair to point out that Christian public + opinion and the Government strove their best to put down sexual + immorality. Theodosius and Justinian are recorded to have entered + upon the herculean task of endeavouring to suppress all disorderly + houses: the latter made exile the penalty for panders and + procuresses, and inflicted death on those guilty of the worst + extremes of immorality. We must remember, too, that if Constantinople + showed much vice, it also displayed shining examples of the social + virtues. The Empress Flaccilla was wont to frequent the hospitals, + and tend the beds of the sick. Of the monastic severity which the + Empress Pulcheria displayed in the palace we have spoken already.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After cowardice + and light morals, it is treachery that is popularly cited as the most + prominent vice of the Eastern Empire. There have been other states + and epochs more given to plots and revolts, but it is still true that + there was too much intrigue at Constantinople. The reason is not far + to seek: the <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">carrière ouverte aux + talents</span></span>”</span> practically existed there, and the army + and the civil service were full of poor, able, and ambitious men of + all races and classes mixed together. The converted Goth or the + renegade Persian, the half-civilized mountaineer from Isauria, the + Copt and Syrian and Armenian were all welcomed in the army or civil + service, if only they had ability. Both the bureaucracy and the army + therefore had elements which lacked patriotism, conscience, and + stability, and were prone to seek advancement either <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by intrigue or military revolt. This + being granted, it is perhaps astonishing to have to record that + between 350 and 600 the empire never once saw its legitimate ruler + dethroned, either by palace intrigue or military revolt. The fact + that all the plots—and there were many in the period—failed + hopelessly, is, on the whole, a proof that if there was much + treachery there was much loyalty among the East Romans. There have + certainly been periods in more recent times which show a much worse + record.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href= + "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> A single + instance may suffice—Mediæval Italy from the thirteenth to the + fifteenth century could produce far more shocking examples of + conscienceless and unjustifiable plotting than the Byzantine Empire + in the whole thousand years of its existence.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name= + "Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XII. The Coming Of The + Saracens.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the peace of + 628 the Roman and the Persian Empires, drained of men and money, and + ravaged from end to end by each other's marauding armies, sank down + in exhaustion to heal them of their deadly wounds. Never before had + either power dealt its neighbour such fearful blows as in this last + struggle: in previous wars the contest had been waged around border + fortresses, and the prize had been the conquest of some small slice + of marchland. But Chosroës and Heraclius had struck deadly blows at + the heart of each other's empire, and harried the inmost provinces up + to the gates of each other's capitals. The Persian had turned the + wild hordes of the Avars loose on Thrace, and the Roman had guided + the yet wilder Chazars up to the walls of Ctesiphon. Hence it came to + pass that at the end of the war the two powers were each weaker than + they had ever been before. They were bleeding at every pore, utterly + wearied and exhausted, and desirous of nothing but a long interval of + peace to recover their lost strength.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Precisely at this + moment a new and terrible enemy <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> fell upon the two war-worn combatants, and + delivered an attack so vehement that it was destined to destroy the + ancient kingdom of Persia and to shear away half the provinces of the + Roman Empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The politics of + Arabia had up to this time been of little moment either to Roman or + Persian. Each of them had allies among the Arab tribes, and had + sometimes sent an expedition or an embassy southward, into the land + beyond the Syrian desert. But neither of them dreamed that the + scattered and disunited tribes of Arabia would ever combine or become + a serious danger.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while + Heraclius and Chosroës were harrying each other's realms events of + world-wide importance had been taking place in the Arabian peninsula. + For the first and last time in history there had arisen among the + Arabs one of those world-compelling minds that are destined to turn + aside the current of events into new channels, and change the face of + whole continents.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mahomet, that + strangest of moral enigmas, prophet and seer, fanatic and impostor, + was developing his career all through the years of the Persian war. + By an extraordinary mixture of genuine enthusiasm and vulgar cunning, + of self-deception and deliberate imposture, of benevolence and + cruelty, of austerity and licence, he had worked himself and his + creed to the front. The turbulent polytheists of Arabia had by him + been converted into a compact band of fanatics, burning to carry all + over the world by the force of their swords their new war-cry, that + <span class="tei tei-q">“God was God, and Mahomet His + prophet.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg + 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 628, the last + year of the great war, the Arab sent his summons to Heraclius and + Chosroës, bidding them embrace Islam. The Persian replied with the + threat that he would put the Prophet in chains when he had leisure. + The Roman made no direct reply, but sent Mahomet some small presents, + neglecting the theological bent of his message, and only thinking of + enlisting a possible political ally. Both answers were regarded as + equally unsatisfactory by the Prophet, and he doomed the two empires + to a similar destruction. Next year [629] the first collision between + the East-Romans and the Arabs took place, a band of Moslems having + pushed a raid up to Muta, near the Dead Sea. But it was not till + three years later, when Mahomet himself was already dead, that the + storm fell on the Roman Empire. In obedience to the injunctions of + his deceased master, the Caliph Abu Bekr prepared two armies, and + launched the one against Palestine and the other against Persia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Till the last + seven or eight years English writers have been inclined to underrate + the force and fury of an army of Mahometan fanatics in the first + flush of their enthusiasm. Now that we have witnessed in our own day + the scenes of Tamaai and Abu Klea we do so no longer. The rush that + can break into a British square bristling with Martini-Henry rifles + is not a thing to be despised. For the future we shall not treat + lightly the armies of the early Caliphs, nor scoff with Gibbon at the + feebleness of the troops who were routed by them. If the soldiers of + Queen Victoria, armed with modern rifles and artillery, found the + fanatical Arab a formidable foe, let us not blame <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the soldiers of Heraclius who faced the + same enemy with pike and sword alone. In the early engagements + between the East-Romans and the Saracens the superior discipline and + more regular arms of the one were not a sufficient counterpoise to + put against the mad recklessness of the other. The Moslem wanted to + get killed, that he might reap the fruits of martyrdom in the other + world, and cared not how he died, if he had first slain an enemy. The + Roman fought well enough; but he did not, like his adversary, yearn + to become a martyr, and the odds were on the man who held his life + the cheapest.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moment of the + Saracen invasion was chosen most unhappily for Heraclius. He had just + paid off the enormous debt that he had contracted to the Church, and + to do so had not only drained the treasury but imposed some new and + unwise taxes on the harassed provincials, and disbanded many of his + veterans for the sake of economy. Syria and Egypt, after spending + twelve and ten years respectively under the Persian yoke, had not yet + got back into their old organization. Both countries were much + distracted with religious troubles; the heretical sects of the + Monophysites and Jacobites who swarmed within their boundaries had + lifted up their heads under the Persian rule, being relieved from the + governmental repression that had hitherto been their lot. They seem + to have constituted an actual majority of the population, and + bitterly resented the endeavours of Heraclius to enforce orthodoxy in + the reconquered provinces. Their discontent was so bitter that during + the Saracen invasion they stood aside and refused to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> help the imperial armies, or even on + occasion aided the alien enemy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The details of the + Arab conquest of Syria have not been preserved by the East-Roman + historians, who seem to have hated the idea of recording the + disasters of Christendom. The Moslems, on the other hand, had not yet + commenced to write, and ere historians arose among them, the tale of + the invasion had been intertwined with a whole cycle of romantic + legends, fitter for the <span class="tei tei-q">“Arabian + Nights”</span> than the sober pages of a chronicle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the main lines + of the war can be reconstructed with accuracy. The Saracen horde + under Abu Obeida emerged from the desert in the spring of 634 and + captured Bostra, the frontier city of Syria to the east, by the aid + of treachery from within. The Romans collected an army to drive them + off, but in July it was defeated at Aijnadin [Gabatha] in Ituraea. + Thoroughly roused by this disaster Heraclius set all the legions of + the East marching, and sixty thousand men crossed the Jordan and + advanced to recover Bostra. The Arabs met them at the fords of the + Hieromax, an Eastern tributary of the Jordan, and a fierce battle + raged all day. The Romans drove the enemy back to the very gates of + their camp, but a last charge, headed by the fierce warrior Khaled, + broke their firm array when a victory seemed almost assured. All the + mailed horsemen of Heraclius, his Armenian and Isaurian archers, his + solid phalanx of infantry, were insufficient to resist the wild rush + of the Arabs. Urged on by the cry of their general, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Paradise is before you, the devil and hell-fire + behind,”</span> the fanatical <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Orientals threw themselves on regiment after + regiment and drove it off the field.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All Syria east of + Jordan was lost in this fatal battle. Damascus, its great stronghold, + resisted desperately but fell early in 635. Most of its population + were massacred. This disaster drew Heraclius into the field, though + he was now over sixty, and was beginning to fail in health. He could + do nothing; Emesa and Heliopolis were sacked before his eyes, and + after an inglorious campaign he hurried to Jerusalem, took the + <span class="tei tei-q">“True Cross”</span> from its sanctuary, where + he had replaced it in triumph five years before, and retired to + Constantinople. Hardly had he reached it when the news arrived that + his discontented and demoralized troops had proclaimed a rebel + emperor, though the enemy was before them. The rebel—his name was + Baanes—was put down, but meanwhile Antioch, Chalcis, and all Northern + Syria fell into the hands of the Arabs.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Worse yet was to + follow. In the next year, 637, Jerusalem fell, after a desperate + resistance, protracted for more than twelve months. The inhabitants + refused to surrender except to the Caliph in person, and the aged + Omar came over the desert, proud to take possession of the city which + Mahomet had reckoned the holiest site on earth save Mecca alone. The + Patriarch Sophronius was commanded to guide the conqueror around the + city, and when he saw the rude Arab standing by the altar of the + Church of the Holy Sepulchre, cried aloud, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Now is the Abomination of Desolation, which was spoken + of by Daniel the prophet, truly in the Holy Place.”</span> The Caliph + did <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name= + "Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not confiscate any of + the great Christian sanctuaries, but he took the site of Solomon's + Temple, and erected on it a magnificent Mosque, known ever since as + the Mosque of Omar.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tale of the + last years of Heraclius is most melancholy. The Emperor lay at + Constantinople slowly dying of dropsy, and his eldest son Constantine + had to take the field in his stead. But the young prince received a + crushing defeat in 638, when he attempted to recover North Syria, and + next year the Arabs, under Amrou, pressed eastward across the Isthmus + of Suez, and threw themselves upon Egypt. Two years more of fighting + sufficed to conquer the granary of the Roman Empire; and in February, + 641, when Heraclius died, the single port of Alexandria was the sole + remaining possession of the Romans in Egypt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ten years' war + which had torn Syria and Egypt from the hands of the unfortunate + Heraclius had been even more fatal to his Eastern neighbour. The + Arabs had attacked the Persian kingdom at the same moment that they + fell on Syria: two great battles at Kadesia [636] and Yalulah [637] + sufficed to place all Western Persia in the hands of the Moslems. + King Isdigerd, the last of the Sassanian line, raised his last army + in 641, and saw it cut to pieces at the decisive field of Nehauend. + He fled away to dwell as an exile among the Turks, and all his + kingdom as far as the borders of India became the prey of the + conquerors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Heraclius had + married twice; by his first wife, Eudocia, he left a single son, + Constantine, who should <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg + 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + have been his sole heir. But he had taken a second wife, and this + wife was his own niece Martina. The incestuous choice had provoked + much scandal, and was the one grave offence which could be brought + against Heraclius, whose life was in other respects blameless. + Martina, an ambitious and intriguing woman, prevailed on her aged + husband to make her eldest son, Heracleonas, joint-heir with his half + brother Constantine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This arrangement, + as might have been expected, worked very badly. The court and army + was at once split up between the adherents of the two young Emperors, + and while the defence of the empire against the Saracens should have + been the sole care of the East-Romans, they found themselves + distracted by fierce Court intrigues. Armed strife between the + Emperors seemed destined to break out, but after reigning only a few + months Constantine III. died. It was rumoured far and wide that his + step-mother had poisoned him, to make the way clear for her own son + Heracleonas, who immediately proclaimed himself sole emperor. The + senate and the Byzantine populace were both highly indignant at this + usurpation, for the deceased Constantine left a young son named + Constans, who was thus excluded from the throne to which he was the + natural heir. Heracleonas had reigned alone no more than a few weeks + when the army of the East and the mob of Constantinople were heard + demanding in angry tones that Constans should be crowned as his + uncle's colleague. Heracleonas was frightened into compliance, but + his submission only saved him for a year. In the summer <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of 642 the senate decreed his deposition, + and he was seized by the adherents of Constans and sent into exile, + along with his mother Martina. The victorious faction very cruelly + ordered the tongue of the mother and the nose of the son to be + slit—the first instance of that hateful Oriental practice being + applied to members of the royal house, but not the last.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constans II. was + sole emperor from 642 to 668, and his son and successor, Constantine + IV., reigned from 668 to 685. They were both strong, hard-headed + warrior princes, fit descendants of the gallant Heraclius. Their main + credit lies in the fact that they fought unceasingly against the + Saracen, and preserved as a permanent possession of the empire nearly + every province that they had still remained Roman at the death of + Heraclius. During the minority indeed of Constans II., + Alexandria<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href= + "#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> and + Aradus, the two last ports preserved by the Romans in Egypt and Syria + were lost. But the Saracens advanced no further by land; the sands of + the African desert and the passes of Taurus were destined to hold + them back for many years. The times, however, were still dangerous + till the murder of the Caliph Othman in 656, after which the outbreak + of the first civil war among the Moslems—the contest of Ali and + Moawiah for the Caliphate—gave the empire a respite. Moawiah, who + held the lands on the Roman frontier—his rival's power lying further + to the east—secured a free hand against Ali, by making <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> peace with Constans. He even consented to + pay him a small annual subsidy so long as the truce should last. This + agreement was invaluable to the empire. After twenty-seven years of + incessant war the mangled realm at last obtained an interval of + repose. It was something, too, that the Saracens were induced to + pause, and saw that the extension of their conquests was not destined + to spread at once over the whole world. When they realized that their + victories were not to go on for ever, they lost the first keenness of + the fanatical courage which had made them so terrible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freed from the + Saracen war, which had threatened not merely to curtail, but to + extinguish the empire, Constans was at liberty to turn his attention + to other matters. It seems probable that it was at this moment that + the reorganization of the provinces of the empire took place, which + we find in existence in the second half of the seventh century. The + old Roman names and boundaries, which had endured since Diocletian's + time, now disappear, and the empire is found divided into new + provinces with strange denominations. They were military in their + origin, and each consisted of the district covered by a large unit of + soldiery—what we should call an army corps. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Theme”</span> meant both the corps and the district + which it defended, and the corps-commander was also the provincial + governor. There were six corps in Asia, called the Armeniac, + Anatolic, Thracesian, Bucellarian, Cibyrrhæot, and Obsequian themes. + Of these the first two explain themselves, they were the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“army of Armenia”</span> and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“army of the East”</span>; <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Obsequian theme, quartered along the + Propontis, was so called because it was a kind of personal guard for + the Emperor and the home districts. The Thracesians were the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Army of Thrace,”</span> who in the stress of + the war had been drafted across to Asia to reinforce the Eastern + troops. The Bucellarii seem to have been corps composed of natives + and barbarian auxiliaries mixed; they are heard of long before + Constans, and he probably did no more than unite them and localize + them in a single district. The Cibyrrhæot theme alone gets its name + from a town, the port of Cibyra in Pamphylia, which must have been + the original headquarters of the South-Western Army Corps. Its + commander had a fleet always in his charge, and his troops were often + employed as marines.<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href= + "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The western half + of the empire seems to have had six <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Themes”</span> also; they bear however old and familiar + names—Thrace, Hellas, Thessalonica, Ravenna, Sicily, and Africa, and + their names explain their boundaries. In both halves of the empire + there were, beside the great themes, smaller districts under the + command of military governors, who had charge of outlying posts, such + as the passes of Taurus, or the islands of Cyprus and Sardinia. Some + of these afterwards grew into independent themes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus came to an + end the old imperial system of dividing military authority and civil + jurisdiction, which Augustus had invented and Diocletian perpetuated. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" + id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Under stress of the fearful + Saracenic invasion the civil governors disappear, and for the future + a commander chosen for his military capacity has also to discharge + civil functions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constans II., when + once he had made peace with Moawiah, would have done well to turn to + the Balkan Peninsula, and evict the Slavs from the districts south of + Haemus into which they had penetrated during the reign of Heraclius. + But he chose instead to do no more than compel the Slavs to pay + homage to him and give tribute, and set out to turn westward, and + endeavour to drive the Lombards out of Italy. Falling on the Duchy of + Benevento, he took many towns, and even laid siege to the capital. + But he failed to take it, and passed on to Rome, which had not seen + the face of an emperor for two hundred years. When an emperor did + appear he brought no luck, for Constans signalized his visit by + taking down the bronze tiles of the Pantheon and sending them off to + Constantinople [664].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Emperor + lingered no less than five years in the West, busied with the affairs + of Italy and Africa, till the Constantinopolitans began to fear that + he would make Rome or Syracuse his capital. But in 668 he was + assassinated in a most strange manner. <span class="tei tei-q">“As he + bathed in the baths called Daphne, Andreas his bathing attendant + smote him on the head with his soap-box, and fled away.”</span> The + blow was fatal, Constans died, and Constantine his son reigned in his + stead.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine IV., + known as Pogonatus, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Bearded,”</span> + reigned for seventeen years, of which more than half were spent in + one long struggle with the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg + 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Saracens. Moawiah, the first of the Ommeyades, had now made himself + sole Caliph; the civil wars of the Arabs were now over, and once more + they fell on the empire. Constantine's reign opened disastrously, + with simultaneous attacks by the armies and fleets of Moawiah on + Africa, Sicily, and Asia Minor. But this was only the prelude; in 673 + the Caliph made ready an expedition, the like of which had never yet + been undertaken by the Saracens. A great fleet and land army started + from Syria to undertake the siege of Constantinople itself, an + enterprise which the Moslems had not yet attempted. It was headed by + the general Abderrahman, and accompanied by Yezid, the Caliph's son + and heir. The fleet beat the imperial navy off the sea, forced the + passage of the Dardanelles, and took Cyzicus. Using that city as its + base, it proceeded to blockade the Bosphorus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great glory of + Constantine IV. is that he withstood, defeated, and drove away the + mighty armament of Moawiah. For four years the investment of + Constantinople lingered on, and the stubborn resistance of the + garrison seemed unable to do more than stave off the evil day. But + the happy invention of fire-tubes for squirting inflammable liquids + (probably the famous <span class="tei tei-q">“Greek-fire”</span> of + which we first hear at this time), gave the Emperor's fleet the + superiority in a decisive naval battle. At the same time a great + victory was won on land and thirty thousand Arabs slain. Abderrahman + had fallen during the siege, and his successors had to lead back the + mere wrecks of a fleet and army to the disheartened Caliph.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is a thousand + pities that the details of this, the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> second great siege of Constantinople, are not + better known. But there is no good contemporary historian to give us + the desired information. If he had but met with his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sacred bard,”</span> Constantine IV. might have gone + down to posterity in company with Heraclius and Leo the Isaurian, as + the third great hero of the East-Roman Empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The year after the + raising of the great siege, Moawiah sued for peace, restored all his + conquests, and offered a huge war indemnity, promising to pay 3000 + lbs. of gold per annum for thirty years. The report of the triumph of + Constantine went all over the world, and ambassadors came even from + the distant Franks and Khazars to congratulate him on the victory + which had saved Eastern Christendom from the Arab.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Constantine + was defending his capital from the Eastern enemy, the wild tribes of + his northern border took the opportunity of swooping down on the + European provinces, whose troops had been drawn off to resist the + Arabs. The Slavs came down from the inland, and laid siege for two + years to Thessalonica, which was only relieved from their attacks + when Constantine had finished his war with Moawiah. But a far more + dangerous attack was made by another enemy in the eastern part of the + Balkan Peninsula. The Bulgarians, a nomad tribe of Finnish blood, who + dwelt in the region of the Pruth and Dniester, came over the Danube, + subdued the Slavs of Moesia, and settled between the Danube and the + Eastern Balkans, where they have left their name till this day. They + united the scattered Slavonic tribes <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the region into a single strong state, and + the new Bulgarian kingdom was long destined to be a troublesome + neighbour to the empire. The date 679 counts as the first year of the + reign of Isperich first king of Bulgaria. Constantine IV. was too + exhausted by his long war with Moawiah to make any serious attempt to + drive the Bulgarians back over the Danube, and acquiesced in the new + settlement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last six years + of Constantine's reign were spent in peace. The only notable event + that took place in them was the meeting at Constantinople of the + Sixth Oecumenical Council in 680-1. At this Synod, the doctrine of + the Monothelites, who attributed but one will to Our Lord, was + solemnly condemned by the united Churches of the East and West. The + holders of Monothelite doctrines, dead and alive, were solemnly + anathematised, among them Pope Honorius of Rome, who in a previous + generation had consented to the heresy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine IV. + died in 685, before he had reached his thirty-sixth year, leaving his + throne to his eldest son Justinian, a lad of sixteen.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name= + "Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIII. The First Anarchy.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian II., the + last of the house of Heraclius, was a sovereign of a different type + from any emperor that we have yet encountered in the annals of the + Eastern Empire. He was a bold, reckless, callous, and selfish young + man, with a firm determination to assert his own individuality and + have his own way,—he was, in short, of the stuff of which tyrants are + made. Justinian was but seventeen when he came to the throne, but he + soon showed that he intended to rule the empire after his own good + pleasure long before he had begun to learn the lessons of + state-craft.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ere he had reached + his twenty-first year Justinian had plunged into war with the + Bulgarians. He attacked them suddenly, inflicted several defeats on + their king, and took no less than thirty thousand prisoners, whom he + sent over to Asia, and forced to enlist in the army of Armenia. He + next picked a quarrel with the Saracen Caliph on the most frivolous + grounds. The annual tribute due by the treaty of 679 had hitherto + been paid in Roman <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">solidi</span></span>, but in + 692 <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name= + "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Abdalmalik tendered it + in new gold coins of his own mintage, bearing verses of the Koran. + Justinian refused to receive them, and declared war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His second venture + in the field was disastrous: his unwilling recruits from Bulgaria + deserted to the enemy, when he met the Saracens at Sebastopolis in + Cilicia, and the Roman army was routed with great slaughter. The two + subsequent campaigns were equally unsuccessful, and the troops of the + Caliph harried Cappadocia far and wide.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Justinian's wars + depleted his treasury; yet he persisted in plunging into expensive + schemes of building at the same time, and was driven to collect money + by the most reckless extortion. He employed two unscrupulous + ministers, Theodotus, the accountant general—an ex-abbot who had + deserted his monastery—and the eunuch Stephanus, the keeper of the + privy purse. These men were to Justinian what Ralph Flambard was to + William Rufus, or Empson and Dudley to Henry VII: they raised him + funds by flagrant extortion and illegal stretching of the law. Both + were violent and cruel: Theodotus is said to have hung recalcitrant + tax-payers up by ropes above smoky fires till they were nearly + stifled. Stephanus thrashed and stoned every one who fell into his + hands; he is reported to have actually administered a whipping to the + empress-dowager during the absence of her son, and Justinian did not + punish him when he returned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the + emperor's financial expedients were making him hated by the moneyed + classes, he was rendering himself no less unpopular in the + army.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg + 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After his + ill-success in the Saracen war, he began to execute or imprison his + officers, and to decimate his beaten troops: to be employed by him in + high command was almost as dangerous as it was to be appointed a + general-in-chief during the dictatorship of Robespierre.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 695 the cup of + Justinian's iniquities was full. An officer named Leontius being + appointed, to his great dismay, general of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“theme”</span> of Hellas, was about to set out to assume + his command. As he parted from his friends he exclaimed that his days + were numbered, and that he should be expecting the order for his + execution to arrive at any moment. Then a certain monk named Paul + stood forth, and bade him save himself by a bold stroke; if he would + aim a blow at Justinian he would find the people and the army ready + to follow him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leontius took the + monk's counsel, and rushing to the state prison, at the head of a few + friends, broke it open and liberated some hundreds of political + prisoners. A mob joined him, he seized the Cathedral of St. Sophia, + and then marched on the palace. No one would fight for Justinian, who + was caught and brought before the rebel leader in company with his + two odious ministers. Leontius bade his nose be slit, and banished + him to Cherson. Theodotus and Stephanus he handed over to the mob, + who dragged them round the city and burnt them alive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Twenty years of + anarchy followed the usurpation of Leontius. The new emperor was not + a man of capacity, and had been driven into rebellion by his fears + rather than his ambition. He held the throne <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> barely three years, amid constant revolts at + home and defeats abroad. The Asiatic frontier was ravaged by the + armies of Abdalmalik, and at the same time a great disaster befel the + western half of the empire. A Saracen army from Egypt forced its way + into Africa, where the Romans had still maintained themselves by hard + fighting while the emperors of the house of Heraclius reigned. They + reduced all its fortresses one after the other, and finally took + Carthage in 697—a hundred and sixty-five years after it had been + restored to the empire by Belisarius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-20.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Church Of The Twelve Apostles At Thessalonica. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Church Of The Twelve Apostles At Thessalonica. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name= + "Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The larger part of + the army of Africa escaped by sea from Carthage when the city fell. + The officers in command sailed for Constantinople, and during their + voyage plotted to dethrone Leontius. They enlisted in their scheme + Tiberius Apsimarus, who commanded the imperial fleet in the Aegean, + and proclaimed him emperor when he joined them with his galleys. The + troops of Leontius betrayed the gates of the capital to the followers + of the rebel admiral, and Apsimarus seized Constantinople. He + proclaimed himself emperor by the title of Tiberius, third of that + name, and condemned his captive rival to the same fate that he + himself had inflicted on Justinian II. Accordingly the nose of + Leontius was slit, and he was placed in confinement in a + monastery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tiberius III. was + more fortunate in his reign than his predecessor: his troops gained + several victories over the Saracens, recovered the frontier districts + which Justinian II. and Leontius had lost, and even invaded Northern + Syria. But these successes did not save Tiberius from suffering the + same doom which had fallen on Justinian and Leontius. The people and + army were out of hand, the ephemeral emperor could count on no + loyalty, and any shock was sufficient to upset his precarious + throne.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must now turn + to the banished Justinian, who had been sent into exile with his nose + mutilated. He had been transported to Cherson, the Greek town in the + Crimea, close to the modern Sebastopol, which formed the northernmost + outpost of civilization, and enjoyed municipal liberty under the + suzerainty of the empire. Justinian displayed in his day of adversity + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" + id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a degree of capacity which + astonished his contemporaries. He fled from Cherson and took refuge + with the Khan of the Khazars, the Tartar tribe who dwelt east of the + Sea of Azof. With this prince the exile so ingratiated himself that + he received in marriage his sister, who was baptized and christened + Theodora. But Tiberius III. sent great sums of money to the Khazar to + induce him to surrender Justinian, and the treacherous barbarian + determined to accept the bribe, and sent secret orders to two of his + officers to seize his brother-in-law. The emperor learnt of the plot + through his wife, and saved himself by the bold expedient of going at + once to one of the two Khazar chiefs and asking for a secret + interview. When they were alone he fell on him and strangled him, and + then calling on the second Khazar served him in the same fashion, + before the Khan's orders had been divulged to any one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This gave him time + to escape, and he fled in a fishing boat out into the Euxine with a + few friends and servants who had followed him into exile. While they + were out at sea a storm arose, and the boat began to fill. One of his + companions cried to Justinian to make his peace with God, and pardon + his enemies ere he died. But the Emperor's stern soul was not bent by + the tempest. <span class="tei tei-q">“May God drown me here,”</span> + he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“if I spare a single one of my + enemies if ever I get to land!”</span> The boat weathered the storm, + and Justinian survived to carry out his cruel oath. He came ashore in + the land of the Bulgarians, and soon won favour with their king + Terbel, who wanted a good excuse for invading the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> empire, and found it in the pretence of + supporting the exiled monarch. With a Bulgarian army at his back + Justinian appeared before Constantinople, and obtained an entrance at + night near the gate of Blachernæ. There was no fighting, for the + adherents of Tiberius were as unready to strike a blow for their + master as the followers of Leontius had been [705 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So Justinian + recovered his throne without fighting, for the people had by this + time half forgotten his tyranny, and regretted the rule of the house + of Heraclius. But they were soon to find out that they had erred in + submitting to the exile, and should have resisted him at all hazards. + Justinian came back in a relentless mood, bent on nothing but + revenging his mutilated nose and his ten years of exile. His first + act was to send for the two usurpers who had sat on his throne: + Leontius was brought out from his monastery, and Tiberius caught as + he tried to flee into Asia. Justinian had them led round the city in + chains, and then bound them side by side before his throne in the + Cathisma, the imperial box at the Hippodrome. There he sat in state, + using their prostrate bodies as a footstool, while his adherents + chanted the verse from the ninety-first Psalm, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou shalt tread on the lion and asp: the young lion and + dragon shalt thou trample under thy feet.”</span> The allusion was to + the names of the usurpers, the Lion and Asp being Leontius and + Apsimarus!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After this strange + exhibition the two ex-emperors were beheaded. Their execution began a + reign of terror, for Justinian had his oath to keep, and was set + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" + id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on wreaking vengeance on every + one who had been concerned in his deposition. He hanged all the chief + officers and courtiers of Leontius, and put out the eyes of the + patriarch who had crowned him. Then he set to work to hunt out meaner + victims: many prominent citizens of Constantinople were sown up in + sacks and drowned in the Bosphorus. Soldiers were picked out by the + dozen and beheaded. A special expedition was sent by sea to sack + Cherson, the city of the Emperor's exile, because he had a grudge + against its citizens. The chief men were caught and sent to the + capital, where Justinian had them bound to spits and roasted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These atrocities + were mere samples of the general conduct of Justinian. In a few years + he had made himself so much detested that it might be said that he + had been comparatively popular in the days of his first reign.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The end came into + 711, when a general named Philippicus took arms, and seized + Constantinople while Justinian was absent at Sinope. The army of the + tyrant laid down their arms when Philippicus approached, and he was + led forth and beheaded without further delay—an end too good for such + a monster. The conqueror also sought out and slew his little son + Tiberius, whom the sister of the Khan of the Khazars had borne to him + during his exile. So ended the house of Heraclius, after it had sat + for five generations and one hundred and one years on the throne of + Constantinople.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The six years + which followed were purely anarchical. Justinian's wild and wicked + freaks had completed the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg + 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + demoralization which had already set in before his restoration. + Everything in the army and the state was completely disorganized and + out of gear. It required a hero to restore the machinery of + government and evolve order out of chaos. But the hero was not at + once forthcoming, and the confusion went on increasing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To replace + Justinian by Philippicus was only to substitute King Log for King + Stork. The new emperor was a mere man of pleasure, and spent his time + in personal enjoyment, letting affairs of state slide on as best they + might. In less than two years he was upset by a conspiracy which + placed on the throne Artemius Anastasius, his own chief secretary. + Philippicus was blinded, and compelled to exchange the pleasures of + the palace for the rigours of a monastery. But the Court intrigue + which dethroned Philippicus did not please the army, and within two + years Anastasius was overthrown by the soldiers of the Obsequian + theme, who gave the imperial crown to Theodosius of Adrammytium, a + respectable but obscure commissioner of taxes. More merciful than any + of his ephemeral predecessors, Theodosius III. dismissed Anastasius + unharmed, after compelling him to take holy orders.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile the + organization of the empire was visibly breaking up. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The affairs both of the realm and the city were + neglected and decaying, civil education was disappearing, and + military discipline dissolved.”</span> The Bulgarian and Saracen + commenced once more to ravage the frontier provinces, and every year + their ravages penetrated further inland. The <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Caliph Welid was so impressed with the + opportunity offered to him, that he commenced to equip a great + armament in the ports of Syria with the express purpose of laying + siege to Constantinople. No one hindered him, for the army raised to + serve against him turned aside to engage in the civil war between + Anastasius and Theodosius. The landmarks of the Saracens' conquests + by land are found in the falls of the great cities of Tyana [710], + Amasia [712], and Antioch-in-Pisidia [713]. They had penetrated into + Phrygia by 716, and were besieging the fortress of Amorium with every + expectation of success, when at last there appeared the man who was + destined to save the East-Roman Empire from a premature + dismemberment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was Leo the + Isaurian, one of the few military officers who had made a great + reputation amid the fearful disasters of the last ten years. He was + now general of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Anatolic”</span> theme, + the province which included the old Cappadocia and Lycaonia. After + inducing the Saracens, more by craft than force, to raise the siege + of Amorium, Leo disowned his allegiance to the incapable Theodosius + and marched toward the Bosphorus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The unfortunate + emperor, who had not coveted the throne he occupied, nor much desired + to retain it, allowed his army to risk one engagement with the troops + of Leo. When it was beaten he summoned the Patriarch, the Senate, and + the chief officers of the court, pointed out to them that a great + Saracen invasion was impending, that civil war had begun, and that he + himself did not wish to remain responsible <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> for the conduct of affairs. With his consent + the assembly resolved to offer the crown to Leo, who formally + accepted it early in the spring of 717.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodosius retired + unharmed to Ephesus, where he lived for many years. When he died the + single word ΥΓΙΕΙΑ, <span class="tei tei-q">“Health,”</span> was + inscribed on his tomb according to his last directions.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name= + "Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIV. The Saracens Turned + Back.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By dethroning + Theodosius III. on the very eve of the great Saracen invasion, Leo + the Isaurian took upon himself the gravest of responsibilities. With + a demoralized army, which of late had been more accustomed to revolt + than to fight, a depleted treasury, and a disorganized civil service, + he had to face an attack even more dangerous than that which + Constantine IV. had beaten off thirty years before. Constantine too, + the fourth of a race of hereditary rulers, had a secure throne and a + loyal army, while Leo was a mere adventurer who had seized the crown + only a few months before he was put to the test of the sword.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reigning + Caliph was now Suleiman, the seventh of the house of the Ommeyades. + He had strained all the resources of his wide empire to provide a + fleet and army adequate to the great enterprise which he had taken in + hand. The chief command of the expedition was given to his brother + Moslemah, who led an army of eighty thousand men from Tarsus across + the centre of Asia Minor, and marched on <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Hellespont, taking the strong city of + Pergamus on his way. Meanwhile a fleet of eighteen hundred sail under + the vizier Suleiman, namesake of his master the Caliph, sailed from + Syria for the Aegean, carrying a force no less than that which + marched by land. Fleet and army met at Abydos on the Hellespont + without mishap, for Leo had drawn back all his resources, naval and + military, to guard his capital.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In August, 717, + only five months after his coronation, the Isaurian saw the vessels + of the Saracens sailing up the Propontis, while their army had + crossed into Thrace and was approaching the city from the western + side. Moslemah caused his troops to build a line of circumvallation + from the sea to the Golden Horn, cutting Constantinople off from all + communication with Thrace, while Suleiman blocked the southern exit + of the Bosphorus, and tried to close it on the northern side also, so + as to prevent any supplies coming by water from the Euxine. Leo, + however, sallied forth from the Golden Horn with his galleys and + fire-vessels bearing the dreaded Greek fire, and did so much harm to + the detachment of Saracen ships which had gone northward up the + strait, that the blockade was never properly established on that + side.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Saracens + relied more on starving out the city than on taking it by storm: they + had come provided with everything necessary for a blockade of many + months, and sat down as if intending to remain before the walls for + an indefinite time. But Constantinople had been provisioned on an + even more lavish scale; each family had been bidden to lay in a stock + of corn <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name= + "Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for no less a period + than two years, and famine appeared in the camp of the besiegers long + ere it was felt in the houses of the besieged. Nor had Moslemah and + Suleiman reckoned with the climate. Hard winters occasionally occur + by the Black Sea, as our own army learnt to its cost in the Crimean + War. But the Saracens were served even worse by the winter of 717-18, + when the frost never ceased for twelve weeks. Leo might have boasted, + like Czar Nicholas, that December, January, and February were his + best generals—for these months wrought fearful havoc in the Saracen + host. The lightly clad Orientals could not stand the weather, and + died off like flies of dysentery and cold. The vizier Suleiman was + among those who perished. Meanwhile the Byzantines suffered little, + being covered by roofs all the winter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When next spring + came round Moslemah would have had to raise the siege if he had not + been heavily reinforced both by sea and land. A fleet of reserve + arrived from Egypt, and a large army came up from Tarsus and occupied + the Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Leo did not + despair, and took the offensive in the summer. His fire-ships stole + out and burnt the Egyptian squadron as it lay at anchor. A body of + troops landing on the Bithynian coast, surprised and cut to pieces + the Saracen army which watched the other side of the strait. Soon, + too, famine began to assail the enemy; their stores of provisions + were now giving out, and they had harried the neighbourhood so + fiercely that no more food could be got from near at <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hand, while if they sent foraging parties + too far from their lines they were cut off by the peasantry. At last + Moslemah suffered a disaster which compelled him to abandon his task. + The Bulgarians came down over the Balkans, and routed the covering + army which observed Adrianople and protected the siege on the western + side. No less than twenty thousand Saracens fell, by the testimony of + the Arab historians themselves, and the survivors were so cowed that + Moslemah gave the order to retire. The fleet ferried the land army + back into Asia, and both forces started homeward. Moslemah got back + to Tarsus with only thirty thousand men at his back, out of more than + a hundred thousand who had started with him or come to him as + reinforcements. The fleet fared even worse: it was caught by a + tempest in the Aegean, and so fearfully shattered that it is said + that only five vessels out of the whole Armada got back to Syria + unharmed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the + last great endeavour of the Saracen to destroy Constantinople. The + task was never essayed again, though for three hundred and fifty + years more wars were constantly breaking out between the Emperor and + the Caliph. In the future they were always to be border struggles, + not desperate attempts to strike at the heart of the empire, and + conquer Europe for Islam. To Leo, far more than to his contemporary + the Frank Charles Martel, is the delivery of Christendom from the + Moslem danger to be attributed. Charles turned back a plundering + horde sent out from an outlying province of the Caliphate. Leo + repulsed the grand-army of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg + 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + Saracens, raised from the whole of their eastern realms, and + commanded by the brother of their monarch. Such a defeat was well + calculated to impress on their fatalistic minds the idea that + Constantinople was not destined by providence to fall into their + hands. They were by this time far removed from the frantic fanaticism + which had inspired their grandfathers, and the crushing disaster they + had now sustained deterred them from any repetition of the attempt. + Life and power had grown so pleasant to them that martyrdom was no + longer an <span class="tei tei-q">“end in itself”</span>; they + preferred, if checked, to live and fight another day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leo was, however, + by no means entirely freed from the Saracens by his victory of 718. + At several epochs in the latter part of his reign he was troubled by + invasions of his border provinces. None of them, however, were really + dangerous, and after a victory won over the main army of the raiders + in 739 at Acroinon in Phrygia, Asia Minor was finally freed from + their presence.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name= + "Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XV. The Iconoclasts. + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">720-802.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Leo the + Isaurian had died on the day on which the army of the Caliph raised + the siege of Constantinople it would have been well for his + reputation in history. Unhappily for himself, though happily enough + for the East-Roman realm, he survived yet twenty years to carry + through a series of measures which were in his eyes not less + important than the repulse of the Moslems from his capital. + Historians have given to the scheme of reform which he took in hand + the name of the Iconoclastic movement, because of the opposition to + the worship of images which formed one of the most prominent features + of his action.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the last + hundred years the empire had been declining in culture and + civilization; literature and art seemed likely to perish in the + never-ending clash of arms: the old-Roman jurisprudence was being + forgotten, the race of educated civil servants was showing signs of + extinction, the governors of provinces were now without exception + rough soldiers, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg + 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not + members of that old bureaucracy whose Roman traditions had so long + kept the empire together. Not least among the signs of a decaying + civilization were the gross superstitions which had grown up of late + in the religious world. Christianity had begun to be permeated by + those strange mediæval fancies which would have been as inexplicable + to the old-Roman mind of four centuries before as they are to the + mind of the nineteenth century. A rich crop of puerile legends, + rites, and observances had grown up of late around the central truths + of religion, unnoticed and unguarded against by theologians, who + devoted all their energies to the barren Monothelite and Monophysite + controversies. Image-worship and relic-worship in particular had + developed with strange rapidity, and assumed the shape of mere + Fetishism. Every ancient picture or statue was now announced as both + miraculously produced and endued with miraculous powers. These + wonder-working pictures and statues were now adored as things in + themselves divine: the possession of one of them made the fortune of + a church or monastery, and the tangible object of worship seems to + have been regarded with quite as much respect as the saint whose + memory it recalled. The freaks to which image-worship led were in + some cases purely grotesque; it was, for example, not unusual to + select a picture as the godfather of a child in baptism, and to + scrape off a little of its paint and produce it at the ceremony to + represent the saint. Even patriarchs and bishops ventured to assert + that the hand of a celebrated representation of the Virgin distilled + fragrant balsam. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg + 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + success of the Emperor Heraclius in his Persian campaign was ascribed + by the vulgar not so much to his military talent as to the fact that + he carried with him a small picture of the Virgin, which had fallen + from heaven!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-21.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Bishops, Monks, Kings, Laymen, And Women, Adoring The Madonna. (From a Byzantine MS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Bishops, Monks, Kings, Laymen, And Women, Adoring The Madonna. + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From a Byzantine MS.</span></span>) + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these vain + beliefs, inculcated by the clergy and eagerly believed by the mob, + were repulsive to the educated laymen of the higher classes. Their + dislike for vain superstitions was emphasized by the influence + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" + id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Mahometanism on their + minds. For a hundred years the inhabitants of the Asiatic provinces + of the empire had been in touch with a religion of which the noblest + feature was its emphatic denunciation of idolatry under every shape + and form. An East-Roman, when taunted by his Moslem neighbour for + clinging to a faith which had grown corrupt and idolatrous, could not + but confess that there was too much ground for the accusation, when + he looked round on the daily practice of his countrymen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence there had + grown up among the stronger minds of the day a vigorous reaction + against the prevailing superstitions. It was more visible among the + laity than among the clergy, and far more widespread in Asia than in + Europe. In Leo the Isaurian this tendency stood incarnate in its most + militant form, and he left the legacy of his enthusiasm to his + descendants. Seven years after the relief of Constantinople he + commenced his crusade against superstition. The chief practices which + he attacked were the worship of images and the ascription of divine + honours to saints—more especially in the form of Mariolatry. His son + Constantine, more bold and drastic than his father, endeavoured to + suppress monasticism also, because he found the monks the most ardent + defenders of images; but Leo's own measures went no further than a + determined attempt to put down image-worship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The struggle which + he inaugurated began in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 725, when he ordered + the removal of all the images in the capital. Rioting broke out at + once, and the officials who were taking down the great figure of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" + id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Christ Crucified, over the + palace-gate, were torn to pieces by a mob. The Emperor replied by a + series of executions, and carried out his policy all over the empire + by the aid of armed force.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The populace, + headed by the monks, opposed a bitter resistance to the Emperor's + doings, more especially in the European provinces. They set the + wildest rumours afloat concerning his intentions; it was currently + reported that the Jews had bought his consent to image-breaking, and + that the Caliph Yezid had secretly converted him to Mahometanism. + Though Leo's orthodoxy in matters doctrinal was unquestioned, and + though he had no objection to the representation of the cross, as + distinguished from the crucifix, he was accused of a design to + undermine the foundations of Christianity. Arianism was the least + offensive fault laid to his account. The Emperor's enemies did not + confine themselves to passive resistance to his crusade against + images. Dangerous revolts broke out in Greece and Italy, and were not + put down without much fighting. In Italy, indeed, the imperial + authority was shaken to its foundations, and never thoroughly + re-established. The Popes consistently opposed the Iconoclastic + movement, and by their denunciation of it placed themselves at the + head of the anti-imperial party, nor did they shrink from allying + themselves with the Lombards, who were now, as always, endeavouring + to drive the East-Roman garrisons from Ravenna and Naples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hatred which + Leo provoked might have been fatal to him had he not possessed the + full confidence of the army. But his great victory over the Saracens + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" + id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had won him such popularity in + the camp, that he was able to despise the wrath of the populace, and + carry out his schemes to their end. Beside instituting ecclesiastical + reforms he was a busy worker in all the various departments of the + administration. He published a new code of laws, the first since + Justinian, written in Greek instead of Latin, as the latter language + was now quite extinct in the Balkan Peninsula. He reorganized the + finances of the empire, which had fallen into hopeless confusion in + the anarchy between 695 and 717. The army had much of his care, but + it was more especially in the civil administration of the empire that + he seems to have left his mark. From Leo's day the gradual process of + decay which had been observable since the time of Justinian seems to + come to an end, and for three hundred years the reorganized + East-Roman state developed a power and energy which appear most + surprising after the disasters of the unhappy seventh century. Having + once lived down the Saracen danger, the empire reasserted its ancient + mastery in the East, until the coming of the Turks in the eleventh + century. We should be glad to have the details of Leo's reforms, but + most unhappily the monkish chroniclers who described his reign have + slurred over all his good deeds, in order to enlarge to more effect + on the iniquities of his crusade against image-worship. The effects + of his work are to be traced mainly by noting the improved and + well-ordered state of the empire after his death, and comparing it + with the anarchy that had preceded his accession.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-22.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Representation Of The Madonna Enthroned. (From a Byzantine Ivory.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Representation Of The Madonna Enthroned. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From a Byzantine Ivory.</span></span>) + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leo died in 740, + leaving the throne to his son, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Constantine V., whom he had brought up to + follow in his own footsteps. The new emperor was a good soldier and a + capable man of business, but his main interest in life centred in the + struggle against image-worship. Where Leo had chastised the adherents + of superstition with whips Constantine chastised them with scorpions. + He was a true persecutor, and executed not only rioters and traitors, + as his father had done, but all prominent opponents of his policy who + provoked his wrath. Hence he incurred an amount of hatred even + greater than that which encompassed Leo III., and his very name has + been handed down to history with the insulting byword <span lang="el" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Copronymus</span></span> tacked on to it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though strong and + clever, Constantine was far below his father in ability, and his + reign was marked by one or two disasters, though its general tenor + was successful enough. Two defeats in Bulgaria were comparatively + unimportant, but a noteworthy though not a dangerous loss was + suffered when Ravenna and all the other East-Roman possessions in + Central Italy were captured by the Lombards in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 750. At this time Pope + Stephen, when attacked by the same enemy, sent for aid to Pipin the + Frank, instead of calling on the Emperor, and for the future the + papacy was for all practical purposes dependent on the Franks and not + on the empire. The loss of the distant exarchate of Ravenna seemed a + small thing, however, when placed by the side of Constantine's + successes against the Saracens, Slavs, and Bulgarians, all of whom he + beat back with great slaughter on the numerous occasions when they + invaded the empire.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg + 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in the minds + both of Constantine himself and of his contemporaries, his dealings + with things religious were the main feature of his reign. He + collected a council of 338 bishops at Constantinople in 761, at which + image-worship was declared contrary to all Christian doctrine, and + after obtaining this condemnation, attacked it everywhere as a heresy + and not merely a superstition. In the following year, finding the + monks the strongest supporters of the images, he commenced a crusade + against monasticism. He first forbade the reception of any novices, + and shortly afterwards begun to close monasteries wholesale. We are + told that he compelled many of their inmates to marry by force of + threats; others were exiled to Cyprus by the hundred; not a few were + flogged and imprisoned, and a certain number of prominent men were + put to death. These unwise measures had the natural effect: the monks + were everywhere regarded as martyrs, and the image-worship which they + supported grew more than ever popular with the masses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While still in the + full vigour of his persecuting enthusiasm, Constantine Copronymus + died in 775, leaving the throne to his son, Leo IV., an Iconoclast, + like all his race, but one who imitated the milder measures of his + grandfather rather than the more violent methods of his father. Leo + was consumptive and died young, after a reign of little more than + four years, in which nothing occurred of importance save a great + victory over the Saracens in 776. His crown fell to his son, + Constantine VI., a child of ten, while the Empress-Dowager Irene + became sole regent, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg + 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> her + name was associated with that of her son in all acts of state.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Isaurian + dynasty was destined to end in a fearful and unnatural tragedy. The + Empress Irene was clever, domineering, and popular. The irresponsible + power of her office of regent filled her with overweening ambition. + She courted the favour of the populace and clergy by stopping the + persecution of the image-worshippers, and filled all offices, civil + and military, with creatures of her own. For ten years she ruled + undisturbed, and grew so full of pride and self-confidence that she + looked forward with dismay to the prospect of her son's attaining his + majority and claiming his inheritance. Even when he had reached the + age of manhood she kept him still excluded from state affairs, and + compelled him to marry, against his will, a favourite of her own. + Constantine was neither precocious nor unfilial, but in his + twenty-second year he rebelled against his mother's dictation, and + took his place at the helm of the state. Irene had actually striven + to oppose him by armed force, but he pardoned her, and after + secluding her for a short time, restored her to her former dignity. + The unnatural mother was far from acquiescing in her son's elevation, + and still dreamed of reasserting herself. She took advantage of the + evil repute which Constantine won by a disastrous war with Bulgaria, + and an unhappy quarrel with the Church, on the question of his + divorce from the wife who had been forced upon him. More especially, + however, she relied on her popularity with the multitude, which had + been won by stopping the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg + 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + persecution of the image-worshippers during her regency, for + Constantine had resumed the policy of his ancestors and developed + strong Iconoclastic tendencies when he came to his own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 797 Irene + imagined that things were ripe for attacking her son, and + conspirators, acting by her orders, seized the young emperor, blinded + him, and immured him in a monastery before any of his adherents were + able to come to his aid. Thus ended the rule of the Isaurian dynasty. + Constantine himself, however, survived many years as a blind monk, + and lived to see the ends of no less than five of his successors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The wicked Irene + sat on her ill-gained throne for some five troublous years, much + vexed by rebellion abroad and palace intrigues at home. It is + astonishing that her reign lasted so long, but it would seem that her + religious orthodoxy atoned in the eyes of many of her subjects for + the monstrous crime of her usurpation. The end did not come till 802, + when Nicephorus, her grand treasurer, having gained over some of the + eunuchs and other courtiers about her person, quietly seized her and + immured her in a monastery in the island of Chalke. No blow was + struck by any one in the cause of the wicked empress, and Nicephorus + quietly ascended the throne.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-23.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Details Of St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Details Of St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though containing + little that is memorable in itself, the reign of Irene must be noted + as the severing-point of that connection between Rome and + Constantinople, which had endured since the first days of empire. In + the year 800 Pope Leo III. crowned Karl, King of the Franks, as Roman + Emperor, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg + 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + transferred to him the nominal allegiance which he had hitherto paid + to Constantinople. Since the Italian rebellion in the time of + Constantine Copronymus, that allegiance had been a mere shadow, and + the papacy had been in reality under Frankish influence. But it was + not till 800 that the final breach took place. The Iconoclastic + controversy had prepared the way for it, while the fact that a woman + sat on the imperial throne served as a good excuse for the Pope's + action. Leo declared that a female reign was an anomaly and an + abomination, and took upon himself the onus of ending it, so far as + Italy was concerned, by creating a new emperor of the West. There + was, of course, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg + 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> no + legality in the act, and Karl the Great was in no real sense the + successor of Honorius and Romulus Augustulus, but he ruled a group of + kingdoms which embraced the larger half of the old Western Empire, + and formed a fair equipoise to the realm now ruled by Irene. From + 800, then, onward we have once more a West-Roman empire in existence + as well as the East-Roman, and it will be convenient for many + purposes to use the adjective Byzantine instead of the adjective + Roman, when we are dealing with the remaining history of the realm + that centred at Constantinople.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name= + "Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVI. The End Of The Iconoclasts. + (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">802-886.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Iconoclastic + controversy was far from being extinguished with the fall of the + house of Leo the Isaurian. It was destined to continue in a milder + form for more than half a century after the dethronement of + Constantine VI. The lines on which it was fought out were still the + same—the official hierarchy and the Asiatic provinces favoured + Iconoclasm, the clergy and the European provinces were <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Iconodules.”</span><a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" + href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> Hence it + is interesting to note that through the greater part of the ninth + century, while emperors of Eastern birth sat on the throne, the views + of Leo the Isaurian were still in vogue, and that the eventual + triumph of the image-worshippers only came about when a royal house + sprung from one of the European themes—the family of Basil the + Macedonian—gained possession of the crown.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The treasurer, + Nicephorus, who overthrew Irene, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and so easily obtained possession of the + empire, was of Oriental extraction. His ancestor had been a Christian + Arab prince, expelled from his country at the time of the rise of + Mahomet, and his family had always dwelt in Asia Minor. Hence we are + not surprised to find that Nicephorus was an Iconoclast, and refused + to follow in the steps of Irene in the direction of restoring + image-worship. He did not persecute the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Iconodules,”</span> as the Isaurians had done, but he + gave them no personal encouragement. This being so, it is natural + that we should find his character described in the blackest terms by + the monkish chroniclers of the succeeding century. He was, we are + told, a hypocrite, an oppresser, and a miser; but we cannot find any + very distinct traces of the operation of such vices in his conduct + during the nine years of his reign. He was not, however, a very + fortunate ruler; though he put down with ease several insurrections + of discontented generals, he was unlucky with his foreign wars. The + Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid did much harm to the Asiatic provinces, + ravaging the whole country as far as Ancyra, nor could Nicephorus get + rid of him without signing a rather ignominious peace, and paying a + large war-indemnity. A yet greater disaster concluded another war. + Nicephorus invaded Bulgaria in 811, to punish King Crumn for ravaging + Thrace. The Byzantine army won a battle and sacked the palace and + capital of the Bulgarian king; but a few days later Nicephorus + allowed himself to be surprised by a night attack on his camp. In the + panic and confusion the emperor fell, and his son and heir, + Stauracius, was desperately wounded. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> routed army did not stay its flight till + Adrianople, and left the body of the Emperor in the hands of the + Bulgarians, who cut off his head, and made the skull into a + drinking-cup, just as the Lombards had dealt with the skull of King + Cunimund three hundred years before.<a id="noteref_23" name= + "noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Stauracius, the + only son of Nicephorus, was proclaimed emperor, but it soon became + evident that his wound was mortal, and Michael Rhangabe, his + brother-in-law, who had married the eldest daughter of Nicephorus, + took his place on the throne before the breath was out of the dying + emperor's body.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael I. was a + weak, good-natured man, who owed his elevation to the mere chance of + his marriage. He was a devoted servant and admirer of monks, and + began to undo the work of his father-in-law, and remove all + Iconoclasts from office. This provoked the wrath of that powerful + party, and led to conspiracies against Michael, but he might have + held his own if it had not been for the disgracefully incompetent way + in which he conducted the Bulgarian war. He allowed an enemy whom the + East-Romans had hitherto despised, not only to ravage the open + country in Thrace, but to storm the fortresses of Mesembria and + Anchialus, and to push their invasions up to the gates of + Constantinople. The discontent of the army found vent in a mutiny, + and Leo the Armenian, an officer of merit and capacity, was + proclaimed emperor in the camp. Michael I. made no resistance, and + retired into a monastery after only two years of reign. [811-13.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leo the Armenian + proved himself worthy of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> confidence of the army. When the Bulgarians + appeared in front of the walls of Constantinople they were repulsed, + but Leo tarnished the glory of his success by a treacherous attempt + to assassinate King Crumn at a conference—a crime as unnecessary as + it was unsuccessful, for the Emperor might, as the event proved, have + trusted to the sword instead of the dagger. In the next spring he + took the offensive himself, marched out to Mesembria, and inflicted + on the enemy such a sanguinary defeat that hardly a man escaped his + sword, and Bulgaria was so weakened that it gave no further trouble + for more than fifty years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Almost the moment + that he was freed from the Bulgarian war, Leo became involved in the + fatal Iconoclastic controversy. Being a native of an Oriental theme, + he was naturally imbued with the views of his great namesake, the + Isaurian, and inclined to reverse the policy of the monk-loving + Michael I. But being moderate and wary he tried to introduce, without + the use of force, a middle policy between image-breaking and + image-worship—a fruitless attempt, which only brought him the + nickname of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Chameleon.”</span> Leo's + idea was the quaint device of permitting the use of images, but of + hanging them so high from the ground that the public should not be + able to touch or kiss them! This pleased nobody; on the one side, the + patriarch and his monks inveighed against the moving of the images, + while, on the other, tumultuous companies of Asiatic soldiery broke + into churches and mutilated all the pictures and figures they could + find. The seven years of Leo's reign were full of ecclesiastical + bickerings, but it should be <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> remembered to his credit that no single person + suffered death for his conscience' sake in the whole period. The most + violent of the opponents of the Emperor were merely interned in + remote monasteries, when they ventured to set their will against his. + Long ere the end of his reign, Leo had been compelled to leave his + half measures and prohibit all use of images. Like Constantine + Copronymus, he called a council to endorse his action, and a majority + of the Eastern bishops resolved that Iconolatry was a dangerous + heresy, and anathematized the patriarch Nicephorus and all other + defenders of the images.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leo's reign was + prosperous in all save the matter of his religious troubles. But he + was not destined to die in peace in his bed. Michael the Amorian, the + best general in the empire, was detected in a conspiracy against his + master. Leo cast him into prison, but delayed his punishment, and + left his accomplices at large. Michael had many friends in the palace + who determined to strike a blow ere the Emperor should have + discovered their guilt. They resolved to slay Leo in his private + chapel, as he attended matins on Christmas Day, for he was accustomed + to come unarmed and unguarded to the early communion. Accordingly, + the conspirators attended the service, and attacked the Emperor in + the midst of the Eucharistic hymn. Leo snatched the heavy metal cross + off the altar and struck down some of his assailants, but numbers + were too many for him, and he was cut down and slain at the very foot + of the holy table. [Christmas Day, 820.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael the + Amorian was dragged out of his <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> dungeon, saluted as emperor, and crowned, even + before the fetters were off his feet. It was not till the ceremony + had been performed that time was found to send for a smith to strike + away the rings.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael was by + birth a mere peasant, but had raised himself to high rank in the army + by his courage and ability. He is sometimes styled <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Amorian,”</span> from his birth-place, Amorium in + Phrygia, but more often mentioned by his nickname of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Stammerer.”</span> He had been the friend and + adviser of Leo the Armenian at the time of the latter's elevation to + the throne, and his conspiracy must be reckoned a gross piece of + ingratitude, even though we acknowledge that he was not personally + responsible for his master's murder.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though rough and + uncultured, Michael was a man of very considerable ability. He + strengthened his title to the crown by a marriage with the last scion + of the Isaurian house, the princess Euphrosyne, daughter of the blind + Constantine VI. The religious difficulties of the day he endeavoured + to treat in an absolutely impartial way, so as to offend neither + Iconoclasts nor Iconodules. He recalled from exile the + image-worshipping monks whom Leo the Armenian had sent to distant + monasteries, and proclaimed that for the future every subject of the + empire should enjoy complete liberty of conscience on the disputed + question. This was far from satisfying the image-worshippers, who + wished Michael to restore their idols to their ancient places: but + the Amorian would not consent to this, and obtained but a very + qualified measure of approval from the monastic + party.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg + 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not to be + expected that the reign of a military usurper, with no title to the + throne whatever, would be untroubled by revolts. Michael had his + share of such afflictions, and though he finally slew Thomas and + Euphemius, the two pretenders who laid claim to his crown, yet by + their means he lost two not inconsiderable provinces of his empire. + While the rebellion of Thomas was in progress, an army of Saracens + from Alexandria threw themselves on the island of Crete, and + conquered it from end to end. When Michael's hands were free he sent + two great armaments to expel the intruders, but both failed, and + Crete was destined to remain for a whole century in Moslem hands. Its + hundred harbours became the haunts of innumerable Corsairs, who grew + to be the bane of commerce in the Levant, and were a serious danger + to the empire whenever its fleet fell into bad hands and failed to + keep the police of the seas.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A similar rising + in Sicily under a rebel named Euphemius led to the invasion of that + island by an army of Moors from Africa, who landed in 827, and + maintained a foothold in spite of all efforts to expel them. At first + their gains were not rapid, but in the time of Michael's successors + they gradually won for themselves the whole of the island.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-24.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Byzantine Metal Work (Our Lord and the Twelve Apostles). (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Byzantine Metal Work (Our Lord and the Twelve Apostles). + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After nine years + of reign the Amorian died a natural death, still wearing the crown he + had won. It was just fifty years since any ruler of the empire had + met such a peaceful end. He was succeeded by his son Theophilus, a + vehement Iconoclast, whose persecuting tendencies had been with + difficulty restrained in his father's life-time. His accession was + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" + id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the signal for a new campaign + against image-worship; he induced the patriarch John the Grammarian, + a strong Iconoclast like himself, to excommunicate as idolaters all + who differed from him, and began to flog, banish, and imprison their + leading men. His persecution would have been almost as vehement as + that of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name= + "Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Constantine + Copronymus, but for the fact that he did not ever inflict the + punishment of death; branding and mutilation however he did not + disdain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Iconodules saw + the vengeance of heaven for the misdeeds of Theophilus in the + disasters which he suffered in war from the Saracens. He fell out + with the Caliph Motassem, and in the first campaign took and burnt + the town of Zapetra, for which the Commander of the Faithful had + great regard.<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> This + roused Motassem to furious wrath; he swore that he would destroy in + revenge the town which Theophilus held most dear; he collected the + largest Saracen army that had been seen since Moslemah beleaguered + Constantinople in 717, and marched out of Tarsus with 130,000 men, + each of whom (if legend speaks true) had the word Amorium painted on + his shield. For it was Amorium, the birth-place of the Emperor, and + the home of his ancestors that Motassem had sworn to sack. While one + division of the Caliph's army defeated Theophilus, who had taken the + field in person, another headed by Motassem himself marched straight + on Amorium, and took it after a brave defence of fifty-five days. + Thirty thousand of its inhabitants were massacred, and the town was + burnt, but the Caliph then turned home satisfied with his revenge, + and the empire suffered nothing more from this most dangerous + invasion. The Saracen war dragged on in an indecisive way, but no + further disaster was encountered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are other + things to be recorded of Theophilus beside his persecution of + image-worshippers and his <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg + 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> war + with the Caliph. He was long remembered for his taste for gorgeous + display; of all the East-Roman emperors he seems to have delighted + the most in gold and silver work, gems and embroidery. His golden + plane-tree was the talk of the East, and the golden lions at the foot + of his throne, which rose and roared by the means of ingenious + machinery within, were remembered for generations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor should the + curious tale of his second marriage be left untold. When left a + widower he bade the Empress-dowager Euphrosyne assemble at her levée + all the most beautiful of the daughters of the East-Roman + aristocracy, and came among them to choose a wife, carrying like + Paris a golden apple in his hand. His glance was first fixed on the + fair Eikasia, but approaching her he found no better topic to + commence a conversation than the awkward statement that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“most of the evil had come into the world by means of + women.”</span> The lady retorted that surely most of the good had + also come into the world by their means, a reply which apparently + discomposed Theophilus, for he walked on and without a further word + gave the golden apple to Theodora, a rival beauty. The choice was + hasty and unhappy, for Theodora was a devoted Iconodule, and used all + her influence against her husband's religious opinions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theophilus died in + 842, while still a young man, leaving the throne to his only son + Michael, a child of three years, and the regency to the young + empress. The moment that her husband's grave was closed Theodora set + to work to undo his policy. Amid the applause of the monks and the + populace of Constantinople <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg + 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> she + proclaimed the end of the persecution, sent for the banished + image-worshippers from their places of exile, and deposed John the + Grammarian, the Iconoclastic patriarch who had served Theophilus. + Within thirty days of the commencement of the new reign the images + had appeared once more on the walls of all the churches of + Constantinople. The Iconoclasts seem to have been taken by surprise, + and made no resistance to the revolution: however the empress did not + take any measures to persecute them; it was only power and not + security for life and limb that they lost. The sole permanent result + of the long struggle which they had kept up was a curious compromise + in the Eastern Church on the subject of representation of the human + figure. Statues were never again erected in places of worship, but + only paintings and mosaics. It was apparently believed that the + actual image savoured too much of the heathen idol, but that no + offence could possibly be given by the picture, which served as a + pious remembrance of the holy personage it represented, but could be + nothing more. Nevertheless the veneration of the Byzantines for their + holy <span class="tei tei-q">“Eikons”</span> became almost as + grotesque as idol-worship, and led to many quaint and curious forms + of superstition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodora, + engrossed in things religious, handed over the education of her young + son to her brother Bardas, who became her co-regent and was + afterwards made Caesar. He brought up the young Michael in the most + reckless and unconscientious manner, teaching him his own vices of + drunkenness and debauchery. Michael was an apt pupil, and ere he + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" + id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> reached the age of twenty-one + had become a confirmed dipsomaniac. History knows him by the + dishonourable nickname of <span class="tei tei-q">“Michael the + Drunkard.”</span> Some years after his majority he grew discontented + with his uncle, and slew him, in order that he might reign alone. His + profligacy and intemperance became still more unbearable after Bardas + was dead, and had it not been for the splendid organization of the + Byzantine civil service the administration of the empire must have + gone to pieces. Presently Michael grew tired of spending on state + affairs any time that he could spare from his orgies, and appointed + as Caesar and colleague his boon companion Basil the Macedonian. + Basil had reached the position of grand chamberlain purely by the + Emperor's favour; he rose from the lowest ranks and is said to have + first entered Michael's service in the humble position of a groom. + His practical ability, combined with a head hard enough to withstand + the effect of even the longest debauch, won Michael's admiration, and + so he came to be first chamberlain and then Caesar. Under the mask of + a roisterer Basil concealed the most devouring ambition, and when he + knew that his drunken benefactor had won the contempt of all the + East-Roman world, had the impudence and ingratitude to plan his + murder. Michael was stabbed while sleeping off the effects of one of + his orgies, and his low-born colleague seized the palace and + proclaimed himself emperor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It might have been + expected that the East-Roman world would have refused to receive as + its lord a man who owed his elevation to the freak of a drunkard, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" + id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and had then become the + assassin of his benefactor. But strangely enough Basil was destined + to found the longest dynasty that ever sat upon the + Constantinopolitan throne. He turned out a far better ruler than + might have been expected from his disgraceful antecedents, being one + of those fortunate men who are able to utilize the work of others + when their own powers and knowledge fall short.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil is mainly + remembered for his codification of the laws of the empire, which + superseded the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "el"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecloga</span></span> of Leo the + Isaurian, even as Leo's compilation had superseded the more solid and + thorough work of Justinian. The <span lang="el" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Basilika</span></span> of Basil with the + additions made by his son Leo VI. formed the code of the Byzantine + Empire down to its last days, no further rearrangement being ever + made.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil, being of + European birth and not an Asiatic like the preceding emperors, was + naturally an orthodox image-worshipper. He showed his bigotry by a + fierce persecution of the Paulicians, an Asiatic sect of heretics + accused of Manicheanism, whom the Iconoclast emperors had been wont + to tolerate. Basil's oppression drove many of them over the Saracen + frontier, where they took refuge with the Moslems and maintained + themselves by plundering the borders of the empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the other + transactions of his nineteen years of reign [867-886], the only one + deserving notice is the final loss of Sicily. The Saracens of Africa, + who had held a footing in the island ever since the time of Michael + II., now finished their work by storming Syracuse in 878.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name= + "Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVII. The Literary Emperors And Their + Time. (</span><span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 173%; font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 173%">886-963.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eighty years + which followed the death of Basil the Macedonian were the most + uneventful and monotonous in the whole history of the empire. They + are entirely taken up by the two long reigns of Leo the Wise and + Constantine Porphyrogenitus,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" + href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> the son + and grandson of the founder of the dynasty. Basil had been a mere + adventurer, an ignorant and uneducated but capable upstart. His + successors—strange issue from such a stock—were a pair of mild, + easy-going, and inoffensive men of literature. They wrote no annals + with their sword, though the times were not unpropitious for military + enterprise, but devoted themselves to the pen, and have left behind + them some of the most useful and interesting works in Byzantine + literature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the times had + been harder it is doubtful whether <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Leo VI. and Constantine VII. would have been + strong enough to protect their throne. But the period 880-960 was + less troubled by foreign wars than any other corresponding period in + the history of the East-Roman state. The empire of the Caliphs was + breaking up in the East—the empire of Charles the Great had already + broken up in the West—the Bulgarians and other neighbours of the + realm on the north were being converted to Christianity, and settling + down into quiet. The only troubles to which the East-Roman realm was + exposed were piratical raids of the Russians on the north and the + Saracens of Africa on the south. These were vexatious, but not + dangerous. An active and warlike emperor would probably have found + the time propitious for conquest from his neighbours, but Leo and + Constantine were quiet, unenterprising men, who dwelt contentedly in + the palace, and seldom or never took the field.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leo's reign of + twenty-six years was only diversified by an unfortunate invasion of + Bulgaria, which failed through the mismanagement of the generals, and + for a great raid of Saracen pirates on Thessalonica in 904. The + capture of the second city of the empire by a fleet of African + adventurers was an incident disgraceful to the administration of Leo, + and caused much outcry and sensation. But it is fair to say that it + was taken almost by surprise, and stormed from the side of the sea + where no attack had been expected. The armies and fleet of the empire + would have availed to rescue the town if only its fall had been + delayed a few weeks. When they had taken it the Saracens fled with + their booty, and made no attempt to hold its walls.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine + Porphyrogenitus, the offspring of the fourth wife of Leo the Wise, + and the child of his old age, was only seven when his heritage fell + to him. For many years he was under the tutelage of guardians; first + his father's brother Alexander ruled as his colleague, and became + emperor-regent. Some years after Alexander had died an ambitious + admiral named Romanus Lecapenus usurped the same position, declared + himself emperor, and administered the realm. The life of Romanus was + protracted into extreme old age, long after Constantine had reached + his majority; but the ambitious veteran held tight to the sceptre, + and kept the rightful heir in the background. Constantine consoled + himself by writing books and painting pictures; it was not till he + was nearly forty that he came to his own. Even then his success was + not owing to his own energy; the sons of the aged Romanus had + resolved to succeed their parent on the throne, in despite of the + rights of Constantine. But when they declared themselves emperors and + made their old father abdicate, an outburst of popular wrath was + provoked. The mob and the guards joined to sweep away the + presumptuous Stephen Lecapenus and his brother. They were immured in + monasteries, and Constantine emerged from his seclusion to administer + the empire for twenty years. He was somewhat weak and ineffective, + but neither obstinate nor tyrannical; many abler men made worse + rulers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief + achievements of both Leo and Constantine were their books. Those of + Leo consist of a manual on the Art of War, some theological + treatises, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + a book of prophecies, a collection of political enigmas, which were + long the puzzle and admiration of the East.<a id="noteref_26" name= + "noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> The + first-named work is most valuable and interesting, bringing down the + history of military organization, tactics, and strategy to Leo's own + time, and giving us a perfect picture of the Byzantine army and its + tactics, as well as incidental sketches of all the enemies with which + it had to contend. The backbone of the force was still the + <span class="tei tei-q">“themes”</span> or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“turmæ”</span> of heavy cavalry, of which every province + had one. The number of the provinces had been much increased since + the days of the emperors of the house of Heraclius, and this implied + a corresponding increase in the troops. They were raised from + subjects of the empire and officered by the Byzantine nobility, for + as Leo observed, <span class="tei tei-q">“There was no difficulty in + obtaining officers of good birth and private means, whose origin made + them respected by the soldiery, while their money enabled them to win + the good graces of their men by many gifts of small creature + comforts, over and above their pay.”</span> The names of some of the + great noble houses are found for generation after generation in the + imperial muster rolls, such as those of Ducas, Phocas, Comnenus, + Bryennius, Kerkuas, Diogenes, and many more. The pages of Leo's work + breathe an entire confidence in the power of the army to deal with + any foe; against Saracen, Turk, Hungarian, and Slav, instant and + decisive action is advised; when caught, they should be fought and + beaten. It <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg + 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is + only when dealing with the men of the West, the Franks and Lombards, + that Leo recommends caution and deprecates any rash engagement in a + general action, preferring to wear the enemy down by cutting off his + supplies and harassing his marches. We gather a very favourable + impression of the Byzantine army from Leo's book; it was organized, + armed, and supplied in a manner that has no parallel till modern + times. Each regiment possessed its special uniform, and was equipped + with regularity. There was none of that variety in arms and + organizations which was the bane of mediæval armies. The regiments + had each attached to them an elaborate military train, a small body + of engineers, and a provision of surgeons and ambulances. To + encourage the saving of wounded men, Leo tells us that the bearer + company was given a gold piece for every disabled soldier whom it + brought off the field after a lost battle. It would be hard to find + any similar care shown for the wounded till the days of our own + century.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Byzantine + fleet, as Leo describes it, had for its chief object the maintenance + of the police of the seas in the Aegean, Levant, and South Italian + waters. Its enemies were the Saracens of the Syrian and African + coasts, and more especially the troublesome Corsairs of Crete, who + were often beaten but never subdued till Nicephorus Phocas + exterminated them in 961. The empire maintained three fleets, small + ones in the Black Sea and in Western waters; but the largest in the + Aegean. This was composed of sixty <span class= + "tei tei-q">“dromonds,”</span> or war-vessels of the largest rating; + their great depôt was in the arsenal at Constantinople, but they + could <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name= + "Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> also be refitted at + Samos, Thessalonica, and several other ports. Owing to their superior + size, and still more to their employment of the celebrated Greek + fire, the imperial fleets generally had the better of the Saracen, + but though they checked his larger squadrons, they could never + suppress the petty piracy by isolated sea-robbers, which rendered all + mediæval commerce so dangerous.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The works of + Constantine Porphyrogenitus are even more interesting than those of + his father. His treatise called <span class="tei tei-q">“On the + Themes”</span> is invaluable to the historian, as it gives a complete + list of the Themes, their boundaries, inhabitants, characteristics, + and resources, with some other incidental notices of value. Still + more important is the book, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the + Administration of the Empire,”</span> which contains directions for + the foreign policy of the realm, and sketches the condition and + resources of the various nations with whom the Constantinopolitan + government had dealings. Constantine also wrote a biography of his + grandfather, Basil the Macedonian, couched in terms of respect which + that hardy usurper was far from deserving. But his longest and most + ambitious work was on Court Ceremonies, a manual of etiquette and + precedence, describing the official hierarchy of the empire, its + duties and privileges, and containing elaborate directions for the + conduct of state ceremonials and the interior economy of the royal + household. On this comparatively trifling topic Constantine spent far + more pains than on the works of larger interest which he composed. + His books show him to have been a man of no great originative + faculty, but <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg + 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + gifted with the powers of a careful and methodical compiler, who + loved details and never shirked trouble. His care for court pageants + was very characteristic of the peaceful emperor, who had long been + kept at home by his guardian, and forced to compensate himself by + ceremonial for the want of real power.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact that two + successive emperors devoted themselves to literary work is a + sufficient sign that by the end of the ninth century the times of + intellectual dearth and destitution which had so long prevailed were + now at an end. From the death of Justinian to the end of the + Heraclian dynasty matters grew gradually worse; from the rise of Leo + the Isaurian onward they began slowly to improve. The darkest age in + Byzantine literary history was from about 600 to 750, a period in + which we have hardly any contemporary annalists, no poetry save the + lost Heracliad of George of Pisidia, and very little even of + theology. Literature seemed absolutely dead at the accession of the + Isaurians, but the quickening influence of the reforms of the great + Leo seems to have been felt in that province as in every other. By + the end of the eighth century writers were far more numerous, though + many of them were only anti-Iconoclastic controversialists, like + Theodore Studita. By the ninth century we can trace the existence of + a much larger literary class, and find a few really first-rate + authors, such as the patriarch Photius (857-69), whose learning and + width of culture was astonishing, and whose library-catalogue is the + envy of modern scholars.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Perhaps the most + interesting development of Byzantine literature were the epics, or + Romances of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg + 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Chivalry as we feel more inclined to call them, which were written + toward the end of the times of the Macedonian dynasty. The epic of + Digenes Akritas, a work of the end of the tenth century, celebrating + the praises of a hero who lived in the reigns of Nicephorus Phocas + and John Zimisces [963-80], may serve as a type of the class. It + tells of the adventures in love and war of Basil Digenes Akritas, + warden of the Cilician Marches, or <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Clissurarch of Taurus,”</span> as his official title + would have run. He was a mighty hunter, both of bears and of + Saracens, put down the Apelates (or moss-troopers, to use a modern + analogy) who infested the border, and led many a foray into Syria. He + is even credited with the slaying of an occasional dragon by his + admiring bard. But perhaps the most interesting episode is the story + of his elopement with the fair Eudocia Ducas, daughter of the general + of the Cappadocian theme, whom he carried off in despite of her + father and seven brethren. Pursued by the irate family, he rode them + down one by one at vantage points in the passes, but spared their + lives, and was reconciled to them at the intercession of his bride. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Digenes Akritas”</span> is the best as well + as the earliest of the class which it represents.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-25.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "A Warrior-Saint (St. Leontius). (From a Byzantine Fresco.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin. 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + A Warrior-Saint (St. Leontius). (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From a + Byzantine Fresco.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin. + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Art followed much + the same course as literature in the period 600-900. It was in a + state of decay for the first century and a half, and the surviving + works of that time are often grotesquely rude. For sheer bad drawing + and bad execution nothing can be worse than a coin of Constans II. or + Constantine V.; a Frankish or Visigoth piece could not be much more + unsightly. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg + 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + few manuscripts which survive from that period display a + corresponding, though not an equally great, decline in art. Mosaic + work perhaps showed less decline than other branches of the + decoration, but even here seventh and eighth century work is very + rare.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the ninth + century everything improves wonderfully. It is most astonishing to + see how the old classical tradition of painting revive in the best + manuscript illumination of the period; many of them might have been + executed in the fifth or even the fourth century, so closely do they + reproduce the old Roman style. It seems that the Iconoclastic + controversy stimulated painting; persecuted by the emperors, the art + of sacred portraiture became respected above all others by the + multitude. Several of the most prominent <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Iconodule”</span> martyrs were painters, of whom it is + recorded that their works were no less beautiful than edifying: those + of Lazarus, whom the Emperor Theophilus tortured, are especially + cited as triumphs of art as well as sanctity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though a + persecutor of painters, Theophilus deserves a word of mention as the + first great builder since Justinian, and as a patron of the minor + arts of jewellery, silver work, and mosaic. There is good evidence + that these were all in a very flourishing condition in his time. + [829-42.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is one more + point in the history of the empire in the ninth century to which + attention must be called. This is the unique commercial importance of + Constantinople during this and the two succeeding centuries. All + other commerce than that of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> empire had been swept off the seas by the + Saracen pirates in the preceding hundred years, and the only touch + between Eastern and Western Christendom was kept up under the + protection of the imperial navy. The Eastern products which found + their way to Italy or France were all passed through the warehouses + of the Bosphorus. It was East-Roman ships that carried all the trade; + save a few Italian ports, such as Amalphi and the new city of Venice, + no place seems even to have possessed merchant ships. This monopoly + of the commerce of Europe was one of the greatest elements in the + strength of the empire. So much money and goods passed through it + that a rather harsh and unwise system of taxation did no permanent + harm.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name= + "Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVIII. Military Glory.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Constantine + Porphyrogenitus had been dragging out the monotonous years of his + long reign, events which completely changed the aspect of affairs in + the Moslem East had been following each other in quick succession on + the Asiatic frontier of his realm. Ever since it first came into + existence the Byzantine Empire had been faced in Asia by a single + powerful enemy; first by the Sassanian kingdom of Persia, then by the + Caliphate under the two dynasties of the Ommeyades and the Abbasides. + Now, however, the Caliphate had at last broken up, and the + descendants of Abdallah-es-Saffah and Haroun-al-Raschid had become + the vassals of a rebellious subject, and preserved a mere nominal + sovereignty which did not extend beyond the walls of their palace in + Bagdad.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The crisis had + come in 951 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, when the armies of the + Buhawid prince Imad-ud-din, who had seized on the sovereignty of + Persia, broke into Bagdad and made the Caliph a prisoner in his own + royal residence. For the future the Caliphs were no more <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> than puppets, and the Buhawid rulers used + their names as a mere form and pretence. But the conquerors did not + gain possession of the whole of the Caliphate; only Persia and the + Lower Euphrates Valley obeyed them. Other dynasties rose and fought + for the more western provinces of the old Moslem realm. The Emirs of + Aleppo and Mosul, who ruled respectively in North Syria and in + Mesopotamia, became the immediate neighbours of the East-Roman + Empire, while the lands beyond them, Egypt and South Syria, formed + the dominions of the house of the Ikshides.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + Byzantines found on their eastern frontier no longer one great + centralized power, but the comparatively weak Emirates of Aleppo and + Mosul, with the Buhawid and Ikshidite kingdoms in their rear. The + four Moslem states were all new and precarious creations of the + sword, and were generally at war with each other. An unparalleled + opportunity had arrived for the empire to take its revenge on its + ancient enemies and to move back the Mahometan boundaries from the + line along the Taurus where they had so long been fixed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fortunately it was + not only the hour that had arrived, but also the man. The empire had + at its disposal at this moment the best soldier that it had possessed + since the death of Leo the Isaurian. Nicephorus Phocas was the head + of one of those great landholding families of Asia Minor who formed + the flower of the Byzantine aristocracy; he owned broad lands in + Cappadocia, along the Mahometan frontier. His father and grandfather + before him had been distinguished <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> officers, for the whole race lived by the + sword, but Nicephorus far surpassed them. He was not only a practical + soldier, but a military author: his book, Περὶ Παραδρόμης πολέμου, + dealing with the organization of armies, still survives to testify to + his capacity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was on + Nicephorus then that Romanus II., the son and heir of Constantine + VII., fixed his choice, when he resolved to commence an attack on the + Mahometan powers. The point selected for assault was the island of + Crete, the dangerous haunt of Corsairs which lay across the mouth of + the Aegean, and sheltered the pestilent galleys that preyed on the + trade of the empire with the West. Several expeditions against it had + failed during the last half-century, but this one was fitted out on + the largest scale. The vessels are said to have been numbered by the + thousand, and the land force was chosen from the flower of the + Asiatic <span class="tei tei-q">“themes.”</span> Complete success + followed the arms of Nicephorus. He drove the Saracens into their + chief town Chandax (Candia), stormed that city, and took an enormous + booty—the hoarded wealth of a century of piracy. The whole island + then submitted, and Nicephorus sailed back to Constantinople to + present to his sovereign, in bonds, Kurup the captive Emir of Crete, + and all the best of the booty of the island [961 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nicephorus was + duly honoured for his feat of arms, and given command of an army + destined to open a campaign in the next year against the great + frontier strongholds of the Saracens in Asia Minor. Descending by the + passes of the Central Taurus into <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Cilicia, Phocas stormed Anazarbus, and then + forced Mount Amanus, and marched into Northern Syria. There he took + the great town of Hierapolis, and laid siege to Aleppo, the capital + of the Emir Seyf-ud-dowleh, who ruled from Mount Lebanon to the + Euphrates. The Emir was routed, the walls of his capital were + stormed, and Aleppo, with all its wealth, fell into the hands of the + Byzantine general. But the citadel still held out, and its protracted + resistance gave time for the Moslems of South Syria and Mesopotamia + to combine for the relief of their northern compatriots. So great an + army appeared before the walls of Aleppo that Phocas determined not + to risk a battle, and retreated with his booty and his numerous + prisoners into the defiles of Taurus [962 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>]. Sixty captured forts + and castles in Cilicia and North Syria were the permanent fruits of + his campaign.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next year the + emperor Romanus II. died, very unexpectedly, ere he had reached his + twenty-sixth year. He left a young wife, and two little boys, Basil, + aged seven, and Constantine, who was only two. There followed the + form of regency that custom had made usual. Nicephorus, the most + powerful and popular subject of the empire, claimed the guardianship + of the two young Caesars, and had himself crowned as their colleague. + To secure his place he married their mother, the young and beautiful + empress-dowager Theophano.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The joint reign of + Nicephorus Phocas and his wards, Basil II. and Constantine VIII. + lasted six years, 963-969. The regent behaved with scrupulous loyalty + to the young princes, and made no attempt to <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> encroach on their rights, or to supplant them + by any of his numerous nephews, who had looked forward to his + accession as likely to lead to their own promotion to imperial + power.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nicephorus was an + indefatigable soldier, and spent more of his reign in the field than + in the palace. His end in life was to complete, as emperor, the + conquest of Cilicia and North Syria, which he had commenced as + general. The years 964 and 965 were spent in achieving the former + object: three long sieges made him master of the great Cilician + frontier fortresses, Adana, Mopsuestia, and Tarsus. Their rich bronze + gates were sent as trophies to Constantinople, and set up again in + the archways of the imperial palace. A few months later the tale of + victories was completed by the news that Cyprus also had fallen back + into Byzantine hands, after having passed seventy-seven years in the + power of the Saracens.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For two years + after this Phocas was employed at home, where his administration was + less popular than in the camp. The stern old soldier was not a friend + of either priests or courtiers. He had several quarrels with the + patriarch Polyeuctus, which made him detested by the clergy, and in + his public life he displayed a dislike for pomp and ceremony which + led the Byzantine populace to style him a niggard and an extortioner. + He suppressed shows and sports, and turned all the public revenues + into the war budget, which lay nearest his heart. When he left the + city in 968 for a new campaign against the Saracens, he was a much + less popular ruler than when he had entered it in triumph in 966 + after the conquest of Cilicia.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the camp, + however, Nicephorus was as well loved and as successful as ever. His + last Syrian expedition was no less glorious than his earlier campaign + in the same quarter six years before. All the North Syrian cities + fell into his hands—Emesa, Hierapolis, Laodicea, and with them + Aleppo, the residence of the Emir: Damascus bought off the invader by + a great tribute. Only Antioch, the ancient capital of the land, held + out, and Antioch also was taken in the winter by escalade, through + the daring of an officer named Burtzes. The story of its fall is + curious. The Emperor had left a blockading army before it under a + general named Peter, with orders not to risk an assault. Burtzes, the + second in command, disobeyed orders and stormed a corner tower on a + snowy night at the head of a small band of 300 men. Peter, in fear of + the Emperor's orders, refused to send him aid, and for more than two + days Burtzes maintained himself unaided in the tower he had won. At + last, however, the main body entered, and the Saracens fled from the + town. Nicephorus dismissed both his generals from the service—Burtzes + for having acted against orders, Peter for having obeyed them too + slavishly, and allowing an important advantage to be imperilled.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nicephorus + returned to Constantinople in the following year, to meet his death + at the hands of those who should have been his nearest and dearest. + His wife, Theophano had learnt to hate her grim and stern husband, + who, though he possessed all the virtues, displayed none of the + graces. She had cast her eyes in love on the Emperor's favourite + nephew, John Zimisces, a young cavalry officer, who had <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> greatly distinguished himself in the + Syrian war. Zimisces listened to her tempting, but he was not swayed + by lust, but by ambition: he had hoped that his uncle would make him + heir to the throne, to the detriment of the young emperor Basil. The + loyal old soldier had no idea of wronging his wards, and his nephew + resolved to gain by murder what he could not gain by favour.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-26.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Return Of A Victorious Emperor. (From an Embroidered Robe.) (From "L'art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Return Of A Victorious Emperor. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From an + Embroidered Robe.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'art + Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So John and + Theophano conspired against their best friend, and basely murdered + him in the palace <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg + 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> one + December night in 969. The Emperor was awakened from sleep to find a + dozen of the assassins forcing his door. John threw him to the + ground, and the others stabbed him, while he cried in his + death-agony, <span class="tei tei-q">“Oh, God! grant me Thy + mercy!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus ended the + brave and virtuous Nicephorus Phocas. His murderers succeeded in + their end, for John Zimisces was able to seduce the guards, overawe + the ministers, and force the patriarch to crown him emperor. He + showed some contrition for the base slaughter of his uncle, giving + away half his private fortune to found hospitals for lepers, and the + other half to be distributed among the poor of the city. He did not + wed the partner of his guilt, the empress Theophano, but refused to + see her face, and ultimately sent her to a monastery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the manner of + his accession could but be forgiven John might pass for a favourable + specimen of an emperor. He respected the rights of the young emperors + Basil and Constantine as scrupulously as his uncle had done, and + proved that as an administrator and a soldier he was not unworthy to + sit in the seat of Phocas. But the Nemesis of the murder of his uncle + rested upon him in the shape of a long civil war. His cousin Bardas + Phocas took arms to revenge the death of the old Nicephorus, and + stirred up troubles among his Cappadocian countrymen for several + years, till at last he was captured and immured in a monastery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief feat for + which John Zimisces is remembered is his splendid victory over the + Russians, whose great invasion of the Balkan Peninsula falls within + the limits of his reign. We have not yet had much occasion + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" + id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to mention the Russian tribes, + who for many centuries had been dwelling in obscurity and barbarism, + by the waters of the Dnieper and the Duna, in a land of forest and + marsh, far remote from the boundaries of the empire. Nor should we + hear of them now, but for the fact that their scattered tribes had + been of late unified into a single horde by a power from without, and + urged forward into a career of conquest by a race of ambitious + princes. Into the land of the Russians there had come some hundred + years before the reign of John Zimisces [862 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>], a Viking band from + Sweden, headed by Rurik, the ancestor of all the princes and Tzars of + Russia. The descendants of these adventurers from the north had + gradually conquered and subdued all the Slavonic tribes of the great + forest-land, and formed them into a single powerful kingdom. Its + capital lay at Kief on the Dnieper, and it had proved a formidable + neighbour to all the barbarous tribes around. The Viking blood of the + new Russian princes drove them seaward, and ere many generations had + passed they had forced their way down the Dnieper into the Euxine, + and begun to vex the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire with + raids and ravages like those which the Danes inflicted on Western + Europe. Twice already, within the tenth century, had large fleets of + light Russia row-boats—they were copies on a smaller scale of the + Viking ships of the North—stolen down from the Dnieper mouth to the + shores of Thrace, and landed their plundering crews within a few + miles of the Bosphorus, for a hurried raid on the rich suburban + provinces. On the first occasion in 907, the Russians had returned + home laden with plunder, but on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> second, which fell in 941, the Byzantine fleet + had caught them at sea, and revenged the harrying of Thrace by + sinking scores of their light boats, which could not resist for a + moment the impact of the heavy war-galley urged by its hundred + oars.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-27.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the attack + which John Zimisces had to meet in 970 was far more formidable than + either of those which had preceded it. Swiatoslaf, king of the + Russians, had come down the Dnieper with no less than 60,000 men, and + had thrown himself on to the kingdom of Bulgaria, which was at the + moment distracted by civil war. He conquered the whole country, and + soon his marauders were crossing the Balkans and showing themselves + in the plain of Thrace. They even sacked the considerable town of + Philippopolis before the imperial troops came to its aid. This roused + Zimisces, who had been absent in Asia Minor, and in the early spring + of 971 an imperial army of 30,000 men set out to cross the Balkans + and drive the Russians into the Danube. The struggle which ensued was + one of the most desperate which East-Roman history records. The + Russians all fought on foot, in great square columns, armed with + spear and axe: they wore mail shirts and peaked helmets, just like + the Normans of Western Europe, to whom their princes were akin. The + shock of their columns was terrible, and their constancy in standing + firm almost incredible. Against these warriors of the North Zimisces + led the mailed horsemen of the Asiatic themes, and the bowmen and + slingers who were the flower of the Byzantine infantry. The tale of + John's two great battles with the Russians at Presthlava and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" + id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Silistria reads much like the + tale of the battle of Hastings. In Bulgaria, as in Sussex, the sturdy + axeman long beat off the desperate cavalry charges of their + opponents. But they could not resist the hail of arrows to which they + had no missile weapons to oppose, and when once the archers had + thinned their ranks, the Byzantine cavalry burst in, and made a + fearful slaughter in the broken phalanx. More fortunate than Harold + Godwineson at the field of Senlac, King Swiatoslaf escaped with his + life and the relics of his army. But he was beleaguered within the + walls of Silistria, and forced to yield himself, on the terms that he + and his men might take their way homeward, on swearing never to + molest the empire again. The Russian swore the oath and took a solemn + farewell of Zimisces. The contrast between the two monarchs struck + Leo the Deacon, a chronicler who seems to have been present at the + scene, and caused him to describe the meeting with some vigour. We + learn how the Emperor, a small alert fair-haired man, sat on his + great war-horse by the river bank, in his golden armour with his + guards about him, while the burly Viking rowed to meet him in a boat, + clad in nothing but a white shirt, and with his long moustache + floating in the wind. They bade each other adieu, and the Russian + departed, only to fall in battle ere the year was out, at the hands + of the Patzinak Tartars of the Southern Steppes. Soon after + Swiatoslaf's death the majority of the Russians became Christians, + and ere long ceased to trouble the empire by their raids. They became + faithful adherents of the Eastern Church, and drew their learning, + their civilization, even their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> names and titles from Constantinople. The Tzars + are but Caesars misspelt, and the list of their names—Michael, + Alexander, Nicholas, John, Peter, Alexis—sufficiently witnesses to + their Byzantine godparents. Russian mercenaries were ere long + enlisted in the imperial army, and formed the nucleus of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Varangian guard,”</span> in which at a later + day, Danes, English, and Norsemen of all sorts were incorporated.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-28.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Russian Architecture From Byzantine Model. (Church at Vladimir.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Russian Architecture From Byzantine Model. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Church at Vladimir.</span></span>) + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John Zimisces + survived his great victory at Silistria for five years, and won, ere + he died, more territory in Northern Syria from the Saracens. The + border which his uncle Nicephorus had pushed forward to Antioch and + Aleppo was advanced by him as far as Amida and Edessa in Mesopotamia. + But in the midst of his conquests Zimisces was cut off by death, + while still in the flower of his age. Report whispered that he had + been poisoned by one of his ministers, whom he had threatened to + displace. But the tale cannot be verified, and all that is certain is + that John died after a short illness, leaving the throne to his young + ward Basil II., who had now attained the age of twenty years [976 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>].</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name= + "Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIX. The End Of The Macedonian + Dynasty.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil II., who now + sat in his own right on the throne which his warlike guardians + Nicephorus and John had so long protected, was by no means unworthy + to succeed them. Unlike his ancestors of the Macedonian house, he + showed from the first a love for war and adventure. Probably the + deeds of John and Nicephorus excited him to emulation: at any rate + his long reign from 976 till 1025, is one continuous record of wars, + and almost entirely of wars brought to a successful termination. + Basil seemed to have modelled himself on the elder of his two + guardians, the stern Nicephorus Phocas. His earliest years on the + throne, indeed, were spent in the pursuit of pleasure, but ere he + reached the age of thirty a sudden transformation was visible in him. + He gave himself up entirely to war and religion: he took a vow of + chastity, and always wore the garb of a monk under his armour and his + imperial robes. His piety was exaggerated into bigotry and + fanaticism, but it was undoubtedly real, though it did not keep him + from the commission of many deeds of shocking cruelty <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the course of his wars. His justice + was equally renowned, but it often degenerated into mere harshness + and indifference to suffering. No one could have been more unlike his + gay pleasure-loving father, or his mild literary grandfather, than + the grim emperor who won from posterity the title of Bulgaroktonos, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Slayer of the Bulgarians.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil's life-work + was the moving back of the East-Roman border in the Balkan Peninsula + as far as the Danube, a line which it had not touched since the + Slavonic immigration in the days of Heraclius, three hundred and + fifty years before. In the first years of his reign, indeed, he + accomplished little, being much harassed by two rebellions of great + Asiatic nobles—Bardas Phocas, the nephew of Nicephorus II., and + Bardas Skleros, the general of the Armeniac theme. But after Phocas + had died and Skleros had surrendered, Basil reserved all his energies + for war in Europe, paying comparatively little attention to the + Eastern conquests which had engrossed Nicephorus Phocas and John + Zimisces.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole interior + of the Balkan Peninsula formed at this period part of the dominions + of Samuel King of the Bulgarians, who reigned over Bulgaria, Servia, + inland Macedonia, and other districts around them. It was a strong + and compact kingdom, administered by an able man, who had won his way + to the throne by sheer strength and ability, for the old royal house + had ceased out of the land during Swiatoslaf's invasion of Bulgaria + ten years before. The main power of Samuel lay not in the land + between Balkan and Danube, which gave his kingdom its name, but in + the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name= + "Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Slavonic districts + further West and South. The centre of his realm was the fortress of + Ochrida, which he had chosen as his capital—a strong town situated on + a lake among the Macedonian hills. There Samuel mustered his armies, + and from thence he started forth to attach either Thessalonica or + Adrianople, as the opportunity might come to him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The duel between + Basil and Samuel lasted no less than thirty-four years, till the + Bulgarian king died a beaten man in 1014. This long and unremitting + struggle taxed all the energies of the empire, for Samuel was not a + foe to be despised; he was no mere barbarian, but had learnt the art + of war from his Byzantine neighbours, and had specially studied + fortification. It was the desperate defences of his numerous + hill-castles that made Basil's task such a long one. The details of + the struggle are too long to follow out: suffice it to say that after + some defeats in his earlier years, Basil accomplished the conquest of + Bulgaria proper, as far as the Danube, in 1002, the year in which + Widdin, the last of Samuel's strongholds in the North surrendered to + him. For twelve years more the enemy held out in the Central Balkans, + in his Macedonian strongholds, about Ochrida and Uskup. But at last, + Basil's constant victories in the field, and his relentless slaughter + of captives after the day was won, broke the force of the Bulgarian + king. In 1014 the Emperor gained a crowning victory, after which he + took 15,000 prisoners: he put out the eyes of all save one man in + each hundred, and sent the poor wretches with their guides to seek + King Samuel in his capital. The old Bulgarian was so overcome + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" + id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> at the horrible sight that he + was seized with a fit, and died on the spot, of rage and grief. His + successors Gabriel and Ladislas could make no head against the stern + and relentless emperor, and in 1018 the last fortress of the kingdom + of Ochrida surrendered at discretion. Contrary to his habit, Basil + treated the vanquished foe with mildness, indulged in no massacres, + and contented himself with repairing the old Roman roads and + fortresses of the Central Balkans, without attempting to exterminate + the Slavonic tribes that had so often defied him. His conquests + rounded off the empire on its northern frontier, and made it touch + the Magyar kingdom of Hungary, for Servia no less than Bulgaria and + Macedonia formed part of his conquests. The Byzantine border now ran + from Belgrade to the Danube mouth, a line which it was destined to + preserve for nearly two hundred years, till the great rebellion of + Bulgaria against Isaac Angelus in the year 1086.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having justly + earned his grim title of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Slayer of the + Bulgarians”</span> by his long series of victories in Europe, Basil + turned in his old age to continue the work of John Zimisces on the + Eastern frontier. There the Moslem states were still weak and + divided; though a new power, the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, had come + to the front, and acquired an ascendency over its neighbours. Basil's + last campaigns, in 1021-2, were directed against the princes of + Armenia, and the Iberians and Abasgians who dwelt beyond them to the + north. His arms were entirely successful, and he added many Armenian + districts to his Eastern provinces; but it may be questioned whether + these <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name= + "Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> conquests were + beneficial to the empire. A strong Armenian kingdom was a useful + neighbour to the Byzantine realm; being a Christian state it was + usually friendly to the empire, and acted as a barrier against Moslem + attacks from Persia. Basil broke up the Armenian power, but did not + annex the whole country, or establish in it any adequate provision + against the ultimate danger of attacks from the East by the Mahometan + powers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil died in 1025 + at the age of sixty-eight, just as he was preparing to send forth an + expedition to rescue Sicily from the hands of the Saracens. He had + won more provinces for the empire than any general since the days of + the great Belisarius, and at his death the Byzantine borders had + reached the furthest extension which they ever knew. His successors + were to be unworthy of his throne, and were destined to lose + provinces with as constant regularity as he himself had shown in + gaining them. There was to be no one after him who could boast that + he had fought thirty campaigns in the open field with harness on his + back, and had never turned aside from any enterprise that he had ever + taken in hand.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Basil's brother + Constantine had been his colleague in name all through the half + century of his reign. No one could have been more unlike the ascetic + and indefatigable <span class="tei tei-q">“Slayer of the + Bulgarians.”</span> Constantine was a mere worldling, a man of + pleasure, a votary of the table and the wine cup, whose only + redeeming tastes were a devotion to music and literature. He had + dwelt in his corner of the palace surrounded by a little court of + eunuchs and flatterers, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg + 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + excluded by the stern Basil from all share and lot in the + administration of the empire. Now Constantine found himself the heir + of his childless brother, and was forced at the age of sixty to take + up the responsibilities of empire. He proved an idle and incompetent, + but not an actively mischievous sovereign. His worst act was to hand + over the administration of the chief offices of state to six of his + old courtiers—all eunuchs—whose elevation was a cause of wild anger + to the great noble families, and whose inexperience led to much weak + and futile government during his short reign.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine died + in 1028, after a very brief taste of empire. He was the last male of + the Macedonian house, and left no heirs save his elderly unmarried + daughters—whose education and moral training he had grossly + neglected. Zoe, the eldest, was more than forty years of age, but her + father had never found her a husband. On his death-bed, however, he + sent for a middle-aged noble named Romanus Argyrus, and forced him, + at an hour's notice, to wed the princess. Only two days later Romanus + found himself left, by his father-in-law's death, titular head of the + empire. But Zoe, a clever, obstinate, and unscrupulous woman, kept + the reins of authority in her own hands, and gave her unwilling + spouse many an evil hour. She was inordinately vain, and pretended, + like Queen Elizabeth of England, to be the mistress of all hearts + long after she was well advanced in middle age. Her husband let her + go her own way, and devoted himself to such affairs of state as he + was allowed to manage. His interference with warlike matters was most + unhappy. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg + 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Venturing a campaign in Syria, he led his army to defeat, and saw + several towns on the border fall into the hands of the Emir of + Aleppo. After a reign of six years Romanus died of a lingering + disease, and Zoe was left a widow. Almost before the breath was out + of her husband's body, the volatile empress—she was now over + fifty—had chosen and wedded another partner. The new emperor was + Michael the Paphlagonian, a young courtier who had been Gentleman of + the Bedchamber to Romanus: he was twenty-eight years of age and noted + as the most handsome man in Constantinople. His good looks had won + Zoe's fancy, and to his own surprise he found himself seated on the + throne by his elderly admirer [1034].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The object of + Zoe's anile affection was a capable man, and justified his rather + humiliating elevation by good service to the empire. He beat back the + Saracens from Syria and put down a Bulgarian rebellion with success. + But in his last years he saw Servia, one of the conquests of Basil + II., burst out into revolt, and could not quell it. He also failed in + a project to reconquer Sicily from the Moors, though he sent against + the island George Maniakes, the best general of the day, who won many + towns and defeated the Moslems in two pitched battles. The attempt to + subdue the whole island failed, and the conquests of Maniakes were + lost one after the other. Michael IV., though still a young man, was + fearfully afflicted with epileptic fits, which sapped his health, and + so enfeebled him that he died a hopeless invalid ere he reached the + age of thirty-six. The irrepressible Zoe, now again a widow, took a + few days to decide whether she would <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> adopt a son, or marry a third husband. She + first tried the former alternative, and crowned as her colleague her + late spouse's nephew and namesake Michael V. But the young man proved + ungrateful, and strove to deprive the aged empress of the control of + affairs. When he announced his intention of removing her from the + capital, the city mob, who loved the Macedonian house, and laughed at + rather than reprobated the foibles of Zoe, took arms to defend their + mistress. In a fierce fight between the rioters and the guards of + Michael V., 3,000 lives were lost: but the insurgents had the upper + hand, routed the soldiery, and caught and blinded Michael.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Zoe, once more at + the head of the state, now made her third marriage, at the age of + sixty-two. She chose as her partner Constantine Monomachus, an old + debauchee who had been her lover thirty years ago. Their joint reign + was unhappy both at home and abroad. Frequent rebellions broke out + both in Asia Minor and in the Balkan Peninsula. The Patzinaks sent + forays across the Danube, while a new enemy, the Normans of South + Italy, conquered the <span class="tei tei-q">“theme of + Langobardia,”</span> the last Byzantine possession to the West of the + Adriatic, and established in its stead the duchy of Apulia [1055]. A + still more dangerous foe began also to be heard of along the Eastern + frontier. The Seljouk Turks were now commencing a career of conquest + in Persia and the lands on the Oxus. In 1048 the advance guard of + their hordes began to ravage the Armenian frontier of the empire. But + this danger was not yet a pressing one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Zoe and + Constantine IX. were dead, the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sole remaining scion of the Macedonian house + was saluted as ruler of the empire. This was Theodora, the younger + sister of Zoe, an old woman of seventy, who had spent the best part + of her days in a nunnery. She was as sour and ascetic as her sister + had been vain and amorous; but she does not seem to have been the + worst of the rulers of Byzantium, and her two years of power were not + troubled by rebellions or vexed by foreign war. Her austere virtues + won her some respect from the people, and the fact that she was the + last of her house, and that with its extinction the troubles of a + disputed succession were doomed to come upon the empire, seems to + have sobered her subjects, and led them to let the last days of the + Basilian dynasty pass away in peace.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodora died on + the 30th of August, 1057, having on her death-bed declared that she + adopted Michael Stratioticus as her successor. Then commenced the + reign of trouble, the <span class="tei tei-q">“third anarchy”</span> + in the history of the Byzantine Empire.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name= + "Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XX. Manzikert. (1057-1081.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moment that + the last of the Macedonian dynasty was gone, the elements of discord + seemed unchained, and the double scourge of civil war and foreign + invasion began to afflict the empire. In the twenty-four years + between 1057 and 1081 were pressed more disasters than had been seen + in any other period of East-Roman history, save perhaps the reign of + Heraclius. For now came the second cutting-short of the empire, the + blow that was destined to shear away half its strength, and leave it + maimed beyond any possibility of ultimate recovery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Domestic troubles + were the first inevitable consequence of the extinction of the + Macedonian dynasty. The aged Theodora had named as her successor on + the throne Michael Stratioticus, a contemporary of her own who had + been an able soldier twenty-five years back. But Michael VI. was + grown aged and incompetent, and the empire was full of ambitious + generals, who would not tolerate a dotard on the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> throne. Before a year had passed a band + of great Asiatic nobles entered into a conspiracy to overturn + Michael, and replace him by Isaac Comnenus, the chief of one of the + ancient Cappadocian houses, and the most popular general of the + East.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Isaac Comnenus and + his friends took arms, and dispossessed the aged Michael of his + throne with little difficulty. But a curse seemed to rest upon the + usurpation; Isaac was stricken down by disease when he had been + little more than a year on the throne, and retired to a monastery to + die. His crown was transferred to Constantine Ducas, another + Cappadocian noble, who was supposed to be second only to Isaac in + competence and popularity. Constantine reigned for seven troubled + years, and disappointed all his supporters, for he proved but a sorry + administrator. His mind was set on nothing but finance, and in the + endeavour to build up again the imperial treasure, which had been + sorely wasted since the death of Basil II., he neglected all the + other departments of state. To save money he disbanded no + inconsiderable portion of the army, and cut down the pay of the rest. + This was sheer madness, when there was impending over the empire the + most terrible military danger that had been seen for four centuries. + The safety of the realm was entirely in the hands of its well-paid + and well-disciplined national army, and anything that impaired the + efficiency of the army was fraught with the deadliest peril.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Seljouk Turks + were now drawing near. Pressing on from the Oxus lands, their hordes + had overrun Persia and extinguished the dynasty of the Buhawides. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" + id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In 1050, they had penetrated + to Bagdad, and their great chief, Togrul Beg, had declared himself + <span class="tei tei-q">“defender of the faith and protector of the + Caliph.”</span> Armenia had next been overrun, and those portions of + it which had not been annexed to the empire, and still obeyed + independent princes, had been conquered by 1064. In that year fell + Ani, the ancient Armenian capital, and the bulwark which protected + the Byzantine Empire from Eastern invasions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reign of + Constantine Ducas was troubled by countless Seljouk invasions of the + Armeniac, Anatolic, and Cappadocian themes. Sometimes the invaders + were driven back, sometimes they eluded the imperial troops and + escaped with their booty. But whether successful or unsuccessful, + they displayed a reckless cruelty, far surpassing anything that the + Saracens had ever shown. Wherever they passed they not merely + plundered to right and left, but slew off the whole population. + Meanwhile, Constantine X., with his reduced army, proved incompetent + to hold them back; all the more so that his operations were + distracted by an invasion of the Uzes, a Tartar tribe from the Euxine + shore, who had burst into Bulgaria.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ducas died in + 1067, leaving the throne to his son, Michael, a boy of fourteen + years. The usual result followed. To secure her son's life and + throne, the Empress-dowager Eudocia took a new husband, and made him + guardian of the young Michael. The new Emperor-regent was Romanus + Diogenes, an Asiatic noble, whose brilliant courage displayed in the + Seljouk wars had dazzled the world, and caused it to forget that + caution and ability are far more regal virtues than <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> headlong valour. Romanus took in hand + with the greatest vigour the task of repelling the Turks, which his + predecessor had so grievously neglected. He led into the field every + man that could be collected from the European or Asiatic themes, and + for three successive years was incessantly marching and + counter-marching in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria, in the endeavour + to hunt down the marauding bands of the Seljouks.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The operations of + Romanus were not entirely unsuccessful. Alp Arslan, the Sultan of the + Seljouks, contented himself at first with dispersing his hordes in + scattered bands, and attacking many points of the frontier at once. + Hence the Emperor was not unfrequently able to catch and slay off one + of the minor divisions of the Turkish army. But some of them always + contrived to elude him; his heavy cavalry could not come up with the + light Seljouk horse bowmen, who generally escaped and rode back home + by a long detour, burning and murdering as they went. Cappadocia was + already desolated from end to end, and the Turkish raids had reached + as far as Amorium, in Phrygia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1071 came the + final disaster. In pursuing the Seljouk plunderers, Romanus was drawn + far eastward, to Manzikert, on the Armenian frontier. There he found + himself confronted, not by a flying foe, but by the whole force of + the Seljouk sultanate, with Alp Arslan himself at its head. Though + his army was harassed by long marches, and though two large divisions + were absent, the Emperor was eager to fight. The Turks had never + before offered him a fair field, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and he relied implicitly on the power of his + cuirassiers to ride down any number, however great, of the light + Turkish horse.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-29.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Our Lord Blessing Romanus Diogenes And Eudocia. (From an Ivory at Paris.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Our Lord Blessing Romanus Diogenes And Eudocia. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From an Ivory at Paris.</span></span>) + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The decisive + battle of Manzikert, which it is not too much to call the + turning-point of the whole course of Byzantine history, was fought in + the early summer of 1071. For a long day the Byzantine horsemen + continued to roll back and break through the lines of Turkish horse + bowmen. But fresh hordes kept coming on, and in the evening the fight + was still undecided. As the night was approaching, Romanus prepared + to draw his troops back to the camp, but an unhappy misconception of + orders broke up the line, and the Seljouks edged in between the two + halves of the army. Either from treachery or cowardice Andronicus + Ducas, the officer who commanded the reserve, led his men off without + fighting. The Emperor's division was beset on all sides by the enemy, + and broke up in the dusk. Romanus himself was wounded, thrown from + his horse, and made prisoner. The greater part of his men were cut to + pieces.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-30.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Nicephorus Botaniates Sitting In State. (From a contemporary MS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Nicephorus Botaniates Sitting In State. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + a contemporary MS.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alp Arslan showed + himself more forbearing to his prisoner than might have been + expected. It is true that Romanus was led after his capture to the + tent of the Sultan, and laid prostrate before him, that, after the + Turkish custom, the conqueror might place his foot on the neck of his + vanquished foe. But after this humiliating ceremony the Emperor was + treated with kindness, and allowed after some months to ransom + himself and return home. He would have fared better, however, if he + had remained the prisoner of the Turk. During his captivity the + conduct of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg + 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + affairs had fallen into the hands of John Ducas, uncle of the young + emperor Michael. The unscrupulous regent was determined that Romanus + should not supersede him and mount the throne again. When the + released captive reappeared, John had him seized <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and blinded. The cruel work was so + roughly done that the unfortunate Romanus died a few days later.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After this fearful + disaster Asia Minor was lost; there was no chief to take the place of + Romanus, and the Seljouk hordes spread westward almost unopposed. The + next ten years were a time of chaos and disaster. While the Seljouks + were carving their way deeper and deeper into the vitals of the + empire, the wrecks of the Byzantine army were employed not in + resisting them, but in carrying on a desperate series of civil wars. + After the death of Romanus, every general in the empire seemed to + think that the time had come for him to assume the purple buskins and + proclaim himself emperor. History records the names of no less than + six pretenders to the throne during the next nine years, besides + several rebels who took up arms without assuming the imperial title. + The young emperor, Michael Ducas, proved, when he came of age, to be + a vicious nonentity; he is remembered in Byzantine history only by + his nickname of Para-pinakes, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“peck-filcher,”</span> given him because in a year of + famine he sold the measure of wheat to his subjects a fourth short of + its proper contents. His name and that of Nicephorus Botaniates, the + rebel who overthrew him, cover in the list of emperors a space of ten + years that would better be represented by a blank; for the authority + of the nominal ruler scarcely extended beyond the walls of the + capital, and the themes that were not overrun by the Turks were in + the hands of governors who each did what was right in his own eyes. + At last a man of ability worked himself up to the surface. This was + Alexius <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name= + "Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Comnenus, nephew of + the emperor Isaac Comnenus, whose short reign we related in the + opening paragraph of this chapter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius was a man + of courage and ability, but he displayed one of the worst types of + Byzantine character. Indeed, he was the first emperor to whom the + epithet <span class="tei tei-q">“Byzantine,”</span> in its common and + opprobrious sense could be applied. He was the most accomplished liar + of his age, and, while winning and defending the imperial throne, + committed enough acts of mean treachery, and swore enough false oaths + to startle even the courtiers of Constantinople. He could fight when + necessary, but he preferred to win by treason and perjury. Yet as a + ruler he had many virtues, and it will always be remembered to his + credit that he dragged the empire out of the deepest slough of + degradation and ruin that it had ever sunk into. Though false, he was + not cruel, and seven ex-emperors and usurpers, living unharmed in + Constantinople under his sceptre, bore witness to the mildness of his + rule. The tale of his reign sufficiently bears witness to the strange + mixture of moral obliquity and practical ability in his + character.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name= + "Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXI. The Comneni And The + Crusades.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius Comnenus + found himself, in 1081, placed in a position almost as difficult and + perilous as that which Leo the Isaurian faced in 716. Like Leo, he + was a usurper without prestige or hereditary claims, seated on an + unsteady throne, and forced to face imminent danger from the Moslem + enemy without, and from rival adventurers within. It may be added + that the Isaurian, grievously threatened as he was by the enemy from + the East, had no peril impending from the West. Alexius had to face + at one and the same time the assault of the Seljouks on Asia Minor, + and the attack of a new and formidable foe in his western provinces. + We have already mentioned the manner in which the Byzantine dominion + in Italy had come to an end. Now the same Norman adventurers who had + stripped the empire of Calabria and Apulia were preparing to cross + the straits of Otranto, and seek out the Emperor in the central + provinces of his realm. The forces of the Italian and Sicilian + Normans were united under <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg + 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + their great chief Robert Guiscard, the hardy and unscrupulous Duke of + Apulia. Just ten years before he had captured Bari, the last + Byzantine fortress on his own side of the straits; now he was + resolved to take advantage of the anarchy which had prevailed in the + empire ever since the day of Manzikert, and to build up new Norman + principalities to the east of the Adriatic. There seemed to be + nothing presumptuous in the scheme to those who remembered how a few + hundred Norman adventurers had conquered all Southern Italy and + Sicily, and swelled into a victorious army fifty thousand strong. Nor + could the invaders fail to remember how, but fifteen years before, + another Norman duke had crossed another strait in the far West, and + won by his strong right hand the great kingdom of England. Alexius + Comnenus sat like Harold Godwinson on a lately-acquired and unsteady + throne, and Duke Robert thought to deal with him much as Duke William + had dealt with the Englishman.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In June, 1081, the + Normans landed, thirty thousand strong, and laid siege to Durazzo, + the maritime fortress that guarded the Epirot coast. The Emperor at + once flew to its succour. Always active, hopeful, and versatile, he + trusted that he might be able to beat off the new invaders, whose + military worth he was far from appreciating at its true value. He + patched up a hasty pacification with Suleiman, Sultan of the + Seljouks, by surrendering to him all the territory of which the Turk + was in actual possession, a tract which now extended as far as the + waters of the Propontis, and actually included the city of Nicaea, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" + id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> close to the Bithynian shore, + and only seventy miles from Constantinople.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The army with + which Alexius had to face the Normans was the mere wreck and shadow + of that which Romanus IV. had led against the Turks ten years before. + The military organization of the empire had gone to pieces, and we no + longer hear of the old <span class="tei tei-q">“Themes”</span> of + heavy cavalry which had formed its backbone. The new army contained + quite a small proportion of national troops. Its core was the + imperial guard of Varangians—the Russian, Danish, and English + mercenaries, whose courage had won the confidence of so many + emperors. With them marched many Turkish, Frankish, Servian, and + South-Slavonic auxiliaries; the native element comprised the regulars + of the three provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, all that + now remained in Alexius' hands of the ancient East-Roman realm.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius brought + Robert Guiscard to battle in front of Durazzo, and suffered a + crushing defeat at his hands. The Emperor's bad tactics were the main + cause of his failure: his army came upon the ground in successive + detachments, and the van was cut to pieces before the main body had + reached the field. The brunt of the battle was borne by the + Varangians: carried away by their fiery courage, they charged the + Normans before the rest of Alexius's troops had formed their line of + battle. Rushing on the wing of Robert's army, commanded by the Count + of Bari, they drove it horse and foot into the sea. Their success, + however, disordered their ranks, and the Norman duke was able to turn + his whole force <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg + 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + against them ere the Emperor was near enough to give them aid. A + fierce cavalry charge cut off the greater part of the Varangians; the + rest collected on a mound by the sea-shore, and for some time beat + off the Normans with their axes, as King Harold's men had done at + Senlac on the last occasion when English and Norman had met. But + Robert shot them down with his archers, and then sent more cavalry + against them. They fell, save a small remnant who defended themselves + in a ruined chapel, which Guiscard had finally to burn before he + could make an end of its obstinate defenders.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rest of + Alexius's army only came into action when the Varangians had been + destroyed. It was cowed by the loss of its best corps, fought badly, + and fled in haste. Alexius himself, who lingered last upon the field, + was surrounded, and only escaped by the speed of his horse and the + strength of his sword-arm. Durazzo fell, and in the next year the + Normans overran all Epirus and descended into Thessaly. Alexius + risked two more engagements with them, but his inexperienced troops + were defeated in both. Disaster taught him to avoid pitched battles, + and at last, in 1083, after a more cautious campaign, his patience + was rewarded by the dispersion of the Norman army. Catching it while + divided, the Emperor inflicted on it a severe defeat at Larissa, and + forced it back into Epirus. After this the war slackened, and when + Robert Guiscard died in 1085 the Norman danger passed away.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus one foe was + removed, but Alexius was not destined to win peace. Constant + rebellions at home, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg + 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + wars with the Patzinaks, the Slavs, and the Seljouks filled the next + ten years. Alexius, however, was never discouraged: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“eking out the lion's skin with the fox's hide,”</span> + he fought and intrigued, lied and negotiated, and at the end of the + time had held his own and lost no more territory, while his throne + was growing more secure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in the + fifteenth year of his reign a new cloud began to arise in the west, + which was destined to exercise unsuspected influence, both for good + and evil, on the empire. The Crusades were on the eve of their + commencement. Ever since the Seljouks had taken Jerusalem in 1075, + four years after Manzikert, the western pilgrims to the Holy Land had + been suffering grievous things at the hands of the barbarians. But + all the wrath that their ill-treatment provoked would have been + fruitless, if the way to Syria had not been opened of late to the + nations of Western Christendom. Two series of events had made free + communication between East and West possible in the end of the + eleventh century, in a measure which had never before been seen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these + was the conversion of Hungary, begun by St. Stephen in 1000, and + completed about 1050. For the future there lay between the Byzantine + Empire and Germany not a barbarous pagan state, but a semi-civilized + Christian kingdom, which had taken its place among the other nations + of the Roman Catholic faith. Communication down the Danube, between + Vienna and the Byzantine outposts in Bulgaria, became for the first + time possible, and ere long the route grew popular. The second + phenomenon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg + 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which made the Crusades possible was the destruction of the Saracen + naval power in the Central Mediterranean. This was carried out first + by the Pisans and Genoese, whose fleets conquered Corsica and + Sardinia from the Moslems, and then by the Normans, whose occupation + of Sicily made the voyage from Marseilles and Genoa to the East safe + and sure. Four new maritime powers—the Genoese, Pisans, and Normans + in the open sea, and the Venetians in the Adriatic—had developed + themselves into importance, and now their fleets swept the waters + where no Christian war-galleys save those of Byzantium, had ever been + seen before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the fact + that free access to the East was now to be gained, both by land and + sea, as it had never been before, that made the Crusades feasible. Of + the preaching of Peter the Hermit and the efforts of Pope Urban we + need not speak. Suffice it to say, that in 1095 news came to the + Emperor Alexius that the nations of the West were mustering by + myriads, and directing their march towards his frontiers, with the + expressed intention of driving the Moslems from Palestine. The + Emperor had little confidence in the purity of the zeal of the + Crusaders; his wily mind could not comprehend their enthusiasm, and + he dreaded that some unforeseen circumstance might turn their arms + against himself. When the hordes of armed Frankish pilgrims began to + arrive, his fears were justified: the new-comers pillaged his country + right and left upon their way, and were drawn into many bloody fights + with the peasantry and the imperial garrisons, which might have ended + in open <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name= + "Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> war. But Alexius set + himself to work to smooth matters down; all his tact and patience + were needed, and there was ample scope for his talent for intrigue + and insincere diplomacy. He had resolved to induce the crusading + chiefs to do him homage, and to swear to restore to him all the old + dominions of the empire which they might reconquer from the Turks. + After long and tedious negotiations he had his way: the leaders of + the Crusade, from Godfrey of Bouillon and Hugh of Vermandois down to + the smallest barons, were induced to swear him allegiance. Some he + flattered, others he bribed, others he strove to frighten into + compliance. The pages of the history written by his daughter, Anna + Comnena, who regarded his powers of cajolery with greater respect + than any other part of his character, are full of tales of the + ingenious shifts by which he brought the stupid and arrogant Franks + to reason. At length they went on their way, with Alexius's gold in + their pockets, and encouraged by his promise that he would aid them + with his troops, continue to supply them with provisions, and never + abandon them till the Holy City was reconquered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the spring of + 1097 the Crusaders began to cross the Bosphorus, and in two marches + found themselves within Turkish territory. They at once laid siege to + Nicaea, the frontier fortress of the Seljouk Sultan. Encompassed by + so great a host the Turkish garrison soon lost heart and surrendered, + not to the Franks, but to Alexius, whose troops they secretly + admitted within the walls. This nearly led to strife between the + Emperor and the Crusaders, who had been reckoning on the plunder of + the town; but Alexius <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg + 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + appeased them with further stores of money, and the pilgrim host + rolled forward once more into the interior of Asia Minor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-31.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Byzantine Ivory-Carving Of The Twelfth Century. (From the British Museum.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Byzantine Ivory-Carving Of The Twelfth Century. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From the British Museum.</span></span>) + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1097 the + Crusaders forced their way through Phrygia and Cappadocia, beating + back the Seljouks at every encounter, till they reached North Syria, + where they laid siege to Antioch. Alexius had undertaken to help them + in their campaign, but he was set on playing an easier game. When + they were crushing the Turks he followed in their rear at a safe + distance, like the jackal behind the lion, picking up the spoil which + they left. While the Sultan was engaged with them Alexius despoiled + him of Smyrna, Ephesus, and Sardis, reconquering Western Asia Minor + almost without a blow, since the Seljouk hordes were drawn away + eastward. It was the same in the next year; when the Crusaders were + fighting hard round Antioch against the princes of Mesopotamia, and + sent to ask for instant help, Alexius despatched no troops to Syria, + but gathered in a number of Lydian and Phrygian fortresses which lay + nearer to his hand. Hence there resulted a bitter quarrel between the + Emperor and the Franks, for since he gave them no help they refused + to hand over to him Antioch and their other Syrian conquests. Each + party, in fact, broke the compact signed at Constantinople, and + accused the other of treachery. Hence it resulted that the Crusade + ended not in the re-establishment of the Byzantine power in Syria, + but in the foundation of new Frankish states, the principalities of + Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli, and the more important kingdom of + Jerusalem.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg + 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That he did not + recover Syria was no real loss to Alexius; he would not have been + strong enough to hold it, had it been handed over to him. The actual + profit which he made by the Crusade was enough to content him: the + Franks had rolled back the Turkish frontier in Asia not less than two + hundred miles: instead of the Seljouk lying at Nicaea, he was now + chased back behind the Bithynian hills, and the empire had recovered + all Lydia and Caria with much of the Phrygian inland. The Seljouks + were hard hit, and for well-nigh a century were reduced to fight on + the defensive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Owing, then, to + the fearful blow inflicted by the Crusades on the Moslem powers of + Asia Minor and Syria, the later years of Alexius were free from the + danger which had overshadowed the beginning of his reign. He was + able, between 1100 and 1118, to strengthen his position at home and + abroad; the constant rebellions which had vexed his early years + ceased, and when the Normans, under Bohemund of Tarentum, tried to + repeat, in 1107, the feats which Robert Guiscard had accomplished in + 1082, they were beaten off with ease, and forced to conclude a + disadvantageous peace.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reign of + Alexius might have been counted a period of success and prosperity if + it had not been for two considerations. The first was the rapid + decline of Constantinople as a commercial centre, which was brought + about by the Crusades. When the Genoese and Venetians succeeded in + establishing themselves in the seaports of Syria, they began to visit + Constantinople far less than before. It paid them much <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> better to conduct their business at Acre + or Tyre than on the Bosphorus. The king of Jerusalem, the weakest of + feudal sovereigns, could be more easily bullied and defrauded than + the powerful ruler of Constantinople. In his own seaports he + possessed hardly a shadow of authority: the Italians traded there on + such conditions as they chose. Hence the commerce of the West with + Persia, Egypt, Syria, and India, ceased to pass through the + Bosphorus. Genoa and Venice became the marts at which France, Italy, + and Germany, sought their Eastern goods. It is probable that the + trade of Constantinople fell off by a third or even a half in the + fifty years that followed the first Crusade. The effect of this + decline on the coffers of the state was deplorable, for it was + ultimately on its commercial wealth that the Byzantine state based + its prosperity. All through the reigns of Alexius and his two + successors the complaints about the rapid fall in the imperial + revenue grew more and more noticeable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This dangerous + decay in the finances of the empire was rendered still more fatal by + the political devices of Alexius, who began to bestow excessive + commercial privileges to the Italian republics, in return for their + aid in war. This system commenced in 1081, when the Emperor, then in + the full stress of his first Norman war, granted the Venetians the + free access to most of the ports of his empire without the payment of + any customs dues. To give to foreigners a boon denied to his own + subjects was the height of economic lunacy; the native merchants + complained that the Venetians were enabled to undersell them in every + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" + id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> market, owing to this + exemption from import and export duties. Matters were made yet worse + in 1111, when Alexius bestowed a similar, though less extensive, + grant of immunities on the Pisans.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When John II., the + son of Alexius, succeeded in 1118 to the empire which his father had + saved, the fabric was less strong than it appeared to the outward + eye. Territorial extension seemed to imply increased strength, and + the rapid falling off in the financial resources of the realm + attracted little attention. John however was one of those prudent and + economical princes who stave off for years the inevitable day of + distress. Of all the rulers who ever sat upon the Byzantine throne, + he is the only one of whom no detractor has ever said an evil word. + When we remember that he was his father's son, it is astonishing to + find that his honesty and good faith were no less notable than his + courage and generosity. His subjects named him <span class= + "tei tei-q">“John the Good,”</span> and their appreciation of his + virtues was sufficiently marked by the fact that no single + rebellion<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href= + "#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> marred + the internal peace of his long reign. [1118-1143.]</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John was a good + soldier, and during his rule the frontier of the empire in Asia + continued to advance, at the expense of the Turks. But his strategy + would seem to have been at fault since he preferred to reconquer the + coast districts of Northern and Southern Asia Minor, rather than to + strike at the heart of the Seljouk power on the central table-land. + When he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name= + "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had reduced all + Cilicia, Pisidia, and Pontus, his dominions became a narrow fringe of + coast, surrounding on three sides the realm of the Sultan, who still + retained all the Cappadocian and Lycaonian plateau. It should then + have been John's task to finish the reconquest of Asia Minor, but he + preferred to plunge into Syria, where he forced the Frank prince of + Antioch and the Turkish Emir of Aleppo to pay him tribute, but left + no permanent monument of his conquests. He was preparing a formidable + expedition against the Franks of the kingdom of Jerusalem, when he + perished by accident while on a hunting expedition.<a id="noteref_28" + name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John the Good was + succeeded by his son Manuel, whose strength and weakness combined to + give a deathblow to the empire. Manuel was a mere knight-errant, who + loved fighting for fighting's sake, and allowed his passion for + excitement and adventure to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg + 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be + his only guide. His whole reign was one long series of wars, entered + into and abandoned with equal levity. Yet for the most part they were + successful wars, for Manuel was a good cavalry officer if he was but + a reckless statesman, and his fiery courage and untiring energy made + him the idol of his troops. At the head of the veteran squadrons of + mercenary horsemen that formed the backbone of his army, he swept off + the field every enemy that ever dared to face him. He overran Servia, + invaded Hungary, to whose king he dictated terms of peace, and beat + off with success an invasion of Greece by the Normans of Sicily. His + most desperate struggle, however, was a naval war with Venice, in + which his fleet was successful enough, and drove the Doge and his + galleys out of the Ægean. But the damage done to the trade of + Constantinople by the Venetian privateers, who swarmed in the Levant + after their main fleet had been chased away, was so appalling that + the Emperor concluded peace in 1174, restoring to the enemy all the + disastrous commercial privileges which his grandfather Alexius had + granted them eight years before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-32.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Hunters. (From a Byzantine MS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet, Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Hunters. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From a + Byzantine MS.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet, Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main fault of + Manuel's wars was that they were conducted in the most reckless + disregard of all financial considerations. With a realm which was + slowly growing poorer, and with a constantly dwindling revenue, he + persisted in piling war on war, and on devoting every bezant that + could be screwed out of his subjects to the support of the army + alone. The civil service fell into grave disorder, the administration + of justice was impaired, roads and bridges went to decay, docks and + harbours were neglected, while <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the money which should have supported them was + wasted on unprofitable expeditions to Egypt, Syria, or Italy. So long + as the ranks of his mercenaries were full and their pay forthcoming, + the Emperor cared not how his realm might fare.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of all Manuel's + wars only one went ill, but that was the most important of them all, + the one necessary struggle to which he should have devoted all his + energies. This was the contest with the Seljouks, which ended in 1176 + by a disastrous defeat at Myriokephalon in Phrygia, brought about by + the inexcusable carelessness of Manuel himself, who allowed his army + to be caught in a defile from which there was no exit, and routed + piecemeal by an enemy who could have made no stand on the open + plains. Manuel then made peace, and left the Seljouks alone for the + rest of his reign.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1180 Manuel + died, and with him died the good fortune of the House of Comnenus. + His son and heir, Alexius, was a boy of thirteen, and the inevitable + contest for the regency, which always accompanied a minority, ensued. + After two troubled years Andronicus Comnenus, a first cousin of the + Emperor Manuel, was proclaimed Caesar, and took over the guardianship + of the young Alexius. Andronicus was an unscrupulous ruffian, whose + past life should have been sufficient warning against putting any + trust in his professions. He had once attempted to assassinate + Manuel, and twice deserted to the Turks. But he was a consummate + hypocrite, and won his way to the throne by professions of piety and + austere virtue. No sooner was he seated by the side of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Alexius II., and felt himself secure, + than he seized and strangled his young relative [1183].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, like our own + Richard III., Andronicus found that the moment of his accession to + sole power was the moment of the commencement of his troubles. Rebels + rose in arms all over the empire to avenge the murdered Alexius, and + the Normans of Sicily seized the opportunity of invading Macedonia. + Conspiracies were rife in the capital, and the executions which + followed their detection were so numerous and bloody that a perfect + reign of terror set in. The Emperor plunged into the most reckless + cruelty, till men almost began to believe that his mind was affected. + Ere long the end came. An inoffensive nobleman named Isaac Angelus, + being accused of treason, was arrested at his own door by the + emissaries of the tyrant. Instead of surrendering himself, Isaac drew + his sword and cut down the official who laid hands on him. A mob came + to his aid, and met no immediate opposition, for Andronicus was + absent from the capital. The mob swelled into a multitude, the guards + would not fight, and when the Emperor returned in haste, he was + seized and torn to pieces without a sword being drawn in his cause. + Isaac Angelus reigned in his stead.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name= + "Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXII. The Latin Conquest Of + Constantinople.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The state which + had been drained of its resources by the energetic but wasteful + Manuel, and disorganized by the rash and wicked Andronicus, now + passed into the hands of the two most feeble and despicable creatures + who ever sat upon the imperial throne—the brothers Isaac and Alexius + Angelus, whose reigns cover the years 1185-1204.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among all the + periods which we have hitherto described in the tale of the + East-Roman Empire, that covered by the reign of the two wretched + Angeli may be pronounced the most shameful. The peculiar disgrace of + the period lies in the fact that the condition of the empire was not + hopeless at the time. With ordinary courage and prudence it might + have been held together, for the attacks directed against it were not + more formidable than others which had been beaten off with ease. If + the blow had fallen when a hero like Leo III., or even a statesman + like Alexius I. was on the throne, there is no reason to doubt that + it would have been parried. But it fell in the times of two + incompetent triflers, who conducted the state <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on the principle of, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.”</span> Isaac + and Alexius felt in themselves no power of redeeming the empire from + the evil day, and resignedly fell back on personal enjoyment. Isaac's + taste lay in the direction of gorgeous raiment and the collecting of + miraculous <span class="tei tei-q">“eikons.”</span> Alexius preferred + the pleasures of the table. Considered as sovereigns there was little + to choose between them. Each was competent to ruin an empire already + verging on its decline.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The disaster which + the Angeli brought on their realm was rendered possible only by its + complete military and financial disorganization. As a military power + the empire had never recovered the effects of the Seljouk invasions, + which had robbed it of its great recruiting-ground for its native + troops in Asia Minor. After that loss the use of mercenaries had + become more and more prevalent. The brilliant campaigns of Manuel + Comnenus had been made at the head of a soldiery of whom two-thirds + were not born-subjects of the empire. He, it is true, had kept them + within the bounds of strict discipline, and contrived at all costs to + provide their pay. But the weak and thriftless Angeli were able + neither to find money nor to maintain discipline. A state which + relies for its defence on foreign mercenaries is ruined, if it allows + them to grow disorderly and inefficient. In times of stress they + mutiny instead of fighting.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The civil + administration was in almost as deplorable a condition, while those + two <span class="tei tei-q">“Earthly Angels”</span> (as a + contemporary chronicler called them) were charged with its care. + Isaac Angelus put the finishing touch <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to administrative abuses, which had already + been rife enough under the Comneni, by exposing offices and posts to + auction. Instead of paying his officials he <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sent them forth without purse or scrip, like the + apostles of old, to make what profit they could by extortion from the + provincials.”</span><a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> His + brother Alexius promised on his accession to make all appointments on + the ground of merit, but proved in reality as bad as Isaac. He was + surrounded by a ring of rapacious favourites, who managed all + patronage, and dispensed it in return for bribes. When high posts + were not sold, they were given as douceurs to men of local influence, + whose rebellion was dreaded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The history of the + twenty years covered by the reigns of the two Angeli is cut into two + equal halves at the deposition of Isaac by his brother in 1195. It is + only necessary to point out how the responsibility for the disasters + of the period is to be divided between them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Isaac's share + consists in the loss of Bulgaria and Cyprus. The former country had + now been in the hands of the Byzantines for nearly two hundred years, + since its conquest by Basil II. But the Bulgarians had not merged in + the general body of the subjects of the empire. They preserved their + national language and customs, and never forgot their ancient + independence. In 1187, three brothers named Peter, John, and Azan + stirred up rebellion among them. If firmly treated it might have been + crushed with ease by the regular troops of the empire. But Isaac + first appointed incompetent generals, who let the rebellion grow to a + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" + id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> head, and when at last he + placed an able officer, Alexis Branas, in command, his lieutenant + took the opportunity of using his army for revolt. Branas marched + against Constantinople, and would have taken it, had not Isaac + committed the charge of the troops that remained faithful to him to + stronger hands than his own. He bribed an able adventurer from the + West, Conrad, Marquis of Montferrat, by the offer of his sister's + hand and a great sum of money to become his saviour. The gallant + Lombard routed the forces of Branas, slew the usurper, and preserved + the throne for his brother-in-law. But while the civil war was going + on, the Bulgarians were left unchecked, and made such head that there + was no longer much apparent chance of subduing them. Isaac took the + field against them in person, only to see the great towns of Naissus, + Sophia, and Varna taken before his eyes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While a national + revolt deprived the Emperor of Bulgaria, Cyprus was lost to a meaner + force. Isaac Comnenus, a distant relative of the Emperor Manuel II., + raised rebellion among the Cypriots and defeated the fleet and army + which his namesake of Constantinople sent against him. He held out + for six years, and appeared likely to establish a permanent kingdom + in the island. This revolt was of the worst augury to the empire. It + had often lost provinces by the invasion of barbarian hordes, or the + rebellion of subject nationalities. But that a native rebel should + sever a civilized Greek province from the empire, and reign as + <span class="tei tei-q">“Emperor of Cyprus,”</span> was a new + phenomenon. By the imperial theory the idea of an independent + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" + id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Empire of Cyprus”</span> was wholly monstrous and + abnormal. The successful rebellion of Isaac Comnenus pointed to the + possibility of a general breaking up of the Byzantine dominion into + fragments, a danger that had never appeared before. Till now the + provinces had always obeyed the capital, and no instance had been + known of a rebel maintaining himself by any other way than the + capture of Constantinople. Isaac Comnenus might, however, have + founded a dynasty in Cyprus, if he had not quarrelled with Richard + Coeur-de-Lion, the crusading King of England. When he maltreated some + shipwrecked English crews, Richard punished him by landing his army + in Cyprus and seizing the whole island. Isaac was thrown into a + dungeon, and the English king gave his dominions to Guy of Lusignan, + who called in Frank adventurers to settle up the land, and made it + into a feudal kingdom of the usual Western type.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Isaac II. + was in the midst of his Bulgarian war, and misconducting it with his + usual fatuity, he was suddenly dethroned by a palace intrigue. His + own brother, Alexius Angelus, had hatched a plot against him, which + worked so successfully that Isaac was caught, blinded, and immured in + a monastery long before his adherents knew that he was in danger.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius III. never + showed any other proof of energy save this skilful <span lang="fr" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">coup d`état</span></span> aimed against his + brother. He continued the Bulgarian war with the same ill-success + that had attended Isaac's dealings with it. He plunged into a + disastrous struggle with the Seljouk Sultan of Iconium, and he + quarrelled with the Emperor Henry VI., who would certainly have + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" + id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> invaded his dominions if death + had not intervened to prevent it. But as long as Alexius was + permitted to enjoy the pleasures of the table in his villas on the + Bosphorus, the ill-success abroad of his arms and his diplomacy vexed + him but little.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in 1203, a new + and unexpected danger arose to scare him from his feasting. His blind + brother Isaac had a young son named Alexius, who escaped from + Constantinople to Italy, and took refuge with Philip of Suabia, the + new Emperor of the West. Philip had married a daughter of Isaac + Angelus, and determined to do something to help his young + brother-in-law. The opportunity was not hard to seek. Just at this + moment a large body of French, Flemish, and Italian Crusaders, who + had taken arms at the command of the Pope, were lying idle at Venice. + They had marched down to the great Italian seaport with the intention + of directing a blow against Malek-Adel, Sultan of Egypt. The + Venetians had contracted to supply them with vessels for the Crusade, + but for reasons of their own had determined that the attack should + not fall on the shore for which it had been destined. They were on + very good terms with the Egyptian sovereign, who had granted them + valuable commercial privileges at Alexandria, which threw the whole + trade with the distant realms of India into Venetian hands. + Accordingly they had determined to avert the blow from Egypt and turn + it against some other enemy of Christendom. The leaders of the Fourth + Crusade proved unable to pay the full sum which they had contracted + to give the Venetians as ship-hire, and this was made an excuse for + keeping <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name= + "Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them camped on the + unhealthy islands in the Lagoons till their patience and their stores + were alike exhausted. Henry Dandolo, the aged but wily doge, then + proposed to the Crusaders that they should pay their way by doing + something in aid of Venice. The Dalmatian town of Zara had lately + revolted and done homage to the King of Hungary; if the Crusaders + would recover it, the Venetian state would wipe out their debts and + transport them whither they wished to go.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Crusaders had + taken arms for a holy war against the Moslems. They were now invited + to turn aside against a Christian town and interest themselves in + Venetian politics. Conscientious men would have refused to join in + such an unholy bargain, and would have insisted in carrying out their + original purpose against Egypt. But conscientious men had been + growing more and more rare among the Crusaders for the last hundred + years. There were as many greedy military adventurers among them as + single-hearted pilgrims. The more scrupulous chiefs were + over-persuaded by their designing companions, and the expedition + against Zara was undertaken.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Zara fell, but + another and a more important enterprise was then placed before the + Crusaders. While they wintered on the Dalmatian coast the young + Alexius Angelus appeared in their camp, escorted by the ambassadors + of his brother-in-law, the Emperor Philip of Suabia. The exiled + prince besought them to turn aside once more before they sailed to + the East, and to rescue his blind father from the dungeon into which + he had been cast by his cruel brother Alexius III. If they would + drive out the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg + 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + usurper and restore the rightful ruler to his throne, they should + have anything that the Byzantine Empire could afford to help them for + their Crusade—money in plenty, stores, a war fleet, a force of + mercenary troops, and his own presence as a helper in the war with + Egypt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pope Innocent III. + had already been storming at the adventurers for shedding Christian + blood at Zara, and tampering with their Crusader's oath. But the + prospect of Byzantine gold seduced the needy Western barons, and the + desire of keeping the war away from Egypt ruled the minds of the + Venetians. They hesitated and began to treat with Alexius, though + they knew that thereby they were calling down on themselves the + terrors of a Papal excommunication. All now depended on the leaders, + and among them the abler minds were set on the acceptance of the + proposal of the young Byzantine exile. The three chiefs of the + Crusade were the Doge Henry Dandolo, Boniface Marquis of Montferrat, + and Baldwin Count of Flanders. In Dandolo the ruthless energy of the + Italian Republics stood incarnate; he was the one man in the + crusading army who knew exactly what he wanted. Old and blind, but + clear-headed and inflexible, he was set on revenging an ancient + grudge against the Greeks, and on furthering, by any means, good or + evil, the fortunes of his native city. Baldwin and Boniface, the two + secondary figures in the camp of the Franks, are perfect + representations of the two types of crusader. The Fleming, gallant + and generous, pious and debonnair, worthy of a more righteous + enterprise and a more honourable death, was a true <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> successor of Godfrey of Bouillon, and the + heroes of the First Crusade. The Lombard, a deep and hardy schemer, + to whom force and fraud seemed equally good, was simply seeking for + wealth and fame in the realms of the East. He cared little for the + Holy Sepulchre, and much for his own private advancement. Behind + these three leaders we descry the motley crowd of the feudal world; + relic-hunting abbots in coats of mail, wrangling barons and penniless + knights, the half-piratical seamen of Venice, and the brutal soldiery + of the West.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-33.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "View Of Constantinople. (From The Side Of The Harbour.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + View Of Constantinople. (From The Side Of The Harbour.) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Boniface of + Montferrat and Doge Dandolo gradually talked over the more scrupulous + Baldwin and his friends, and the crusading fleet was launched against + Constantinople, after a treaty had been signed which bound Alexius + Angelus and his blind father, Isaac II., to pay the Crusaders 200,000 + marks of silver, send ten thousand men to Palestine, and acknowledge + the supremacy of the Pope over the Eastern Church. In these + conditions lay the germs of much future trouble.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Crusading + armament reached the Dardanelles without having to strike a blow. The + slothful and luxurious emperor let things slide, and had not even a + fleet ready to send against them in the Aegean. He shut himself up in + Constantinople, and trusted to the strength of its walls to deliver + him, as Heraclius and Leo III. and many more of his predecessors had + been delivered. If the siege had been conducted from the land side + only, his hopes might have been justified, for the Danes and English + of the Varangian Guard beat back the assault of the Franks on the + land-wall. But Alexius III., unlike earlier emperors, was attacked by + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" + id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a fleet to which he could + oppose no adequate naval resistance. Though the Crusaders were driven + off on shore, the Venetians stormed the sea-wall, by the expedient of + building light towers on the decks, and throwing flying bridges from + the towers on to the top of the Byzantine ramparts. The blind Doge + pushed his galley close under the wall, and urged on his men again + and again till they had won a lodgment in some towers on the port + side of the sea-wall. The Venetians then fired the city, and a + fearful conflagration followed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hearing that the + enemy was within the ramparts, the cowardly Alexius III. mounted his + horse and fled away into the inland of Thrace, leaving his troops, + who were not yet half beaten, without a leader or a cause to fight + for. The garrison bowed to necessity, and the chief officers of the + army drew the aged Isaac II. out of his cloister prison and + proclaimed his restoration to the throne. They sent to the Crusading + camp to announce that hostilities had ceased, and to beg Prince + Alexius to enter the city and join his father in the palace.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The end of the + expedition of the Crusaders had now been attained, but it may safely + be asserted that the chief feeling in their ranks was a bitter + disappointment at being cheated out of the sack of Constantinople, a + prospect over which they had been gloating ever since they left Zara. + They spent the next three months in endeavouring to wring out of + their triumphant protégés, Isaac and Alexius, every bezant that could + be scraped together. The old emperor, already blind and gout-ridden, + was driven to imbecility <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg + 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by + their demands: his son was a raw, inexperienced youth who could + neither be firm, nor frank, nor dignified in dealing with any one. He + angered the Franks by insincere diplomacy, and the Greeks by his + reckless schemes for extracting money from them. The winter of 1203-4 + was spent in ceaseless wrangling about the subsidy due to the + Crusaders, till Alexius, growing seriously frightened, began + exactions on his subjects which drove them to revolt. When he seized + and melted down the golden lamps and silver candelabra which formed + the pride of St. Sophia, stripped its eikonostasis of its rich metal + plating, and requisitioned the jewelled eikons and reliquaries of + every church in the city, the populace would stand his proceedings no + longer. They would not serve an emperor who had sold himself to the + Franks, and only reigned in order to subject the Eastern Church to + Rome, and to pour the hoarded wealth of the ancient empire into the + coffers of the upstart Italian republics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In January, 1204, + the storm burst. The populace and troops shut the gates of the city, + and fell on the isolated Latins who were within the walls. They were + not long without a leader; a fierce and unscrupulous officer named + Alexius Ducas put himself at their head and determined to seize the + throne. Isaac II. died of fright in the midst of the tumult; his son + Alexius was caught and strangled by the usurper. Thus the Angeli + ceased out of the land, and Alexius V. reigned in their stead. He is + less frequently named by chroniclers under his family name of Ducas, + than under his nickname of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Murtzuphlus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> drawn from the bushy overhanging eyebrows which + formed the most prominent feature of his countenance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius Ducas had + everything against him. He was a mere usurper, whose authority was + hardly recognized beyond the walls of Constantinople. The Angeli had + so drained the treasury that nothing remained in it. Twenty years of + indiscipline and disaster had spoilt the army; the fleet was + nonexistent, for the admirals of Alexius Angelus had laid up the + vessels in ordinary, and sold the stores to fill their own pockets. + Nevertheless Murtzuphlus made a far better fight than his despicable + predecessor and namesake. He collected a little money by confiscating + the properties of the unpopular courtiers and ministers of the + Angeli, and used it to the best advantage. The army received some of + the arrears due to them, and Alexius spent every spare moment in + seeing to their drill and endeavouring to improve their discipline. + He strengthened the sea-wall, whose weakness had been proved so + fatally four months ago, by erecting wooden towers along it, and + building platforms for all the military engines that could be found + in the arsenal. He ordered, too, the enrolment of a national militia, + and compelled the nobles and burghers of Constantinople to take arms + and man the walls. To the discredit of the Byzantines this order was + received with many murmurs: the citizens complained that they paid + taxes to support the regular army, and that they therefore ought to + be excused personal service. Little good was got out of these new and + raw levies; they swelled the numbers <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the garrison, but hardly added anything + appreciable to its strength.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius Ducas + himself with his cavalry scoured the country round the Crusading camp + every day, to cut off the foraging parties of the Franks, and when + not in the field, rode round the city superintending the works, + inspecting the guard-posts, and haranguing the soldiery. If courage + and energy command success, he ought to have held his own. But he + could not counteract the work of twenty years of decay and + disorganization, and felt that his throne rested on the most fragile + of foundations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Crusaders took + two months to prepare for their second assault on Constantinople, + which they felt would be a far more formidable affair than the attack + in the preceding autumn. They directed their chief efforts against + the sea-wall, which they had found vulnerable in the previous siege, + and left the formidable land-wall alone. The ships were told off into + groups, each destined to attack a particular section of the wall, and + covered with as many military engines as they could carry. Flying + bridges were again prepared, and landing parties were directed to + leap ashore on the narrow beach between the wall and the water, and + get to work with rams and scaling ladders. The attack was made on + April 8th, at more than a hundred points along two miles of sea-wall, + but it was beaten off with loss. Alexius Ducas had made his + arrangements so well, that the fire of his engines swept off all who + attempted to gain a footing on the ramparts. The ships were much + damaged, and at noon the whole fleet gave back, and retired + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" + id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as best it could to the + opposite side of the Golden Horn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many of the + Crusaders were now for returning; they thought their defeat was a + judgment for turning their arms against a Christian city, and wished + to sail for the Holy Land. But Dandolo and the Venetians insisted + upon repeating the assault. Three days were spent in repairing the + fleet, and on April 12th a second attack was delivered. This time the + ships were lashed together in pairs to secure stability, and the + attack was concentrated on a comparatively small front of wall. At + last, after much fighting, the military engines of the fleet and the + bolts of its crossbowmen cleared a single tower of its defenders. A + bridge was successfully lowered on to it, and a footing secured by a + party of Crusaders, who then threw open a postern gate and let the + main body in. After a short fight within the walls, the troops of + Alexius Ducas retired back into the streets. The Crusaders fired the + city to cover their advance, and by night were in possession of the + north-west angle of Constantinople, the quarter of the palace of + Blachern.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-34.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Byzantine Reliquary. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Byzantine Reliquary. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While the fire was + keeping the combatants apart, the Emperor tried to rally his troops + and to prepare for a street-fight next day. But the army was cowed; + many regiments melted away; and the Varangian Guard, the best corps + in the garrison, chose this moment to demand that their arrears of + pay should be liquidated; they would not return to the fight without + their money! The twenty years of disorganization under the Angeli was + now bearing its fruit, and deeply was the empire to rue the next + day.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name= + "Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius Ducas, in + despair at being unable to make his men fight, left the city by + night. He was soon followed by the last Greek officer who kept his + head, the general Theodore Lascaris, who endeavoured to make one + final attack on the Crusaders even after his master had departed. + Next morning the Franks found themselves in full possession of the + city, though they had been expecting to face a hard day of + street-fighting before this end could be attained.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In cold blood, + twelve hours after all fighting had ended, the Crusaders proceeded + with great deliberation to sack the place. The leaders could not or + would not hold back their men, and every atrocity that attends the + storm of a great city was soon in full swing. Though no resistance + was made, the soldiery, and especially the Venetians, took life + recklessly, and three or four thousand unarmed citizens were slain. + But there was no general massacre; it was lust and greed rather than + bloodthirstiness that the army displayed. All the Western writers, no + less than the Greeks, testify to the horrors of the three days' + carnival of rape and plunder that now set in. Every knight or soldier + seized on the house that he liked best, and dealt as he chose with + its inmates. Churches and nunneries fared no better than private + dwellings; the orgies that were enacted in the holiest places caused + even the Pope to exclaim that no good could ever come out of the + conquest. The drunken soldiery enthroned a harlot in the patriarchal + chair in St. Sophia, and made her rehearse ribald songs and indecent + dances before the high altar. There were plenty of clergy with the + Crusading army, but instead of endeavouring to check the sacrilegious + doings of their countrymen, they devoted themselves to plundering the + treasuries of the churches of all the holy bones and relics that were + stored in them. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Franks,”</span> remarked + a Greek writer who saw the sack of Constantinople, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“behaved far worse than Saracens; the infidels when a + town has surrendered at any rate respect churches and + women.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After private + plunder had reigned unchecked for <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> three days, the leaders of the Crusaders + collected such valuables as could be found for public division. + Though so much had been stolen and concealed, they were able to + produce no less than £800,000 in hard gold and silver for + distribution. The sum was afterwards supplemented by the use of a + resource which makes the modern historian add a special curse of his + own to the account of the Crusaders. Down to 1204 Constantinople + still contained the monuments of ancient Greek art in enormous + numbers. In spite of the wear and tear of 900 years, her squares and + palaces were still crowded with the art-treasures that Constantine + and his sons had stored up. Nicetas, who was an eyewitness of all, + has left us the list of the chief statues that suffered. The Heracles + of Lysippus, the great Hera of Samos, the brass figures which + Augustus set up after Actium, the ancient Roman bronze of the Wolf + with Romulus and Remus, Paris with the Golden Apple, Helen of Troy, + and dozens more all went into the melting-pot, to be recast into + wretched copper money. The monuments of Christian art fared no + better; the tombs of the emperors were carefully stripped of + everything in metal, the altars and screens of the churches scraped + to the stone. Everything was left bare and desolate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was + <span class="tei tei-q">“the greatest conquest that was ever seen, + greater than any made by Alexander or Charlemagne, or by any that + have lived before or after,”</span> as a Western chronicler wrote, + while the Greeks grew hyperbolical in lamentation, as they saw + <span class="tei tei-q">“the eye of the world, the ornament of + nations, the fairest sight on earth, the mother of churches, the + spring whence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg + 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + flowed the waters of faith, the mistress of Orthodox doctrine, the + seat of the sciences, draining the cup mixed for her by the hand of + the Almighty, and consumed by fires as devouring as those which + ruined the five Cities of the Plain.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At last the + Crusaders sat down to divide up their conquests. They elected Baldwin + of Flanders Emperor of the East, and handed over to him the ruined + city of Constantinople, half of it devoured by the flames of the + conflagrations that attended the two sieges, and all of it plundered + from cellar to attic. Four-fifths of the population had fled, and no + one had remained save beggars who had nothing to save by flight. With + the capital Baldwin was given Thrace and the Asiatic + provinces—Bithynia, Mysia, and Lydia, all of which had still to be + conquered. His colleague, Boniface of Montferrat, was made + <span class="tei tei-q">“King of Thessalonica,”</span> and did homage + to Baldwin for a fief consisting of Macedonia, Thessaly, and inland + Epirus. The Venetians claimed <span class="tei tei-q">“a quarter and + half-a-quarter”</span> of the empire, and took out their share by + receiving Crete, the Ionian Islands, the ports along the west coast + of Greece and Albania, nearly the whole of the islands of the Aegean, + and the land about the entrance of the Dardanelles. They seized on + every good harbour and strong sea-fortress, but left the inland + alone; commerce rather than annexation was their end. The rest of the + empire was parcelled out among the minor leaders of the Crusade; they + had first to conquer their fiefs, and were then to do homage for them + to the Emperor Baldwin. Most of them never lived to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> accomplish the scheme. Meanwhile a + Venetian prelate was appointed patriarch of Constantinople, and news + was sent to the Pope that the union of the Eastern and Western + Churches was accomplished, by the forcible extinction of the Greek + patriarchate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It only remains to + speak of Alexius Ducas, the fugitive Greek emperor. He fell into the + hands of the Crusaders, was tried for the murder of the young Alexius + Angelus, and suffered death by being taken to the top of a lofty + pillar and hurled from it. The Greeks saw in this strange end the + fulfilment of an obscure prophecy about the last of the Caesars, + which had long puzzled the brains of the oracle-mongers.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name= + "Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc47" id="toc47"></a> <a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXIII. The Latin Empire And The Empire + Of Nicaea. (1204-1261.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Seldom has any + state dragged out fifty-seven years in such constant misery and + danger as the Latin Empire experienced in the course of its + inglorious existence. The whole period was one protracted + death-agony, and at no date within it did there appear any reasonable + prospect of recovery. Thirty thousand men can take a city, but they + cannot subdue a realm 800 miles long and 400 broad. Far more than any + government which has since held sway on the same spot did the Latin + Empire of Romania deserve the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Sick Man.”</span> It is not too much to say that but for the + unequalled strength of the walls of Constantinople the new power must + have ceased to exist within ten years of its establishment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But once fortified + within the ramparts of Byzantium the Franks enjoyed the inestimable + advantage which their Greek predecessors had possessed: they were + masters of a fortress which—as military science then <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> stood—was practically impregnable, if + only it was defended with ordinary skill, and adequately guarded on + the front facing the sea. As long as the Venetians kept up their + naval supremacy in Eastern waters, the city was safe on that side, + and even the very limited force which the Latin emperor could put + into the field sufficed, when joined to the armed burghers of the + Italian quarters, to defend the tremendous land wall.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the first + year of its existence the Latin Empire was marked out by unfailing + signs as a power not destined to continue. The intention of its + founders had been to replace the centralized despotism which they had + overthrown by a great feudal state, corresponding in territorial + extent to its predecessor. But within a few months it became evident + that the conquest of the broad provinces which the Crusaders had + distributed among themselves by anticipation, was not to be carried + out. The new emperor himself was the first to discover this. He set + out with his chivalry to drive from Northern Thrace the Bulgarian + hordes, who had flocked down into the plains to profit by the plunder + of the dismembered realm. But near Adrianople he met Joannicios, the + Bulgarian king, with a vast army at his back. The Franks charged + gallantly enough, but they were simply overwhelmed by numbers. The + larger part of the army was cut to pieces, and Baldwin himself was + taken prisoner. The Bulgarian kept him in chains for some months, and + then put him to death, after he had worn the imperial crown only one + year [1205].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Henry of Flanders, + the brother of Baldwin, became <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his successor. He was an honest and able man, + but he could do nothing towards conquering the provinces of Asia, + pushing the Bulgarians back over the Balkans, or conciliating the + subject Greek population. All his reign he had to fight on the + defensive against his neighbours to the north and south. By the time + that he died the empire was practically confined to a narrow slip of + land along the Propontis, reaching from Gallipoli to Constantinople. + Nor was the chief of the minor Latin states any better off; Boniface + of Montferrat had fallen in 1207, slain in battle by the same + Bulgarian hordes which had cut off the army of his suzerain Baldwin. + With his death it became evident that the kingdom of Thessalonica was + no more able to conquer all the old Byzantine provinces in its + neighbourhood than was the empire of Constantinople. Boniface's son + and heir was a mere infant; during his minority the lands of his + kingdom were lopped away, one after another, by the Greek despot of + Epirus, the able Theodore Angelus. At last the capital itself was + retaken by the Greeks in 1222, and the kingdom of Thessalonica came + to an end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Latin states + in the southern parts of the Balkan Peninsula fared somewhat better. + William of Champlitte had contrived to hew out for himself a + principality in the western parts of the Peloponnesus, and had + organized there a small state with twelve baronies and 136 knights + fees. The resistance of the natives in this district was particularly + weak, and one battle sufficed to give William all the coast-plain of + Elis and Messenia. Yet he did not succeed in <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> subduing the mountaineers of the peninsula of + Maina, or the coast towns of Argolis and Laconia, so that the Greeks + still had some foothold in the peninsula.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another small + Latin state was set up by Otho de la Roche in Central Greece, where + as <span class="tei tei-q">“Duke of Athens”</span> he ruled Attica + and Boeotia. He treated his Greek subjects with more consideration + than any of his fellow Crusaders, and was rewarded by obtaining a + degree of respect and deference which was not found in any other + Latin state. Though the smallest, the duchy of Athens was undoubtedly + the most prosperous of the new creations of the conquest of 1204.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile it is + time to speak of the fortunes of those parts of the Eastern Empire + which the Franks did not succeed in seizing when Constantinople fell. + The provinces had hitherto been accustomed to accept without a murmur + the ruler whom the capital obeyed. But in 1204 it was found that the + centralization of the Byzantine Empire, great as it was, had not so + thoroughly crushed the individuality of the provinces as to make them + submit without resistance to the Latin yoke. Wherever the provincials + found a leader, whether a member of one of the ex-imperial houses, or + an energetic governor, or a landholder of local influence, they stood + up to defend themselves. The Byzantine Empire, like some creature of + low organism, showed every sign of life in its limbs, though its head + had been shorn off. Wherever a centre of resistance could be found + the people refused to submit to the piratical Frank, and to his yet + more hated companions the priests of the Roman + Church.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg + 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the nine or ten + leaders who put themselves at the head of provincial risings three + were destined to carve out kingdoms for themselves. Of these the most + important was Theodore Lascaris, the last officer who had attempted + to strike a blow against the Franks when Constantinople fell.<a id= + "noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> He might + claim some shadow of hereditary right to the imperial crown as he had + married the daughter of the imbecile Alexius III., but his true title + was his well-approved courage and energy. The wrecks of the old + Byzantine army rallied around him, the cities of Bithynia opened + their gates, and when the Latins crossed into Asia to divide up the + land into baronies and knights fees, they found Theodore waiting to + receive them with the sword. His defence of the strong town of Prusa, + which successfully repelled Henry of Flanders, put a limit to the + extension of the Frank Empire; beyond a few castles on the Bithynian + coast they made no conquests. Having thus checked the invaders, + Theodore had himself solemnly crowned at Nicaea, and assumed imperial + state [1206].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-35.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Finial From A Byzantine MS. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Finial From A Byzantine MS. (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From "L'Art + Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having beaten off + the Latins, Theodore had to cope with another who aspired like + himself to pose as the rightful heir to the imperial throne. Alexius + Comnenus, a grandson of the wicked emperor Andronicus I., had betaken + himself to the Eastern frontiers of the empire when Constantinople + fell, and obtained possession of Trebizond and the long slip of + coast-land at the south-east corner of the Black Sea, from the mouth + of the Phasis to Sinope. He aspired to conquer the whole of Byzantine + Asia, and sent his <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg + 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + brother David Comnenus to attack Bithynia. But Theodore defended his + newly won realm with success; Comnenus gained no territory from him, + and was constrained to content himself with the narrow bounds of his + Pontic realm, where his descendants reigned in obscurity for three + hundred years as emperors of Trebizond. A greater danger beset the + empire of Nicaea when the warlike sultan of the Seljouks came down + from his plateau to ravage its borders. But the valour of Theodore + Lascaris triumphed over this enemy also. In the battle of + Antioch-on-Maeander he slew Sultan Kaikhosru with his own hand in + single <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name= + "Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> combat, and the Turks + were beaten back with such slaughter that they left the empire alone + for a generation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Meanwhile a third + Greek state had sprung into existence in the far West. Michael + Angelus, a cousin of Alexius III. and Isaac II., put in a claim to + their heritage, though he was disqualified by his illegitimate birth. + He was recognized as ruler by the cities of Epirus, and proclaimed + himself <span class="tei tei-q">“despot”</span> of that land. Raising + an army among the warlike tribes of Albania, he maintained his + position with success, and discomfited the Franks of Athens and + Thessalonica when they took arms against him. He died early, but left + a compact heritage to his brother Theodore, who succeeded him on the + throne, and within a few years conquered the whole of the Frank + kingdom of Thessalonica.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was soon + evident that there would be a trial of strength between the two Greek + emperors who claimed to succeed to the rights of the dispossessed + Angeli. The Latin Empire was obviously destined to fall before one of + them. The only doubt was, whether the Epirot or the Nicene was to be + its conqueror. This question was not settled till 1241, when the two + powers met in decisive conflict.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By this time + Theodore Lascaris had been succeeded in Asia by his son-in-law John + Ducas,<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href= + "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> and + Theodore of Thessalonica by his son John Angelus. At Constantinople + the succession of Latin emperors had been much more rapid. Henry of + Flanders had died in 1216; he was followed by Peter of Courtenay, who + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" + id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was slain by the Epirots in + less than a year. To him succeeded Robert his son, and when Robert + died in 1228 his brother Baldwin II., reigned in his stead. The young + Courtenays were both thoroughly incapable, and saw their empire melt + away from them till nothing was left beyond the walls of + Constantinople itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John III. of + Nicaea was an excellent sovereign, a very worthy heir to his gallant + father-in-law. Not only was he a good soldier and an able + administrator, but by constant supervision and strict frugality he + had got the financial condition of his empire into a more hopeful + condition—a state of things which had never been seen in Romania + since the time of John Comnenus, a hundred years before. In 1230 the + troops of Nicaea crossed into Europe, and drove the Franks out of + Southern Thrace, while in 1235 John Ducas laid siege to + Constantinople itself. But the time of its fall was not yet arrived, + and when a Venetian fleet approached to succour it the Emperor was + constrained to raise the siege.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-36.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Fountain In The Court Of St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Fountain In The Court Of St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Recognizing that + Constantinople was not yet ripe for its fall, John Ducas resolved to + measure himself with his rivals the Angeli of Thessalonica. He beat + their forces out of the field, and laid siege to their capital in + 1341. Then John Angelus engaged to resign the title of emperor, call + himself no more than <span class="tei tei-q">“despot of + Epirus,”</span> and to acknowledge himself as the vassal of the ruler + of Nicaea. This satisfied Ducas for a time, but when Angelus died, + four years later, he seized Thessalonica and united it to the + imperial crown. The heir of the Angeli escaped to Albania + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" + id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and succeeded in retaining a + small fraction only of his ancestral dominions [1246].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John Ducas died in + 1254, leaving the throne of Nicaea to his son Theodore II., who bid + fair to continue the prosperous career of his father and grandfather. + He drove the Bulgarians out of Macedonia, and penned the Albanians + into their hills. But he became subject to epileptic fits, and died + after a reign of only four years, before he had reached the age of + thirty-eight [1258].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was a + dreadful misfortune for the empire, for John Ducas, the son and heir + of Theodore, was a child of eight years, and minorities were always + disastrous to the state. We have seen in the history of previous + centuries how frequently the infancy of a prince led to a violent + contest for the place of regent, or even to a usurpation of the + throne. The case of John IV. was no exception to the rule; the + ministers of his father fought and intrigued to gain possession of + the helm of affairs, till at last an able and unprincipled general, + named Michael Paleologus, thrusting himself to the front, was named + tutor to the Emperor, and given the title of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Despot.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael was as + ambitious as he was unscrupulous. The place of regent was far from + satisfying his ambition, and he determined to seize the throne, + though he had steeped himself to the lips in oaths of loyalty to his + young master. He played much the same game that Richard III. was + destined to repeat in England two centuries later. He cleared away + from the capital the relatives and adherents of the little prince, + placed creatures of his own in their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> places, and conciliated the clergy by large + gifts and hypocritical piety. Presently the partisans of Michael + began to declaim against the dangers of a minority, and the necessity + for a strong hand at the helm. After much persuasion and mock + reluctance the regent was induced to allow himself to be crowned. + From that moment the boy John Ducas was thrust aside and ignored: ere + he had reached the age of ten his wicked guardian put out his eyes + and plunged him into a dungeon, where he spent thirty years in + darkness and misery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The usurpation of + Michael tempted all the enemies of the Greek Empire to take arms. The + Epirot despot allied himself with the Frankish lords of Greece, and + their united armies, aided by auxiliaries from Italy, invaded + Macedonia; moreover the Latin emperor of Constantinople stirred up + the Venetians to ravage his neighbours' borders. But in 1260 the + troops of Michael won, over the allied armies of the Franks and + Epirots, the last great victory that a Byzantine army was ever + destined to achieve. The field of Pelagonia decided the lot of the + house of Paleologus, for Michael's enemies were so crushed that they + could never afterwards make head against him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freed from all + danger from the West, Michael was now able to turn against + Constantinople, and complete the reconstruction of the empire. The + city was ripe for its fall, and Baldwin of Courtenay had long been + awaiting his doom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The long reign of + the last Latin sovereign of Constantinople is sufficiently + characterized by the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg + 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fact that Baldwin spent nearly half the years of his rule outside the + bounds of Romania, as he wandered from court to court in the West, + striving to stir up some champion who would deliver him from the + inevitable destruction impending over his realm. He gained little by + his tours, his greatest success being that, in 1244, he got from St. + Louis a considerable sum of ready money in acknowledgment of the + liberality with which he had presented the holy king with a choice + selection of relics, including the rod of Moses, the jawbone of John + the Baptist, and our Lord's crown of thorns.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1261 Baldwin + was in worse straits than ever. He was stripping off the lead of his + own palace roof, to sell it for a few zecchins to the Venetians, and + burning the beams of his outhouses in default of money to buy fuel. + His son and heir was in pawn to the Venetian banking firm of the + Capelli, who had taken him as the only tangible security that could + be found for a modest loan which they had advanced to the imperial + exchequer. With the government in such a desperate condition there + was no longer any power of resistance left in Constantinople. When + the Venetian fleet, the sole remaining defence of the empire, was + away at sea, the city fell before a sudden and unpremeditated attack, + made by Alexius Strategopulus, commander in Thrace under the emperor + Michael.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alexius, with + eight hundred regular troops and a few scores of half-armed + volunteers, was admitted by treachery within the walls. Before this + formidable array the heirs of the Crusaders fled in base dismay, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" + id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and the Empire of Romania came + to an inglorious and a well-deserved end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its monarch + resumed his habitual mendicant tours in Western Europe, and never + ceased to besiege the ears of popes and kings with demands for aid to + recover his lost realm. At last Baldwin passed away: his sole + memorial is the fact that he made a distressed and itinerant emperor + in search of a champion, one of the stock figures in the Romances of + his day. No one in Western Europe was ignorant of his tale, and he + survives as the prototype of the dispossessed sovereigns of fifty + legends of chivalry.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name= + "Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc49" id="toc49"></a> <a name="pdf50" id="pdf50"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXIV. Decline And Decay. + (1261-1328.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was now once + more a Byzantine empire, and to an unobservant reader the history of + the reigns of the Paleologi looks like the natural continuation and + sequel of the history of the reigns of Isaac Angelus and his brother. + If the annals of Michael VIII. and his son were written on to the end + of that of Alexius Angelus, the intervening gap of the Latin Conquest + might almost pass unperceived, and the reader might imagine that he + was investigating a single continuous course of events. The Frank + dominion at Constantinople, and the heroic episode of the Empire of + Nicaea, would pass equally unnoticed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We need not insist + on the perniciousness of such a view. Great as may seem the + similarity of the Byzantine Empire of 1204, and that of 1270, it had + really suffered an entire transformation in that period. To commence + by the most obvious and external sign of change, it will be observed + that the lands subject <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg + 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + Michael Paleologus were far more limited in extent than those which + had obeyed Alexius Angelus. The loss in Asia was less than might have + been expected: Theodore Lascaris and John Ducas had kept back the + Turk, and only two districts of no great extent had fallen into + Moslem hands—the Pisidian coast with the seaport of Adalia on the + south, and the Paphlagonian coast with the seaport of Sinope on the + north. Besides these the distant Pontic province had now become the + empire of Trebizond.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Europe the loss + was far more serious: four great blocks of territory had been lost + for ever. The first was a slip along the southern slope of the + Balkans, in Northern Thrace and Macedonia, which had fallen into the + hands of the Bulgarians, and become completely Slavonized. The second + was the district which is represented by the modern land of Albania. + When the Angeli of Thessalonica fell before John Ducas, a younger + member of the house retired to the original mountain house of the + dynasty, and preserved the independence of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Despotate of Epirus.”</span> Here the Angeli survived + for some generations, maintaining themselves against the Emperors of + Constantinople by a strict alliance with the Latin princes of + Southern Greece.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next in the list + of Old-Byzantine territories which Michael never recovered, we must + place Greece proper, now divided between the Princes of Achaia, of + the house of Villehardouin, and the Briennes, who had succeeded to + the Duchy of Athens. But the Paleologi still retained a considerable + slice of the Peloponnesus, and were destined to encroach ere + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" + id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> long on their Frankish + neighbours. Lastly, we must mention the islands of the Aegean, of + which the large majority were held either by the Venetian government, + or by Venetian adventurers, who ruled as independent lords, but + subordinated their policy to that of their native state.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + territorial difference between the empire of 1204 and the empire of + 1261 was only one of the causes which crippled the realm of the + Paleologi. Bad though the internal government of the dominions of + Alexius III. had been, there was still then some hope of recovery. + The old traditions of East-Roman administrative economy, though + neglected, were not lost, and might have been revived by an emperor + who had a keen eye to discover ability and a ready hand to reward + merit. New blood in the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">personnel</span></em> of the ministry, and a + keen supervision of details by the master's eye, would have produced + an improvement in the state of the empire, though any permanent + restoration of strength was probably made impossible by the + deep-seated decay of society. But by the time of Michael Paleologus + even amelioration had become impossible. The three able emperors who + reigned at Nicaea, though they had preserved their independence + against Turk and Frank, had utterly failed in restoring + administrative efficiency in their provinces. John Vatatzes, himself + a thrifty monarch, who could even condescend to poultry-farming to + fill his modest exchequer, found that all his efforts to protect + native industry could not cause the dried-up springs of prosperity to + flow again. The whole fiscal and administrative <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> machinery of government had been thrown + hopelessly out of gear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the + commercial decline of the empire that made a reform of the + administration so hopeless. The Paleologi were never able to reassert + the old dominion over the seas which had made their predecessors the + arbiters of the trade of Christendom. The wealth of the elder + Byzantine Empire had arisen from the fact that Constantinople was the + central emporium of the trade of the civilized world. All the caravan + routes from Syria and Persia converged thither. Thither, too, had + come by sea the commodities of Egypt and the Euxine. All the Eastern + products which Europe might require had to be sought in the + storehouses of Constantinople, and for centuries the nations of the + West had been contented to go thither for them. But the Crusades had + shaken this monopoly, when they taught the Italians to seek the + hitherto unknown parts of Syria and Egypt, and buy their Eastern + merchandize from the producer and not from the middleman. Acre and + Alexandria had already profited very largely at the expense of + Constantinople ere the Byzantine Empire was upset in 1204. But the + Latin conquest was the fatal blow. It threw the control of the trade + of the Bosphorus into the hands of the Venetians, and the Venetians + had no desire to make Constantinople their one central mart: they + were just as ready to trade through the Syrian and Egyptian ports. To + them the city was no more than an important half-way house for the + Black Sea trade, and an emporium for the local produce of the + countries round the Sea of Marmora.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From 1204 onward + Italy rather than Constantinople became the centre and starting-place + for all European trade, and the great Italian republics employed all + their vigilance to prevent the Greek fleet from recovering its old + strength. Henceforth the Byzantine war-navy was insignificant, and + without a war-navy the Paleologi could not drive away the intruders + and restore the free navigation of the Levant to their own mercantile + marine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The emperors who + succeeded each other on the restored throne of Constantinople were, + without exception, men more fitted to lose than to hold together an + exhausted and impoverished empire. Their lot was cast, it is true, in + hard times; but hardly one of them showed a spark of ability or + courage in endeavouring to face the evil day. The three monarchs of + the house of Lascaris who ruled at Nicaea had been keen soldiers and + competent administrators, but with the return of the emperors to + Constantinople the springs of energy began to dry up, and the gloom + and decay of the ruined capital seemed to affect the spirit and brain + of its rulers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-37.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Byzantine Chapel At Ani, The Old Capital Of Armenia. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Byzantine Chapel At Ani, The Old Capital Of Armenia. + (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: center"><span style= + "font-style: italic">From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. + Paris, Quantin, 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael + Paleologus, though it was his fortune to recover the city which his + abler predecessors had failed to take, was a mere wily intriguer, not + a statesman or general. Having usurped the throne by the basest + treachery towards his infant sovereign, he always feared for himself + a similar fate. Suspicion and cruelty were his main characteristics, + and in his care for his own person he quite forgot the interests of + the State. Even contemporary chroniclers saw that he was deliberately + setting himself to weaken <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg + 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + empire, because he dreaded the resentment of his subjects. He + disbanded nearly all the native Greek troops, and refrained as far as + possible from employing Greek generals.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of his minor + acts in this direction may be said to have been the original + circumstance which set the Ottoman Turks, the future bane of the + empire, on their career of conquest. The borders of the empire in + Asia were defended by a native militia, who held their lands under + condition of defending the castles and passes of the Bithynian and + Phrygian mountains. The institution, which somewhat resembled a + simple form of European feudalism, had worked so well that the + Byzantine Empire had for a century and a half kept its Asiatic + frontier practically intact, in spite of all the pressure of the + Seljouk Turks of the Sultanate of Iconium. But the Bithynian militia + were known to be attached to the house of Ducas, which Michael had + dethroned, and he therefore resolved to disarm them. The measure was + carried out, not without bloodshed, but the disbanded levy were not + replaced by any adequate number of regular troops. Michael's + financial straits did not permit him to keep under arms a very large + force, such as was required to garrison his eastern line of forts + after the abolition of the previous machinery of defence. Ten years + only before Othman, the father of the Ottoman Turks, succeeded to the + petty principality which was destined to be the nucleus of the + Turkish Empire, the way for him had been thrown open by Michael's + suspicious disarmament of the guards of his own + frontier.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg + 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Michael lived for + twenty-one years after the recovery of Constantinople, but he did not + win a single important advantage in all the rest of his reign. In + Europe he barely held his own against the Bulgarians, the Franks, and + the fleets of Genoa and Venice. The troubles which befell him at the + hands of the two naval powers were largely of his own creation, for + he shifted his alliance from one to the other with such levity and + suddenness that both regarded him as unfriendly. Though all through + his reign he was at war either with Genoa or Venice, yet such was the + distrust felt for him that, when at war with one of the rivals, he + could not always secure the help of the other. Venice had been the + mainstay of the Frank emperors of Constantinople, and Michael might, + therefore, have been expected to remain staunch to the Genoese. On + the other hand, the Genoese had designs on the Black Sea trade, which + touched the Emperor's pocket very closely, while the Venetians were + more connected with the distant commerce of Syria and Egypt, which + did not concern him. Balancing one consideration with the other, + Michael played false to both the powers, and often saw his coast + ravaged and his small fleet compelled to take refuge in the Golden + Horn, while the enemy's vessels swept the seas. On land he was less + unlucky, and the Duke of Athens and the despot of Epirus were both + kept in check, though neither of them were subdued.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was in Asia + that Michael's rule was most unfortunate. In the second half of his + reign the Seljouks, though split into several principalities owing to + the break up of the Sultanate of Iconium, united <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to assail the borders of the empire. They + conquered the Carian and Lydian inland, though Tralles and several + other towns made a vigorous resistance, and reduced Michael's + dominion in South-western Asia Minor to a mere strip along the coast. + A similar fate befell Eastern Bithynia, where the Turks forced their + way as far as the river Sangarius.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the ruin of + Byzantine Asia was reserved to fall into the times of Michael's son + and successor, Andronicus II. This prince had all the faults of his + father, levity, perfidy, and cruelty, with others added from which + Michael had been free—cowardice and superstition. The main interest + which Andronicus took in life was concerned with things + ecclesiastical—it would be wrong to say things religious—and he spent + his life in making and unmaking patriarchs of Constantinople. No + prelate could bear with him long, and in the course of his reign he + deposed no less than nine of them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Andronicus + was quarrelling with his patriarchs the empire was going to ruin. The + Seljouk chiefs from the plateau of Asia Minor were pressing down more + and more towards the coast, and making their way to the very gates of + Ephesus and Smyrna. At last the emperor, growing seriously alarmed + when the Turks appeared on the shores of the Propontis itself, and + threatened the walls of Nicaea and Prusa, resolved to make an + unwonted effort to beat them back.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-38.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Adronicus Paleologus Adoring Our Lord. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Adronicus Paleologus Adoring Our Lord. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1302 the long + war of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sicilian Vespers”</span> between + the houses of Anjou and Aragon came to an end, and the hordes of + mercenaries of all nations <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg + 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which the two pretenders to the crown of Sicily had maintained were + turned loose on the world. It occurred to Andronicus that he might + hire enough of the veterans of the Sicilian war to enable him to beat + back the Turks into their hills. All Europe acknowledged that they + were the hardiest and best-disciplined troops in Christendom, though + they were also the most cruel and lawless. Accordingly the emperor + applied to Roger de Flor, a renegade Templar, the commander of the + mercenaries who had served Frederic of Aragon, and offered to take + him into his service, with as many of his followers as could be + induced to accompany him. Roger accepted with alacrity, and came to + Constantinople in 1303 with 6,000 men at his back; other bodies were + soon to follow. Andronicus loaded the <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand + Company,”</span> as Roger de Flor styled his men, with unlimited + promises, and a certain amount of ready money. Roger himself was + given the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand Duke,”</span> and + married to a lady of the imperial house. After clearing the Turks out + of the Bithynian coast-land the <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand + Company”</span> spent the winter of 1303-4 in free quarters along the + southern coast of Propontis. Their plundering habits and their + arrogance soon brought them into ill odour with the inhabitants, who + complained that they were well-nigh as great a curse as the Turks. In + the next year Roger moved south with his host, and drove the Turks + out of Lydia and Caria; but instead of putting the emperor into + possession of the reconquered land, he garrisoned every fortress with + his own men, and raised and appropriated the imperial taxes. There + can be little doubt <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg + 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that he was plotting to seize on the provinces he had regained, and + to reign at Ephesus as an independent prince. At last Roger went so + far as to lay formal siege to Philadelphia, because its inhabitants + preferred to obey orders from Constantinople, and would not admit him + within their gates. Andronicus then lured him to an interview at + Adrianople, and in his very presence the great <span lang="it" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="it"><span style= + "font-style: italic">condottiere</span></span> was assassinated by + George the Alan, an officer whose son had been slain in a brawl by + Roger's soldiers. The Emperor had probably arranged the murder, and + certainly refused to arrest its perpetrator [1307].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was promptly + punished. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand Company”</span> was not + disorganized by the loss of its leader, and thought of nothing but + revenge. Assembling themselves in haste, and abandoning Asia Minor to + the Turks, they marched on Constantinople, harrying the land far and + wide with fiendish cruelty. The Emperor sent his son Michael against + them, but the young prince was disgracefully beaten in two fights at + Gallipoli and Apros, and the mercenaries spread themselves all over + Thrace and plundered it up to the gates of the capital. It almost + looked as if a second Latin Conquest of Constantinople was about to + take place, for the leaders of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand + Company”</span> got succour from Europe, raised a corps of Turkish + auxiliaries, and occupied Thrace for two years. But they could not + storm the walls of Constantinople or Adrianople, and at last, after + two years of plundering, they had stripped the country so bare that + they were driven away by famine. Drifting southward and westward they + ravaged Macedon and Thessaly, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and at last reached Greece. Here they fell into + a quarrel with Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, slew him in battle + and took his capital. Then at last did the wandering horde settle + down; they seized the duchy, divided its fiefs among themselves, and + established a new dynasty on the Athenian throne. The empire was at + last quit of them, for when once they ceased to wander the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand Company”</span> ceased to be + dangerous.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This disastrous + war with the mercenaries not only ruined Thrace and Macedonia, but + was the cause of the final loss of the Byzantine provinces of Asia + Minor. While Andronicus was feebly attempting to cope with the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand Company,”</span> the Seljouk chiefs + had conquered Lydia and Phrygia once more, and then advanced yet + further north to siege Mysia and Bithynia. By 1325 they had reduced + the Emperor's dominions on the east of the straits to a narrow strip, + reaching from the Dardanelles to the northern exit of the Bosphorus, + and bounded by the Bithynian hills to the south. Five Seljouk leaders + had carved out for themselves principalities in the conquered + districts, Menteshe in the south, Aidin and Saroukhan in Lydia, + Karasi in Mysia, and in the Bithynian borderland Othman, destined to + a fame very different from that of his long-forgotten compeers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Othman and + the rest were turning the once thickly-peopled countries of Western + Asia Minor into a desert sparsely inhabited by wandering nomads, + Andronicus II. was busied in a war even more uncalled for than that + with the mercenaries. He wished to exclude from the succession to the + throne <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name= + "Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> his grandson and heir, + who bore the same name as himself. But the younger Andronicus took + measures to defend his rights, and raised armed bands. Grandfather + and grandson were ere long engaged in a long but feebly-conducted + war, which was only terminated in 1328, when the old man acknowledged + Andronicus the younger as his heir, and made him his colleague on the + throne. But his grandson, not contented with this measure of success, + made him retire from the conduct of affairs, and assumed control over + every function of government. The name of Andronicus II. was still + associated with that of Andronicus III. on the coinage and in the + public prayers, but he took no further part in the rule of the + empire. In 1332 he died, at a good old age, lamented by no single + individual in the realm which he had ruled for fifty years. At his + death the empire was only two-thirds of the size that it had been at + his accession.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name= + "Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc51" id="toc51"></a> <a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXV. The Turks In Europe.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Andronicus III. + was a shade better than the incapable old man whom he supplanted. + Though he was given—like all his house—to treachery and deceit, and + though his life was loose and luxurious, he was at any rate active + and energetic. He may be described as a weak reflection or copy of + Manuel Comnenus, being a mighty hunter, a bold spear both in the + tournament and on the battle-field, and a great spender of money. If + he had not the brains to keep his empire together, he at any rate + fought his best, and did not sit apathetically at home like his + grandfather while everything was going to rack and ruin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, + Andronicus III. was destined to see the termination of the process + which had begun under Andronicus II.—the entire loss of the Asiatic + provinces of the empire to the Turks. It was now with the Ottomans + almost exclusively that he had to deal; the other Seljouk hordes had + no longer any marchland along the shrunken frontier of his + dominions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These new foes of + the empire deserve a word of description. Othman, the son of + Ertogrul, was a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg + 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + vassal of the Seljouk Sultan of Roum, who had been granted a tract in + the Phrygian highlands under the condition of military service + against the Greeks. His fief lay in the north-west angle of the great + central plateau of Asia Minor. Behind it lay the rolling country of + hills and uplands already occupied by the Seljouks. Before it were + the Bithynian mountains, with their passes protected by forts, and + garrisoned by local militia, till the day when they were so + perversely stripped of their defenders by the action of Michael + Paleologus. Othman, and his father Ertogrul before him, owned nothing + in the hills, nor could they have pushed on if Michael had not made + the way easy for them. But after 1270 the native militia was gone, + and the followers of Othman, instead of having to face an armed + population, fighting to protect its own fields, found to oppose them + only inadequate garrisons of regular troops at long intervals.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Othman's life + covered two series of great events, the disastrous reign of + Andronicus II. at Constantinople, and in Asia Minor the no less + disastrous break-up of the power of his own suzerain, the Sultan of + Roum. In 1294, Gaiaseddin, the last undisputed sovereign of the + Seljouk line, fell in battle against rebels; and in 1307, Alaeddin + III., the last prince who claimed to be supreme Sultan, died in + exile. This made Othman an independent prince; but he did not take + the title of Sultan, contenting himself with the humbler name of + Emir.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Othman's field of + operation from 1281 to 1326 was the Byzantine borderland of Bithynia + and Mysia. He was by no means the strongest of the Seljouk + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" + id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> chiefs who made a lodgement + within the borders of the empire, and it took him twenty years before + he conquered one large town. His wild horsemen harried the open + sea-coast plain of Bithynia again and again, till at last the + wretched inhabitants emigrated, or acknowledged him as their + sovereign. But the towns, within their strong Roman walls, were + unassailable by the light cavalry which formed his only armed + strength. The siege of Prusa [Broussa], the capital and key of the + region, lasted ten years. The Turks built a chain of forts around it + and gradually made the introduction of provisions more and more + difficult, till at last a large force was required to march out every + time that a convoy was expected. At length the inhabitants could find + no advantage in spending their whole lives in a beleaguered town + undergoing slow starvation. Prusa surrendered in 1326, and Othman + heard of the news on his death-bed. The Turkish frontier now once + again touched the Sea of Marmora, which it had not reached since the + Crusaders thrust it back inland in 1097.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reign of + Othman's son Orkhan, the second Emir of the Ottomans, almost + coincided with that of Andronicus III. All that the one lost the + other gained. Orkhan's life-work was the completion of the conquest + of Bithynia, which his father had begun. He took Nicomedia in 1327 + and Nicaea in 1333, with all the surrounding territory, so that + Andronicus retained nothing but Chalcedon and the district + immediately facing Constantinople beyond the Bosphorus. Only once did + he have to meet the Emperor in pitched battle; this was at the fight + of Pelekanon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg + 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + 1329. Andronicus was wounded early in the day, and his army, deprived + of its leader went to pieces and was severely beaten. After his + recovery from his wounds the Emperor never faced the Ottomans + again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After conquering + Bithynia, Orkhan subdued his nearest neighbours among the other + Seljouk Emirs, and then turned to organizing his state. This was the + date of the institution of his famous corps of the Janissaries, the + first steady infantry that any Eastern power had ever possessed. He + imposed on his Christian subjects in Mysia and Bithynia a tribute, + not of money, but of male children. The boys were taken over while + very young, placed in barracks, educated in the strictest and most + fanatical Moslem code, and trained to the profession of arms. Having + light horse enough and to spare, Orkhan taught the Janissaries to + fight on foot with bow and sabre. They were well drilled, and moved + in compact masses, which for many ages no foe proved competent to + sunder and disperse. So thorough was the physical and moral + discipline to which the Janissaries were subjected, that it was + almost unknown for one of them to turn back from his career and + relapse into Christianity. To keep them firm in their allegiance + there acted not only the military and conventual discipline to which + they were subject, but the dazzling prospect of future greatness. The + Ottoman sovereigns made it their rule to select their generals and + governors, their courtiers and personal attendants from the ranks of + the tribute-children. It was calculated that more than two-thirds of + the Grand-Viziers of Turkey, in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth + centuries, had begun their career as Janissaries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first + generation of the <span class="tei tei-q">“New Soldiery”</span> [for + such is the meaning of the word Janissary] grew up to the military + age during the latter half of the reign of Orkhan, and it was he who + first utilized them on the European shore of the Bosphorus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Andronicus III. + died in 1241, and left his shrunken dominions to the risks of a + minority, for his son and heir, John III., was only nine years of + age. If anything had been wanting to aid in the destruction of the + empire, it was the arrival of such a contingency. The usual troubles + soon set in, and the inevitable civil war was not far off.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-39.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "John Cantacuzenus Sitting In State. (From a Contemporary MS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + John Cantacuzenus Sitting In State. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + a Contemporary MS.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The evil spirit of + the time was John Cantacuzenus, the prime minister of the deceased + emperor. He was a clever, shifty, intriguing courtier, with a turn + for literature, but had the abilities neither of a general nor of a + statesman. However, he had read the tale of the rise of the Paleologi + to some purpose, and had resolved to imitate the career of Michael + VIII. Now, as in 1258, there was the best of chances for an + unscrupulous minister to make himself first the colleague and then + the supplanter of his young master. Cantacuzenus did his best to + repeat the doings of Michael on Michael's great-great-grandson. He + bribed and intrigued, made himself a party in the state, and prepared + for a <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">coup d'état</span></span> when + the time should be ripe. Unfortunately for himself, Cantacuzenus was + not of the stuff of which successful usurpers are made. He had his + scruples and superstitions, and showed a fatal habit of + procrastination which always <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> led him to act a day too late. The Empress + Dowager, Anne of Savoy, succeeded in raising a party against him, and + when he threw off the mask and declared himself emperor he found + himself unable to seize the capital, though he mustered an army under + its walls. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg + 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Finding that he was playing a losing game, Cantacuzenus took the + usual step of calling in the national enemy to aid him. It was for + the last time that this was done in Byzantine history, but never + before had the result been so fatal. The usurper summoned to his aid + first Stephen Dushan, the king of the Servians, and a little later + the Turkish princes from across the Aegean—Orkhan the son of Othman, + and his rival, Amour, Emir of Aidin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These allies kept + the cause of John Cantacuzenus from destruction, but it was by + destroying the empire that John had coveted. King Stephen entered + Macedonia and Thrace, and occupied the whole countryside, except + Thessalonica and a few other towns. He then pushed further south, + conquered Thessaly, and made the despot of Epirus do him homage. The + Byzantine government retained little more than the capital, and the + districts round Adrianople and Thessalonica. Most of this country was + lost for ever to the imperial crown, and it seemed as if a Servian + domination in the Balkan Peninsula was about to begin, for Stephen + moved south from Servia, made Uscup in Macedonia his capital, and + proclaimed himself <span class="tei tei-q">“Emperor of the Servians + and Romans.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would perhaps + have been well for Christendom if Stephen had actually conquered + Constantinople and made an end of the empire. In that case there + would have been a single great power in the Balkan Peninsula, ready + to meet the oncoming assault of the Turks. But Dushan was not strong + enough to take the great city, and to the misfortune of Europe he + died in 1355 leaving a realm extending from the Danube to the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" + id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> pass of Thermopylae. But his + young son Urosh was soon assassinated, and the Servian Empire broke + up as rapidly as it had grown together. A dozen princes were soon + scrambling for the remnants of Stephen's heritage.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other allies + whom John Cantacuzenus called in were the Turks Amour and Orkhan, and + on them he depended far more than on the Servian. He took over into + Thrace a large body of Turkish horse, and allowed them to harry the + country-side and carry away his subjects by thousands, to be sold in + the slave-markets of Smyrna and Broussa. But the depth of John's + degradation was reached when he gave his daughter Theodora to Orkhan, + to be immured in the Turk's harem. Thrace was rapidly assuming the + aspect of a desert under the incursions of the Ottoman mercenaries of + Cantacuzenus, when after six years of war the party of the Empress + Anne consented to recognize the usurper as the colleague and guardian + of the rightful heir. A hollow peace was patched up, and the two + Johns could take stock of their dilapidated realm [1347]. The net + result of their civil war had been that Macedonia and Thessaly were + in Servian hands, and that Thrace was utterly ruined by the Turks. + There was nothing left that could be called an empire; all that + remained was Constantinople and Adrianople, the town of Thessalonica + and the Byzantine province in the Peloponnesus. Cantacuzenus + certainly deserves a notable place by the side of Isaac and Alexius + Angelus, as the third of the great destroyers of the Eastern + Empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But his evil work + was not yet done. For seven <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg + 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + years he ruled in conjunction with John Paleologus, waging an + unsuccessful war against Servia in the hopes of winning back Dushan's + conquests. But in 1354 the young emperor, having attained the age of + twenty-four, resolved to assert himself, and took arms to dethrone + his guardian. Cantacuzenus resisted, and sent over to Asia for the + troops of his son-in-law Orkhan, who crossed into Thrace and drove + the adherents of the Paleologi out of several fortresses. But a night + surprise from the side of the sea put John Paleologus in possession + of Constantinople, and by a fortunate chance he got Cantacuzenus + himself into his hands. The usurper was, in accordance with the usual + practice, tonsured and placed in a monastery; by exceptional good + fortune he was spared the loss of his eyes, and was able to spend the + remainder of his life in writing a history of his own time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was of + little use to sweep away Cantacuzenus while Orkhan's Turks were in + Thrace. The Ottomans had come as auxiliaries in the war, but they + were resolved to stop as principals. Suleiman, the son of Orkhan, + seized Gallipoli for himself, filled it with Turkish families, and + made it a permanent settlement. This was the first Ottoman foothold + in Europe, but it was not long to remain isolated.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1359 Orkhan + died, and his successor, Murad I., determined to cross over into + Europe, and try the fortune of his arms. John Paleologus was not a + worse man than his immediate predecessors on the throne, but thanks + to Cantacuzenus he had far less resources than even they had + possessed. Two years of fighting sufficed to put Thrace in the hands + of Murad from <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg + 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sea + to sea. A decisive battle in front of Adrianople in 1361 was the + finishing stroke, and the empire became a mere head without a body; + its last home-province had been lopped away, and beyond the walls of + Constantinople no land acknowledged John V. as sovereign save the + district of Thessalonica and the Peloponnesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why Murad I. did + not finish the task he had begun, and take Constantinople itself, it + is hard to discern. Its walls were still formidable, and the Genoese + and Venetians could still protect it on the side of the sea. But a + siege pressed firmly to an end must at last have triumphed over the + mere inert resistance of stone and mortar, unsupported by an adequate + garrison within. However, Murad preferred to press on against + worthier adversaries than the weak Paleologus, and spent his life in + incessant and successful wars with the Servians, the Bulgarians, and + the Seljouk Emirs of Southern Asia Minor. In a reign of thirty years + he extended his borders to the Balkans on the north, and annexed + large tracts of Seljouk territory from his brother Emirs in Asia + Minor.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John Paleologus + was his humble vassal and slave. After a vain attempt to get help + from the Pope, this emperor without an empire resolved to make what + terms he could, and rejoiced when he found that Murad was prepared to + grant him peace. The Turk was a hard master, and rejoiced in giving + his vassal unpalatable tasks. Best remembered among the tribulations + of John is the siege of Philadelphia. That place had preserved a + precarious independence after all the other cities of Byzantine Asia + fell into the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg + 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + hands of the Turkish Emirs. Being far away in the Lydian hills, it + lost touch with Constantinople, and had become a free town. Murad, + wishing to subdue it, compelled John V. and his son Manuel to march + in person against the last Christian stronghold in Asia. The Emperor + submitted to the degradation, and Philadelphia surrendered when it + saw the imperial banner hoisted among the horse-tails of the Turkish + pashas above the camp of the besiegers. The humiliation of the empire + could go no further than when the heir of Justinian and Basil + Bulgaroktonos took the field at the behest of an upstart Turkish + Emir, in order to extinguish the last relics of freedom among his own + compatriots.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name= + "Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc53" id="toc53"></a> <a name="pdf54" id="pdf54"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XXVI. The End Of A Long Tale. + (1370-1453.)</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tale of the + last seventy-five years of the Byzantine Empire is a mere piece of + local history, and no longer forms an important thread in the web of + the history of Christendom. Murad the Turk might have taken + Constantinople in 1370, without altering in any very great measure + the course of events in Eastern Europe during the next century. For + after 1370 the empire ceased to exercise its old function of + <span class="tei tei-q">“bulwark of Christendom against the + Ottomite.”</span> That duty now fell to the Servians and Hungarians, + who continued to discharge it for the next hundred and fifty years. + The Paleologi, by their base subservience to the Turk, protracted the + life of the empire long after all justification for its existence had + disappeared.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Constantinople + had fallen in 1370, instead of 1453, there are only two ways in which + European history would have been somewhat modified. The commercial + resources of Genoa and Venice would have been straitened before the + appointed time, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg + 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ere + the Cape route to India enabled Europe to dispense with the use of + Constantinople as half-way house to the East. And, we may add, the + Renaissance would have been shorn of some of its brilliance in the + next century, if the dispersion of the Greeks had taken place before + Italy was quite fitted to receive them and turn their learning to + account. But in other respects it is hard to see that much harm would + have resulted from the fall of Constantinople in the end of the + fourteenth rather than the middle of the fifteenth century.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Murad I. was + conquering the Servians and Bulgarians, John Paleologus was dragging + out a long and unhonoured old age. His reign was protracted for over + half a century, but his later years were much vexed by the undutiful + behaviour of his children. His son Andronicus twice rebelled against + him, and once succeeded in seizing the throne for a short space. + Andronicus allied himself unto Saoudji, a son of Murad I., who + plotted a similar treason against his father the Emir. But Murad + easily quelled the rebellion, put out the eyes of his own son, and + sent Andronicus in chains to John II., bidding him to follow his + example. The Emperor did not dare to disobey, and ordered his son to + be blinded. But the operation was so ineffectually performed that + Andronicus retained a measure of sight, and was even able to venture + on a second rebellion against his father.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In consequence of + his heir's unnatural conduct, the aged John determined to deprive him + of his succession, and when he died in 1391, he left the throne to + his second son Manuel, and not to his eldest born. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Manuel II. was above the average of the + Paleologi, and showed some signs of capacity, but of what use was it + to a prince whose sole dominions were Constantinople, Thessalonica, + and the Peloponnesus? He had neither military strength nor money to + justify rebellion against the Turk, and could only wait on the course + of events.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was, + however, one moment in Manuel's life at which the liberation of the + empire from the Ottoman suzerainty appeared possible and even + probable. In 1402, there burst into Asia Minor a great horde of + Tartars, under the celebrated conqueror Timour [Tamerlane]. Sultan + Bayezid, the successor of Murad I., went forth to withstand the + invader. But at Angora in Galatia, he suffered a crushing defeat, and + the Ottoman Empire seemed likely to perish by the sword. Bayezid was + captured, his trusty Janissaries were cut to pieces, his light + horsemen scattered to the winds. The Tartars swarmed all over Asia + Minor, occupied Broussa, the Ottoman capital, and restored to their + thrones all the Seljouk Emirs whose dominions Murad I. had annexed. + Bayezid died in captivity, and his sons began to fight over the + remains of his empire: Prince Suleiman seized Adrianople, Prince Eesa + Nicaea, and each declared himself Sultan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 70%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-40.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Manuel Paleologus And His Family. (From a Contemporary MS.) (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Manuel Paleologus And His Family. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + a Contemporary MS.</span></span>) (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was a rare + opportunity for Manuel Paleologus: the thieves had fallen out, and + the rightful owner might perchance come again to his own, if he + played his cards well. The control of the Straits was of great + importance to each of the Turkish pretenders, so much so, that Manuel + was able to sell his aid to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg + 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Suleiman for a heavy price. In order to keep Eesa from crossing the + water, the holder of the European half of the Ottoman realm ceded to + the Emperor <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg + 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Thessalonica, the lower valley of the Strymon, the coast of Thessaly, + and all the seaports of the Black Sea from the mouth of the Bosphorus + up to Varna.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a moment + Manuel once more ruled what might in courtesy be called an empire, + and so long as the Ottomans were occupied in civil war he contrived + to retain his gains. The strife of the sons of Bayezid lasted ten + years: Suleiman was slain by his brother Musa, Eesa by his brother + Mohammed, and the two supplanters continued the war. By all Oriental + analogies their empire ought to have fallen to pieces, for it is very + much easier to build up a new state in the East than to keep together + an old one which is breaking asunder. But Mohammed, the youngest of + the sons of Bayezid, was a man of genius: he triumphed over the last + of his brothers, and united all the remnants of the Ottoman realm + that remained. Much had been lost to the Seljouk Emirs in Asia Minor, + and to the Servians and Manuel Paleologus in Europe, but the rest was + back in Mohammed's hands by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1421. Manuel had very + luckily cast in his lot with Mohammed during the later years of the + Turkish civil war, and his ally let him enjoy the dominions he had + recovered by his original treaty with Suleiman in 1403.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Between 1402 and + 1421, Europe had an unparalleled opportunity to rid herself of the + Ottomans. Unfortunately it was not taken. Sigismund, king of Hungary, + and at the same time Emperor, was the sovereign on whom the duty of + leading the attack ought to have fallen. But Sigismund was now + engaged in his great struggle with the Hussites in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Bohemia. This wretched religious war + directed the strength of Hungary northward when it was wanted in the + south. Without such a power to back them the Servians, though they + recovered their own liberty as a result of the battle of Angora, + could do nothing towards driving the Turks from the Balkans. There + was never any sympathy between Serb and Magyar, and save under the + direct pressure of fear of a Moslem invasion they would not act + together. The Hungarian kings had always laid claim to a suzerainty + over the crown of Servia, and from time to time tried to convert + their neighbours to Roman Catholicism by force of arms. Hence there + was no love lost between them, and a crusade to expel the Turks was + never concerted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-41.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. (From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.)" /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. (<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: center"><span style="font-style: italic">From + "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, + 1883.</span></span>) + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mahomet the + Unifier died in 1421, and evil days at once set in for Constantinople + and for Christendom, when his ambitious son Murad II. came to the + throne. Manuel Paleologus was one of the first to feel the change in + the times. He tried to make trouble for Murad, by supporting against + him two claimants to the Ottoman Sultanate, each named Mustapha, one + the uncle, the other the brother of the new ruler. This drew down on + the empire the fate which had been delayed since 1370: the Sultan + declared war on Manuel, took one after another all the fortresses + which had been recovered by the peace of 1403, and finally laid siege + to Constantinople. For the last time the walls of the city proved + strong enough to repulse an assault. Though Murad levelled against + them cannon, then seen for the first time in the East, built movable + towers to shelter his troops, and launched his terrible Janissaries + to the assault, he could not <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> succeed. The report of a miraculous vision of + the Virgin, who vouchsafed to reveal herself as the defender of the + city, encouraged the Greeks to resist with a better spirit than might + have been expected. At last the pretender Mustapha, whom Manuel had + supplied with money to cause a revolt against his brother, began to + stir up such trouble in Asia Minor, that the Sultan determined to + raise the siege and march against him. He granted Manuel peace, on + the condition that he ceded all his dominions save the cities of + Constantinople and Thessalonica and the Peloponnesian province. Thus + the empire once more sank back into a state of vassalage to the + Ottomans [1422].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Manuel II. died + three years after, at the age of seventy-seven. He was the last + sovereign of Constantinople who won even a transient smile from + fortune. The tale of the last thirty years of the empire is one of + unredeemed gloom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To Manuel + succeeded his son John VI., whose whole reign was passed in peace, + without an attempt to shake off the Turkish yoke; such an attempt + indeed would have been hopeless, unless backed by aid from without. + As Manuel II. once observed, <span class="tei tei-q">“the empire now + requires a bailiff not a statesman to rule it.”</span> Treaties, + wars, and alliances were not for him: all that he could do was to try + to save a little money, and to keep his walls in good repair, and + even these humble tasks were not always feasible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All the + descriptions of Constantinople in the fifteenth century, whether + written by Greek natives or by Western travellers, bear witness to a + state of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg + 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + exhaustion and debility which make us wonder that the empire did not + collapse sooner. The country outside the walls was a desert. Within + them more than half the ground was unoccupied, and covered only by + ruins which testified to ancient magnificence. The great palace by + the Augustaeum, which sheltered so many generations of emperors, had + grown so dilapidated that the Paleologi dwelt in a mere corner of it. + Part of the porticoes of St. Sophia had fallen down, and the Greeks + could not afford to repair even the greatest sanctuary of their + faith. The population of the city had shrunk to about a hundred + thousand souls, most of them dwelling in great poverty. Such commerce + and wealth as still survived in Constantinople had passed almost + entirely into the hands of the Italians of Genoa and Venice, whose + fortified factories at Galata and Pera now contained the bulk of the + wares that passed through the city. The military strength of the + empire was composed of about four thousand mercenary troops, of whom + many were Franks and hardly any were born subjects of the empire. The + splendid court, which had once been the wonder of East and West, had + shrunk to such modest dimensions that a Burgundian traveller noted + with surprise that no more than eight attendants accompanied the + empress when she went in state to worship in St. Sophia.<a id= + "noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John VI., in spite + of the caution with which he avoided all action, was destined to see + the empire lose its most important possession beyond the walls of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" + id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Constantinople. His brother + Andronicus, governor of Thessalonica, traitorously sold that city to + the Venetians for 50,000 zecchins. The Sultan, incensed at a transfer + of Greek territory having taken place without his permission, pounced + down on the place, expelled the Venetians and annexed Thessalonica to + the Ottoman Empire [1430].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief feature + of the reign of the last John Paleologus was his attempt to win aid + for the empire by enlisting sympathy in Western Europe. He determined + to conform to Roman Catholicism and to throw himself on the + generosity of the Pope. Accordingly he betook himself to Italy in + 1438, with the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops in his + train. He appeared at the Councils of Ferrara and Florence, and was + solemnly received into the Roman Church in the Florentine Duomo, on + July 6, 1439. It had apparently escaped John's notice that Eugenius + IV., the pope of his own day, was a very different personage from the + great pontiffs of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, who were able + to depose sovereigns and send forth Crusades at their good pleasure. + Since the Great Schism the papacy had been hopelessly discredited in + Christendom. Eugenius IV. was engaged in waging a defensive war + against the Council of Basle, which was attempting to depose him, and + had little thought or power to spend on aiding the Eastern + Christians. All that John could get from him was a sum of money and a + body of three hundred mercenary troops. This was a poor return for + his journey and conversion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only one thing of + importance was accomplished by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the apostasy of the Emperor—the outbreak of a + venomous ecclesiastical struggle at Constantinople between the + conformists who had taken the oath at Florence, and the bulk of the + clergy, who disowned the treaty of union. John was practically + boycotted by the majority of his subjects; the Orthodox priests + ceased to pray for him, and the populace refused to enter St. Sophia + again, when it had been profaned by the celebration of the Roman + Mass. The opinion of the majority of the Greeks was summed up in the + exclamation of the Grand-Duke John Notaras—<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Better the turban of the Turk in Constantinople than the + Pope's Tiara.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last years of + the reign of John VI. coincided with the great campaigns of Huniades + and Ladislas of Poland against the Turks. For a moment it seemed as + if the gallant king of Poland and Hungary, backed by his great Warden + of the Marches, might restore the Balkan lands to Christendom. They + thrust Murad II. back over the Balkans, and appeared in triumph at + Sophia. But the fatal battle of Varna [1444] ended the career of King + Ladislas in an untimely death, and after that fight the Ottomans were + obviously fated to accomplish their destiny without a check. John + Paleologus watched the struggle without movement if not without + concern. He was too cautious to stir a finger to aid the Hungarians, + for he knew that if he once offended the Sultan his days would be + numbered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John VI. passed + away in 1448, and Sultan Murad in 1451. The one was succeeded by his + brother Constantine, the last Christian sovereign of Byzantium, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" + id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the other by his young son + Mohammed the Conqueror. Constantine was a Romanist like his elder + brother, and was therefore treated with great suspicion and coolness + by his handful of subjects. He was the best man that the house of + Paleologus had ever reared, brave, pious, generous, and forgiving. + Like King Hosea of Israel, <span class="tei tei-q">“he did not evil + as the kings that were before him,”</span> yet was destined to bear + the penalty for all the sins and follies of his long line of + predecessors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mohammed II., the + most commanding personality among the whole race of Ottoman Sultans, + set his heart from the first on seizing Constantinople, the natural + centre of his empire, and making it his capital. Some excuse had to + be found for falling on his vassal: the one that he chose was a + rather unwise request which Constantine had made. There dwelt at + Constantinople a Turkish prince of the royal house named Orkhan, for + whom Mohammed paid a considerable subsidy, on condition that he was + kept out of the way of mischief and plotting. Some unhappy + inspiration impelled Constantine to ask for an increase in the + subsidy, and to hint that Orkhan had claims to the Sultanate. This + was excuse enough for Mohammed: without taking the trouble to declare + war he sent out troops and engineers, and began to erect forts on + Greek soil, only four miles away from Constantinople, at the + narrowest point of the Bosphorus, so as to block the approach to the + city from the Black Sea. The Emperor did not dare to remonstrate, but + when the Turks began to pull down a much-venerated church, in order + to utilize its stones in the new fort, a few Greeks took <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> arms and drove the masons away. They were + at once cut down by the Turkish guards: Constantine demanded redress, + and then Mohammed, having fairly picked his wolf-and-lamb quarrel + with his unfortunate vassal, commenced open hostilities [Autumn + 1452].</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Turkish light + troops at once appeared to blockade the city while the Sultan began + to collect a great train of cannon at Adrianople, and to build a + large fleet of war galleys in the ports of Asia: the siege was to + begin in the ensuing spring.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The empire was now + in its death agony, and Constantine recognized the fact. He spent the + winter in making frantic appeals to the Pope and the Italian naval + powers to save him from destruction. Nicholas V. was willing enough + to help; now that the Emperor was a convert to Catholicism something + must be done to aid him. But all that the Pope could send was a + cardinal, a moderate sum of money, and a few hundred soldiers of + fortune hastily hired in Italy. Venice and Genoa could have done much + more, but they had so often heard the cry of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Wolf”</span> raised that they did not realize the danger + to their Eastern trade at its true extent. From Genoa, Giovanni + Giustiniani brought no more than two galleys and three hundred men. + Venice did even less, only commissioning the bailiff of its factory + at Galata to arm such able-bodied Venetians as were with him for the + protection of the city. Altogether the Franks, counting both trained + mercenaries and armed burghers, who co-operated in the defence of + Constantinople, were not more than three thousand strong. Yet either + Genoa or Venice <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg + 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + could have thrown a hundred galleys and twenty thousand men into the + scale if they had chosen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"> + <img src="images/fig-42.png" alt="Illustration" title= + "Details Of St. Sophia." /> + + <div class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + Details Of St. Sophia. + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine's own + troops were about four thousand strong, but he hoped to recruit them + by a general levy of the male population of the city. He issued a + passionate appeal to his subjects to join in saving the holy city, + the centre of Eastern Christendom. But the Greeks only remembered + that he was an apostate, who had foresworn the faith of his fathers + and done homage to the Pope. They stood aside in sullen apathy, and + from the whole population of the city only two thousand volunteers + were enlisted. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg + 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Theological bitterness led the blind multitude to cry with Notaras + that it preferred the Turk to the Roman.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In April, 1453, + the young Sultan, with seventy thousand picked troops at his back, + laid formal siege to the city on the land side, while a fleet of + several hundred war galleys beset the Bosphorus. The end could not be + for a moment doubtful; nine thousand men could not hope to defend the + vast circuit of the land and sea-wall against a veteran army urged on + by a young and fiery general. Mohammed set his cannon to play on the + walls, and it was soon seen that the tough old Roman mortar and stone + that had blunted the siege engines of so many foes could not resist + the force of gunpowder. The Sultan's artillery was rude, but it was + heavy and numerous; ere long the walls began to come down in flakes, + and breaches commenced to show themselves in several places.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Constantine XIII. + and his second in command, the Genoese Giustiniani, did all that + brave and skilful men might, in protracting the siege. They led + sorties, organized attacks by water on the Turkish fleet, and + endeavoured to drive off the siege artillery of the enemy by a + counter fire of cannon. But it was found that the old walls were too + narrow to bear the guns, and where any were hoisted up and brought to + bear, their recoil shook the fabric in such a dangerous way that the + fire was soon obliged to cease.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At sea the + Christians won one great success, when four galleys from the Aegean + forced their way in through the whole Turkish fleet, and reached the + Golden Horn in safety, after sinking many of their assailants. But + the Turks had as great a numerical <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> superiority on the water as on land, and the + inevitable could only be delayed. Mohammed even succeeded in getting + control of the harbour of the city, above its mouth, by dragging + light galleys on rollers over the neck of land between the Bosphorus + and the Golden Horn, and launching them in the inland waters just + above Galata. Thus the inner, as well as the outer, sea-face of the + city was beset by enemies.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The end came on + May 29, 1453. The Sultan had opened several practicable breaches, of + which the chief lay in the north-west angle of the city by the gate + of St. Romanus, where two whole towers and the curtain between them + had been battered down and choked the ditch. The storm was obviously + at hand, and the doomed Emperor was obliged to face his fate. Greek + historians dwelt with loving sorrow on the last hours of the + unfortunate prince. He left the breach at midnight, partook of the + sacrament according to the Latin rite in St. Sophia, and snatched a + few hours of troubled sleep in his half-ruined palace. Next morning, + with the dawn, he rose to ride back to the post of danger. His + ministers and attendants crowded round his horse as he started on + what all knew to be his last journey. Looking steadfastly on them he + prayed one and all to pardon him for any offence that he might + wittingly or unwittingly have committed against any man. The crowd + answered with sobs and wails, and with the sounds of woe ringing in + his ears Constantine rode slowly off to meet his death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The assault + commenced at dawn; three main attacks and several secondary ones were + directed against weak spots in the wall. But the chief stress + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" + id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was on the great breach by the + gate of St. Romanus. There the Emperor himself and Giustiniani at his + side stood in the midst of the yawning gap with their best men around + them, and opposed a barrier of steel to the oncoming assailants. + Twelve thousand Janissaries, sabre in hand, formed successive columns + of attack; as soon as one was beaten off another delivered its + assault. They fell by hundreds before the swords of the mailed men in + the breach, for their felt caps and unarmoured bodies were easy marks + for the ponderous weapons of the fifteenth century. But the ranks of + the defenders grew thin and weary; Giustiniani was wounded in the + face by an arrow, and taken on board his galley to die. Constantine + at last stood almost alone in the breach, and a forlorn hope of + Janissaries headed by one Hassan of Ulubad, whom Turkish chroniclers + delight to honour, at last forced their way over the wall. The + Emperor and his companions were trodden under foot, and the + victorious army rushed into the desolate streets of Constantinople, + seeking in vain for foes to fight. The Greeks, half expecting that + God would interfere to save the queen of Christian cities by a + miracle, had crowded into the churches, and were passing the fatal + hour in frantic prayer! The shouts of the victorious enemy soon + showed them how the day had gone, and the worshippers were dragged + out in crowds, to be claimed as slaves and divided among the + conquerors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mohammed II. rode + through the breach after his men, and descended into the city, + scanning from within the streets that so many Eastern conquerors had + in vain desired to see. He bade his men search <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for the Emperor, and the corpse of + Constantine was found at last beneath a heap of slain, so gashed and + mauled that it was only identified by the golden eagles on his mail + shoes. The Turk struck off his head, and sent it round their chief + cities as a token of triumph. Riding through the hippodrome towards + St. Sophia, Mohammed noted the Delphic tripod with its three + snakes,<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href= + "#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> standing + where Constantine the Great had placed it eleven hundred years + before. Either because the menacing heads of the serpents provoked + him, or merely because he wished to try the strength of his arm, the + Sultan rose in his stirrups and smote away the jaws of the nearest + snake with one blow of his mace. There was something typical in the + deed though Mohammed knew it not. He had defaced the monument of the + first great victory of the West over the East. He, the successor in + spirit not only of Xerxes but of Chosroës and Moslemah and many + another Oriental potentate, who had failed where he succeeded, could + not better signalize the end of Greek freedom than by dealing a + scornful blow at that ancient memorial, erected in the first days of + Grecian greatness, to celebrate the turning back of the Persians on + the field of Plataea.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At last the Sultan + came to St. Sophia, where the crowd of wailing captives was being + divided among his soldiery. He rode in at the eastern door, and bade + a mollah ascend the pulpit and repeat there the formula of the Moslem + faith. So the cry that God was great and Mohammed his prophet rang + through <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name= + "Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the dome where thirty + generations of patriarchs had celebrated the Holy Mysteries, and all + Europe and Asia knew the end was come of the longest tale of Empire + that Christendom has yet seen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finis.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name= + "Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc55" id="toc55"></a> <a name="pdf56" id="pdf56"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Table Of Emperors.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arcadius, 395-408 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius II., 408-450 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcianus, 450-457 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo I., 457-474 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zeno, 474-491 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anastasius I., 491-518 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinus I., 518-527 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinianus I., 527-565 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinus II., 565-578 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius II., Constantinus, 578-582 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mauricius, 582-602 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocas, 602-610 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heraclius, 610-641 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heraclius Constantinus and Heracleonas, 641-2 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constans II., 642-668 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine IV., 668-685 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinian II., 685-695 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leontius, 695-697 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius III., Apsimarus, 697-705 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinian II. (restored), 705-711 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philippicus, 711-713 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anastasius II., Artemius, 713-715 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius III., 715-717 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo III., the Isaurian, 717-740 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine V., Copronymus, 740-775 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo IV., 775-779 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VI., 779-797 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Irene, 797-802 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicephorus I., 802-811 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stauracius, 811 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael I., Rhangabe, 811-813 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo V., the Armenian, 813-820 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael II., the Amorian, 820-829 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theophilus, 829-842 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael III., 842-867 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Basil I., the Macedonian, 867-886 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo VI., the Wise, 886-912 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, 912-958 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + [Co-regent Emperors— + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + Alexander, 912-913 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + Romanus I., Lecapenus, 919-945] + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus II., 958-963 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Basil II., Bulgaroktonos, 963-1025 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + [Co-regent Emperors— + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + Nicephorus II., Phocas, 963-969 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + John I., Zimisces, 969-976] + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VIII., 1025-28 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus III., Argyrus, 1028-34 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael IV., the Paphlagonian, 1034-42 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael V., 1042 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine IX., Monomachus, 1042-55 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodora, 1055-57 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VI., Stratioticus, 1056-57 + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name= + "Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac I., Comnenus, 1057-59 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine X., Ducas, 1059-67 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VII., Ducas, 1067-78 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + [Co-regent Emperor— + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + Romanus IV., Diogenes, 1067-71] + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicephorus III., Botaniates, 1078-81 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius I., Comnenus, 1081-1118 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John II., Comnenus, 1118-43 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manuel I., Comnenus, 1143-80 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius II., Comnenus, 1180-83 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus I., Comnenus, 1183-85 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac II., Angelus, 1185-95 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius III., Angelus, 1195-1203 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac II. (restored), 1203-4 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius V., Ducas, 1204 + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Latin + Emperors.</span></span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baldwin I., 1204-5 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Henry, 1205-16 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Peter, 1217-19 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Robert, 1219-28 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baldwin II., 1228-61 + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Nicaean + Emperors.</span></span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodore I., Lascaris, 1204-22 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John III., Ducas, 1222-54 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodore II., Ducas, 1254-59 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John IV., Ducas, 1259-60 + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Empire + Restored.</span></span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VIII., Paleologus, 1260-82 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus II., Paleologus, 1282-1328 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus III., Paleologus, 1328-41 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John V., Paleologus, 1341-91 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + [Co-regent— + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + John VI., Cantacuzenus, 1347-54] + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manuel II., 1391-1425 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John VII., 1425-48 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine XI., 1448-53 + </div> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name= + "Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc57" id="toc57"></a> <a name="pdf58" id="pdf58"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Abdalmelik, the Caliph, wars of, with Justinian II., <a href= + "#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174-6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Abubekr, the Caliph, wars of, with Heraclius, <a href="#Pg160" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Achaia, Frank principality of, <a href="#Pg296" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Acroinon, battle of, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">188</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Adana, taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg230" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Adrianople, battle of, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">40</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by the Goths, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">41</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + captured by the Turks, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">329</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Africa, conquered by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg084" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84-5</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overrun by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">176</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aijnadin, battle of, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alaric the Goth, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">47</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars with Stilicho, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">48</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + departs to Italy, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alaeddin, Sultan of the Seljouks, <a href="#Pg322" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alboin the Lombard invades and conquers Italy, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aleppo, Emirate of, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">227</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacked by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + tributary to the empire, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexander, emperor-regent, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexandria, stormed by the Arabs, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-alexius-i" id="index-alexius-i" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius I. (Comnenus), usurpation of, <a href="#Pg257" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars with the Normans, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">259</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquests of in Asia Minor, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">205</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + commercial policy of, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">268</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius II. (Comnenus), short reign and murder of, <a href= + "#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-alexius-iii" id="index-alexius-iii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius III. (Angelus), usurpation of, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacked by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">282</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + flies, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">284</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius IV. (Angelus), takes refuge in Germany, <a href="#Pg279" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + persuades the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">280</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + made emperor, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">284</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-alexius-v" id="index-alexius-v" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius V. (Ducas), murders Alexius IV., <a href="#Pg285" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defends Constantinople, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">287</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">293</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexius Comnenus, emperor of Trebizond, <a href="#Pg298" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alp Arslan, Sultan of the Seljouk Turks, attacks the empire, + <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">252</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeats Romanus IV., <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amalasuntha, Gothic queen, murdered, <a href="#Pg082" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amalphi, commerce of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">225</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amorium, stormed by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amour, Turkish Emir, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amrou conquers Egypt, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anastasius I., reign of, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">61</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anastasius II., usurpation of, <a href="#Pg181" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anatolic theme, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">167</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andreas murders Constans II., <a href="#Pg169" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-andronicus-i" id="index-andronicus-i" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus I. (Comnenus), crimes and fall of, <a href="#Pg272" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272-3</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-andronicus-ii" id="index-andronicus-ii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus II. (Paleologus), reign of, <a href="#Pg315" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315-20</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-andronicus-iii" id="index-andronicus-iii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Andronicus III. (Paleologus), reign of, <a href="#Pg321" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321-2</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Angelus, house of, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#index-isaac-ii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Isaac II.</a> + <a href="#index-alexius-iii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Alexius III.</a> and Theodore of Epirus + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name= + "Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Angora, battle of, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">334</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ani, taken by the Turks, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anthemius, prime minister of Theodosius II., <a href="#Pg054" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54-5</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anthemius, architect of St. Sophia, <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anne of Savoy, empress-regent, <a href="#Pg326" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antioch, taken by the Persians, <a href="#Pg099" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken a second time, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">129</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + stormed by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + retaken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + lost to the Turks, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + tributary to the Comneni, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antioch-on-Maeander, battle of, <a href="#Pg299" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antonia, wife of Belisarius, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">74</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Apsimarus, Tiberius, emperor, <a href="#Pg177" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + executed, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arabs, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#index-saracens" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Saracens</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arcadius, reign of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">47-54</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his dealings with the Goths, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">48</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + quarrels with Chrysostom, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">52</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Armenia, conquered by the Byzantines, <a href="#Pg243" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overrun by the Turks, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Army, reformed by Leo and Zeno, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + description of, in tenth century, <a href="#Pg218" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Artemius Anastasius, reign of, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Art, decay and revival of, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">222-4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aspar, executed by Leo I., <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">60</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Athalaric, Gothic king, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Athanarich, Gothic king, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">42</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + visits Constantinople, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">44</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Athens, early Byzantines at war with, <a href="#Pg006" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + schools of, closed by Justinian, <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Frank duchy of, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">297</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Grand Company,”</span> <a href="#Pg319" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Attila, king of the Huns, wars of with the empire, <a href= + "#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Augustaeum, description of the, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Avars, invasions of, the <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">122</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + war of, with Heraclius, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">134</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besiege Constantinople, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">137</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baanes, rebel in Syria, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baduila, Gothic king, victories of, <a href="#Pg092" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + takes Rome, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">94</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain in battle, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baldwin I., emperor, his character,<a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + crowned, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baldwin II., reign of, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">301</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his travels, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">305</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + expelled from Constantinople, <a href="#Pg306" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bardas Caesar, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">212</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered by Michael III., <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">213</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bari, taken by the Normans, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">259</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Basil I., made Caesar, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">213</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + assassinates Michael III., <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">213</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + laws of, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">214</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Basil II., ascends the throne, <a href="#Pg229" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + assumes the full power, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">240</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his Bulgarian victories, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">241-3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + campaigns in Asia, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">243</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">244</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bayezid, Turkish Sultan, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">334</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Belisarius, Persian victories of, <a href="#Pg073" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + quells the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" style= + "text-align: left" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nika</span></span> riots, <a href="#Pg079" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquers Africa, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">84</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + takes Palermo, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + takes Rome, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + takes Ravenna, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recalled, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">92</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + acts against Persia, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">100</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeats the Huns, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">104</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + disgraced, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Beneventum, Lombard duchy of, <a href="#Pg117" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with Constans II., <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">169</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Black Sea, Greek trade with, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">2</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Blues and + Greens,”</span> Circus factions, <a href="#Pg022" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg075" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + great riot of, against Justinian, <a href="#Pg076" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + armed by Maurice, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">127</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bohemund the Norman, wars of with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg267" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-boniface" id="index-boniface" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Boniface of Montserrat, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">281-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + made king of Thessalonica, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain in battle, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">296</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bosphorus, the, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">1-2</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bostra, stormed by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Branas, Alexius, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg277" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brienne, house of, at Athens, <a href="#Pg308" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + expelled by the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Grand Company,”</span> <a href="#Pg319" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Broussa, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#index-prusa" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Prusa</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bucellarian Theme, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">167-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Buhawides, Persian dynasty, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">226-7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bulgarians, invade and settle in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> Moesia, <a href= + "#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Justinian II., <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">173</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + aid Justinian, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeat the Saracens, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">187</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + at war with Constantine V., <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeat Constantine VI., <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">198</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slay Nicephorus I., <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">203</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besiege Constantinople, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">204</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + routed by Leo V., <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">205</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeat Leo VI, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">216</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by the Russians, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">235</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Basil II., <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">241-3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + revolt against Isaac II., <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slay Baldwin I., <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquests of, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">308</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subdued by the Turks, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">330</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Burtzes storms Antioch, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Byzantium, founded, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">1</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + early history of, <a href="#Pg002" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">2-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under the Romans, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9-12</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + chosen as Constantine's capital, <a href="#Pg017" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">see afterwards under</span></span> <a href= + "#index-constantinople" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Constantinople</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Candia taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg228" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cantacuzenus, John, usurpation of, <a href="#Pg325" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Caracalla, grants privileges to Byzantium, <a href="#Pg010" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carthage, taken by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg085" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">176</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cassiodorus, his work in literary copying, <a href="#Pg149" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chalcedon, founded. <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Persians, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">134</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Champlitte, William of, founds principality of Achaia, <a href= + "#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charles the Great crowned emperor, <a href="#Pg109" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cherson. Justinian II. at, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">177</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sacked, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chosroës I., king of Persia, wars of, with Justinian, <a href= + "#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72-4</a>, + <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90-100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chosroës II.. wars with Phocas and Heraclius, <a href="#Pg120" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120-135</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + death of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chosroantiocheia, foundation of, <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christianity, influence of, on the empire and society, <a href= + "#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145-149</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chrysostom, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-john-chrysostom" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">John Chrysostom</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cilicia, conquered by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg230" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + lost to the Turks, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">236</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + reconquered by the Comneni, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Column, of the Hippodrome, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">25</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Constantine, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Commerce, centralization of, at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg224" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, <a href= + "#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + decline of, under the Comneni, <a href="#Pg267" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + effects of Fourth Crusade on, <a href="#Pg310" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Comnena, Anna, writes her father's life, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Comnenus, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-alexius-i" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Alexius</a>, <a href= + "#index-john-ii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">John</a>, <a href="#index-andronicus-i" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Andronicus</a>, <a href= + "#index-manuel-i" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Manuel</a>, <a href="#index-david" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">David</a>, <a href= + "#index-isaac-i" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Isaac</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-conrad" id="index-conrad" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Conrad of Montserrat defeats Branas, <a href="#Pg277" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constans II., reign of, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with the Saracens, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">167</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">169</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine I., besieges Byzantium, <a href="#Pg012" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + master of the world, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + seeks a capital, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">16</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + founds Constantinople, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">18</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine III., defeated by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg164" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + short reign of, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine IV. (Pogonatus), wars of with the Saracens, <a href= + "#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeats Moawiah, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">171</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + holds the Council of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine V. (Copronymus), wars of, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + persecutes the Image-worshippers, <a href="#Pg197" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VI., reign of, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">198</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + blinded by his mother, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">198</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VII. (Porphyrogenitus), reign of, <a href="#Pg216" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + literary works of, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine VIII., reign of, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine IX. (Monomachus), reign of, <a href="#Pg247" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-constantine-x" id="index-constantine-x" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine X. (Ducas), reign of, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg251" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-constantine-xi" id="index-constantine-xi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine XI. (Paleologus), accession of, <a href="#Pg343" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacked by the Turks, <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">344</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + last hours of, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">347</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + death of, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">348</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-constantinople" id="index-constantinople" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantinople founded by Constantine, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> <a href="#Pg018" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + topography of, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19-29</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by the Goths, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">41</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + street fighting in, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">51</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by Avars and Persians, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg137" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged for the first time by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged for the second time by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg185" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href= + "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">205</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + commercial importance of, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">224</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + riots in, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">247</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Crusaders at, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">264</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Franks and Venetians, <a href="#Pg284" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + stormed and sacked a second time, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg288" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + devastation of, by the Latins, <a href="#Pg291" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by John Ducas, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">301</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recovered by the Greeks, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">305</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by John Paleologus, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">329</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by Murad II., <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">337</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + last siege of, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">346</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Turks, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">348</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Corippus, poem of, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">144</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Council of Constantinople, under Constantine IV., <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Constantine V., <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">197</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Leo V., <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Council of Florence, John VI. at, <a href="#Pg341" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Courtenay, house of at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg300" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href="#Pg301" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crete, conquered by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg208" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recovered by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg228" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Venetians, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">292</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cross, the Holy, captured by the Persians, <a href="#Pg132" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recovered by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">139</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + removed to Constantinople, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crumn, king of Bulgaria, defeats Nicephorus I., <a href="#Pg203" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieges Constantinople, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crusaders, their dealings with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg263" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a>, <a href= + "#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + enter Syria, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">265</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of the Fourth Crusade, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">279</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Constantinople, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">288</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ctesiphon, Heraclius at, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cyprus, monks banished to, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">197</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recovered by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg230" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + seized by Isaac Comnenus, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">277</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by Richard I. of England, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Damascus, taken by the Persians, <a href="#Pg131" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, <a href="#Pg280" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg281" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + at the storm of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg284" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>, <a href="#Pg288" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dara taken in the Persian wars, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dastagerd taken by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg138" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-david" id="index-david" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + David Comnenus defeated by Theodore I., <a href="#Pg299" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Delphic tripod, the, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">24</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + mutilated by Mahomet II., <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Delphic oracle, the, orders foundation of Byzantium, <a href= + "#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Digenes Akritas, epic of, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">222</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Diocletian makes Nicomedia his capital, <a href="#Pg015" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Diogenes, Romanus, reign of, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">251</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated at Manzikert, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">254</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ducas, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-constantine-x" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Constantine X.</a>, + <a href="#index-michael-vii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Michael VII.</a>, <a href="#index-john-iii" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">John III.</a>, + <a href="#index-theodore-ii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Theodore II.</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Durazzo, battle of, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">260</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dushan, Stephen, king of Servia, conquests of, <a href="#Pg327" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ecloga, the, Leo III.'s code of laws, <a href="#Pg194" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eesa, Sultan, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">334-5</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Egypt, conquered by the Persians, <a href="#Pg134" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">164</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + separated from the Caliphate, <a href="#Pg227" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eikasia, story of, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">211</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Emesa, taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epirus, the despotate of, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg304" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href= + "#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ertogrul, the Turk, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eudocia (Athenaïs), wife of Theodosius II., her disgrace, + <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">56</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eudocia, wife of Romanus Diogenes, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eudoxia, Ælia, wife of Arcadius, <a href="#Pg052" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name= + "Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eugenius IV., pope, treaty of, with John VI., <a href="#Pg341" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euphrosyne, wife of Michael the Amorian, <a href="#Pg207" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eutropius, minister of Arcadius, <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + protected by Chrysostom, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euphemius, rebel in Sicily, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Exarchate, of Ravenna, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">119</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by the Lombards, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ferrara, John VI. at Council of, <a href="#Pg341" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Flaccilla, benevolence of, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">156</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Florence. Council of, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Franks, threaten Italy, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">89</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + summoned by Witiges, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + protect the Papacy, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fritigern, Gothic ruler, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">35-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + victory of over Valens, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">40</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fravitta defeats Gainas, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">31</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gainas, minister of Arcadius, <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + rebellion of, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">50</a>; slain, <a href="#Pg051" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gallienus, Byzantium destroyed by, <a href="#Pg010" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gallipoli seized by the Turks, <a href="#Pg329" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ganzaca burnt by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">136</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gelimer, king of the Vandals, <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated and captured, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">85</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Genoa, rise of, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">263</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + trade of, with the East, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + allied to Michael Paleologus, <a href="#Pg314" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sends aid to Constantine XI., <a href="#Pg344" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + George the Alan, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + George of Pisidia, poems of, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Giustiniani, John, defends Constantinople, <a href="#Pg344" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">264</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Goths, early history of, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">32</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + cross the Danube, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">37</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeat Valens, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">39</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besiege Constantinople, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">41</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + submit to Theodosius, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">42</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Visigoths under Alaric, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">48</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + quit the East, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + the Ostrogoths under Theodoric at war with Zeno, <a href="#Pg062" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invade Italy, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + kingdom of, attacked by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg086" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, with Justinian, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">88-94</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated and destroyed, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Grand + Company,”</span> the, hired by Andronicus II., <a href="#Pg317" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ravage Thrace, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Athens, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Greece, invaded by the Goths, <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overrun by the Slavs, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">296</a>, <a href="#Pg297" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Greek fire, invented, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">170</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + used by the Byzantine fleet, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gregory the Great, Pope, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Guiscard, Robert, wars of, with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg259" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259-61</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Haroun-al-Raschid, wars of, with Nicephorus I., <a href="#Pg203" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Helena, mother of Constantine I., <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hellas, theme of, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">168</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + revolts against Leo III., <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">193</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Henry of Flanders, Emperor, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">295-6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Henry VI. of Swabia, Emperor of the West, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heracleonas, reign and fall of, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165-6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heraclius the Elder, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg130" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heraclius I., sails against Constantinople, <a href="#Pg130" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slays Phocas, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">130</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + disasters of the Persian War, <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his Crusade, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">133</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + victorious campaign of, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">135-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his triumph, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacked by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">160</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + last years of, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heraclius Constantinus, son of Heraclius I., short reign of, + <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hierapolis taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hieromax, battle of the, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hilderic, Vandal king, deposed, <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hippodrome, the great, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">22</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name= + "Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Histiaeus holds Byzantium, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">5</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Honorius slays Stilicho, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hungary, converted to Christianity, <a href="#Pg262" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded by Manuel I., <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacks the Ottoman Turks, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Huniades, John, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Huns, under Attila, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">57</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ravage Syria, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">71</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + threaten Constantinople, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">104</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Iconium, Sultanate of, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-seljouks" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">Seljouks</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Iconoclasm, the movement, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">188-9</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + vigorous under the Isaurian emperors, <a href="#Pg192" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in the ninth century, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">203-10</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ended by Michael III., <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Iconodules, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">202</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Images, superstitions connected with, <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + removed by Leo III., <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + use of, ceases in the East, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Innocent III., sends out Fourth Crusade, <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wrath of with the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Irene, the empress, regency of, <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + deposed, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">198</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + blinds her son and seizes the throne, <a href="#Pg199" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-isaac-i" id="index-isaac-i" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac I. (Comnenus), his short reign, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-isaac-ii" id="index-isaac-ii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac II. (Angelus), rebels, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">273</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his reign, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + deposed by his brother, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + restored, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">284</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaac Comnenus, of Cyprus, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">277-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isaurians, the, enlisted by Leo and Zeno, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dynasty of the, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192-9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isperich, king of Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Italy, conquered by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88-91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + partly conquered by the Lombards, <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Constans II. in, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">169</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + central parts of, lost, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + southern parts of, conquered by the Normans, <a href="#Pg258" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jacobites, in Egypt and Syria, <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Janissaries, the, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jerusalem, Eudocia at, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">57</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by Persians, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">132</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Heraclius at, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John I. (Zimisces), murders his uncle, <a href="#Pg232" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + successful wars of, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">234-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-john-ii" id="index-john-ii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John II. (Comnenus), reign and conquests of, <a href="#Pg268" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268-9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-john-iii" id="index-john-iii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John III. (Ducas Vatatzes), <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">300</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquers Thrace and Macedonia, <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John IV. (Ducas), dethroned by Michael Paleologus, <a href= + "#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-john-v" id="index-john-v" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John V. (Paleologus), minority of, <a href="#Pg325" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + expels John Cantacuzenus, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">329</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by the Turks, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">330</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + later years of, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-john-vi" id="index-john-vi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John VI. (Paleologus), reign of, <a href="#Pg339" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">339</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + embraces Catholicism, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John (Angelus), Emperor of Thessalonica, <a href="#Pg300" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John, King of Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquers Baldwin I., <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John the Cappadocian, finance minister, <a href="#Pg076" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-john-chrysostom" id="index-john-chrysostom" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John Chrysostom, patriarch, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">52</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + exiled, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">53</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John Ducas, regent, <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">255</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John the Faster, patriarch, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">120</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John the Grammarian, patriarch, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg212" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John Huniades, general, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John Lydus, author, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">143</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Julian, reign of, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">32</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justin I., reign of, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">65</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justin II., reign and wars of, <a href="#Pg117" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinian I., character of, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">65</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + marries Theodora, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">66</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + first Persian war of, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">71-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Italian and African wars of, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">83-93</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recalls Belisarius, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his buildings, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">106-9</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his legal work, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinian II., misfortunes of, <a href="#Pg172" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + banished, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">175</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + reconquers his throne, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">179</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kadesia, battle of, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kaikhosru, Sultan, slain in battle, <a href="#Pg299" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name= + "Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Karasi, Emirs of, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Karl the Great, crowned emperor, <a href="#Pg201" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kathisma, the, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">24</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Khaled, victories of, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Khazars, allied to Heraclius, <a href="#Pg137" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + shelter Justinian II., <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">178</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kief, Russian capital, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">234</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kobad, wars of, with Justinian, <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ladislas, king of Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ladislas, king of Poland and Hungary, <a href="#Pg342" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Larissa, battle of, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">261</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lascaris, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-theodore-i" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Theodore I.</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Latin language, used in the Balkan Peninsula, <a href="#Pg124" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + decay of the, <a href="#Pg144" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">144</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Law, Roman, codified by Justinian, <a href="#Pg112" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + changes of Leo III., <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + of Basil I., <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">214</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lazarus the painter, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lecky, Mr., views of, discussed, <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lazica, wars of Justinian and Chosroës about, <a href="#Pg100" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo I., reign of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">60</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo III., the Isaurian, seizes the crown, <a href="#Pg182" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defends Constantinople, <a href="#Pg184" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">184</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + religious reforms of, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">192</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + political reforms of, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo IV., short reign of, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">197</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo V. (the Armenian) seizes the throne, <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeats the Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">205</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo VI. (the Wise), reign of, <a href="#Pg216" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + literary works of, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo the Deacon, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leontius, usurpation and fall of, <a href="#Pg175" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Liberius conquers South Spain, <a href="#Pg096" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96-7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Licinius, wars of with Maximinus Daza, <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dethroned by Constantine I., <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Literature, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">221-2</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lombards, the, leave Pannonia, <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer North Italy, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Constans II., <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">169</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subdue the Exarchate, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Louis IX., of France, gives money to Baldwin II., <a href= + "#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lupicinus, governor of Moesia, <a href="#Pg037" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lydus, John, author, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">143</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Macedonia, overrun by Slavs, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">125</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in hands of Boniface of Montferrat, <a href="#Pg292" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Stephen Dushan, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maeander, battle of the, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mahomet, the prophet, rise of, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mahomet I., Sultan, reunites the Ottoman Empire, <a href="#Pg336" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mahomet II. conquers Constantinople, <a href="#Pg343" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343-50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maniakes, wars of, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">246</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-manuel-i" id="index-manuel-i" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manuel I. (Comnenus), reign and wars of, <a href="#Pg271" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271-2</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manuel II. (Paleologus), reign and misfortunes of, <a href= + "#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336-9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manzikert, battle of, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcianus, reign of, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">59</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Martina, niece and wife of Heraclius, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + exiled, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Martyropolis, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">121</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maurice, reign of, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">120</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Persian wars, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">121</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + fall and death of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">127</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maximinus Daza takes Byzantium, <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Melek-Adel, Sultan of Egypt, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">279</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mesembria, taken by Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + battle of, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mesopotamia, conquered by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded by John Zimisces, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael I. (Rhangabe), short reign of, <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael II. (the Amorian), conspiracy of, <a href="#Pg206" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ecclesiastical policy of, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">207</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael III. (the Drunkard), minority of, <a href="#Pg212" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + excesses and murder of, <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">213</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael IV. (the Paphlagonian), reign and wars of, <a href= + "#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael V., ephemeral power of, <a href="#Pg247" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name= + "Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-michael-vi" id="index-michael-vi" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VI. (Stratioticus), short reign of, <a href="#Pg248" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248-9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-michael-vii" id="index-michael-vii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VII. (Ducas), minority of, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + disastrous reign of, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael VIII. (Paleologus), usurpation of, <a href="#Pg303" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overthrows the Latin Empire, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">305</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + disbands the Asiatic militia, <a href="#Pg313" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael IX., son and colleague of Andronicus II., defeated by the + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Grand + Company,”</span> <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus, <a href="#Pg300" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moawiah, Caliph, attacks Constantinople, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his armies defeated, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">171</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moesia, invaded by the Goths, <a href="#Pg037" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + seized by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">171</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monks, characteristics of the early, <a href="#Pg149" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + favour image worship, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">193</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + persecuted by Constantine Copronymus, <a href="#Pg197" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monophysites, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">75</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moors, Gelimer flies to the, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">85</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Montferrat, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-boniface" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">Boniface</a> and <a href="#index-conrad" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Conrad</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Morals, effect of Christianity on, <a href="#Pg145" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + general character of Byzantine, <a href="#Pg155" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155-6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moslemah besieges Constantinople, <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185-7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Motassem, the Caliph, sacks Amorium, <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Murad I., conquers Thrace, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">329</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + suzerain of John V., <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">330</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquers the Serbs, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">332</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Murad II., besieges Constantinople, <a href="#Pg337" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + makes peace with Manuel II., <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">338</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Murtzuphlus, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#index-alexius-v" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Alexius V. + (Ducas)</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Myriokephalon, battle of, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">272</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Naissus, birthplace of Constantine I., <a href="#Pg016" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Bulgarians, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Naples, taken by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + interference of the Pope with, <a href="#Pg120" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Narses, the eunuch, conquers Italy from the Goths, <a href= + "#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Narses, General, burnt alive by Phocas, <a href="#Pg129" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Navy, the Byzantine, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">219-20</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicaea, taken by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg264" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + by the Ottomans, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicephorus I. dethrones Irene, <a href="#Pg199" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + disastrous wars of, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">203</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicephorus II., Phocas, takes Candia, <a href="#Pg228" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + emperor, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">231</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered by Zimisces, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">232</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicholas V., pope, sends aid to Constantine XI., <a href="#Pg344" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">344</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicomedia, taken by the Ottomans, <a href="#Pg323" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nineveh, battle of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Normans, conquer Byzantine Italy, <a href="#Pg247" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invade the empire, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">259</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + second invasion of repelled, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">267</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + third invasion of, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Notaras, John, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nuceria, Goths beaten at, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Obeydah, Saracen general, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Obsequian theme, the, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">168</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Odoacer, conquered by Theodoric, <a href="#Pg063" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg064" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Omar, the Caliph, visits Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Omeyades, dynasty of the, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">170</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Orkhan, Emir of the Ottomans, reign and successes of, <a href= + "#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323-4</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pretender to the Sultanate, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">343</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Orosius, history of, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ostrogoths, under Theodoric in Moesia, <a href="#Pg062" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Italy, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + weakness of the kingdom of, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">82</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attacked by Justinian, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with Belisarius and Narses, <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89-94</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + crushed, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Othman, Emir of the Turks, conquests of, <a href="#Pg321" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321-23</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Palace, imperial, at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name= + "Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paleologus, house of, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-michael-vi" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Michael VI.</a>, + Andronicus <a href="#index-andronicus-ii" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">II.</a> and <a href= + "#index-andronicus-iii" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">III.</a>, John <a href="#index-john-v" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">V.</a> and <a href= + "#index-john-vi" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">VI.</a>, <a href="#index-constantine-xi" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Constantine XI.</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Palermo, taken by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Palestine, conquered by the Persians, <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overrun by the Arabs, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">163</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subdued by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pandects, compiled by Justinian, <a href="#Pg112" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Patriarchal palace of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg021" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Patriarchs, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> <a href="#index-john-chrysostom" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">John</a>, <a href= + "#index-sergius" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Sergius</a>, &c. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paulicians, sect of the persecuted by Basil I, <a href="#Pg214" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paulinus, put to death by Theodosius II., <a href="#Pg057" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Patzinak Tartars, the, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">237</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">262</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pavia, taken by the Lombards, <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Persian Empire destroyed by the Arabs, <a href="#Pg164" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Persian Wars under Julian, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">32</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Justinian, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">99</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Maurice, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">121</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Phocas and Heraclius, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">130-36</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Peter, general under Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philip of Macedon, attacks Byzantium, <a href="#Pg007" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philip of Swabia, helps Alexius Angelus the younger, <a href= + "#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philippicus, usurpation and fall of, <a href="#Pg180" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180-1</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocas, emperor, his usurpation, <a href="#Pg127" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + cruelty of, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">129</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">130</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocas, Bardas, rebels against John Zimisces, <a href="#Pg233" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + against Basil II., <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocas, Nicephorus, reign of, <a href="#Pg228" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228-30</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">231</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">233</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Photius, patriarch, his learning, <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Plague, the great of <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 542, <a href= + "#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Popes, rise of the power of, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">120</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + estranged from the empire, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + call in the Franks, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">199</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Priscus, general of Maurice, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">126</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-prusa" id="index-prusa" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prusa, taken by the Turks, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">323</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sacked by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">334</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pulcheria, Empress, with her brother Theodosius II., <a href= + "#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + marries Marcianus, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">59</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pelekanon, battle of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Polyeuktus, patriarch, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">230</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ravenna, taken by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg091" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + exarchate of, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">119</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + occupied by the Lombards, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rhangabe, Michael, short reign of, <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rhazates, general, slain by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg137" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Richard Coeur de Leon, conquers Cyprus, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Robert Guiscard, wars of with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg259" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259-60</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + final repulse of, <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">261</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Roger de Flor, hired by Andronicus II., <a href="#Pg317" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquests of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + assassinated, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus I. (Lecapenus), long regency of, <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus II, short reign of, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">228-9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus III. (Argyrus), married to Zoe, <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">246</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romanus IV. (Diogenes), reign of, <a href="#Pg251" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Turks, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rome, taken by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">89</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieged by the Goths, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">90</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by Baduila, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">94</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gregory the Great at, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">120</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Constans II. at, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">169</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charles the Great at, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">199</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ruric, founds the Russian kingdom, <a href="#Pg234" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Russians, early invasions of, <a href="#Pg216" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + attack Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">234</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by John Zimisces, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">237</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + converted to Christianity, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sabatius, father of Justinian, <a href="#Pg065" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Samuel, king of Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">241</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars and death of, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">242</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Saoudji, rebels against Murad I., <a href="#Pg333" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name= + "Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sapor, king of Persia, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">32</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-saracens" id="index-saracens" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Saracens, the, converted by Mahomet, <a href="#Pg159" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invade Syria, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">160-2</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Egypt, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Persia, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + civil wars of the, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + for later history, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> names of the Caliphs + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sardis, taken by Alexius I., <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scholarian Guards, the, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">104</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-seljouks" id="index-seljouks" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Seljouk Turks, conquer Persia and Armenia, <a href="#Pg250" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250-1</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invade the empire, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">252</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquer Asia Minor, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">254</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with the Comneni, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265-7-72</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + with Theodore I., <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-sergius" id="index-sergius" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sergius, patriarch, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">133</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Senate House at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg021" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Servians, cross the Danube, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">123</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Basil II., <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">243</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + rebel against Michael IV., <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">246</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Manuel I., <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + overrun Macedonia, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">327</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subdued by the Turks, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">330</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Severus, emperor, takes Byzantium, <a href="#Pg009" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Shahrbarz, the Persian, takes Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Heraclius, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">135</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sicily, conquered by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded by Saracens, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">208</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + finally conquered by Saracens, <a href="#Pg214" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded by Maniakes, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">246</a> ; + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Siroes, deposes his father Chosroës, <a href="#Pg138" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Skleros, Bardas, rebel against Basil II., <a href="#Pg241" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Slavery, influence of Christianity on, <a href="#Pg147" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Slavs, invade the Balkan Peninsula, <a href="#Pg123" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subject to the Avars, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">124-37</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + ravages of the, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">129</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + made tributary by Constans II., <a href="#Pg169" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">169</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besiege Thessalonica, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">171</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sophia. St., first building of, <a href="#Pg027" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + burnt in 410 <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>, <a href="#Pg053" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + burnt in the <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" style= + "text-align: left" xml:lang="el"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nika</span></span> riots, <a href="#Pg077" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + rebuilding of by Justinian, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">107-9</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + desecrated by the Turks, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">349</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spain, South of, conquered by Justinian's generals, <a href= + "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96-7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stauracius, emperor, short reign of, <a href="#Pg204" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Statues at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + destruction of by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg291" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Suleiman, Saracen vizier, besieges Constantinople, <a href= + "#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">186</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Turkish Sultan, reign of, <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">334-6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stephen Lecapenus, usurpation of, <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stephen Dushan, king of Servia, conquests of, <a href="#Pg327" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stephen, pope, calls in the Franks, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stilicho, wars of with Alaric, <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murdered by Honorius, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Swiatoslaf, king of Russia, conquers Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg235" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + defeated by Zimisces, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Syria, invaded by the Huns, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">71</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded by Kobad, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Shahrbarz, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">129-30</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + invaded and conquered by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162-3</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquests of Nicephorus Phocas in, <a href="#Pg229" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + subdued by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tagina, battle of, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tarsus, taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Pg230" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Teia, Gothic king, slain in battle, <a href="#Pg095" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Telemachus, martyrdom of, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">145</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Terbel, king of Bulgaria, aids Justinian II., <a href="#Pg178" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Themes, institution of the provincial system of, <a href="#Pg167" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167-8</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodahat, Gothic king, murders his wife, <a href="#Pg082" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + war of with Justinian, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">87</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">88</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodora, wife of Justinian, career of, <a href="#Pg066" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66-8</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + in the <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nika</span></span> riots, <a href="#Pg079" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + death of, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodora, wife of Theophilus, <a href="#Pg211" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + regency of, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII., reign of, <a href= + "#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name= + "Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodora, daughter of Cantacuzenus, married to Orkhan, <a href= + "#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-theodore-i" id="index-theodore-i" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodore I. (Lascaris), at the siege of Constantinople, <a href= + "#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + made emperor at Nicaea, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">299</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="index-theodore-ii" id="index-theodore-ii" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodore II. (Ducas), short reign of, <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodore, Studita, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodoric, son of Triarius, wars of with Zeno, <a href="#Pg062" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62-3</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodoric, son of Theodemir, rebels against Zeno, <a href= + "#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquers Italy, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">64</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodotus, minister of Justinian II., <a href="#Pg174" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius I., wars of, with the Goths, <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + dies, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">44</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius II., reign of, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">54-6</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + war with Attila, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">57</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius III., usurpation of, <a href="#Pg181" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + abdicates, <a href="#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">183</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theophano, empress, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + murders her husband, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">233</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theophilus, emperor, reign and wars of, <a href="#Pg208" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208-11</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + his love of art, <a href="#Pg224" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">224-5</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, <a href="#Pg052" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thessalonica, besieged by the Slavs, <a href="#Pg171" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + stormed by the Saracens, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">216</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Crusading kingdom of, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + retaken by the Greeks, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">296</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + taken by the Turks, <a href="#Pg330" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">330</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + recovered, <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">336</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + finally lost, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theuderic, Frankish king, attacks Witiges, <a href="#Pg089" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thomas, rebel in Asia, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius II., Constantinus, short reign of, <a href="#Pg114" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius III., Apsimarus, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg177" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + deposed and slain, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">179</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius, son of Justinian II., slain, <a href="#Pg180" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Togrul Beg, Turkish chief, conquers Bagdad, <a href="#Pg251" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Totila, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> Baduila + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Trebizond, empire of, founded, <a href="#Pg298" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tribonian, minister of Justinian I., <a href="#Pg112" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tricameron, battle of, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">85</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Turks, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">see + under</span></span> Seljouks, and names of Ottoman Sultans + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tuscany, conquered by the Lombards, <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tyana, sacked by Saracens, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Uldes, king of the Huns, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">51</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Urosh, king of Servia, <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Uscup, capital of Stephen Dushan, <a href="#Pg327" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Valens, reign of, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">36</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slain in battle by the Goths, <a href="#Pg041" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vandals, kingdom of the, in Africa, <a href="#Pg082" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + conquered by Belisarius, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">85</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Varangian guards, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">239</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + at Durazzo, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">260</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + at siege of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Verona, Baduila at, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">92</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Venice, rise of, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">225</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + commercial treaties of, with Alexius I., <a href="#Pg268" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars with Manuel I., <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + aids the Fourth Crusade, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">279</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + engages in war with Alexius III., <a href="#Pg282" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + share of in plunder of Constantinople, <a href="#Pg292" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + at war with Michael VIII., <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vigilius, pope, persecuted by Justinian, <a href="#Pg103" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vikings, the, in Russia, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">234</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Visigoths, the, invade Moesia, <a href="#Pg035" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + slay Valens, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">41</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + under Alaric, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">48</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + migrate to Italy, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vitalian, rebellion of, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">61</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Welid, caliph, wars of, with the empire, <a href="#Pg182" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Witiges, Gothic king, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">88</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + besieges Rome, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + submits to Belisarius, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">91</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Yezid, Saracen prince, wars of with the empire, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name= + "Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zachariah, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Pg132" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zapetra, taken by Theophilus, <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zara, taken by the Crusaders, <a href="#Pg280" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zeno, emperor, reorganizes the army, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + wars of with the Goths, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">62</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + sends Theodoric to Italy, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">64</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zeuxippus, baths of, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">19</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zimisces, John, murders Nicephoras 1, <a href="#Pg233" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Russian war of, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">235-7</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Asiatic conquests of, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zoe, empress, her marriages and reign, <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245-7</a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc59" id="toc59"></a> <a name="pdf60" id="pdf60"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See coin on opposite page. The + Bosphorus was supposed to have drawn its name from being the place + where Io, when transformed into a cow, forded the strait from + Europe into Asia Βοῦς-πορὸς.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See coin on page <a href="#Pg003" + class="tei tei-ref">4</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammianus Marcellinus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Certainly not by Procopius, whose name + it bears.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There had been only an isolated raids + of Huns in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 395, which penetrated + as far as Palestine. No other invasion reached as far as + Antioch.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Born in + Germania, a district between Thrace and Illyricum,”</span> says his + secretary, Procopius. We do not know where the district—a German + settlement, presumably—was situated.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See chap. ii. p. <a href="#Pg022" + class="tei tei-ref">22</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">To hold the view which denied the + existence both of a truly human and a truly Divine nature in Our + Lord Jesus Christ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See map on p. <a href="#Pg019" class= + "tei tei-ref">20</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The murder of Amalasuntha took place + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">after</span></em> the Roman invasion of + Africa; but Theodahat was already on the throne when the Vandal war + was proceeding.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The king's real name was Baduila, as + shown on his coins, and recorded by some historians, but + Imperialist writers always call him Totila, which seems to have + been a nickname.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bury's <span class="tei tei-q">“Later + Roman Empire,”</span> i. 402.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Agathias.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is comforting to know that the + popular legend which tells how the great general lived in poverty + and disgrace, begging the passer-by <span class="tei tei-q">“dare + obolum Belisario,”</span> and dying in the streets, is untrue. But + the suspicious emperor's conduct was quite unpardonable.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Calabria is here used in its old + sense, meaning South Apulia, and not the extreme point of Italy + down by Reggio and Squillace.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From them the Albanians descend: the + Albanian tongue is the only relic of ancient Illyria.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">To be carefully distinguished from his + homonym in Justinian's time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“History of + European Morals,”</span> ii. p. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Lecky speaks of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“perpetual fratricide”</span> of the Byzantine + emperors. It may be interesting to point out that from 340 to 1453 + there was not a single emperor murdered by a brother, and only one + dethroned by a brother. Two were dethroned by sons, but not + murdered.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">To the credit of Amrou and his + Saracens it must be recorded that the great Alexandrian Library was + not burnt by them in sheer fanatical wantonness as the legends + tell. It had perished long before.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Bury's excellent chapter on + <span class="tei tei-q">“Themes,”</span> in vol. ii. of his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Later Roman Empire,”</span> is most + convincing as to these very puzzling provinces and their + origin.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Slaves to + images”</span>; a term of contempt not unfairly applied to the + image-worshippers.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg116" class= + "tei tei-ref">116</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is said to have been either his + birth-place or that of his mother.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This name was given him because he was + born in the Purple Chamber, the room in the palace set aside for + the Empress. Emperors born in their father's reign had been scarce + of late. Constantine VI. and Michael the Drunkard were the only two + in the 110 years before Constantine VII.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a splendid copy of this book + in the Bodleian Library, made as late as 1560, where all the + prophecies are applied to the Turks and Venetians.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There were two palace intrigues + against him, both headed by members of his own family. Neither of + them won any support from people or army.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He pierced himself by misadventure + with one of his own poisoned arrows, and died of the wound.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nicetas, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Isaac Angelus,”</span> book iii. ch. 8, § 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See page <a href="#Pg289" class= + "tei tei-ref">289</a>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sometimes known as John Vatatzes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Bertrandon de la Broquière quoted + in Finlay, vol. iii. p. 493, a very interesting passage.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See pp. <a href="#Pg024" class= + "tei tei-ref">24</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref">25</a>.</dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader61" id="rightpageheader61"></a><a name= + "pgtoc62" id="pgtoc62"></a><a name="pdf63" id="pdf63"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">October 14, + 2011 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, + David King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading + Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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