diff options
Diffstat (limited to '37717-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/37717-h.htm | 12787 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 96892 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_102a.png | bin | 0 -> 119944 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_102b.png | bin | 0 -> 105479 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_102c.png | bin | 0 -> 102036 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_102d.png | bin | 0 -> 206520 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_118.png | bin | 0 -> 221192 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_119.png | bin | 0 -> 85662 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_134.png | bin | 0 -> 92632 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_135.png | bin | 0 -> 100990 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_150a.png | bin | 0 -> 102172 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_150b.png | bin | 0 -> 109877 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_150c.png | bin | 0 -> 92868 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_150d.png | bin | 0 -> 121845 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_166.png | bin | 0 -> 95909 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_167.png | bin | 0 -> 79915 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_182.png | bin | 0 -> 113557 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_183.png | bin | 0 -> 104596 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_198a.png | bin | 0 -> 102586 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_198b.png | bin | 0 -> 96056 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_198c.png | bin | 0 -> 99368 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_198d.png | bin | 0 -> 98671 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_214a.png | bin | 0 -> 173299 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_214b.png | bin | 0 -> 109973 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_214c.png | bin | 0 -> 126835 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_214d.png | bin | 0 -> 169070 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_22.png | bin | 0 -> 216134 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_23.png | bin | 0 -> 198718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_230.png | bin | 0 -> 198625 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_231.png | bin | 0 -> 117519 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_246.png | bin | 0 -> 93980 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_247.png | bin | 0 -> 92574 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_262.png | bin | 0 -> 92275 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_263.png | bin | 0 -> 106820 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_30.png | bin | 0 -> 215184 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_31.png | bin | 0 -> 177075 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_38.png | bin | 0 -> 144484 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_39.png | bin | 0 -> 170845 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_54.png | bin | 0 -> 175295 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_55.png | bin | 0 -> 193972 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_6.png | bin | 0 -> 192114 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_7.png | bin | 0 -> 503559 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_70.png | bin | 0 -> 103718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_71.png | bin | 0 -> 109884 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_86a.png | bin | 0 -> 113655 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_86b.png | bin | 0 -> 109765 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_87a.png | bin | 0 -> 109263 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_87b.png | bin | 0 -> 92221 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_ii.png | bin | 0 -> 653430 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37717-h/images/fig_pg_iii.png | bin | 0 -> 4338 bytes |
50 files changed, 12787 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/37717-h/37717-h.htm b/37717-h/37717-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24f54f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/37717-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12787 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Trees Worth Knowing, by Julia Ellen Rogers. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + .book {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify; text-indent: 1.5em;} + sub, sup {font-size: 0.75em;} + ins {background-color: #e0ffe0; text-decoration: none;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-top: 12px; padding:4px; margin-right: auto; + border-collapse: collapse;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; text-indent:0; font-size: 0.75em; + text-align: right; color: #b0b0b0;} + .brdbt2 {border-bottom: solid #000 2px;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent:0; } + .text_rt {text-align: right;} + .th_break {letter-spacing:1.5em; font-size:1.25em; text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .caption1 {font-weight: bold; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; + font-size:2.00em; text-align: center;} + .caption2 {font-weight: bold; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size:1.50em; text-align: center;} + .caption3 {margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; font-size:1.15em; + text-align: center;} + .caption4 {font-weight: bold; font-size:0.75em; text-align: center;} + .trans_notes {background:#d0d0d0; padding: 7px; border:solid black 1px;} + .ind2em {margin-left: 2em;} + .fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + .fig_caption {text-align: center; margin-bottom:1.5em;} + .fig_text_rt {text-align: right; font-size: 0.85em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Worth Knowing, by Julia Ellen Rogers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Trees Worth Knowing + +Author: Julia Ellen Rogers + +Release Date: October 11, 2011 [EBook #37717] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES WORTH KNOWING *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas, Marilynda +Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="book"><!-- Begin Book --> +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 417px;"> +<a name="cover" id="cover"></a> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="417" height="640" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption1">TREES WORTH KNOWING</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p> +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 501px;"> +<a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_ii.png" width="501" height="686" alt="A BEND IN THE TRAIL" title="" /> +<div class="fig_caption">A BEND IN THE TRAIL</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"> +<span class="smcap"><i>Little Nature Library</i></span> + +<div style="font-size: 6em;">TREES</div> +<div class="caption1">WORTH KNOWING</div> + +<div class="caption2"><span class="smcap">By</span> JULIA ELLEN ROGERS</div> + +<div class="caption3">(<i>Author of</i> <i>The Tree Book</i>, <i>The Tree Guide</i>, <i>Trees +Every Child Should Know</i>, <i>The Book of Useful +Plants</i>, <i>The Shell Book</i>, <i>etc., etc.</i>)</div> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/fig_pg_iii.png" width="100" height="95" + alt="Fructus Quam Folia" title="Fructus Quam Folia" /> +</div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>With forty-eight illustrations, sixteen being in color</i></div> + +<div class="caption4">PUBLISHED BY</div> +<div class="caption3">DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY</div> +<div class="caption4">FOR</div> +<div class="caption3 smcap">NELSON DOUBLEDAY, Inc.</div> +<div class="caption3">1923</div> +<br /> +<br /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><i>Copyright, 1917, by</i></div> + +<div class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Doubleday, Page & Company</span></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>All rights reserved, including that of +translation into foreign languages, +including the Scandinavian</i></div> + +<div class="caption3">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES<br /> +AT<br /> +THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS. GARDEN CITY, N. Y.</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="ToC" id="ToC"></a> +CONTENTS</div> + +<table width="100%" summary="ToC"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="text_rt">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap">Introduction</td> + <td class="text_rt">xi</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART I</td> + <td> </td></tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_LIFE_OF_THE_TREES">The Life of the Trees</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART II</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_NUT_TREES">The Nut Trees</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">28</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Walnuts; The Hickories; The Beech; The + Chestnuts; The Oaks; The Horse-chestnuts; The + Lindens</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART III</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_WATER-LOVING_TREES">Water-loving Trees</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Poplars; The Willows; The Hornbeams; The + Birches; The Alders; The Sycamores; The Gum Trees; The Osage Orange</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART IV</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#TREES_WITH_SHOWY_FLOWERS_AND_FRUITS">Trees With Showy Flowers and Fruits</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">101</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Magnolias; The Dogwoods; The Viburnums; + The Mountain Ashes; The Rhododendron; The Mountain Laurel; The Madroña; + The Sorrel Tree; The Silver Bell Trees; The Sweet Leaf; The Fringe Tree; + The Laurel Family; The Witch Hazel; + <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> + The Burning Bush; The Sumachs; The Smoke Tree; The Hollies</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART V</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#WILD_RELATIVES_OF_OUR_ORCHARD_TREES">Wild Relatives of Our Orchard Trees</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">147</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Apples; The Plums; The Cherries; The + Hawthorns; The Service-berries; The Hackberries; + The Mulberries; The Figs; The Papaws; The + Pond Apples; The Persimmons</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART VI</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_POD-BEARING_TREES">The Pod-bearing Trees</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">176</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Locusts; The Acacias; Miscellaneous Species</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART VII</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#DECIDUOUS_TREES_WITH_WINGED_SEEDS">Deciduous Trees with Winged Seeds</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">193</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Maples; The Ashes; The Elms</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART VIII</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_CONE-BEARING_EVERGREENS">The Cone-bearing Evergreens</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="ind2em">The Pines; The Spruces; The Firs; The Douglas + Spruce; The Hemlocks; The Sequoias; The Arbor-vitaes; + The Incense Cedar; The Cypresses; The + Junipers; The Larches</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center">PART IX</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#THE_PALMS">The Palms</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">280</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="center smcap">General Index</td> + <td class="text_rt">283</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">LIST OF COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS</div> + +<table width="100%" summary="Colored Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="text_rt">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#cover">Canoe or Paper Birch</a></td> + <td class="text_rt"><i>On Cover</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#Frontispiece">A Bend in the Trail</a></td> + <td class="text_rt"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg6">Shagbark Hickory</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg7">Mockernut Fruit and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg22">A Grove of Beeches</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg23">Chestnut Tree</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg30">Weeping Beech</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">30</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg31">Black Walnut</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg38">White Oak</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg39">Bur or Mossy-cup Oak Leaves and Fruit</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg54">Horse-chestnut in Blossom</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">54</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg55">Weeping Willow</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">55</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg102d">Tulip Tree, Flower and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg118">Flowering Dogwood</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">118</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg214d">American Elm</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">215</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg230">Eastern Red Cedars and Hickory</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">230</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">LIST OF OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS</div> + +<table width="100%" summary="Other Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="text_rt"> PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg70">Black Walnut Shoots</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">70</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg71">Shagbark Hickory</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">71</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg86a">American Linden Leaves and Fruit</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">86</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg86b">Trembling Aspen Catkins and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">86-87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg87a">Pussy Willow Flowers</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">86-87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg87b">American Hornbeam—A Fruiting Branch</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg102a">The Tattered, Silky Bark of the Birches</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">102</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg102b">Sycamore Bark and Seed-balls</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">102-103</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg102c">Bark, Seeds, and Seed-balls of the Sweet Gum</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">102-103</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg118">Osage Orange Leaves, and Flowers</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">119</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg134">Dogwood Bark, Blossom, Fruit, and Buds</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">134</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg135">Mountain Ash Flowers and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">135</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg150a">Sassafras Flowers, Fruit, and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">150</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg150b">Foliage and Flowers of the Smooth Sumach</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">150-151</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg150c">Buds, Leaves, and Fruit of the Wild Crabapple</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">150-151</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg150d">Canada Plum—Flowers and Trunk</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">151</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg166">Wild Black Cherry—Flowers and Fruit</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">166</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg167">Fruiting Branch of Cockspur Thorn</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">167</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg182">Service-berry Tree in Blossom</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">182</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg183">Hackberry—Flowers, Fruit, and Leaves</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">183</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="smcap"><a href="#figpg198a">Honey Locust's Trunk, and Black Locust's Flowers and Leaves</a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td> + <td class="text_rt">198</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg198b">Sugar Maple</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">198-199</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg198c">Red Maple Flowers</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">198-199</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg198d">Seed Keys and New Leaves of Soft or Silver Maple</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">199</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg214a">White Ash Buds and Flowers</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">214</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg214b">A Group of White Pines</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">214-215</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg214c">Shortleaf Pine Cones and Needles</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">214-215</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg214d">The Sugar Pine</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">231</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg246">Leaves and Cones of Hemlock and of Norway Spruce</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">246</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg247">Black Spruce Cones and Needles</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">247</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg262">Spray of Arbor-vitae</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">262</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#figpg263">American Larch Cones and Needles</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">263</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<br /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p><br /> +<br /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a> +INTRODUCTION</div> + +<p>Occasionally I meet a person who says: "I know nothing +at all about trees." This modest disclaimer is generally +sincere, but it has always turned out to be untrue. "Oh, +well, that old sugar maple, I've always known that tree. +We used to tap all the sugar maples on the place every +spring." Or again: "Everybody knows a white birch by +its bark." "Of course, anybody who has ever been chestnutting +knows a chestnut tree." Most people know Lombardy +poplars, those green exclamation points so commonly +planted in long soldierly rows on roadsides and +boundary lines in many parts of the country. Willows, +too, everybody knows are willows. The best nut trees, +the shagbark, chestnut, and butternut, need no formal introduction. +The honey locust has its striking three-pronged +thorns, and its purple pods dangling in winter +and skating off over the snow. The beech has its +smooth, close bark of Quaker gray, and nobody needs +to look for further evidence to determine this tree's +name.</p> + +<p>So it is easily proved that each person has a good nucleus +of tree knowledge around which to accumulate more. If +people have the love of nature in their hearts—if things out +of doors call irresistibly, at any season—it will not really +matter if their lives are pinched and circumscribed. Ways +and means of studying trees are easily found, even if the +scant ends of busy days spent indoors are all the time at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> +command. If there is energy to begin the undertaking it will +soon furnish its own motive power. Tree students, like +bird students, become enthusiasts. To understand their +enthusiasm one must follow their examples.</p> + +<p>The beginner doesn't know exactly how and where to +begin. There are great collections of trees here and there. +The Arnold Arboretum in Boston is the great dendrological +Noah's Ark in this country. It contains almost all the +trees, American and foreign, which will grow in that +region. The Shaw Botanical Garden at St. Louis is the +largest midland assemblage of trees. Parks in various +cities bring together as large a variety of trees as possible, +and these are often labelled with their English and botanical +names for the benefit of the public.</p> + +<p>Yet the places for the beginner are his own dooryard, the +streets he travels four times a day to his work, and woods +for his holiday, though they need not be forests. Arboreta +are for his delight when he has gained some acquaintance +with the tree families. But not at first. The trees may +all be set out in tribes and families and labelled with their +scientific names. They will but confuse and discourage +him. There is not time to make their acquaintance. +They overwhelm with the mere number of kinds. Great +arboreta and parks are very scarce. Trees are everywhere. +The acquaintance of trees is within the reach of +all.</p> + +<p>First make a plan of the yard, locating and naming the +trees you actually know. Extend it to include the street, +and the neighbors' yards, as you get ready for them. Be +very careful about giving names to trees. If you think +you know a tree, ask yourself <i>how</i> you know it. Sift out all +the guesses, and the hearsays, and begin on a solid foundation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> +even if you are sure about only the sugar maple and +the white birch.</p> + +<p>The characters to note in studying trees are: leaves, +flowers, fruits, bark, buds, bud arrangement, leaf scars, and +tree form. The season of the year determines which +features are most prominent. Buds and leaf scars are the +most unvarying of tree characters. In winter these traits +and the tree frame are most plainly revealed. Winter +often exhibits tree fruits on or under the tree, and dead-leaf +studies are very satisfactory. Leaf arrangement may +be made out at any season, for leaf scars tell this story after +the leaves fall.</p> + +<p>Only three families of our large trees have opposite +leaves. This fact helps the beginner. Look first at the +twigs. If the leaves, or (in winter) the buds and leaf +scars, stand opposite, the tree (if it is of large size) belongs +to the maple, ash, or horse-chestnut family. Our native +horse-chestnuts are buckeyes. If the leaves are simple the +tree is a maple; if pinnately compound, of several leaflets, +it is an ash; if palmately compound, of five to seven leaflets, +it is a horse-chestnut. In winter dead leaves under the +trees furnish this evidence. The winter buds of the horse-chestnut +are large and waxy, and the leaf scars look like +prints of a horse's hoof. Maple buds are small, and the +leaf scar is a small, narrow crescent. Ash buds are dull +and blunt, with rough, leathery scales. Maple twigs are +slender. Ash and buckeye twigs are stout and clumsy.</p> + +<p>Bark is a distinguishing character of many trees—of +others it is confusing. The sycamore, shedding bark in +sheets from its limbs, exposes pale, smooth under bark. +The tree is recognizable by its mottled appearance winter +or summer. The corky ridges on limbs of sweet gum and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> +bur oak are easily remembered traits. The peculiar horizontal +peeling of bark on birches designates most of the +genus. The prussic-acid taste of a twig sets the cherry +tribe apart. The familiar aromatic taste of the green +twigs of sassafras is its best winter character; the mitten-shaped +leaves distinguish it in summer.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to get some book on the subject to discover +the names of trees one studies, and to act as teacher +at times. A book makes a good staff, but a poor crutch. +The eyes and the judgment are the dependable things. +In spring the way in which the leaves open is significant; +so are the flowers. Every tree when it reaches proper age +bears flowers. Not all bear fruit, but blossoms come on +every tree. In summer the leaves and fruits are there to +be examined. In autumn the ripening fruits are the +special features.</p> + +<p>To know a tree's name is the beginning of acquaintance—not +an end in itself. There is all the rest of one's life in +which to follow it up. Tree friendships are very precious +things. John Muir, writing among his beloved trees of the +Yosemite Valley, adjures his world-weary fellow men to +seek the companionship of trees.</p> + +<div class="th_break">* * * * *</div> + +<p>"To learn how they live and behave in pure wildness, to +see them in their varying aspects through the seasons and +weather, rejoicing in the great storms, putting forth their +new leaves and flowers, when all the streams are in flood, +and the birds singing, and sending away their seeds in the +thoughtful Indian summer, when all the landscape is glowing +in deep, calm enthusiasm—for this you must love them +and live with them, as free from schemes and care and +time as the trees themselves."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><i>Tree Names</i></div> + +<p>Two Latin words, written in italics, with a cabalistic +abbreviation set after them, are a stumbling block on the +page to the reader unaccustomed to scientific lore. He resents +botanical names, and demands to know the tree's +name in "plain English." Trees have both common and +scientific names, and each has its use. Common names +were applied to important trees by people, the world over, +before science was born. Many trees were never noticed +by anybody until botanists discovered and named them. +They may never get common names at all.</p> + +<p>A name is a description reduced to its lowest terms. It +consists usually of a surname and a descriptive adjective: +Mary Jones, white oak, <i>Quercus alba</i>. Take the oaks, for +example, and let us consider how they got their names, +common and scientific. All acorn-bearing trees are oaks. +They are found in Europe, Asia, and America. Their usefulness +and beauty have impressed people. The Britons +called them by a word which in our modern speech is <i>oak</i>, +and as they came to know the different kinds, they added a +descriptive word to the name of each. But "plain +English" is not useful to the Frenchman. <i>Chêne</i> is his +name for the acorn trees. The German has his <i>Eichenbaum</i>, +the Roman had his <i>Quercus</i>, and who knows what +the Chinaman and the Hindoo in far Cathay or the American +Indian called these trees? Common names made the +trouble when the Tower of Babel was building.</p> + +<p>Latin has always been the universal language of scholars. +It is dead, so that it can be depended upon to remain unchanged +in its vocabulary and in its forms and usages. +Scientific names are exact, and remain unchanged, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> +an article or a book using them may be translated into all +the modern languages. The word <i>Quercus</i> clears away +difficulties. French, English, German hearers know what +trees are meant—or they know just where in books of their +own language to find them described.</p> + +<p>The abbreviation that follows a scientific name tells who +first gave the name. "Linn." is frequently noticed, for +Linnaeus is authority for thousands of plant names.</p> + +<p>Two sources of confusion make common names of trees +unreliable: the application of one name to several species, +and the application of several names to one species. To +illustrate the first: There are a dozen ironwoods in American +forests. They belong, with two exceptions, to different +genera and to at least five different botanical families. +To illustrate the second: The familiar American elm is +known by at least seven local popular names. The bur +oak has seven. Many of these are applied to other species. +Three of the five native elms are called water elm; three +are called red elm; three are called rock elm. There are +seven scrub oaks. Only by mentioning the scientific +name can a writer indicate with exactness which species he +is talking about. The unscientific reader can go to the +botanical manual or cyclopedia and under this name find +the species described.</p> + +<p>In California grows a tree called by three popular +names: leatherwood, slippery elm, and silver oak. Its +name is <i>Fremontia</i>. It is as far removed from elms and +oaks as sheep are from cattle and horses. But the names +stick. It would be as easy to eradicate the trees, root and +branch, from a region as to persuade people to abandon +names they are accustomed to, though they may concede +that you have proved these names incorrect, or meaningless, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span> +or vulgar. Nicknames like nigger pine, he huckleberry, +she balsam, and bull bay ought to be dropped by all +people who lay claim to intelligence and taste.</p> + +<p>With all their inaccuracies, common names have interesting +histories, and the good ones are full of helpful suggestion +to the learner. Many are literal translations of +the Latin names. The first writers on botany wrote in +Latin. Plants were described under the common name, +if there was one; if not, the plant was named. The different +species of each group were distinguished by the descriptions +and the drawings that accompanied them. Linnaeus +attempted to bring the work of botanical scholars together, +and to publish descriptions and names of all known +plants in a single volume. This he did, crediting each +botanist with his work. The "Species Plantarum," +Linnaeus's monumental work, became the foundation of +the modern science of botany, for it included all the plants +known and named up to the time of its publication. This +was about the middle of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>The vast body of information which the "Species +Plantarum" contained was systematically arranged. All +the different species in one genus were brought together. +They were described, each under a number; and an +adjective word, usually descriptive of some marked characteristic, +was written in as a marginal index.</p> + +<p>After Linnaeus's time botanists found that the genus +name in combination with this marginal word made a convenient +and exact means of designating the plant. Thus +Linnaeus became the acknowledged originator of the +binomial (two-name) system of nomenclature now in use +in all sciences. It is a delightful coincidence that while +Linnaeus was engaged on his great work, North America, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span> +that vast new field of botanical exploration, was being +traversed by another Swedish scientist. Peter Kalm sent +his specimens and his descriptive notes to Linnaeus, who +described and named the new plants in his book. The +specimens swelled the great herbarium at the University +of Upsala.</p> + +<p>Among trees unknown to science before are the Magnolia, +named in honor of the great French botanist, Magnol. +Robinia, the locust, honors another French botanist, +Robin, and his son. Kalmia, the beautiful mountain +laurel, immortalizes the name of the devoted explorer who +discovered it.</p> + +<p>Inevitably, duplication of names attended the work +of the early scientists, isolated from each other, and +far from libraries and herbaria. Any one discovering a +plant he believed to be unknown to science published a +description of it in some scientific journal. If some one +else had described it at an earlier date, the fact became +known in the course of time. The name earliest published +is retained, and the later one is dropped to the rank of a +<i>synonym</i>. If the <i>name</i> has been used before to describe +some other species in the same genus, a new name must be +supplied. In the "Cyclopedia of Horticulture" the sugar +maple is written: "<i>Acer saccharum</i>, Marsh. (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>, +Wang. <i>Acer barbatum</i>, Michx.)" This means +that the earliest name given this tree by a botanist was that +of Marshall. Wangheimer and Michaux are therefore +thrown out; the names given by them are among the +synonyms.</p> + +<p>Our cork elm was until recently called "<i>Ulmus racemosa</i>, +Thomas." The discovery that the name <i>racemosa</i> was +given long ago to the cork elm of Europe discredited it for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</a></span> +the American tree. Mr. Sargent substituted the name of +the author, and it now stands "<i>Ulmus Thomasi</i>, Sarg." +Occasionally a generic name is changed. The old generic +name becomes the specific name. Box elder was formerly +known as "<i>Negundo aceroides</i>, Mœnch." It is changed +back to "<i>Acer Negundo</i>, Linn." On the other hand, the +tan-bark oak, which is intermediate in character between +oaks and chestnuts, has been taken by Professor Sargent +in his Manual, 1905, out of the genus <i>Quercus</i> and set in a +genus by itself. From "<i>Quercus densiflora</i>, Hook. and +Arn." it is called "<i>Pasania densiflora</i>, Sarg.," the specific +name being carried over to the new genus.</p> + +<p>About one hundred thousand species of plants have been +named by botanists. They believe that one half of the +world's flora is covered. Trees are better known than less +conspicuous plants. Fungi and bacteria are just coming +into notice. Yet even among trees new species are constantly +being described. Professor Sargent described 567 +native species in his "Silva of North America," published +1892-1900. His Manual, 1905, contains 630. Both books +exclude Mexico. The silva of the tropics contains many +unknown trees, for there are still impenetrable tracts of +forest.</p> + +<p>The origin of local names of trees is interesting. History +and romance, music and hard common sense are in these +names—likewise much pure foolishness. The nearness to +Mexico brought in the musical <i>piñon</i> and <i>madroña</i> in the +southwest. <i>Pecanier</i> and <i>bois d'arc</i> came with many other +French names with the Acadians to Louisiana. The Indians +had many trees named, and we wisely kept hickory, +wahoo, catalpa, persimmon, and a few others of them.</p> + +<p>Woodsmen have generally chosen descriptive names +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</a></span> +which are based on fact and are helpful to learners. Botanists +have done this, too. Bark gives the names to shagbark +hickory, striped maple, and naked wood. The color +names white birch, black locust, blue beech. Wood names +red oak, yellow-wood, and white-heart hickory. The texture +names rock elm, punk oak, and soft pine. The uses +name post oak, canoe birch, and lodge-pole pine.</p> + +<p>The tree habit is described by dwarf juniper and weeping +spruce. The habitat by swamp maple, desert willow, and +seaside alder. The range by California white oak and +Georgia pine. Sap is characterized in sugar maple, sweet +gum, balsam fir, and sweet birch. Twigs are indicated in +clammy locust, cotton gum, winged elm. Leaf linings are +referred to in silver maple, white poplar, and white basswood. +Color of foliage, in gray pine, blue oak, and golden +fir. Shape of leaves, in heart-leaved cucumber tree and +ear-leaved umbrella. Resemblance of leaves to other +species, in willow oak and parsley haw. The flowers of +trees give names to tulip tree, silver-bell tree, and fringe +tree. The fruit is described in big-cone pine, butternut, +mossy-cup oak, and mock orange.</p> + +<p>Many trees retain their classical names, which have become +the generic botanical ones, as acacia, ailanthus, and +viburnum. Others modify these slightly, as pine from +<i>Pinus</i>, and poplar from <i>Populus</i>. The number of local +names a species has depends upon the notice it attracts and +the range it has. The loblolly pine, important as a lumber +tree, extends along the coast from New Jersey to Texas. +It has twenty-two nicknames.</p> + +<p>The scientific name is for use when accurate designation +of a species is required; the common name for ordinary +speech. "What a beautiful <i>Quercus alba</i>!" sounds very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</a></span> +silly and pedantic, even if it falls on scientific ears. Only +persons of very shallow scientific learning use it on such informal +occasions.</p> + +<p>Let us keep the most beautiful and fitting among common +names, and work for their general adoption. There +are no hard names once they become familiar ones. Nobody +hesitates or stumbles over chrysanthemum and +rhododendron, though these sonorous Greek derivatives +have four syllables. Nobody asks what these names are +"in plain English."</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span></p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption1">TREES WORTH KNOWING</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption1">TREES</div> + +<div class="caption2">PART I</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_LIFE_OF_THE_TREES" id="THE_LIFE_OF_THE_TREES"></a> +THE LIFE OF THE TREES</div> + + +<p>The swift unfolding of the leaves in spring is always a +miracle. One day the budded twigs are still wrapped in +the deep sleep of winter. A trace of green appears about +the edges of the bud scales—they loosen and fall, and the +tender green shoot looks timidly out and begins to unfold +its crumpled leaves. Soon the delicate blade broadens and +takes on the texture and familiar appearance of the grown-up +leaf. Behold! while we watched the single shoot the +bare tree has clothed itself in the green canopy of summer.</p> + +<p>How can this miracle take place? How does the tree +come into full leaf, sometimes within a fraction of a week? +It could never happen except for the store of concentrated +food that the sap dissolves in spring and carries to the +buds, and for the remarkable activity of the cambium cells +within the buds.</p> + +<p>What is a bud? It is a shoot in miniature—its leaves or +flowers, or both, formed with wondrous completeness in +the previous summer. About its base are crowded leaves +so hardened and overlapped as to cover and protect the +tender shoot. All the tree can ever express of beauty or +of energy comes out of these precious little "growing +points," wrapped up all winter, but impatient, as spring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +approaches, to accept the invitation of the south wind and +sun.</p> + +<p>The protective scale leaves fall when they are no longer +needed. This vernal leaf fall makes little show on the +forest floor, but it greatly exceeds in number of leaves the +autumnal defoliation.</p> + +<p>Sometimes these bud scales lengthen before the shoot +spares them. The silky, brown scales of the beech buds +sometimes add twice their length, thus protecting the +lengthening shoot which seems more delicate than most +kinds, less ready to encounter unguarded the wind and the +sun. The hickories, shagbark, and mockernut, show scales +more than three inches long.</p> + +<p>Many leaves are rosy, or lilac tinted, when they open—the +waxy granules of their precious "leaf green" screened +by these colored pigments from the full glare of the sun. +Some leaves have wool or silk growing like the pile of velvet +on their surfaces. These hairs are protective also. They +shrivel or blow away when the leaf comes to its full development. +Occasionally a species retains the down on +the lower surface of its leaves, or, oftener, merely in the +angles of its veins.</p> + +<p>The folding and plaiting of the leaves bring the ribs and +veins into prominence. The delicate green web sinks +into folds between and is therefore protected from the +weather. Young leaves hang limp, never presenting their +perpendicular surfaces to the sun.</p> + +<p>Another protection to the infant leaf is the pair of stipules +at its base. Such stipules enclose the leaves of tulip and +magnolia trees. The beech leaf has two long strap-like +stipules. Linden stipules are green and red—two concave, +oblong leaves, like the two valves of a pea pod. Elm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +stipules are conspicuous. The black willow has large, +leaf-like, heart-shaped stipules, green as the leaf and saw-toothed.</p> + +<p>Most stipules shield the tender leaf during the hours of +its helplessness, and fall away as the leaf matures. Others +persist, as is often seen in the black willows.</p> + +<p>With this second vernal leaf fall (for stipules are leaves) +the leaves assume independence, and take up their serious +work. They are ready to make the living for the whole +tree. Nothing contributed by soil or atmosphere—no +matter how rich it is—can become available for the tree's +use until the leaves receive and prepare it.</p> + +<p>Every leaf that spreads its green blade to the sun is a +laboratory, devoted to the manufacture of starch. It is, +in fact, an outward extension of the living cambium, +thrust out beyond the thick, hampering bark, and specialized +to do its specific work rapidly and effectively.</p> + +<p>The structure of the leaves must be studied with a +microscope. This laboratory has a delicate, transparent, +enclosing wall, with doors, called stomates, scattered over +the lower surface. The "leaf pulp" is inside, so is the +framework of ribs and veins, that not only supports the +soft tissues but furnishes the vascular system by which an +incoming and outgoing current of sap is kept in constant +circulation. In the upper half of the leaf, facing the sun, +the pulp is in "palisade cells," regular, oblong, crowded +together, and perpendicular to the flat surface. There are +sometimes more than one layer of these cells.</p> + +<p>In the lower half of the leaf's thickness, between the palisade +cells and the under surface, the tissue is spongy. +There is no crowding of cells here. They are irregularly +spherical, and cohere loosely, being separated by ample +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +air spaces, which communicate with the outside world by +the doorways mentioned above. An ordinary apple leaf +has about one hundred thousand of these stomates to each +square inch of its under surface. So the ventilation of the +leaf is provided for.</p> + +<p>The food of trees comes from two sources—the air and +the soil. Dry a stick of wood, and the water leaves it. +Burn it now, and ashes remain. The water and the ashes +came from the soil. That which came from the air passed +off in gaseous form with the burning. Some elements from +the soil also were converted by the heat into gases, and +escaped by the chimneys.</p> + +<p>Take that same stick of wood, and, instead of burning it +in an open fireplace or stove, smother it in a pit and burn it +slowly, and it comes out a stick of charcoal, having its +shape and size and grain preserved. It is carbon, its only +impurity being a trace of ashes. What would have escaped +up a chimney as carbonic-acid gas is confined here as +a solid, and fire can yet liberate it.</p> + +<p>The vast amount of carbon which the body of a tree +contains came into its leaves as a gas, carbon dioxide. +The soil furnished various minerals, which were brought up +in the "crude sap." Most of these remain as ashes when +the wood is burned. Water comes from the soil. So the +list of raw materials of tree food is complete, and the next +question is: How are they prepared for the tree's use?</p> + +<p>The ascent of the sap from roots to leaves brings water +with mineral salts dissolved in it. Thus potassium, +calcium, magnesium, iron, sulphur, nitrogen, and phosphorus +are brought to the leaf laboratories—some are useful, +some useless. The stream of water contributes of +itself to the laboratory whatever the leaf cells demand to +keep their own substance sufficiently moist, and those +molecules that are necessary to furnish hydrogen and +oxygen for the making of starch. Water is needed also to +keep full the channels of the returning streams, but the +great bulk of water that the roots send up escapes by +evaporation through the curtained doorways of the leaves.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="figpg6" id="figpg6"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_6.png" width="439" height="645" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_37">page 37</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">SHAGBARK HICKORY</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 433px;"> +<a name="figpg7" id="figpg7"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_7.png" width="433" height="662" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_40">page 40</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">MOCKERNUT FRUIT AND LEAVES</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +Starch contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the last +two in the exact proportion that they bear to each other in +water, <ins title='In modern notation, numbers would be +subscripted.'>H<sup>2</sup>O</ins>. The carbon comes in as carbon dioxide, +<ins title='In modern notation, numbers would be subscripted.'>CO<sup>2</sup></ins>. +There is no lack of this familiar gas in the air. It +is exhaled constantly from the lungs of every animal, from +chimneys, and from all decaying substances. It is diffused +through the air, and, entering the leaves by the stomates, +comes in contact with other food elements in the palisade +cells.</p> + +<p>The power that runs this starch factory is the sun. The +chlorophyll, or leaf green, which colors the clear protoplasm +of the cells, is able to absorb in daylight (and especially on +warm, sunny days) some of the energy of sunlight, and to +enable the protoplasm to use the energy thus captured to +the chemical breaking down of water and carbon dioxide, +and the reuniting of their free atoms into new and more +complex molecules. These are molecules of starch, +<ins title='In modern notation, numbers would be +subscripted.'>C<sup>6</sup>H<sup>10</sup>O<sup>5</sup></ins>.</p> + +<p>The new product in soluble form makes its way into the +current of nutritious sap that sets back into the tree. This +is the one product of the factory—the source of all the +tree's growth—for it is the elaborated sap, the food which +nourishes every living cell from leaf to root tip. It builds +new wood layers, extends both twigs and roots, and perfects +the buds for the coming year.</p> + +<p>Sunset puts a stop to starch making. The power is +turned off till another day. The distribution of starch +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +goes on. The surplus is unloaded, and the way is cleared +for work next day. On a sunless day less starch is made +than on a bright one.</p> + +<p>Excess of water and of free oxygen is noticeable in this +making of starch. Both escape in invisible gaseous form +through the stomates. No carbon escapes, for it is all used +up, and a continual supply of CO<sup>2</sup> sets in from outside. +We find it at last in the form of solid wood fibres. So it is +the leaf's high calling to take the crude elements brought +to it, and convert them into food ready for assimilation.</p> + +<p>There are little elastic curtains on the doors of leaves, +and in dry weather they are closely drawn. This is to +prevent the free escape of water, which might debilitate +the starch-making cells. In a moist atmosphere the doors +stand wide open. Evaporation does not draw water so +hard in such weather, and there is no danger of excessive +loss. "The average oak tree in its five active months +evaporates about 28,000 gallons of water"—an average of +about 187 gallons a day.</p> + +<p>In the making of starch there is oxygen left over—just +the amount there is left of the carbon dioxide when the +carbon is seized for starch making. This accumulating +gas passes into the air as free oxygen, "purifying" it for +the use of all animal life, even as the absorption of carbon +dioxide does.</p> + +<p>When daylight is gone, the exchange of these two gases +ceases. There is no excess of oxygen nor demand for +carbon dioxide until business begins in the morning. But +now a process is detected that the day's activities had +obscured.</p> + +<p>The living tree breathes—inhales oxygen and exhales +carbonic-acid gas. Because the leaves exercise the function +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +of respiration, they may properly be called the lungs +of trees, for the respiration of animals differs in no essential +from that of plants.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the work of the leaves is accomplished before +midsummer. They are damaged by whipping in the +wind, by the ravages of fungi and insects of many kinds. +Soot and dust clog the stomates. Mineral deposits +cumber the working cells. Finally they become sere and +russet or "die like the dolphin," passing in all the splendor +of sunset skies to oblivion on the leaf mould under the +trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><i>The Growth of a Tree</i></div> + +<p>The great chestnut tree on the hillside has cast its burden +of ripe nuts, flung down the empty burs, and given its +yellow leaves to the autumn winds. Now the owner has +cut down its twin, which was too near a neighbor for the +well-being of either, and is converting it into lumber. The +lopped limbs have gone to the woodpile, and the boards +will be dressed and polished and used for the woodwork of +the new house. Here is our opportunity to see what the +bark of the living tree conceals—to study the anatomy of +the tree—to learn something of grain and wood rings and +knots.</p> + +<p>The most amazing fact is that this "too, too solid flesh" +of the tree body was all made of dirty water and carbonic-acid +gas. Well may we feel a kind of awe and reverence +for the leaves and the cambium—the builders of this +wooden structure we call a tree. The bark, or outer garment, +covers the tree completely, from tip of farthest root +to tip of highest twig. Under the bark is the slimy, +colorless living layer, the <i>cambium</i>, which we may define as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +the separation between wood and bark. It seems to have +no perceptible diameter, though it impregnates with its +substance the wood and bark next to it. This cambium is +a continuous undergarment, lining the bark everywhere, +covering the wood of every root and every twig as well as +of the trunk and all its larger divisions.</p> + +<p>Under the cambium is the wood, which forms the real +body of the tree. It is a hard and fibrous substance, which +in cross section of root or trunk or limb or twig is seen to be +in fine, but distinctly marked, concentric rings about a +central pith. This pith is most conspicuous in the twigs.</p> + +<p>Now, what does the chestnut tree accomplish in a single +growing season? We have seen its buds open in early +spring and watched the leafy shoots unfold. Many of +these bore clusters of blossoms in midsummer, long yellow +spikes, shaking out a mist of pollen, and falling away at +length, while the inconspicuous green flowers developed +into spiny, velvet-lined burs that gave up in their own +good time the nuts which are the seeds of the tree.</p> + +<p>The new shoots, having formed buds in the angles of +their leaves, rest from their labors. The tree had added to +the height and breadth of its crown the exact measure of +its new shoots. There has been no lengthening of limb or +trunk. But underground the roots have made a season's +growth by extending their tips. These fresh rootlets +clothed with the velvety root hairs are new, just as the +shoots are new that bear the leaves on the ends of the +branches.</p> + +<p>There is a general popular impression that trees grow in +height by the gradual lengthening of trunk and limbs. If +this were true, nails driven into the trunk in a vertical line +would gradually become farther apart. They do not, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +observation proves. Fence wires stapled to growing trees +are not spread apart nor carried upward, though the trees +may serve as posts for years, and the growth in diameter +may swallow up staple and wire in a short time. Normal +wood fibres are inert and do not lengthen. Only the +season's rootlets and leafy shoots are soft and alive and +capable of lengthening by cell division.</p> + +<p>The work of the leaves has already been described. The +return current, bearing starch in soluble form, flows freely +among the cells of the cambium. Oxygen is there also. +The cambium cell in the growing season fulfils its life mission +by absorbing food and dividing. This is growth—and +the power to grow comes only to the cell attacked by +oxygen. The rebuilding of its tissues multiplies the substance +of the cambium at a rapid rate. A cell divides, +producing two "daughter cells." Each is soon as large as +its parent, and ready to divide in the same way. A cambium +cell is a microscopic object, but in a tree there are +millions upon millions of them. Consider how large an +area of cambium a large tree has. It is exactly equivalent +to the total area of its bark. Two cells by dividing make +four. The next division produces eight, then sixteen, +thirty-two, sixty-four, in geometric proportion. The +cell's power and disposition to divide seems limited only by +the food and oxygen supply. The cambium layer itself +remains a very narrow zone of the newest, most active +cells. The margins of the cambium are crowded with cells +whose walls are thickened and whose protoplasm is no +longer active. The accumulation of these worn-out cells +forms the total of the season's growth, the annual ring of +wood on one side of the cambium and the annual layer of +bark on the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +What was once a delicate cell now becomes a hollow +wood fibre, thin walled, but becoming thickened as it gets +older. For a few years the superannuated cell is a part of +the sap wood and is used as a tube in the system through +which the crude sap mounts to the leaves. Later it may +be stored full of starch, and the sap will flow up through +newer tubes. At last the walls of the old cell harden and +darken with mineral deposits. Many annual rings lie between +it and the cambium. It has become a part of the +heart wood of the tree.</p> + +<p>The cells of its own generation that were crowded in the +other direction made part of an annual layer of bark. As +new layers formed beneath them, and the bark stretched +and cracked, they lost their moisture by contact with the +outer air. Finally they became thin, loose fibres, and +scaled off.</p> + +<p>The years of a tree's life are recorded with fair accuracy +in the rings of its wood. The bark tells the same story, +but the record is lost by its habit of sloughing off the outer +layers. Occasionally a tree makes two layers of wood in a +single season, but this is exceptional. Sometimes, as in a +year of drought, the wood ring is so small as to be hardly +distinguishable.</p> + +<p>Each annual ring in the chestnut stump is distinct from +its neighboring ring. The wood gradually merges from a +dark band full of large pores to one paler in color and of +denser texture. It is very distinct in oak and ash. The +coarser belt was formed first. The spring wood, being so +open, discolors by the accumulation of dust when exposed +to the air. The closer summer wood is paler in color and +harder, the pores almost invisible to the unaided eye. The +best timber has the highest percentage of summer wood.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +If a tree had no limbs, and merely laid on each year a +layer of wood made of parallel fibres fitted on each other +like pencils in a box, wood splitting would be child's play +and carpenters would have less care to look after their +tools. But woods differ in structure, and all fall short of +the woodworker's ideal. The fibres of oak vary in shape +and size. They taper and overlap their ends, making the +wood less easily split than soft pine, for instance, whose +fibres are regular cylinders, which lie parallel, and meet end +to end without "breaking joints."</p> + +<p>Fibres of oak are also bound together by flattened +bundles of horizontal fibres that extend from pith to cambium, +insinuated between the vertical fibres. These are +seen on a cross-section of a log as narrow, radiating lines +starting from the pith and cutting straight through heart +wood and sap wood to the bark. A tangential section of a +log (the surface exposed by the removal of a slab on any +side) shows these "pith rays," or "medullary rays" as +long, tapering streaks. A longitudinal section made from +bark to centre, as when a log is "quarter-sawed," shows +a full side view of the "medullary rays." They are often +an inch wide or more in oak; these wavy, irregular, gleaming +fibre bands are known in the furniture trade as the +"mirrors" of oak. They take a beautiful polish, and are +highly esteemed in cabinet work. The best white oak has +20 per cent. to 25 per cent. of its substance made up of these +pith rays. The horny texture of its wood, together with +its strength and durability, give white oak an enviable +place among timber trees, while the beauty of its pith rays +ranks it high among ornamental woods.</p> + +<p>The grain of wood is its texture. Wide annual rings +with large pores mark coarse-grained woods. They need +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +"filling" with varnish or other substance before they can +be satisfactorily polished. Fine-grained woods, if hard, +polish best. Trees of slow growth usually have fine-grained +wood, though the rule is not universal.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily wood fibres are parallel with their pith. They +are straight grained. Exceptions to this rule are constantly +encountered. The chief cause of variation is the +fact that tree trunks branch. Limbs have their origin in +the pith of the stems that bear them. Any stem is normally +one year older than the branch it bears. So the +base of any branch is a cone quite buried in the parent +stem. A cross-section of this cone in a board sawed from +the trunk is a <i>knot</i>. Its size and number of rings indicate +its age. If the knot is diseased and loose, it will fall out, +leaving a <i>knot hole</i>. The fibres of the wood of a branch are +extensions of those just below it on the main stem. They +spread out so as to meet around the twig and continue in +parallel lines to its extremity. The fibres contiguous to +those which were diverted from the main stem to clothe +the branch must spread so as to meet above the branch, else +the parent stem would be bare in this quarter. The union +of stem and branch is weak above, as is shown by the clean +break made above a twig when it is torn off, and the stubborn +tearing of the fibres below down into the older stem. +A half hour spent at the woodpile or among the trees with a +jack-knife will demonstrate the laws by which the straight +grain of wood is diverted by the insertion of limbs. The +careful picking up and tearing back of the fibres of bark +and wood will answer all our questions. Basswood whose +fibres are tough is excellent for illustration.</p> + +<p>When a twig breaks off, the bark heals the wound and +the grain becomes straight over the place. Trees crowded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +in a forest early divest themselves of their lower branches. +These die for lack of sun and air, and the trunk covers +their stubs with layers of straight-grained wood. Such +timbers are the masts of ships, telegraph poles, and the best +bridge timbers. Yet buried in their heart wood are the +roots of every twig, great or small, that started out to +grow when the tree was young. These knots are mostly +small and sound, so they do not detract from the value of +the lumber. It is a pleasure to work upon such a "stick +of timber."</p> + +<p>A tree that grows in the open is clothed to the ground +with branches, and its grain is found to be warped by +hundreds of knots when it reaches the sawmill. Such a +tree is an ornament to the landscape, but it makes inferior, +unreliable lumber. The carpenter and the wood chopper +despise it, for it ruins tools and tempers.</p> + +<p>Besides the natural diversion of straight grain by knots, +there are some abnormal forms to notice. Wood sometimes +shows wavy grain under its bark. Certain trees +twist in growing, so as to throw the grain into spiral lines. +Cypresses and gum trees often exhibit in old stumps a +veering of the grain to the left for a few years, then suddenly +to the right, producing a "cross grain" that defies +attempts to split it.</p> + +<p>"Bird's-eye" and "curly maple" are prizes for the +furniture maker. Occasionally a tree of swamp or sugar +maple keeps alive the crowded twigs of its sapling for +years, and forms adventitious buds as well. These +dwarfed shoots persist, never getting ahead further than a +few inches outside the bark. Each is the centre of a wood +swelling on the tree body. The annual layers preserve all +the inequalities. Dots surrounded by wavy rings are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +scattered over the boards when the tree is sawed. This is +bird's-eye grain, beautiful in pattern and in sheen and +coloring when polished. It is cut thin for veneer work. +Extreme irregularity of grain adds to the value of woods, if +they are capable of a high polish. The fine texture and +coloring, combined with the beautiful patterns they display, +give woods a place in the decorative arts that can be +taken by no other material.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><i>The Fall of the Leaves</i></div> + +<p>It is November, and the glory of the woods is departed. +Dull browns and purples show where oaks still hold their +leaves. Beech trees in sheltered places are still dressed in +pale yellow. The elfin flowers of the witch hazel shine like +threads of gold against the dull leaves that still cling. The +trees lapse into their winter sleep.</p> + +<p>Last week a strange thing happened. The wind tore +the red robes from our swamp maples and sassafras and +scattered them in tatters over the lawn. But the horse-chestnut, +decked out in yellow and green, lost scarcely a +leaf. Three days later, in the hush of early morning, when +there was not a whiff of a breeze perceptible, the signal, +"Let go!" came, and with one accord the leaves of the +horse-chestnut fell. In an hour the tree stood knee deep in +a stack of yellow leaves; the few that still clung had considerable +traces of green in them. Gradually these are +dropping, and the shining buds remain as a pledge that the +summer story just ended will be told again next year.</p> + +<p>Perhaps such a sight is more impressive if one realizes the +vast importance of the work the leaves of a summer accomplish +for the tree before their surrender.</p> + +<p>The shedding of leaves is a habit broad-leaved trees have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +learned by experience in contact with cold winters. The +swamp magnolia is a beautiful evergreen tree in Florida. +In Virginia the leaves shrivel, but they cling throughout +the season. In New Jersey and north as far as Gloucester, +where the tree occurs sparingly, it is frankly deciduous. +Certain oaks in the Northern states have a stubborn way of +clinging to their dead leaves all winter. Farther south +some of these species grow and their leaves do not die in +fall, but are practically evergreen, lasting till next year's +shoots push them off. The same gradual change in habit +is seen as a species is followed up a mountain side.</p> + +<p>The horse-chestnut will serve as a type of deciduous +trees. Its leaves are large, and they write out, as if in +capital letters, the story of the fall of the leaf. It is a +serial, whose chapters run from July until November. The +tree anticipates the coming of winter. Its buds are well +formed by midsummer. Even then signs of preparation +for the leaf fall appear. A line around the base of the leaf +stem indicates where the break will be. Corky cells form +on each side of this joint, replacing tissues which in the +growing season can be parted only by breaking or tearing +them forcibly. A clean-cut zone of separation weakens the +hold of the leaf upon its twig, and when the moment arrives +the lightest breath of wind—even the weight of the withered +leaf itself—causes the natural separation. And the +leaflets simultaneously fall away from their common petiole.</p> + +<p>There are more important things happening in leaves in +late summer than the formation of corky cells. The plump +green blades are full of valuable substance that the tree can +ill afford to spare. In fact, a leaf is a layer of the precious +cambium spread out on a framework of veins and covered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +with a delicate, transparent skin—a sort of etherealized +bark. What a vast quantity of leaf pulp is in the foliage +of a large tree!</p> + +<p>As summer wanes, and the upward tide of sap begins to +fail, starch making in the leaf laboratories declines proportionately. +Usually before midsummer the fresh green +is dimmed. Dust and heat and insect injuries impair the +leaf's capacity for work. The thrifty tree undertakes to +withdraw the leaf pulp before winter comes.</p> + +<p>But how?</p> + +<p>It is not a simple process nor is it fully understood. The +tubes that carried the products of the laboratory away are +bound up with the fibres of the leaf's skeleton. Through +the transparent leaf wall the migration of the pulp may be +watched. It leaves the margins and the net veins, and +settles around the ribs and mid vein, exactly as we should +expect. Dried and shrivelled horse-chestnut leaves are +still able to show various stages in this marvellous retreat +of the cambium. If moisture fails, the leaf bears some of +its green substance with it to the earth. The "breaking +down of the chlorophyll" is a chemical change that attends +the ripening of a leaf. (Leaf ripening is as natural as +the ripening of fruit.) The waxy granules disintegrate, +and a yellow liquid shows its colors through the delicate +leaf walls. Now other pigments, some curtained from +view by the chlorophyll, others the products of decomposition, +show themselves. Iron and other minerals the +sap brought from the soil contribute reds and yellows and +purples to the color scheme. As drainage proceeds, with +the chemical changes that accompany it, the pageant of +autumn colors passes over the woodlands. No weed or +grass stem but joins in the carnival of the year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +Crisp and dry the leaves fall. Among the crystals and +granules that remain in their empty chambers there is little +but waste that the tree can well afford to be rid of—substances +that have clogged the leaf and impeded its work.</p> + +<p>We have been mistaken in attributing the gay colors of +autumnal foliage to the action of frost. The ripening of +the leaves occurs in the season of warm days and frosty +nights, but it does not follow that the two phenomena belong +together as cause and effect. Frost no doubt hastens +the process. But the chemical changes that attend the +migration of the carbohydrates and albuminous materials +from the leaf back into twig and trunk and root for safe +keeping go on no matter what the weather.</p> + +<p>In countries having a moist atmosphere autumn +colors are less vivid. England and our own Pacific Coast +have nothing to compare with the glory of the foliage in the +forests of Canada and the Northeastern states, and with +those on the wooded slopes of the Swiss Alps, and along the +Rhine and the Danube. Long, dry autumns produce the +finest succession of colors. The most brilliant reds and +yellows often appear long before the first frost. Cold rains +of long duration wash the colors out of the landscape, +sometimes spoiling everything before October. A sharp +freeze before the leaves expect it often cuts them off before +they are ripe. They stiffen and fall, and are wet and limp +next day, as if they had been scalded; all their rich cell substance +lost to the tree, except as they form a mulch about +its roots. But no tree can afford so expensive a fertilizer, +and happily they are not often caught unawares.</p> + +<p>Under the trees the dead leaves lie, forming with the +snow a protective blanket for the roots. In spring the +rains will leach out their mineral substance and add it to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +the soil. The abundant lime in dead leaves is active in the +formation of <i>humus</i>, which is decayed vegetable matter. +We call it "leaf mould." So even the waste portions have +their effectual work to do for the tree's good.</p> + +<p>The leaves of certain trees in regions of mild winters persist +until they are pushed off by the swelling buds in spring. +Others cling a year longer, in sorry contrast with the new +foliage. We may believe that this is an indolent habit induced +by climatic conditions.</p> + +<p>Leaves of evergreens cling from three to five years. +Families and individuals differ; altitude and latitude produce +variations. An evergreen in winter is a dull-looking +object, if we could compare it with its summer foliage. Its +chlorophyll granules withdraw from the surface of the leaf.</p> + +<p>They seek the lower ends of the palisade cells, as far as +they can get from the leaf surface, assume a dull reddish +brown or brownish yellow color, huddle in clumps, their +water content greatly reduced, and thus hibernate, much as +the cells of the cambium are doing under the bark. In +this condition, alternate freezing and thawing seem to do +no harm, and the leaves are ready in spring to resume the +starch-making function if they are still young. Naturally, +the oldest leaves are least capable of this work, and least is +expected of them. Gradually they die and drop as new +ones come on. As among broad-leaved trees, the zone of +foliage in evergreens is an outer dome of newest shoots; the +framework of large limbs is practically destitute of leaves.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><i>How Trees Spend the Winter</i></div> + +<p>Nine out of every ten intelligent people will see nothing +of interest in a row of bare trees. They casually state that +buds are made in the early spring. They miss seeing the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +strength and beauty of tree architecture which the foliage +conceals in summertime. The close-knit, alive-looking +bark of a living tree they do not distinguish from the dull, +loose-hung garment worn by the dead tree in the row. All +trees look alike to them in winter.</p> + +<p>Yet there is so much to see if only one will take time to +look. Even the most heedless are struck at times with the +mystery of the winter trance of the trees. They know that +each spring reënacts the vernal miracle. Thoughtful +people have put questions to these sphinx-like trees. +Secrets the bark and bud scales hide have been revealed to +those who have patiently and importunately inquired. A +keen pair of eyes used upon a single elm in the dooryard for +a whole year will surprise and inform the observer. It will +be indeed the year of miracle.</p> + +<p>A tree has no centre of life, no vital organs corresponding +to those of animals. It is made up, from twig to root, +of annual, concentric layers of wood around a central pith.</p> + +<p>It is completely covered with a close garment of bark, +also made of annual layers. Between bark and wood is the +delicate undergarment of living tissue called <i>cambium</i>. +This is disappointing when one comes to look for it, for all +there is of it is a colorless, slimy substance that moistens +the youngest layers of wood and bark, and forms the layer +of separation between them. This cambium is the life of +the tree. A hollow trunk seems scarcely a disability. +The loss of limbs a tree can survive and start afresh. But +girdle its trunk, exposing a ring of the cambium to the air, +and the tree dies. The vital connection of leaves and +roots is destroyed by the girdling; nothing can save the +tree's life. Girdle a limb or a twig and all above the injury +suffers practical amputation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +The bark protects the cambium, and the cambium is the +tissue which by cell multiplication in the growing season +produces the yearly additions of wood and bark. Buds +are growing points set along the twigs. They produce +leafy shoots, as a rule. Some are specialized to produce +flowers and subsequently fruits. Leaves are extensions +of cambium spread in the sun and air in the season when +there is no danger from frosts. The leaves have been +called the stomachs of a tree. They receive crude materials +from the soil and the air and transmute them into +starch under the action of sunlight. This elaborated sap +supplies the hungry cambium cells during the growing +season, and the excess of starch made in the leaf laboratories +is stored away in empty wood cells and in every +available space from bud to root tip, from bark to pith.</p> + +<p>The tree's period of greatest activity is the early summer. +It is the time of growth and of preparation for the +coming winter and for the spring that follows it. Winter +is the time of rest—of sleep, or hibernation. A bear digs +a hollow under the tree's roots and sleeps in it all winter, +waking in the spring. In many ways the tree imitates the +bear. Dangerous as are analogies between plants and +animals, it is literally true that the sleeping bear and the +dormant tree have each ceased to feed. The sole activity +of each seems to be the quiet breathing.</p> + +<p>Do trees really breathe? As truly and as incessantly as +you do, but not as actively. Other processes are intermittent, +but breathing must go on, day and night, winter +and summer, as long as life lasts. Breathing is low in +winter. The tree is not growing. There is only the +necessity of keeping it alive.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 487px;"> +<a name="figpg22" id="figpg22"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_22.png" width="487" height="627" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_42">page 42</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">A GROVE OF BEECHES</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 673px;"> +<a name="figpg23" id="figpg23"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_23.png" width="673" height="405" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_44">page 44</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE CHESTNUT</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +Leaves are the lungs of plants. In the growing season +respiration goes on at a vigorous rate. The leaves also +throw off in insensible vapor a vast quantity of water. +This is called <i>transpiration</i> in plants; in animals the term +used is <i>perspiration</i>. They are one and the same process. +An average white oak tree throws off 150 gallons of +water in a single summer day. With the cutting off of the +water supply at the roots in late fall, transpiration is also +cut off.</p> + +<p>The skin is the efficient "third lung" of animals. The +closing of its pores causes immediate suffocation. The +bark of trees carries on the work of respiration in the +absence of the leaves. Bark is porous, even where it is +thickest.</p> + +<p>Look at the twigs of half a dozen kinds of trees, and find +the little raised dots on the smooth surface. They usually +vary in color from the bark. These are <i>lenticels</i>, or breathing +pores—not holes, likely to become clogged with dust, +but porous, corky tissue that filters the air as it comes in. +In most trees the smooth epidermis of twigs is shed as the +bark thickens and breaks into furrows. This obscures, +though it does not obliterate, the air passages. Cherry +and birch trees retain the silky epidermal bark on limbs, +and in patches, at least, on the trunks of old trees. Here +the lenticels are seen as parallel, horizontal slits, open sometimes, +but usually filled with the characteristic corky substance. +They admit air to the cambium.</p> + +<p>There is a popular fallacy that trees have no buds until +spring. Some trees have very small buds. But there is no +tree in our winter woods that will not freely show its buds +to any one who wishes to see them. A very important +part of the summer work of a tree is the forming of buds +for next spring. Even when the leaves are just unfolding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +on the tender shoots a bud will be found in each angle between +leaf and stem. All summer long its bud is the +especial charge of each particular leaf. If accident destroy +the leaf, the bud dies of neglect. When midsummer comes +the bud is full grown, or nearly so, and the fall of the leaf +is anticipated. The thrifty tree withdraws as much as +possible of the rich green leaf pulp, and stores it in the twig +to feed the opening buds in spring.</p> + +<p>What is there inside the wrappings of a winter bud? +"A leaf," is the usual reply—and it is not a true one. A +bud is an embryo shoot—one would better say, a shoot in +miniature. It has very little length or diameter when the +scales are stripped off. But with care the leaves can be +spread open, and their shape and venation seen. The +exact number the shoot was to bear are there to be counted. +Take a horse-chestnut bud—one of the biggest ones—and +you will unpack a cluster of flowers distinct in number and +in parts. The bud of the tulip tree is smaller, but it holds +a single blossom, and petals, stamens, and pistil are easily +recognizable. Some buds contain flowers and no leaves. +Some have shoots with both upon them. If we know the +tree, we may guess accurately about its buds.</p> + +<p>There is another popular notion, very pretty and sentimental, +but untrue, that study of buds is bound to overthrow. +It is the belief that the woolly and silky linings of +bud scales, and the scales themselves, and the wax that +seals up many buds are all for the purpose of keeping the +bud warm through the cold winter. The bark, according +to the same notion, is to keep the tree warm. This idea +is equally untenable. There is but feeble analogy between +a warm-blooded animal wrapped in fur, its bodily +heat kept up by fires within (the rapid oxidation of fats +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +and carbohydrates in the tissues), and the winter condition +of a tree. Hardy plants are of all things the most cold +blooded. They are defended against injuries from cold in +an effective but entirely different way.</p> + +<p>Exposure to the air and consequent loss of its moisture +by evaporation is the death of the cambium—that which +lies under the thick bark and in the tender tissues of the +bud, sealed up in its layers of protecting scales.</p> + +<p>The cells of the cambium are plump little masses of protoplasm, +semi-fluid in consistency in the growing season. +They have plenty of room for expansion and division. +Freezing would rupture their walls, and this would mean +disintegration and death. Nature prepares the cells to be +frozen without any harm. The water of the protoplasm +is withdrawn by osmosis into the spaces between the cells. +The mucilaginous substance left behind is loosely enclosed +by the crumpled cell wall. Thus we see that a tree has +about as much water in it in winter as in summer. Green +wood cut in winter burns slowly and oozes water at the +ends in the same discouraging way as it does in summertime.</p> + +<p>A tree takes on in winter the temperature of the surrounding +air. In cold weather the water in buds and +trunk and cambium freezes solid. Ice crystals form in the +intercellular spaces where they have ample room, and so they +do no damage in their alternate freezing and thawing. +The protoplasm stiffens in excessive cold, but when the +thermometer rises, life stirs again. Motion, breathing, and +feeding are essential to cell life.</p> + +<p>It is hard to believe that buds freeze solid. But cut one +open in a freezing cold room, and before you breathe upon +it take a good look with a magnifier, and you should make +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +out the ice crystals. The bark is actually frozen upon a +stick of green stovewood. The sap that oozes out of the pith +and heart wood was frozen, and dripped not at all until it +was brought indoors.</p> + +<p>What is meant by the freezing of fruit buds in winter, by +which the peach crop is so often lost in Northern states? +When spring opens, the warmth of the air wakes the sleeping +buds. It thaws the ice in the intercellular spaces, and +the cells are quick to absorb the water they gave up when +winter approached. The thawing of the ground surrounds +the roots with moisture. Sap rises and flows into the utmost +twig. Warm days in January or February are able +to deceive the tree to this extent. The sudden change +back to winter again catches them. The plump cells are +ruptured and killed by the "frost bite."</p> + +<p>It is a bad plan to plant a tender kind of tree on the south +side of a house or a wall. The direct and the reflected +warmth of the sun forces its buds out too soon, and the late +frosts cut them off. There is rarely a good yield on a tree +so situated.</p> + +<p>There is no miracle like "the burst of spring." Who has +watched a tree by the window as its twigs began to shine in +early March, and the buds to swell and show edges of +green as their scales lengthened? Then the little shoot +struggled out, casting off the hindering scales with the +scandalous ingratitude characteristic of infancy. Feeble +and very appealing are the limp baby leaves on the shoot, +as tender and pale green as asparagus tips. But all that +store of rich nutritive material is backing the enterprise. +The palms are lifted into the air; they broaden and take on +the texture of the perfect, mature leaf. Scarcely a day is +required to outgrow the hesitation and inexperience of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +youth. The tree stands decked in its canopy of leaves, +every one of which is ready and eager to assume the responsibilities +it faces. The season of starch making has +opened.</p> + +<p>Cut some twigs of convenient trees in winter. Let them +be good ones, with vigorous buds, and have them at least +two feet long. You may test this statement I have made +about the storing of food in the twigs, and the one about +the unfolding of the leafy shoots. Get a number of them +from the orchard—samples from cherry, plum, and apple +trees; from maple and elm and any other familiar tree. +Put them in jars of water and set them where they get the +sun on a convenient window shelf. Give them plenty of +water, and do not crowd them. It is not necessary to +change the water, but cutting the ends slanting and under +water every few days insures the unimpeded flow of the +water up the stems and the more rapid development of the +buds you are watching. When spring comes there are too +many things that demand attention. The forcing of +winter buds while yet it is winter is the ideal way to discover +the trees' most precious secrets.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a> +PART II</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_NUT_TREES" id="THE_NUT_TREES"></a> +THE NUT TREES</div> + +<div class="ind2em smcap">The Walnuts—The Hickories—The Beech—The +Chestnuts—The Oaks—The White Oak Group—The +Black Oak Group—The Horse-Chestnuts, +or Buckeyes—The Lindens, or Basswoods</div> + + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_WALNUTS" id="THE_WALNUTS"></a> +THE WALNUTS</div> + +<p>Hickories are included with their near relatives, the +walnuts, in one of the most important of all our native tree +groups. They are distinct, yet they have many traits in +common—the flowers and the nut fruits, the hard resinous +wood, with aromatic sap and leaves of many leaflets, instead +of a single blade.</p> + +<p>The walnuts are decidedly "worth knowing." All produce +valuable timber and edible nuts, and all are good shade +trees. Four native walnuts are well known in this country, +for in October, every tree in every bit of woods is likely to +be visited by school boys with bags, eager to gather the nuts +before some other boy finds the tree, and thus establishes a +prior claim upon it. The curiously gnawed shells outside +the winter storehouse of some furry woods-dweller reveal +the most successful competitor boys have, the constant +watcher of the nut trees, a harvester who works at nothing +else while the season is on.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Southwestern Walnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Juglans rupestris</i>, Engelm.</div> + +<p>The walnut of the Southwest grows into a spreading, luxuriant +tree, where its roots find water. But on the canyon +sides, and higher on mountain slopes, it becomes a stunted +shrub, because of lack of moisture.</p> + +<p>The nut is smaller than that of the eastern walnuts and +has a thick shell, but the kernel is sweet and keeps its rich +flavor for a long time. The Mexicans and Indians are glad +to have this nut added to the stores they gather for their +winter food.</p> + +<p>One striking feature of this tree is the pale, cottony down +on its twigs, which sometimes persists three or four +years. The long limbs droop at the extremities, almost +deserving to be called "weeping." But nothing could +be more cheerful in color than the yellow-green foliage, +shining in the sun, against the white bark of the tree. +In autumn the foliage turns bright yellow. A specimen, +much admired, grows in the Arnold Arboretum in +Boston.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The California Walnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. californica</i>, Wats.</div> + +<p>The California walnut is a stocky, round-headed tree, +with heavy, drooping branches, and bark that is white and +smooth on limbs and on trunks of young trees. Ultimately +the trunk turns nearly black, and is checked into broad, +irregular ridges. In bottom lands, along the courses of +rivers, back thirty miles from the coast, these trees are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +found, from the Sacramento Valley to the southern slopes +of the San Bernardino Mountains.</p> + +<p>The foliage is bright pale green, feathery, the leaflets +often curved to sickle form, showing paler silky linings. +Californians admire and plant this tree for shade and ornament. +Its greatest value is as a hardy stock upon which +the "English" walnut is grafted by nurserymen, for planting +orchards of this commercial nut. The fruit of the +native nut is excellent, but it cannot compete with the +thin-shelled nut that came from Persia, <i>via</i> England.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Butternut, White Walnut, or Oilnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. cinerea</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>In eastern woods the butternut is known by its long, +pointed nuts, with deeply and raggedly sculptured shells, in +fuzzy, clammy, sticky husks that stain the hands of him who +attempts to get at the oily meat before the husks are dry. +This dark stain was an important dye in the time when +homespun cotton cloth was worn by men and boys. The +modern khaki resembles in color the "butternut jeans," in +which backwoods regiments of the Civil War were clad. +Butternut husks and bark yield also a drug of cathartic +properties.</p> + +<p>Pickling green oilnuts in their husks is a housewifely +industry, on the summer programme of many housewives +still, if the woods near by furnish the raw material for employing +her great-grandmother's recipe, brought from England, +or perhaps from France. The green nuts are tested +with a knitting needle. If it goes through them with no +difficulty, and yet the nuts are of good size, they are ready. +Vigorous rubbing removes the fuzz after the nuts are +scalded. Then they are pickled whole, in spiced vinegar, and +are a rare, delectable relish with meats for the winter table.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 632px;"> +<a name="figpg30" id="figpg30"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_30.png" width="632" height="455" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_42">page 42</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">WEEPING BEECH</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 484px;"> +<a name="figpg31" id="figpg31"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_31.png" width="484" height="644" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">BLACK WALNUT</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +A butternut tree, beside the road, or elsewhere, with +room to grow, has a short trunk, and a low, broad head, +with a downward droop to the horizontal limbs. The bark +is light brown, the limbs grayish green, the twigs and leaves +all ooze a clammy, waxy, aromatic sap, and are covered +with fine hairs of velvety abundance.</p> + +<p>Because it is low and rather wayward in growth, late to +leaf out in spring, and early to shed its leaves in summer, +the butternut is not a good street tree. It breaks easily +in the wind, and crippled trees are more common than +well-grown specimens. Insect and fungous enemies beset +the species, and take advantage of breaks to invade the +twigs through the chambered pith. Short-lived trees +they are, whose brown, satiny wood is used in cabinet +work, but is not plentiful.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Walnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. nigra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The black walnut (<i>see illustrations, pages <a href="#figpg31">31</a>, <a href="#figpg70">70</a></i>) is the +second species east of the Rocky Mountains, and the tree +chiefly depended upon, during the century just closed, by +the makers of furniture of the more expensive grades. +Black walnut wood is brown, with purplish tones in it, and +a silvery lustre, when polished. Its hardness and strength +commend it to the boat and ship builder. Gunstock +factories use quantities of this wood. In furniture and interior +woodwork, the curly walnut, found in the old stumps +of trees cut long before, is especially sought for veneering +panels. Old furniture, of designs that have passed out, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +are often sold to the factories, and their seasoned wood cut +thin for veneering.</p> + +<p>Walnut trees one hundred and fifty feet high were not +uncommon in the forests primeval, in the basin of the Ohio +and Wabash rivers. These giants held up their majestic +heads far over the tops of oaks and maples in the woods. +They were slaughtered, rolled together, and burned by the +pioneers, clearing the land for agriculture. These men had +a special grudge against walnut trees, they were so stubborn—so +hard to make away with. How unfortunate it is +that our ancestors had the patience to go forward and conquer +the unconquerable ones. Had they weakly surrendered, +and let these trees stand, we should have had +them for the various uses to which we put the finest lumber +trees to-day.</p> + +<p>Unhappily, the growing of young trees has not been extensively +undertaken to replace those destroyed. The +newer forestry is awake to the need, and the loss may be +made good, from this time forward.</p> + +<p>The black walnut is nearly globular, deeply sculptured, +with a sweet nut rich in oil, very good if one eats but a few +at a time. Locally, they find their way to market, but +they soon become rancid in the grocer's barrel. At home, +boys spread them, in their smooth, yellow-pitted husks, on +the roof of the woodshed, for instance, so the husks can +dry while the nuts are seasoning. No walnut opens its +husk in regular segments, as the hickories all do. But the +husking is not hard. The thick shells require careful management +of the hammer or nut-cracker, to avoid breaking +the meats.</p> + +<p>Dark as is its wood and bark, no walnut tree in full leaf +is sombre. The foliage is bright, lustrous, yellow-green, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +graceful, dancing. A majestic tree, with a luxuriant +crown from May till September, this walnut needs room +to display its notable contour and size. It deserves more +popularity than it enjoys as a tree for parks. No tree is +more interesting to watch as it grows.</p> + +<p>The bitter spongy husk deters the squirrels from gnawing +into the nut until the husk is dry and brittle. Hidden +in the ground, the shell absorbs moisture, and winter frost +cracks it, by the gentle but irresistible force of expanding +particles of water as they turn to ice. So the plantlet has +no hindrance to its growth when spring opens.</p> + +<p>Imitating nature, the nurseryman lays his walnuts and +butternuts in a bed of sand or gravel, one layer above another, +and lets the rain and the cold do the rest. In +spring the "stratified" nuts are ready for planting. Sometimes +careful cracking of the shell prepares the nut to +sprout when planted.</p> + +<p>The Japanese walnuts (<i>J. Sieboldiana</i> and <i>J. cordiformis</i>) +are grown to a limited extent in states where the English +walnut is not hardy. They are butternuts, and very +much superior to our native species. A Manchurian walnut +has been successfully introduced, but few people +but the pioneers in nut culture know anything about these +exotic species. South America and the West Indies have +native species. So we shall not be surprised, in our +travels, to find walnuts in the woods of many continents.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The English Walnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. regia</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>Originally at home in the forests of Persia and northwestern +India, the English walnut was grown for its excellent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +nuts in the warm countries of Europe and Asia. +It was a tree of great reputation when Linnaeus gave it the +specific name that means <i>royal</i>. Indeed, this is the tree +which gave to all the family the name "<i>Juglans</i>," which +means, "Jove's acorn," in the writings of Roman authors. +Kings made each other presents of these nuts, and so the +range of the species was extended, even to England, by the +planting of nuts from the south.</p> + +<p>It became the fad of gardeners, before the fifteenth +century, to improve the varieties, and to compete with +others in getting the thinnest shell, the largest nut, the +sweetest kernel, just as horticulturists do now. In 1640 +the herbalist Parkinson wrote about a variety of "French +wallnuts, which are the greatest of any, within whose shell +are often put a paire of fine gloves, neatly foulded up together." +Another variety he mentions "whose shell is so +tender that it may easily be broken between one's fingers, +and the nut itsself is very sweete."</p> + +<p>In England, the climate prevents the ripening of the +fruit of walnut trees. But the nuts reach good size, and +are pickled green, for use as a relish; or made into catsups—husks +and all being used, when a needle will still puncture +the fruit with ease.</p> + +<p>In America, the first importations of the walnuts came +from the Mediterranean countries, by way of England, +"the mother country." In contradistinction to our +black walnuts and butternuts, these nuts from overseas +were called by the loyal colonists "English walnuts," +and so they remain to this day in the markets of this +country.</p> + +<p>It was natural and easy to grow these trees in the Southern +states. But little had been done to improve them, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +to grow them extensively for market, until California +undertook to compete with Europe for the growing American +trade. Now the crop reaches thousands of tons +of nuts, and millions of dollars come back each year +to the owners of walnut ranches. Hardy varieties have +extended the range of nut-orcharding; and so has the +grafting of tender varieties on stock of the native black +walnut of California.</p> + +<p>The beauty of this Eurasian walnut tree would justify +planting it merely for the adornment of parks and private +grounds. Its broad dome of bright green foliage in summer, +and its clean gray trunk and bare branches in winter, +are attractive features in a landscape that has few deciduous +trees. A fine dooryard tree that bears delicious +nuts, after furnishing a grateful shade all summer, is deserving +the popularity it enjoys with small farmers and +owners of the simplest California homes.</p> + +<p>As a lumber tree, the walnut of Europe has long been +commercially important. It is the staple wood for gun-stocks, +and during wars the price has reached absurd +heights, one country bidding against its rival to get control +of the visible supply. Furniture makers use quantities +of the curly walnut often found in stumps of old trees. +The heart wood, always a rich brown, is often watered and +crimped in curious and intricate patterns, that when +polished blend the loveliest dark and light shades with the +characteristic walnut lustre, to reward the skilled craftsman.</p> + +<p>In the United States this wood is rarely seen, because +the trees are grown for their nuts. They require several +years to come into bearing, are long-lived, have few enemies, +and need little pruning as bearing age approaches.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">THE HICKORIES</div> + +<p>Americans have a right to be proud that the twelve +hickory species are all natives of this country. Eleven of +the twelve are found in the eastern half of the United +States; one, only, strays into the forests of Mexico. No +other country has a native hickory.</p> + +<p>Indians of the Algonkin tribe named this tree family, and +taught the early colonists in Virginia to use for food the +ripe nuts of the shagbark and mockernut. After cracking +the shells, the procedure was to boil and strain the mixture, +which gave them a rich, soupy liquid. Into this they +stirred a coarse meal, made by grinding between stones +the Indian corn. The mush was cooked slowly, then made +into cakes, which were baked on hot stones. No more +delicious nor wholesome food can be imagined than this. +Frequently the soup was eaten alone; its name, "Powcohicora," +gave the trees their English name, part of which +the botanist, <ins title='Correction: was "Raffinesque"'>Rafinesque</ins>, took, Latinized, and set up as the +name of the genus.</p> + +<p>Cut a twig of any hickory tree, and you realize that the +wood is close-grained and very springy. The pith is solid, +with a star form in cross-section, corresponding to the +ranking of the leaves on the twigs. The wind strews no +branches under a hickory tree, for the fibres of the wood are +strong and flexible enough to resist a hurricane. (<i>See illustrations, +pages <a href="#figpg6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</i>)</p> + +<p>Hickory wood is unequalled for implements which must +resist great strain and constant jarring. The running-gear +of wagons and carriages, handles of pitchforks, axes, and +like implements require it. Thin strips, woven into baskets +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +for heavy market use, are almost indestructible. No +fuel is better than seasoned hickory wood.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Shagbark or Shellbark</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Hicoria ovata</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The shagbark has gray bark that is shed in thin, tough, +vertical strips. Attached by the middle, these strips often +spring outward, at top and bottom, giving the bole a most +untidy look (<i>see illustrations, pages <a href="#figpg6">6</a>, <a href="#figpg71">71</a></i>), and threatening +the trousers of any boy bold enough to try climbing into +the smooth-barked top to beat off the nuts.</p> + +<p>In spite of the ragged-looking trunk, a shagbark grown +in the open is a noble tree. The limbs are angular, but +they express strength to the utmost twig, as the bare oblong +of the tree's lofty head is etched against a wintry sky.</p> + +<p>The nuts are the chief blessing this tree confers upon the +youngsters of any neighborhood. Individual trees differ +in the size and quality of their fruit. The children know +the best trees, and so do the squirrels, their chief competitors +at harvest time.</p> + +<p>Frost causes the eager lads to seek their favorite trees, +and underneath they find the four-parted husks dropping +away from the angled nuts. There is no waiting, as with +walnuts, for husking time to come. The tree is prompt +about dropping its fruit. Spread for a few weeks, where +they can dry, and thieving squirrels will let them alone, +hickory nuts reach perfect condition for eating. Fat, +proteid, and carbohydrates are found in concentrated form +in those delicious meats. We may not know their dietetic +value, but we all remember how good and how satisfying +they are. No tree brings to the human family more valuable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +offerings than this one, rugged and ragged though it be.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Big Shellbark</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>H. lacinata</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The big shellbark, like the little shellbark, is a common +forest tree in the Middle West and Middle Atlantic states. +It has a shaggy trunk, stout limbs, picturesquely angular, +and it bears nuts that are sweet and of delicious flavor. In +winter the orange-colored twigs, large terminal buds, and +persistent stems of the dead leaves are distinguishing +traits. These petioles shed the five to nine long leaflets +and then stay on, their enlarged bases firmly tied by fibre +bundles to the scar, though the stems writhe and curve as +if eager to be free to die among the fallen blades.</p> + +<p>"King nuts," as the fruit of this tree is labelled in the +markets, do not equal the little hickory nuts in quality, +and their thick shells cover meats very little larger. But +the nut in its husk on the tree is often three inches long—a +very impressive sight to hungry nut-gatherers.</p> + +<p>In summer the downy leaf-linings and the uncommon +size of the leaves best distinguish this tree from its near +relative, whose five leaflets are smooth throughout, small, +very rarely counting seven.</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="figpg38" id="figpg38"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_38.png" width="439" height="597" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_42">page 42</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">WHITE OAK</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 436px;"> +<a name="figpg39" id="figpg39"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_39.png" width="436" height="641" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_51">page 51</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">BUR, OR MOSSY-CUP, OAK—LEAVES AND FRUIT</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Pecan</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>H. Pecan</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The pecan tree bears the best nuts in the hickory family. +This species is coming to be a profitable orchard tree in +many sections of the South. Most of the pecan nuts in the +market come from wild trees in the Mississippi Basin. +But late years have seen great strides taken to establish +pecan growing as a paying horticultural enterprise in +states outside, as well as within, the tree's natural range. +And these efforts are succeeding.</p> + +<p>Experiment stations have tested seedling trees and +selected varieties of known merit, until they know by +actual experiment that pecans can be raised successfully +in the Carolinas and in other states where the native +species does not grow wild. Thin-shelled varieties, with +the astringent red shell-lining almost eliminated, have +been bred by selection, and propagated by building on +native stock. The trees have proved to be fast-growing, +early-fruiting, and easy to grow and protect from +enemies.</p> + +<p>The market pays the highest price for pecans. The +popularity of this nut is deserved, because by analysis it +has the highest food value combined with the most delicate +and delicious flavor. No nut is so rich in nutriment. +None has so low a percentage of waste. The demand for +nuts is constantly increasing as the public learns that the +proteid the body needs can be obtained from nuts as well as +from meat.</p> + +<p>Pecans have suffered in competition with other nuts because +they are difficult to get out of the shells without +breaking the meats. The old-fashioned hammer and +block is not the method for them. A cracker I saw in use +on the street corner in Chicago delighted me. Clamped +to the nut-vendor's stall, it received the nut between two +steel cups and, by the turn of a wheel, crowded it so that +the shell buckled and broke where it is thinnest, around +the middle, and the meat came out whole.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mockernut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>H. alba</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The mockernut is a mockery to him who hopes for nuts +like those of either shagbark. The husk is often three +inches long. Inside is a good-sized nut, angled above the +middle, suggesting the shagbark. But what a thick, obstinate +shell, when one attempts to "break and enter!" +And what a trifling, insipid meat one finds, to repay the +effort! Quite often there is nothing but a spongy remnant +or the shell is empty. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#Page_7">page 7</a>.</i>)</p> + +<p>As a shade tree, the mockernut has real value, showing +in winter a tall, slender pyramidal form, with large terminal +buds tipping the velvety, resinous twigs. The bark is +smooth as that of an ash, with shallow, wavy furrows, as if +surfaced with a silky layer of new healing tissue, thrown up +to fill up all depressions. Mockernut leaves are large, +downy, yellow-green, turning to gold in autumn. Crushed +they give out an aroma suggesting a delicate perfume.</p> + +<p>The flowers are abundant, and yet the most surprising +show of colors on this tree comes in late April, when the +great buds swell. The outer scales fall, and the inner ones +expand into ruddy silken sheathes that stand erect around +the central cluster of leaves, not yet awake, and every +branch seems to hold up a great red tulip! The sight is +wonderful. Nothing looks more flower-like than these +opening hickory buds, and to the unobserving passerby +the transformation is nothing short of a miracle. In a day, +the leaves rise and spread their delicate leaflets, lengthening +and becoming smooth, as the now useless red scales +fall in a shower to the ground.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Pignut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>H. glabra</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The pignut deserves the better name, "smooth hickory," +a more ingratiating introduction to strangers. A graceful, +symmetrical tree, with spreading limbs that end in delicate, +pendulous branches, and gray bark checked into a +maze of intersecting furrows, it is an ornament to any park, +even in the dead of winter. In summer the tree laughs in +the face of the sun, its smooth, glossy, yellow-green leaflets, +five to seven on a stem, lined with pale green or yellow. In +spring the clustered fringes among the opening leaves are +the green and gold stamen flowers. The curiously angled +fertile flowers, at the tips of twigs, are green, with yellow +stigmas. Autumn turns the foliage to orange and brown, +and lets fall the pear-shaped or rounded fruit, each nut +obscurely four-angled and held fast at the base by the thin, +4-ridged husk, that splits scarcely to the middle. The +kernel is insipid, sometimes bitter, occasionally rather +sweet. Country boys scorn the pignut trees, leaving their +fruit for eager but unsophisticated nut-gatherers from the +towns.</p> + +<p>Pigs used to be turned into the woods to fatten on beech- and +oak-"mast." They eagerly devoured the thin-shelled +nuts of <i>H. glabra</i>, and thus the tree earned the friendly regard +of farmers, and a name that preserves an interesting +bit of pioneer history.</p> + +<p>The range of the pignut is from Maine to Florida on the +Atlantic seaboard, west to the middle of Nebraska and +Texas, and from Ontario and Michigan south to the Gulf.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">THE BEECH</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>The American Beech</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Fagus Americanus</i>, Sweet.</div> + +<p>One of the most widely distributed trees in our country, +this is also one of the most useful and most beautiful in any +forest. It is the sole representative of its genus in the +Western Hemisphere. One species is a valuable timber tree +in Europe. Three are natives of Asia. A genus near of kin +includes the beech trees of the Southern Hemisphere, +twelve species in all. There is closer resemblance, however, +between our beeches and their next of kin, the chestnuts +and oaks.</p> + +<p>From the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, from Florida +to Texas, from New England to Wisconsin, beech trees grow; +and where they grow they are very likely to form "pure forests," +on the slopes of mountains and rich river bottoms. +The largest specimens grow in the basin of the lower Ohio +River, and on the warm slopes of the Alleghany Mountains.</p> + +<p>Standing alone, with room for full development, the +beech is a fine, symmetrical tree, with horizontal or slightly +drooping branches, numerous, thickly set with slender, +flexible twigs. The stout trunk supports a round or +conical head of very dense foliage. One hundred and +twenty feet is the maximum height, with a trunk diameter +of three to four feet. (<i>See illustrations, pages <a href="#figpg22">22</a>, <a href="#figpg30">30</a>.</i>)</p> + +<p>The older the trees, the greater the amount of red heart +wood in proportion to the white sap-wood, next to the +bark. Red and white beech wood are distinguished by +lumbermen. Red beech makes superior floors, tool-handles, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +chairs, and the like, and there is no more perfect +fuel than seasoned beech wood.</p> + +<p>It is unreasonable to think that any but the blind could live +where beech trees grow and not know these trees at a glance. +The bark is close, unfurrowed, gray, often almost white, and +marked with blotches, often nearly round of paler hue.</p> + +<p>The branches are dark and smooth and the twigs polished +to the long, pointed winter buds. Throughout, the +tree is a model of elegant attire, both in color and texture +of the investing bark.</p> + +<p>In the growing season the leaves are the tree's chief attraction. +They are closely plaited, and covered with +silvery down, when the bud scales are pushed off in the +spring. In a day, the protective fuzz disappears, and the +full-grown leaf is seen, thin, strongly feather-veined, uniformly +green, saw-toothed. Summer shows the foliage +mass almost as fresh, and autumn turns its green to pale +gold. Still unblemished, it clings, often until the end of +winter, lighting the woods with a ghostly glow, as the rain +fades the color out. The silky texture is never quite lost.</p> + +<p>The delicate flowers of the beech tree are rarely seen, +they fade so soon; the stamen tassels drop off and the +forming nuts, with their prickly burs, are more and more in +evidence in the leaf angles near the ends of new shoots. +With the first frost the burs open, the four walls part, releasing +the two nuts, three-angled, like a grain of buckwheat.</p> + +<p>The name of this grain was suggested by its resemblance +in form to the beechnut, or "buck mast," sweet, nutritious +food of so many dwellers in the forest. Buck mast was the +food of man when he lived in caves and under the forest +cover. We know that beechnuts have a rich, delicate +flavor that offsets the disadvantages of their small size +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +and the difficulty of opening their thin but leathery shells. +All along the centuries European peoples have counted on +this nut, and oil expressed from it, for their own food and +the dried leaves for forage for their cattle in winter.</p> + +<p>The American pioneer turned his hogs into the beech +woods to fatten on the beech-mast, and Thanksgiving +turkeys were always finer if they competed with the wild +turkey on the same fare.</p> + +<p>Birds and lesser mammals do much to plant trees when +they carry away, for immediate or future use, seeds that +are not winged for flight. Beechnuts are light enough to +profit, to some extent, by a high wind. And beech trees in +their infancy do well under the shade of other trees. So +each fruiting tree is the mother of many young ones. But +the seedling trees are not so numerous and important as +the sapling growth that rises from the roots of parent +trees. By these alone, a few isolated beeches will manage +to take possession of the ground around them and to +clothe it with so dense a foliage screen that all young +growth, except certain ferns and grasses, dies for lack of +sun. Before we can realize what is going on, the tract is a +pure forest of beech, rapidly enlarging on all sides by the +same campaign of extension.</p> + + + +<div class="caption2">THE CHESTNUTS</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>Chestnut and Chinquapin</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Castanea dentata</i>, Borh., and <i>C. pumila</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>Our native chestnut and its little brother, the chinquapin, +are the American cousins of the sweet chestnut of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +southern Europe. Japan has contributed to American +horticulture a native species which bears large but not +very sweet nuts, that are good when cooked. Our two +trees bear sweet nuts, of a flavor that no mode of cooking +improves. In truth, there is no finer nut; and the time to +enjoy it to the highest degree is a few weeks after the frost +opens the burs and lets the nuts fall. "Along about +Thanksgiving," they have lost some of their moisture and +are prime.</p> + +<p>In foreign countries the chestnut is a rich, nourishing +food, comparable to the potato. Who could go into +ecstasies over a vegetable that is a staple food for the +peasants of Europe, Asia, and North Africa? Our chestnut +is no staple. It is a delicacy. It is treasure trove from the +autumn woods, and the gathering of the crop is a game in +which boys and squirrels are rivals.</p> + +<p>Ernest Thompson Seton, always a boy, knows the impatience +with which the opening of the burs is watched for, +as the belated frosts keep off, and the burs hang tantalizingly +closed. The cruel wounds made by the spines and +the raw taste of the immature nuts are poor recompense +for the labor of nutting before Nature gives the sign that +all's ready.</p> + +<p>Here is Mr. Seton's estimate of the chestnut of "brown +October's woods."</p> + +<p>"Whenever you see something kept under lock and key, +bars and bolts, guarded and double-guarded, you may be +sure it is very precious, greatly coveted. The nut of this +tree is hung high aloft, wrapped in a silk wrapper, which is +enclosed in a case of sole leather, which again is packed in a +mass of shock-absorbing, vermin-proof pulp, sealed up in a +waterproof, ironwood case, and finally cased in a vegetable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +porcupine of spines, almost impregnable. There is +no nut so protected; there is no nut in our woods to compare +with it as food."</p> + +<p>What a disaster then is the newly arisen bark disease +that has already killed every chestnut tree throughout +large areas in the Eastern states. Scientists have thus far +struggled with it in vain and it is probable that all chestnuts +east of the Rockies are doomed.</p> + +<p>Chinquapins grow to be medium-sized trees in Texas +and Arkansas, but east of the Mississippi they are smaller, +and east of the Alleghanies, mere shrubby undergrowth, +covering rocky banks or crouching along swamp borders. +They are smaller throughout, but resemble the chestnut +in leaf, flowers, and fruit. The bur contains a single +nut.</p> + +<p>The chestnut tree grows large and attains great age, its +sturdy, rough gray trunk crowned with an oblong head of +irregular branches, hidden in summer by the abundant +foliage mass. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#Page_23">page 23</a>.</i>) The ugly cripple +that lightning has maimed covers its wounds when May +wakes the late-opening buds and the leaves attain full +size.</p> + +<p>Each leaf tapers at both ends, its length three or four +times its width. Strong-ribbed and sharp-toothed, and +wavy on the midrib, dark, polished, like leather, these +units form a wonderful dome, lightened in midsummer by +the pencil-like plumes of the staminate flowers, with the +fertile ones at their bases. As autumn comes on the leaf +crown turns to gold, and the mature fruits are still green +spiny balls. The first frost and the time to drop the nuts +are dates that every schoolboy knows come close together.</p> + +<p>When a chestnut tree falls by the axe, the roots restore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +the loss by sending up sprouts around the stump. The +mouldering pile nourishes a circle of young trees, full of +vigor, because they have the large tree's roots gathering +food for them. No wonder their growth is rapid.</p> + +<p>Besides this mode of reproduction, chestnut trees, growing +here and there throughout a mixed forest, are the offspring +of trees whose nuts were put away, or dropped and +lost by squirrels. When spring relieves the danger of +famine, many of the rodent class abandon their winter +stores before they are all devoured. Such caches add +many nut trees to our native woods.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE OAKS</div> + +<p>This is the great family of the cup-bearers, whose fruit, +the acorn, is borne in a scaly cup that never breaks into +quarters, as does the husk that holds a chestnut, beechnut, +or hickory nut. All oak trees bear acorns as soon as they +come to fruiting age. This is the sign by which they are +known the world over. Seldom is a full-grown oak without +its little insignia, for the cups cling after the nut falls, and +one grand division of the family requires two seasons to +mature its fruit. For this reason, half-grown acorns are +seen on the twigs after the ripe ones fall.</p> + +<p>We cannot say of oak trees that they all have sturdy +trunks, rough bark, and gnarled limbs, for not all of them +have these characteristics. But there is a certain likeness +in oak leaves. They are simple, five-ranked, generally +oval, and the margins are generally cut into lobes by deep +or shallow bays. Most oak leaves have leathery texture, +strong veins, and short petioles. They are leaves that out-last +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +the summer, and sometimes persist until spring +growth unseats the stalks; sometimes, as in the "live oaks," +they hang on three to five years.</p> + +<p>The twigs of oak trees are more or less distinctly five-angled, +and the winter buds cluster at the ends. This insures +a group of young shoots, crowded with leaves, on +the ends of branches, and a dense outer dome of foliage on +the tree.</p> + +<p>Nearly three hundred distinct species of oaks are recognized +by botanists, and the list is growing. New species +are in the making. For instance, a white oak and a bur +oak grow near enough for the wind to "cross-fertilize" +their pistillate flowers. The acorns of such mixed parentage +produce trees that differ from both parents, yet reveal +characteristics of both. They are "hybrids," and may be +called new varieties of either parent. Other species of oak +are intercrossing by the same process—the interchange of +pollen at the time of blossoming. This proves that the oak +family is young, compared with many other families, whose +members are too distantly related to intercross.</p> + +<p>Though geologically young, the oak family is one of the +most important, furnishing timber of superior strength and +durability for bridge-building, ship-building, and other +construction work. Tanning has depended largely upon +oak bark. As fuel, all oak trees are valuable.</p> + +<p>Fifty species of oak are native to North American +forests. Twice as many grow east of the Rocky Mountains +as west of the Great Divide. No species naturally +passes this barrier. The temperate zone species extend +southward into tropical regions, by keeping to high altitudes. +Thus we find American oaks in the Andes and +Colombia; Asiatic species occur in the Indian Archipelago. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +No Old World species is native to America. +Each continent has its own.</p> + +<p>East of the Rocky Mountains the oaks hold a place of +preëminence among broad-leaved trees. They are trees of +large size, and they often attain great age. They are +beautiful trees, and therefore highly valued for ornamental +planting. This has led to the introduction of oaks from +other countries. We have set European, Japanese, and +Siberian oaks in our finest parks. Europe has borrowed +from our woods the red oak and many others. All countries +are richer by this horticultural exchange of trees.</p> + +<p>Our native oaks fall into two groups: the annual-fruiting +and the biennial-fruiting species. The first group +matures its acorns in a single season; the second requires +two seasons. It happens that annuals have leaves with +rounded lobes, while biennials have leaves with lobes that +end in angles and bristly tips. The bark of the annual +trees is generally pale; that of the biennials, dark. Hence +the white oak group and the black oak group may be +easily distinguished at a glance, by the bark, the leaf, and +the acorn crop.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE WHITE OAK GROUP</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Quercus alba</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white oak has no rival for first place in the esteem +of tree-lover and lumberman. Its broad, rounded dome, +sturdy trunk, and strong arms (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg38">38</a></i>), +and its wide-ranging roots enable a solitary tree to resist +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +storms that destroy or maim other kinds. Strength and +tenacity in the fibre of root and branch make it possible for +individuals to live to a great age, far beyond the two centuries +required to bring it to maturity. Such trees stir +within us a feeling of reverence and patriotism. They are +patriarchs whose struggles typify the pioneer's indomitable +resistance to forces that destroyed all but the strong.</p> + +<p>White oak trees in the forest grow tall, lose their lower +branches early, and lift but a small head to the sun. The +logs, quarter-sawed, reveal the broad, gleaming "mirrors" +that make a white oak table beautiful. The +botanist calls these the <i>medullary rays</i>—thin, irregular +plates of tissue-building cells, that extend out from the +central pith, sometimes quite to the sap-wood, crowding +between the wood fibres, which in the heart-wood are no +longer alive. A slab will show only an edge of these mirrors. +But any section from bark to pith will reveal them.</p> + +<p>The pale brown wood of the white oak distinctly shows +the narrow rings of annual growth. Each season begins +with a coarse, porous band of "<i>spring wood</i>," followed by a +narrower band of fine, close-grained "<i>summer wood</i>." +White oak is streaked with irregular, dark lines. These +are the porous lines of spring wood, discolored by foreign +matter. Count them, allow a year for each, and you know +how long one white oak tree required to make an inch of +wood.</p> + +<p>The supreme moment in the white oak's year comes in +spring, when the gray old tree wakes, the buds swell and +cast off their brown scales, and the young leaves appear. +The tree is veiled, not with a garment of green, but with a +mist of rose and silver, each twig hung with soft limp +velvety leaves, red-lined, and covered with a close mat of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +silky hairs. It is a spectacle that seems unreal, because it +is so lovely and gone so soon. The protecting hairs and +pigments disappear, and the green leafage takes its place, +brightened by the yellow tassels of the stamen flowers, and +the growing season is on.</p> + +<p>In autumn the pale-lined leaves of the white oak turn +slowly to sombre violet and dull purplish tones. Clinging +there, after the acorns have all fallen and been gathered by +squirrels, the foliage fades into the gray of the bark and +may persist until spring growth sets in.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Bur Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. macrocarpa</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The bur oak (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg39">page 39</a></i>) is called the mossy-cup +on account of the loose, fringed scales about the rim of +the cup that holds the large acorn—largest in the whole +oak family. Often the nut is completely enclosed by the +cup; often it is small. This variable fruit is sweet, and it +is the winter store of many furry wood-folk.</p> + +<p>The leaf has the rounded lobing of the family, with the +special peculiarity of being almost cut in two by a pair of +deep and wide opposite sinuses, between the broad middle, +and the narrow, tapering base. Not all leaves show this +odd form, but it is the prevailing pattern. The dark green +blade has a pale, fuzzy lining, that lasts until the leaves +turn brown and yellow.</p> + +<p>The bur oak is a rugged, ragged tree, compared with the +white oak. Its irregular form is picturesque, its wayward +limbs are clothed in a loose garment of untidy, half-shed +bark. The twigs are roughened with broad, corky wings. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +The trunk is brownish, with loosened flakes of gray, separated +by shallow fissures.</p> + +<p>The wood is classed with white oak, though darker in +color. It has the same ornamental mirrors, dear to the +heart of the cabinet-maker. It serves all the purposes for +which a tough, strong, durable wood is needed.</p> + +<p>The range of the species is from Nova Scotia to Montana, +and it grows in large tracts from Winnipeg to Texas, +doing well in the arid soil of western Nebraska and +Dakota. Suckers from the roots spread these trees till +they form the "oak openings" of the bluffs of the Missouri +and other streams of Iowa and Minnesota. In Kansas +it is the commonest oak tree. The largest trees of this +species grow in rich bottom lands in the Ohio Valley.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Post Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. minor</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The post oak has wood that is noted for its durability +when placed in contact with the soil. It is in demand for +fence posts, railroad ties, and for casks and boat timbers. +"Iron oak" is a name that refers to the qualities of the +wood. "Knees" of post oak used to be especially in +demand.</p> + +<p>In the Mississippi Basin this tree attains its largest +size and greatest abundance on gravelly uplands. It is +the commonest oak of central Texas, on the sandy plains +and limestone hills. Farther north, it is more rare and +smaller, becoming an undersized oak in New York and +westward to Kansas.</p> + +<p>In winter the post oak keeps its cloak of harsh-feeling, +thick, coarse-veined leaves. Tough fibres fasten them to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +the twigs. In summer the foliage mass is almost black, +with gray leaf-linings. The lobes and sinuses are large +and squarish, the blades four or five inches long. The +limbs, tortuous, horizontal, form a dense head.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Chestnut Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. Prinus</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The chestnut oak has many nicknames and all are descriptive. +Its leaves are similar in outline and size to those of +the chestnut. The margin is coarsely toothed, not lobed, +like the typical oak leaf. "Tanbark oak" refers to the +rich store of tannin in the bark, which makes this species +the victim of the bark-peeler for the tanneries wherever +it grows. "Rock chestnut oak" is a title that lumbermen +have given to the oak with exceptionally hard wood, heavy +and durable in soil, adapted for railroad ties, posts, and the +like.</p> + +<p>Unlike other white oaks, the bark of this tree is dark in +color and deeply fissured. Without a look at the leaves, +one might call it a black oak.</p> + +<p>The centre of distribution for this species seems to be the +foothill country of the Appalachian Mountains, in Tennessee +and North Carolina. Here it predominates, and +grows to its largest size. From Maine to Georgia it +chooses rocky, dry uplands, grows vigorously and rapidly, +and its acorns often sprout before falling from the +cup!</p> + +<p>The chestnut oak is one of the most desirable kinds of +trees to plant in parks. It is symmetrical, with handsome +bark and foliage. The leaves turn yellow and keep their +fine texture through the season. The acorn is one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +handsomest and largest, and squirrels are delighted with +its sweet kernel.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mississippi Valley Chestnut Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. acuminata</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>In the Mississippi Valley the chestnut oak is <i>Q. acuminata</i>, +Sarg., with a more slender and more finely-toothed +leaf that bears a very close resemblance to that of the +chestnut. The foliage mass is brilliant, yellow-green, each +leaf with a pale lining, and hung on a flexible stem. +"Yellow oak" is another name, earned again when in +autumn the leaves turn to orange shades mingled with red.</p> + +<p>On the Wabash River banks these trees surpass one +hundred feet in height and three feet in diameter. The +base of the trunk is often buttressed. Back from the rich +bottom lands, on limestone and flinty ridges, where water +is scarce, these trees are stunted. In parks they are +handsome, and very desirable. The bark is silvery white, +tinged with brown, and rarely exceeds one half an inch in +thickness.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Swamp White Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. platanoides</i>, Sudw.</div> + +<p>The swamp white oak loves to stand in wet ground, +sometimes even in actual swamps. Its small branches +shed their bark like the buttonwood, the flakes curling +back and showing the bright green under layer. On +the trunk the bark is thick, and broken irregularly +into broad, flat ridges coated with close, gray-brown +scales often tinged with red.</p> + +<p>In its youth the swamp white oak is comely and symmetrical, +its untidy moulting habit concealed by the +abundant foliage. One botanist calls this species <i>bicolor</i>, +because the polished yellow-green upper surfaces contrast +so pleasantly with the white scurf that lines each leaf +throughout the summer. Yellow is the autumn color. +Never a hint of red warms this oak of the swamps, even +when planted as a street or park tree in well-drained +ground.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 430px;"> +<a name="figpg54" id="figpg54"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_54.png" width="430" height="640" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_65">page 65</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">HORSE-CHESTNUT IN BLOSSOM</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 435px;"> +<a name="figpg55" id="figpg55"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_55.png" width="435" height="652" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_83">page 83</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">WEEPING WILLOW</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Basket Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. Michauxii</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The basket oak is so like the preceding species as to be +listed by some botanists as the southern form of <i>Q. +platanoides</i>. They meet on a vague line that crosses +Maryland, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Both have large +leaves silver-lined, with undulating border, of the chestnut +oak pattern. Both are trees of the waterside, tall, with +round heads of gnarled limbs. The red-tinged white +bark sets the basket oak apart from all others. Its head +is broader and its trunk stouter than in the other species. +The paired acorns are almost without stalks, the nuts +large, the kernels sweet. In autumn, farmers turn their +hogs into the woods to fatten on this oak-mast. The +edibility of these nuts may account for the common name, +"cow oak."</p> + +<p>The wood splits readily into thin, tough plates of the +summer wood. This is because the layer formed in +spring is very porous. Bushel baskets, china crates, and +similar woven wares are made of these oak splints. The +wood is also used in cooperage and implement construction, +and it makes excellent firewood.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Live Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. Virginiana</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The live oak with its small oval leaves, without a cleft +in the plain margins, looks like anything but an oak to the +Northerner who walks along a street planted with this +evergreen in Richmond or New Orleans. It is not +especially good for street use, though often chosen. It +develops a broad, rounded dome, by the lengthening +of the irregular limbs in a horizontal direction. The +trunk becomes massive and buttressed to support the +burden.</p> + +<p>The "knees" of this oak were in keenest demand for +ship-building before steel took the place of wood. In all +lines of construction, this lumber ranks with the best white +oak. The short trunk is the disadvantage, from the +lumberman's viewpoint. Its beauty, when polished, +would make it the wood <i>par excellence</i> for elegant furniture, +except that it is difficult to work, and it splits +easily.</p> + +<p>The Spanish moss that drapes the limbs of live oaks in +the South gives them a greenish pallor and an unkempt +appearance that seems more interesting than beautiful +to many observers. It is only when the sight is familiar, +I think, that it is pleasing. Northern trees are so clean-limbed +and so regular about shedding their leaves when +they fade, that these patient hosts, loaded down with the +pendent skeins of the tillandsia, seem to be imposed upon. +In fact, the "moss" is not a parasite, sapping the life of +the tree, but a lodger, that finds its own food supply without +help.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>California White Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. lobata</i>, Née.</div> + +<p>The California white oak far exceeds the Eastern white +oak in the spread of its mighty arms. The dome is often +two hundred feet in breadth and the trunk reaches ten +feet in diameter. Such specimens are often low in proportion, +the trunk breaking into its grand divisions within +twenty feet of the ground. The ultimate spray is made of +slender, supple twigs, on which the many-lobed leaves +taper to the short stalks. Dark green above, the blades +are lined with pale pubescence. The acorns are slender, +pointed, and often exceed two inches in length. Their cups +are comparatively shallow, and they fall out when ripe.</p> + +<p>The bare framework of one of these giant oaks shows a +wonderful maze of gnarled branches, whose grotesque +angularities are multiplied with added years and complicated +by damage and repair.</p> + +<p>It is hard to say whether the grace and nobility of the +verdure-clad tree, or the tortuous branching system revealed +in winter, appeals more strongly to the admiration +of the stranger and the pride of the native Californian, +who delights in this noble oak at all seasons. Its comparatively +worthless wood has spared the trees to adorn the +park-like landscapes of the wide middle valleys of the +state.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Pacific Post Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. Garryana</i>, Hook.</div> + +<p>The Pacific post oak is the only oak in British Columbia, +whence it follows down the valleys of the Coast Range to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +the Santa Cruz Mountains. It is a tree nearly one +hundred feet high, with a broad, compact head, in western +Washington and Oregon. Dark green, lustrous leaves, +with paler linings, attain almost a leathery texture when +full grown. They are four to six inches long and coarsely +lobed. In autumn they sometimes turn bright scarlet.</p> + +<p>The wood is hard, strong, tough, and close-grained. It +is employed in the manufacture of wagons and furniture, +and in ship-building and cooperage. It is a superior fuel.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE BLACK OAK GROUP</div> + +<p>A large group of our native oaks require two seasons to +mature their acorns; have dark-colored bark and foliage, +have leaves whose lobes are sharp-angled and taper to +bristly points and tough acorn shells lined with a silky-hairy +coat.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. velutina</i>, Lam.</div> + +<p>The black oak of the vast region east of the Rocky +Mountains is the type or pattern species. Its leathery, +dark green leaves are divided by curving sinuses into +squarish lobes, each ending in one or more bristly tips. +The lobes are paired, and each has a strong vein from the +midrib. Underneath, the leaf is always scurfy, even when +the ripening turns its color from bronze to brown, yellow +or dull red.</p> + +<p>Under the deep-furrowed, brown surface bark is a yellow +layer, rich in tannin, and a dyestuff called <i>quercitron</i>. This +makes the tree valuable for its bark. The wood is coarse-grained, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +hard, difficult to work, and chiefly employed as +fuel.</p> + +<p>A distinguishing trait of the bare tree is the large fuzzy +winter bud. The unfolding leaves in spring are bright red +above, with a silvery lining.</p> + +<p>The autumn acorn crop may be heavy or light. Trees +have their "off years," for various reasons. But always, +as leaves and fruit fall and bare the twigs, one sees, among +the winter buds, the half-grown acorns waiting for their +second season of growth.</p> + +<p>The pointed nut soon loosens, for the cup though deep +has straight sides. The kernel is yellow and bitter.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Scarlet Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. coccinea</i>, Moench.</div> + +<p>The scarlet oak is like a flaming torch set among the dull +browns and yellows in our autumnal woods. In spring the +opening leaves are red; so are the tasselled catkins and the +forked pistils, that turn into the acorns later on. This is a +favorite ornamental tree in Europe and our own country. +Its points of beauty are not all in its colors.</p> + +<p>The tree is slender, delicate in branch, twig, and leaf—quite +out of the sturdy, picturesque class in which most +oaks belong. The leaf is thin, silky smooth, its lobes separated +by sinuses so deep that it is a mere skeleton compared +with the black oak's. The trimness of the leaf is +matched by the neat acorn, whose scaly cup has none of +the looseness seen in the burly black oak. The scales are +smooth, tight-fitting, and they curl in at the rim.</p> + +<p>There is lightness and grace in a scarlet oak, for its twigs +are slim and supple as a willow's, and the leaves flutter on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +long, flexible stems. Above the drifts of the first snowfall, +the brilliance of the scarlet foliage makes a picture long to +be remembered against the blue of a clear autumnal sky.</p> + +<p>The largest trees of this species grow in the fertile uplands +in the Ohio Valley. But the most brilliant hues are +seen in trees of smaller size, that grow in New England +woods. In the comparatively dull-hued autumn woods of +Iowa and Nebraska the scarlet oak is the most vivid and +most admired tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Pin Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. palustris</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The pin oak earns its name by the sharp, short, spur-like +twigs that cluster on the branches, crowding each +other to death and then persisting to give the tree a bristly +appearance. The tree in winter bears small resemblance +to other oaks. The trunk is slender, the shaft carried up +to the top, as straight as a pine's. The branches are very +numerous and regular, striking out at right angles from the +stem, the lower tier shorter than those directly above +them, and drooping often to the ground.</p> + +<p>On the winter twigs, among the characteristic "pins," +are the half-grown acorns that proclaim the tree an oak +beyond a doubt, and a <i>black</i> oak, requiring a second summer +for the maturing of its fruit. It is likely that there +will be found on older twigs a few of the full-grown acorns, +or perhaps only the trim, shallow saucers from which the +shiny, striped, brown acorns have fallen. Hunt among the +dead leaves and these little acorns will be discovered for, +though pretty to look at, they are bitter and squirrels leave +them where they fall.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +The leaves match the slender twigs in delicacy of pattern. +Thin, deeply cut, shining, with pale linings, they +flutter on slender stems, smaller but often matching the +leaves of the scarlet oak in pattern. Sometimes they are +more like the red oak in outline. In autumn they turn red +and are a glory in the woods.</p> + +<p>One trait has made this tree a favorite for shade and +ornament. It has a shock of fibrous roots, and for this +reason is easily transplanted. It grows rapidly in any +moist, rich soil. It keeps its leaves clean and beautiful +throughout the season. Washington, D. C., has its streets +planted to native trees, one species lining the sides of a +single street or avenue for miles. The pin oaks are superb +on the thoroughfare that reaches from the Capitol to the +Navy Yard. They retain the beauty of their youth because +each tree has been given a chance to grow to its best +estate. In spring the opening leaves and pistillate flowers +are red, giving the silvery green tree-top a warm flush +that cheers the passerby. In European countries this +oak is a prime favorite for public and private parks.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. rubra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The red oak grows rapidly, like the pin oak, and is a +great favorite in parks overseas, where it takes on the rich +autumnal red shades that give it its name at home. Such +color is unknown in native woods in England.</p> + +<p>The head of this oak is usually narrow and rounded; +the branches, short and stout, are inclined to go their own +way, giving the tree more of picturesqueness than of +symmetry, as age advances. Sometimes the dome is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +broad and rounded like that of a white oak, and in the +woods, where competition is keen, the trunk may reach one +hundred and fifty feet in height.</p> + +<p>The red oak leaf is large, smooth, rather thin, its oval +broken by triangular sinuses and forward-aiming lobes, +that end in bristly points. The blade is broadest between +the apex and the middle, where the two largest lobes are. +No oak has leaves more variable than this.</p> + +<p>Under the dark brown, close-knit bark of a full-grown +red oak tree is a reddish layer that shows in the furrows. +The twigs and leaf-stems are red. A flush of pink covers +the opening leaves, and they are lined with white down +which is soon shed.</p> + +<p>The bloom is very abundant and conspicuous, the fringe-like +pollen-bearing aments four or five inches long, drooping +from the twigs in clusters, when the leaves are half-grown +in May.</p> + +<p>The acorns of the red oak are large, and set in shallow +saucers, with incurving rims. Few creatures taste their +bitter white kernels.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Willow Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. Phellos</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The willow oak has long, narrow, pointed leaves that +suggest a willow, and not at all an oak. The supple twigs, +too, are willow-like, and the tree is a lover of the waterside. +But there is the acorn, seated in a shallow, scaly cup, like +a pin oak's. There is no denying the tree's family connections.</p> + +<p>A southern tree, deservedly popular in cities for shade +and ornamental planting, it is nevertheless hardy in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +Philadelphia and New York; and a good little specimen +seems to thrive in Boston, in the Arnold Arboretum. As +a lumber tree, the species is unimportant.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Shingle, or Laurel, Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. imbricaria</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The shingle or laurel oak may be met in any woodland +from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and south to Georgia and +Arkansas. It may be large or small; a well-grown specimen +reaches sixty feet, with a broad, pyramidal, open head.</p> + +<p>The chief beauty of the tree, at any season, is the foliage +mass—dark, lustrous, pale lined, the margin usually unbroken +by any indentations. In autumn the yellow, +channelled midribs turn red, and all the blades to purplish +crimson, and this color stays a long time. It is a wonderful +sight to see the evening sunlight streaming through the +loose, open head of a laurel oak. No wonder people plant +it for shade and for the beauty it adds to home grounds and +public parks.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mountain Live Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. chrysolepis</i>, Liebm.</div> + +<p>The mountain live oak cannot be seen without climbing +the western slopes of the mountains from Oregon to Lower +California, and eastward into New Mexico and Arizona. +On levels where avalanches deposit detritus from the +higher slopes, sufficient fertility and moisture are found to +maintain groves of these oaks, wide-domed, with massive, +horizontal branches from short, buttressed trunks—the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +Western counterpart of the live oak of the South, but lacking +the familiar drapery of pale green moss.</p> + +<p>The leaves are leathery, polished, oval blades, one or two +inches in length, with unbroken margins, abundant on intricately +divided, supple twigs, that droop with their burden +and respond to the lightest breeze. The leaves persist +until the bronze-green new foliage expands to replace +the old, and keep the tree-tops evergreen.</p> + +<p>The acorns are large, and their thick, shallow saucers are +covered with yellow fuzz. For this character, the tree is +called the gold-cup oak. In June, the copious bloom is +yellow. Even at an altitude of eight thousand feet the +familiar gold-cup acorns are borne on shrubby oaks not +more than a foot high!</p> + +<p>The maximum height of the species is sixty feet. The +wood is the most valuable oak of the West Coast. It is +used for wagons and agricultural implements.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Live Oak</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Q. agrifolia</i>, Née.</div> + +<p>The live oak (<i>Q. agrifolia</i>, Née.) called also "Encina," is +the huge-limbed, holly-leaved live oak of the lowlands, +that reaches its greatest abundance and maximum stature +in the valleys south of San Francisco Bay. The giant oaks +of the University campus at Berkeley stretch out ponderous +arms, in wayward fashion, that reach far from the +stocky trunk and often rest their mighty elbows on the +ground. The pointed acorns, usually exceeding an inch in +length, are collected by woodpeckers, and tucked away for +further reference in holes they make in the bark of the +same oaks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +From the mountain slopes to the sea, and from Mendocino +County to Lower California, groves of this semi-prostrate +giant are found, furnishing abundant supply of +fuel, but no lumber of any consequence, because the +trunks are so short and the limbs so crooked.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HORSE-CHESTNUTS, OR BUCKEYES</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Horse-chestnut</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Aesculus Hippocastanum</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>At the head of this family stands a stately tree, native of +the mountains of northern Greece and Asia Minor, which +was introduced into European parks and planted there as +an avenue tree when landscape gardening came into +vogue. By way of England it came to America, and in +Eastern villages one often sees a giant horse-chestnut, perhaps +the sole remnant of the street planting of an earlier +day.</p> + +<p>Longfellow's "spreading chestnut tree" was a horse-chestnut. +And the boys who watched the smith at his +work doubtless filled their pockets with the shiny brown +nuts and played the game of "conquerors" every autumn +as regularly as they flew their kites in spring. What boy +has not tied a chestnut to each end of a string, whirled +them round and round at a bewildering rate of speed and +finally let them fly to catch on telegraph wires, where they +dangle for months and bother tidy folks?</p> + +<p>The glory of the horse-chestnut comes at blooming +time, when the upturning branches, like arms of candelabra, +are each tipped with a white blossom-cluster, pointed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +like a candle flame. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg54">page 54</a>.</i>) Each +flower of the pyramid has its throat-dashes of yellow and +red, and the curving yellow stamens are thrust far out of +the dainty ruffled border of the corolla.</p> + +<p>Bees and wasps make music in the tree-top, sucking the +nectar out of the flowers. Unhappily for us humans, +caterpillars of the leopard and tussock moths feed upon +the tender tissues of this tree, defacing the foliage and +making the whole tree unsightly by their presence.</p> + +<p>Sidewalks under horse-chestnut trees are always littered +with something the tree is dropping. In early spring the +shiny, wax-covered leaf buds cast off and they stick to slate +and cement most tenaciously. Scarcely have the folded +leaflets spread, tent-like, before some of them, damaged by +wind or late frosts or insects' injury, begin to curl and drop, +and as the leaves attain full size, they crowd, and this +causes continual shedding. In early autumn the leaflets +begin to be cast, the seven fingers gradually loosening from +the end of the leaf-stalk; then comes a day when all of the +foliage mass lets go, and one may wade knee deep under +the tree in the dead leaves. The tree is still ugly from +clinging leaf-stems and the slow breaking of the prickly +husks that enclose the nuts.</p> + +<p>With all these faults, the horse-chestnut holds its popularity +in the suburbs of great cities, for it lives despite +smoke and soot. Bushey Park in London has five rows of +these trees on either side of a wide avenue. When they are +in bloom the fact is announced in the newspapers and all +London turns out to see the sight. Paris uses the tree extensively; +nearly twenty thousand of them line her streets, +and thrive despite the poverty of the soil.</p> + +<p>The American buckeyes are less sturdy in form and less +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +showy in flower than the European species, but they +have the horse-shoe print with the nails in it where the leaf-stalk +meets the twig. The brown nuts, with the dull white +patch which fastens them in the husk, justifies the name +"buckeye." One nibble at the nut will prove to any one +that, as a fruit, it is too bitter for even horses. Bitter, +astringent bark is characteristic of the family.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Ohio Buckeye</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ae. glabra</i>, Willd.</div> + +<p>The Ohio buckeye has five yellow-green leaflets, smooth +when full grown, pale, greenish yellow flowers, not at +all conspicuous, and bitter nuts in spiny husks. The +whole tree exhales a strong, disagreeable odor. The +wood is peculiarly adapted to the making of artificial +limbs.</p> + +<p>The great abundance of this little tree in the Ohio Valley +accounts for Ohio being called the "Buckeye State."</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sweet Buckeye</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ae. octandra</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The sweet buckeye is a handsome, large tree with greenish +yellow, tubular flowers and leaves of five slender, +elliptical leaflets. Cattle will eat the nuts and paste +made from them is preferred by bookbinders; it holds +well, and book-loving insects will not attack it. These +trees grow on mountain slopes of the Alleghanies from +western Pennsylvania southward, and west to Iowa and +Texas.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The California Buckeye</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ae. californica</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The California buckeye spreads wide branches from a +squat trunk, and clothes its sturdy twigs with unmistakable +horse-chestnut leaves and pyramids of white flowers. +Sometimes these are tinted with rose, and the tree is very +beautiful. The brown nuts are irregular in shape and enclosed +in somewhat pear-shaped, two-valved husks.</p> + +<p>This western buckeye follows the borders of streams +from the Sacramento Valley southward; they are largest +north of San Francisco Bay, in the canyons of the Coast +Range.</p> + +<p>Shrubby, red-flowered buckeyes, often seen in gardens +and in the shrubbery borders of parks, are horticultural +crosses between the European horse-chestnut and a +shrubby, red-flowered native buckeye that occurs in the +lower Mississippi Valley.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE LINDENS, OR BASSWOODS</div> + +<p>This tropical family, with about thirty-five genera, has +a single tree genus, <i>tilia</i>, in North America. This genus +has eighteen or twenty species, all told, with representatives +in all temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, +with the exception of Central America, Central Asia, and +the Himalayas.</p> + +<p>Tilia wood is soft, pale-colored, light, of even grain, +adaptable for wood-carving, sounding-boards of pianos, +woodenwares of all kinds, and for the manufacture of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +paper. The inner bark is tough and fibrous. It has been +used since the human race was young, in the making of +ropes, fish nets, and like necessities. It was a favorite +tying material in nurseries and greenhouses until the more +adaptable raffia came in to take its place. The bark of +young trees is stripped in spring to make the shoes of the +Russian peasantry. An infusion of basswood flowers has +long been a home remedy for indigestion, nervousness, +coughs, and hoarseness. Experiments in Germany have +successfully extracted a table oil from the seed-balls. A +nutritious paste resembling chocolate has been made from +its nuts, which are delicious when fresh. In winter the +buds, as well as the tiny nuts, stand between the lost trapper +and starvation. The flowers yield large quantities of +nectar, and honey made near linden forests is unsurpassed +in delicacy of flavor.</p> + +<p>About the time of Louis XIV, the French fashion arose of +planting avenues to lindens, where horse-chestnuts had +formerly been the favorite tree. The fashion spread to +England of bordering with "lime trees" approaches to the +homes of the gentry. "Pleached alleys" were made with +these fast-growing trees that submitted so successfully to +severe pruning and training. All sorts of grotesque figures +were carved out of the growing lime trees in the days before +topiary work in gardens submitted to the rules of landscape +art, and slower growing trees were chosen for such +purposes.</p> + +<p>In cultivation, lindens have the virtues of swift growth, +superb framework, clean, smooth bark, and late, profuse, +beautiful and fragrant bloom, which is followed by interesting +seed clusters, winged with a pale blade that lightens +the foliage mass. One fault is the early dropping of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +leaves, which are usually marred by the wind soon after +they reach mature size. Propagation is easy from cuttings +and from seed.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The American Linden, or Basswood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Tilia Americana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The American linden or basswood is a stately spreading +tree reaching one hundred and twenty feet in height and a +trunk diameter of four feet. The bark is brown, furrowed, +and scaly, the branches gray and smooth, the twigs ruddy. +The alternate leaves are obliquely heart-shaped, saw-toothed, +with prominent veins that branch at the base, +only on the side next to the petiole. (<i>See illustration, +<a href="#figpg86a">page 86</a>.</i>) Occasionally the leaf blades are eight inches +long. A dense shade is cast by a linden tree in midsummer.</p> + +<p>The blossoms, cream-white and clustered on pale green, +leaf-like blades, open by hundreds in June and July, +actually dripping with nectar, and illuminating the platforms +of green leaves. A bird flying overhead looks down +upon a tree covered with broad leaf blades overlapping +like shingles on a roof. It must look underneath to see the +flowers that delight us as we look up into the tree-top from +our station on the ground.</p> + +<p>In midsummer the linden foliage becomes coarse and +wind-whipped; the soft leaf-substance is attacked by +insects that feed upon it; plant lice deface them with +patches of honey-dew, and the sticky surfaces catch dust +and soot. Riddled and torn, they drop in desultory +fashion, their faded yellow not at all like the satisfying +gold of beech and hickory leaves.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 392px;"> +<a name="figpg70" id="figpg70"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_70.png" width="392" height="602" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE BLACK WALNUT<br /> +<br /> +The young shoots are velvety and aromatic. The pistillate flowers, in +groups of 3 to 5, are on terminal spikes</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 371px;"> +<a name="figpg71" id="figpg71"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_71.png" width="371" height="592" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_37">page 37</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">SHAGBARK HICKORY IS KNOWN AND NAMED BY ITS +LOOSE, STRIPPING BARK</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +The flight of basswood seeds on their wing-like blades +goes on throughout the winter. This alone would account +for the fact that basswoods greatly outnumbered all other +trees in the virgin forests of the Ohio Valley. The seeds +are not the tree's sole dependence. Suckers grow up +about the stump of a tree the lumberman has taken, or the +lightning has stricken. Any twig is likely to strike root, +and any cutting made from a root as well.</p> + +<p>The finest specimen I know grew from a walking-stick +cut in the woods and thrust into the ground, by a mere +chance, when the rambler reached home. It is the roof +tree of a mansion, tall enough to waft its fragrance into the +third-story windows, and to reach high above the chimney +pots.</p> + +<p>The range of this tree extends from New Brunswick to +Dakota and south to Virginia and Texas. Its wood is +used for carriage bodies, furniture, cooperage, paper pulp, +charcoal, and fuel.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Bee Tree, or White Basswood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. heterophylla</i>, Vent.</div> + +<p>The bee tree or white basswood of the South has narrower +leaves than the species just described, and they +vary in form and size; but always have linings of fine, +silvery down, and the fruits are fuzzy. A wonderful, +dazzling play of white, pale green, and deeper shades is +seen when one of these trees flutters its leaf mass against a +background, sombre with hemlocks and an undergrowth +of rhododendron. The favorite haunts of this species are +the sides of mountain streams. Wild bees store their +hoard of honey in the hollow trunks of old trees; and it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +the favorite holiday of many country folk to locate these +natural hives and despoil them. In order to do this the +tree must come down, and the revenge of the outraged +swarm is sometimes a high price to pay for the stolen +sweets.</p> + +<p>This linden is found from Ithaca, New York, southward +along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Alabama, +and westward into Illinois and Tennessee. It is best and +most abundant in the mountains of eastern Tennessee +and North Carolina, at a considerable altitude.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Downy Basswood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. pubescens</i>, Ait.</div> + +<p>The downy basswood has leaves that are green on both +sides, but its young shoots and leaf-linings are coated with +rusty hairs. It is a miniature throughout of the American +basswood, except that the blade that bears the flower-cluster +is rounded at its base, while the others taper narrowly +to the short stem. This species occurs on Long +Island, and is sparingly seen along the coast from the +Carolinas to Texas.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Common Lime</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. vulgaris</i></div> + +<p>"Unter den Linden," the famous avenue in Berlin, is +planted with the small-leaved common lime of Europe, beside +which the American basswood is a coarse-looking tree. +Very disappointing docked trees they are, along this +thoroughfare; for city streets are never places where a tree +can reach its best estate. In the rural sections of France +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +and Germany this tree reaches noble stature and great +age.</p> + +<p>Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist, had his name from a fine +linden tree, when his peasant father rose to the dignity of a +surname. "Linn" is the Swedish word for linden. +"Carl Linne," meaning "Charles of the linden tree," it was +at first when he played as a boy in the shadow of its great +branches. "Carolus Linnaeus" he became when he was +appointed professor of the university at Upsala, and +through all time since.</p> + +<p>Gerarde discourses quaintly upon the linden tree in his +"Grete Herball" published in England in 1597. "The +male tree," he says, "is to me unknown." We smile at +his notion that there are male and female trees in this +family, but we wonder at the accuracy of observation +evinced by one who lived and wrote before the science of +botany had any existence. Evidently Master Gerarde +had a good pair of eyes, and he has well expressed the +things he saw. I quote a paragraph:</p> + +<p>"The female line, or linden tree waxeth very great and +thicke, spreading forth its branches wide and fare abroad, +being a tree which yieldeth a most pleasant shadow, under +and within whose boughs may be made brave summer +houses and banqueting arbors, because the more that it is +surcharged with weight of timber and such like, the better +it doth flourish. The bark is brownish, very smooth and +plaine on the outside, but that which is next to the timber +is white, moist and tough, serving very well for ropes, +trases and halters. The timber is whitish, plaine, and +without knots; yea, very soft and gentle in the cutting and +handling. The leaves are smooth, greene, shining and +large, somewhat snipt or toothed about the edges: the +floures are little, whitish, of a good savour, and very many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +in number; growing clustered together from out of the +middle of the leaf: out of which proceedeth a small whitish +long narrow leafe: after the floures succeed cornered sharp +pointed nuts, of the bignesse of hasell nuts. This tree +seemeth to be a kinde of elme, and the people of Essex +(whereas great plenty groweth by the waysides) do call it +broad-leafed elme."</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a> +PART III</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_WATER-LOVING_TREES" id="THE_WATER-LOVING_TREES"></a> +THE WATER-LOVING TREES</div> + +<p><span class="smcap ind2em">The Poplars—The Willows—The Hornbeams—The +Birches—The Alders—The Sycamores, or Buttonwoods—The +Gum Trees—The Osage Orange</span></p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE POPLARS</div> + +<p>The poplars are plebeian trees, but they have a place to +fill and they fill it with credit. They are the hardy, rude +pioneers that go before and prepare the way for nobler +trees. Let a fire sweep a path through the forest, and the +poplar is likely to be the first tree to fill the breach. The +trees produce abundant seed, very much like that of +willows, and the wind sows it far and wide. The young +trees love the sun, and serve as nurse trees to more valuable +hardwoods and conifers, that must have shade until +they become established. By the time the more valuable +species are able to take care of themselves, the poplars +have come to maturity and disappeared, for they are quick-growing, +short-lived trees. The wind plays havoc with +their brittle branches. Seldom has a good-sized poplar +tree any claim to beauty.</p> + +<p>Tenacity of life, if not of fibre, belongs to the poplar +tribe. Twigs strike root and the roots send up suckers +from underground: cutting off these suckers only encourages +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +them to fresh activity. The only way to get rid +of the young growth that springs up about an old tree is to +use the grubbing-hoe thoroughly and patiently.</p> + +<p>Poplar blossoms, borne in catkins, show the close relationship +between this genus and the willows. The +leaves, however, are always broad and leathery, and set on +long stems. Twenty-five species are known, twelve of +which are American.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Poplar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Populus alba</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white poplar is sometimes called the silver-leaved +poplar because its dark, glossy leaves are lined with cottony +nap. This sprightly contrast of light and shade in +the foliage is most unusual, and very attractive in early +spring; but the leaf-linings collect soot and dust, and this +they carry to the end of the season—a fact which should +not be forgotten by those considering the advisability of +planting this tree in a city where much soft coal is +burned.</p> + +<p>The white bark of this European poplar reminds us of +the birch family, though it has no silky fringe shedding +from the surface. The leaves often imitate the maple in +the divisions of their margins, justifying the name "maple-leaved +poplar."</p> + +<p>As a dooryard tree this species has a wider popularity +than it deserves. The wind breaks the brittle branches, +and when these accidents threaten its life, the tree sends up +suckers which form a grove about the parent trunk, and +defy all efforts to eradicate them, until the grubbing-hoe +and axe have been resorted to.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Poplar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. nigra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The Lombardy poplar, a variety of the black poplar of +Europe, is a familiar tree figure along roadsides, and often +marks boundary lines between farms. Each tree is an +exclamation point, its branches short and numerous, +rising toward the zenith. The roundish leaves that twinkle +on these aspiring branches make the tree pretty and interesting +when young—just the thing to accent a group of +round-headed trees in a park. But not many years are +attained before the top becomes choked with the multitude +of its branches. The tree cannot shed this dead wood and +the beauty of its youth is departed. The trunk grows +coarse, warty, and buttressed at the base. Suckers are +thrown up from the roots. There is little left to challenge +admiration. Since the tree gives practically no shade, we +must believe that the first planters were attracted by its +odd shape and its readiness to grow, rather than by any +belief in its fitness for avenue and highway planting.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. deltoidea</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The cottonwood justifies its existence, if ever a tree did. +On our Western plains, where the watercourses are sluggish +and few and often run dry in midsummer, few trees +grow; and the settler and traveler is grateful for the cottonwoods. +The pioneer on the Western prairie planted it for +shade and for wind-breaks about his first home. Many +of these trees attain great age and in protected situations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +are magnificent though unsymmetrical trees, shaking out +each spring a new head of bright green, glossy foliage, each +leaf responsive to the lightest breeze.</p> + +<p>"Necklace-bearing poplar," it has been called, from +the fact that children find pleasure in stringing for beads +the green, half-grown pods containing the minute seeds. +They also delight in gathering the long, red caterpillar-like +catkins of the staminate flowers, the pollen bearers, +from the sterile trees. A fertile tree is sometimes counted +a nuisance in a dooryard because its pods set free a great +mass of cotton that collects in window screens, to the +annoyance of housewives. But this seed time is soon over.</p> + +<p>Just these merits of quick growth, prettiness, and tenacity +of life, belong to the Carolina Poplar, a variety of +native cottonwood that lines the streets of the typical +suburban tract opened near any American city. The +leaves are large and shine with a varnish which protects +them from dust and smoke. But the wind breaks the +branches, destroys the symmetry of the tree's head, and in +a few years the suburban community takes on a cheap and +ugly look. The wise promoter will alternate slow-growing +maples and elms with the poplars so that these permanent +trees will be ready to take their places in a few years.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Aspen</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. tremuloides</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The trembling aspen, or quaking asp, is the prettiest tree +of all the poplar tribe. Its bark is gray and smooth, often +greenish and nearly white. An aspen copse is one of the +loveliest things in the spring landscape. In March the +bare, angular limbs show green under their bark, one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +first prophecies of spring; then the buds cast their brown +scales and fuzzy gray catkins are revealed. There are few +shades of olive and rose, few textures of silk and velvet +that are not duplicated as the catkins lengthen and dance +like chenille fringe from every twig. With the flowers, the +new leaves open; each blade limp, silky, as it unrolls, more +like the finest white flannel than anything else. (<i>See illustrations, +<a href="#figpg86b">pages 86-87</a>.</i>) Soon the leaves shed all of this hairy, +protective coat, passing through various tones of pink and +silver on their way to their lustrous, bright green maturity. +Their stems are flattened in a plane at right angles with the +blade. Being long and pliant besides, they catch the breeze +on blade or stem, and so the foliage is never still on the +quietest of summer days. "Popple" leaves twinkle and +dance and catch the sunlight like ripples on the surface of a +stream, while the foliage of oaks and other trees near by +may be practically motionless.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Balsam Poplar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. balsamifera</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The balsam poplar is the balm of Gilead of the early +settlers, the Tacamahac of the Northern Indians. They +squeezed the fragrant wax from the winter buds and used it +to seal up the seams in their birch-bark canoes. The bees +taught the Indian the uses of this glutinous secretion, +which the tree used to seal the bud-scales and thus keep out +water. When growth starts with the stirring of the sap, +this wax softens; then the bees collect and store it against a +day of need. Whether their homes be hollow trees or patent +hives, weather-cracks are carefully sealed up with this waterproof +gum, which the bee-keeper knows as "<i>propolis</i>."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +Forests of balm of Gilead cover much of the vast British +possessions north of the United States, and reach to the +ultimate islands of the Aleutian group. They dip down +into the states as far as Nebraska and Nevada. In cultivation, +the species has proved itself a tree of excellent +habit, easily propagated and transplanted, and of rapid +growth. It has all the good points of the Carolina poplar +and lacks its besetting sin of becoming so soon an unsightly +cripple.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Narrow-leaved Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. angustifolia</i>, James.</div> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Lance-leaved Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. acuminata</i>, Rydb.</div> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Mexican Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Mexicana</i>, Wesm.</div> + +<p>These three cottonwoods line the banks of mountain +streams at high elevations in the great system of mountain +chains that stretch from British Columbia southward. +The dancing foliage, bright green in summer, golden in +autumn, lends a charming color note to the dun stretches +of arid plain and the sombre green of pine forests. These +trees furnish the settler fuel, shade, and wind-breaks while +he is converting his "homestead" into a home.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Black Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. trichocarpa</i>, Hook.</div> + +<p>Farther west, covering the mountain slopes from Alaska +to Mexico, and liking even better the moist, rich lowlands, +is the black cottonwood, the giant of the genus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +reaching two hundred feet in height, and seven to eight feet +in trunk diameter. Tall and stately, it lifts its broad +rounded crown upon heavy upright limbs. In the Yosemite +the dark, rich green of these poplar groves along the +Merced River makes a rich, velvet margin, glorious when it +turns to gold in autumn.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Swamp Cottonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. heterophylla</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The swamp cottonwood of the South has leaves of variable +but distinctly poplar form, always large, broadly ovate, +with slim round petioles. The white down of the unfolding +leaves often persists into midsummer. On account +of the fluttering leaves the trees were called, by the +early Acadians, "<i>Langues de femmes</i>" a mild calumny traceable +to the herbalist, Gerarde, who compares them to +"women's tongues, which seldom cease wagging."</p> + +<p>The wood of poplars, soft, weak, and of slight value for +fuel or lumber, has within two decades come into a position +of great economic importance. Wood pulp is made of it, +and out of wood pulp a thousand articles, from toys to +wheels of locomotives, are made. A state forester declared: +"If I could replace the maples in the state forest by +poplars to-day, I would do it gladly. It would be worth +thousands of dollars to the state."</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE WILLOWS</div> + +<p>Along the watercourses the willow family finds its most +congenial habitat. It is a very large family, numbering +more than one hundred and seventy species, which are, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +however, mostly shrubs rather than trees. America has +seventy species of willows, and new forms are constantly +being discovered, which are the results of the crossing of +closely related species. These "natural hybrids" have +greatly confused the botany of the willow family.</p> + +<p>Not more than half a dozen American willows ever attain +the height of good-sized trees, and many of these are +more commonly found in the tangled shrubbery of river +banks, or covering long semi-arid strips of ground far to +the north, or on mountain sides where their growth is +stunted. Little trees, six inches high, bearing the characteristic +catkins and narrow leaves of the willow, are +found on the arctic tundras.</p> + +<p>The wood of willows is pale in color, soft in texture, and +of very little use as lumber or fuel, except in localities where +trees are scarce. The Indian depended upon the inner +bark of the withy willow for material for his fish nets and +lines, and farmers in the pioneer days took the tough, supple +stems, when spring made the sap run freely, for the binding +together of the rails of their fences. Knotted tight and +seasoned, these twigs hardened and lasted for years.</p> + +<p>In Europe the white willow has long been used for the +making of wooden shoes, artificial limbs, and carriage +bodies. Its wood makes the finest charcoal for gunpowder. +Willow wares, such as baskets and wicker furniture, are as +old as civilization, and that in its primitive stages. It is +a common sight in Europe to see groves of trees from +which the long twigs have been taken yearly for these uses. +The stumps are called "pollards" and the trees "pollarded +willows" whose discouraging task has been to grow a +yearly crop of withes for the basket-makers; yet each +spring finds them bristling with the new growth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +The hosts of Cæsar invading England in the First +Century found the Britons defending themselves behind +willow-woven shields, and living in huts of wattled willows, +smeared with mud. From that time to the present the +uses of these long shoots have multiplied.</p> + +<p>The roots of willows are fibrous and tough as the shoots. +For this reason they serve a useful purpose in binding the +banks of streams, especially where these are liable to flood. +Nature seems to have designed these trees for just this +purpose, for a twig lying upon the ground strikes root at +every joint if the soil it falls on is sufficiently moist. The +wind breaks off twigs and the water carries them down +stream where they lodge on banks and sand bars, and these +are soon covered with billows of green.</p> + +<p>Willows start growth early in spring, putting out their +catkins, the two sexes on different trees, before the opening +of the leaves. Before the foliage is full grown, +<a name="pg83_seeds" id="pg83_seeds"></a><ins title="sic">the light +seeds, each a minute speck, floats away</ins> in a wisp of silky +down. Its vitality lasts but a day, so it must fall on wet +ground at once in order to grow. But the willow family is +quite independent of its seeds in the matter of propagation. +Chop the roots and twigs into bits and each will +grow. Chop a young willow tree into sticks and fence +posts and each one, if it is stuck green into the ground, +covers itself with a head of leafy twigs before the season is +over.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Weeping Willow</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Salix Babylonica</i></div> + +<p>The weeping willow, much planted in cemeteries and +parks, came originally from Asia and is remarkable for its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +narrow leaves that seem fairly to drip from the pendulous +twigs. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg55">page 55</a>.</i>) The foliage has a +wonderful lightness and cheerfulness of expression, despite +its weeping habit.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Pussy Willow</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>S. discolor</i>, Muehl.</div> + +<p>The pussy willow is the familiar bog willow, whose gray, +silky catkins appear in earliest spring. A walk in the +woods in late February often brings us the charming surprise +of a meeting with this little tree, just when its gray +pussies are pushing out from their brown scales. We cut +the twigs and bring them home and watch the wonderful +color changes that mark the full development of the +flowers. Turning them in the light, one sees under the +sheen of silky hairs the varied and evanescent hues that glow +in a Hungarian opal. In midsummer a pussy willow tree is +lost among the shrubby growth in any woods. It is only +because it leads the procession of the spring flowers that +every one knows and loves it. (<i>See illustrations, <a href="#figpg87a">pages 86-87</a>.</i>)</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HORNBEAMS</div> + +<p>Two genera of little trees in the same family with the +birches are frequently met in the woods, often modestly +hiding under the larger trees. One is the solitary representative +of its genus: the other has a sister species.</p> + +<p>The hornbeams grow very slowly and their wood is close-grained, +heavy, and hard. In flexibility, strength, and +ability to stand strain, it rivals steel. Before metals so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +generally became competitors of woods in construction +work, hornbeam was the only wood for rake teeth, levers, +mallets, and especially for the beams of ox yokes. It outwore +the stoutest oak, the toughest elm. Springiness +adapted it for fork handles and the like. Bowls and dishes +of hornbeam lasted forever, and would never leak nor +crack. "Ironwood" is the name used wherever the wood +was worked.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>American Hornbeam</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Carpinus Carolinianum</i>, Walt.</div> + +<p>The American hornbeam has bluish gray bark, very fine +in texture, from which the name "blue beech," is common +in some localities. "Water beech" points out the tree's +preference for rich swamp land.</p> + +<p>The trunk and limbs are strangely swollen, sometimes +like a fluted column, oftener irregularly, the swelling +under the bark suggesting the muscular development of a +gymnast's arm.</p> + +<p>In favorable places the hornbeams grow into regular +oval heads, their branches dividing into a multitude of +wiry, supple twigs. Crowded under oaks and other forest +growth, they crouch and writhe; and their heads flatten +into tangled masses of foliage.</p> + +<p>The delicate leaves, strong-ribbed, oval, pointed, turn to +red and orange in autumn. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg87b">page 87</a>.</i>) +The paired nutlets are provided with a parachute each, so +that the wind can sow them broadcast. This wing is leafy +in texture, shaped like a maple leaf, and curved into the +shape of a boat. After they have broken apart, the nutlets +hang by threads, tough as hornbeam fibres always are. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +At last, away they sail, to start new trees if they fall in +moist soil.</p> + +<p>The European hornbeam was a favorite tree for making +the "pleached alleys," of which old-world garden-lovers +were proud. A row of trees on each side of a promenade +were pruned and trained to cover an arching framework, +and to interlace their supple branches so that at length no +other framework was needed, and one walked through a +tunnel of green so closely interlaced as to make walls and +roof that shut out light and wind and rain! Hedges, +fences, and many fancies of the gardener were worked out +with this hornbeam, so willingly did it lend itself to cutting +and moulding into curious forms.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Hop Hornbeam</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ostrya Virginiana</i>, Willd.</div> + +<p>The hop hornbeam has habits like the other ironwood and +an equal reputation for the hardness of its wood. The +tree, however, wears scaly, shaggy brown bark, suggesting +in its manner of scaling off the shagbark hickory. Its +nutlets are packed separate in loose papery bags, and together +form a loose, cone-like cluster, like the fruit of a +hop vine. The wind scatters these buoyant little bags, +that travel far.</p> + +<p>This tree often twists in growing, and the trunk shows +spiral furrows. "Hard-tack," "beetle-wood," "lever-wood"—all +take us back to the pioneer who put this wood +to such good uses, and who was glad to have these little +trees growing in his wood-lot. In hickories, even, he had +not the equal of them for strength and hardness.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 666px;"> +<a name="figpg86a" id="figpg86a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_86a.png" width="666" height="447" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_70">page 70</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE AMERICAN LINDEN<br /> +<br /> +The broad leaves are unsymmetrical. Dry seed-balls are scattered by winter winds, the leathery +bracts serving as wings</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 656px;"> +<a name="figpg86b" id="figpg86b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_86b.png" width="656" height="413" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See page <a href="#Page_78">page 78</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">TREMBLING ASPEN<br /> +<br /> +Catkins and newly opened, flannel-like leaves</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 667px;"> +<a name="figpg87a" id="figpg87a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_87a.png" width="667" height="450" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_84">page 84</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE PUSSY WILLOW<br /> +<br /> +1—Mature staminate flower. 2—Immature staminate flowers. 3—Mature pistillate flowers</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 432px;"> +<a name="figpg87b" id="figpg87b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_87b.png" width="432" height="606" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_85">page 85</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE AMERICAN HORNBEAM<br /> +<br /> +A fruiting branch showing the thin beech-like leaves and the seeds on +their leafy triangular bracts</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>Knowlton's Ironwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>O. Knowltoni</i>, Cov.</div> + +<p>Knowlton's ironwood is found nowhere but in a thick +grove on the southern slope of the canyon of the Colorado +in Arizona, about seventy miles north of Flagstaff. Here +these trees are numerous, crouching under oaks, their +twisted branches ending in drooping twigs, bearing the +characteristic pale green hops in autumn, small oval leaves, +and the catkin flowers in spring. Such a restricted distribution +for a distinct species of trees is unmatched in the +annals of botany.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE BIRCHES</div> + +<p>Grace and gentility of appearance are attributes of this +most interesting, attractive, and valuable family of trees. +<i>Shabby</i> gentility, one may insist, thinking of the untidy, +frayed-out edges that adorn the silky outer bark of almost +every birch tree in the woods. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg102a">page 102</a>.</i>) +Not one of them, however, but lends a note of cheerfulness +to the landscape. There is beauty and daintiness in leaf, +flower, and winged seed, and despite the inferiority of most +birch wood, the history of the family is a long story of usefulness +to the human race.</p> + +<p>About thirty species of birches grow in the Northern +Hemisphere, ten of them are North American. The white +birch of Europe extends across the northern half of Asia, +and is cultivated in delicate cut-leaved and weeping forms, +as a lawn and park tree in this country.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Canoe Birch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Betula papyrifera</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The canoe birch or paper birch is the noblest member of +the family. (<i>See <a href="#cover">cover of book</a>.</i>) Ernest Thompson +Seton calls it "The White Queen of the Woods—the +source of food, drink, transport, and lodging to those who +dwell in the forest—the most bountiful provider of all the +trees." Then he enumerates the sweet syrup yielded by +its sap; the meal made by drying and grinding the inner +bark; the buds and catkins upon which the partridge feeds; +and the outer bark, which is its best gift to primitive +man.</p> + +<p>"The broad sheets of this vegetable rawhide, ripped off +when the weather is warm, and especially when the sap is +moving, are tough, light, strong, pliant, absolutely waterproof, +almost imperishable in the weather; free from insects, +assailable only by fire. It roofs the settler's shack +and the forest Indian's wigwam. It supplies cups, pails, +pots, pans, spoons, boxes; under its protecting power the +matches are safe and dry; split very thin, as is easily done, +it is the writing paper of the woods, flat, light, smooth, +waterproof, tinted, and scented; but the crowning glory of +the birch is this—it furnishes the indispensable substance +for the bark canoe, whose making is the highest industrial +exploit of the Indian life."</p> + +<p>From the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from our northern +tier of states to the arctic seas, woodsmen, red and white, +have found this white-barked tree ready to their hand, +their sure defense against death by cold and by starvation. +The weather is never so wet but that shreds of birch bark +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +burn merrily to start a campfire, and the timber of the +trunk burns readily green or dry.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Birch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>B. populifolia</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The white birch is a small, short-lived tree that grows in +swampy ground, its bark chalky white or grayish, with +triangular rough patches of black, where branches are or +have been. (The canoe birch has a clean bole, chalky +white, with none of these ugly black patches.)</p> + +<p>A vagabond tree it is, with thin pointed leaves and long +pencil-like catkins and seed cones. The chief contributions +of the poplar-leaved birch to the well-being of men are that +it clothes with beauty the most <ins title='Correction: was +"uniniviting"'>uninviting</ins> situations, and +that it comes again, after fire or other general slaughter, +promptly and abundantly, from stump and scattered seed.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Yellow Birch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>B. lutea</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The yellow birch shows gleams of yellow under every rent +in its gray, silky, frayed-out surface. Here is a timber tree +of considerable size and value: its hard wood furnishes the +frames of northern sledges; the knots and burs make good +mallets; the curiously knotted roots show a curly grain, +valuable to the cabinet-maker. From New England to +Minnesota, and south along the Appalachian range, this +tree is found, always telling its name by the color of its +shaggy bark.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Birch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>B. nigra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>Red birch or river birch wears its name in its chocolate-hued +or terra-cotta bark, whose scaly surface flaunts a +series of tattered fringes to the very twig ends. Tall and +graceful fountains of living green, these birches lean over +stream borders from Minnesota and New York to the Gulf +of Mexico, and reach westward to the foothills of the +Rockies. Close-grained and strong, the pale brown wood +is used for furniture, shoe lasts, and a multitude of woodenwares. +In the bayous of the lower Mississippi, where its +roots and the base of the trunk are inundated for half the +year, the tree reaches its greatest size. The cones stand +erect and shed their heart-shaped, winged seeds in June—an +exception to the autumn-fruiting of all other birches.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cherry Birch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>B. lenta</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The cherry birch has dark, irregularly checked bark like +the wild cherry, but the oval, pointed leaf, the catkin +flowers, and the cone fruits of its family. Birch beer is +made of its aromatic sap and wintergreen oil is extracted +from the leaves. Indians shred the inner bark and dry it in +the spring when it is rich in starch and sugar. These +shreds, like vermicelli, are boiled with fish and form a +nourishing dish. The wood is heavy, hard, and close-grained, +valuable for the manufacture of furniture and +implements, especially wheel hubs, and for fuel. It is +one of the handsomest, most symmetrical, and most luxuriant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +of all our birch trees, and a worthy addition to any +park.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE ALDERS</div> + +<p>Closely related to the hornbeams and birches is a genus +of small water-loving trees that grow rapidly and serve +definite, special uses in the Old and New World. The +genus <i>alnus</i> includes twenty species, nine of which grow in +North America; six of these reach the height of trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Alder</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Alnus glutinosa</i>, Gaertn.</div> + +<p>Of the alders, the black alders of Europe is the largest +and most important timber tree. Its range includes western +Asia and northern Africa. It was introduced successfully +into our Northeastern states in colonial times and has +become naturalized in many localities. These trees sometimes +reach seventy feet in height and a trunk diameter +of three feet. Their dark green foliage, glutinous when +the leaves unfold in the spring, ranks these giant alders +among the beautiful and picturesque trees.</p> + +<p>The lumberman esteems alder wood only for special +purposes. It grows in water and its wood resists decay better +than any other kind when saturated through indefinite +periods. In the old days it was the wood for the boat-builder. +The piles of the Rialto in Venice and along the +canals of Amsterdam and other Dutch cities are of black +alder. Water pipes and troughs, pumps, barrel staves, +kneading troughs, sabots and clogs were made of alder +wood. The bark and cones are rich in tannin and a yellow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +dye used in making ink. Willow and alder make the best +charcoal for gunpowder. Warty excrescences on old +trees and twisted roots furnished the inlayer with small +but beautifully veined and very hard pieces, beautiful +in veneer work when polished. In America the black +alder is often met in horticultural varieties. The daintiest +are the cut-leaved forms, of which <i>imperialis</i>, with leaves +fingered like a white oak, is a good example.</p> + +<p>One of the best uses to which alders are put in Europe +is planting in hedges along borders of streams, where their +closely interlacing roots hold the banks from crumbling +and keep the current clear in midstream. No English +landscape is more beautiful than one through which a little +river winds, its banks and the boggy spots tributary to it +softened by billows of living green. "He who would see +the alder in perfection must follow the banks of the Mole +and Surrey through the sweet vales of Dorking and Wickleham."</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Seaside Alder</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. maritima</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The seaside alder shares with the witch hazel the peculiar +distinction of bearing its flowers and ripening its +fruit simultaneously in the fall of the year. The alder +comes first, hanging out its golden catkins in clusters on +the ends of the season's shoots in August and September. +Nothing is left of them when the witch hazel scatters its +dainty stars along the twigs in October and November. +The seaside alder follows stream borders near but not +actually on the seacoast, through eastern Delaware and +Maryland, but ranges comfortably on drier soil as far west +as Oklahoma and is hardy in gardens and parks as far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +north as Boston, where it blooms profusely and is much +admired for both flowers and glossy foliage through the +late summer.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Oregon Alder</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. Oregona</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The Oregon or red alder reaches eighty feet in height and +its trunk may exceed three feet in diameter. This Western +tree exceeds the Old World alder in size. The smooth, +pale-gray bark reminds us of the beech and sets this tree +apart from the white alder whose bark is brown and deeply +furrowed. The flowers and cone fruits are very large. +The ovate leaves are cut-toothed and often lobed. This is +the alder of the West Coast, largest where it comes down +to the sea near the shores of Puget Sound, but climbing the +mountains and canyon sides wherever there is water, from +Sitka to Santa Barbara. The reddish brown wood is +light, easily worked, and beautifully satiny when polished. +In Washington and Oregon it is largely used in the manufacture +of furniture. The Indian dug-outs are made of the +butts of large trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SYCAMORES, OR BUTTONWOODS</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Buttonwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>Our eastern buttonwood is a tree to which, in America, +we supply the name sycamore. Its European counterpart +is the plane tree of the Old World. It is one of the +easiest trees to recognize, for its most prominent trait is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +fairly shouted at us from a distance, whenever one of these +trees comes within the range of our vision. The smooth +bark that covers the branches is thin, very brittle, and has +the habit of flaking off in irregular plates, leaving white +patches under these plates that contrast sharply with the +dingy olive of the unshed areas. On old trunks the bark is +reddish brown and breaks into small, irregular plates; but +above, and out among the branches, the tree looks downright +untidy, and as though it had been splashed with +whitewash by some careless painter. (<i>See illustrations, +<a href="#figpg102a">pages 102-103</a>.</i>)</p> + +<p>White birches grow in copses in low ground, a whole +regiment of their white stems slanting upward. But the +ghostly sycamore is apt to stand alone along the river-courses, +scattered among other water-loving trees. The +tree is wayward in its branching habit, its twigs irregular +and angular. When the leaves are gone, it is a distressed-looking +object, dangling its seed-balls in the wind until the +central, bony cob is bare, the seeds having all sailed away +on their hairy parachutes.</p> + +<p>In the warmer South our buttonwood is a stalwart, +large-limbed tree of colossal trunk, that shelters oaks and +maples under its protecting arms. And there are some +large specimens on Long Island.</p> + +<p>The buttonwood leaf in a general way resembles a maple's, +being as broad as long, with three main lobes at the top. +The leaf stem forms a tent over the bud formed in summer +and containing the leafy shoot of the next year. The leaf +scar, therefore, is a circle and the leaf base a hollow +cone. At first a sheathing stipule, like a little leafy +ruffle, grows at the base of each leaf, but this is shed +before midsummer.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>Oriental Plane</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Orientalis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The oriental plane is almost as familiar a tree as our +native species, for it is planted as a street tree in every city +and village, and is a favorite shade and lawn tree besides. +The city of Washington has set the example and so has +Philadelphia. One third of the street trees of Paris are +plane trees.</p> + +<p>The chief merits of this tree immigrant are its perfect +hardiness, its fine, symmetrical, compact pyramid, its +freedom from injury by smoke and dust, and its rapid +growth in the poor soil of the parkings of city and village. +In leaf and fruit and bark-shedding habit, it is easily +recognized as a sycamore, though in this species more than +one ball dangles from each stem.</p> + +<p>The exactions of city life limit the number of tree species +that will do well. Our native sycamore patiently endures +the foul breath of factory chimneys, and helps, in the smallest, +downtown city parks, to make green oases in +burning deserts of brick and stone pavements. But it is +subject to the ravages of insect and fungous enemies to a +greater extent than the oriental species.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE GUM TREES</div> + +<p>Southern people talk more about "gum trees" than +people in the North. Two of our three native species of +Nyssa belong solely to southern swamps, and the third, +which comes north to Canada, is oftener called by other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +names. All these trees are picturesque, with twiggy, contorted +branches; tough, cross-grained wood; alternate, +simple, leathery, but deciduous leaves, beautiful at all +seasons; minute flowers and fleshy, berry-like fruits.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sour, or Black, Gum</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The sour or black gum of the South has a wide range, +being hardy to southern Ontario and Maine. To the New +Englander this is the "pepperidge"; the Indians called +it "tupelo"; but the woodsman, North and South, calls it +the gum tree, as a rule. "Black gum" refers to its dark +gray, rough bark, which is broken into many-sided plates. +By this, it is easily distinguished from the "red gum" +or liquid amber, which grows in the same situations, but is +not related to it. "Sour gum" refers to the acid, blue-black +berries, one to three in a cluster, ripe in October.</p> + +<p>We shall know this tree by its tall, slender trunk, clothed +with short, ridged, full-twigged, horizontal branches. With +no claim to symmetry, the black gum is a striking and +picturesque figure in winter. It is beautiful in summer, +covered with the dark polished leaves, two to four +inches long. In autumn patches of red appear as the +leaves begin to drop. This is the tupelo's signal that +winter is coming. Soon the tree is a pillar of fire against +yellowing ashes and hickories. The reds of the swamp +maple and scarlet oak are brighter, but no tree has a richer +color than this one. A spray brought in to decorate the +mantelpiece lasts till Christmas holly displaces it. The +leaves, being leathery, do not curl and dry, as do thin +maple leaves, in the warm air of the house.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cotton Gum</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>N. aquatica</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The cotton gum is draped in cottony white down as the +new shoots start and the leaves unfold in spring. In midsummer +this down persists in the leaf-linings, lightening the +dark green of the tree-tops. The dark blue fruits of this +species have no culinary value. The wood is used for +crating material. The tree reaches its maximum height—one +hundred feet—in the cypress swamps of Louisiana +and Texas, its abundant, corky roots adapting it to its +habitat.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sweet Gum</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Liquidamber styraciflua</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The sweet gum is a tall tree with a straight trunk, four to +five feet in diameter, with slender branches covered with +corky bark thrown out in wing-like ridges. At first the +head is regular and pyramidal, but in old age it becomes +irregularly oblong and comparatively narrow. The bark +is reddish brown, deeply furrowed between rough scaly +plates, marked by hard, warty excrescences.</p> + +<p>The leaves are lobed like a maple's, but more regularly, +so as to form a five-pointed star. Brilliant green in summer, +they become streaked with crimson and yellow. +Wherever these gum trees grow, the autumn landscape is +painted with the changeful splendor of the most gorgeous +sunset. "The tree is not a flame, it is a <i>conflagration</i>!" +Often along a country road the rail fence is hidden by an +undergrowth of young gum trees. Their polished star +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +leaves may pass from green into dull crimsons and then into +lilacs and so to brown, or they may flame into scarlets and +orange instead. Always, the foliage of the sweet gum falls +before it loses its wonderful colors.</p> + +<p>The flowers of the sweet gum are knobby little bunches; +the swinging balls covered with curving horns contain +the winged seeds, small but shaped like the key of the +maple. One recognizes the gum tree in winter by these +swinging seed-balls, an inch in diameter, like the balls of the +buttonwood, except that those are smooth. (<i>See illustrations, +<a href="#figpg102a">pages 102-103</a>.</i>) The best distinguishing mark of sweet +gums in winter are the corky ridges on the branches, and +the star-shaped leaves under the trees. Sweet gum sap is +resinous and fragrant. Chip through the bark, and an +aromatic gum soon accumulates in the wound. The farther +South one goes, the more copious is the exudation. In +Mexico a Spanish explorer described, in 1651, "large trees +that exude a gum like liquid amber." This is the "copalm +balm" gathered and shipped each year to Europe from +New Orleans and from Mexican ports. The fragrant +gum, <i>storax</i> or <i>styrax</i>, derived from forests of the oriental +sweet gum in Asia Minor, is used as incense in temples of +various oriental religions. It blends with frankincense and +myrrh in the censers of Greek and Roman Catholic +churches. It is used in medicines also, and as a dry gum +is the standard glove perfume in France.</p> + +<p>Beautiful and interesting in every stage of growth, our +native sweet gums are planted largely in the parks of +Europe and are earning recognition at home, through the +efforts of tree-lovers who would make the most of native +species in ornamental planting.</p> + +<p>The name, gum tree, is applied to our tupelos, and to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +great tribe of Australian eucalyptus trees, now largely +planted in the Southwest.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Osage Orange</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Toxylon pomiferum</i>, Raff.</div> + +<p>Related to figs and mulberries, but solitary in the genus +<i>toxylon</i>, is the osage orange, a handsome round-headed +tree, native of eastern North America, whose fleshy roots +and milky, bitter, rubbery sap reveal its family connections +with the tropical rubber plants. (<i>See illustration, +<a href="#figpg119">page 119</a>.</i>) The fruits are great yellow-green globes, four to +five inches in diameter, covered on the outside by crowded, +one-seeded berries. This compound fruit reveals the tree's +relationship to both figs and mulberries.</p> + +<p>The aborigines, especially of the Osage tribe, in the +middle Mississippi Valley, cherished these trees for their +orange-yellow wood, which is hard, heavy, flexible, and +strong—the best bow-wood to be found east of the Rocky +Mountains. When the settlers came the sharp thorns +with which the branches are effectually armed appealed +strongly to the busy farmers and the tree was widely +planted for hedges. Nurserymen produced them by +thousands, from cuttings of root and branch. These trees +made rapid growth and seemed most promising as a solution +of the fencing problem, but they did not prove hardy +in Iowa and neighboring states. Even now remnants of +those old winter-killed hedges may be found on farm +boundaries, individual trees having been able to survive.</p> + +<p>The native osage orange timber is about all gone, for the +rich bottom lands where it once grew most abundantly in +Oklahoma and Texas have been converted into farm land. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +However, the growing of osage orange timber for posts is +on the increase. Systematically maintained, plantations +pay well. The wood is exceptionally durable in soil. +Good prices are paid for posts in local markets. Twenty-five +posts can be grown to the rod in rows of a plantation; +they grow rapidly and send up new shoots from the roots.</p> + +<p>The brilliant, leathery leaves and conspicuous green +fruits make this native bow-wood a very striking lawn +tree. It holds its foliage well into the autumn and turns at +length into a mass of gold. It harbors few insects, has +handsome bark, and is altogether a distinguished, foreign-looking +tree.</p> + +<p>Experiments of feeding osage orange leaves to silkworms +have been successfully made at different times, but nowhere +in America has silk culture succeeded. Since the +white mulberry is hardy here and its foliage is the basis of +the silk-growing industry in the Old World, it is futile to +look for substitutes in the osage orange or any other tree.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_IV" id="PART_IV"></a> +PART IV</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="TREES_WITH_SHOWY_FLOWERS_AND_FRUITS" id="TREES_WITH_SHOWY_FLOWERS_AND_FRUITS"></a> +TREES WITH SHOWY FLOWERS AND FRUITS</div> + +<div class="smcap ind2em">The Magnolias—The Dogwoods—The Viburnums—The +Mountain Ashes—The Rhododendron—The +Mountain Laurel—The Madroña—The Sorrel +Tree—The Silver Bell Trees—The Sweet Leaf—The +Fringe Tree—The Laurel Family—The +Witch Hazel—The Burning Bush—The Sumachs—The +Smoke Tree—The Hollies</div> + +<div class="caption2">THE MAGNOLIAS</div> + +<p>Four of the ten genera in the magnolia family are represented +in North America. Of these, two are trees. All +are known by their large, simple, alternate leaves, with +margins entire; their showy, solitary, terminal flowers, +perfect and with all parts distinct; and their cone-like +fruits, compounded of many one- or two-seeded +follicles, shingling over each other upon a central spike. +The wood is soft and light throughout the family, and the +roots are fleshy. The sap is watery and the bark is bitter +and aromatic.</p> + +<p>The genus <i>magnolia</i>, named by Linnaeus in honor of +Pierre Magnol, a French botanist, includes twenty species; +twelve are native to eastern and southern Asia, two to +Mexico, and six to eastern North America. They are of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +peculiar interest to horticulturists and to the general public, +because they have the largest flowers of any trees in +cultivation. A white blossom from six inches to a foot +across is bound to attract attention and admiration when +set off by a whorl of lustrous evergreen leaves. The petals +of most magnolia blossoms are notably thick and waxy in +texture and deliciously fragrant. Last but not least +are the cone-like fruits, which flush from pale green to rose +as they ripen against the dark, leathery foliage; at maturity +their follicles open in a peculiar fashion and hang out their +bright red seeds on slender elastic threads. Foliage, +flowers, or cones alone would make magnolias superb as +ornamental trees. All these qualities combined have +given them a preëminent place in every country where +ornamental planting is done. North America is fortunate +in having so large a number of species that assume tree +form.</p> + +<p>When you see a magnolia in the North blossoming before +the leaves, you may be sure it is an exotic species, and +if the flowers are colored you may be equally sure that it is +a hybrid between two oriental species, and belongs to the +group of which the type is <i>M. Soulangeana</i>. The owner +may be a magnolia enthusiast, able to show you on his +premises both parents of this interesting and beautiful +hybrid.</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 380px;"> +<a name="figpg102a" id="figpg102a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_102a.png" width="380" height="604" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_87">page 87</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE TATTERED, SILKY BARK OF THE BIRCHES</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 381px;"> +<a name="figpg102b" id="figpg102b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_102b.png" width="381" height="600" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_93">page 93</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">BLOTCHED BARK OF THE SYCAMORE, AND THE SEED-BALLS +THAT HANG ON ALL WINTER</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 375px;"> +<a name="figpg102c" id="figpg102c"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_102c.png" width="375" height="607" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_97">page 97</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE WARTY, RIDGED BARK, THE SWINGING SEED-BALLS, +AND THE WINGED SEEDS OF THE SWEET GUM</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 421px;"> +<a name="figpg102d" id="figpg102d"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_102d.png" width="421" height="629" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_109">page 109</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">TULIP TREE, FLOWER AND LEAVES</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>Yulan Magnolia</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Magnolia Yulan</i></div> + +<p>The Yulan magnolia, for centuries a favorite in Japanese +gardens, covers itself before the leaves appear with pure +white, fragrant flowers, bell-shaped and fully six inches +across. In our Eastern gardens it is quite as much at +home, and though young trees are oftenest seen, the older +specimens are as large as any native magnolia. This is one +parent. The other is but a shrub, the purple magnolia, +<i>M. obovata</i>, that must be protected against the rigors of our +Northern winters. It blooms in May or June, and its +purple flowers, with rosy linings, are relatively small and almost +scentless. The children of this parentage get their +tints of pink and rose and crimson from this purple magnolia +shrub.</p> + +<p>Splendid, hardy, fragrant, big-flowered varieties have +arisen from this cross. All are small trees, suitable for +planting in city yards, where they are decorative throughout +the season.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Starry Magnolia</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. stellata</i></div> + +<p>The starry magnolia blooms in March or April, covering +itself with star-shaped white flowers made of strap-like +petals that form a flat whorl instead of a cup. This is the +earliest magnolia and wonderfully precocious, blooming +when scarcely two feet high.</p> + +<p>The Southern states can grow the splendid Campbell's +magnolia, which is in its glory in the high mountain +valleys of the Himalayas, where it reaches one hundred feet +in height. The fragrant flower-cups, from six to ten +inches in diameter, shade from pink to crimson. It is rare +in cultivation because it is not easy to grow, and northern +horticulturists fail utterly to grow it outdoors; but the fact +that it is the most beautiful of all exotic species must encourage +its culture in the South, and difficulties will be overcome +when the tree's peculiar needs are fully understood.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Great Laurel Magnolia</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. foetida</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The great laurel magnolia is oftenest seen in cultivation +as a small tree of pyramidal or conical habit, with stiff, +ascending branches, bearing a lustrous mass of leathery +oval leaves, five to eight inches long, lined with dull green, +or with rusty down, persistent until the second spring. +When small these magnolia trees are as conventional as the +rubber plants in hotel lobbies, whose foliage resembles +theirs. But in the forests of Louisiana, where this tree +reaches its greatest perfection, it earns the characterization +that Sargent gave it, "the most splendid ornamental tree +in the American forests." With a trunk four feet thick, +and its head lifted from fifty to eighty feet above the +ground and with each leaf cluster holding up a great white +flower, waxy as a camellia, seven to eight inches across, the +tree is indeed superb. William Bartram likened these +flowers to great white roses, distinctly visible from a distance +of a mile.</p> + +<p>The purple heart of the flower, made by a spot of color +at the base of each petal, and the overpowering odor, rather +sickening as the flowers fade, lure insects to the nectar +store at the bottom of the flower-cup. This odor, disagreeable +to many people, is the one objection to this +flower when brought indoors. A drawback that florists +discover is that the slightest bruise of the waxy petals +produces a brownish discoloration, which prevents the +shipment of these flowers. The splendid foliage, however, +travels perfectly, and a new and growing industry is the +gathering of magnolia branches in Southern woods for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +Christmas decoration. These branches are offered in all +Northern cities, and this demand threatens the extinction +of the tree, which until comparatively recent years has enjoyed +immunity because of the worthlessness of its soft +wood.</p> + +<p>The tree's natural range is from the North Carolina +coast to Tampa Bay, and west along the Gulf Coast to +Texas and southern Arkansas. As an ornamental tree, it +is safely planted in Philadelphia, but its life is precarious +farther north. It is widely grown in southern California +as a street tree, notably in Pasadena and in parks and +gardens for its blossoms, foliage, and fuzzy, horny cones.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Swamp Bay</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. glauca</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The swamp bay has lustrous, bright green leaves with +silvery linings. In Florida and across to Texas and Arkansas +it grows into a superb evergreen tree, fifty to seventy-five +feet in height. Northward along the Atlantic Coast its +growth is stunted as the climate becomes more rigorous, +until it reaches Massachusetts and Long Island, where it +becomes a many-stemmed shrub, whose beautiful leaves +fall in the autumn. On the streets of cities near the New +Jersey swamps the flowers of the swamp bay are offered for +sale in May. The buds are almost globular, and each one +is surrounded by a cluster of new leaves. To spring back +these waxy white petals, that are marred by a touch, is +criminal; but it is the common practice with boys who +hawk these flowers on the streets. Most of the charm is +gone from flowers thus defiled by dingy fingers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +The finest flowers are borne on strong young shoots. +The florists collect and handle them with extreme care. +Much of the swamp land now useless along the Atlantic +seaboard could be profitably planted to this magnolia, for +the florist trade alone. The flowers bloom slowly through +a period of several weeks. The enterprising owner of tracts +planted to swamp bay could reap two harvests a year, almost +from the first season: the flowers in spring and the +leafy shoots for holiday decorations. In the South the +leaves are evergreen.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Large-leaved Cucumber Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. macrophylla</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The large-leaved cucumber tree exceeds all other magnolias +in the size of its leaves and flowers. In fact, no tree outside +the tropics can match it, for its blades are almost a yard +in length. The flowers are great white bowls, sometimes a +foot across, made of six white waxy petals, much broader +than the three protecting sepals outside. The inner petals +have purple spots at the base. The fruits are almost +globular, two to three inches long, turning red as they +mature, equally showy when the scarlet seeds dangle from +the open follicles.</p> + +<p>These trees are at home in fertile valleys among the foothills +of the Alleghanies, from North Carolina to middle +Florida, and west to central Arkansas. Their range is not +continuous. They occur in scattered groups that have +come from seed.</p> + +<p>The horticulturist has greatly aided nature in the spread +of this tree in this country and in Europe, where its flowers +and leaves attract universal attention. The mistake +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +usually made is to plant it in the middle of a lawn where +the wind lashes the broad leaves into ribbons before they +have reached their full size. Every twig or leaf that +touches a petal mars it with a brown bruise. The only +way to enjoy one of these remarkable trees is to plant it in +the most sheltered situation, where the sunshine will reach +it and the breezes will not. Then the silver-lined foliage +and the superb white blossoms can come to perfection and +the sight is worth going miles to see.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cucumber Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. acuminata</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The cucumber tree is the hardiest of our native magnolias, +tropical-looking by reason of its heart-shaped leaves, six to +ten inches long. Its chosen habitat is rocky uplands, +where the fleshy roots can find moist soil. It ranges from +western New York to Illinois, Kentucky, and Arkansas, +and follows the mountain foothills through Pennsylvania +and Tennessee into Alabama and Mississippi.</p> + +<p>The flowers are like tulips, and though large can scarcely +be seen among the new leaves, because they are all yellowish +green in color. The petals are leaf-like and the flowers +have no fragrance to make up for their lack of beauty. +Imperfect pollination results in distorted, fleshy cones +that resemble cucumbers that have twisted and shrunken +in spots as they grew. These fruits turn from pink to red +as they mature, redeeming their ugly shape by their vivid +color as the leaves turn yellow. In September, the scarlet +seeds hang out and the wind whips them until they dangle +several inches below the fruit. One by one they drop and +new cucumber trees come up from this planting.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +The wood of the cucumber tree is light, close-textured, +weak, and pale brown in color. It has only local use in +cabinet-making and for flooring. The tree is far more valuable +in horticulture. It is a splendid stock on which to +graft less hardy magnolias. It is a superb avenue and +shade tree for Northern cities, and in this capacity it is as +yet little known. It grows vigorously from seed, and +stands transplanting, if care is used that the brittle roots +are not mutilated nor dried.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Umbrella Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. tripetala</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The umbrella tree has an umbrella-like whorl of leaves +surrounding the flower whose white cup stands above +three recurving white sepals. The whole tree suggests an +umbrella, so closely thatched is its dome of thin, bright +green leaves.</p> + +<p>The stout contorted branches and twigs lack symmetry, +from the forking habit. Side twigs strike out at right +angles from an erect branch, then turn up into a position +parallel with the parent branch, and bear terminal flowers, +which induce another branching system the following year. +Despite its angularity this is the trimmest and one of the +handsomest of our native magnolias, and it has the merit +of hardiness even in New England, where it attains large +size. Its native range extends from Pennsylvania near the +coast, along the Atlantic seaboard, and westward to +southern Alabama and Arkansas. It loves swamp borders +and the banks of mountain streams, but behaves well in the +moderately rich soil of parks and gardens.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Tulip Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The tulip tree is a cousin, rather than a sister, to the foregoing +magnolias. It stands alone in its genus in America, +but has a sister species that grows in the Chinese interior. +A tall, stately forest tree, it reached two hundred feet in +height, and a trunk diameter of ten feet, in the lower Ohio +Valley, when it was covered with virgin forest. This +species still holds its own as a valuable lumber tree on +mountain slopes of North Carolina and Tennessee. +Smaller, but still stately and beautiful, it is found in woods +from Vermont to Florida and west to Illinois, Arkansas, +and Mississippi.</p> + +<p>In Europe the tulip tree has been a favorite since its discovery +and exportation by the American colonists. More +and more it is coming to be appreciated at home as a lawn +and shade tree, for there is no time in the year when it is +not full of interest and beauty, and no time in its life when +it is not a distinct and beautiful addition to any plantation.</p> + +<p>In the dead of winter young tulip trees are singularly +straight and symmetrical compared with saplings of +other trees. There is usually a grove of them, planted by +some older tree that towers overhead, and still holds up its +shiny cones, that take months to give up their winged +seeds. The close, thick, intricately furrowed bark of the +parent tree contrasts sharply with the smooth rind of its +branches and the stems of the saplings. Tulip trees are +trim as beeches until the trunks are old.</p> + +<p>The winter twigs are set with oblong blunt leaf-buds. +The terminal one contains the flower, when the tree is old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +enough to bloom. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg102d">page 103</a>.</i>) In spring +the terminal buds of saplings best show the peculiarity of +the tree's vernation. Two green leaves with palms together +form a flat bag that encloses the new shoot. Hold +this bag up to the light and you see, as a shadow within, +a curved petiole and leaf. The bag opens along its edge +seam, the leaf-stem straightens, lifting the blade which is +folded on the midrib. At the base of the petiole stands a +smaller flat green bag. As the leaf grows to maturity the +basal palms of its protecting bag shrivel and fall away, +leaving the ring scar around the leaf base.</p> + +<p>Now the growing shoot has carried up the second bag, +which opens and another leaf expands, sheds its leafy +stipules, and a third follows. The studies of this unique +vernation delight children and grown-ups. It is absolutely +unmatched in the world of trees.</p> + +<p>The leathery blades of the tulip tree are from four to six +inches broad and long, with basal lobes, like those of a +maple leaf, and the end chopped off square. Occasionally +there is a notch, made by the two end lobes projecting a +trifle beyond the midrib. The leaves are singularly free +from damage, keeping their dark lustrous beauty through +the summer, and turning to clear yellow before they fall.</p> + +<p>The winged seeds fall first from the top of the erect +cones, the wind whirling them far, because the flat blades +are long and the seed-cases light—many of them empty in +fact. Far into winter a tulip tree seems to be blossoming, +because its bare branches are tipped with the remnants of +the seed cones, faded and shining almost white against the +dark branches.</p> + +<p>Tulip wood is soft and weak, pale brown, and light in +weight. It is easily worked and is used locally for house +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> and +boat-building. Wood pulp consumes much of the +yearly harvest. It is known as "poplar," whose wood it +resembles. Ordinary postal cards are made of it. The +bark yields a drug used as a heart stimulant.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE DOGWOODS</div> + +<p>Foliage of exceptional beauty is the distinguishing trait +of the trees in the cornel family, from the standpoint of the +landscape gardener and the lover of the woods. Showy +flowers and fruit belong to some of the species; extremely +hard, close-textured wood belongs to all; and this means +slow growth, which is a limitation in the eyes of the planter +who wishes quick results. But he who plants a cornel tree +and watches it season after season, finds it one of the most +interesting of nature studies through the whole round of +the year.</p> + +<p>The dogwoods are slender-twigged trees of small size, +with simple, entire leaves, strongly ribbed, and with one +exception, set opposite upon the twigs. Fifty species are +distributed over the Northern Hemisphere; one crosses the +equator into Peru. Four of the seventeen species found in +the United States are trees; the rest are shrubs, one of them +the low-growing bunchberry of our Northern woods.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Flowering Dogwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Cornus florida</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The flowering dogwood (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg134">page 134</a></i>) is a little +tree whose round, bushy, flat-topped head is made of short, +horizontal branches. The twigs hold erect in the winter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +a multitude of buds, large, squat, enclosed in four scales, +like the husk of a hickory nut. All the delicate tints that +the water-colorist delights in are found in these buds and +the twigs that bear them. When spring comes, these +scales loosen, expand, turn green, then fade into pure white—forming +the four banners, ordinarily called petals—of the +bloom of the dogwood. The true flowers are small and +clustered in the centre. These white expanses are merely +modified bud scales, the botanist will tell you, and the +notch at the end is where the horny winter scale broke +away, while its base was growing into the large white +palm.</p> + +<p>From March till May one finds the dogwood clothed in +white (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg118">page 118</a></i>), and the glossy leaves passing +through changing hues from rose to green. The +wayward arrangement of the blossoms on the branch is the +delight of artists. Lured by the white signals, bees and +other nectar-loving insects come to the flowers, cross-fertilizing +them while they supply their own needs. In +midsummer the pale green clusters of berries replace the +flowers, and when in autumn the foliage, still glossy and +smooth, changes to crimson and scarlet, the berries are +brighter still, until the birds have taken every one.</p> + +<p>The bark of the dogwood is checkered like alligator skin +but with deep furrows that make it very rough. The +wood is used for wood engraving blocks, for tool handles, +hubs, and cogs. But it is becoming very scarce. The deplorable +destruction of the dogwoods comes not so much +from the lumberman as from the irresponsible people who +tear the trees to pieces in blossoming time. The wanton +mutilation of the dogwoods in natural woodlands belonging +to cities can be curbed only by policing the tracts. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +saving of every flowering dogwood tree is a duty owed +to his community by every wood-lot owner within the +range of this hardy, handsome tree. Though exterminated +over much of its range, it is able and willing to grow in any +state east of the Mississippi River. It is one of the most +deservedly popular trees planted for ornament in this +country and in Europe.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Western Dogwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. Nuttallii</i>, Aud.</div> + +<p>The Pacific Coast outdoes the rest of the country in +the size of its forest trees. Superlatives in vegetation +abound where the breath of the Japan current tempers the +air. The Western dogwood often reaches one hundred +feet in height in the forests near Seattle. Its flowers have +six, instead of four, of the petal-like, white bracts, each +narrower and pointed, and without the terminal notch. +The tree in blossom is more magnificent than the eastern +species, for the flowers are often twice as large, and the +spectacle of one of these trees, after the leaves turn to +scarlet in autumn, and it leans against the sombre evergreens +that cover the mountain-side, is always startling, +even in a country where surprises are the rule.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>European Dogwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. mas.</i></div> + +<p>The European dogwood or cornel is often planted in the +Eastern states as an ornamental tree, but not for its +flowers alone, though these tiny, button-like clusters +cover the bare branches in earliest spring. The showy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +fruits look like scarlet olives hanging among the glossy +foliage in late summer. These fruits are edible, and in +Europe are used in preserves and cordials.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE VIBURNUMS</div> + +<p>The honeysuckle family, which includes a multitude of +ornamental shrubs, furnishes two genera with three representatives. +Handsome foliage, showy flowers, and attractive +fruits justify the popularity of this family in +gardens and parks.</p> + +<p>The viburnums are distributed over the Northern +Hemisphere and extend into the tropics. There are about +one hundred species, including the old-fashioned snowball +bush, perhaps the best-known species in this country. +Discriminating gardeners have replaced it by the Japanese +snowball, because the latter has much more handsome +foliage and perfect flowers, instead of the barren flower +cluster that has nothing to show for itself once the bloom +is past. This new species wears the autumn decoration +of bright red berries well into the winter.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sheepberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Viburnum lentago</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>In our native woods the sheepberry is a small round-headed +tree, with slim, drooping branches and oval leaves, +finely cut-toothed and tapering to wavy-winged petioles. +In autumn these leathery leaves change to orange and red, +their shiny surfaces contrasting with the dull lining, pitted +with black dots. The fruit, a loose cluster of dark blue +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +berries, on branching red stems, is an attractive color +contrast, and the birds flutter in the trees until they have +eaten the last one. The fragrant white flowers light up +the tree from April to June with their flat clusters three +to five inches across. The opposite arrangement of the +leaves and that short-winged petiole identify the little +tree, whether it grows by the swamp borders, along the +streams, or in parks and gardens. At any season it is +good to look upon. Its range covers the eastern half of +the country, extending almost to the Gulf of Mexico and +west into Wyoming.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Rusty Nannyberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>V. rufidulum</i>, Raff.</div> + +<p>The rusty nannyberry is easily distinguished by the +rusty hairs that clothe its new shoots and the stems and +veins of the leaves. White flower clusters are succeeded +by bright blue berries of unusual size and brilliance, ripe +in October, on red-stemmed pedicles. The handsome +polished leaves are rounded at the tips. The wood of this +little tree has a very unpleasant odor, but this trait has no +bearing upon its merits as a garden ornament. It is +found wild from Virginia to Illinois and southward. In +cultivation it is hardy in the latitude of Boston.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Haw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>V. prunifolium</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The black haw has the characteristic flowers and fruit +of its genus, but is smaller throughout than the other two, +and its branches are stout. In European parks and gardens +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +it is known as the "stagbush." Its fruit turns dark +when dead ripe, and persists well into the winter. In the +wilds, this little viburnum is found from southern New +England to Michigan, and south to Georgia and Texas.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE MOUNTAIN ASHES</div> + +<p>The handsome foliage and showy flower clusters make +the mountain ashes a favorite group of little trees for +border shrubberies and other ornamental planting. The +foliage is almost fern-like in delicacy and it spreads in a +whorl below the flower clusters in spring and the scarlet +berry clusters in autumn. Far into the winter after the +foliage has dropped the berries persist, supplying the birds +with food, especially in snowy winters, when their need is +greatest, and brightening the dull thickets of bare twigs +on dreary days.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Eastern Mountain Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Sorbus Americana</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The common eastern mountain ash reaches thirty feet +in height—a slender, pyramidal tree, with spreading +branches and delicate leaves of from thirteen to seventeen +leaflets. The flat-topped cluster of creamy white flowers +(<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg135">page 135</a></i>) appears in May and June, above +the dark yellow-green foliage; and the scarlet berries, ripe +in September when the leaves have turned yellow, may +persist until spring. Along the borders of swamps and +climbing rocky bluffs, often scattered in plum thickets, +these trees are handsome at any season. Along the +mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina home remedies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +are made out of the berries. From Newfoundland +to Manitoba and southward the tree grows wild and is +planted for ornament in home grounds.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Elder-leaved Mountain Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>S. sambucifolia</i>, Roem.</div> + +<p>The elder-leaved mountain ash overlaps the first species, +and is even more daring as a climber. It ranges from +Labrador to Alaska, follows the Rocky Mountains to +Colorado, and in the Eastern states goes no farther south +than Pennsylvania. Its leaves are graceful and drooping +like the elder. The flowers and fruits are large; the whole +tree tropical looking, its open, pyramidal head giving each +leaf a chance at the sun.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>European Mountain Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>S. Aucuparia</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>Most common in cultivation is the European mountain +ash called in England the rowan tree. This trim round-headed +species is very neat and conventional compared +with its wild cousins, but in the craggy highlands of Scotland +and Wales it much resembles our mountain ashes.</p> + +<p>Old superstitions cluster around the rowan tree in all +rural sections. These are preserved in the folk-lore and +the literature of many countries. Rowans were planted +by cottage doors and at the gates of church yards, being +considered effectual in exorcising evil spirits. Leafy +twigs hung over the thresholds, crosses made of "Roan" +wood given out on festival days, were worn as charms or +amulets. Milkmaids, especially, depended upon these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +for the defeat of the "black elves" who constantly tried +to make their cows go dry, and unless prevented got into +the churns—and then the butter would never come!</p> + +<p>The farther north a tree can grow, the more likely it is +to have close relatives in the Old World. One mountain +ash of Japan is hardly distinguishable from our western +species, and some authorities believe that our two native +species are but varieties of the rowan tree of Europe.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE RHODODENDRON</div> + +<p>The heath family, of about sixty-seven genera, distributed +over the temperate and tropical countries of the +earth, has twenty-one genera in the United States, seven +of which have tree representatives. Azaleas, the multitude +of the heathers, the huckleberries, the madroñas, +call to mind flower shows we have seen—under glass, in +gardens, in parks, and among mountain fastnesses brightened +by the loveliness of the mountain laurel, azalea, and +rhododendron. In this wonderful family the leaves are +simple and mostly evergreen. Rarely are the fruits +of any importance. It is the flowers in masses that give +the chief distinction to a family with over a thousand +species, which have been the subjects of study and cultivation +through centuries. The type of the family is the +Scotch heather, immortalized in song and story. In +London the Christmas season is marked by the sale of +half a million little potted plants of heather! Each is +about a foot in height and bears a thousand tiny bells, +rosy, with white lips. This is the poor man's Christmas +flower. It costs a shilling and lasts a month or more.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 668px;"> +<a name="figpg118" id="figpg118"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_118.png" width="668" height="402" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_111">page 111</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">FLOWERING DOGWOOD</div> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 369px;"> +<a name="figpg119" id="figpg119"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_119.png" width="369" height="578" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_99">page 99</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE OSAGE ORANGE<br /> +<br /> +Flowers appear in June, after the lustrous leaves</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +Trees are scarce in the heath family. Shrubs are in the +majority. The azaleas, which the Belgian gardeners +have brought to such perfection and developed in such a +great number of varieties, are among the best known of +the heaths. The profuse blossoms in potted azaleas +entirely extinguish the foliage, and the flowers are almost +as lasting as if they were artificial.</p> + +<p>The genus rhododendron in American woods is represented +by a mountain shrub and a tree. Both are evergreen +and both are widely planted for ornament during +the entire season. Carloads of these wonderful plants +are shipped from the mountain slopes of the Alleghanies +for mass planting on rocky ground, and to cover embankments +along the drives in great estates. Because of the +altitude of their native habitat, they are hardy in New +England, and even as far as the Great Lakes. In time of +bloom, these masses are the great flower show of the countryside, +and in winter nothing is more beautiful than the +evergreen foliage of rhododendrons, lifted out of the snow.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Great Laurel or Rose Bay</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Rhododendron maximum</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>Among the Alleghany Mountains, from Virginia southward, +the great laurel rises to a height of forty feet, +and interlaces its boughs with those of Fraser's magnolia +and the mountain hemlock in the dense forest cover. +Thickets of rhododendron trees are common, and though +its stature is reduced, it follows the highlands into New +York, and is one of the most striking and beautiful shrubs +in the Pennsylvania mountains. Scattered and becoming +more rare and more stunted, it reaches Lake Erie and on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +into New Brunswick. The leaves crown each of the stiff +branches with an umbrella-like whorl, that stands guard +in winter time about a large scaly bud. In spring the +scales fall and a cone-like flower cluster rises. Each +blossom is white, marked with yellow or orange spots, in +the bell-like corolla's throat; or the flowers may be pale +rose, with deeper tones in the unopened buds. A great +tree in blossom, with its flower clusters lighting up the +umbrella-like whorls of glossy, evergreen leaves, illuminates +the woods, and makes every other tree look commonplace +beside it.</p> + +<p>In late summer, green capsules, each with a curving +style at the top, cluster where the flowers stood, but these +are scarcely ornamental. The evergreen leaves and the +buds, full of promise for June blossoming, are the beautiful +features of rhododendrons in winter.</p> + +<p>The wonderful array of color and profusion of bloom, +seen in an exhibit of rhododendrons and azaleas, is the +most convincing proof of what crossing and careful selection +can do in developing races of flowering plants. The +ancestry of all these tub-plants is a matter of record, and +goes back to a few comparatively insignificant wild species, +competing with all the rest of the native flora for a livelihood.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL</div> + +<p>The mountain laurel (<i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, Linn.) grows from +Nova Scotia to Lake Erie and southward through New +England and New York, and along the Alleghanies to +northern Georgia. Hardier than the rhododendrons, +smaller in blossoms and in foliage, the laurel is in many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +points its superior in beauty. In June and July the polished +evergreen foliage of the kalmia bushes is almost overwhelmed +by the masses of its exquisite pink blossoms, beside +which the bloom of rhododendrons looks coarse and +crude in coloring. Coral-red fluted buds with pointed +tips show the richest color, making with the yellow-green +of the new leaves one of the most exquisite color combinations +in any spring shrubbery. The largest buds open +first, spreading into wide five-lobed corollas, with two +pockets in the base of each forming a circle of ten pockets. +Ten stamens stand about the free central pistil, and the +anther of each is hid in a pocket of the corolla—the slender +filament bent backward. This is a curious contrivance for +insuring cross-fertilization through the help of the bees. +(<i>See "Flowers Worth Knowing."</i>)</p> + +<p>Linnaeus commemorated in the name of this genus the +devoted and arduous labors of Peter Kalm, the Swedish +botanist, who sent back to his master at the university of +Upsala specimens of the wonderful and varied flora found +in his travels in eastern North America. Most of the +names accredited to Linnaeus were given to plants he +never saw except as dried herbarium specimens from the +New World.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE MADROÑA</div> + +<p>The madroña (<i>Arbutus Menziesii</i>, Pursh.), another member +of the Heath family, is one of the superbly beautiful +trees in the forests that stretch from British Columbia +southward into California. South of the bay of San +Francisco and on the dry eastern slopes of California +mountains it is stunted to a shrub, but on the high, well-drained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +slopes through the coast region and in the redwood +forests of northern California it is a tree that reaches +a hundred feet in height.</p> + +<p>John Muir writes: "The madroña, clad in thin, smooth, +red and yellow bark, with big, glossy leaves, seems in the +dark coniferous forests of Washington and Vancouver +Island like some lost wanderer from the magnolia groves +in the South." All the year around this is one of the most +beautiful of American trees. It bears large conical clusters +of white flowers above the vivid green of its leathery +leaves, that are wonderfully lightened by silvery linings. +In autumn the red-brown of the branches is enriched and +intensified by the luxuriant clusters of scarlet berries +against the red and orange of the two-year-old leaves. +Among the giant redwoods this tree commands the highest +admiration.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SORREL TREE</div> + +<p>The sorrel tree, or sour-wood (<i>Oxydendrum arboreum</i>, +DC.) belongs among the heaths. Its vivid scarlet autumn +foliage is its chief claim to the admiration of gardeners. In +spring the little tree is beautiful in its bronze-green foliage, +and in late July and August it bears long branching +racemes of tiny bell-shaped white flowers. This multitude +of little bells suggests the tree's relationship to the blossoming +heather we see in florists' shops.</p> + +<p>The leaves give the tree its two common names: they +have a sour taste, resembling that of the herbaceous sorrels. +The twigs, even in the dead of winter, yield this refreshing +acid sap, that flows through the veins of the membranous +leaves in summer. Many a hunter, temporarily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +lost in Southern woods, quenches his thirst by nibbling +young shoots of the sour-wood.</p> + +<p>After the flower comes a downy capsule, five-celled, with +numerous pointed seeds. The leaves are not unlike those +of a plum tree except that they attain a length of five to +seven inches. In the woods from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and +Indiana, southward to Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and +Arkansas this tree ranges, and we often see it in cultivation +as far north as Boston. It grows to its largest size on the +western slopes of the Big Smoky Mountains in Tennessee, +attaining here a height of sixty feet. In cultivation it is +one of the little, slender-stemmed, dainty trees, beautiful +at any season. It is the sole representative of its genus in +the world, so far as botanists know.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SILVER BELL TREES</div> + +<p>The silver bell tree (<i>Mohrodendron tetraptera</i>, Britt.) +earns its name in May when among the green leaves the +clustered bell flowers gradually pale from green to white, +with rosy tints that seem to come from the ruddy flower-stems. +A "snowdrop tree" may be eighty feet in height, +in the mountains of east Tennessee and western North +Carolina, but ordinarily we see it in gardens and parks as a +delicate, slender-branched tree, that stands out from every +other species in the border as the loveliest thing that blooms +there.</p> + +<p>Not a moment in spring lacks interest if one has a little +mohrodendron tree to watch. For weeks the ruddy twigs +grow ruddier by the opening of leaf and flower buds; then +comes the slow fading of the flowers, when sun and rain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +seem to work together to bleach them into utter purity of +color and texture. Gradually the white bells fade and a +queer little green, tapering seed-case enlarges and ripens. +Through the late summer these pale green fruits are exceedingly +ornamental as the leaves turn to pale yellow.</p> + +<p>In cultivation, the silver bell tree is hardy in the New +England states, but in its native woods it grows north no +farther than West Virginia and Illinois. It is easily transplanted +and pruned to bush form, if one desires to keep the +blossoming down where the perfection of the flowers can be +enjoyed at close range.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Snowdrop Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. diptera</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>A second species called the snowdrop tree skirts the +swamps along the South Atlantic and Gulf coast and follows +the Mississippi bayous to southern Arkansas. It is +smaller in stature than the silver bell tree, but has larger +leaves and more showy flowers. The botanical names +record the chief specific difference between the two species: +this one has but two wings on its seed-cases, while the other +has four. This species is hardy no farther north than +Philadelphia. The flowers have their bells cleft almost to +the base, whereas the bell of the other species is merely +notched at the top.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SWEET LEAF</div> + +<p>Two genera of trees in this country are temperate zone +representatives of a tropical family which furnishes benzoine, +torax, and other valuable balsams of commerce. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +is easy to see that these trees are strangers from warm +countries, for many of their traits are singularly unfamiliar.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sweet Leaf</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Symplocos tinctoria</i>, L'Her.</div> + +<p>The sweet leaf is our sole representative of a large genus of +trees native to the forests of Australia and the tropics in +Asia and South America. They yield important drugs and +dyestuffs, particularly in British India. But the sweet +leaf is a small tree, rarely over twenty feet in height, with +ashy gray bark, warty and narrowly fissured. In earliest +spring its twigs are clothed with yellow or white blossoms +that come in a procession and cover the tree from March +until May, preceding the leaves, and breathing a wonderful +fragrance into the air. The leaves are small, leathery, +dark green, lustrous above, deciduous in the regions of +colder winters, persistent from one to two years in the +warmer part of its range. The flowers are succeeded by +brown berries that ripen in summer, or early autumn. +The flesh is dry about the single seed.</p> + +<p>Horses and cattle greedily browse upon the foliage, +which has a distinctly sweet taste. The bark and leaves +both yield a yellow dye, and the roots a tonic from their +bitter, aromatic sap.</p> + +<p>"Horse sugar" is another local name for this little tree, +which is found sparingly from Delaware to Florida, west +to the Blue Ridge Mountains, and in the Gulf states to +Louisiana and northward into Arkansas and to eastern +Texas. It is a shade-loving tree, usually found under the +forest cover of taller species, skirting the borders of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +cypress swamps, and climbing to elevations of nearly three +thousand feet on the slopes of the Blue Ridge.</p> + +<p>A wonderful new species of <i>symplocos</i> has come into +cultivation from Japan and will enjoy a constantly increasing +popularity. Its fragrant white blossoms, before +the leaves, make the tree look like a hawthorn; but its +unique distinction is that the racemed flowers give place +to berries of a brilliant turquoise blue, which make this +shrubby tree a most striking and beautiful object in the +autumn when the leaves are turning yellow.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE FRINGE TREE</div> + +<p>Native to the middle and southern portions of the +United States is a slender little tree (<i>Chionanthus Virginica</i>, +Linn.), whose sister species inhabits northern and +central China. Both of them cover their branches with +delicate, fragrant white flowers, in loose drooping panicles, +when the leaves are about one third grown. Each flower +has four slender curving petals an inch long, but exceedingly +narrow. In May and June the tree is decked with +a bridal veil of white that makes it one of the most ethereal +and the most elegant of lawn and park trees at this supreme +moment of the year. Later the leaves broaden +and reach six to eight inches in length, tapering narrowly +to the short petioles. Thick and dark green, with plain +margins, and conspicuously looped venation near the +edges, these leaves suggest a young magnolia tree. Blue +fruits the size of plums succeed the flowers in September, +denying the magnolia theory and shading to black before +they fall. The flesh is dry and seeds solitary under the +thick skin of the drupe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +As in many other instances, European gardeners have +led in the appreciation of this American ornamental tree. +However, New England has planted it freely in parks and +gardens, and popularity will follow wherever it becomes +known. Its natural distribution is from southern Pennsylvania +to Florida, and west to Arkansas and Texas. +In cultivation it is hardy and flourishes far north of its +natural range. No garden that can have a fringe tree +should be without it. Fortunately its wood is negligible +in quantity, and the temptation to chop down these trees +does not come to the ignorant man with an axe. Whoever +goes to the woods in May is rewarded for many miles of +tramping if he comes upon a "snow-flower tree" in the +height of its blooming season, led perhaps by its delicate +fragrance when the little tree is overshadowed by the +deep green of the forest cover. It is an experience that +will not be forgotten soon.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE LAUREL FAMILY</div> + +<p>The laurel family, a large group of aromatic trees and +shrubs found chiefly in the tropics, includes with our +sassafras, laurels, and bays the cinnamon and camphor +trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>California Laurel</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Umbellaria Californica</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The California laurel climbs the western slopes of the +Sierra Nevada from the forests of southwestern Oregon +to the San Bernardino range near Los Angeles. "Up +North" it is called pepperwood. It is a lover of wet soil, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +so it keeps near streams. With the broad-leaved maple +it gives character to the deciduous growth near the northern +boundaries of California, where it reaches eighty to +ninety feet in height, and a trunk diameter of four to five +feet. Sometimes it is tall, but usually it divides near the +ground into several large diverging stems, forming a +broad round head. In southern California, and at high +elevations, it oftenest occurs as a low shrub.</p> + +<p>The willow-like leaves, lustrous and evergreen, last +often through the sixth season. Unfolding in winter or +early spring, they continue to appear as the branches +lengthen until late in the autumn, turning to beautiful +yellow or orange and falling one by one. Beginning during +the second season, they continue to drop, as new shoots +loosen their hold. These leaves are rich in an aromatic +oil which causes them to burn readily when piled green +upon a campfire. Plum-like purple fruits succeed the +small white fragrant flowers, borne in clusters in the axils +of the leaves. The seeds germinate before the fruit +begins to decay. Indeed the plantlet has attained considerable +size before the acid flesh shows any signs of +change.</p> + +<p>This tree is a superb addition to the parks and gardens +of the Pacific Coast. It is strikingly handsome in a land +of handsome trees, native and exotic. Its wood is the +most beautiful and valuable produced in the forests of +Pacific North America for the interior finish of houses and +for furniture. It is heavy, hard, strong, fine-grained, +light brown, of a rich tone, with paler sap-wood, that includes +the annual growth of thirty or forty seasons. The +leaves yield by distillation a pungent, aromatic, volatile +oil, and the fruit a fatty acid commercially valuable.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Bay</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Persea Borbonia</i>, Streng.</div> + +<p>Another laurel native to stream and swamp borders, +from Virginia to Texas and north to Arkansas, is the red +bay, whose bark, thick, red, and furrowed into scaly ridges +on the trunk, becomes smooth and green on the branches. +The evergreen leaves are narrowly oval, three to four +inches long, bright green, polished, with pale linings. The +white flowers are very minute bells borne in axillary clusters, +succeeded in autumn by blue or black shiny berries, +one half inch long, one-seeded, making a pretty contrast +with the clear yellow of the year-old leaves and the bright +green of the new ones.</p> + +<p>This native laurel, lover of rich, moist soil, deserves the +place in cultivation more commonly granted its European +cousin, <i>Laurus nobilis</i>, Linn., the familiar tub laurel of +hotel verandas in the Northern states, and much grown +out of doors in southern California and in milder climates +east. The tree is occasionally sixty to seventy feet high, +with trunk two to three feet in diameter. Such specimens +furnish the cabinet-maker and carpenter with a beautiful, +bright red, close-grained wood for fine interior finish and +furniture. Formerly it was used in the construction of +river boats, but the timber supply is now very limited.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Avocado</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. gratissima</i>, Gaertn.</div> + +<p>In Florida and southern California the avocado or +alligator pear is being extensively cultivated. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +laurel grows wild in the West Indies, Brazil, Peru, and +Mexico. Its berry attains the size of a large pear. It has +been developed in several commercial varieties, all having +smooth green or purple skin, and soft oily pulp like marrow +surrounding a single gigantic seed. It is usually cut +in two like a melon and eaten raw as a salad dressed with +vinegar, salt, and pepper. Once a stranger acquires the +taste, he is extremely fond of this new salad fruit. The +growing of the trees is easy and very profitable. At +present the fruits are in great demand in city markets, +and the prices are too high for any but the rich to enjoy +this luxury.</p> + +<p>Where a market is difficult to reach, the abundant oil is +expressed from these fruits and used for illumination and +the manufacture of soap. The seeds yield an indelible ink.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to the student of trees to note how many +tropical families have representation in North America, +due to the fact that Florida extends into the tropics, and +the West Indies seem to form a sort of bridge over which +Central American and South American species have +reached the Floridian Keys and the mainland.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sassafras</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Sassafras</i>, Karst.</div> + +<p>The sole remnant of an ancient genus is the aromatic +sassafras familiar as a roadside tree that flames +in autumn with the star gum and the swamp maples. In +the deep woods it reaches a height of more than a +hundred feet and is an important lumber tree. In the +arctic regions and in the rocky strata of our western +mountains, fossil leaves of sassafras are preserved, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +the same traces are found in Europe, giving to the geologist +proofs that the genus once had a much wider range than +now. But no living representative of the genus was known +outside of eastern North America, until the report of a +recently discovered sassafras in China.</p> + +<p>The Indians in Florida named the sassafras to the +inquiring colonists who came with Columbus. They explained +its curative properties, and its reputation traveled +up the Atlantic seaboard. The first cargo of home +products shipped by the colonists back to England +from Massachusetts contained a large consignment +of sassafras roots. To-day we look for an exhibit of +sassafras bark in drug-store windows in spring. People +buy it and make sassafras tea which they drink "to +clear the blood." "In the Southwestern states the dried +leaves are much used as an ingredient in soups, for which +they are well adapted by the abundance of mucilage they +contain. For this purpose the mature green leaves are +dried, powdered (the stringy portions being separated), +sifted and preserved for use. This preparation mixed +with soups gives them a ropy consistence and a peculiar +flavor, much relished by those accustomed to it. To such +soups are given the names <i>gombo file</i> and <i>gombo zab</i>." (<i>Seton.</i>)</p> + +<p>Emerson says that in New England a decoction of +sassafras bark gave to the housewife's homespun woolen +cloth a permanent orange dye. The name "Ague Tree" +originated with the use of sassafras bark tea as a stimulant +that warmed and brought out the perspiration freely for +victims of the malarial "ague," or "chills and fever."</p> + +<p>Sassafras wood is dull orange-yellow, soft, weak, light, +brittle, and coarse-grained, but it is amazingly durable +in contact with the soil, as the pioneers learned when they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +used it to make posts and fence rails. It is largely used +also in cooperage, and in the building of light boats. Oil +of sassafras distilled from the bark of the roots is used for +perfuming soaps and flavoring medicines.</p> + +<p>With all its practical uses listed above, we must all +have learned to know the tree if it grows in our neighborhood, +and if we observe it closely, month by month +throughout the year, we shall all agree that its beauty +justifies its selection for planting in our home grounds, and +surpasses all its medicinal and other commercial offerings +to the world.</p> + +<p>In winter the sassafras tree is most picturesque by reason +of the short, stout, twisted branches that spread almost at +right angles from the central shaft, and form a narrow, +usually flat, often unsymmetrical head. The bark is +rough, reddish brown, deeply and irregularly divided into +broad scaly plates or ridges. The branches end in slim, pale +yellow-green twigs that are set with pointed, bright green +buds, giving the tree an appearance of being thoroughly +alive while others, bare of leaves, look dead in winter.</p> + +<p>What country boy or girl has not lingered on the way +home from school to nibble the dainty green buds of the +sassafras, or to dig at the roots with his jack-knife for a +sliver of aromatic bark?</p> + +<p>As spring comes on the bare twigs are covered with a +delicate green of the opening leaves, brightened by clusters +of yellow flowers (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg150a">page 150</a></i>) whose starry +calyxes are alike on all of the trees; but only on the fertile +trees are the flowers succeeded by the blue berries, softening +on their scarlet pedicels, if only the birds can wait until +they are ripe.</p> + +<p>Midsummer is the time to hunt for "mittens" and to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +note how many different forms of leaves belong on the +same sassafras tree. First, there is the simple ovate leaf; +second, a larger blade oval in form but with one side extended +and lobed to form a thumb, making the whole +leaf look like the pattern of a mitten cut out by an unskilled +hand; third, a symmetrical, three-lobed leaf, the +pattern of a narrow mitten with a large thumb on each +side. Not infrequently do all these forms occur on a single +twig. Only the mulberry, among our native trees, shows +such a variety of leaf forms as the sassafras. There is +quite as great variation in the size of the leaves. One +law seems to prevail among sassafras trees: more of the +oval leaves than the lobed ones are found on mature trees. +It is the roadside sapling, with its foliage within easy +reach, that delights boys and girls with its wonderful +variety of leaf patterns. Here the size of the leaves greatly +surpasses that of the foliage on full-grown trees, and the +autumnal colors are more glorious in the roadside thickets +than in the tree-tops far above them.</p> + +<p>Sassafras trees grow readily from seed in any loose, +moist soil. A single tree spreads by a multitude of fleshy +root-stalks, and these natural root-cuttings bear transplanting +as easily as a poplar. Every garden border +should have one specimen at least to add its flame to the +conflagration of autumn foliage and the charming contrast +of its blue berries on their coral stalks.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE WITCH HAZEL</div> + +<p>Eighteen genera compose the sub-tropical family in +which <i>hamamelis</i> is the type. Two or three Asiatic +species and one American are known.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +The witch hazel (<i>Hamamelis Virginiana</i>, Linn.) is a stout, +many-stemmed shrub or a small tree, with rough unsymmetrical +leaves, strongly veined, coarsely toothed, and roughly +diamond-shaped. The twigs, when bare, are set with hairy +sickle-shaped buds. Nowhere in summer would an undergrowth +of witch hazel trees attract attention. But in +autumn, when other trees have reached a state of utter rest, +the witch hazel wakes and bursts into bloom. Among the +dead leaves which stubbornly cling as they yellow, and +often persist until spring, the tiny buds, the size of a pin-head, +open into starry blossoms with petals like gold +threads. The witch hazel thicket is veiled with these gold-mesh +flowers, as ethereal as the haunting perfume which +they exhale. Frost crisps the delicate petals but they curl, +up like shavings and stay till spring. At no time is the +weather cold enough to destroy this November flower show.</p> + +<p>Among the blossoms are the pods in clusters, gaping +wide if the seeds are shed; closed tight, with little monkey +faces, if not yet open. The harvest of witch hazel seeds +is worth going far to see. Damp weather delays this most +interesting little game. Dry frosty weather is ideal for it.</p> + +<p>Go into a witch hazel thicket on some fine morning in +early November and sit down on the drift of dead leaves +that carpet the woods floor. The silence is broken now +and then by a sharp report like a bullet striking against the +bark of a near-by trunk, or skipping among the leaves. +Perhaps a twinge on the ear shows that you have been a +target for some tiny projectile, sent to its mark with force +enough to hurt.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 351px;"> +<a name="figpg134" id="figpg134"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_134.png" width="351" height="566" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_111">page 111</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">BARK, BLOSSOM, FRUIT, AND WINTER FLOWER BUDS +OF THE FLOWERING DOGWOOD</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 593px;"> +<a name="figpg135" id="figpg135"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_135.png" width="593" height="426" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_116">page 116</a></div><br /> +<div class="fig_caption">THE MOUNTAIN ASH<br /> +<br /> +The flat, crowded cluster of tiny white flowers is set in a<br /> + whorl of dark-green leaves in May or June</div> +</div> +<br /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +The fusillade comes from the ripened pods, which have a +remarkable ability to throw their seeds, and thus do for the +parent tree what the winged seeds of other trees accomplish. +The lining of the two-celled pod is believed to +shorten and produce a spring that drives the seeds forth +with surprising force when they are loosened from their +attachment. This occurs when the lips part. Frost and +sun seem to decide just when to spring the trap and let fly +the little black seeds.</p> + +<p>A young botanist went into the woods to find out just +how far a witch hazel tree can throw its seeds. She chose +an isolated tree and spread white muslin under it for many +yards in four directions. The most remote of the many +seeds she caught that day fell eighteen feet from the base +of the tree.</p> + +<p>The Indians in America were the first people to use the +bark of the witch hazel for curing inflammations. An infusion +of the twigs and roots is now made by boiling them +for twenty-four hours in water to which alcohol has been +added. "Witch hazel extract," distilled from this mixture, +is the most popular preparation to use for bruises and +sprains, and to allay the pain of burns. Druggists and +chemists have failed to discover any medicinal properties +in bark or leaf, but the public has faith in it. The alcohol +is probably the effective agent.</p> + +<p>Witch hazel comes honestly by its name. The English +"witch hazel" is a species of elm to which superstitious +miners went to get forked twigs to use as divining rods. +No one in the countryside would dream of sinking a shaft +for coal without the use of this forked twig. In any old and +isolated country district in America there is usually a man +whose reputation is based in his skilful use of a forked +witch hazel twig. Sent for before a well is dug, he slowly +walks over the ground, holding the twig erect by its two +supple forks, one in each hand. When he passes over the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +spot where the hidden springs of water are, the twig goes +down, without any volition of the "water-witch." At least, +so he says, and if water is struck by digging, his claims are +vindicated and scoffers hide their heads.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE BURNING BUSH</div> + +<p>American gardeners cherish with regard that amounts +almost to affection any shrub or tree which will lend color, +especially brilliant color, to the winter landscape. Thus +the holly, the Japanese barberry, many of the haws, the +mountain ash, and the rugosa rose will be found in the +shrubbery borders of many gardens, supplying the birds +with food when the ground is covered with snow, and +sprinkling the brightness of their red berries against the +monotony of dull green conifers.</p> + +<p>The burning bush (<i>Euonymus atropurpureus</i>, Jacq.) lends +its scarlet fruits to the vivid colors that paint any winter +landscape. They hang on slender stalks, clustered where +the leaves were attached. Four flattish lobes, deeply separated +by constrictions, form each of these strange-looking +fruits. In October each is pale purplish in color and one +half an inch across. Now the husk parts and curls back, +revealing the seeds, each of the four enveloped in a loose +scarlet wrinkled coat. Until midwinter the little tree is +indeed a burning bush, glowing brighter as the advancing +season opens wider the purple husks, and the little +swinging Maltese cross, made by the four scarlet berries, +is the only thing one sees, looking up from below. +Birds take the berries, though they are bitter and +poisonous.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +In spring the slender branchlets of this little tree are +covered with opposite, pointed leaves, two to five inches +long, and in their axils are borne purplish flowers, with four +spreading recurving petals. In the centre of each is supported +a square platform upon which are the spreading +anthers and styles. It does not require much botanical +knowledge to see a family relationship between this tree +and the woody vine we call "bitter-sweet"; the flowers and +fruits are alike in many features.</p> + +<p>In Oklahoma and Arkansas and eastern Texas the +burning bush becomes a good-sized tree and its hard, close-grained +wood is peculiarly adapted to making spindles, +knitting needles, skewers, and toothpicks. "Prickwood" +is the English name. Chinese and Japanese species +have been added to our list of flowering trees and vines. +Two shrubby species of <i>Euonymus</i> belong to the flora +of North America, but the bulk of the large family is +tropical.</p> + +<p>Our dainty little American tree skirts the edges of deep +woods from New York to Montana, and southward to the +Gulf. In cultivation it extends throughout New England. +"Wahoo," the common name in the South, is probably of +Indian origin.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SUMACHS</div> + +<p>The sumach family contains more than fifty genera, confined +for the most part to the warmer regions of the globe. +Two fruit trees within this family are the mango and the +pistachio nut tree. Commercially important also is the +turpentine tree of southern Europe. The Japanese +lacquer tree yields the black varnish used in all lacquered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +wares. The cultivated sumachs of southern Europe +are important in the tanning industry, their leaves containing +from twenty-five to thirty per cent. of tannic +acid.</p> + +<p>In the flora of the United States three genera of the +family have tree representatives. The genus <i>Rhus</i>, with a +total of one hundred and twenty species, stands first. +Most of these belong to South Africa; sixteen to North +America where their distribution covers practically the +entire continent. Of these, four attain the habit of small +trees.</p> + +<p>Fleshy roots, pithy branchlets, and milky, or sometimes +caustic or watery juice, belong to the sumachs, which are +oftenest seen as roadside thickets or fringing the borders of +woods. The foliage is fernlike, odd-pinnate, rarely simple. +The flowers are conspicuous by their crowding into terminal +or axillary panicles, followed by bony fruits, densely +crowded like the flowers.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Staghorn Sumach</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Rhus hirta</i>, Sudw.</div> + +<p>The staghorn sumach is named for the densely hairy, +forking branchlets, which look much like the horns of a +stag "in the velvet." The foliage and fruit are also +densely clothed with stiff pale hairs, usually red or bright +yellow.</p> + +<p>The leaves reach two feet in length, with twenty or +thirty oblong, often sickle-shaped leaflets, set opposite on +the stem, and terminating in a single odd leaflet. Bright +yellow-green until half grown, dark green and dull above +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +when mature, often nearly white on the under surface, +these leaves turn in autumn to bright scarlet, shading into +purple, crimson, and orange. No sunset was ever more +changeful and glorious than a patch of staghorn sumach +that covers the ugliness of a railroad siding in October. +After the leaves have fallen, the dull red fuzzy fruits persist, +offering food to belated bird migrants and gradually +fading to browns before spring.</p> + +<p>The maximum height of this largest of northern +sumachs is thirty-five feet. The wood of such large specimens +is sometimes used for walking-sticks and for tabourets +and such fancy work as inlaying. Coarse, soft, and +brittle, it is satiny when polished, and attractively streaked +with orange and green. The young shoots are cut and +their pith contents removed to make pipes for drawing +maple sap from the trees in sugaring time.</p> + +<p>But the best use of the tree is for ornamental planting. +In summer, the ugliness of the most unsightly bank is +covered where this tree is allowed to run wild and throw up +its root suckers unchecked. The mass effect of its fernlike +foliage in spring is superb, when the green is lightened +by the fine clusters of pink blossoms. No tree carries its +autumn foliage longer nor blazes with greater splendor in +the soft sunshine of the late year. The hairy staghorn +branches, bared of leaves, hold aloft their fruits like lighted +candelabra far into the waning winter. For screens and +border shrubs this sumach may become objectionable, +by reason of its habit of spreading by suckers as well as +seed.</p> + +<p>Its choice of situations is broken uplands and dry, +gravelly banks. Its range extends from New Brunswick +to Minnesota and southward through the Northern states, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +and along the mountains to the Gulf states. In cultivation, +it is found in the Middle West and on the Atlantic +seaboard, and is a favorite in central and northern +Europe.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Dwarf Sumach</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>R. copallina</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The black dwarf, or mountain sumach, is smaller, with +softer, closer velvet coating its twigs and lining its leaves, +than the burly staghorn sumach wears. It grows all over +the eastern half of the United States, even to the foothills +of the Rocky Mountains, and rises to thirty feet in height +above a short, stout trunk in the mountains of Tennessee +and North Carolina. Its leaves are the most beautiful in +the sumach family. They are six to eight inches long, the +central stalk bearing nine to twenty-one dark green +leaflets, lustrous above, lined with silvery pubescence. A +striking peculiarity is that the central leaf-stem is winged +on each side with a leafy frill between the pairs of leaflets. +In autumn, the foliage mass changes to varying shades of +scarlet and crimson. The flower clusters are copious and +loose, and the heavy fruits nod from their great weight and +show the most beautiful shades, ranging from yellow to dull +red. Sterile soil is often covered by extensive growths of +this charming shrubby tree which spreads by underground +root-stocks. It is the latest of all the sumachs to bloom.</p> + +<p>In the South the leaves are sometimes gathered in +summer to be dried and pulverized for use in tanning +leather. A yellow dyestuff is also extracted from them. +It is a favorite sumach for ornamental planting in this +country and in Europe.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Poison Sumach</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>R. Vernix</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The poison sumach is a small tree with slender drooping +branches, smooth, reddish brown, dotted on the twigs +with orange-colored breathing holes, becoming orange-brown +and gray as the bark thickens. The trunk is often +somewhat fluted under a smooth gray rind. This is one +of the most brilliant and beautiful of all the sumachs, +but <i>unfortunately it is deadly poisonous, more to be dreaded +than the poison ivy of our woods</i>, and the poisonwood of +Florida, both of which are near relatives. By certain +traits we may always know, with absolute certainty, a +poison sumach when we find it. <i>Look at the berries. If +they droop and are grayish white, avoid touching the tree</i>, +no matter how alluring the wonderful scarlet foliage is. +<i>Poison sumachs grow only in the swamps. We should suspect +any sumach that stands with its feet in the water</i>, +whether it bears flowers and fruit or not. The temptation +is strongest when one is in the woods gathering brilliant +foliage for decoration of the home for the holidays. The +bitter poisonous juice that exudes from broken stems turns +black almost at once. This warning comes late, however, +for as it dries upon the hands it poisons the skin. Handled +with care, this juice becomes a black, lustrous, durable +varnish, but it is not in general use.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Smooth Sumach</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>R. glabra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The smooth sumach (<i>see illustrations, <a href="#figpg150b">pages 150-151</a></i>) is +quite as familiar as the staghorn, as a roadside shrub. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +forms thickets in exactly the same way, and its foliage, flowers +and fruit make it most desirable for decorative planting, +especially for glorious autumnal effects. The stems are +smooth and coated with a pale bluish bloom. This is the +distinguishing mark, at any season, of the sumach that +often equals the other species in height, but does not belong +in this book, for the reason that it never attains the +stature of a tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SMOKE TREE</div> + +<p>A favorite tree in American and European gardens is +the smoke tree (<i>Cotinus</i>), a genus which has native representatives +in both continents. The European <i>C. Cotinus</i>, +Sarg., was brought to this country by early horticulturists +and in some respects it is superior to our native<i> C. Americanus</i>, +Nutt. Cultivation for centuries has given the +immigrant species greater vigor and hardiness, which +produces more exuberant growth throughout. Bring in a +sapling of the native tree and it looks a starveling by +comparison.</p> + +<p>The glory of the smoke tree is the utter failure of its +clustered flowers to set seed. Branching terminal panicles +of minute flowers are held high above the dark green simple +leaves. As they change in autumn to brilliant shades of +orange and scarlet, the seed clusters are held aloft. The +seeds are few but the panicles have expanded and show a +peculiar feathery development of the bracts that take +the place of the fruits. The clusters take on tones of +pink and lavender and in the aggregate they form a +great cloud made up of graceful, delicate plumes. At +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +a little distance the tree appears as if a great cloud +of rosy smoke rested upon its gorgeous foliage. Or the +haze may be so pale as to look like mist. This wonderful +development of the flower cluster is unique among +garden shrubs and it places <i>Cotinus</i> in a class by itself. +No garden with a shrubbery border is complete without +a smoke tree, which is interesting and beautiful at any +season.</p> + +<p>In its native haunts our American smoke tree is found +in small isolated groves or thickets, along the sides of +rocky ravines or dry barren hillsides in Missouri, Oklahoma, +and Texas, and in eastern Tennessee and northern +Alabama.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HOLLIES</div> + +<p>The holly family, of five genera, is distributed from the +north to the south temperate zones, with representation +in every continent. It includes trees and shrubs of one +hundred and seventy-five species, seventy of which grow +in northern Brazil. The dried and powdered leaves of +two holly trees of Paraguay are commercially known as +maté, or Paraguay tea, to which the people of South +America are addicted, as we are to the tea of China. +"Yerba maté" has a remarkable, stimulating effect upon +the human system, fortifying it for incredible exertions +and endurance. Indulged in to excess, it has much the +effect of alcohol.</p> + +<p>China and Japan have thirty different species of holly. +America has fourteen, four of which assume tree form; +the rest are shrubby "winterberries."</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>European Holly</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ilex aquifolium</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The holly of Europe is perhaps the most popular ornamental +tree in the world, cultivated in Europe through +centuries, and now coming to be a favorite garden plant +wherever hardy in the United States. Some indication +of its popularity abroad is found in the fact that one +hundred and fifty-three distinct horticultural varieties +are in cultivation. The Englishman makes hedges of it, +and depends upon it to give life and color to his lawn and +flower borders in the winter. The fellfare or fieldfare, a +little thrush, feeds upon the tempting red berries in winter; +but even when these dashes of color are all gone, the +brilliance of the spiny-margined leaves enlivens any +landscape.</p> + +<p>Americans know the European holly chiefly through +importations of the cut branches offered in the markets for +Christmas decoration. The leaf is small, brilliantly +polished, and very deeply indented between long, spiny +tips, giving it a far more decorative quality than the +native evergreen holly of the South.</p> + +<p>Many varieties of the European holly are found in +American gardens, particularly near eastern cities. North +of Washington they must be tied up in straw for the winter, +and in the latitude of Boston it is a struggle to keep +them alive. From southern California to Vancouver, +no such precautions are necessary, and the little trees +deserve a much wider popularity than they yet enjoy. +Grown commercially, they are the finest of Christmas +greens.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>American Holly</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>I. Opaca</i>, Ait.</div> + +<p>The American holly also yields its branches for Christmas +greens. In the remotest village in the North one +may now buy at any grocery store a sprig of red-berried +holly to usher in the holiday season. The tree is a small +one at best, slow-growing, pyramidal, twenty to forty +feet in height, with short, horizontal branches and tough, +close-grained white wood. It is rare to find so close an +imitation of ivory, in color and texture, as holly wood +supplies. It is the delight of the wood engraver, who +uses it for his blocks. Scroll work and turnery employ it. +It is used for tool handles, walking-sticks, and whip-stocks. +Veneer of holly is used in inlay work.</p> + +<p>In southern woods and barren fallow fields where +hollies grow, collectors, without discrimination, cut many +trees each autumn, strip them of their branches, and leave +the trunks to rot upon the ground. The increasing demand +for Christmas holly seriously threatens the present +supply, for no methods are being practised for its renewal. +It will not be long before the wood engraver will have to buy +his blocks by the pound, as he does the eastern boxwood.</p> + +<p>The range of this holly tree extends from southern Maine +to Florida, throughout the Gulf states, and north into +Indiana and Missouri.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Yaupon</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>I. vomitoria</i>, Ait.</div> + +<p>The yaupon is a shrubby tree of spreading habit, with +very small, oval, evergreen leaves and red berries. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +grows from Virginia to Florida and west to Texas and +Arkansas. A nauseating beverage, made by boiling its +leaves, was the famous "black drink" of the Indians. A +yearly ceremonial, in which the whole tribe took part, was +the persistent drinking of this tea for several days, the +object being a thorough cleansing of the system.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_V" id="PART_V"></a> +PART V</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="WILD_RELATIVES_OF_OUR_ORCHARD_TREES" id="WILD_RELATIVES_OF_OUR_ORCHARD_TREES"></a> +WILD RELATIVES OF OUR ORCHARD TREES</div> + +<div class="smcap ind2em">The Apples—The Plums—The Cherries—The Hawthorns—The +Service-berries—The Hackberries—The +Mulberries—The Figs—The Papaws—The +Pond Apples—The Persimmons</div> + + +<div class="caption2">THE APPLES</div> + +<p>The chance apple tree beside the road, with fruit too +gnarly to eat, is common on roadsides throughout New +England. Occasionally one of these trees bears edible +fruit, but this is not the rule. Perhaps the seed thus +planted was from the core of a very delicious apple, +nibbled close, and thrown away with regret. But trees +thus planted are seedlings and seedling apple trees "revert" +to the ancient parent of the race, the wild apple of +eastern Asia. Horticulture began long ago to improve +these wild trees, and through the centuries improvement +and variation have stocked the orchards of all temperate +countries with the multitude of varieties we know. A visit +in October to Nova Scotia or to the Yakima Valley in +Washington, is an eye-opener. Thousands of acres of the +choicest varieties of this most satisfying of all fruits show +the debt we owe to patient scientists, whose work has so +enriched the food supply of the world.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +The pear, the quince, and the curious medlar, with its +core exposed at the blossom end—all relatives of the apple—trace +their lineage to European and Asiatic wild ancestors. +The Siberian crab, native of northern Asia, is the parent of +our hard-fleshed, slender-stemmed garden crabapples. +Japan has given us some wonderful apple trees, with fruit +no larger than cherries, cultivated solely for their flowers. +The ornamental flora of America has been greatly enriched +by these varieties.</p> + +<p>Four native apples are found in American woods. +Horticulturists have produced new varieties by crossing +some of these sturdy natives with cultivated apples, or +their seedling offspring.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Prairie Crab</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Malus Ioënsis</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The prairie crabapple is the woolly twigged, pink-blossomed +wild crab of the woods, from Minnesota and Wisconsin +to Oklahoma, Texas, and Louisiana. It has crossed +with the roadside "wilding" trees and produced a hybrid +known to horticulture as the Soulard apple, from its discoverer. +These wild trees bear fruit that is distinctly an +improvement upon that of either parent. It is regarded +as a distinctly promising apple for the coldest of the +prairie states, and has already become the parent of several +improved varieties.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Wild Crab</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. coronaria</i>. Mill.</div> + +<p>Throughout the wooded regions, from the Great Lakes +to Texas and Alabama, the wild crabapple brightens the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +spring landscape with its rose-colored, spicy-scented blossoms. +The little trees huddle together, their flat tops +often matted and reaching out sidewise from under the +shade of the other forest trees. The twigs are crabbed indeed +in winter, but they silver over with the young foliage +in April. The coral flower buds sprinkle the new leaves, +and through May a great burst of rose-colored bloom +overspreads the tree-tops. It is not sweetness merely +that these flowers exhale, but an exquisite, spicy, +stimulating fragrance, by which one always remembers +them.</p> + +<p>The pioneers made jellies and preserves out of the little +green apples (<i>see illustrations, pages <a href="#figpg150c">150-151</a></i>), which lost +some of their acrid quality by hanging on until after a good +frost. There are those who still gather these fruits as their +parents and grandparents did. In their opinion the wild +tang and the indescribable piquancy of flavor in jellies +made from this fruit are unmatched by those of any other +fruit that grows.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE PLUMS</div> + +<p>The genus <i>prunus</i> belongs to the rose family and includes +shrubs and trees with stone fruits. Of the over +one hundred species, thirty are native to North America; +but ten of them assume tree form, and all but one +are small trees. Related to them are the garden cherries +and plums, native to other countries, and the peach, the +apricot, and the almond, found in this country only in horticultural +varieties. The wood of <i>prunus</i> is close-grained, +solid, and durable, and a few of the species are important +timber trees. The simplest way to identify a member of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +the genus is to break a twig at any season of the year and +taste the sap. If it is bitter and astringent with hydrocyanic +acid (the flavor we get in fresh peach-pits and bitter +almonds), we may be sure we have run the tree down to the +genus <i>prunus</i>.</p> + + +<div class="caption3">The Wild Red Plum</div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Prunus Americanus</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The wild red or yellow plum forms dense thickets in moist +woods and along river banks from New York to Texas and +Colorado. Its leafless, gnarled, and thorny twigs are +covered in spring with dense clusters of white bloom, +honey-sweet in fragrance, a carnival of pleasure and profit +to bees and other insects. In hot weather this nectar +often ferments and sours before the blossoms fall. The +abundant dry pollen is scattered by the wind. The plum +crop depends more upon wind than upon insects, for the +pollination period is very brief.</p> + +<p>After the frost in early autumn, the pioneers of the +prairie used always to make a holiday in the woods and +bring home by wagon-loads the spicy, acid plums which +crowded the branches and fairly lit up the thicket with the +orange and red color of their puckery, thick skins. In a +land where fruit orchards were newly planted, "plum +butter" made from the fruit of nature's orchards was gratefully +acceptable through the long winters. Even when +home-grown sorghum molasses was the only available +sweetening, the healthy appetites of prairie boys and girls +accepted this "spread" on the bread and butter of noon-day +school lunches, as a matter of course.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 361px;"> +<a name="figpg150a" id="figpg150a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_150a.png" width="361" height="570" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_130">page 130</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND ODD LEAF PATTERNS OF THE +SASSAFRAS TREE</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 596px;"> +<a name="figpg150b" id="figpg150b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_150b.png" width="596" height="403" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_141">page 141</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">FOLIAGE AND FLOWER CLUSTER OF THE SMOOTH SUMACH</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 602px;"> +<a name="figpg150c" id="figpg150c"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_150c.png" width="602" height="379" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_148">page 148</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">BUDS, LEAVES, AND FRUIT OF THE WILD CRABAPPLE</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 595px;"> +<a name="figpg150d" id="figpg150d"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_150d.png" width="595" height="432" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_151">page 151</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE CANADA PLUM<br /> +<br /> +Its white, fragrant flowers turn pink in fading;<br /> + and its stiff, zigzag branches are beset with spiny stubs</div> +</div> +<br /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Canada Plum</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. nigra.</i>, Ait.</div> + +<p>The Canada plum (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg150d">page 151</a></i>) whose range +dips down into the northern tier of states, is so near like the +previous species as to be called by Waugh a mere variety. +Its leaves are broad and large, and the flowers and fruit +larger. A peculiarity of blossoming time is that the +petals turn pink before they fall. This tree furnished the +settler with a relish for his hard fare, and the horticulturist +a hardy stock on which to graft scions of tenderer and better +varieties of plums. It is a tree well worth bringing in from +the woods to set in a bare fence-corner that will be beautified +by the blossoms in spring, and in late summer by the +bright orange-colored fruit against the ruddy foliage.</p> + +<p>Exotic plums have greatly enriched our horticulture, +giving us fruits that vie with the peach in size and lusciousness. +In New-England gardens, the damsons, green gages +and big red plums are imported varieties of the woolly +twigged, thick-leaved European, <i>P. domestica</i>, which refused +utterly to feel at home on its own roots in the great +middle prairies of the country. These European plums +have found a congenial home in the mild climate of the +West Coast.</p> + +<p>Japan has furnished to the Middle West and South a +hardy, prolific species, <i>P. triflora</i>, generally immune to the +black knot, a fungous disease which attacks native plums. +Crosses between the Japanese and American native plums +promise well. California now ranks first in prune raising +as an industry, with France a close second. Prunes are the +dried fruit of certain sweet, fleshy kinds of plums. Many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +cultivated varieties of Japanese plums have enriched the +horticulture of our West Coast.</p> + +<p>The almond, now grown commercially in California, is +the one member of the genus prunus whose flesh is dry and +woody, and whose pit is a commercial nut.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE CHERRIES</div> + +<p>Small-fruited members of the genus prunus, wild and +cultivated, are grouped under the popular name, cherries, +by common consent. The pie cherry of New-England gardens +is <i>prunus cerasus</i>, Linn. It often runs wild from gardens, +forming roadside thickets, with small sour red fruits, +as nearly worthless as at home in the wilds of Europe and +Asia. This tree has, through cultivation, given rise to +two groups of sour cherries cultivated in America. The +early, light-red varieties, with uncolored juice, of which the +Early Richmond is a familiar type, and the late, dark-red +varieties, with colored juice, of which the English Morello +is the type.</p> + +<p>The sweet cherry of Europe (<i>P. Avium</i>, Linn.) has given +us our cultivated sweet cherries, whose fruit is more or less +heart-shaped.</p> + +<p>Japan celebrates each spring the festival of cherry blossom +time, a great national fête, when the gardens burst +suddenly into the marvelous bloom of <i>Sakura</i>, the cherry +tree, symbol of happiness, in which people of all classes delight. +The native species (<i>P. pseudo-Cerasus</i>), has been +cultivated by Japanese artist-gardeners in the one direction +of beauty for centuries. Not in flowers alone, but in leaf, +in branching habit, and even in bark, beauty has been the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +ideal toward which patience and skill have striven successfully. +"Spring is the season of the eye," says the Japanese +poet. Of all their national flower holidays, cherry +blossom time, in the third month, is the climax.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Wild Cherry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Prunus Pennsylvanica</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The wild red, bird, or pin cherry grows in rocky woods, +forming thickets and valuable nurse trees to hardwoods, +from Newfoundland to Georgia, and west to the Rocky +Mountains. The birds enjoy the ruddy little fruits and +hold high carnival in June among the shining leaves. +Many an ugly ravine is clothed with verdure and whitened +with nectar-laden flowers by this comparatively worthless, +short-lived tree; and in many burnt-over districts, the bird-sown +pits strike root, and the young trees render a distinct +service to forestry by this young growth, which is gone by +the time the pines and hardwoods it has nursed require the +ground for their spreading roots.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Wild Black Cherry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. serotina</i>, Ehrh.</div> + +<p>The wild black cherry or rum cherry (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg166">page +166</a></i>), is the substantial lumber tree of the genus, whose +ponderous trunk furnishes cherry wood, vying with mahogany +and rosewood in the esteem of the cabinet-maker, who +uses cherry for veneer oftener than for solid furniture.</p> + +<p>The drug trade depends upon this tree for a tonic derived +from its bark, roots, and fruit. Cherry brandies, +cordials, and cherry bounce, that good old-fashioned home-brewed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +beverage, are made from the heavy-clustered fruits +that hang until late summer, turning black and losing +their astringency when dead ripe.</p> + +<p>From Ontario to Dakota, and south to Florida and +Texas, this tree is found, reaching its best estate in moist, +rich soil, but climbing mountain canyons at elevations +of from five to seven thousand feet. A worthy shade and +park tree, the black cherry is charmingly unconventional, +carrying its mass of drooping foliage with the grace of a +willow, its satiny brown bark curling at the edges of +irregular plates like that of the cherry birch.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Choke Cherry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Virginiana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The choke cherry is a miniature tree no higher than a +thrifty lilac bush, from the Eastern states to the Mississippi, +but between Nebraska and northern Texas it reaches +thirty-five feet in height. The trunk is always short, +often crooked or leaning, and never exceeds one foot +in diameter. Its shiny bark, long racemed flowers and +fruit, and the pungent odor of its leaves and bark might +lead one to confuse it with a black cherry sapling. But +there is a marked difference between the two species. +The choke cherry's odor is not only pungent, but rank +and disagreeable besides. The leaf of the choke cherry +is a wide and abruptly pointed oval. The fruit until +dead ripe is red or yellow, and so puckery, harsh, and +bitter that children, who eat the black cherries eagerly, +cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time.</p> + +<p>Birds are not so fastidious; they often strip the trees +before the berries darken. It is probably by these unconscious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +agents of seed distribution that choke-cherry +pits are scattered. From the Arctic Circle to the Gulf of +Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains +this worthless little choke cherry is found in all wooded +regions.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HAWTHORNS</div> + +<p>In the same rose family with apples, plums, cherries, and +service-berries is listed the genus <i>Crataegus</i>, a shrubby race +of trees, undersized as a rule, with stiff, zigzag branches +set with thorns. Over one hundred species have been +described by Charles Sargent in his "Manual of Trees of +North America," published in 1905.</p> + +<p>The centre of distribution for the hawthorn is undoubtedly +the eastern United States. From Newfoundland +the woods are full of them. A few species belong to the +Rocky Mountain region, a few to the states farther west. +Europe and Asia each has a few native hawthorns.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The English Hawthorn</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Crataegus oxyacantha</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The English hawthorn is the best-known species in the +world. When it first came into cultivation, no man knows. +Englishmen will tell you it has always formed the hedge-rows +of the countryside. This is the "blossoming May." +The sweetness of its flowers, snowy white, or pink, or +rose-colored, turns rural England into a garden, while +linnets and skylarks fill the green lanes with music.</p> + +<p>American "forests primeval" were swept with the +woodman's axe before the hawthorns had their chance to +assert themselves sufficiently to attract the attention of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +botanists and horticulturists. The showy flowers and +fruits, the vivid coloring of autumn foliage, and the striking +picturesqueness of the bare tree, with its rigid branches +armed with menacing thorns, give most of these little +trees attractiveness at any season. They grow in any +soil and in any situation, and show the most remarkable +improvement when cultivated. Their roots thrive in +heavy clay. When young the little trees may be easily +transplanted from the wild. They come readily from +seed, though in most species the seed takes two years to +germinate.</p> + +<p>With few exceptions, the flowers of our +<ins title='Correction: was "hawthrons"'>hawthorns</ins> are +pure white, perfect, their parts in multiples of five—a +family trait. Each flower is a miniature white rose. +Rounded corymbs of these flowers on short side twigs +cover the tree with a robe of white after the leaves appear. +In autumn little fleshy fruits that look like apples, cluster +on the twigs. Inside the thick skin, the flesh is mealy +and sweetish around a few hard nutlets that contain the +seed. As a rule, the fruits are red. In a few species they +are orange; in still fewer, yellow, blue, or black.</p> + +<p>It is not practicable to describe the many varieties of our +native hawthorns in a volume of the scope of this one. +A few of the most distinctive species only can be included, +but no one will ever confuse a hawthorn with any other +tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cockspur Thorn</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. Crus-galli</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The cockspur thorn is a small, handsome tree, fifteen +to twenty feet high, with stiff branches in a broad round +head. The thorns on the sides of the twig are three to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +four inches long, sometimes when old becoming branched, +and reaching a length of six or eight inches. Stout and +brown or gray, they often curve, striking downward as a +rule, on the horizontal branches. The leaves, thick, +leathery, lustrous, dark green above, pale beneath, one to +four inches long, taper to a short stout stalk, seeming to +stand on tiptoe, as if to keep out of the way of the thorns. +From the ground up, the tree is clothed in bark that is +bright and polished, shading from reddish brown to gray. +The flowers come late, in showy clusters; and the fruit +gleams red against the reddening leaves. As winter +comes on the leaves fall and the branches are brightened +by the fruit clusters which are not taken by the birds (<i>see +illustration, <a href="#figpg167">page 167</a></i>). All the year long the cockspur +thorn is a beautiful, ornamental tree and a competent +hedge plant, popular alike in Europe and America.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Scarlet Haw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. pruinosa</i>, K. Koch.</div> + +<p>The scarlet haw found from Vermont to Georgia, and +west to Missouri, prefers limestone soil of mountain slopes, +and is more picturesque than beautiful. The foliage is +distinctive; it is dark, blue-green, smooth, and leathery, +pale beneath, and turns in autumn to brilliant orange. +In summer the pale fruit wears a pale bloom but at maturity +it is dark purplish red and shiny.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Haw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. mollis</i>, Scheele</div> + +<p>The red haw is the type of a large group, ample in size, +fine in form and coloring, of fruit and foliage. This tree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +reaches forty feet in height, its round head rising above +the tall trunk, with stout branchlets and stubby, shiny +thorns.</p> + +<p>The twigs are coated with pale hairs, the young leaves, +and ultimately the leaf-linings and petioles are hairy, and +the fruits are downy, marked with dark dots.</p> + +<p>The only fault the landscape gardener can find with +this red haw, is that its abundant fruit, ripe in late summer, +falls in September. The species is found from Ohio +to Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Scarlet Haw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. coccinea</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The scarlet haw, native of the Northeastern states, is one +of the oldest native thorns in cultivation. It is a favorite +in New England gardens, because of its abundant bloom, +deep crimson fruit and vivid autumn foliage. It is a +shrubby, round-headed tree, with stout ascending +branches, set with thorns an inch or more in length.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Haw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. Douglasii</i>, Lindl.</div> + +<p>In the West the black haw is a round-headed, native tree +found from Puget Sound southward through California +and eastward to Colorado and New Mexico. It is a +round-headed tree reaching forty feet in height, in moist +soil. Its distinguishing feature is the black fruit, ripe in +August and September, lustrous, thin-fleshed, sweet, one-half +an inch long. The thorns are stout and sharp, rarely +exceeding one inch in length. The leathery dark-green +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +leaves, one to four inches long, commend this black-fruited +thorn of the West to the Eastern horticulturists. It has +proved hardy in gardens to the Atlantic seaboard and in +Nova Scotia.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SERVICE-BERRIES</div> + +<p>A small genus of pretty, slender trees related to apples, +and in the rose family, has representatives in every continent +of the Northern Hemisphere, and also in North Africa. +Their natural range is greatly extended by the efforts of +horticulturists, for the trees are among the best flowering +species.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Service-berry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Amelanchier Canadensis</i>, T. & G.</div> + +<p>The Eastern service-berry, June-berry, or shad-bush, is +often seen in parks and on lawns; its delicate, purple-brown +branches covered in April, before the oval leaves appear, +with loose, drooping clusters of white flowers. (<i>See +illustration, <a href="#figpg182">page 182</a>.</i>) Under each is a pair of red silky bracts +and the infant leaves are red and silky, all adding their +warmth of color when the tree is white with bloom. The +blossoms pass quickly, just about the time the shad run up +the rivers to spawn. We may easily trace this common +name to the early American colonists who frugally fished +the streams when the shad were running, and noted the +charming little trees lighting up the river banks with their +delicate blossoms, when all the woods around them were +still asleep. In June the juicy red berries call the birds to +a feast. Then the little tree quite loses its identity, for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +forest is roofed with green, and June-berries are quite overshadowed +by more self-assertive species.</p> + +<p>The borders of woods in rich upland soil, from Newfoundland +to the Dakotas and south to the Gulf, are the +habitat and range of this charming little tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Service-berry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. alnifolia</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The Western service-berry grows over a vast territory +which extends from the Yukon River south through the +Coast Ranges to northern California and eastward to Manitoba +and northern Michigan. In the rich bottom lands +of the lower Columbia River, and on the prairies about +Puget Sound, it reaches twenty feet in height, and its +nutritious, pungent fruits are gathered in quantities and +dried for winter food by the Indians. Indeed, the horticulturists +consider this large juicy fine-flavored, black +berry quite worthy of cultivation, as it grows in the wild to +one inch in diameter—the average size of wild plums.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HACKBERRIES</div> + +<p>Fifty or sixty tropical and temperate-zone species of +hackberries include two North American trees which have +considerable value for shade and ornamental planting. +One hardy Japanese species has been introduced; three +exotic species are in cultivation in the South. One is from +South Africa, a second from the Mediterranean basin, and +a third from the Orient.</p> + +<p>It is easy to mistake the hackberry for an elm; the habits +of the two trees lead the casual observer astray. The leaf +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +is elm-like, though smaller and brighter green than the foliage +of the American elm. A peculiarity of the foliage is +the apparent division of the petiole into three main ribs, instead +of a single midrib. At base, the leaves are always +unsymmetrical. The bark is broken into thick ridges set +with warts, separated by deep fissures.</p> + +<p>The absence of terminal buds induces a forking habit, +which makes the branches of a hackberry tree gnarled and +picturesque. The hackberry is not familiarly known by +the inhabitants of the regions where it grows, else it +would more commonly be transplanted to adorn private +grounds and to shade village streets.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Hackberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Celtis occidentalis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The hackberry reaches one hundred and twenty-five feet +in height in moist soil along stream borders or in marshes. +It is distributed from Nova Scotia to Puget Sound, and +south to Florida, Tennessee, Missouri, Texas, and New +Mexico. The beauty of its graceful crown is sometimes +marred by a fungus which produces a thick tufting of twigs +on the ends of branches. The name, "witches' brooms" +has been given to these tufts. Growths of similar appearance +and the same name are produced by insect injury +on some other trees.</p> + +<p>The fruit of the hackberry is an oblong, thin-fleshed +sweet berry, purple in color, one fourth to one half inch +long. It dries about the solitary seed and hangs on the +tree all winter, to the great satisfaction of the birds. (<i>See +illustration, <a href="#figpg183">page 183</a>.</i>)</p> + +<p>Emerson says: "The wood is used for the shafts and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +axle-trees of carriages, the naves of wheels, and for musical +instruments. The root is used for dyeing yellow, the bark +for tanning, and an oil is expressed from the stones of the +fruit."</p> + +<p>The best use we can make of the hackberry tree is to +plant it for shade and ornament. It is easily transplanted, +for the roots are shallow and fibrous, so that well-grown +trees may be moved in winter time. The autumn yellow +of the foliage is wonderfully cheerful, and the warty bark, +checked into small thick plates, is interesting at any season.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>European Nettle Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. Australis</i></div> + +<p>The European nettle tree is supposed to have been the +famous "lotus" of classical literature. Homer tells of the +lotus-eaters who, when they tasted the sweet fruit, straightway +forgot their native land or could not be persuaded to +return. This innocent tree, against which the charge has +never been proved, bears a better reputation for the +qualities of its wood. It is as hard as box or holly, and +as beautiful as satin-wood when polished. Figures of +saints and other images are carved out of it. Hay-forks +are made of its supple limbs. Rocky worthless land is set +apart by law in some countries for the growing of these +trees. Suckers from the roots make admirable ramrods, +coach-whip stocks and walking-sticks. Shafts and axle-trees +of carriages are made of the larger shoots; oars and +hoops are supplied from these coppiced trees. From +northern Africa, throughout Europe, and on to India, the +tree is planted for shade, and its foliage is used as fodder +for cattle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">THE MULBERRIES</div> + +<p>The mulberry family includes fifty-five genera and +nearly a thousand species of temperate-zone and tropical +plants. The genus <i>ficus</i> alone includes six hundred species. +Hemp, important for its fibrous, inner bark, and the hop +vine are well known herbaceous members of the mulberry +family, which stands botanically between the elms and the +nettles—strange company, it would seem, but justified by +fundamental characteristics. Three genera of this family +have tree forms in America—the mulberry, the Osage +orange, and the fig. Two native mulberries and three +exotic species are widely cultivated for their fruit, their +wood, and as ornamental trees. Weeping mulberries are +among the most popular horticultural forms.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Mulberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Morus rubra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The red mulberry grows to be a large dense, round-headed +tree, with thick fibrous roots and milky sap. Its alternate +leaves, three to five inches long, are variable in form, often +irregularly lobed, very veiny, usually rough, blue-green +above, pale and pubescent beneath, turning yellow in early +autumn. The inconspicuous flower spikes are succeeded +by fleshy aggregate fruits like a blackberry, sweet, juicy, +dark purple or red, each individual fruit single-seeded. +Birds and boys alike throng the trees through the long +period during which these berries ripen. They are hardly +worthy to rank with the cultivated mulberries as a fruit +tree. But planted in poultry yards and hog pastures the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +dropping fruits are eagerly devoured by the occupants of +these enclosures.</p> + +<p>The chief value of the tree lies in the durability of its +orange-yellow wood, which, though coarse-grained, soft and +weak, is very durable in the soil and in contact with water. +Hence it has always commended itself to fence- and boat-builder. +It is sometimes planted for ornament, but its +dropping fruit is a strong objection to it as a street or lawn +tree.</p> + +<p>One of the mulberry's chief characteristics is its tenacity +to life. Its seeds readily germinate and cuttings, whether +from roots or twigs, strike root quickly. Indians discovered +that rope could be made out of the bast fibre of +mulberry bark. They even wove a coarse cloth out of the +same material. The early settlers of Virginia, who found +the red mulberry growing there in great abundance, +dreamed in vain of silk culture as an industry based upon +this native tree. Their hopes were not realized. Silk +culture has never yet become a New-World industry.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Mulberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. alba</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white mulberry is a native of northern China and +Japan. From this region it has been extensively introduced +into all warm temperate climates. Its white +berries are of negligible character. It is the leaves that +give this oriental mulberry a unique position in the economic +world. They are the chosen food of silkworms. No +substitute has ever robbed this tree of its preëminence, +maintained for many centuries in its one field of usefulness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +The hardy Russian mulberries are derived from <i>M. alba</i>. +These have done much to enrich the horticulture of our +Northern states, but the parent tree, though it thrives in +the eastern United States and in the South, has not been +the means of establishing silk culture on a paying basis +in this country.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Mulberry</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>M. nigra</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The black mulberry, probably a native of Persia, has +large, dark red, juicy fruits, for which it is extensively +cultivated in Europe. In this country it is hardy only in +the Southern and the Pacific Coast states. It is the best +fruit tree of its family, yet no mulberry is able to take +rank among profitable fruit trees. The fruits are too sweet +and soft, and they lack piquancy of flavor. They ripen a +few at a time and are gathered by shaking the trees.</p> + +<p>The dark green foliage of the black mulberry gives +ample shade throughout the season. Planted in the +garden or in the border of the lawn where no walk will +be defaced by the dropping fruits, the mulberry is a particularly +desirable tree because it attracts some of our +most desirable song-birds to build on the premises. +Given a mulberry tree and a bird-bath near by, and the +smallest city lot becomes a bird sanctuary through the +summer and a wayside inn for transients during the +two migratory seasons.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE FIGS</div> + +<p>The genus <i>ficus</i> belongs to all tropical countries, and +this remarkable range accounts for the six hundred different +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +species botanists have identified. The rubber plant, +popular in this country as a pot and tub plant, is one of the +best-known species. In its East Indian forest home it is +the "Assam Rubber Tree." It may begin life as an air +plant, fixing its roots in the crotch of another tree, in +which a chance seed has lodged. A shock of aërial roots +strikes downward and reaches the ground. After this the +tree depends upon food drawn from the earth. The supporting +host tree is no longer needed. The young rubber +tree has by this time a trunk stiff enough to stand alone.</p> + +<p>Assam rubber, which ranks in the market with the best +Brazilian crude rubber, comes from the sap of this wild +fig tree, <i>Ficus elasticus</i>. Clip off a twig of your leathery-leaved +rubber plant and note the sticky white sap that +exudes. In the highest priced automobile tires you find +the manufactured product.</p> + +<p>Dried figs have always been an important commercial +fruit. These imported figs are from trees that are horticultural +varieties of a wild Asiatic species, <i>Ficus Carica</i>. +Smyrna figs are best for drying. They form a delicious, +wholesome sweet, which has high food value and is more +wholesome than candy for children. Tons of this dried +fruit are imported each year from the countries east of +the Mediterranean Sea. Now California is growing +Smyrna figs successfully.</p> + +<p>The banyan tree of India is famous, striking its aërial +rootlets downward until they reach the ground and take +root, and thus help support the giant, horizontal limbs. +These amazing trees, members of the genus <i>ficus</i>, sometimes +extend to cover an acre or more of ground. To walk +under one is like entering the darkness of a forest of young +trees. By the clearing away of most of these aërial +branches, a great arbor is made for the comfort of people +in regions where the sun's rays are overpowering in the +middle of the day.</p> + +<p>Our own fig trees in North America are but sprawling +parasitic trees, unable to stand alone. They are found +only in the south of Florida, and therefore are generally +unknown.</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 352px;"> +<a name="figpg166" id="figpg166"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_166.png" width="352" height="570" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_153">page 153</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">FLOWERS AND FRUIT OF THE WILD BLACK CHERRY</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 344px;"> +<a name="figpg167" id="figpg167"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_167.png" width="344" height="532" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_156">page 156</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">A FRUITING BRANCH OF THE COCKSPUR THORN</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Golden Fig</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ficus aurea</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The golden fig climbs up other trees and strangles its +host with its coiling stems and aërial roots. One far-famed +specimen has grown and spread like a banyan tree, +its trunk and head supported by secondary stems that +have struck downward from the branches. Smooth as a +beech in bark, crowned with glossy, beautiful foliage, like +the rubber plants, this parasitic fig is a splendid tropical +tree, but the host that supports all this luxuriance is +sacrificed utterly. The little yellow figs that snuggle in +the axils of the leaves turn purple, sweet, and juicy as they +ripen. They are sometimes used in making preserves. +An interesting characteristic of the wood of the golden +fig is its wonderful lightness. Bulk for bulk, it is only +one fourth as heavy as water.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE PAPAWS</div> + +<p>Two of the forty-eight genera of the tropical custard-apple +family are represented by a solitary species each in +the warmer parts of the United States. Important fruit +and ornamental trees in the tropics of the Old World are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +included in this family, but their New-World representatives +are not the most valuable. However, they have a +sufficient number of family traits to look foreign and +interesting among our more commonplace forest trees; +and because their distribution is limited they are not +generally recognized in gardens, where they are planted +more for curiosity than for ornament.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Papaw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Asimina triloba</i>, Dunal.</div> + +<p>The papaw has the family name, custard-apple, from +its unusual fruit, whose flesh is soft and yellow, like custard. +The shape suggests that of a banana. The fruits +hang in clusters and their pulp is enclosed in thick dark +brown skin, wrinkled, sometimes shapeless, three to +five inches long. Dead ripe, the flesh becomes almost +transparent, fragrant, sweet, rather insipid, surrounding +flat, wrinkled seeds an inch long. The fruit is gathered +and sold in local markets from forests of these papaws +which grow under taller trees in the alluvial bottom lands +of the Mississippi Valley. In summer the leaves are +tropical-looking, having single blades eight to twelve +inches long, four to five inches broad, on short, thick +stalks. These leaves are set alternately upon the twig, +and cluster in whorls on the ends of branches. The flowers +appear with the leaves and would escape notice but for +their abundance and the unusual color of their three +large membranous petals. At first these axillary blossoms +are as green as the leaves; gradually the dark pigment overcomes +the green, and the color passes through shades of +brownish green to dark rich wine-red. The full-grown +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +foliage by midsummer has become very thin in texture, +and lined with pale bloom. The tree throughout exhales +a sickish, disagreeable odor. The fruit is improved in +flavor by hanging until it gets a nip of frost.</p> + +<p>This "wild banana tree" is the favorite fruit tree of +the negroes in the Black Belt. Its hardiness is surprising. +From the Southern states, it ranges north into Kansas, +Michigan, New York, and New Jersey.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Melon Papaw</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Carica Papaya</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The melon papaw does not belong to the custard-apple +family, but it grows in southern Florida and throughout +the West Indies, and has the name of our little "wild +banana tree," so it may as well have mention here, as it +is the sole representative of the true Papaw family, and +it is universally cultivated for its fruit in the warm regions +of the world. By selection the fruit has been improved +until it ranks as one of the most wholesome and important +of all the fruits in the tropics. In Florida the papaw +grows on the rich hummocks along the Indian River, and +on the West Coast southward from Bay Biscayne. It +is very common on all the West Indian Islands. It grows +like a palm, with tall stem crowned by huge simple leaves, +one to two feet across, deeply lobed into three main divisions, +and each lobe irregularly cut by narrow sinuses. +The veins are very thick and yellow, and the hollow leaf-stalks +lengthen to three or four feet. The bark of this +tree is silvery white—a striking contrast with the lustrous +head of foliage. The flowers are waxy, tubular, fragrant, +turning their yellow petals backward in a whorl. On fertile +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +trees the fruits mature into great melons, sometimes +as large as a man's head; but these are the cultivated +varieties. Wild papaws rarely exceed four inches long, +and usually they are smaller. When full grown the fruit +turns to bright orange-yellow. The succulent pulp +separates easily from the round seeds.</p> + +<p>In the West Indies, the trees often branch and attain +much greater size than in Florida, where fifteen feet is +the maximum, in the wilds.</p> + +<p>The leaves of this papaw contain, in their abundant +sap, a solvent, <i>papain</i>, which has the property of destroying +the connective tissue in meats. They are bruised by +the natives and tough meat, wrapped closely in them, +becomes tender in a few hours. The fruits are eaten raw +and made into preserves. Negroes use the leaves also as a +substitute for soap in the washing of clothes.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE POND APPLES</div> + +<p>The pond apple (<i>Anona glabra</i>, Linn.) is our only representative +of its genus that reaches tree form and size, +and it is the second of our native custard-apples. It +comes to us <i>via</i> the West Indies, and reaches no farther +north than the swamps of southern Florida. It is a +familiar tree on the Bahama Islands. Thirty to forty +feet high, the broad head rises from a short trunk, less +than two feet in diameter, but very thick compared with +the wide-spreading, contorted branches and slender branchlets. +It is often buttressed at the base. The leaves +are oval and pointed, rarely more than four inches long, +bright green, leathery, paler on the lower surface, plain-margined. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +The flowers in April form pointed, triangular +boxes by the touching of the tips of the yellowish white +petals, whose inner surfaces near the base have a bright +red spot.</p> + +<p>The fruit, which ripens in November, is somewhat heart-shaped, +four to six inches long, compound like a mulberry. +The smooth custard-like flesh forms a luscious mass between +the fibrous core and the surface, studded with the +hard seeds. Fragrant and sweet, these wild pond apples +have small merit as fruit. Little effort has been made to +improve the species horticulturally. Its rival species in +the West Indies have a tremendous lead which they are +likely to keep.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cherimoya</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Anona Cherimolia</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The cherimoya, native of the highlands of Central +America, has long been cultivated, and its fruit has been +classed, with the pineapple and the mangosteen, as one of +the three finest fruits in the world. Certainly it deserves +high rank among the fruits of the tropics. This also has +been introduced into cultivation in southern Florida, but +its culture has assumed much more importance in California, +where it seems to feel quite at home.</p> + +<p>The tree is a handsome one, with broad velvety bright +green leaves, deciduous during the winter months. It +grows wherever the orange is hardy, and its fruit, heart-shaped +or oval, green or brown, is about the size of a navel +orange. Conical protuberances cover the surface and +enclose a mass of white, custard-like pulp, with the flavor +of the pineapple, in which are imbedded twenty or thirty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +brown seeds. A taste for this tropical pond apple is as +easily acquired as for the pineapple, which has become universally +popular. Every garden in the Orange Belt should +have a cherimoya tree for ornament and for its fruit.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE PERSIMMONS</div> + +<p>The persimmon tree of the Southern woods belongs to +the ebony family, which contains some important fruit and +lumber trees, chiefly confined to the genus <i>diospyros</i>, +which has two representatives among the trees of North +America. Doubtless a climate of longer summers would +enable our persimmon trees to produce wood as hard as +the ebony of commerce, whose black heart-wood and thick +belt of soft yellow sap-wood are the products of five different +tropical species of the genus—two from India, one from +Africa, one from Malaysia and one from Mauritius. The +beautiful, variegated wood called <i>coromandel</i> is produced +by a species of ebony that grows in Ceylon.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of persimmon trees are found in the +miocene rocks of Greenland and Alaska, and in the later +cretaceous beds uncovered in Nebraska. These prove +that <i>diospyros</i> once had a much wider range than now, extending +through temperate to arctic regions, whereas now +our two persimmons and the Chinese and Japanese species, +are the only representatives outside the tropics.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Persimmon</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Diospyros Virginiana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The persimmon will never be forgotten by the Northerner +who chances to visit his Virginia cousins in the early +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +autumn. Strolling through the woods he notes among +other unfamiliar trees a tall shaft covered with black bark, +deeply checked into squarish plates. The handsome round +head, held well aloft, bears a shock of angular twigs and +among the glossy, orange-red leaves hang fruits the size +and shape of his Northern crabapples. The rich orange-red +makes it extremely attractive, and the enthusiasm +with which the entire population regards the approaching +persimmon harvest focuses his interest likewise upon this +unknown Southern fruit. He is eager to taste it without +delay, and usually there is no one to object. Forthwith he +climbs the tree, or beats a branch with a long pole until a +good specimen is obtained. Its thin skin covers the mellow +flesh—but the first bite is not followed by a second. +The fruit is so puckery that it almost strangles one.</p> + +<p>But after the frosts and well on into the winter the persimmons +grow more sweet, juicy, and delicious, and lose all +their bitterness and astringency. To find a few of these +sugary morsels in the depths of the woods at the end of a +long day's hunting is a reward that offsets all disappointments +of an empty bag. No fruit could be more utterly +satisfying to a dry-mouthed, leg-weary, hungry boy.</p> + +<p>The opossum is the chief competitor of the local negro +in harvesting the persimmon crop. Individual trees differ +in the excellence of their fruit. These special trees are +"spotted" months before the crop is fit to eat. It would +seem as if the opossums camp under the best persimmon +trees and take an unfair advantage, because they are +nocturnal beasts and have nothing to do but watch and +wait. One thing solaces the negro, when he sees the harvest +diminish through the unusual industry and appetite of his +bright-eyed, rat-tailed rival. He knows what brush-pile +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +or hollow tree shelters the opossom, while he sleeps by +day. Every persimmon the opossom steals helps to make +him fat and tender for the darkey's Thanksgiving feast, so +it is only a question of patience and strategy to recoup his +losses by feasting on his fat 'possum neighbor, and to boast +to the friends who join him at the feast, of the contest of +wits at which he came off victorious.</p> + +<p>In summer time a persimmon tree is handsome in its +oval pointed leaves, often six inches long, with pale linings. +The flowers that appear in axillary clusters on the sterile +trees are small, yellowish green and inconspicuous. On +the fertile trees the flowers are solitary and axillary. The +fruit is technically a berry, containing one to eight seeds.</p> + +<p>The following first impressions of persimmons in Virginia +woods are from the pen of a traveler in the early part +of the seventeenth century, whom Pocahontas might have +introduced to a fruit well known to the Indians:</p> + +<p class="blockquote">"They have a plumb which they call pessemmins, like to +a medler, in England, but of a deeper tawnie cullour; they +grow on a most high tree. When they are not fully ripe, +they are harsh and choakie, and furre in a man's mouth +like allam, howbeit, being taken fully ripe, yt is a reasonable +pleasant fruiet, somewhat lushious. I have seen our +people put them into their baked and sodden puddings; +there be whose tast allows them to be as pretious as the +English apricock; I confess it is a good kind of horse +plumb."</p> + +<p>"'Simmon beer" and brandy are made from the fruit, +and its seeds are roasted to use when coffee is scarce. +The inner bark of the tree has tonic properties, and the +country folk use it for the allaying of intermittent fevers. +The wood is used in turnery, for shoe lasts, plane stocks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +and shuttles. It is a peculiarity of the persimmon tree +that almost one hundred layers of pale sap-wood, the +growth of as many years, lie outside of the black heart-wood, +upon which the reputation of ebony rests.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Japanese Persimmon</b></div> + +<div class="caption2">Kaki</div> + +<p>The native persimmon of Japan has been developed into +an important horticultural fruit. China also has species +that are fruit trees of merit. In the fruit stalls of all +American cities, the Japanese persimmon is found in its +season, the smooth, orange-red skin, easily mistaken for +that of a tomato as the fruits lie in their boxes. The +pointed cones differ in form, however, and the soft mellow +flesh, with its melon-like seeds and leathery calyx at +base, mark this fruit as still a novelty in the East.</p> + +<p>In southern California no garden is complete without a +Japanese persimmon tree to give beauty by its cheerful, +leathery, green leaves and its rich-colored fruits. But the +beginner will establish a grave personal prejudice against +this fruit unless he wait until it is dead ripe, for it has the +astringent qualities of its genus. No fruit is more delicate +in flavor than a thoroughly ripe kaki, so soft that it must be +eaten with a spoon.</p> + +<p>The Department of Agriculture at Washington has +established a number of varieties of these oriental fruit +trees in the warmer parts of the United States. Our +native persimmons are being used as stock upon which to +graft the exotics. A distinct addition to the fruits of this +country has thus been made and the public is fast learning +to enjoy the luscious, wholesome Japanese persimmons.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_VI" id="PART_VI"></a> +PART VI</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_POD-BEARING_TREES" id="THE_POD-BEARING_TREES"></a> +THE POD-BEARING TREES</div> + +<div class="smcap ind2em">The Locusts—The Acacias or Wattles—Other + Pod-bearers</div> + +<p>Whenever we see blossoms of the sweet-pea type on a +tree or pods of the same type as the pea's swinging from the +twigs, we may be sure that we are looking at a member of +the pod-bearing family, <i>leguminosae</i>, to which herbaceous +and woody plants both belong. The family is one of the +largest and most important in the plant kingdom, and its +representatives are distributed to the uttermost parts of +the earth. Four hundred and fifty genera contain the +seven thousand species already described by botanists. +Varieties without number belong to the cultivated members +of the family, and new forms are being produced by +horticulturists all the time. This great group of plants has +fed the human race, directly and indirectly, since the First +Man appeared on earth. Clovers, alfalfas, lentils, peas, +beans yield foodstuffs rich in all the elements that build +flesh and bone and nerve tissues. They take the place of +meat in vegetarian dietaries.</p> + +<p>Besides foods, the pod-bearers yield rubber, dyestuffs, +balsams, oils, medicinal substances, and valuable timber. +A long list of ornamental plants, beautiful in foliage and +flowers, occurs among them, chiefly of shrub and tree form.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +Last, but not least, among their merits stands the fact +that leguminous plants are the only ones that actually enrich +the soil they grow in, whereas the rest of the plant +creation feed upon the soil, and so rob it of its plant food +and leave it poorer than before.</p> + +<p>Pod-bearers have the power to take the nitrogen out of +the air, and store it in their roots and stems. The decay of +these parts restores to the soil the particular plant food +that is most commonly lacking and most costly to replace. +Farmers know that after wheat and corn have robbed the +soil of nitrogen, a crop of clover or cow peas, plowed +under when green and luxuriant, is the best restorer of +fertility. It enriches by adding valuable chemical elements, +and also improves the texture of the soil, increasing +its moisture-holding properties, which commercial fertilizers +do not.</p> + +<p>Seventeen genera of leguminous plants have tree representatives +within the United States. These include about +thirty species. Valuable timber trees are in this group. +All but one, the yellow-wood, have compound leaves, of +many leaflets, often fernlike in their delicacy of structure, +and intricacy of pattern. With few exceptions the flowers +are pretty and fragrant in showy clusters. The ripening +pods of many species add a striking, decorative quality to +the tree from midsummer on through the season. Thorns +give distinction and usefulness to certain of these trees, +making them available for ornamental hedges.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE LOCUSTS</div> + +<p>Three representatives of the genus <i>robinia</i> are among our +native forest trees. They are known in early summer by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +their showy, pea-like blossoms in full clusters, and their +compound leaves, that have the habit of drooping and +folding shut their paired leaflets when night comes on, or +when rain begins to fall. The pods are thin and small, +splitting early, but hanging late on the twigs.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Locust</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Robinia Pseudacacia</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The black or yellow locust is a beautiful tree in its youth, +with smooth dark rind and slender trunk, holding up a +loose roundish head of dark green foliage. Each leaf is +eight to fourteen inches long, of nine to nineteen leaflets, +silvery when they unfold, and always paler beneath. In +late May, the tree-top bursts into bloom that is often so +profuse as to whiten the whole mass of the dainty foliage. +The nectar-laden, white flowers have the characteristic +"butterfly" form, the banner, wings, and keel of the type +pease-blossom. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg198a">page 198</a></i>). The bees +lead the insect host that swarms about them as long as a +locust flower remains to offer sweets to the probing +tongues. Cross-fertilization is the advantage the tree +gains for all it gives. The crop of seeds is sure.</p> + +<p>The angled twigs of the black locust break easily in +windy weather. The rapid growth of the limbs spreads the +narrow head, and its symmetry is soon destroyed, unless +the tree grows in a sheltered situation. An old locust is +usually an ugly, broken specimen, ragged-looking for three-fourths +of the year. The twigs look dead, because their +winter buds are buried out of sight! The bark is dull, +deeply cut into irregular, interlacing furrows, roughened +by scales and shreds on the ridges. In winter the pods +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +chatter querulously, as the wind plays among the tree tops.</p> + +<p>The black locust is found from Pennsylvania to Iowa, +and south from Georgia to Oklahoma. The lumber is +coarse-grained, heavy, hard, and exceptionally durable in +contact with the soil or water. This makes it especially +adaptable for fence posts and boat bottoms. Crystals, +called <i>raphides</i>, in the wood cells, take the edges off tools +used in working locust lumber. Yet it is sought by +manufacturers of mill cogs and wheel hubs, and railroad +companies plant the trees for ties.</p> + +<p>The locust-borer has ruined plantations of this tree of +late years, and trees in the woods have become infested +except in mountainous regions not yet reached by the pest. +Trees become distorted with warty excrescences and the +lumber is riddled with burrows made by the larvae. Until +the entomologist finds a remedy in some natural parasite +of the locust-borer, the outlook for locust culture seems +dark enough. No insecticide can reach an enemy that +hides in the trunk of the tree it destroys.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Clammy Locust</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>R. viscosa</i>, Vent.</div> + +<p>The clammy locust has beautifully shaded pink flowers in +clusters, each blossom accented by the dark red, shiny +calyx, and the glandular exudation of wax, that covers all +new growth. A favorite ornamental locust, this little tree +has been widely distributed in this and other temperate +countries of the globe. Its leaves are delicately feathery, +with the dew-like gum brightening them, as it does also the +hairy, curling pods that flush as they ripen. In winter the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +twigs are ruddy. The trees grow wild on the mountains of +the Carolinas and nowhere else.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Honey Locust</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Gleditsia triacanthos</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The honey locust is a tall handsome flat-topped tree, with +stiff horizontal, often drooping branches, ending in slim +brown polished twigs, with three-branched thorns, stout +and very sharp, set a little distance above the leaf scar of +the previous season. Occasionally a thornless tree occurs.</p> + +<p>Inconspicuous greenish flowers, regular, bell-shaped, +appear in elongated clusters, the fertile and sterile clusters +distinct, but on the same tree. The leaves are almost full-grown +when the blossoms appear. Their feathery, fernlike +aspect is the tree's greatest charm in early June. +When the pods replace the flowers they attract attention +and admiration as their velvety surfaces change from pale +green to rose and they curve, as they lengthen, into all sorts +of graceful and fantastic forms. The sweet, gummy pulp +of the honey locust pods is considered edible by boys, who +brave the thorns to get them. As the autumn approaches, +the pulp turns bitter, and dries around the shiny black +seeds. The purple pods cling and rattle in the wind long +after the yellow leaves have fallen. One by one, they are +torn off, their S-curves tempting every vagrant breeze to +give them a lift. On the crusty surface of snowbanks and +icy ponds, they are whirled along, and finally lodge, to rot +and liberate the seeds. It takes much soaking to prepare +the adamantine seeds for sprouting. The planter +scalds his seed to hasten the process. Nature soaks, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +freezes, and thaws them, and thus the range of the honey +locust is extended.</p> + +<p>In the wild, this tree is found from Ontario to Nebraska, +and south to Alabama and Texas. It chooses rich bottom +lands, but is found also on dry gravelly slopes of the +Alleghany Mountains. Trunks six feet in diameter are +still in existence, preserved from the early forests of the +Wabash Basin in Indiana. They tower nearly one hundred +and fifty feet above the ground, and their branches +are a formidable array of thorns (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg198a">page 198</a></i>), +that have grown into proportions unmatched in trees of +slender build and fewer years. Such a veteran honey +locust is one of the most picturesque figures in a winter +landscape.</p> + +<p>Honey locust wood is hard, coarse-grained, heavy, and +durable in contact with water and soil. It is made into +wheel-hubs, fence-posts, and fuel. In all temperate +countries this species has been used as a shade and ornamental +tree and as a hedge plant.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Kentucky Coffee Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Gymnocladus dioicus</i>, K. Koch</div> + +<p>The Kentucky coffee tree is the one clumsy, coarse member +of a family that abounds in graceful, dainty species. +Its head is small and unsymmetrical, above a trunk that +often rises free from limbs for fifty feet above ground. The +branches are stiff and large, bare until late spring, when the +buds expand and the shoots are thrown out. The leaves +are twice compound, often a yard in length and half as +wide; the leaflets, six to fourteen on each of the five to nine +divisions of the main rib. No other locust can boast a leaf +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +numbering more than one hundred leaflets, each averaging +two inches in length. When the tree turns to gold in +autumn, it is a sight to draw all eyes.</p> + +<p>The flower spray is large, but the flowers are small, imperfect, +salver-form, purplish green—the fertile ones forming +thick, clumsy pods that dangle in clusters, and seem to +weigh down the stiff branchlets. The fresh pulp used to be +made into a decoction used in homeopathic practice. The +ripe seeds were used in Revolutionary times as a substitute +for coffee. How the pioneer ever crushed them is a +puzzle to all who have tried to break one with a nut-cracker. +In China the fresh pulp of the pods of a sister +species is used as we use soap.</p> + +<p>The wood is not hard, but in other respects it resembles +other locust lumber. It is sometimes used in cabinet +work, being a rich, reddish brown, with pale sap-wood.</p> + +<p>The range of the coffee tree extends from New York to +Nebraska, and south through Pennsylvania, Tennessee +and Oklahoma, with bottom lands as the tree's preference. +Nowhere is this species common. Occasionally, it is +planted as a street tree, in this country and abroad.</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 599px;"> +<a name="figpg182" id="figpg182"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_182.png" width="599" height="402" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_159">page 159</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">SERVICE-BERRY IN BLOSSOM<br /> +<br /> +The flowers appear in April, before the leaves</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 594px;"> +<a name="figpg183" id="figpg183"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_183.png" width="594" height="375" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_161">page 161</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE HACKBERRY<br /> +<br /> +Leaves, berries, and (A) pistillate and (B) staminate flowers</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Redbud</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Cercis Canadensis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The redbud covers its delicate angled, thornless branchlets +with a profusion of rosy-purple blossoms, typically +pea-like, before the leaves appear. The unusual color, so +abundant where little redbuds form thickets on the out-skirts +of a woodland, leads to a very general recognition of +this tree among people who go into the April woods for +early violets. It vies with the white banner of the shad-bush, +in doing honor to the spring. Later, the broad +heart-shaped leaves cover and adorn the tree, concealing +the dainty tapering pods that turn to purple as the polished +leaf blades, unmarred by insect or wind, change from green +to clear yellow before falling.</p> + +<p>Tradition has given this charming little locust tree the +name, "Judas-tree," from its European cousin, rumored to +have been the one upon which the choice of Judas fell when +he went out and hanged himself. It is an unearned +stigma, better forgotten, for it does prejudice the planter +against a tree that should be on every lawn, preferably +showing its rosy flowers against a bank of evergreens.</p> + +<p>Its natural range extends from New Jersey to Florida +and west from Ontario to Nebraska and southward. The +largest specimens reach fifty feet in height in Texas and +Arkansas, in river bottom lands, and in the Southwest the +tree is an abundant undergrowth—making a beautiful +woodland picture in early spring.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Yellow-wood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Cladrastis lutea</i>, K. Koch.</div> + +<p>The yellow-wood was named by the wife of a pioneer, +surely, for she soaked the chips and got from them a clear +yellow dye, highly prized for the permanent color it gave to +her homespun cotton and woolen cloth that must have +gone colorless, but for dyestuffs discoverable in the woods.</p> + +<p>The satiny grain of the wood, and its close hard texture, +commended it to the woodsman, who used it for gun +stocks. But the tree is too small to be important for the +lumber it yields.</p> + +<p>In winter the smooth pale bark of the "Virgilia," as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +nurseryman calls it, reminds one of the rind of the beech. +The broad rounded head, often borne on three or more +spreading stems, is formed of drooping graceful branches, +ending in brittle twigs. Summer clothes these twigs with +a light airy covering of compound leaves, of seven to +eleven broadly oval leaflets, on a stalk less than a foot in +length. In autumn, the foliage turns yellow.</p> + +<p>White flowers, pea-like, delicate, fragrant, in clusters a +foot long, and so loose that the flowers seem to drip from +the twig ends, drape the tree in white about the middle of +June, when the young leaves show many tints of green to +form a background for the blossoms.</p> + +<p>This is the supreme moment of the year for one of the +most charming of trees, in any park that cherishes one of +these virgilias. In the wilds of eastern Tennessee, +northern Alabama, and central Kentucky the species is +found in scattered places. But the wild trees have scant +food and they show it. The full beauty of the species is +seen only in cultivation, as one sees it in the Arnold +Arboretum, and in private gardens near Boston. Even +the little pods, thin, satiny pointed, add a harmonious note +of beauty; their silvery fawn color blending with the quiet +Quaker drab worn by the tree all winter. Fortunately, +this hardy beautiful park tree is easily raised from seeds and +from root cuttings. It thrives on soil of many different +kinds. It has no bad habits, no superior, and few equals +among flowering trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE ACACIAS, OR WATTLES</div> + +<p>Australia has contributed to southern California's tree +flora a large number of forms of the acacia tribe, shrubs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +and trees of great variety and beauty of flowers and evergreen +foliage. They are hardy and perfectly at home, and +are planted in such profusion as to be the commonest of all +street and ornamental trees. The leaves are set on a +branching pinnate stem, making them "twice compound" +of many tiny leaflets, fascicled on the sides of the twigs, +alternate on the terminal shoots of the season. The lacy, +fern-like foliage of most acacias would justify the planting +of them for this trait alone. But the abundant mass of +bloom usually overwhelms the tree-tops, obscuring the +foliage with a veil of golden mesh. Sometimes white, but +oftenest yellow, the individual flowers are very small; but +they crowd in button-like heads or elongated spikes, set +close in axillary clusters. In their native woods these +trees flower much less freely than in the land of their adoption. +The curling pods are in most species and varieties +ornamental, as they pass through many color changes before +they finally discharge their seeds.</p> + +<p>Acacias compose a genus of four hundred species, and an +untold and constantly increasing number of cultivated +varieties. The continent of Australia has the greatest representation +of native species. Others belong to Africa—tropical, +northern, and southern regions. Asia, in its +warmer southern territory, and in southwestern China, +has many native acacias. Tropical and temperate South +America, the West Indies, Central America, Mexico, the +southwestern region of the United States, and the islands +of the South Pacific, all have representatives of this wonderful +and far-scattered genus. There is no country interested +in horticulture that does not grow acacias as ornamental +shrubs and trees, even if they must be grown under +glass the year round. In southern England the acacias, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +grown in open ground, and known as "tassel trees," attain +good size.</p> + +<p>Valuable lumber, tanbarks, dyes, perfumes, and drugs +are yielded by acacias. Gum Arabic is the dried sap of +several oriental species, particularly, <i>Acacia Arabica</i>, Linn. +of Egypt and southern Asia.</p> + +<p>As a rule, acacias have slender branches armed with +spines. Often these are too small to attract notice, or to +make the species useful as a hedge plant. All spines are +modifications of the stipules at the base of leaf or leaflet. +Thorns, however, are modified twigs, strong, stiff and +sharp, often branched. The honey locust shows true +thorns, not spines or prickles. The armament of canes of +blackberry is only skin deep. This means of defence is +best called "prickles."</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Acacia</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Acacia melanoxylon</i></div> + +<p>The black acacia, called at home in Australian woods, the +"blackwood-tree," for its black heart-wood, is a familiar +street and shade tree in California. In narrow parkings it +is likely to surprise the planter by outgrowing in a few +years the space allotted to it, and upheaving both cement +walk and curb, by the irresistible force of its thick roots. +It is one of the large timber acacias, and even in the cool +climate of England reaches fifty feet.</p> + +<p>In suitable situations in California it grows much higher, +and its compact conical head of dense evergreen foliage, +gives abundant shade at all seasons. The flowers are +white or cream-colored, lightening the yellow-green of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +new shoots and the dull, opaque of the older leaves, with +abundant clusters in earliest spring. The succeeding +fruits are curling thin pods that hang in brownish sheaves, +giving the tree a rusty look. Each seed is rimmed with a +frill of terra cotta hue that serves as a wing for its flight, +when detached by the wind. The roots send up suckers +and the seeds are quick to grow. So any one can have +black acacias with little trouble or expense. Its shedding +of leaves and pods makes much litter, however, a trait +sometimes overlooked which seriously diminishes its desirability +as a street and shade tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Silver Wattle</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. dealbata</i></div> + +<p>The silver wattle of nursery catalogues is named for its +abundant, silvery-pubescent, feathery foliage. Its flowers—fluffy +golden balls, small but abundant—make this a +wonderfully showy tree.</p> + +<p>Sea-green and turquoise-blue leaves, with abundant +canary-yellow bloom, are traits of many different acacias +in cultivation, all of which are rapid growers, and soon repay +the planter who wants quick results. From being +mere ornaments they rise to the stature of shade trees, and +merely multiply the charms that made them admired +when young. Varieties with sharp spines are employed as +hedge plants. Curious leaf forms and unusual, edgewise +position of the foliage, make us wonder at some of the +glorious "golden wattles" and "knife-leaved acacias," +that bring us glimpses of the forests of Australia and other +strange far countries.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">OTHER POD-BEARERS</div> + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mesquite</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Prosopis juliflora</i>, DC.</div> + +<p>The mesquite or honey pod is one of the wonderful +plants of the arid and semi-arid regions from Colorado +and Utah to Texas and southern California. +At best it is a tree sixty feet high along the rivers of +Arizona. In the higher and more desert stretches it is +stunted to a sprawling shrub, with numerous stems but +a few feet high. Its leaves are like those of our honey +locust but very much smaller, and the tree furnishes little +shade. The bark of the trunk is thick, dark reddish +brown, shallowly fissured between scaly ridges. In +winter the tree looks dead enough, but the young +shoots clothed with tender green bring it to life in early +spring, and the greenish fragrant flowers, thickly set in +finger-like clusters, appear in successive crops from May to +July. These are succeeded by pods four to nine inches +long in drooping clusters, each containing ten to twenty +beans.</p> + +<p>Not its beauty of leaf and blossom but its usefulness is +what makes this tree almost an object of worship to desert +dwellers, red men and white. The long fat pods supply +Mexicans and Indians with a nutritious food, green or ripe. +Cattle feed upon the young shoots and thrive, when other +forage is scant or utterly lacking. The fuel problem of the +desert is solved by the mesquite in a way that is a great +surprise to the newcomer. His sophisticated neighbor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +takes him on a wood-gathering expedition. Stopping +where a shrubby mesquite sprawls, he hitches his team to a +chain or rope that lays hold of the trunk, and hauls the +plant out by its roots. And what roots the mesquite has +developed in its search for water! There is a central tap +root that goes down, down, sometimes sixty feet or more. +Secondary roots branch out in all directions, interlock, +thicken, and form a labyrinth of woody substance, in +quantity and quality that makes the timber above ground +a negligible quantity. This wood is cut into building and +fencing materials—two great needs in the desert. The +waste makes good fuel, and every scrap is precious. +Posts, railroad ties, frames for the adobe houses, furniture, +fellies of wheels, paving blocks, and charcoal are made of +this wonderful tree's root system. A gum resembling gum-arabic +exudes from the stems.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Screw-bean</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. pubescens</i>, Benth.</div> + +<p>The screw-bean or screw-pod mesquite is a small slender-trunked +tree with sharp spines at the bases of the hoary +foliage. The marked distinction between this species and +the preceding one is in the fruit, which makes from twelve +to twenty turns as it matures, and forms when ripe a +narrow straight spiral, one to two inches long; but when +drawn out like a coiled spring the pod is shown to be more +than a foot in length. These sweet nutritious pods are a +most useful fodder for range cattle, and the wood is used +for fencing and fuel. This tree grows from southern Utah +and Nevada through New Mexico and Arizona into San +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +Diego County, California, western Texas and northern +Mexico.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Palo Verde Acacia</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Cercidium Torreyanum</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The palo verde is another green-barked acacia whose +leaves are almost obsolete. Miniature honey-locust +leaves an inch long unfold, a few here and there in March +and April, but they are gone before they fully mature, and +the leaf function is carried on entirely by the vivid green +branches. Clustered flowers, like little yellow roses, +cover the branches in April, and the pointed pods ripen and +fall in July.</p> + +<p>In the Colorado desert of southern California, in the +valley of the lower Gila River in Arizona, on the sides of +low canyons and on desert sandhills into Mexico, this small +tree, with its multitude of leafless, ascending branches, is +one of the brightest features on a hopelessly dun-colored +landscape.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Jamaica Dogwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Icthyomethia Piscipula</i>, A. S. Hitch.</div> + +<p>The Jamaica dogwood is a West Indian tree that grows +also in southern Florida and Mexico. It is one of the +commonest tropical trees on the Florida West Coast from +the shores of Bay Biscayne to the Southern Keys. The +leaves are four to nine inches long, with leaflets three to +four inches in length, deciduous, vivid green, making a tree +fifty feet high an object of tropical luxuriance. Its beauty +is greatly enhanced in May by the opening of the pink, pea-like +blossoms that hang in drooping clusters a foot or more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +in length. The necklace-like pods are frilled on four sides +with thin papery wings.</p> + +<p>The wood of this tree is very durable in contact with +water, besides being heavy, close-grained, and hard. It is +locally used in boat-building, and for fuel and charcoal. All +parts of the tree, but especially the bark of the roots, contain +an acid drug of sleep-inducing properties. In the +West Indies the powdered leaves, young branches, and the +bark of the roots have long been used by the natives to +stupefy fish they try to capture.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Horse Bean</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Parkinsonia aculeata</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The horse bean or retama, native to the valleys of the +lower Rio Grande and Colorado River, is a small graceful +pod-bearing tree of drooping branches set with strong +spines, long leaf-stems, branching and set with many pairs +of tiny leaflets.</p> + +<p>The bright yellow, fragrant flowers are almost perennial. +In Texas the tree is out of bloom only in midwinter. In the +tropics, it is ever-blooming. The fruit hangs in graceful +racemes, dark orange-brown in color, and compressed between +the remote beans. As a hedge and ornamental +garden plant, this tree has no equal in the Southwest. It +is met with in cultivation in most warm countries.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Texas Ebony</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Zigia flexicaulis</i>, Sudw.</div> + +<p>The Texas ebony is a beautiful, acacia-like tree of southern +Texas and Mexico. One of the commonest and most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +beautiful trees on the bluffs along the coast, south of the +Rio Grande. Its leaves are feathery, fern-like, its flowers +in creamy clusters, its pods thick, almost as large as those +of the honey locust. The seeds are palatable and nutritious, +green or ripe. Immature, the pods are cooked like +string beans; ripe, they are roasted, and the pods themselves +are ground and used as a substitute for coffee.</p> + +<p>The wood is valuable in fine cabinet work, and because +it is almost indestructible in contact with the ground, it is +largely used for fence posts. It makes superior fuel. Besides +being more valuable than any other tree of the Rio Grande +Valley, though it rarely exceeds thirty feet in height, it is +worthy of the attention of gardeners as well as foresters in +all warm temperate countries. Prof. Sargent calls it the +finest ornamental tree native to Texas.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Frijolito</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Sophora secundiflora</i>, DC.</div> + +<p>The frijolito or coral-bean is a small, slender narrow-headed +tree, with persistent, locust-like leaves, fragrant +violet-blue flowers, and small one-sided racemes. The +pods are silky white, pencil-like, constricted between the +bright scarlet seeds. The tree grows wild in canyons in +southern Texas and New Mexico, forming thickets or +small groves in low moist limestone soil and stream borders. +It is a close relative of the famous pagoda tree of +Japan, <i>S. Japonica</i>, universally cultivated; and it deserves +to be a garden tree throughout the Southern states.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_VII" id="PART_VII"></a> +PART VII</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="DECIDUOUS_TREES_WITH_WINGED_SEEDS" id="DECIDUOUS_TREES_WITH_WINGED_SEEDS"></a> +DECIDUOUS TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS</div> + +<div class="smcap ind2em">The Maples—The Ashes—The Elms</div> + + +<div class="caption2">THE MAPLES</div> + +<p>A single genus, <i>acer</i>, includes from sixty to seventy +species, widely distributed over the Northern Hemisphere. +A single species goes south of the equator, to the mountains +of Java. All produce pale close-grained, fairly hard wood, +valued in turnery and for the interior finish of houses. The +clear sap of some American species is made into maple +sugar.</p> + +<p>The signs by which we may know a member of the maple +family are two: opposite, simple leaves, palmately veined +and lobed; and fruits in the form of paired samaras, compressed +and drawn out into large thin wings. No amount +of improvement changes these family traits. No other +tree has both leaves and fruits like a maple's.</p> + +<p>The distribution of genus <i>acer</i> is interesting. The original +home of the family is in the Far East. In China +and Japan we may reckon up about thirty indigo maples, +while only nine are native to North America. Of these, +five are in the eastern half of the continent, three in the +West, and one grows indifferently on both sides of the +Great Divide.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sugar Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Acer saccharum</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The sugar maple (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg198b">page 198-199</a></i>) is economically +the most important member of its family in this +country. As an avenue and shade tree it is unsurpassed. +It is the great timber maple, whose curly and bird's-eye +wood is loved by the cabinet-maker; and whose sap boiled +down, yields maple sugar—a delicious sweet, with the +distinctive flavor beloved by all good Americans. In +October the sugar maple paints the landscape with yellow +and orange and red. Its firm broad leaves, shallowly cleft +into five lobes, are variously toothed besides. The flowers +open late, hanging on the season's shoots in hairy yellow +clusters. The key fruits are smooth and plump, with +wings only slightly diverging. They are shed in midsummer.</p> + +<p>Hard maple wood outranks all other maple lumber, +though the curly grain and the bird's-eye are accidental +forms rarely found. Flooring makes special demands +upon this wood. Much is used in furniture factories; and +small wares—shoe lasts, shoe pegs and the like—consume a +great deal. As fuel, hard maple is outranked only by +hickory. Its ashes are rich in potash and are in great demand +as fertilizer in orchards and gardens.</p> + +<p>The living tree, in the park, on the street, casting its +shade about the home, or glowing red among the trees of +the woods, is more valuable than its lumber. Slow-growing, +strong to resist damage by storm, clean in habit and +beautiful the year round—this is our splendid rock maple. +Rich, indeed, is the city whose early inhabitants chose it as +the permanent street tree.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. nigrum</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The black maple is so like the sugar maple that they are +easily confused, but its stout branchlets are orange-colored, +the leaves are smooth and green on both sides, scantly +toothed, and they droop as if their stems were too weak to +hold up the blades. The keys spread more widely than +those of the sugar maple.</p> + +<p>The black maple is the sugar maple of South Dakota +and Iowa. It becomes rarer as one goes east. It is an +admirable lumber tree, as well as a noble street and shade +tree.</p> + +<p>Two soft maples are found in the eastern part of the +country, their sap less sweet, their wood softer than the +hard maples, and their fitness for street planting correspondingly +less.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. rubrum</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The red maple is a lover of swamps. It thrives, +however, on hillsides, if the soil be moist; and is planted +widely in parks and along village streets. In beauty it +excels all other maples. In early spring its swelling buds +glow like garnets on the brown twigs (<i>see illustrations, +<a href="#figpg198c">pages 198-199</a></i>). +The opening flowers have red petals, and the +first leaves, which accompany the early bloom, are red. +In May the dainty flat keys, in clusters on their long, +flexible stems, are as red as a cock's comb, and beautiful +against the bright green of the new foliage. In early +September in New England, a splash of red in the woods, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +across a swamp, is sure to be a scarlet maple that suddenly +declares its name. Against the green of a hemlock forest +these maples show their color like a splash of blood. The +tree is gorgeous.</p> + +<p>In winter the lover of the woods, re-visiting the scenes +of his summer rambles, knows the scarlet maple by the +knotty, full-budded twigs which gleam like red-hot needles +set with coral beads, against the clean-limbed, gray-trunked +tree. The red maple never quite forgets its name.</p> + +<p>As a street tree, it makes rapid progress when it once +becomes established, though it is apt to stand still for a +time after being transplanted. Its branches are short, +numerous, and erect, making a round head, admirably +adapted to the resistance of heavy winds. It is particularly +suited to use in narrow streets.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Soft Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. saccharinum</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The soft maple or silver maple (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg198d">page 199</a></i>) +has a white-lined leaf, cleft almost to the midrib and each +division again deeply cut. It is quick and ready to grow, +and has been widely planted as a street tree, especially in +prairie regions of uncertain rainfall. It is one of the +poorest of trees for street planting, because it has a sprawling +habit and weak brittle wood. The heavy limbs have +great horizontal spread, and are easily broken by ice and +windstorms. When planted on streets, they require +constant cutting back to make them even safe. Thick +crops of suckers rise from the stubs of branches, but the +top thus formed is neither beautiful nor useful.</p> + +<p>Wier's weeping maple, a cut-leaved, drooping variety +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +of this silver maple, is often seen as a lawn tree, imitating +the habit of the weeping willow.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Oregon Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. macrophyllum</i>, Pursh.</div> + +<p>The Oregon maple grows from southern Alaska to Lower +California, along the banks of streams. The great leaves, +often a foot in diameter, on blades of equal length, are the +distinguishing marks of this stout-limbed tree, that grows +in favorable soil to a height of a hundred feet. In southern +Oregon it forms pure forest, its huge limbs forming magnificent, +interlacing arches that shut out the sun and make +a wonderful cover for ferns and mosses far below. The +wood of this tree is the best hard-wood lumber on the +West Coast.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Vine Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. circinatum</i>, Pursh.</div> + +<p>The vine maple reminds one of the lianas of tropical +woods, for it has not sufficient stiffness to stand erect. +It grows in the bottom lands and up the mountain sides, +but always following watercourses, from British Columbia +to northern California. Its vine-like stems spring up in +clusters from the ground, spreading in wide curves, and +these send out long, slender twigs which root when they +touch the ground, thus forming impenetrable thickets, +often many acres in extent.</p> + +<p>The leaf is almost circular and cut into narrow equal +lobes around the margin; green in midsummer, it changes +to red and gold in autumn, and the woodsman, almost +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +worn out with the labor of getting through the maze these +trees form, must delight, when he stops to rest, in the +autumn glory of this wonderful ground cover.</p> + +<p>These little maples lend a wonderful charm to the edges +of forest highways in the Eastern states. Like the hornbeams, +hazel bushes, and ground hemlock, they are lovers +of the shade; and they fringe the forest with a shrubbery +border.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Striped Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. Pennsylvanicum</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The striped maple is quickly recognized by the pale +white lines that streak in delicate patterns the smooth +green bark of the branches. The leaves are large and +finely saw-toothed, with three triangular lobes at the top. +The yellowish bell-flowers hang in drooping clusters, +followed by the smooth green keys, in midsummer. This +tree is called "Moosewood," for moose browse upon it.</p> + +<p>The shrubbery border of parks is lightened in autumn +by the yellow foliage of this little tree, and in winter the +bark is very attractive. "Whistlewood" is the name +the boys know this tree by, for in spring the bark slips +easily, and they cut branches of suitable size for whistles.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mountain Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. spicatum</i>, Lam.</div> + +<p>The mountain maple is a dainty shrub with ruddy stems, +large, three-lobed leaves, erect clusters of yellow flowers +and tiny brown keys. It follows the mountains from +New England to northern Georgia, and from the Great +Lakes extends to the Saskatchewan.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 587px;"> +<a name="figpg198a" id="figpg198a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_198a.png" width="587" height="368" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_178">page 178</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE THORNY TRUNK OF THE HONEY LOCUST, AND THE FOLIAGE AND +FLOWERS OF THE BLACK LOCUST</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 357px;"> +<a name="figpg198b" id="figpg198b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_198b.png" width="357" height="571" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_194">page 194</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">SUGAR MAPLE<br /> +<br /> +Maple sugar is made in February; the trees bloom in May; their +seeds ripen in October</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 397px;"> +<a name="figpg198c" id="figpg198c"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_198c.png" width="397" height="575" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_195">page 195</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE RED MAPLE'S PISTILLATE (left) AND +STAMINATE (right) FLOWERS</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 594px;"> +<a name="figpg198d" id="figpg198d"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_198d.png" width="594" height="390" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_196">page 196</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">SEED KEYS AND NEW FOLIAGE OF THE SOFT OR SILVER MAPLE</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Dwarf Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. glabrum</i>, Torr.</div> + +<p>The dwarf maple ranges plentifully from Canada to +Arizona and New Mexico. Its leaves, typically three-lobed +and cut-toothed, vary to a compound form of three +coarse-toothed leaflets. The winged keys are ruddy in +midsummer, lending an attractive dash of color to the +woods that border high mountain streams.</p> + +<p>Very common in cultivation are the Japanese maples—miniature +trees, bred and cultivated for centuries, wonderful +in the variations in form and coloring of their +leaves. Tiny maple trees in pots are often very old. +Some leaves are mere skeletons.</p> + +<p>The Japanese people are worshippers of beauty and +they delight particularly in garden shows. In the autumn, +when the maples have reached perfection, the populace +turns out in holiday attire to celebrate a grand national +fête. A sort of æsthetic jubilee it is, like the spring +jubilee of the cherry blossom. To each careful gardener +who has patiently toiled to bring his maples to perfection, +it is sufficient reward that the people make this annual +pilgrimage to view them.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Box Elder</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. Negundo</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The box elder is the one maple whose leaves are always +cleft to the stem, making it compound of irregularly +toothed leaflets. The clusters of flattened keys, which +hang all winter on the trees, declare the kinship of this +tree to the maples.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +Fast-growing, hardy, willing to grow in treeless regions, +this tree has spread from its eastern range throughout the +plains, where shelter belts were the first needs of the +settlers. Pretty at first, these box elders are soon broken +down and unsightly. They should be used only as temporary +trees, alternating with elms, hard maples, and +ashes. Where they are neglected, or continue to be +planted, the character of the town or the premises must +be cheap and ugly.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Norway Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. platanoides</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The Norway maple is counted the best maple we have +for street planting. Broad, thin leaves, three-lobed by +wide sinuses, cover with a thick thatch the rounded head +of the tree. Green on both sides, thin and smooth, these +leaves seem to withstand remarkably the smoke, soot, and +dust of cities, and also the attacks of insects. The keys +are large, wide-winged, set opposite, the nutlets meeting +in a straight line. These pale green key clusters are +very handsome among the green leaves in summer—the +tree's chief ornament until the foliage mass turns yellow +in autumn. A peculiarity of the Norway maple is the +milky juice that starts from a broken leaf-stem.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sycamore Maple</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. pseudo-platanus</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The sycamore maple is another European immigrant, +whose broad leaf is thick and leathery in texture, and +pale underneath. Its late-opening flowers are borne in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +long racemes, followed by the small key fruits which +cling to the twigs over winter, making the tree look dingy +and untidy. This tree has not the hardiness nor the compact +form of the Norway maple, and it is subject to the +attack of borers.</p> + +<p>It is the "sycamore" of Europe, famed as a lumber +and an avenue tree abroad, but with us it proves short-lived, +and we have no reason for choosing it. The copious +seed production of the far preferable Norway maple puts +it within the reach of all.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE ASHES</div> + +<p>Few large trees in our American woods have their +leaves set opposite upon the twig. Still fewer of the +trees with compound leaves show this arrangement. Consult +the first broad-leaved tree you meet, and the chances +are that its leaves are set alternately upon the twigs. +There is a multitude of families in this class; but if +the leaves are paired and set opposite, we narrow the +families to a very few. Are the leaves simple? Then +the tree may be a maple or a dogwood, or a viburnum. +Are the leaves opposite and compound? Then you have +one of two families. Are the leaflets clustered on the +end of the leaf-stalk? Then the tree is a buckeye or a +horse chestnut—members of the buckeye family. Are +the leaflets set along the sides of the central stem? Then +the tree is an ash. A few exceptions may be discovered, +but the rule holds in the general forest area of North +America.</p> + +<p>Ash trees have lance-shaped, winged seeds, borne in +profuse clusters, and often held well into the winter. But +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +there is no season when the leaf arrangement cannot be at +once determined by the leaf scars, prominent upon the +twigs; and under the tree there will always be remnants +of the cast-off foliage, to show that it is compound.</p> + +<p>Ash trees are usually large and stately when full grown, +with trunks clothed in smooth bark, checked into small, +often diamond-shaped plates. This gives the trees a +trim, handsome appearance in the winter woods. As +shade trees, ashes are very desirable, and they are valuable +for their timber.</p> + +<p>The near relatives of ashes surprise us. They belong to +the olive family, whose type is the olive tree of the Mediterranean +region, now extensively cultivated in California +for its fruit. Privets, lilacs, and forsythias, favorites in +the gardens of all countries that have temperate climates, +are cousins to the ash tree. One of its most charming +relatives is the little fringe tree of our own woods. Thirty +species of ash are known; half of that number inhabit +North America. There are ash trees in every section of +our country except the extremes of latitude and altitude. +Tropical ash trees are native to Cuba, North Africa, and +the Orient.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Fraxinus Americana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white ash is one of the noblest trees in the American +forest, the peer of the loftiest oak or walnut. When young +it is slim and graceful, but it grows sturdier as it approaches +maturity, lifting stout, spreading branches above a tall, +massive trunk. In the forest the head is narrow, but in +the open the dome of a white ash is as broad and symmetrical +as that of a white oak. A gray rind covers the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +young branches and the bark is gray. The foliage has +white lining and each of the seven leaflets has a short stalk. +These are all characters that distinguish the white ash +from other species and enable one to name it at a +glance. In the South the white ash is undersized and the +wood is of poor quality. In the Northeastern and Central +states it is one of the most important and largest of our +timber trees, with wood more valuable than any other ash. +Its uses are manifold: it is staple in the manufacture of +agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, and in the +interior finish of buildings. Tool handles and oars are +made of white ash and it is superior as fuel. The reddish-brown +heart-wood, with paler sap-wood, is tough, elastic, +hard, and heavy. It is not durable in soil and becomes +brittle with age.</p> + +<p>Ash trees are late in coming into leaf. When all the +forest is green and full of blossoms, the ash trees are still +naked. Not until May do the rusty yellow winter buds of +the white ash swell and throw out on separate trees their +staminate and pistillate flower clusters from the axils of +last year's foliage. (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg214a">page 214</a>.</i>) Then the +leaves unfold; downy at first, becoming bright and shiny +above, but always with pale linings. On fertile trees the +inconspicuous flowers mature into pointed fruits, one to +two inches long. The wing is twice the length of the seed +and is rounded to a blunt point. The seed itself is round +and pointed, on branching stalks that form clusters from +six to eight inches long.</p> + +<p>As a street tree the white ash deserves much more +general favor in cities than it has yet achieved, for it is +straight and symmetrical, and its light foliage grows in +irregular, wavy masses, through which some sunlight can +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +always sift and let grass grow under the tree. This tree is +a rapid grower, perfectly hardy in most sections of the +country, and has no serious insect enemies. The foliage +turns to brownish purple and yellow in the autumn.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. nigra</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The black ash is a lover of marshes, found from Newfoundland +to Manitoba, and from Virginia to Arkansas. +Its blue-black winter buds, the sombre green of its foliage, +and the dark hues of its bark and wood have justified the +popular name of this handsome, slender tree. The leaflets, +oval and long-pointed, are sessile on the hairy leaf stalk, +except the terminal one. At maturity the leaves are +a foot or more in length, of seven to eleven leaflets, that +turn brown and fall early in autumn. The keys of the +black ash are borne in open panicles, eight to ten inches +long; each has a short, flat seed, with a broad blade, +thin, rounded, and notched instead of pointed, at the extremity.</p> + +<p>The wood of black ash has the tough, heavy coarse-grained +qualities of the white ash, but differs in being very +durable and in being easily split into thin layers—each a +year's growth. The Indians taught the early settlers to +weave baskets out of black ash splints. These splints are +easily separated by bending the split wood over a block. +The strain breaks loose the tissue that forms the spring +wood, and separates the bands of tough, dense summer +wood into strips suitable for basket weaving. Black ash is +used for chair seats, barrel hoops, furniture, and cabinet-work. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +The saplings are oftenest chosen for hop and bean +poles.</p> + +<p>As a lawn tree, the black ash has little to recommend it +for it often dies of thirst in the loam of a garden. At best +it is short-lived. Planted in swampy ground, the tree +spreads by seeds, and suckers from the roots, soon forming +extensive thickets, and drinking up the moisture at a marvelous +rate.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. Pennsylvanica</i>, Marsh.</div> + +<p>The red ash follows the courses of streams and lake margins +from New Brunswick to the Black Hills and south into +Florida, Alabama, and Nebraska. This tree is much +planted for shade and ornament in New England, and in +other Eastern sections. The tree is small, spreading into +a compact though irregular head of twiggy, slender +branches. The yellow-green foliage, a foot long, of seven +to nine short, stalked, lustrous leaflets, is lightened by a +pale pubescence on petioles and leaf-linings. The same +velvety down covers the new shoots. Summer and winter +this sign never fails.</p> + +<p>Red ash seeds are extremely long and slender, and have +the most graceful outlines of all the darts that various ash +trees bear. The heavy, round body has a wing twice its +length by which the wind carries the seeds far away. Very +gradually an ash tree launches its seeds. It is easy to +understand why the family is so scattered through any +woods, for the wind is the sower. The reddish bark of the +twigs and trunk of this tree seems to be the justification for +its name. Its brown wood is inferior to white ash.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Green Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. Pennsylvanica</i>, Variety <i>lanceolata</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The green ash has narrower, shorter leaves than the parent +species and usually more sharply saw-toothed margins. +Instead of having pale linings, the leaflets are bright green +on both surfaces. This is the ash tree of the almost treeless +prairies from Dakota southward, where it not only lives, but +flourishes as well as in its native habitat, the rich soil +of stream banks farther east. Its range crosses the Rocky +Mountains and reaches the slopes of the Wasatch Mountains +in Utah. East of the Alleghanies the tree is little +known. It is in the West that it is the dominant ash. +It is one of the few important agencies which have turned +the "Great American Desert" into a land of shady roads +and comfortable, protected homesteads.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Blue Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. quadrangulata</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The blue ash has four-angled twigs, often winged at the +corners with a thin plate of bark. The sap contains a substance +that gives a blue dye when the inner bark is +macerated in water. The tree reaches one hundred and +twenty feet in height, above a slender trunk, and has small +spreading branches that terminate in stout twigs, characteristically +angled.</p> + +<p>The tree is occasionally cultivated in parks and gardens +in the Eastern states where it is a distinct addition to the +list of handsome shade trees. It is hardy, quick of growth, +and unusually free from the ills that beset trees. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +forests it reaches its best estate on the limestone hills of +the Big Smoky Mountains. Its wood ranks with the best +white ash and exceeds it in one particular; it is the most +durable ash wood when exposed alternately to wet and +dry conditions. It is used for vehicles, for flooring and +for handles of tools especially pitchforks.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Oregon Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. Oregona</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The Oregon ash follows the coast south from Puget +Sound to San Francisco Bay, and from the western foothills +of the Sierra Nevada to those of the mountains of southern +California. In southwestern Oregon the tree reaches the +height of eighty feet, with a trunk three to four feet in diameter. +The stout branches form a broad crown where +there is room, and the luxuriant foliage is wonderfully light +in color, pale green above, with silvery pubescent leaf-linings. +Of the five to seven leaflets, all are sessile or +short-stalked, except the terminal one, which has a +stem an inch long. All are oval and abruptly pointed, +thick and firm in texture, turning yellow or russet brown in +autumn. The lumber is counted equal to white ash and is +one of the most valuable of deciduous timber trees in the +western coast states.</p> + +<p>A number of little ash trees, distinct in species from those +described already, are native to limited sections of the +country. All have the family traits by which they are +readily recognized, if seed form, leaf form, and leaf arrangement +are kept in mind. In the corner where Colorado, +Nevada, and Utah meet, is an ash with its leaf reduced to a +single leaflet, but the seeds are profusely borne to declare +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +the tree's name to any one who visits its restricted territory. +In rich soil, three leaflets are occasionally developed.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The European Ash</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>F. Excelsior</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The <i>European ash</i> is the large timber ash from the +Atlantic Coast of Europe to western Asia. The earliest +writers have ranked its wood next to oak in usefulness. It +was known as "the husbandman's tree." Its uses were +listed at interminable length, for "ploughs, axle-trees, +wheel-rings, harrows, balls … oars, blocks for +pulleys, tenons and mortises, poles, spars, handles, and +stocks for tools, spade trees, carts, ladders…. In +short, so good and profitable is this tree that every prudent +Lord of a Manor should employ one acre of ground with +Ash to every twenty acres of other land, since in as many +years it would be more worth than the land itself."</p> + +<p>The saplings, cut when three to six years old, made excellent +fork and spade handles on account of the toughness +and pliability of their fibre. Crates for china were made +of the branches. Steamed and bent, this wood lent itself +to the making of hoops for barrels and kegs. The cutting +off of the main trunk set the roots to sending up a forest of +young shoots, ready for cutting again when they reached +the size for walking-sticks and whip-stocks.</p> + +<p>Quite independent of its lumber value, but possibly +correlated with it, was the great reputation the ash tree +achieved in the myths and superstitions of widely separated +peoples. In south Europe, tradition declared that a +race of brazen men sprung from the ash tree. In the North, +the Norse mythology made <i>Igdrasil</i>, the ash, the "World +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +tree," from whose roots the whole race of men sprung. The +roots of this mythological tree penetrated the earth to its +lowest depths and its giant top supported the heavens. +Wisdom and knowledge gushed from its base as from +a fountain, and underneath were the abodes of the +gods, giants, and the Fates. Superstitions of all kinds +have come down with the language of different peoples, +making the history of the ash tree a most interesting +study.</p> + +<p>A Chinese ash yields a valuable white wax which exudes +from the bark of the twigs. <i>F. ornus</i>, Linn., native to +south Europe and Asia Minor, exudes a waxy secretion +from bark and leaves. This is the manna of commerce. +Last but not least of the products of the ash tree are the +curious and beautiful contortions of the grain found in +"burls" on the trunks of old trees of many species. These +warty excrescences are eagerly bought by special agents for +cabinet-makers. Woodwork from these abnormal growths +shows exquisitely waved lines when polished, as delicate as +those in a banded agate. Fancy boxes, bowls, and other +articles brought fancy prices when made of "ram's horn" +or "fiddleback" ash, which often went under the trade +name of green ebony. The black ash in America is particularly +subject to contortions of the grain.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE ELMS</div> + +<p>Elms of sixteen distinct species are native to boreal and +temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with this +single exception: western North America is without a representative. +Europe has three species, two of which extend +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +their range into eastern Asia and northern Africa. +Southern and central Asia have their own species. Five +are native to our Eastern states. Two European species +are in cultivation in the North Atlantic states, especially +in the neighborhood of Boston, where they are as familiar +as the native species, in street planting.</p> + +<p>Elm trees are valuable for shade and for lumber; their +wood is hard, heavy, tough, pale in color, often difficult +to split. The trees are distinguished from others by +their simple, unsymmetrical, strong-ribbed leaves, saw-toothed, +short-stalked, always unequal and often oblique +at the base of the blade. The flowers, usually perfect, are +inconspicuous, and the seeds are flat, entirely surrounded +by a thin papery wing, that forms two hooks at the tip. +Wind-carried, these seeds have had much to do with +the wide distribution of elms.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Ulmus Americana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white or American elm is widely known as a tall, +graceful wide-spreading tree, usually of symmetrical, +vase shape, with slender limbs and drooping twigs. +(<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg214d">page 215</a>.</i>) It has the rough furrowed +bark characteristic of the genus, dark or light gray, with +paler branches and red-brown twigs. The leaves are +alternate, two to six inches long, broadest near the +abruptly pointed apex. Distinctly one-sided at the +tapering base, the leaves have a fashion of arranging +themselves in a flat spray so as to present almost a continuous +leaf area to the sun. One spray overlaps another, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +and leaves varying in size fit in to fill every little corner +to which sunlight comes. This "leaf mosaic" is not confined +to elms alone. It is especially noticeable on the +southern border of any dense wood.</p> + +<p>Winter offers the best opportunity for the study of +tree forms. Our common elm shows at least five different +patterns. The first is the "vase form," the commonest +and most beautiful. This is best realized by old trees +which have had plenty of room. In it the branches spread +gradually upward at first but at a considerable height +sweep boldly out forming a broad, rounded, or flattened +head. Second is the "plume form," in which two or +three main limbs rise to a great height before branching, +and then break into feathery spray. Trees crowded in +woods are likely to take this form. Third, the "oak tree +form" shows a horizontal habit of branching, and an +angularity of limbs usually more noticeable among oaks. +Fourth, the "weeping willow form," where trees have +short trunks, from which the branches curve rapidly +outward and end in long, drooping branchlets. Fifth is +the "feathered elm," marked by a fringe of short twigs +which outline the trunk and limbs. This "feathering" +is caused by the late development of latent buds. It may +occur in any of the tree types just mentioned, but it is +more noticeable in individuals of the plume form.</p> + +<p>The American elm is very familiar for it grows everywhere +east of the Rocky Mountains. Not to know this +tree is a mark of indifference and ignorance. No village +of any pride but plants it freely as a street tree. It is +hardy and cheerful, reflecting the indomitable spirit of +the pioneer, whom it accompanied by seed and sapling +from the Eastern states into the treeless territories of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +Middle West. With him the tree seized the land and +made it yield a living. Elms, which have outlived the +cottonwoods and willows, are not so large yet as the +patriarchal trees in old New-England villages, yet time +alone is needed to match, in the valley of the Missouri, +the elms in the valley of the Connecticut.</p> + +<p>I think, with due appreciation of its summer luxuriance +of foliage, and the grace and strength of the elm's framework +in winter, that the moment of greatest charm in the +life of a roadside elm comes in the first warm days of late +March. The brown buds on the sides of the twigs are +swelling and a flush of purple overspreads the tree, while +snow still covers the ground. A tremendous "fall of +leaves" ensues, for the tiny bud scales that enclose the +elm flowers are but leaves in miniature. The elms are in +blossom! Each flower of each cluster has a calyx with +scalloped edges, and a fringe of four to nine stamens hanging +far out and surrounding the central solitary ovary. +The color is in the yellow anthers and the dark red calyx +lobes.</p> + +<p>Speedily, the stamens shrivel and pale green pendants, +which are the seeds, cluster upon the twigs. Winged +for flight, these ripen and are scattered before the leaves +are fairly open, and the growth of the season's shoots +begins. Only the pussy willow, the quaking asp, and the +earliest maples bloom as early as the elm. How much +they have missed, who never saw an elm tree in blossom!</p> + +<p>The hubs of the "one-hoss shay" were of "ellum," +its interlacing fibres peculiarly fitting this wood for indestructibility. +Saddle trees, boat timbers, cooperage, and +flooring employ it in quantities. It is also used for flumes +and piles, for it resists decay on exposure to water.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Slippery Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>U. fulva</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The slippery elm is also known as the red elm and moose +elm, because its wood is red and moose are fond of browsing +its young shoots. In regions where moose are rarely +seen, it is the small boy who browses and often utterly +destroys every specimen of this valuable tree. Under the +bark of young shoots a sweet substance is found, which +gives the tree its common name. What man lives who +in the heydey of youth has not had the spring craze for +slippery elm bark, as surely as he had the fever for kite-flying +and playing marbles? The trees in every fence +row show the wounds of jack-knives; stripping the bark, +the boys scrape from its inner surface the thick, fragrant +mucilaginous <i>cambium</i>—a delectable substance that +allays both hunger and thirst. Fortunately the bark of +the limbs supplies the demand; many a veteran tree still +suffers the pollarding process, serving one generation of +schoolboys after another.</p> + +<p>The inner bark, dried and ground and mixed with milk, +forms a valuable food for invalids. Poultices of slippery +elm bark relieve throat and chest ailments. Fevers and +acute inflammatory disorders are treated with the same +bark, which has passed from the list of mere home remedies +to an established place on the apothecary's shelf.</p> + +<p>How shall we tell a slippery elm tree from the American +elm? By its leaf in summer. The roughness of the foliage +is one of its striking characteristics. Crumple a leaf, and +its surfaces grate harshly, for they are covered with stiff, +tubercular hairs. The leaves are larger, often reaching +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +seven inches in length. There is a reddish or tawny +pubescence on all young shoots, and especially on the +bud scales in winter. The tree itself, in winter or summer, +is much more coarse than its cousin. It is also unsymmetrical +in habit, each limb striking out for itself. Very often +one meets a tree quite as one-sided in form as its leaf, +and this without any apparent reason. But given a +chance to grow without mutilation, the slippery elm attains +a height of seventy feet, forming a broad, open head, +in comparatively few years. It is well worth planting +for its lumber and for shade.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Rock Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>U. Thomasi</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The rock elm or cork elm chooses dry, gravelly upland +and low heavy clay soil, on rocky slopes and river cliffs, +from Ontario and New Hampshire westward through +northern New York, southern Michigan to Nebraska +and Missouri. It is more abundant and of largest size +in Ontario and in the southern peninsula of Michigan.</p> + +<p>Its leaf is small, thick, and firm, dark green, and turns to +brilliant yellow in the autumn. Its flowers and fruits +are borne in racemes. At any season, one knows this +cork elm by the shaggy bark on its stout limbs that make +the tree resemble a bur oak. "Rock elm" and "hickory +elm" are names that refer to the hardness of the wood. +The wheelwright counts it the best of all elms. Compact, +with interlacing fibres, there are spring, strength, and +toughness in this wood which adapt it for bridge timbers, +heavy agricultural implements, wheel stocks, sills, and axe-handles. +The name "cork elm" refers to the corky bark +which runs out in winged ridges, even to the twigs.</p> + + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 595px;"> +<a name="figpg214a" id="figpg214a"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_214a.png" width="595" height="405" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_202">page 202</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE WHITE ASH<br /> +<br /> +<table style="width:595px;" summary="White Ash Buds and Flowers"> +<tr> + <td>Winter buds</td> + <td style="width:40%; text-align: center">Pistillate flowers</td> + <td style="width:40%; text-align: center">Staminate flower</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 352px;"> +<a name="figpg214b" id="figpg214b"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_214b.png" width="352" height="559" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_222">page 222</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">A GROUP OF WHITE PINES</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 399px;"> +<a name="figpg214c" id="figpg214c"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_214c.png" width="399" height="578" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_235">page 235</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">LEAVES AND CONES OF THE SHORTLEAF PINE</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 418px;"> +<a name="figpg214d" id="figpg214d"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_214d.png" width="418" height="553" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /> +<div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_210">page 210</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">AMERICAN ELM</div> +</div> +<br /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Winged Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>U. alata</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The winged elm, or wahoo, is dainty and small, its leaves +and the two thin corky blades that arise on each twig +befitting the smallest elm tree in the family. Despite its +corky wings, it has none of the ruggedness of the cork elm, +but is a pretty round-headed tree. It is distributed from +Virginia to Florida and west to Illinois and Texas. +"Mountain elm" and "small-leaved elm" are local +names. "Wahoo" is local also, belonging chiefly to the +South. Even the little seed of this tree is long and slender, +its wing prolonged into two incurving hooks.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The English Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>U. campestris</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The English elm is often seen in the Eastern states, +planted with the American elm in parks and streets, where +the two species contrast strikingly. The English tree +looks stocky, the American airily graceful. One stands +heavily upon its heels, the other on tiptoe. One has a +compact, pyramidal or oblong head, the other a loose open +one. In October the superb English elms on Boston +Common are still bright green, while their American +cousins have passed into "the sere and yellow leaf."</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Scotch Elm</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>U. montana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The Scotch or wych elm is planted freely in parks and +private grounds. It is a medium-sized tree of rather more +strict habit of growth than the American elm. Before +the leaves open the tree often looks bright green from a +distance. This appearance is due to the winged seeds +which are exceptionally large and crowd the twig in great +rosettes.</p> + +<p>One horticultural variety of this species is the weeping +form known as the Camperdown elm, which arches its +limbs downward on all sides, forming when full-grown +a natural arbor. One often sees this tree planted on +lawns of limited extent, and so near the street as to render +utterly absurd its invitation to privacy. To serve that +reasonable and delightful end, the tree should be planted +in a retired corner of one's grounds, where an afternoon +siesta may be enjoyed undisturbed.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_VIII" id="PART_VIII"></a> +PART VIII</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_CONE-BEARING_EVERGREENS" id="THE_CONE-BEARING_EVERGREENS"></a> +THE CONE-BEARING EVERGREENS</div> + +<div class="smcap ind2em">The Pines—The Spruces—The Firs—The Douglas +Spruce—The Hemlocks—The Sequoias—The +Arbor-vitaes—The Incense Cedar—The Cypresses—The +Junipers—The Larches, or Tamaracks</div> + +<p>The cone-bearers, or conifers, are a distinct race that we +commonly call evergreens. They include pines, hemlocks, +spruces, firs, sequoias, cypresses, cedars, and junipers. Besides +these, the tamaracks and the bald cypress must be +included, although their leaves are shed in the autumn. +The term "evergreen" applies equally well to magnolias, +laurels, and many oaks. Birches and alders and magnolias +bear cone-like fruits. Notwithstanding such exceptions, +the cone-bearing trees are mostly evergreen, and +their family traits are so strongly marked that even the beginner +in tree study eliminates the exceptional instances +early in his studies.</p> + +<p>The pines and their relatives in the coniferous group are +an ancient race, composed of proud old "first families." +Along the shores of the Silurian seas they stood up, straight +and tall, their only companions that stood erect, the giant +horse-tails and tree ferns. This was long before modern +tree families had any existence. There were no broad-leaved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +trees. In the coal measures are found the mummied +remains of these prehistoric conifers. The cycads in +the Everglades of Florida are some of their surviving representatives. +These are facing extinction, and the conifers, +too, are declining. They had reached their prime as a race +when the broad-leaved trees appeared upon the earth. +The vigor of the new race enabled it to seize the richest, +well-watered regions. They drove the conifers to seek the +swamps, the exposed seacoasts, the barren and rocky +mountain slopes. Man has ruthlessly destroyed for timber +the coniferous forests of this country and much of the +territory denuded by the axe is either devoted to agriculture +or has been seized by broad-leaved species of trees, +more tenacious of life and with seeds more quick and sure +to germinate than those of the conifers. The time is not +far distant, geologically speaking, when this ancient and +declining family of trees will exist only as man fosters it by +cultivation.</p> + +<p>The conifers have resinous wood, with stiff, needle-like +or scale-like leaves, and inconspicuous flowers of two sorts, +borne in clusters like catkins. The pistillate catkin +matures into a woody cone made of overlapping scales attached +to a central stem. On each scale are borne one or +more winged seeds.</p> + +<p>The one character which is constant in the whole coniferous +group and sets it apart from the rest of the plant +kingdom, is expressed in the name <i>Gymnosperm</i>, applied to +this botanical grand division. It means "naked seed." +There is no ovary in the flower. The naked ovules are +borne on the scales of the fertile spike or catkin, which is +held apart and erect in blossoming time. They are +pollinated by the wind, which sifts them with golden pollen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +dust, abundant in the staminate catkins clustered on the +same tree. Contact of pollen grains and naked ovules is +followed by their coalescence—the "setting of seeds."</p> + +<p>The distinguishing trait of the higher plants that form +the grand division known as <i>Angiosperms</i>, is that the +ovules are borne in a closed ovary, and the pollen lodges on +the end of a stigma. "Pollen tubes" grow down through +the long style, finally reach the hidden ovule, and seed is +set. This complicated process is found in the majority of +flowers one studies in botany classes. Gymnosperms, and +the still lower groups of flowerless ferns and mosses, are +merely glanced at by amateur botanists. The more primitive +plant forms are too difficult for beginners.</p> + +<p>The habit of the conifers is a character upon which we +may depend. With rare exceptions, there is a central +shaft, "the leader," and short horizontal branches in +whorls forming platforms. The side branches, also +whorled, are generally flattened into a horizontal spray. +The leaves are narrow, needle-like, or scale-like, and waxy +or resinous. The tough fibre of the wood enables the conifers +to resist damage by wind and by ice. Snowflakes sift +to the ground instead of accumulating upon the branches +and breaking them by their cumulative weight. The +wind, which pollinated the fertile flowers of coniferous +forests long before nectar-gathering insects came upon the +earth, is the harvester of their seeds. It scatters them far +and wide; each seed has a wing that adapts it to long +journeys in front of a gale.</p> + +<p>The resinous sap that courses through the veins of coniferous +wood seals up the bark, leaves, and cones against the +invasion of enemies, and acts as an antiseptic dressing for +wounds. Without these special adaptations to a life of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +hardship, the conifers would never have held their own as +they have done. They inhabit regions where conditions +discourage all but a few of the broad-leaved trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE PINES</div> + +<p>In a forest of needle-leaved evergreens it is perfectly easy +to distinguish the pines by their leaves. Look along the +twigs and you will find the needles arranged in bundles, +with a papery, enclosing sheath at the base. Follow +farther back and these sheaths are missing, but on long +stretches between the growing tip and the leafless part of +the branch the characteristic sheathed needle-bundles declare +this evergreen to be a pine. No other conifer has +this trait, no pine grows but shows it every day in the +year.</p> + +<p>One half of the eighty known species of pines grow in +North America. Pure forests of great extent are found in +the Southern states, in the Great Lakes region, and on the +mountain slopes in the western and northern parts of the +continent. Smaller areas occur in the Eastern states. +Very soon these forests must be spoken of in the past tense, +for a century of destructive lumbering has almost cleared +the Northeast of pine timber, and though the exploitation +of the pine forests of the South and about the Great Lakes +came later, as population increased in the Middle West, the +work has progressed much more rapidly. The idea of forest +conservation, crystallized into federal law by popular +demand, has come too late to save from wasteful exploitation +the superb pine forests west of the Rockies. Yet +thousands of acres of forests are now under government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +control and here a great object lesson in rational methods +of forest maintenance is being given. The pineries of +the future depend upon the success of methods there employed.</p> + +<p>The uses of pines are not all counted in terms of the +lumberman. There are pines for every situation, soil, and +climate. On low seaboard plains they come down to the +highwater mark. They wade into inundated swamps and +climb to the timber line on arid, rocky mountain-sides. +The bravest species go out into the desert. Almost as +brave are those which survive the smoke and dust of cities +like Pittsburg and St. Louis, though theirs is a losing fight +with sulphurous fumes and cramped root space in the +smoky town. As shelter belts, as wind-breaks, as shade +and ornamental trees, there are pines in cultivation in all +parts of the country, their winter usefulness and beauty +making them universally the choice of home-makers, rich +and poor.</p> + +<p>By-products of pine wood are chiefly turpentine, pitch, +resin, and oil, derived from the resinous sap. "Naval +stores" these products are called, for their consumption is +greatest in shipyards. Turpentine is extensively used in +the arts and industries. If the Southern pine forests are +allowed to dwindle, the deficit in lumber will not affect +world commerce as disastrously as the cutting off of the +naval stores production.</p> + +<p>The lumberman's division of the pines is a convenient +one. "Soft pines" have soft, light wood, not heavily impregnated +with resin. It is the delight of wood-workers. +"Hard pines" have heavy, dark-colored wood, full of resin, +which is a nuisance to the carpenter, because it "gums up" +his tools. The one little sign enables us to distinguish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +hard and soft pines without examination of the wood. +Soft pines shed the papery sheath of their leaf bundles before +the leaves themselves begin to fall. Hard pines retain +the leaf sheath until the leaves are shed. A glance at +any leafy pine branch will enable us to determine to which +of the two classes a given tree belongs.</p> + + +<div class="caption2"><span class="smcap">The Soft Pines</span></div> + +<p>The outward and visible sign of a soft pine is the loose, +deciduous sheath of its leaf bundles. The scales of its +cones are usually unarmed with horns or prickles. The +wood is soft, light colored, close-grained. The number of +leaves in a bundle is the principal key to the species.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Pinus Strobus</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The white pine (<i>see illustrations, <a href="#figpg214b">pages 214-215</a></i>) is the only +pine east of the Rocky Mountains that bears its leaves in +bundles of five. This semi-decimal plan is found in three +western soft pines and two western hard pines; but in the +East, a native tree with needles in fives, leaves no doubt as +to its name. From a distance this plan of five can be seen +in the five branches that form a platform each year around +the central shaft.</p> + +<p>Study a sapling pine and you see in its vigorous young +growth the fulfillment of nature's plan, before storms have +broken any of the branches and changed the mathematics +of the pattern. Stroke the flexible, soft leaves that sway +graceful and lithe in the wind. If it is spring, note that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +the terminal bud has pushed out, and around it five-clustered +buds are forming a circle of shoots. In autumn, after +the season's growth is finished, each twig ends in a single +bud, with a whorl of five buds around it. From the +ground upward, count the platforms of branches. Each +whorl of five marks a year in the tree's growth. The +terminal bud carries the height a foot or two upward, and +its surrounding five buds grow in the horizontal plane, +forming the last and smallest platform of leafy shoots. +Each branch is a year younger than the shoot that bears it. +Note throughout this little tree the plan of five, from leaf +cluster to largest branch.</p> + +<p>Now go to the largest white pine in your neighborhood, +study the plan of five in this tree, and find out the reason +for any failures. Notice the conflict between the branches +in the close platforms. Find branches where this conflict +is in progress. Pick out the winner. Read the age of the +tree by the platforms of branches on the trunk.</p> + +<p>No evergreen is more beautiful than a white pine grown +in rich soil in a situation sufficiently sheltered to defend its +supple branches from breakage by severe winds. Its soft, +plume-like twigs are dark blue-green, with pale lines +lining each individual leaf. The young shoots are yellowish +green, and they lighten in a wonderful manner the +sombre coloring of the older foliage. At the bases of the +new shoots cluster the staminate catkins, in early June. +Yellow and becoming loose and pendulous as the wind +shakes them, they are soon empty of their abundant pollen, +which drifts like gold dust and fills the air. Among the +youngest leaves, toward the end of the shoot, the purplish +rosy lips of the erect pistillate cone-flowers catch the +dust from neighbor trees, and their naked ovules absorb it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +and set seed. Close shut are the lips again, against any +other invasion, while these ovules mature. We shall find +them standing erect until autumn, but next season they +hang down with their added weight, and at the end of the +second summer the scales change from green to brown, +open and give their ripe winged seeds to the wind for distribution. +Because the tree is biennial-fruited, it always +carries two sizes of cones. The large ones are one year +older than the small ones. Ripe cones are five to ten +inches long, with thin, broad, unarmed scales, squarish at +the tips.</p> + +<p>The most hopeful phase of the white pine problem to-day +is the fact that new forests are coming up naturally where +the early lumbering deforested great tracts in the Eastern +states. Careful forestry improves upon nature's method, +and so the pines are being restored on land unfit for agricultural +crops. White pine is one of the most profitable +timber crops to plant at the present time.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mountain Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. monticola</i>, D. Don.</div> + +<p>The mountain pine is scattered through mountain forests +from the Columbia River Basin in British Columbia to +Vancouver Island, along the western slopes of the Rocky +Mountains to northern Montana and Idaho, and south +along the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges in Washington +and Oregon, well into California. From the bottom +lands of streams, where it is most abundant and reaches a +height of one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, and a +trunk diameter of five to eight feet, it climbs to elevations +of eight to ten thousand feet on the California Sierras. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +The bark of young trees and on the branches of old ones is +smooth and pale-gray. The leaves, five in the bundles, +range from one to four inches in length, stiff, blue-green, +whitened by two to six stripes on the inner side. The +cones are twelve to eighteen inches long, with thickened, +pointed scales ending in an abrupt beak. The larger +cone, denser, stiffer foliage, and the white bark make this +white pine of the western mountains a great contrast to +the Eastern white pine.</p> + +<p>Unlike many trees whose size diminishes with increase +in altitude, this white pine grows to majestic size at altitudes +of nearly two miles, its noble figure more striking +and impressive because of the dwindling size of its companions +on the mountain-sides. The lumberman looks +with despair upon these giant white pines, quite out of his +reach.</p> + +<p>In the Arnold Arboretum in Boston a fine seedling +specimen of this western silver pine fruited when but +twelve feet high, and proves vigorous and altogether happy +in this absolutely changed climatic environment. In +Europe the same success attends the cultivation of these +trees, which have become very popular in parks and private +grounds. Their introduction into our Eastern states +can now be assured of success.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Sugar Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Lambertiana</i>, Dougl.</div> + +<p>The sugar pine (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg231">page 231</a></i>) belongs in +the class with those tree giants, the sequoias, with which +it grows in the mountain forests of Oregon and California. +John Muir calls it "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +of all the pine trees in the world." Trees two hundred feet +high, with trunk diameter of six to eight feet, are not uncommon. +The maximum given by Sargent is twelve +feet across the stump. The head of a sugar pine is +rounded and broad, with pendulous branches, tufted with +stout, dark green leaves, three to four inches long. The +cones are the largest known, reaching eighteen inches in +length, rarely longer. The black or dark brown seeds are +one to five inches long, including the flat, blunt wings. +Indians, bears, and squirrels gather the abundant harvest +of these cones, which are rich in nutriment and pleasant +to the taste. Crystals of sugar form white masses like +rock candy, but with a taste of maple sugar, wherever a +break in the bark of a sugar pine permits the escape of the +sweet sap. This gives the tree its name. No other pine +has sap with such a noticeable sugar content.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, these gigantic soft pines belong to the +high Sierras and do not go down to the sea, where lumbermen +could sacrifice them without effort. Nature has +fenced them in by many barriers, and the government, by +reservation in national parks, insures the preservation +of some of the finest sugar pine groves, for the use and +inspiration of all the people.</p> + +<p>A visit to Yosemite is the experience of a lifetime to +any American. Here grow the most gigantic trees in the +world, and the sugar pines are nobler even than the giant +"big trees," for the latter are often decrepit, while the +sugar pines are hale and youthful by comparison. Leaving +behind the scrawny gray digger pines on the foothills, the +traveler enters the belt of the yellow pines, on the higher +elevations, and passing these he comes to the grand sugar +pines along the highest level of the stage road that leads +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +into the National Park. The road is no wider than the +broad stumps of sugar pines, scattered here and there. +The standing trees amaze one with their height and +girth.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to shake off the impression that some +magic has put magnifiers in our eyes; for trees, beetling +cliffs, and rushing cataracts are bigger than their counterparts +in other regions of the world far-famed for their +scenery. The sugar pine trunks seem like great builded +columns, too large for any real tree to grow, and the +"big trees" in the Mariposa Grove intensify this impression +of unreality. In a day or two the traveler becomes +accustomed to his surroundings. He goes out of +the Park and down into the world of men and affairs, +his soul enlarged, his life enriched by an experience he +can never quite forget. He is a bigger, better man for his +brief association with Nature in her noblest manifestations.</p> + +<p>The wood of the sugar pine is soft, golden, satiny, fragrant, +inviting the woodworker through every one of his +senses. A single tree often yields five thousand dollars' +worth of marketable lumber, the finest, straight-grained +soft pine in the world.</p> + +<p>The shame of the century is the wanton destruction of +sugar pine trees by vagrant shingle-makers and thieving +mill-owners, who despoiled the grandest trunks of their +choicest wood, wastefully leaving the bulk to cumber the +ground and invite forest fires. Late and slowly, but surely +also is the popular mind awakening to the fact that forests +belong to the nation and should be conserved and maintained +for the whole people—not wasted for the temporary +enrichment of private owners, as forest wealth has been +squandered in past years.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>Rocky Mountain White Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. flexilis</i>, James</div> + +<p>The Rocky Mountain white pine inhabits mountain +slopes from Alberta to Mexico, including the Sierra Nevada +range. In northern New Mexico and Arizona it +occasionally reaches eighty feet in height, but ordinarily +does not exceed fifty. Its rounded dome, as broad as an +oak, bravely dares the wind on exposed cliffs, and crouches +as a stunted shrub at altitudes of twelve thousand feet. +The "limber pine" it is called, from the toughness of its +fibre, which alone enables its long limbs to sustain the +whipping they get. The leaves form thick, beautiful +dark-green tufts, which are not shed until the fifth or sixth +year. The cones are three to ten inches long, purplish; +scales rounded, abruptly beaked at the apex; narrow wings +entirely surround the seeds, which fall in September.</p> + +<p>This is the lumber pine of the semi-arid ranges of "The +Great American Desert"; the main dependence of builders, +too, on the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Montana.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White-bark Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. albicaulis</i>, Engelm.</div> + +<p>The white-bark pine is a rippled, gnarled, squatting +tree, whose matted branches, cumbered with needles and +snow, make a platform on which the hardy mountain-climber +may walk with safety in midwinter. It offers +him a springy mattress for his bed, as well. The trunk +is covered with snowy bark that glistens like the ice-mantle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +that lies on the treeless mountain-side just above +the timber line.</p> + +<p>From a twelve-thousand-foot elevation on the Rocky +Mountains, in British Columbia and south to the Yellowstone, +the tree clambers down to the five-thousand-foot +line, where it sometimes attains forty feet in height; its +dark green, rigid leaves persist from five to eight years, +always five in a bundle, and never more than two and a +half inches long. The cones, horny-tipped, dark purple, +one to three inches long, are ripe in August; the large sweet +seeds are gathered and eaten by Indians. In California the +tree's range extends into the San Bernardino Mountains.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE TWO "FOXTAIL" PINES</div> + +<p>Two Western pines are distinguished by the common +name "foxtail pine," because the leaves are crowded on +the ends of bare branchlets. <i>P. Balfouriana</i>, M. Murr., +has stiff, stout dark green leaves with pale linings. The +tree is wonderfully picturesque when old, with an open +irregular pyramid, on the higher foothills of the California +mountains, or crouching as an aged straggling shrub at +the timber-line. Its cones are elongated, the scales thickened +and minutely spiny at tip.</p> + +<p>The second five-leaved foxtail pine is <i>P. aristata</i>, Engelm., +also called the "prickle-cone pine," from the curving +spines that arm the scales of the purplish brown fruits. +This is a bushy tree, with sprawling lower branches and +upper ones that stand erect and are usually much longer, +giving the tree a strange irregularity of form. The leaves +are short and crowded in terminal brushes. From a stocky +tree forty feet high, to a shrub at the timber line, this tree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +is found near the limit of tree growth, from the outer +ranges of the mountains of Colorado to those of southern +Utah, Nevada, northern Arizona and southeastern California. +In Eastern parks it is occasionally seen as a +shrubby pine with unusually interesting, artistic cones.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE NUT PINES</div> + +<p>The nut pines, four in number, supply Indians and +Mexicans of the Southwest with a store of food in the +autumn, for the seeds are large and rich in oils and +they have keeping qualities that permit their hoarding +for winter. The four-leaved <i>P. quadrifolia</i>, Sudw., +scattered over the mountains of southern and Lower +California, has four leaves in a cluster, as a rule. A desert +tree, its foliage is pale gray-green, harmonizing with the +arid mesas and low mountain slopes, where it is found. +The cones are small with few scales, but the nut is five-eighths +of an inch long and very rich.</p> + +<p><i>P. cembroides</i>, Zucc., with two to three leaves, is the +"piñon," that covers the upper slopes of Arizona mountains +with open forests fifteen to twenty feet high. The +leaves are one to two inches long, dark green with pale +lines, the branchlets orange-colored and matted with +hairs. The large nuts are very oily, and so abundant in +the mountains of northern Mexico that they are sold in +large quantities in every town.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 642px;"> +<a name="figpg230" id="figpg230"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_230.png" width="642" height="412" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_276">page 276</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">EASTERN RED CEDARS AND HICKORY</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 605px;"> +<a name="figpg231" id="figpg231"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_231.png" width="605" height="381" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_225">page 225</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE SUGAR PINE +<br /> +"The largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all pine trees in the world"</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +The piñon (<i>P. edulis</i>, Engelm.) ranges from the eastern +foothills of the Colorado Rockies to western Texas and +westward to the eastern borders of Utah, southwestern +Wyoming, central Arizona and on into Mexico, often +forming extensive open forests, and reaching an elevation +of seven thousand feet. Short, stiff leaves in clusters +of two or three, dark green, ridged, stout, often persist +for eight or nine years. The tree is a broad compact +pyramid; in age, dense, round-topped, with stout branchlets +and abundant globose cones. Each scale covers two +seeds, wingless, about the size of honey locust seeds, oily, +sweet, nutritious and of delicious flavor. This is the +pine nut <i>par excellence</i>, whose newest market is among +confectioners and fancy grocers throughout the states.</p> + +<p>The one-leaved nut pine (<i>P. monophylla</i>, Torr.), spreads +like an old apple tree, and forms a low, round-topped, picturesque +head, its lower limbs drooping to the ground. The +reduction of the leaves in the clusters to lowest terms, gives +the tree a starved look, and the eighteen or twenty rows of +pale stomates on each leaf give the tree-top a ghostly pallor. +The vigor of the tree is expressed in its abundant +fruit, short, oblong, one to two inches in length, with rich +plump brown seeds upon which the Indians of Nevada and +California have long depended. The wood supplies fuel +and charcoal for smelters; and this stunted tree, rarely +over twenty feet in height, forms nut orchards for the +aborigines and the scattered population of whatever +race, between altitudes of five and seven thousand feet. +From the western slopes of the Wasatch Mountains of +Utah, it ranges to the eastern slopes of the southern +Sierra Nevada, to their western slopes at the head waters of +King's River, and southward to northern Arizona and to +the mountains of southern California.</p> + +<p>John Muir says:</p> + +<p>"It is the commonest tree of the short mountain ranges +of the Great Basin. Tens of thousands of acres are covered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +with it, forming bountiful orchards for the red man. +Being so low and accessible, the cones are easily beaten off +with poles, and the nuts are procured by roasting until the +scales open. To the tribes of the desert and sage plains +these seeds are the staff of life. They are eaten either raw +or parched, or in the form of mush, or cakes, after being +pounded into meal. The time of nut harvest is the +merriest time of the year. An industrious, squirrelish +family can gather fifty or sixty bushels in a single month +before the snow comes, and then their bread for the winter +is sure."</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE PITCH PINES</div> + +<p>Pitch pines have usually heavy coarse-grained, dark-colored +wood, rich in resin—a nuisance to the carpenter. +The leaf-bundles have persistent sheaths. The cone scales +are thick and usually armed. "Hard pine" is a carpenter's +synonym. The group includes some of the most +valuable timber trees in American forests.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Longleaf Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. palustris</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The longleaf pine is preëminent in importance in the +lumber trade and in the production of naval stores. It +stretches in a belt about one hundred and twenty-five +miles wide, somewhat back from the coast, all the way +from Virginia to Tampa Bay and west to the Mississippi +River. Isolated forests are scattered in northern Alabama, +Louisiana, and Texas.</p> + +<p>The trees are tall, often exceeding one hundred feet in +height; with trunks slender in proportion, rarely reaching +three feet in diameter. The narrow, irregular head is +formed of short stout twisted limbs on the upper third of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +the trunk. The leaves are from twelve to eighteen inches +long, forming dense tufts at the ends of the branches. +Being flexible they droop and sway on the ends of erect +branches like shining fountains, their emerald lightened +by the silvery sheaths that invest each group of three.</p> + +<p>Sapling longleaf pines have recently entered the market +for Christmas greens in Northern cities. This threatens +the renewal of longleaf forests that have fallen to the axe of +the lumberman. Unless Federal restriction comes to the +rescue, there is little hope of saving this young growth, for +nothing can exceed in beauty a three-foot sapling of longleaf +pine as a Christmas decoration.</p> + +<p>The lumber of this species is the "Southern pine" of the +builder. Heavy, strong, yellowish brown, durable, it has +a tremendous vogue for flooring and the interior finish of +buildings. It is used in the construction of railway cars. +Its durability in contact with water accounts for its use in +bridge-building, and for masts and spars of vessels. A +great deal of this lumber is exported for use in European +shipyards. It has replaced the dwindling supply of white +pine for building purposes throughout the North, and the +strong demand for it has been followed by lumbering of the +most destructive and wasteful type, because the forests are +owned privately.</p> + +<p>In the early days the American colonists in Virginia +tapped the longleaf pine, collected the resin from the +bleeding wounds, and boiled it down for pitch and tar. +These crude beginnings established an industry now known +as the "orcharding" of the longleaf pine. After a century +of wastefulness and wanton destruction of the trees, it has +become patent to all that scientific methods must be resorted +to in the production of turpentine and other products +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +derived from the living trees. Otherwise the dwindling +industry will soon come to an end.</p> + +<p>Resin is the sap of the tree. The first problem is to +draw it in a manner least wasteful of the product, and least +dangerous to the life of the tree. The second process is the +melting of the collected resin in a still and the drawing off +of the volatile turpentine. What is left solidifies and is +known as <i>rosin</i>.</p> + +<p>"Boxing" the trees was the cutting of a grooved incision +low on the trunk, with a hollow at the base of the vertical +trough to hold the discharge of the bleeding sap-wood. +Resin-gatherers visited the tapped trees and emptied the +pockets into buckets by means of a ladle. They also +scraped away the hardened sap and widened the wounds to +induce the flow from new tissues. This method cost the life +of the tree in two or three years, and it became a prey to +disease and a menace to the whole forest, as fuel for fires +accidentally started. Nowadays, all reasonable owners of +longleaf pine have discarded the old-fashioned boxing and +installed methods approved by the Department of +Forestry.</p> + +<p>Tar was formerly derived from the slow burning of wood +in a clay-lined pit. The branches, roots and other lumber +refuse, cut in small sizes were heaped in a compact mound +and covered with sods and earth. Smoldering fires soon induced +a flow of smoky tar, thick as molasses, in the bottom +of the pit. In due time the flow ceased, the fires went out, +and charcoal was the result of this slow burning. Removing +the charcoal, the tar became available for various purposes; +boiled until it lost its liquid character, it became +tough sticky <i>pitch</i>. This primitive pit method of extracting +tar and making charcoal has been abandoned wherever +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +intelligence governs the industry, and distillation processes +have been installed.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Shortleaf Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. echinata</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The shortleaf pine ranks second to the longleaf in importance +to the lumber industries of the East and South. +It ranges from Staten Island, New York, to north Florida, +and west through West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, +southern Missouri, Louisiana and eastern Texas. It +reaches its largest size and greatest abundance west of the +Mississippi River, where great forests, practically untouched +thirty years ago, have become the centre of the +"yellow pine" industry, out of which vast fortunes have +been made. The wood is preferred by builders, because it +is less rich in resin, softer and therefore more easily worked. +Young trees yield turpentine and pitch, and with the longleaf +and the Cuban pine much forest growth has suffered +destruction in the production of these commodities.</p> + +<p>The slender tree equals the longleaf in height and bears +its dark green leaves in clusters of twos and threes, scattered +on short branches that form a narrow loose head. +The pale green, stout branchlets are lightened by the silvery +sheaths of the young leaves (<i>see illustrations, <a href="#figpg214c">pages 214-215</a></i>) +which are short only in comparison with the companion +species, the longleaf. The cones are abundant; the seeds +numerous, winged for flight, retaining their vitality longer +than most pine seeds. The tree is less sensitive to injuries +and has the propensity, unusual in the pine family, +of throwing up suckers from the roots. In open competition, +this pine will hold its own against the invasion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +other trees, if only allowed to do so. Much of the deforested +territory, let alone, will cover itself with a ripe +crop of shortleaf pine lumber in a hundred years.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Cuban Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Caribaea</i>, Morelet</div> + +<p>The Cuban pine stands third in the triumvirate of lumber +pines of the South. This is the "swamp pine" or +"slash pine," found in the coast regions from South Carolina +throughout Florida, and along the Gulf Coast to the +Pearl River in Louisiana. It is a beautiful pine—tall, +with dense crown of dark green leaves, in twos and threes, +eight to twelve inches long, falling at the end of their +second season, before they lose their brightness. A large +part of the turpentine of commerce has been derived from +these coast forests, as well as lumber, which takes its +place in the Northern market with the longleaf and the +shortleaf.</p> + +<p>Natural reforestation has taken place in the Southeast, +and a large part of the turpentine exported by Georgia and +South Carolina to-day, is from second-growth Cuban pine, +on land from which the lumber companies have stripped +the virgin growth.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Loblolly Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Taeda</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The loblolly or old field pine chooses land generally sterile +and otherwise worthless. It grows in swamps along the +Atlantic coast, from New Jersey through the Carolinas, +and follows the Gulf from Tampa Bay into Texas. Inland, +it is found from the Carolinas to Arkansas and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +Louisiana. It has remarkable vitality of seed and seedlings, +which do equally well on sterile uplands, on water-soaked +ground, or where soil is light and sandy. It is very +apt to take possession of land once cleared for agriculture. +The young trees crowd together and grow with tremendous +vigor the first years of their lives, successfully +holding large tracts in pure forests. The limbs are short, +thick, matted, forming a compact rounded head; the leaves +slender, stiff, twisted, pale-green, six to nine inches long, in +groups of threes. The wood is rich in resin, but differs +greatly in quality with age and the fertility of the soil. +"Rosemary pine" was heavy, hard, close-grained, with a +thin rim of soft sap-wood. This famous lumber, preferred +by shipbuilders of many countries for masts, grew in the +virgin forest of the Carolinas. Giants were cut in the rich +marsh lands back from the Sounds. But the small loblolly +pine, grown on sandy soil, is but third-grade lumber, +the sap-wood three times as thick as the heart-wood and exceedingly +coarse-grained. One merit has recently been +discovered in this lumber, that formerly blackened before +it was seasoned, by the invasion of a fungous growth. It +quickly absorbs creosote, which renders it immune from +decay. It is used in the building of docks, cars, boats, and +locally in house-building. Its wood makes a sharp, quick +heat when dried. It is used in bakeries and brick kilns, +and in charcoal-burning.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Pitch Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. rigida</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The pitch pine goes down to the very water's edge on the +sand-dunes along the New-England Coast, and spreads on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +worthless land from New Brunswick to Georgia and west +to Ontario and Kentucky. Occasionally in cultivation the +tree is symmetrical, and grows to considerable size. In the +most favorable situations, however, it rarely exceeds fifty +feet in height, with gnarled rough branches, oftenest irregular +in form and becoming painfully grotesque with age. +The persistence of its clustered black cones adds to the +tree's ugliness; and the tufted, scant foliage has a sickly +yellowish-green color when new, and becomes darker and +twisted the second year. The cones are armed with stout +thorns and often remain on the trees ten or twelve years. +The knots, particularly, are rich in resin—the delight of +camping parties. "Pine-knots" and "candlewood" are +household necessities in regions where these trees are the +prevailing species of pine.</p> + +<p>Starved as is its existence, the pitch pine springs up with +amazing vigor after a fire. Suckers are sent up about the +roots of the fire-killed trees, and the wind scatters the seeds +broadcast for a new crop. The chief merit of the tree is +that it grows on worthless land, and holds with its gnarled +roots the shifting sand-dunes of the New-England Coast +better than any other tree.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Gray Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. divaricata</i>, Sudw.</div> + +<p>The gray pine goes farther north than any other pine, +following the McKenzie River to the Arctic Circle. From +Nova Scotia to the Athabasca River, it covers barren +ground, reaching its greatest height, seventy feet, in pure +forests north of Lake Superior. In Michigan it forms the +"jack-pine plains" of the Lower Peninsula. As a rule it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +a crouching, sprawling tree, its twigs covered with scant +short dingy leaves in twos, averaging an inch in length. +The wood is a great boon to the regions this tree inhabits. +It is light, soft, weak, and close-grained; used for posts, railroad +ties, building material and fuel. Its seeds germinate +better from cones that have been scorched by fire.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Digger Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Sabiniana</i>, Dougl.</div> + +<p>The digger pine is a western California tree of the semi-arid +foothill country. Gray-green, sparse foliage on the +gnarled branches gives the tree a forlorn starved look, +as it stands or crouches, singly or in scattered groups, +along the gravelly sun-baked slopes. The great cones, +six to ten inches long, fairly loading the branches, express +most emphatically the vigor of the tree. The thickened +scales protrude at a wide angle from the central core, and +each bears a strong beak, triangular, flattened like a +shark's tooth, but curved. The rich oily nuts, as big as +lima beans, furnish a nourishing food to the Indians. +The Digger tribe harvested these nuts, and the pioneer +gave the tree the tribal name.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Pitch Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Coulteri</i>, D. Don.</div> + +<p>The Western pitch pine, most abundant in the San +Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains, at elevations +of about a mile above the sea, has cones not unlike those +of the digger pine, in the armament of their scales. +These are notable by being the heaviest fruits borne by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +any pine tree. Occasionally they exceed fifteen inches in +length and weigh eight pounds. The seeds are one-half +an inch in length, not counting the thin wing, which is +often an inch long.</p> + +<p>The leaves of this "big-cone" pine match the cones. +They are stout, stiff, dark blue-green, six to sixteen inches +long, three in a bundle, which has a sheath an inch or more +in length. Crowded on the ends of the branches, these +leaves would entitle this tree to qualify as a "foxtail" +pine, except for the fact that the foliage persists into the +third and fourth year, which clothes the branches far +back toward the trunk and gives the tree a luxuriant +crown. The dry slopes and ridges of the Coast Ranges of +California are beautified by small groves and scattered +specimens of this striking and picturesque pine, so unlike +its neighbors. Its wood is used only for fuel. In European +countries this is a popular ornamental pine, planted +chiefly for its great golden-brown cones.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Knob-cone Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. attenuata</i>, Lemm.</div> + +<p>The knob-cone pine inhabits the Coast Ranges from the +San Bernardino Mountains northward on the western +slopes of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains, +into southwestern Oregon, where it forms pure forests +over large areas, its altitude limit being four thousand +feet. It is a tall slim tree of the hot dry fire-swept foothills, +and it comes again with absolute certainty after +forest fires. The clustered cones, three to six inches long, +are amazingly hard and do not open at maturity, but wait +for the death of the tree. Leaves three to seven inches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +long, in clusters of three, firm, rigid, pale yellow or bluish +green, cover the tree with a sparse thin foliage-mass; +but the branches, new and old, are covered with cones, +many of which are being swallowed up by the growth +of wood on trunk and limb. Thirty or forty years these +cones may hang, their seeds never released and never losing +their vitality, until fire destroys the tree. Then the scales +open and the winged seeds are scattered broadcast. +They germinate and cover the deforested slopes with a +crop of knob-cone pine saplings that soon claim all standing +room and cover the scars of fire completely.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Monterey Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. radiata</i>, D. Don.</div> + +<p>The Monterey pine, like its companion, the Torrey pine, +is restricted to a very narrow area. They grow together +on Santa Rosa Island. At Point Pinos, south of Monterey +Bay, this tree stands a hundred feet in height, with trunks +occasionally five to six feet in diameter, its branches +spreading into a round luxuriant, though narrow, head. +From Pescadero to San Simeon Bay, in a narrow belt a +few miles wide, and on the neighboring islands, this +tree finds its limited natural range; but the horticulturist +has noted the silvery sheen of its young growth and the +rich bright green that never dulls in its foliage. Its quick +growth and handsome form in cultivation make it the +most desirable pine for park and shade planting in California. +Indeed it is a favorite park tree north to Vancouver +along the Coast. It has been introduced into Europe +and is occasionally met in parks in the Southeastern states.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Yellow Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. ponderosa</i>, Laws.</div> + +<p>The Western yellow pine forms on the Colorado Plateau +the most extensive pine forests of the American continent. +Mountain slopes, high mesas, dry canyon sides, even +swamps, if they occur at elevations above twenty-five +hundred feet, furnish suitable habitats for this amazing +species, in some of its varying forms. From British +Columbia and the Black Hills it follows the mountains +through the Coast Ranges, Sierras, and the Great Continental +Divide, to the highlands of Texas and into Mexico, +forming the most extensive pine forests in the world. +All sorts of construction work draw upon this wonderful +natural supply of timber, from the droughty western +counties of the Dakotas, Nebraska and Texas, to the +Pacific Coast.</p> + +<p>The typical tree has thick plates of cinnamon-red bark, +a massive trunk, five to eight feet in diameter, one hundred +to two hundred feet high, with many short, thick, forked +branches in a spire-like head. In arid regions the trunk +is shorter and the head becomes broad and round-topped. +Near the timber line and in swamps, the trees are stunted +and the bark is nearly black.</p> + +<p>The leaves of this pine tree are two or three in a bundle, +stout, dark yellow-green, five to eleven inches long, deciduous +during their third season. Their color has given the +name to the species, for the wood is not yellow, but light +red, with nearly white sap-wood.</p> + +<p>On the way to the Yosemite, the traveler meets the +yellow pine—splendid tracts of it—with the giant sugar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +pine, in open park-like areas, where each individual tree +has room to manifest the noble strength of its tall shaft.</p> + +<p>The flowers appear in May, brightening the even color +of the shiny leaves with their pink or brown staminate +clusters two or three inches wide. The crimson pistillate +cones hide at the ends of the branches, lengthening into +fruits three to ten inches in length, and half as wide. +Strong, recurving tips, armed with slender prickles, are +seen in the scales of the reddish-brown cones that fall soon +after they spread and liberate the winged seeds. These are +produced in abundance, are scattered widely by the wind, +and accomplish the renewal of these mountain forests.</p> + +<p>The bark is usually very thick at the bases of the trunks, +reaching eighteen inches on the oldest trees. With this +cloak wrapped about its living cambium, the yellow pine +is able, better than most trees, to survive a sweeping +forest fire.</p> + +<p>Botanists have found <i>P. ponderosa</i> extremely variable, +and they quarrel among themselves about species and +variety, for the tree endures many climates, adapts itself +to varying conditions and develops a type for each +habitat and region. In old lake basins on the Sierra +slopes, "variety <i>Jeffreyi</i>, Vasey," is the name given to the +gigantic yellow pine, which there finds food and moisture in +abundance and reaches its finest proportions and its +greatest lumber value.</p> + +<p>In the Rocky Mountains, "variety <i>scopulorum</i>, Engelm.," +is the type. "But all its forms can be traced to a +common origin and so the parent species stands; and +despite man's devastating axe the yellow pine flourishes +in the drenching rains and fog of the northern coast at +the level of the sea, in the snow-laden blasts of the mountains, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +in the white glaring sunshine of the interior plateaus +and plains, and on the borders of mirage-haunted deserts, +volcanoes, and lava beds,—waving its bright plumes in +the hot winds undaunted, blooming every year for centuries, +and tossing big ripe cones among the cinders and +ashes of nature's hearths." (<i>John Muir.</i>)</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Scrub Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. contorta</i>, Loud.</div> + +<p>The scrub pine is the humble parent of one of the splendid +Western lumber pines, whose description comes under +its varietal name. Down the coast of Alaska, usually in +sphagnum bogs, on sand-dunes, in tide-pools and deep +swamps to Cape Mendocino, the indomitable, altogether-admirable +scrub pine holds its own against cold, salt air +and biting arctic blasts. No matter how stunted, gnarly +and round-shouldered these trees are, one thing they do, +often when only a few inches high: <i>they bear cones</i>, and +keep them for years; and each season add more. Up +from the sea the scrub pine climbs, ascending the Coast +Ranges and western slopes of the Cascade Mountains, +changing its habit to a tree twenty to thirty feet tall with +thick branches and dark red-brown bark, checked into +oblong plates. Gummy exudations of this pitch pine +make it peculiarly liable to running fires. Thousands +of acres are destroyed every summer, but they seize the +land again and soon cover it with the young growth. +This happens because the burned trees drop their cones, +which open and set free the seeds which have never lost +their vitality.</p> + +<p>In all the vast region over which this vagrant tree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +swarms, it furnishes firewood and shelter. The pioneer +blesses it, and a great multitude of wild things, both plant +and animal, maintain their lives in comfort and security +because of its protection.</p> + +<p>The lodge-pole pine or tamarack pine is but a variety +(<i>Murrayana</i>) of <i>P. contorta</i>, that grows in forests on both +slopes of the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, +at elevations of from seven to eight thousand feet, and +stretches away into British Columbia and Alaska, and +southward to the San Jacinto Range. Between eight +thousand and nine thousand five hundred feet in altitude, +along the Sierra Nevada in California, it reaches its greatest +size and beauty, and forms extensive dense forests. +The young trees have very slender trunks, and often stand +crowded together like wheat on the prairie. An average +forest specimen is five inches in diameter, when thirty +or forty feet in height. No wonder the Indian in Wyoming +and Colorado called it "the lodge-pole pine," for +their supple trunks fitted these trees, while yet saplings, +to support the lodge he built.</p> + +<p>Richer, moister ground nourishes this fortunate offspring +of the scrub pine. The two-leaved foliage, usually +about two inches long, wears a cheerful yellow-green, while +the parent tree is dark and sombre, with leaves an +inch in length. The hard, strong, brown wood of <i>contorta</i> +contrasts strikingly with that of its variety, which is +light yellow or nearly white—soft, weak, straight-grained +and easily worked. Its abundance in regions where other +timber is scarce, brings it into general use for construction +work. It also furnishes railroad ties, mine timbers and +fuel, with the minimum of labor, since trunks of proper +sizes can easily be selected.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +The Indians, whose food supply was always precarious, +gathered branches and made a soft pulp of the inner bark, +scraped out in the growing season. This they baked, after +shaping it into huge cakes, in pit ovens built of stones, and +heated for hours by burning in them loads of firewood. +When the embers were burned out, the oven was cleaned +and the cakes put in. Later they were smoked with a +damp fire of moss, which preserved them indefinitely. +"Hard bread" of this type provisioned the Indian's canoe +on long trips. Inedible until boiled, it was a staple winter +food at home and on long expeditions, among various +tribes of the Northwest.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Pine</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. resinosa</i>, Ait.</div> + +<p>The red pine, also called the "Norway pine" for no particular +reason, is something of an anomaly. Its wood is +soft like that of the white pine with which it grows, and +though <i>resinosa</i> means "full of resin," it is not so rich as +several other pitch pines. Its paired leaves and red bark +reveal its kinship with the Scotch pine, a European species, +very common in cultivation in America.</p> + +<p>Seemingly intermediate between soft and hard pines, +<i>P. resinosa</i> appeals to lumbermen and landscape gardeners +because it embodies the good points of both classes. No +handsomer species grows in the forests, from New Brunswick +to Minnesota and south into Pennsylvania. The +sturdy red trunk makes a bright color contrast with the +broad symmetrical pyramid of boughs clothed in abundant +foliage. The paired, needle-like leaves, dark green and +shining, are six inches in length. The flowers are abundant +and bright red, more showy than is ordinary in the pine +family. Brown cones one to three inches long with thin +unarmed scales, discharge their winged seeds in early +autumn, but cling to the branches until the following +summer.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 575px;"> +<a name="figpg246" id="figpg246"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_246.png" width="575" height="369" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_248">page 248</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">LEAVES AND CONES OF HEMLOCK (left) AND OF NORWAY SPRUCE (right)</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 387px;"> +<a name="figpg247" id="figpg247"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_247.png" width="387" height="575" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_248">page 248</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE SPINY FOLIAGE AND FAST-CLINGING CONES +OF THE BLACK SPRUCE</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +The wood of red pine is pale red, light in weight, close-grained +with yellowish or nearly white sap-wood. Logs a +hundred feet and more in length used to be shipped out of +Canadian woods to England. Singularly free from large +knots and other blemishes, they made huge spars and +masts of vessels, as well as piles for dockyards, bridges, +etc. Other woods have proved more durable, and the +largest red pine timber has been harvested. So its importance +in the lumber trade has declined.</p> + +<p>But in cultivation the red pine holds its own for its quick +growth, its hardiness, its lusty vigor and its beauty of color +contrasts. It grows on sterile ground exposed to the sea, +forming groves of great beauty where other pines would +languish and die. For shelter belts, inland, it is equally +dependable, and as specimen trees in parks and gardens it +has few equals. At no season of the year does it lose its +fresh look of health. Young trees come readily from seed, +and throughout their lives they are unusually free from injuries +by insects and fungi.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE SPRUCES</div> + +<p>The distinguishing mark of spruce trees is the woody or +horny projection on which the leaf is set. Look at the +twigs of a tree which you think may be a fir or a spruce. +Wherever the leaves have fallen, the spruce twig is roughened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +by these spirally arranged leaf-brackets. Leaf-scars +on a fir twig are level with the bark, leaving the twig +smooth. Spruce twigs are always roughened, as described +above.</p> + +<p>Most spruce trees have distinctly four-angled leaves, +sharp-pointed and distributed spirally around the shoot, +not two-ranked like fir leaves. They are all pyramidal +trees with flowers and fruits of the coniferous type. The +cones are always pendent and there is an annual crop. The +wood is soft, not conspicuously resinous, straight-grained +and valuable as lumber.</p> + +<p>The genus picea comprises eighteen species, seven of +which belong to American forests. These include some +of the most beautiful of coniferous trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Norway Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Picea excelsa</i>, Link.</div> + +<p>The Norway spruce (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg246">page 246</a></i>) is the +commonest species in cultivation. It is extensively +planted for wind-breaks, hedges and shelter belts, where +its long lower arms rest on the ground and the upper limbs +shingle over the lower ones, forming a thick leafy shelter +against drifting snow and winds.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Black Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Mariana</i>, B. S. & P.</div> + +<p>The black spruce is a ragged, unkempt dingy tree, with +short drooping branches, downy twigs, and stiff dark blue-green +foliage, scarcely half an inch long. Its cones, least +in size of all the spruce tribe, are about one inch long and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +they remain on the branches for years (<i>See illustration, +<a href="#figpg247">page 247</a></i>).</p> + +<p>Rarely higher than fifty feet, these scraggly undersized +spruces are ignored by horticulturists and lumbermen, but +the wood-pulp man has taken them eagerly. The soft +weak yellow wood, converted into paper, needs very little +bleaching. From the far North the species covers large +areas throughout Canada, choosing cold bogs and swamp +borders, or well-drained bottom lands. In the United +States it extends south along the mountains to Virginia +and to central Wisconsin and Michigan.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. rubens</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The red spruce forms considerable forests from Newfoundland +to North Carolina, following the mountains and +growing best in well-drained upland soil. This Eastern +spruce is more deserving of cultivation than the one just +described, for its leaves, dark yellow-green and shining, +make the tree cheerful-looking. The slender downy twigs +are bright red, and there is a warm reddish tone in the +brown bark. The winter buds are ruddy; the flowers +purple; and the glossy cones, one to two inches long, change +from purple to pale reddish brown before they mature and +drop to pieces. Even in crowded forests this spruce keeps +its lower limbs and looks hale and fresh by the prompt +casting of its early ripening cones.</p> + +<p>The pale red wood is peculiarly adapted for sounding-boards +of musical instruments. It has been used locally +in buildings, but of late the wood-pulp mills get most of +this timber.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Engelmann Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Engelmanni</i>, Engelm.</div> + +<p>The Engelmann spruce is the white spruce of the Rocky +Mountains and the Cascade Range of Washington and +Oregon, which forms great forests on high mountain slopes +from Montana and Idaho to New Mexico and Arizona. +Always in damp places, this thin-barked beautiful tree is +safest, from fire. The leaves are blue-green, soft and +flexible but with sharp callous tips. The cones are about +two inches long, their thin scales narrowing to the blunt +tips. Each year a crop of seeds is cast and the cones fall. +Running fires destroy the seed crop with the standing +trees, making renewal of the species impossible in the +burnt-over tracts. For this reason, this beautiful spruce +tree is oftenest found on the higher altitudes, or where wet +ground and banks of snow defend it from its arch enemy. +The tree is satisfactory in cultivation, but never equal to +the wild-forest specimens. The wood is used locally for +building purposes, for fuel and charcoal.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Blue Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Parryana</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The blue spruce well known in Eastern lawns as the +"Colorado blue spruce," is a crisp-looking, handsome tree, +broadly pyramidal, with rigid branches and stout horny-pointed +leaves, blue-green to silvery white, exceeding an +inch in length. At home on the mountains of Colorado, +Utah and Wyoming, it reaches a hundred to a hundred and +fifty feet in height and a trunk diameter of three feet, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +becomes thin and ragged at maturity. The same fate +overtakes the trim little lawn trees, so perfect in color and +symmetry for a few years.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Tideland Spruce</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>P. Sitchensis</i>, Carr.</div> + +<p>The tideland spruce is the most important lumber tree in +Alaska. It inhabits the coast region from Cape Mendocino, +in California, northward; and is abundant on wet, +sandy and swampy soil. The conspicuous traits of this +tree are its strongly buttressed trunk, one hundred to two +hundred feet tall, often greatly swollen at the base; the +graceful sweep of its wide low-spreading lower limbs; and +the constant play of light and shadows in the tree-top, due +to the lustrous sheen on the bright foliage. It is a magnificent +tree, one of the largest and most beautiful of the +Western conifers, indomitable in that it climbs from the +sea-level to altitudes three thousand feet above, and follows +the coast farther north than any other conifer.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE FIRS</div> + +<p>In a forest of evergreens the spire form, needle leaves, +and some other traits belong to several families. To distinguish +the firs from the spruces, which they closely resemble +in form and foliage, notice the position of the +cones. All fir trees hold their ripe cones erect. No other +family with large cones has this striking characteristic. +All the rest of the conifers have pendent cones, except the +small-fruited cypresses and arbor-vitaes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +All fir trees belong to the genus <i>abies</i>, whose twenty-five +species are distributed from the Far North to the highlands +of tropical regions in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. +All are tall pyramidal trees, with wide-spreading +horizontal limbs bearing thick foliage masses, and +with bark that contains vesicles full of resinous balsam. +The branches grow in whorls and spread like fern fronds, +covered for eight or nine years with the persistent leaves. +Circular scars are left on the smooth branches when they +fall.</p> + +<p>The leaves are the distinguishing character of the genus +when cones are lacking. They are usually flat, two-ranked +on the twig, without stems, and blunt, or even notched at +the tip. For these typical leaves one must look on the +lower sterile branches of the tree, and back of the growing +shoots, where leaves are apt to be crowded and immature. +The cones are borne near the tops of the trees, and on these +branches the leaves are often crowded and not two-ranked +as they are below. The flowers of fir trees are +abundant and showy, the staminate clusters appearing on +the under sides of the platforms of foliage; the pistillate +held erect on platforms higher up on the tree's spire. Always +the flowers are borne on the shoots of the previous +season. The cone fruits are cylindrical or ovoid, ripening +in a single season and discharging their seeds at maturity. +The stout tapering axis of the cone persists after seeds and +scales have fallen.</p> + +<p>The bark of fir trees is thin, smooth, and pale, with +abundant resin vesicles, until the trees are well grown. As +age advances the bark thickens and becomes deeply furrowed. +The wood is generally pale, coarse-grained, and +brittle.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Balsam Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Abies balsamea</i>, Mill.</div> + +<p>The balsam fir is probably best known as the typical +Christmas tree of the Northeastern states and the source +of Canada balsam, used in laboratories and in medicine. +Fresh leaves stuff the balsam pillows of summer visitors +to the North Woods. In the lumber trade and in horticulture +this fir tree cuts a sorry figure, for its wood is +weak, coarse, and not durable, and in cultivation it is short-lived, +and early loses its lower limbs.</p> + +<p>Throughout New England, northward to Labrador, +and southward along the mountains to southwestern Virginia, +this tree may be known at a glance by its two-ranked, +pale-lined leaves, lustrous and dark green above, +one half to one and one half inches long, sometimes +notched on twigs near the top of the tree. Rich dark +purple cones, two to four inches long, with thin plain-margined, +broad scales, stand erect, glistening with drops +of balsam, on branches near the top of the tree. The +same balsam exudes from bruises in the smooth bark. +By piercing the white blisters and systematically wounding +branch and trunk, the limpid balsam is made to flow +freely, and is collected as a commercial enterprise in some +parts of Canada. "Oil of fir" also is obtained from the +bark.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Balsam Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. Fraseri</i>, Poir.</div> + +<p>This balsam fir, much more luxuriant in foliage, and +worthier of cultivation as an ornamental tree, is native to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +the Appalachian Mountains of southwestern Virginia, +Tennessee and North Carolina. The purple cones are +ornamented by pale yellow cut-toothed bracts that turn +back over the edge of the plain scale. Limited in range, +but forming forests between the limits of four and six +thousand feet in altitude, this tree is confined to local +uses as lumber and fuel.</p> + +<p>All the other firs of America are Western, and among +these are some of the tree giants of the world.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. magnifica</i>, A. Murr.</div> + +<p>The magnificent red fir is called by John Muir "the +noblest of its race." In its splendid shaft that reaches +two hundred and fifty feet in height, and a trunk diameter +of seven feet, there is a symmetry and perfection of +finish throughout that is achieved by no other tree. One +above another in graduated lengths the branches spread +in level collars, the oldest drooping on the ground, the +rest horizontal, their framework always five main branches +that carry luxuriant flat plumes of silvery needles. Each +leaf is almost equally four-sided, ribbed above and below, +with pale lines on all sides, so wide as to make the new +growth silvery throughout the season. Later these leaves +become blue-green, and persist for about ten years. +Only on the lower side of the branch are the leaves two-ranked.</p> + +<p>The bark of this fir tree is covered with dark brown +scales, deeply divided into broad rounded ridges, broken +by cross fissures when old. Out toward the tips of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +branches the bark is silvery white. In mid-June the +flowers appear, the staminate in profuse clusters against +the silvery leaf-linings, bright red, on the under sides of +the platforms. It is a blind or stupid person who can +travel in fir woods and fail to notice this wonderful flower +pageant, that may be viewed by merely looking upward. +The pistillate flowers, greenish yellow, tipped with pink, +are out of sight as a rule, among the needles in the tree-tops. +They ripen into tall cylindrical cones, six to eight inches +long and half as wide, that fall to pieces at maturity, +discharging their broad thin scales with the purple iridescent +winged seeds.</p> + +<p>Pure forests of this splendid fir tree are found in southern +Oregon among the Cascade Mountains, between five and +seven thousand feet above the sea. It is the commonest +species in the forest belt of the Sierra Nevada, between +elevations of six thousand and nine thousand feet. From +northern California, it follows the western slope of the +Sierra Nevada, climbing to ten thousand feet in its +southernmost range. A variety, <i>Shastensis</i>, Lemm., is +the red fir with bright yellow fringed bracts on its stout +cones. This ornament upon its fruits seems to be the +chief distinguishing character of the form which occurs +with the parent species on the mountains in Oregon and +northern California, and recurs in the southern Sierra +Nevada.</p> + +<p>The best defense of this superb red fir is the comparative +worthlessness of its soft, weak wood. Coarse lumber +for cheap buildings, packing cases and fuel makes the +only demands upon it. In European parks it is successfully +grown as an ornamental tree, and has proved hardy +in eastern Massachusetts.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Noble Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. nobilis</i>, Lindl.</div> + +<p>The noble fir or red fir is another giant of the Northwest. +On the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains of Washington +and Oregon it reaches occasionally two hundred +and fifty feet in height, differing from <i>magnifica</i> in being +round-topped instead of pyramidal before maturity. Its +red-brown wood, furrowed bark and the red staminate +flowers justify its name. The twigs are red and velvety +for four or five years. The leaves are deeply grooved +above, rounded and obscurely ribbed on the lower surface, +blue-green, often silvery through their first season, crowded +and curved so that the tips point away from the end of the +branch.</p> + +<p>The oblong cylindrical cones, four to five inches long, +are velvety, their scales covered by bracts, shaped and +notched like a scallop shell, with a forward-pointing spine, +exceeding the bract in length. Forests of this tree at +elevations of twenty-five hundred to five thousand feet +are found in Washington and northern Oregon, from which +limited quantities of the brownish-red wood enter the +lumber trade under the name of "larch."</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. grandis</i>, Lindl.</div> + +<p>The white fir is a striking figure, from its silvery lined, +dark green foliage, its slender pyramidal form that +reaches three hundred feet in height, and the vivid green +of its mature cones that are destitute of ornament and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +slenderly cylindrical. From Vancouver Island southward +to Mendocino County in California, this tree is common +from the sea level to an elevation of four thousand feet. +Eastward it extends into Idaho, climbing to seven thousand +feet, but choosing always moist soil in the neighborhood +of streams. Various uses, woodenwares, packing cases, +and fuel consume its soft, coarse wood to a limited extent. +The delicate grace of its sweeping down-curving branches +makes it one of the most beautiful of our Western firs. It +grows rapidly, and is a favorite in European parks.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Fir</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>A. concolor</i>, Lindl. and Gord.</div> + +<p>This white fir is a giant of the Sierras, but a tree of +medium height in the Rocky Mountains. Its leaves are +often two to three inches long, very unusual for a fir +tree, curving to an erect position, pale blue or silvery +at first, becoming dull green at the end of two or three +years.</p> + +<p>On the California Sierras, this silver fir tree lifts its +narrow spire two hundred and fifty feet toward the sky +and waves great frondlike masses of foliage on pale gray +branches. As a much smaller tree, it is found in the arid +regions of the Great Basin and of southern New Mexico +and Arizona, territory which no other fir tree invades. +In gardens of Europe and of our Eastern states this +is a favorite fir tree, often known as the "blue fir" +and the "silver fir" from its pale bark and foliage, +whose blue cast is not always permanent. Eastern nurseries +obtain their best trees from seeds gathered in the +Rocky Mountains.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">THE DOUGLAS SPRUCE</div> + +<p>The Douglas spruce (<i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i>, Sudw.), +ranks with the giant arbor-vitaes, firs, and sequoias in the +forests of the Pacific Coast. Thousands of square miles +of pure forest of this species occur in Oregon, Washington, +and British Columbia. Here the trees stand even, like +wheat in a grain field, the tallest reach four hundred feet, +the redwood its only rival. Nowhere but in the redwood +forests is there such a heavy stand of timber on this +continent. No forest tree except sequoias equals the +Douglas spruce in massiveness of trunk and yield of +straight-grained lumber.</p> + +<p>The genus <i>pseudotsuga</i> stands botanically in a position +intermediate between firs and hemlocks. Our tree giant +is as often called the Douglas fir as Douglas spruce. +The lumberman sells the output of his mills under the +trade name, "Oregon pine." This is perhaps the best +known lumber in all the Western country. It has a great +reputation abroad, where timbers of the largest size +are used for masts, spars, piles for wharves and bridges, and +for whatever uses heavy timbers are needed. The wood +is stronger in proportion to its weight than that of any +other large conifer in the country. It is tough, durable, +and elastic. Its only faults are its extreme hardness and +liability to warp when cut into boards. These faults are +noted only by carpenters who use the wood for interior +finish of houses. "Red pine" it is called in regions of the +Great Basin, where the trees grow smaller than on the +Coast, and are put to general lumber purposes. It is +variable in quality, but always pale yellow, striped with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +red, and handsomely wavy when quarter-sawed; distractingly +so in the "slash grain," oftenest seen in the +interior finish of the typical California bungalow.</p> + +<p>The living tree is a superb, broad-based pyramid, bearing +a load of crowded drooping branches, where it has a +chance to assume its normal habit. A delicate lace-like +drooping spray of yellowish or bluish green leaves, flat, +spreading at right angles from the twig, gives the Douglas +spruce its hale, abundant vigor. The dark red staminate +flowers glow in late winter against the yellow foliage mass +of the new leaves; but even the flowers are not so showy as +the drooping cones, two to four inches long, their plain +scales adorned with bracts, notched and bearing a whip +that extends half an inch beyond the scales. Blue-green, +shading to purple, with red-lipped scales and bright green +bracts, these cones are truly the handsomest ornaments +worn by any tree.</p> + +<p>Finally, this paragon of conifers surprises Eastern +nurserymen by outstripping other seedlings in vigor and +quickness of growth. Rocky Mountain seed does best. +The Oregon trees furnish seed to European nurseries and +seedlings from Europe grow quickly into superb ornamental +trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE HEMLOCKS</div> + +<p>Unlike any other conifer, the hemlock mounts its evergreen +leaves on short petioles, jointed to projecting, horny +brackets on the twig. At any season this character determines +the family name of a group of exceptionally +graceful pyramidal conifers. The Eastern hemlocks have +their leaves arranged in a flat spray, silvery white underneath, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +by pale lines on the underside of the flat blunt-pointed +blade (<i>See illustration, <a href="#figpg246">page 246</a></i>). An abundance +of pendent cones is borne annually. The wood of +hemlocks is comparatively worthless but the bark is rich in +tannin, and so the tree is important in the leather trade.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Hemlock</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Tsuga Canadensis</i>, Carr.</div> + +<p>The hemlock lifts its dark green, feathery spray above the +sturdy trunk into a splendid broad pyramid. In all rocky +uplands from Nova Scotia to Alabama and west to Minnesota, +the drooping lower branches sweep the ground, +and the tree is often half buried in snow. But in spring +every twig is dancing and waving yellow plumes of new +foliage, the picture of cheerfulness as the sunlight sifts +through the tree-tops. In May the new blossoms sprinkle +all the leafy twigs—the staminate, yellow; the pistillate, +pale violet. Looking up from below, one sees a charming +iridescent effect when the blossoms add their color to the +shimmering silver which lines the various platforms of +foliage. The little red-brown cones cling to the twigs all +winter, slowly parting their scales to release the winged +seeds. Squirrels climb the trees in the fall and cut off +these cones to store away for winter use.</p> + +<p>"Peelers" go into the woods in May, when the new +growth is well started and the bark will peel readily. They +fell and strip hemlock trunks and remove the bark in +sheets, which are piled to dry and be measured like cordwood, +and later shipped to the tanneries. The cross-grained +coarse wood is left to rot and feed forest fires. +Locally, it is useful for the timbers of houses and barns, because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +it is rigid and never lets go its hold upon a nail or +spike.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Hemlock</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. heterophylla</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The Western hemlock is a giant that dominates other +trees in the Western mountain forests, famous for their +giants of many different names. It is a noble pyramidal +tree that reaches two hundred feet in height and a maximum +trunk diameter of ten feet. Its heavy horizontal +branches droop and hold out feathery tips as light and +graceful in the adult monarch as in the sapling of a few +years' growth. The characteristic hemlock foliage, lustrous +green above and pale below, is two-ranked by the +twisting of the slender petioles.</p> + +<p>From southeastern Alaska, eastward into Montana and +Idaho, and southward to Cape Mendocino in California, +this tree climbs from the lowlands to an altitude that exceeds +a mile. Wherever there are rich river valleys and +the air is humid, this hemlock is superb, the delight of +artists and lumbermen. At its highest range it becomes +stunted, but always produces its oval, pointed cones in +abundance.</p> + +<p>Its wood, the strongest and most durable in the hemlock +family, is chiefly used in buildings, and the bark for tanning.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Mountain Hemlock</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. Martensiana</i>, Sarg.</div> + +<p>The mountain hemlock of the West is called by John +Muir "the loveliest evergreen in America." Sargent endorses +this judgment with emphasis. It grows at high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +altitudes, fringing upland meadows, watered by glaciers, +with groves of the most exquisite beauty. The sweeping, +downward-drooping branches, clothed with abundant pea-green +foliage, silver-lined, resist wind storms and snow +burdens by the wonderful pliancy of their fibres. In early +autumn the trees are bent over so as to form arches. +Young forests are thus buried out of sight for six months of +the year. With the melting of the snow they right themselves +gradually, and among the new leaves appear the +flowers, dark purple cones and staminate star-flowers, +blue as forget-me-nots. Three-angled leaves, whorled +on the twig, and cones two to three inches long, set this +hemlock apart from its related species, but the leaf-stalk +settles once for all the question of its family name.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 376px;"> +<a name="figpg262" id="figpg262"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_262.png" width="376" height="573" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_268">page 268</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">THE FLAT, FROND LIKE SPRAY OF THE ORNAMENTAL +ARBOR VITAE</div> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 398px;"> +<a name="figpg263" id="figpg263"></a> +<img src="images/fig_pg_263.png" width="398" height="582" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<br /><div class="fig_text_rt">See <a href="#Page_278">page 278</a></div> +<div class="fig_caption">FRUIT AND LEAVES OF THE AMERICAN LARCH</div> +</div> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2">THE SEQUOIAS</div> + +<p>Nowhere else in the world are conifers found in such extensive +forests and in such superlative vigor and stupendous +size as in the states that border the Pacific Ocean. +California is particularly the paradise of the conifers. All +of the species that make the forests of the Northwest the +wonder of travelers and the pride of the states are found in +equally prodigal size and extent in California. To these +forests are added groves of sequoias—the Big Tree and the +redwood, the former found nowhere outside of California, +the latter reaching into Oregon. +Once the sequoias had a wide distribution in the Old +and the New World. With magnolias and many other luxuriant +trees found in warm climates, five species of sequoia +extended over the North Temperate zone in both hemispheres, +reaching even to the Arctic Circle. The glacial +period transformed the climate of the world and destroyed +these luxuriant northern forests under a grinding +continuous glacier. The rocks of the tertiary and +cretaceous periods preserved in fossils the story of these +pre-glacial forests. Two of the species of sequoia escaped +destruction in tracts the ice sheet did not overwhelm. For +ten thousand years, perhaps, the sequoia has held its own +in the California groves. Indeed, both species are able to +extend their present range if nature is unhindered. The +three enemies that threaten sequoia groves are the axe of +the lumberman, the forest fire kindled by the waste about +sawmills, and the grazing flocks that destroy seedling trees.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Big Tree</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Sequoia Wellingtonia</i>, Seem.</div> + +<p>The Big Tree is the most gigantic tree on the face of the +earth, the mightiest living creature in existence. Among +the giant sugar pines and red firs it lifts a wonderfully regular, +rounded dome so far above the aspiring arrow-tips of +its neighbors as to make the best of them look like mere +saplings. The massive trunk, clothed with red-brown or +purplish bark, is fluted by furrows often more than a foot +in depth. The trunk is usually bare of limbs for a hundred +or two hundred feet, clearing the forest cover completely +before throwing out its angular stout arms. These +branch at last into rounded masses of leafy twigs, whose +density and brilliant color express the beauty and vigor of +eternal youth in a tree which counts its age by thousands +of years already.</p> + +<p>To see this Big Tree in blossom one must visit the high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +Sierras while the snow is eight to ten feet deep upon the +buttressed base of the huge trunk. It is worth a journey, +and that with some hardship in it, to see these trees with all +their leafy spray, gold-lined with the multitude of little +staminate flowers that sift pollen gold-dust over everything, +and fill the air with it. The pistillate flowers, +minute, pale green, crowd along the ends of the leafy +sprays, their cone scales spread to receive the vitalizing +dust brought by the wind.</p> + +<p>When spring arrives and starts the flower procession +among the lower tree-tops, the spray of the Big Tree is +covered with green cones that mature at the end of the +second season. They are woody, two to three inches long, +and spread their scales wide at a given signal, showering +the surrounding woods with the abundant harvest of their +minute winged seeds. Each scale bears six to eight of +them, each with a circular wing that fits it for a long +journey. The cones hang empty on the trees for years.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the Big Tree are of the close, twig-hugging, +scaly type, never exceeding a half inch in length on the +most exuberant-growing shoots. For the most part they +are from one fourth to one eighth of an inch in length, +sharp pointed, ridged, curved to clasp the stem, and shingled +over the leaves above.</p> + +<p>John Muir believes there is no absolute limit to the existence +of any tree. Accident alone, he thinks, not the +wearing out of vital organs, accounts for their death. The +fungi that kill the silver fir inevitably before it is three +hundred years old touch no limb of the Big Tree with decay. +A sequoia must be blown down, undermined, burned down, +or shattered by lightning. Old age and disease pass these +trees by. Their heads, rising far above the spires of fir and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +spruce, seem not to court the lightning flash as the lower, +pointed trunks do; and yet no aged sequoia can be found +whose head has not suffered losses by Jove's thunderbolts. +Cheerfully the tree lets go a fraction of its mighty +top, and sets about the repair of the damage, with greatly +accelerated energy, as if here was an opportunity to expend +the tree's pent-up vitality. It is strange to see horizontal +branches of great age and size strike upward to form a part +of a new, symmetrical dome to replace the head struck off +or mangled by lightning. With all the signs of damage +lightning has done to these tree giants of the Sierras, but +one instance of outright killing of a tree is on record.</p> + +<p>The wood of the Big Tree is red and soft, coarse, light, +and weak—unfit for must lumber uses. It ought, by all +ordinary standards, to be counted scarcely worth the cutting; +but the vast quantity yielded by a single tree pays the +lumberman huge profits, though he wastes thousands of +feet by blasting the mighty shaft into chunks manageable +in the sawmill. Shingles, shakes, and fencing consume +more of the lumber than general construction—ignoble +uses for this noblest of all trees.</p> + +<p>The best groves of Big Trees now under government protection +are in the grand Sequoia National Park. Near the +Yosemite is the famous Mariposa Grove that contains the +"grizzly giant" and other specimen trees of great age and +size. More than half of the Big Trees are in the hands of +speculators and lumber companies. Exploitation of +nature's best treasure is as old as the human race. The +idea of conservation is still in its infancy.</p> + +<p>The ruin by the lumbering interests of a sequoia grove +means the drying up of streams and the defeat of irrigation +projects in the valleys below. Big Trees inhabit only areas +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +on the western slopes of the Sierras. Wherever they grow +their roots have made of the deep soil a sponge that holds +the drainage of melting snowbanks and doles it out through +streams that flow thence to famishing, hot, wind-swept +plains and valleys. When the trees are gone, turbulent, +short-lived spring floods exhaust the water supply and do +untold damage in the lowlands.</p> + +<p>Big Trees have not succeeded in cultivation in our +Eastern states, but for many years have been favorites in +European gardens and parks. In the native groves the +seedlings do not show the virility of the redwoods, though +to the south the range of the species is being gradually +extended. No tree is more prodigal in seed production +and more indifferent, when mature, to the ills that beset +ordinary forest trees; yet government protection must be +strengthened, private claims must be bought, and scientific +forestry maintained in order to prevent the extinction +of the species, with the destruction of trees that are, as +they stand to-day, the greatest living monuments in the +world of plants.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Redwood</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>S. sempervirens</i>, Endl.</div> + +<p>The redwood comes down to the sea on the western +slopes of the Coast Range, from southern Oregon to +Monterey County in California, tempting the lumberman +by the wonderful wealth and accessibility of these groves +of giant trees. The wood is soft, satiny, red, like the +thick, fibrous, furrowed bark that clothes the tall, fluted +trunks.</p> + +<p>Redwoods are taller than Big Trees, have slenderer +trunks and branches and a more light and graceful leaf-spray. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +The head is pyramidal in young trees, later becoming +irregular and narrow, and exceedingly small in +forests by the crowding of the trees and the death of lower +branches. The leaves on the terminal shoots spread into +a flat spray, two-ranked, like those of a balsam fir. Each +blade is flat, tapering to both ends, and from one fourth +to one half an inch in length. Awl-shaped and much +shorter leaves are scattered on year-old twigs, back of the +new shoots, resembling the foliage of the Big Tree.</p> + +<p>The cones are small and almost globular, maturing in +a single season, scarcely an inch long, with three to five +winged seeds under each scale. Seedling redwoods come +quickly from this yearly sowing, and thrive under the +forest cover, unless fire or the trampling feet of grazing +flocks destroy them. After the lumberman, the virile +redwood sends up shoots around the bleeding stumps, thus +reinforcing the seedling tree and promising the renewal of +the forest groves in the centuries to come.</p> + +<p>Redwood lumber is the most important building material +on the Pacific Coast. The hardest and choicest +wood comes in limited quantities from the stumps which +furnish curly and bird's-eye wood, used by the makers +of bric-à-brac and high-priced cabinet work. Shingles, +siding, and interior finish of houses consume quantities +of the yearly output of the mills. Demand for fence +posts, railway ties and cooperage increases. Quantities +of lumber are shipped east to take the place of white pine +no longer obtainable.</p> + +<p>In cultivation the redwood is a graceful, quick-growing, +beautiful evergreen, successful in the Southeastern states, +and often met in European parks and gardens. Weeping +forms are very popular abroad.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +Government and state protection has made sure the +safeguarding for coming generations of some groves of +redwoods, containing trees whose size and age rival those +of the most ancient Big Trees. But the fact that the +redwood, restricted on the map to such a limited territory, +is the most important timber tree on the Coast, is a blot +upon our vaunted Democracy, which has allowed the +cunning of a few small minds to defeat the best interests +of the whole people and rob them of forest treasure which +might yield its benefits continuously, if properly managed. +Government purchase of all sequoia-bearing land, followed +by rational methods of harvesting the mature lumber and +conserving the young growth, is the ideal solution of the +problem. Such a plan would assure the saving of the +monumental giants.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE ARBOR-VITAES</div> + +<p>Minute, scale-like leaves, four-ranked, closely overlapping, +so as to conceal the wiry twig, mark the genus +<i>thuya</i>, which is represented in America by two species of +slender, pyramidal evergreen trees, whose intricately +branched limbs terminate in a flat, open spray (<i>see illustration, +<a href="#figpg262">page 262</a></i>). "Tree of Life" is the English translation, +but the Latin name everywhere is heard.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>Eastern Arbor-vitae</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Thuya occidentalis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The Eastern arbor-vitae, called also the white cedar, +is found in impenetrable pure forest growth, from Nova +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +Scotia and New Brunswick northwestward to the mouth +of the Saskatchewan River, always in swampy regions, +or along the rocky banks of streams. In the East it +follows the mountains to Tennessee, and from Lake +Winnipeg it extends south to middle Minnesota and +northern Illinois. In cultivation it is oftenest seen as +an individual lawn and park tree, or in hedges on boundary +lines. It submits comfortably to severe pruning, is easily +transplanted, and comes readily from seed. Plantations +grow rapidly into fence posts and telegraph poles. The +wood is durable in wet ground, but very soft, coarse, and +brittle.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Cedar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>T. plicata</i>, D. Don.</div> + +<p>The red cedar or canoe cedar is the giant arbor-vitae +of the coast region from British Columbia to northern +California and east over the mountain ranges into Idaho +and northern Montana. Its buttressed trunk is a fluted +column one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high +in western Washington and Oregon, along the banks of +mountain streams and in the rich bottom land farther +seaward. The leaves in a flat spray at once distinguish +this tree from any other conifer, for they are pointed, scale-like, +closely overlapping each other in alternate pairs.</p> + +<p>The clustered cones, with their six or eight seed-bearing +scales, seem absurdly small fruits on so huge a tree. +None exceeds one half an inch in height, but their number +makes up for size deficiency and the seed crop is tremendous.</p> + +<p>The Alaskan Indian chooses the tall bole of a red cedar +for his totem pole, and from the massive butt hollows +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +out the war canoe and "dug-out" which solve his problems +of transportation in summer. Durability is the +chief merit of this soft, brittle wood, which is easily worked +with the Indian's crude tools. The bark of the tree furnishes +the walls of the Indian huts and its inner fibre +is the raw material of his cordage—the harness for his +dog team, his nets and lines for fishing; and it is the basis +of the squaw's basket-weaving industry.</p> + +<p>This is the best arbor-vitae for ornamental planting. +Its success in Europe is very striking, and from European +nurseries it has been successfully re-introduced into the +United States, where it is hardy and vigorous. But it +fails when taken directly into the North Atlantic states. +It must come in via Europe, as nearly all West Coast +trees have to do in order to succeed.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE INCENSE CEDAR</div> + +<p>One tree, so magnificent in proportions that it ranks +among the giants in our Western forests, stands as the +sole American representative of its genus. Its nearest +relatives are the arbor-vitaes, sequoias, and the bald cypress +of the South.</p> + +<p>The incense cedar (<i>Librocedrus Decurrens</i>, Torr.) has +its name from its resinous, aromatic sap. The tree, when +it grows apart from others, forms a perfect tapering pyramid, +with flat, plume-like sprays that sweep downward +and outward with wonderful lightness and grace. The +leaves are scale-like, closely appressed to the wiry twigs, +in four ranks, bright green, tinged with gold in late winter, +by the abundance of the yellow staminate flowers. The +cones are small, narrowly pointed, made of few paired +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +scales, each bearing two seeds. The bark is cinnamon-red +in color. The trees occur scattered among other species in +open forests from three thousand to six thousand feet +above the sea, reaching a height of two hundred feet and a +trunk diameter of twelve feet on the Sierra Nevada glacial +moraines.</p> + +<p>The lumber resembles that of arbor-vitae, and is used for +the same purposes. In cultivation the tree is hardy and +thrives in parks in the neighborhood of New York. In +Europe it has long been a favorite.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE CYPRESSES</div> + +<p>Three genera of pyramidal conifers, with light, graceful +leaf-spray, and small woody cones, held erect, compose the +group known as cypresses. All have found places in +horticulture, for not one of them but has value for ornamental +planting. Some species have considerable lumber value.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Monterey Cypress</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i>, Cord.</div> + +<p>The Monterey cypress is now restricted to certain ocean-facing +bluffs about Monterey Bay in California. These +trees are derelicts of their species. Wind-beaten into +grotesqueness of form, unmatched in any other tree +near the sea-level, their matted and gnarled branches +make a flat and very irregular top above a short, thick, +often bent and leaning trunk. Clusters of globular cones +stud the twigs behind the leafy spray composed of thread-like +wiry twigs, entirely covered with scaly, four-ranked +leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +In cultivation this cypress grows into a luxuriant, pyramidal +tree, often broadening and losing its symmetry, +but redeeming it by the grace of its plume-like, outstretched +branches. One by one the native cypresses on the crumbling +bluffs will go down into Monterey Bay, for the +undermining process is eating out their foundations. +Wind and wave are slowly but surely sealing their doom. +But the species is saved to a much wider territory.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The European Cypress</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. sempervirens</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>A tall, narrow pyramid of sombre green, the European +cypress is found in cemeteries in south Europe and everywhere, +planted for ornament. This is the classic cypress, +a conventional feature of Italian gardens, the evergreen +most frequently mentioned in classical literature. Slow-growing +and noted for its longevity, it was the symbol of +immortality. It is hardy in the South-Atlantic and +Pacific-Coast states, and is a favorite evergreen for hedges +in the Southwest.</p> + +<p>Three other members of the genus occur on mountain +foothills—one in Arizona, two in California—all easily +recognized by their scale-like leaves and button-like +woody cones, which require two years to mature.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The White Cedar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Chamaecyparis Thyoides</i>, Britt.</div> + +<p>The genus <i>chamaecyparis</i> includes three American +species, of tall, narrow pyramidal habit and flat leaf-spray +like that of the arbor-vitae. Annual erect globular cones +of few, woody scales, produce one to five seeds under each.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +This white cedar is the swamp-loving variety of the +Atlantic seaboard—its range stretches from Maine to Mississippi. +The durability of its white wood gives it considerable +importance as a lumber tree. It is particularly dependable +when placed in contact with water and exposed to +weather. Cedar shingles, fence posts, railroad ties, buckets, +and other cooperage consume quantities each year. The +trees are important ornamental evergreens, planted for +their graceful spray and their dull blue-green leaves. +Their maximum height is eighty feet.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Lawson Cypress</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>C. Lawsoniana</i>, A. Murr.</div> + +<p>The Lawson cypress lifts its splendid spire to a height of +two hundred feet, on the coast mountains of Oregon and +California, forming a nearly continuous forest belt twenty +miles long, between Point Gregory and the mouth of the +Coquille River. Spire-like, with short, horizontal branches, +this species bears a leaf-spray of feathery lightness, +bright green, from the multitude of minute paired leaf-scales, +and adorned with the clustered pea-sized cones, +which are blue-green and very pale until they ripen.</p> + +<p>The wood of this giant cypress is used in house-finishing +and in boat-building; for flooring, fencing, and for railroad +ties.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Bald Cypress</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Taxodium distichum</i>, Rich.</div> + +<p>The bald cypress is the one member of the cypress group +that sheds its foliage each autumn, following the example +of the tamarack. In the Far South, river swamps are often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +covered with a growth of these cypresses whose trunks are +strangely swollen at the base, and often hollow. The flaring +buttresses are prolonged into the main roots, which +form humps that rise out of the water at some distance +from the tree. These "cypress knees" are not yet explained, +though authorities suspect that they have something +to do with the aëration of the root system.</p> + +<p>Inundated nine or ten months of the year, these cypress +swamps are often dry the remaining time, and it is a +surprise to Southerners to find these trees comfortable and +beautiful in Northern parks. Cleveland and New York +parks have splendid examples.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the bald cypress are of two types. They +are scale-like only on stems that bear the globular cones. +On other shoots they form a flat spray, each leaf one-half to +three-fourths of an inch long, pea-green in the Southern +swamps, bright yellow-green on both sides in dry ground, +turning orange-brown before they fall. The twigs that +bear these two-ranked leaves are also deciduous, a unique +distinction of this genus.</p> + +<p>Cypress wood is soft, light brown, durable, and easily +worked. Quantities of it are shipped north and used in the +manufacture of doors and interior finishing of houses, for +fencing, railroad ties, cooperage, and shingles.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE JUNIPERS</div> + +<p>The sign by which the junipers are most easily distinguished +from other evergreens, is the juicy berries instead of +cones. In some species these are red, but they are mostly +blue or blue-black. Before they mature it is easy to see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +the stages by which the cone-scales thicken and coalesce, +instead of hardening and remaining separate, as in the +typical fruit of conifers.</p> + +<p>Juniper leaves are of two types: scale-like in opposite +pairs, pressed close to the twig, as in the cypresses; and +stiff, spiny, usually channelled leaves, which stand out free +from the twig in whorls of threes.</p> + +<p>The wood is red, fragrant, durable, and light.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Dwarf Juniper</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Juniperus communis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The dwarf juniper departs from the pyramidal pattern +and forms a loose, open head above a short, stout trunk. +The slender branchlets are clothed with boat-shaped +leaves which spread nearly at right angles from the twigs in +whorls of three. Each one is pointed and hollowed, dark +green outside, snowy white inside, which is really the upper +side of the leaf. It requires three years to mature the +bright blue berries, and they hang on the tree two or three +years longer. Each fruit contains two or three seeds, and +these require three years to germinate.</p> + +<p>It is plain to see that time is no object to this slow-growing +dwarf juniper, found in both the Eastern and Western +Hemispheres, covering vast stretches of waste land. From +Greenland to Alaska it is found and south along the highlands +into Pennsylvania, New Mexico, and California. Its +hardiness gives it importance as a cover for waste land on +seashores and for hedges and wind-breaks in any exposed +situation. It is a tree reaching thirty feet in height on the +limestone hills of southern Illinois. In other situations it +is usually a sprawling shrubby thing, the cringing parent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +of a race of dwarf junipers, known in many and various +horticultural forms.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Juniper</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. occidentalis</i>, Hook.</div> + +<p>The giant of its race is the Western juniper, one of the +patriarchial trees of America, ranking in age with the +sequoias. Never a tall tree, it yet attains a trunk diameter +of ten feet, and an age that surely exceeds two thousand +years. At elevations of seven to ten thousand feet this +valiant red cedar is found clinging to the granite domes +and bare glacial pavements where soil and moisture seem +absolutely non-existent. Sunshine and thin air are +abundant, however, and elbow room. Upon these commodities +the tree subsists, crouching, stubbornly clinging, +while a single root offers foothold, its gnarled branches +picturesque and beautiful in their tufts of gray-green +leaves. Avalanches have beheaded the oldest of these +giants, but their denuded trunks throw out wisps of +new foliage with each returning spring. When they succumb, +their trunks last almost as long as the granite +boulders among which they are cast by the wind or the +ice-burden that tore them loose.</p> + +<p>The stringy bark is woven into cloth and matting by +the Indians, and the fine-grained, hard, red wood finds no +better use than for the mountaineer's fencing and fuel.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Eastern Red Cedar</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. Virginiana</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The Eastern red cedar is a handsome, narrow pyramid +in its youth, often becoming broad and irregular, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +round-topped above a buttressed, twisted trunk, as it +grows old. The scale-like leaves are four-ranked, blue-green +when young, spreading, and sometimes three +fourths of an inch long, on vigorous new shoots. The +dark blue berries are covered with a pale bloom and have +a resinous, sweet flesh. This juniper is familiar in abandoned +farms and ragged fence-rows, becoming rusty +brown in foliage to match the stringy red bark in winter +time. The durable red wood is used for posts and railroad +ties, for cedar chests and pencils. The tree is profitably +planted by railroad companies, as cedar ties are unsurpassed. +In cultivation the tree forms an interesting, +symmetrical specimen, adapted to formal gardens. (<i>See +illustration, <a href="#figpg230">page 230</a></i>.)</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Red Juniper</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>J. Barbadensis</i>, Linn.</div> + +<p>The red juniper, much more luxuriant than its close +relative of the North, is the handsomest juniper in cultivation. +Its pyramid is robbed of a rigid formal expression +by the drooping of its fern-like leaf-spray. The berries are +silvery white and abundant. The wood is used principally +for pencils. This species grows in the Gulf states.</p> + + +<div class="caption2">THE LARCHES, OR TAMARACKS</div> + +<p>The notable characteristic of the small genus, <i>larix</i>, is +that the narrow leaves are shed in the autumn. Here is +a tall pyramidal conifer which is not evergreen. It +bears an annual crop of small woody cones, held erect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +on the branches, and the leaves are borne in crowded +clusters on short lateral spurs, except upon the terminal +shoots, where the leaves are scattered remotely but follow +the spiral plan. Larch wood is hard, heavy, resinous, and +almost indestructible. The tall shafts are ideal for telegraph +poles and posts.</p> + + +<div class="caption3"><b>The Tamarack</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>Larix Americana</i>, Michx.</div> + +<p>The tamarack or American larch (<i>see illustration, <a href="#figpg263">page +263</a></i>) goes farther north than any other tree, except dwarf +willows and birches. Above these stunted, broad-leaved +trees pure forests of tamarack rise, covering Northern +swamps from Newfoundland and Labrador to Hudson +Bay and west across the Rocky Mountains, the trees +dwindling in size as they approach the arctic tundras, the +limit of tree growth. The wood of these bravest of all +conifers is a God-send over vast territories where other +supply of timber is wanting. The tough roots of the +larch tree supply threads with which the Indian sews his +birch canoe.</p> + +<p>In cultivation the American species is too sparse of +limb and foliage to compete with the more luxuriant +European larch, yet it is often planted. Its fresh spring +foliage is lightened by the pale yellow of the globular +staminate flowers and warmed by the rosy tips of the +cone flowers. In early autumn the plain, thin-scaled +cones, erect and bright chestnut-brown, shed their small +seeds while the yellow leaves are dropping, and the bare +limbs carry the empty cones until the following year.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption3"><b>The Western Larch</b></div> + +<div class="caption3"><i>L. occidentalis</i>, Nutt.</div> + +<p>The Western larch is the finest tree in its genus, reaching +six feet in trunk diameter and two hundred feet in height, +in the Cascade forests from British Columbia to southern +Oregon and across the ranges to western Montana. This +tree has the unusual distinction of exceeding all conifers +in the value of its wood, which is heavy, hard, strong, +dense, durable, of a fine red that takes a brilliant polish. +It is used for furniture and for the interior finish of houses. +Quantities of it supply the demand for posts and railroad +ties, in which use it lasts indefinitely, compared with other +timber.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p> +<div class="caption2"><a name="PART_IX" id="PART_IX"></a> +PART IX</div> + +<div class="caption2"><a name="THE_PALMS" id="THE_PALMS"></a> +THE PALMS</div> + +<p>Palms are tropical plants related to lilies on one hand +and grasses on the other. One hundred genera and about +one thousand species compose a family in which tree forms +rarely occur. A few genera grow wild in the warmest +sections of this country, and exotics are familiar in cultivation, +wherever they are hardy. The leaves are parallel-veined, +fan-shaped, or feather-like, on long stalks that +sheath the trunk, splitting with its growth. The flowers +are lily-like, on the plan of three, and the fruits are clustered +berries, or drupes.</p> + +<p>Sago, tapioca, cocoanuts, and dates are foods derived +from members of this wonderful family. The +fibres of the leaves supply thread for weaving cloth and +cordage to the natives of the tropics, where houses are +built and furnished throughout from the native palms.</p> + +<p>The royal palm, crowned with a rosette of feather-like +leaves, each ten to twelve feet long, above the smooth, +tall stems, is a favorite avenue tree in tropical cities. +In Florida it grows wild in the extreme southwest, but is +planted on the streets of Miami and Palm Beach. Its +maximum height is one hundred feet.</p> + +<p>In California the favorite avenue palm of this feather-leaved +type is the Canary Island palm, whose stout trunk, +covered with interlacing leaf-bases, wears a crown of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +plumes that reach fifteen feet in length and touch the +ground with their drooping tips. Huge clusters of bright +yellow, dry, olive-shaped berries ripen in midsummer.</p> + +<p>The date palm of commerce, once confined to the tropical +deserts of Asia Minor and North Africa, has been successfully +established by the Government in hot, dry localities +of the Southwest. Fruit equal to any grown in +plantations of the Old World is marketed now from the +Imperial and Coachella valleys in California, and from +orchards near Phoenix, Arizona. Dry air and a summer +temperature far above the hundred degree mark is necessary +to insure the proper sugar content and flavor in +these fruits, which are borne in huge clusters and ripen +slowly, one by one.</p> + +<p>Fan-shaped leaves plaited on the ends of long stalks +that are usually spiny-edged are borne by the stocky +Florida palmettos and the tall desert palm of California, +planted widely in cities of the Southwest and in Europe. +Several genera of this fan-leaved type are represented in +palm gardens, and in the general horticulture of warm +regions of this country.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<div class="caption1">THE END</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">GENERAL INDEX</div> + +<i>Abies balsamea</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<i>Abies concolor</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<i>Abies Fraseri</i>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +<i>Abies grandis</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +<i>Abies magnifica</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<i>Abies nobilis</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +<i>Acacia dealbata</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> +<i>Acacia Melanoxylon</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<i>Acacia</i>, Palo verde, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +Acacias, The, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a><br /> +<i>Acer circinatum</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +<i>Acer glabrum</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +<i>Acer macrophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +<i>Acer nigrum</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +<i>Acer Negundo</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +<i>Acer Pennsylvanicum</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<i>Acer rubrum</i>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +<i>Acer saccharinum</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +<i>Acer saccharum</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> +<i>Acer spicatum</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<i>Aesculus Californica</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +<i>Aesculus glabra</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +<i>Aesculus Hippocastanum</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> +<i>Aesculus octandra</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +"Ague tree", <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> +Alder, Black, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +Alder, Oregon, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +Alder, Red, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +Alder, Seaside, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +Alders, The, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a><br /> +Alligator pear, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +Almond, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<i>Alnus maritima</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<i>Alnus Oregona</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<i>Amelanchier alnifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<i>Amelanchier Canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +American beech, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +American elm, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +American holly, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +American hornbeam, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +American larch, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +American linden, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +Annual rings, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<i>Anona cherimolia</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +<i>Anona glabra</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +Apples, The, <a href="#Page_147">147-149</a><br /> +Arbor-vitaes, The, <a href="#Page_268">268-270</a><br /> +Arboreta, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a><br /> +<i>Arbutus Menziesii</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +Arnold arboretum, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a><br /> +Ash, Black, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> +Ash, Blue, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +Ash, European, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +Ash, Green, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +Ash, Oregon, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> +Ash, Red, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> +Ash, White, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> +Ashes, Mountain, <a href="#Page_116">116-118</a><br /> +Ashes, The, <a href="#Page_201">201-209</a><br /> +<i>Asimina triloba</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +Aspen, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +Assam rubber tree, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +Autumn leaves, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +Avocado, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Bald cypress, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> +Balm of Gilead, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> +Balsam fir, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +Balsam poplar, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> +"Banana tree, Wild", <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +Banyan tree, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +Bark, xv, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +Basket oak, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +Basswood, Downy, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +Basswood, White, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +Basswoods, The, <a href="#Page_68">68-74</a><br /> +Bay, Red, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +Bay, Rose, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +Bay, Swamp, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +Bee tree, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +Beech, American, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +"Beech, Blue", <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +"Beech, Water", <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +"Beetle-wood", <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<i>Betula lenta</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<i>Betula lutea</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +<i>Betula nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<i>Betula papyrifera</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<i>Betula populifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +"Big-cone" pine, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> +Big shellbark, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +Big Tree, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +Birch, Canoe, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +Birch, Cherry, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +Birch, Paper, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +Birch, Red, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +Birch, River, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +Birch, White, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +Birch, Yellow, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +Birches, The, <a href="#Page_87">87-91</a><br /> +Bird cherry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +"Bird's-eye" maplewood, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +Black acacia, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +Black alder, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +Black ash, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> +Black cherry, Wild, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +Black cottonwood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Black dwarf sumach, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +Black gum, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<ins title='Correction: was "115-158"'>Black haw</ins>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +Black locust, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +Black maple, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +Black mulberry, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +Black oak, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +Black oak group, <a href="#Page_58">58-65</a><br /> +Black poplar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +Black spruce, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +Black walnut, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +Blackwood-tree, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +Blue ash, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +"Blue beech", <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +Blue fir, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +Blue spruce, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +Box elder, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +Buckeye, California, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> +Buckeye, Ohio, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +Buckeye, Sweet, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +Buds, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +Bur oak, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +Burning bush, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +Butternut, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +Buttonwoods, The, <a href="#Page_93">93-95</a><br /> +<br /> +California walnut, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +California white oak, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +Cambium, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +Campbell's magnolia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +Camperdown elm, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +Canada plum, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +Canary island palm, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +Canoe birch, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +Canoe cedar, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +<i>Carica papaya</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +Carolina poplar, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<i>Carpinus Carolinianum</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<i>Castanea dentata</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<i>Castanea pumila</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a><br /> +Cedar, Canoe, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +Cedar, Eastern red, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +Cedar, Incense, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> +Cedar, Red, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +Cedar, White, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +<i>Celtis Australis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +<i>Celtis occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<i>Cercidium Torreyanum</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +<i>Cercis Canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<i>Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> +<i>Chamaecyparis Thyoides</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +Chemistry of trees, <a href="#Page_5">5-8</a><br /> +Cherimoya, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> +Cherries, The, <a href="#Page_152">152-155</a><br /> +Cherry birch, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +Chestnut oak, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +Chestnuts, The, <a href="#Page_44">44-47</a><br /> +Chinquapin, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a><br /> +<i>Chionanthus Virginica</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +Chlorophyll, Breaking down of the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +Choke cherry, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<i>Cladrastis lutea</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +Clammy locust, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +Cockspur thorn, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +Coffee tree, Kentucky, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +Colorado blue spruce, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +Common lime, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +Cone-bearing evergreens, <a href="#Page_217">217-279</a><br /> +Conifers, <a href="#Page_217">217-279</a><br /> +Coral-bean, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> +"Cork elm", <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Cornel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<i>Cornus Florida</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<i>Cornus mas</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<i>Cornus Nuttallii</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<i>Cotinus</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +Cotton gum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +Cottonwood, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +Cottonwood, Black, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Cottonwood, Lance-leaved, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Cottonwood, Mexican, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Cottonwood, Narrow-leaved, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Cottonwood, Swamp, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +Crab, Prairie, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +Crab, Wild, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus coccinea</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus Crus-galli</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus Douglasii</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus mollis</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus oxyacantha</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<i>Crataegus pruinosa</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +Cuban pine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Cucumber tree, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +Cucumber tree, Large-leaved, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<i>Cupressus macrocarpa</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> +<i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +"Curly maplewood", <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +Custard-apple, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +Cypresses, The, <a href="#Page_271">271-274</a><br /> +<br /> +Date palm, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> +Digger pine, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<i><ins title='Correction: was "Diospyrus"'>Diospyros</ins> Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +Dogwood, European, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +Dogwood, Flowering, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +Dogwood, Jamaica, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +Dogwood, Western, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +Dogwoods, The, <a href="#Page_111">111-114</a><br /> +Douglas spruce, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +Downy basswood, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +Dwarf juniper, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> +Dwarf maple, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +Dwarf sumach, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Eastern arbor-vitae, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +Eastern mountain ash, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +Eastern red cedar, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +Eastern service berry, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +Ebony, Texas, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +Elder, Box, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +Elder-leaved mountain ash, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +Elm, American, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +Elm, Camperdown, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +"Elm, Cork", <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Elm, English, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Elm, Hickory, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +Elm, Moose, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +Elm, Mountain, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Elm, Red, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +Elm, Rock, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +Elm, Scotch, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +Elm, Slippery, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +Elm, Small-leaved, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Elm, White, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +Elm, Winged, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Elm, Wych, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +Elms, The, <a href="#Page_210">210-216</a><br /> +"Encina", <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +Engelmann spruce, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +English elm, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +English hawthorn, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +English walnut, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<i>Euonymus atropurpureus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +European ash, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +European cypress, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +European dogwood, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +European holly, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +European mountain ash, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +European nettle tree, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +Evergreens, Cone-bearing, <a href="#Page_217">217-279</a><br /> +Evergreens, Leaves of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Fagus Americanus</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +Fibres of wood, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<i>Ficus aurea</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<i>Ficus elasticus</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +"Fiddleback" ash, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +Figs, The, <a href="#Page_165">165-167</a><br /> +Fir, Balsam, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +Fir, Blue, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +Fir, Noble, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +Fir, Red, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +Fir, Red (<i>A. nobilis</i>), <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +Fir, Silver, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +Fir, White, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +Fir, White (<i>A. concolor</i>), <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +Firs, The, <a href="#Page_251">251-257</a><br /> +Flowering dogwood, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +"Foxtail" pines, The, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus excelsior</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus Oregona</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus ornus</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus Pennsylvanica</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus Pennsylvanica</i> (<i>lanceolata</i>), <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +<i>Fraxinus quadrangulata</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +Frijolito, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> +Fringe tree, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Gerarde, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +<i>Gleditsia triacanthos</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +Golden fig, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +Grain of wood, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +Gray pine, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +Great laurel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +Great laurel magnolia, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +Green ash, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +"Grete Herball", <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +Gum, Cotton, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +Gum, Sour or Black, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +Gum, Sweet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +Gum trees, The, <a href="#Page_95">95-100</a><br /> +<i>Gymnocladus dioicus</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +Gymnosperms, <a href="#Page_217">217-279</a><br /> +<br /> +Hackberries, The, <a href="#Page_160">160-162</a><br /> +<i>Hamamelis Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> +"Hard-tack", <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +Haw, Black, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +Haw, Red, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +Haw, Scarlet, <a href="#Page_157">157-158</a><br /> +Hawthorns, The, <a href="#Page_155">155-159</a><br /> +Hazel, Witch, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> +Heath family, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +Hemlocks, The, <a href="#Page_259">259-262</a><br /> +<i>Hicoria alba</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<i>Hicoria glabra</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<i>Hicoria lacinata</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<i>Hicoria ovata</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +<i>Hicoria Pecan</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +Hickories, The, <a href="#Page_36">36-41</a><br /> +Hickory elm, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +Hollies, The, <a href="#Page_143">143-146</a><br /> +Holly, American, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +Holly, European, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +Honey locust, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +Honey pod, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> +Hop hornbeam, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<a name="Hornbeam" id="Hornbeam"></a>Hornbeam, American, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +Hornbeam, Hop, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +Horse bean, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +Horse-chestnut foliage, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +Horse-chestnuts, The, <a href="#Page_65">65-68</a><br /> +"Horse sugar", <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Icthyomethia Piscipula</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +<i>Ilex aquifolium</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<i>Ilex Opaca</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<i>Ilex vomitoria</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +Incense cedar, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> +"Iron oak", <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +"Ironwood," <i>see also</i> <a href="#Hornbeam">Hornbeam</a><br /> +Ironwood, Knowlton's, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<br /> +Jack pine, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +Jamaica dogwood, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +Japanese persimmon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +Japanese walnut, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +"Judas-tree", <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<i>Juglans, Californica</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +<i>Juglans cinerea</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<i>Juglans cordiformis</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<i>Juglans nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<i>Juglans regia</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<i>Juglans rupestris</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +<i>Juglans Sieboldiana</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +June-berry, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +Junipers, The, <a href="#Page_274">274-277</a><br /> +<i>Juniperus <ins title='Correction: was "Bardadensis"'>Barbadensis</ins></i>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<i>Juniperus communis</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> +<i>Juniperus occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +<i>Juniperus Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaki, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +Kalm, Peter, <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a><br /> +<i>Kalmia latifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +Kentucky coffee tree, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +Knob-cone pine, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> +Knowlton's ironwood, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<br /> +Lance-leaved Cottonwood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +"<i>Langues de femmes</i>", <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +Larches, The, <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a><br /> +Large-leaved cucumber tree, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<i>Larix Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<i>Larix occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +Laurel family, <a href="#Page_127">127-133</a><br /> +Laurel, Great, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +Laurel, Mountain, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +Laurel oak, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<i>Laurus nobilis</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +Lawson cypress, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> +Leaves, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16-20</a><br /> +"Lever-wood", <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<i>Librocedus Decurrens</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> +Lime, Common, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +"Lime Trees," <i>see</i> <a href="#Page_68">Lindens</a><br /> +Linden, American, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +Lindens, The, <a href="#Page_68">68-74</a><br /> +Linnaeus, xviii, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +<i>Liquidamber styraciflua</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +Live oak, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +Live oak (<i>Q. aquifolia</i>), <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +Loblolly pine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Locusts, The, <a href="#Page_177">177-184</a><br /> +Lodge-pole pine, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +Lombardy poplar, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +Longleaf pine, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<br /> +Madroña, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia acuminata</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +Magnolia, Campbell's, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia foetida</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia Glauca</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +Magnolia, Great laurel, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia macrophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +Magnolia, Starry, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia stellata</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia tripetala</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<i>Magnolia yulan</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +Magnolias, The, <a href="#Page_101">101-111</a><br /> +<i>Malus coronaria</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +<i>Malus ioensis</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +Maple, "Bird's eye" and "Curly", <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +Maple, Black, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +Maple, Dwarf, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> +Maple, Mountain, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +Maple, Norway, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +Maple, Oregon, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +Maple, Red, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +Maple, Silver, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Maple, Soft, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Maple, Striped, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +Maple, Sugar, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> +Maple, Sycamore, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +Maple, Vine, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +Maple, Wier's weeping, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Maples, The, <a href="#Page_193">193-201</a><br /> +Melon papaw, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +Mesquite, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> +Mexican cottonwood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Mississippi Valley chestnut oak, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Mockernut, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<i>Mohrodendron diptera</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<i>Mohrodendron tetraptera</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +Monterey cypress, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> +Monterey pine, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +Moose elm, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +<i>Morus alba</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<i>Morus nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<i>Morus rubra</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +Mountain ashes, <a href="#Page_116">116-118</a><br /> +Mountain elm, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Mountain hemlock, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +Mountain laurel, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +Mountain maple, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +Mountain pine, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +Mountain sumach, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +Muir, John, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a><br /> +Mulberries, The, <a href="#Page_163">163-165</a><br /> +<br /> +Names of trees, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii-xxiii</a><br /> +Nannyberry, Rusty, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +Narrow-leaved cottonwood, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +"Necklace-bearing" poplar, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +Nettle tree, European, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +Noble fir, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +Nomenclature of trees, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii-xxiii</a><br /> +Norway maple, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +Norway pine, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +Norway spruce, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +Nut pines, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a><br /> +Nut trees, The, <a href="#Page_28">28-74</a><br /> +<i>Nyssa aquatica</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<i>Nyssa sylvatica</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Oak, Basket, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +Oak, Black, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +Oak, Bur, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +Oak, California white, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +Oak, Chestnut, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +Oak, "Iron", <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +Oak, Live, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +Oak, Live (<i>Q. agrifolia</i>), <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +Oak, Mississippi Valley chestnut, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Oak, Pacific post, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +Oak, Pin, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +Oak, Post, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +Oak, Red, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +Oak, "Rock chestnut", <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +Oak, Scarlet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +Oak, Single or Laurel, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +Oak, Swamp white, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Oak, White, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +Oak, Willow, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +Oak, "Yellow", <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Oaks, Black, <a href="#Page_58">58-65</a><br /> +Oaks, The, <a href="#Page_46">46-65</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +Oaks, White, <a href="#Page_49">49-58</a><br /> +Ohio buckeye, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +Oilnut, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +Old field pine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +One-leaved nut pine, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +Oregon alder, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +Oregon ash, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> +Oregon maple, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +Oriental plane, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> +Osage orange, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +<i>Ostrya Knowletoni</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<i>Ostrya Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<i>Oxydendrum arboreum</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Pacific post oak, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +Palms, The, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +Palo verde acacia, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> +Papaws, The, <a href="#Page_167">167-170</a><br /> +Paper birch, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<i>Parkinsonia aculeata</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +Pecan, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +"Pepperidge", <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<i>Persea Borbonia</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<i>Persea gratissima</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +Persimmons, The, <a href="#Page_172">172-175</a><br /> +<i>Picea Engelmanni</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<i>Picea excelsa</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<i>Picea Mariana</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<i>Picea Parryana</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<i>Picea rubens</i>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<i>Picea Sitchensis</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +Pie cherry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +Pignut, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +Pin cherry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +Pin oak, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +Pine, "Big-cone", <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> +Pine, Cuban, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pine, Digger, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +Pine, Gray, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +Pine, Jack, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +Pine, Knob-cone, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> +Pine, Loblolly, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pine, Lodge-pole, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +Pine, Longleaf, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +Pine, Monterey, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +Pine, Mountain, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +Pine, Norway, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +Pine, Old field, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pine, One-leaved nut, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +Pine, Pitch, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +Pine, Prickle-cone, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +Pine, Red, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +"Pine, Red", <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +Pine, Rocky Mountain white, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +Pine, Rosemary, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +Pine, Scrub, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> +Pine, Shortleaf, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +Pine, Slash, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pine, "Southern", <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +Pine, Sugar, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +Pine, Swamp, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pine, Tamarack, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +Pine, Western pitch, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +Pine, Western yellow, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> +Pine, White, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +Pine, White bark, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +Pines, "Foxtail", <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +Pines, Nut, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a><br /> +Pines, The, <a href="#Page_220">220-247</a><br /> +Piñon, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<i>Pinus albicaulis</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<i>Pinus aristata</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +<i>Pinus attenuata</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Balfouriana</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Caribaea</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<i>Pinus cembroides</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<i>Pinus contorta</i>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Coulteri</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<i>Pinus divaricata</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +<i>Pinus echinata</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +<i>Pinus edulis</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<i>Pinus flexilis</i>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Lambertiana</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<i>Pinus monophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Monticola</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> +<i>Pinus palustris</i>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> +<i>Pinus quadrifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<i>Pinus radiata</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +<i>Pinus resinosa</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<i>Pinus rigida</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Sabiniana</i>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Strobus</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +<i>Pinus Taeda</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Pitch pine, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +Pitch pine, Western, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +Pitch pines, The, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +Plane, Oriental, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> +<i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<i>Platanus orientalis</i>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> +Plums, The, <a href="#Page_149">149-152</a><br /> +"Pod-bearers," The, <a href="#Page_176">176-192</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +Poison sumach, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +Pond apples, The, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a><br /> +Poplar, Balsam, 79 +Poplar, Black, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +Poplar, Carolina, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +Poplar, Lombardy, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +Poplar, "Necklace-bearing", <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +Poplar, Silver-leaved, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +Poplar, White, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +Poplars, The, <a href="#Page_75">75-81</a><br /> +<i>Populus acuminata</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<i>Populus alba</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +<i>Populus angustifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<i>Populus balsamifera</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> +<i>Populus deltoidea</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<i>Populus heterophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<i>Populus Mexicana</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<i>Populus nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<i>Populus tremuloides</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<i>Populus trichocarpa</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +Post oak, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +Prairie crab, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +Prickle-cone pine, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +Prickwood, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<i>Prosopis pubescens</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> +<i>Prosopis Tuliflora</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> +<i>Prunus Americanus</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<i>Prunus avium</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<i>Prunus cerasus</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<i>Prunus nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> +<i>Prunus Pennsylvanica</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +<i>Prunus pseudo-Cerasus</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +<i>Prunus serotina</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +<i>Prunus Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<i>Pseudotsuga mucronata</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +Pussy willow, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> +<br /> +Quaking asp, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<i>Quercus acuminata</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<i>Quercus agrifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<i>Quercus alba</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<i>Quercus chrysolepis</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<i>Quercus coccinea</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<i>Quercus Garryana</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +<i>Quercus lobata</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +<i>Quercus macrocarpa</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<i>Quercus Michauxii</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +<i>Quercus minor</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<i>Quercus palustris</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<i>Quercus Phellos</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<i>Quercus platanoides</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<i>Quercus prinus</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<i>Quercus rubra</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<i>Quercus velutina</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<i>Quercus Virginiana</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Ram's horn ash, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> +Red alder, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +Red ash, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> +Red bay, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +Red birch, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +Red cedar, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +Red cedar, Eastern, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +Red elm, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +Red fir, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +Red fir (<i>A. nobilis</i>), <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +<ins title='Correction: was "Rew"'>Red</ins> haw, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +Red juniper, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +Red maple, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> +Red mulberry, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +Red oak, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +Red pine, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +"Red pine", <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +Red plum, Wild, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +Red spruce, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +Redbud, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +Redwood, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +Retama, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +Rhododendron, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<i>Rhododendron maximum</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<i>Rhus copallina</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<i>Rhus glabra</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +<i>Rhus hirta</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<i>Rhus Vernix</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +Rings, The Annual, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +River birch, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<i>Robinia Pseudacacia</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<i>Robinia viscosa</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +"Rock chestnut" oak, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +Rock elm, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +Rocky Mountain white pine, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +Rose bay, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +Rosemary pine, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +Rowan tree, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +Royal palm, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +Rubber plant, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +Rum cherry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +Rusty nannyberry, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Salix Babylonica</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<i>Salix discolor</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +Sap, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +Sargent, Professor, xxi +Sassafras, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +Scarlet haw, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +Scarlet oak, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +Scientific names, xvii +Scotch elm, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +Screw-bean, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> +Screw-pod, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> +Scrub pine, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> +Seaside alder, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, 266 +<i>Sequoia Wellingtonia</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +Sequoias, The, <a href="#Page_262">262-268</a><br /> +Service-berries, The, <a href="#Page_159">159-160</a><br /> +Shad-bush, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +Shagbark, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +Shaw botanical garden, xiv +Sheepberry, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +Shellbark, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> +Shellbark, Big, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +Shingle oak, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +Shortleaf pine, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> +"Silva of North America", <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a><br /> +Silver bell trees, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +Silver fir, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +Silver-leaved poplar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +Silver maple, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Silver wattle, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> +Slash pine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Slippery elm, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +Small-leaved elm, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Smoke tree, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +Smooth sumach, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +Snowdrop tree, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +"Snowdrop tree", <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +Soft maple, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Soft pines, <a href="#Page_222">222-229</a><br /> +<i>Sophora secundiflora</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> +<i>Sorbus Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<i>Sorbus Aucuparia</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<i>Sorbus sambucifolia</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +Sorrel tree, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +Sour gum, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +Sour-wood, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +"Southern" pine, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> +Southwestern walnut, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +"<i>Species plantarum</i>", <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a><br /> +Spruce, Black, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +Spruce, Blue, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +Spruce, Douglas, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +Spruce, Engelmann, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +Spruce, Norway, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +Spruce, Red, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +Spruce, Tideland, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +Spruces, The, <a href="#Page_247">247-251</a><br /> +Staghorn sumach, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +Starch, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /> +Starry magnolia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +Striped mapl, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +Sugar maple, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> +Sugar pine, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +Sumach, Black dwarf, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +Sumach, Dwarf, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +Sumach, Mountain, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +Sumach, Poison, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +Sumach, Smooth, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> +Sumach, Staghorn, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +Sumachs, The, <a href="#Page_137">137-142</a><br /> +Swamp bay, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +Swamp Cottonwood, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +Swamp pine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +Swamp white oak, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Sweet buckeye, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> +Sweet cherry, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> +Sweet gum, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +Sweet leaf, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +Sycamore maple, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +Sycamores, The, <a href="#Page_93">93-95</a><br /> +<i>Symplocos tinctoria</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +Tamarack pine, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +Tamaracks, The, <a href="#Page_277">277-279</a><br /> +"Tassel trees", <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<i>Taxodium distichum</i>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> +Texas ebony, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<i>Thuya occidentalis</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<i>Thuya plicata</i>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +Tideland spruce,, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<i>Tilia Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<i>Tilia heterophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<i>Tilia pubescens</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<i>Tilia vulgaris</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<i>Toxylon pomiferum</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +Transpiration, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +Trees, Bark of, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +Trees, Breathing of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +Trees, Buds of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +Trees, Chemistry of., <a href="#Page_5">5-8</a><br /> +Trees, Food of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +Trees, Growth of, <a href="#Page_9">9-16</a><br /> +Trees, How to know the, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv-xvi</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +Trees in winter, <a href="#Page_20">20-27</a><br /> +Trees, Leaves of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16-20</a><br /> +Trees, Life of, <a href="#Page_3">3-27</a><br /> +Trees, Names of, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii-xxiii</a><br /> +Trees, Opposite-leaved, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a><br /> +Trees, Sap of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +Trembling aspen, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<i>Tsuga Canadensis</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<i>Tsuga Martensiana</i>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +Tulip tree, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +"Tupelo", <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ulmus alata</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +<i>Ulmus Americana</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +<i>Ulmus campestris</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +<i>Ulmus fulva</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> +<i>Ulmus montana</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<i>Ulmus Thomasi</i>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +Umbrella tree, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Viburnum lentago</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +<i>Viburnum prunifolium</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +<i>Viburnum rufidulum</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +Viburnums, The, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +Vine maple, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> +"Virgilia", <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Wahoo, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +"Wahoo", <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Walnut, Black, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +Walnut, California, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +Walnut, English, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +Walnut, Japanese, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +Walnut, Southwestern, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +Walnut, White, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +Walnuts, The, <a href="#Page_28">28-35</a><br /> +"Water Beech", <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +Wattles, The, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a><br /> +Weeping maple, Wier's, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +Weeping willow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +Western dogwood, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +Western hemlock, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +Western juniper, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> +Western larch, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> +Western pitch pine, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +Western service-berry, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +Western yellow pine, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> +White ash, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> +White-bark pine, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +White basswood, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +White birch, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +White cedar, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> +White elm, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +White fir, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +White fir (<i>A. concolor</i>), <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +White mulberry, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +White oak, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +White oak group, <a href="#Page_49">49-58</a><br /> +White pine, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +White pine, Rocky Mountain, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +White poplar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> +White walnut, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +Wier's weeping maple, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> +"Wild banana tree", <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +Wild black cherry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +Wild cherry, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +Wild crab, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> +Wild red plum, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +Willow oak, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +Willow, Pussy, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> +Willow, Weeping, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +Willows, The, <a href="#Page_81">81-84</a><br /> +Winged elm, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> +Winter, Trees in, <a href="#Page_20">20-27</a><br /> +"Winter berries", <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> +Witch hazel, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> +Wood, <a href="#Page_12">12-16</a><br /> +Wych elm, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +<br /> +Yaupon, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +Yellow birch, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +Yellow locust, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +"Yellow oak", <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +Yellow pine, Western, <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> +Yellow plum, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +Yellow-wood, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +Yulan magnolia, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Zigia flexicaulis</i>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<div class="trans_notes"> +<div class="caption2">Transcriber's Notes</div> + +<p>Although current usage would display the numbers in chemical formulæ +as subscripts (ex., <a href="#Page_7">Pages 7-8</a>: H<sub>2</sub>O, +CO<sub>2</sub> and C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), +they are displayed here as printed.</p> + +<p>Original gramatical constructions left as is +(ex. <a href="#pg83_seeds">P. 83</a>, "…the light seeds, each a minute +speck, floats away…").</p> + +<p>In order to match the most commonly used spelling, the instances +where Arbor-vitae was printed with an æ ligature were converted to +the individual letters.</p> + +<div class="caption2">Typographical Corrections</div> + +<table summary="Corrections"> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt2">Page</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="brdbt2">Correction</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>Raffinesque ⇒ Rafinesque</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>uniniviting ⇒ uninviting</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>hawthrons ⇒ hawthorns</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>Black haw, 115-158 ⇒ Black haw, 115, 158</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>Diospyrus ⇒ Diospyros</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>Bardadensis ⇒ Barbadensis</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_rt"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> + <td> </td> + <td>Rew Haw ⇒ Red haw</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +</div> + +</div><!-- End Book --> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Trees Worth Knowing, by Julia Ellen Rogers + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES WORTH KNOWING *** + +***** This file should be named 37717-h.htm or 37717-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/7/1/37717/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas, Marilynda +Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading +Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/37717-h/images/cover.jpg b/37717-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1ad12a --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8dc8933 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4d1a82 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102c.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5cf6c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102c.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102d.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ece2038 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_102d.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_118.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_118.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d18b0e --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_118.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_119.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_119.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b1158f --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_119.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_134.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_134.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..36522e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_134.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_135.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_135.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c15d9a --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_135.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..869ec5b --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ce2e14 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150c.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec6b471 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150c.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150d.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2d4385 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_150d.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_166.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_166.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..99b368b --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_166.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_167.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_167.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..acf9226 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_167.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_182.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_182.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ccdcb1e --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_182.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_183.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_183.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..337720e --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_183.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ddc4241 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac61f5e --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198c.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38ab91c --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198c.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198d.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c72def1 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_198d.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8837e77 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5041add --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214c.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214c.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e2e488 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214c.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214d.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214d.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b63e987 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_214d.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_22.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_22.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4670b14 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_22.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_23.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_23.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d43597 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_23.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_230.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_230.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b173bb --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_230.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_231.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_231.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bf1578a --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_231.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_246.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_246.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b7ee82 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_246.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_247.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_247.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..52dc7c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_247.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_262.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_262.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e26e57 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_262.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_263.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_263.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..02f5043 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_263.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_30.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_30.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b9af2bf --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_30.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_31.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_31.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d291562 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_31.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_38.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_38.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b91849 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_38.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_39.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_39.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c1cc80 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_39.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_54.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_54.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cea0016 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_54.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_55.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_55.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df96068 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_55.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_6.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_6.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8854c71 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_6.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_7.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_7.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a43009 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_7.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_70.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_70.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..994f189 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_70.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_71.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_71.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5efb28 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_71.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac49837 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..44bf95b --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_86b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87a.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..689dbe4 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87a.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87b.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67008d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_87b.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_ii.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_ii.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5b45cf --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_ii.png diff --git a/37717-h/images/fig_pg_iii.png b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_iii.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae82374 --- /dev/null +++ b/37717-h/images/fig_pg_iii.png |
