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diff --git a/37671-h/37671-h.htm b/37671-h/37671-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a66cf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/37671-h/37671-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4930 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> + <meta name="generator" content= + "HTML Tidy for Linux/x86 (vers 11 February 2007), see www.w3.org" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=us-ascii" /> + + <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Panama Canal And Its Makers, by Vaughan + Cornish.</title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + p.introduction .first-letter {font-size : 225%; + float : left; + width : 1em; + } + .overline {text-decoration: overline;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + td.td85 {width: 85%; text-align: left;} + td.td15 {width: 15%; text-align: right;} + td.td40 {width: 40%; text-align: left;} + td.td20 {width: 20%; text-align: center;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .g5 {letter-spacing: 5px;} + .g3 {letter-spacing: 3px;} + .g2 {letter-spacing: 2px;} + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + .padtop {margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} + .imgpad {margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + .p1 {text-align: center; font-size: 1.5em;} + .p2 {text-align: center; font-size: 1.2em;} + .p3 {text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + + .caption {font-size: .9em;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; padding-bottom: 1.5em;text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes { padding: 2px; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + span.c33 {margin-left: 9.5em;} + span.c32 {margin-left: 6.5em;} + span.c31 {margin-left: 3em;} + + span.c15 {margin-left: 2em;} + + p.c11 {font-style: italic} + + hr.c6 {width: 45%;} + div.c5 {width: 270px;} + div.c4 {width: 422px;} + h5.c3 {font-style: italic} + div.c2 {width: 500px;} + hr.c1 {width: 65%;} + + </style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Panama Canal and its Makers, by Vaughan Cornish + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Panama Canal and its Makers + +Author: Vaughan Cornish + +Release Date: October 8, 2011 [EBook #37671] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL AND ITS MAKERS *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Adam Styles and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p class="footnote">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Minor typographic errors corrected. Some + place names have out-of-date spellings. Photographic plates are presented on facing + pages within the book and have been placed at the nearest paragraph break in this + document. Chapters are preceded by a page with the chapter title printed on it; since + this is repeated on the following page, such pages are omitted.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + <h1>THE PANAMA CANAL AND ITS MAKERS</h1> + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="padtop" style="border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"> +<p class="p1">THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE +SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS</p> + +<p class="p2">By <span class="smcap">George W. Crichfield</span></p> + +<p class="p2">Illustrated. Two Vols. Royal 8vo, cloth, 25<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" /> + +<p class="p2">THE SOUTH AMERICAN SERIES</p> + +<p class="p3">Edited by <span class="smcap">Martin Hume</span></p> + +<p class="p3">Each Volume Demy 8vo, cloth, 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> net.</p> + + +<p class="p2">VOL. I.</p> + +<p class="p1">CHILE</p> + +<p style="width: 70%; margin-left: 10%;"> +Its History and Development, Natural Features, Products, Commerce +and Present Conditions. By G. F. <span class="smcap">Scott Elliott</span>, M.A., F.R.G.S., +Author of "A Naturalist in Mid Africa." With an Introduction by +<span class="smcap">Martin Hume</span>, a Map, and many Illustrations. +</p> + +<p style="width: 60%; margin-left: 20%;"> + "An exhaustive and interesting account, not only of the + turbulent history of this country but of her present conditions + and seeming prospects."--<i>Westminster Gazette.</i> + + "Will be found attractive and useful reading by the student of + history, the geographer, the naturalist, and last, but assuredly + not least, the British merchant."--<i>Scotsman.</i> +</p> + + +<p class="p2">VOL. II.</p> + +<p class="p1">PERU</p> + +<p style="width: 70%; margin-left: 10%;"> +Its Former and Present Civilisation, Topography and Natural +Resources, History and Political Conditions, Commerce and General +Development. By C. <span class="smcap">Reginald Enock</span>, F.R.G.S., Author of "The Andes +and the Amazon." With an Introduction by <span class="smcap">Martin Hume</span>, a Map, and +numerous Illustrations. +</p> + +<p style="width: 60%; margin-left: 20%;"> + "An important work.... The writer possesses a quick eye and a + keen intelligence; is many-sided in his interests, and on + certain subjects speaks as an expert. The volume deals fully + with the development of the country, and is written in the same + facile and graphic style as before. Illustrated by a large + number of excellent photographs."--<i>The Times.</i> + + "A magnificent collection of information on this interesting + country. The author's vivid and eloquent description invests it + for us with some of the glamour it possessed for the + Conquistadores of the sixteenth century; and on closing the book + the reader feels tempted to set out at once for + Peru."--<i>Yorkshire Observer.</i> +</p> + + +<p class="p3">IN PREPARATION</p> + +<p class="p2">VOL. III.</p> + +<p class="p1">MEXICO</p> + +<p class="p3">By C. <span class="smcap">Reginald Enock</span></p> + +<p class="p2">LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN</p> +</div> + + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" + width="500" height="382" alt="" title="" /> + <span class="caption">MAKERS OF THE CANAL</span> + </div> + + <h2 class="g2"><br /> + <br /> + THE PANAMA CANAL<br /> + AND ITS MAKERS.</h2> + + <h3><br /> + <br /> + <i>By</i> <span class="g2">VAUGHAN CORNISH</span></h3> + + <h5 class="c3">Doctor of Science (Manchester Univ.), Fellow of the Royal + Geographical,<br /> + Geological, and Chemical Societies of London,<br /> + Member of the Japan Society</h5> + + <h4><br /> + <br /> + <span class="g5">WITH MAP, PLANS,<br /> + AND PHOTOGRAPHS</span><br /> + <span class="g2">TAKEN BY THE AUTHOR</span></h4> + + <h3><big>T. FISHER UNWIN</big><br /> + LONDON: ADELPHI TERRACE<br /> + LEIPSIC: INSELSTRASSE 20</h3> + + <h5>1909</h5> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> + + <p class="center">(<i>All rights reserved.</i>)</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> + + <h5>THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED</h5> + + <h5>TO</h5> + + <h4>THE REVEREND CHARLES JOHN CORNISH, M.A. (<span class="smcap">Oxon</span>),</h4> + + <h5>OF FLEET, HANTS, AND SALCOMBE REGIS, DEVON,</h5> + + <h5>BY</h5> + + <h5>HIS AFFECTIONATE SON,</h5> + + <h4>THE AUTHOR.</h4> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">I</span> AM indebted to many persons + for advice and information in connection with my study of the Panama Canal, and wish to + thank particularly His Excellency the Rt. Hon. James Bryce, the Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, + Mr. Claude Mallet, C.M.G., Colonel George E. Church, Colonel George W. Goethals, + chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission, and his colleagues, Colonel W.C. Gorgas, + M.D., Major D.D. Gaillard, Major William L. Sibert, Mr. Jackson Smith, and Mr. Bucklin + Bishop. Also Major Chester Harding, Mr. Arango, Mr. G.R. Shanton, Chief of Police, Mr. + William Gerig (formerly in charge of the Gatun Dam), Mr. Mason W. Mitchell, and Mr. + Tracy Robinson.</p> + + <p class="right">VAUGHAN CORNISH.</p> + + <p><i>November</i>, 1908.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + <table width="90%" summary="contents"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="smcap">page</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">INTRODUCTION</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_17">15</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER I<br /> + <span class="smcap">historical review</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_25">23</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER II<br /> + <span class="smcap">on the canal as it is to be</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_47">45</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER III<br /> + <span class="smcap">on the present condition of the culebra cut, and on the methods + employed for excavation and disposal of the spoil</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_81">79</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER IV<br /> + <span class="smcap">the men on the isthmus</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_101">99</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg + 10]</a></span>CHAPTER V<br /> + <span class="smcap">health on the isthmus and the future of the white race in the + tropics</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER VI<br /> + <span class="smcap">on the shortening of distances by sea, and on the steamships + available for canal transit</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAPTER VII<br /> + <span class="smcap">the cost of the canal</span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_173">171</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">INDEX</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_181">179</a></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2><p><span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + + <table width="90%" summary="illustrations"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">MAKERS OF THE CANAL</td> + + <td class="td15"><i><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="smcap">to face page</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STATUE OF COLUMBUS, CHRISTOBAL, COLON</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHRISTCHURCH, COLON</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LOCK AND DAM SITE, GATUN<br /> + (The house is on the crest-line of the dam, which will extend to the hills on the + right)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">EXCAVATING FOR THE DOUBLE FLIGHT OF THREE LOCKS AT GATUN<br /> + (In fine-grained argillaceous sandstone rock)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">RE-LOCATION OF RAILWAY ABOVE GATUN DAM<br /> + (The trestle embankment will run as a causeway across a bay of the lake)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">MOTOR TROLLEY FOR INSPECTION OF WORKS<br /> + (In the background are screened houses of employees)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">TROPICAL FOREST, WITH HEAVY GROWTH OF PARASITIC PLANTS</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">JUNGLE WITH PIPE THROUGH WHICH OIL IS CONVEYED BY GRAVITATION + ACROSS THE ISTHMUS</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAGRES RIVER NEAR BARBACOES<br /> + (In the dry season—looking down stream)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CHAGRES RIVER NEAR OBISPO<br /> + (In the dry season)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">FRENCH DREDGER LAID UP<br /> + (Several of these have recently been put in use again)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">FRENCH TRUCKS PARTLY COVERED WITH FOREST GROWTH<br /> + (Many of these were used at first by the Americans, but are now replaced by larger + ones)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">EXCAVATION NEAR TAVERNILLA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">RIVER CHAGRES AND RAILWAY NEAR GORGONA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LIDGERWOOD UNLOADER, WINDING APPARATUS</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"><i>ANOPHELES</i> BRIGADE OILING A DITCH</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">100-TON WRECKING CRANE, GORGONA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">INTERIOR OF MACHINE SHOP, GORGONA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">MACHINE SHOPS, GORGONA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CLUB HOUSE FOR EMPLOYEES, GORGONA<br /> + (Managed by the Y.M.C.A.)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">EXCAVATION IN THE CUT</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">PIPE FOR DIVERSION OF A RIVER, NEAR EMPIRE</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">IN THE CUT, WIDTH 500 FEET</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">IN THE CUT, LOOKING SOUTH TOWARDS CULEBRA<br /> + (The gorge between Golden and Silver Hills just visible)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">ROCK DRILL<br /> + (These machines bore a hole 30 feet deep in eight hours)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">ROCK DRILLS AT WORK IN THE CUT</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">THE CUT, LOOKING NORTH FROM CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">THE CUT, LOOKING SOUTH FROM CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">FROM CULEBRA, LOOKING EAST TO DISTANT HILLS</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">FROM CULEBRA, LOOKING EAST ACROSS THE CUT<br /> + (Terraces formed by landslip are just visible behind the smoke of a distant steam + shovel)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">FROM CULEBRA, LOOKING EAST TO GOLDEN HILL<br /> + (Showing excavation in steps and ledges. Each ledge has carried a railway + track)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_96">96</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" + id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">THE CUT AT CULEBRA, LOOKING NORTH<br /> + (The scarped face of Golden Hill on the right. Taken April, 1908, in the then + bottom of the cut, 120 feet above Canal bottom)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">GANG OF WEST INDIAN LABOURERS<br /> + (Unloading spoil-train at Gatun)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">GANG OF SPANISH LABOURERS AT CULEBRA<br /> + (Working in the sun in April, which is one of the hottest months, less than 10 + degrees from the equator. The men are wearing European kit)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STEAM SHOVEL EXCAVATING SOIL AT CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STEAM SHOVEL UNLOADING INTO A DIRT CAR</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STEAM SHOVEL NEAR END OF STROKE<br /> + (The marks of the teeth made in a former stroke are visible on the right. Golden + Hill, with the highest berm, or ledge, in the distance)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STEAM SHOVEL, STROKE FINISHED, LOADED WITH SOIL</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">STEAM SHOVEL AT CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">SHOVEL-MEN AT CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">SCREENED BUNGALOW, CHRISTOBAL, COLON</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">SCREENED QUARTERS OF EMPLOYEES, CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">READING ROOM, EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">HALL OF EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CUT SOUTH OF CULEBRA, LANDSLIP ON LEFT</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LOOKING NORTH, THE SCARPED FACE OF GOLDEN HILL ON THE RIGHT</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LOOKING NORTH FROM RAILWAY BRIDGE AT PARAISO</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">ABANDONED FRENCH MACHINERY</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">GANG OF EUROPEAN LABOURERS (IN 1907)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">A FORMER HOT-BED OF MALARIA, NOW DRAINED<span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">NEAR THE SITE OF MILAFLORES LOCKS</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LOOKING NORTH TO CULEBRA DIVIDE FROM ANCON HILL</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">RIO GRANDE, NEAR LA BOCA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">RIO GRANDE, FROM ANCON HILL<br /> + (Country north of that shown in the last photograph)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">LA BOCA, FROM ANCON HILL</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">ANCON CEMETERY</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">COMMISSION'S HOTEL AT ANCON</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, ANCON</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">VIEW FROM SPANISH FORT, PANAMA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">CATHEDRAL SQUARE, PANAMA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">PALACE OF PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">OLD FLAT ARCH AT PANAMA<br /> + (Adduced as evidence of comparative freedom of Panama from destructive + earthquakes)</td> + + <td class="td15"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">MAP OF CANAL ZONE<br /> + (Showing also profile of Canal, cross section of Culebra Cut, the borings below + Gatun dam, and the cross section of Gatun dam as designed in April, 1908. The + design of this dam, however, is still undergoing modifications)</td> + + <td class="td15"><i><a href="#map">At end of volume</a></i></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">A</span>T the present moment the + Canal Zone of the Isthmus of Panama is the most interesting place in the world. Here is + gathered an army of 40,000 men engaged in the epoch-making work of uniting the Atlantic + and Pacific Oceans, and here is the greatest collection of machinery ever massed for + the accomplishment of one undertaking.</p> + + <p>If the present rate of progress continue unchecked, the Canal, it is calculated, + will be opened in 1915. Then will that Isthmus, which has hitherto been a barrier + between two oceans but has failed to act as a bridge between two continents, be pierced + by a waterway capable of floating the largest ships now built or building. Then will + the Pacific coasts of the Americas be accessible from<span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> ports on both sides of the Atlantic without + the necessity of a voyage by the Straits of Magellan. Then will the distance from New + York to San Francisco be shortened by 8,400 and that from Liverpool by 6,000 miles; the + distance from New York to South American ports will be shortened by an average of 5,000 + and that from Liverpool to these ports by an average of 2,600 miles: then for the first + time Yokohama on the north and Sydney on the south will be brought nearer to New York + than to Liverpool or Antwerp, and then will New Orleans and the ports on the Mexican + Gulf be brought nearer than New York, by sea, to San Francisco, South America beyond + Pernambuco, Australia, and Japan.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/18a.jpg" width="500" height="422" alt="" title="" /> +<span class="caption">STATUE OF COLUMBUS, CHRISTOBAL, COLON.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2 imgpad"> + <img src="images/18b.jpg" width="500" height="408" alt="" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">CHRISTCHURCH, COLON.</span> + </div> + + <p>No one who cares to know the greater things which are shaping the world can now + afford to be ignorant of what is happening on the Isthmus of Panama. In the former days + of unstable companies the student of affairs might decline to occupy himself in the + study of an undertaking of which the fruition was doubtful. Now, however, that + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>the Government + of a great nation have put their hands to the plough the furrow will be driven through. + The United States have acquired complete ownership and control of the Canal and of a + strip of land five miles wide on either side, called the Canal Zone. The small State of + Panama, in which this zone is situate, has placed itself under the protection of the + United States. The Government of Great Britain has by a treaty ratified in 1901 waived + the treaty right which it formerly enjoyed to share with the United States the control + of any trans-Isthmian canal. The Isthmus has been freed from those pestilences which + were the greatest obstacles to human effort, and the engineering difficulties are no + longer beyond the scope of modern science.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Having first visited the Canal works at the beginning of 1907, I decided to make + upon the spot a careful examination of the whole undertaking. For this purpose I + visited Washington and made application through the proper channel to the + Depart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>ment of + State, which kindly consented to further the inquiry. A set of the published documents + was supplied to me, and I proceeded from New York to the Isthmus by the R.M.S.P. + <i>Magdalena</i>, arriving at Colon April 12, 1908. Here Colonel Goethals, chairman of + the Isthmian Canal Commission, provided me with a letter to those concerned to furnish + all information, and proposed that I should make my way about unattended and pursue my + inquiries independently. I was thus enabled to converse with perfect freedom with the + rank and file, while drawing freely on the special information possessed only by the + heads of departments.</p> + + <p>For the benefit of readers in England I may explain that these circumstances were to + me of especial importance on account of the doubts thrown by American writers, and also + by Americans of repute in conversation, upon the reliability of official and other + information supplied to the American public on the burning topic of the Isthmus. As an + Englishman, and therefore standing outside American party politics, and as a + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>scientific + student not engaged in commerce or political life, I came to the study of the subject + without prepossessions. This at least was my happy state when I arrived in Washington + in March last. When I left for the Canal Zone a month later I was filled with gloomy + forebodings that I might after all find a rotten state of affairs on the Isthmus. It + was with intense relief that I found that I had what is called in America "an honest + proposition" to deal with. As my doubts hitherto had been due to the patriotic anxiety + of their compatriots, I am sure Colonel Goethals and his colleagues will forgive me for + this frank statement of my difficulties and their solution.</p> + + <p>Any Englishman, accustomed to see the work of our own soldiers and civil servants in + the Crown Colonies or in Egypt, would recognise in the officers of the corps of + Engineers and of the Army Medical Corps who are in charge of the Canal Zone men of a + like high standard of duty. As this account is written not only for my own countrymen + but also for readers on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg + 22]</a></span>other side of the Atlantic, I should be glad, if it be possible, to + convince of my own <i>bona-fides</i> those anxious patriots who find it difficult to + believe any good report from Panama. It may tend in this direction to state that I + travelled and sojourned at my own charges, and that I went out on an independent + inquiry. That I had promised to give an account of the Canal works to my brother + geographers in London was my only undertaking, and the acceptance of a free pass on the + Panama Railway my only financial obligation either in Washington or on the Isthmus.</p> + + <p>In order properly to understand the present and future of the Canal undertaking, it + is necessary to give a short account of the history of Isthmian communication, for the + conditions which now face the American Government and the Commission are not solely due + to present physical causes, but also to previous events.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h5>HISTORICAL REVIEW</h5> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">T</span>HE conquest of + Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 completed their capture of the trade routes + between Western Europe and the East Indies. The East Indian trade had long been a + source of great enrichment to European merchants. It was especially suited to the + restricted carrying power of those times, the products (such as pepper) being small in + bulk and high in price. The maritime nations therefore sought sea routes to the Indies + in pursuit of this trade, and it was Columbus himself, in his efforts to open up a + western route to the Indies and China, who discovered the Bay of Limon in 1497. He and + his successors sought for a strait or channel <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" + id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>which should open the way to the East Indies. Cortes + sought for the strait in Mexico. Others sought as far north as the St. Lawrence, which + was supposed to afford a route to China. No opening could, however, be found nearer to + the Equator than the Straits of Magellan (1520), and the hopes of a short route + westward to the Indies were disappointed. An Isthmian canal was talked of even in the + days of Charles V. of Spain to open the route to the East Indies. In those days of + small vessels, the river channels would have served for a great part of the traverse, + so that the scheme was not so wild as it may seem.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/26a.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">LOCK AND DAM SITE, + GATUN.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/26b.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">EXCAVATION FOR LOCKS, + GATUN.</span> + </div> + + <p>The purpose, therefore, of the first proposal for piercing the Isthmus was for + shortening the distance to the Indies and China. The discovery of the nearer riches of + Peru, however, illustrated the fact that the Isthmian barrier has its uses as well as + its inconveniences. Porto Bello and Panama were fortified, ships were launched from the + latter port for the Peruvian traffic, the treasure was carried across the Isthmus under + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>escort and + shipped to Spain. The treasure-ships, indeed, were liable to attack on the Caribbean, + but the Isthmian barrier proved an important safeguard to the Peruvian possessions of + Spain.</p> + + <p>In the next century, the seventeenth, the importance of the Isthmian land route + declined, owing to the fact that Spain was no longer able to secure even moderate + safety for her ships on the Caribbean. In the present days, when the importance of + naval power is so well understood, it is hardly necessary to enlarge upon the + significance of this fact, and its bearing upon the problems presented by the Panama + route to-day. The project of an Isthmian canal for the purpose of trade between Europe + and Asia continued to be agitated, but the inducements were inadequate to overcome the + obstacles.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + + <p>In the middle of the nineteenth century, for the second time, it was the need of + improved communication between the east and west of the American Continent which + provided a sufficient inducement to improve the Isthmian route.</p> + + <p>At this time the Government of the United States were much occupied with projects of + trans-Isthmian communication, particularly by canal, not with a view to Transpacific + commerce, but with the object of improved communication between the east and west of + their own territory.</p> + + <p>In 1846 a treaty was made with the State of New Grenada (afterwards Colombia) with a + view to providing facilities for transport in the war between the United States and + Mexico. In its most important provision it is similar to the present treaty between the + United States and the new Republic of Panama, viz., the United States guarantee the + sovereignty of the State in question over the Isthmian territory. Hence the Isthmus was + thus early constituted a Protectorate of the United States.</p> + + <p>But at this time it was generally thought that Lake Nicaragua provided the best + route for a trans-Isthmian canal.</p> + + <p>The Pacific seaboard having recently acquired importance to the United States, the + Government desired to further the canal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id= + "Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>project on that account. The only practicable Atlantic + terminal of a Nicaraguan canal lay within territory over which Great Britain had long + exercised control. Further, the Pacific Coast of Canada had recently acquired + importance to the eastern provinces and to the home country, and access thereto was + extremely difficult. The outcome of these circumstances was the conclusion in 1850 of + the celebrated Clayton-Bulwer treaty between the United States and Great Britain, which + was duly ratified by Congress. By this instrument it was agreed that neither Government + should ever obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control of any canal connecting + the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, nor erect fortifications commanding the same.</p> + + <p>This treaty remained in force until 1901, and I shall have to refer to it again. + Meanwhile the great rush of gold-seekers to California had supplied the needful + stimulus to a scheme, already mooted, of an Isthmian railway terminating at Panama. In + spite of the enormous difficulties entailed by the pestilential climate, the + undertaking was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg + 30]</a></span>completed in 1855. This achievement, originating in New York, was the + work of W.H. Aspinwall, Henry Chauncey, and John L. Stephens.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/30a.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">RE-LOCATION OF RAILWAY ABOVE GATUN.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/30b.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">MOTOR TROLLEY FOR + INSPECTION OF WORKS.</span> + </div> + + <p>It was undertaken independently of any canal scheme, but it exercised a profound + effect upon the fate of subsequent schemes. The facilities which the railway afforded + determined de Lesseps's choice of route, and de Lesseps ploughed so deeply that those + who came after him have found themselves constrained to follow his furrow. The "New + World" is in fact no longer new, and its statesmen now have to solve problems + presenting historical as well as physical factors.</p> + + <p>The American Civil War interrupted the prosecution of canal schemes, but the + examination of routes was recommenced by the United States Government in 1866, a + Commission finally reporting in 1876<sup>[1]</sup> in favour of the Nicaraguan + route.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[1]</sup> The report, however, was not published until 1879.</p> + </div> + + <p>In 1869 the Suez Canal was opened for traffic. Immediately, the route by Panama + ceased to be the shortest from Europe to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id= + "Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>any part of the East Indies. The importance of that route + to Asia was thus greatly reduced as far as Europe was concerned, but, relatively, its + importance to the United States was increased, for the Suez Canal does not shorten the + Asiatic voyage from New York, Boston, or New Orleans to the same extent as it does for + European ports.</p> + + <p>The Old World had been severed into halves by the enterprise of one man, and that + man no potentate, but merely one possessing the gift of persuasion. By his achievement, + which was immediately crowned by financial success, Ferdinand de Lesseps suddenly + became possessed of powers such as are not always at the disposal of the Governments + even of great countries. He decided himself to sever the barrier between the Atlantic + and Pacific Oceans, convened a "Congress" at Paris in 1879, and inaugurated in 1881 the + <i>Compagnie Universelle du Canal Inter-océanique de Panama</i>. He had decided + to adopt the Panama route on account of the facilities afforded by the railway. The + money was mainly subscribed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg + 32]</a></span>in France. The American railway company was bought out at the enormous + price of $25,500,000, and in the course of the next eight years a large part of the + work required for a tide-level canal was well executed on sound lines by the genius of + the French, who are excelled by none in the arts of the civil engineer. The exact + proportion which the French work bears to that since accomplished by the American + Government will be shown later. The engineers now on the Isthmus are full of praise for + the work of the French engineers, and their wonder daily grows both at its quantity and + its ingenuity. It is only those at a distance, or ill-informed, who have belittled + these achievements. Unfortunately, the French engineers were not properly supported. De + Lesseps, if he were ever a practical man, had certainly ceased to be so since his first + great success. A practical man is one who counts the cost of everything he is about to + do. De Lesseps no longer counted cost. He had become as one believing in his star. His + actions remind <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg + 33]</a></span>us of those of some of the great conquerors whose early successes have + led them to undertake impossible campaigns. The question has been discussed if any + human character can stand more than a certain share of success and yet retain a sound + judgment. Certainly the character of de Lesseps was not equal to the strain. The + expenditure was awful—$300,000,000 in eight years, <i>i.e.</i>, more than three + times the sum for which the Suez Canal was constructed. The Company went into + liquidation in 1889. Much had been embezzled. Much, it is said, had been spent in + purchasing the silence of voices which would otherwise have been raised against a + Europeanised canal.</p> + + <p>The affairs of the Company were taken over by the New Panama Canal Company, who + continued to administer the railway, and, with small means, did excellent work for the + next twelve years in keeping the machinery and the works from deterioration, in + excavations at the summit, and above all in extending the scientific examination of + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>the country so + as to obtain much-needed data for the construction of the high-level canal which was + now proposed in place of de Lesseps's project of a tide-level waterway.</p> + + <p>In 1869 President Grant, in a message to Congress, had recommended the construction + of an Isthmian canal under the sole control of the United States, and popular opinion + since that time, if not before, has always strongly held that if a canal be made it + should be exclusively under that control. It was not the least of de Lesseps's + imprudences that he proceeded with his project in spite of warnings on this matter. In + 1898 an event occurred which made the American nation feel that an Isthmian canal was + necessary, and that it must be under their exclusive control. At the outset of the war + with Spain, the <i>Oregon</i>, one of the best of America's small fleet of battleships + (we write of ten years since), was lying in the Pacific. She had to steam more than + 13,000 miles to reach Key West, and the whole nation was in a state of nervous + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>tension for many + weeks pending her junction with the main fleet.</p> + + <p>It seemed at the time that the Panama route could hardly be obtained for a canal + under purely American control, and a further investigation of the Nicaraguan route was + ordered—that route which had been preferred by the American experts before de + Lesseps intervened. The New Panama Canal Company had by this time brought their labours + to the point where it seemed practicable to appeal to the investing public of the world + for funds to construct a high-level Panama canal. To do this in the face of a + Nicaraguan canal, undertaken as a national affair by the United States, would have been + hopeless: they therefore laid their detailed plans before President McKinley. A + Commission was accordingly appointed by Congress to inquire into the best route for an + Isthmian canal "under the control, management, and ownership of the United + States."<sup>[2]</sup> The report was presented to Congress on December 4, 1901, rather + more than two years later, and is a document of great historical and scientific + interest. The quarto volume of 688 pages is accompanied by a portfolio of 86 maps, + plans, and panoramic views. The last of these, showing the mountainous skyline of the + Isthmus east of Colon, with altitudes marked, illustrates in a striking manner the + conclusion of the Commission that the San Blas route, or any route east of Colon, would + involve a ship tunnel. These routes are dismissed as impracticable on account of the + altitude of the divide. The Nicaraguan and Panamanian are found to be the only + practicable routes, and the details of both are fully discussed. The high-level canal + was preferred by the Commission to the sea-level at Panama, and on the Nicaraguan route + only a high-level canal is possible, so that in this respect the two routes were + considered to be on a par.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[2]</sup> Act of Congress approved by President, March 3, 1899, Commission + appointed June 10.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/36a.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">TROPICAL FOREST + WITH PARASITIC GROWTHS.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/36b.jpg" width="500" height="342" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">PIPE CONVEYING OIL + ACROSS THE ISTHMUS.</span> + </div> + + <p>The relative advantages of the two routes are carefully set out in the report, the + general tenor of which is favourable to that by Panama. Nevertheless, the Commission + re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>commend that + the Nicaraguan route be adopted, on account of the excessive valuation which, they + state, was placed by the New Panama Canal Company on their works and property. The + value of these, including the Panama Railway, was estimated by the Commission at + $40,000,000. The New Panama Canal Company, learning that the Commission had thus + reported, cabled an offer to sell at this price, and the Commission accordingly sent in + a supplementary report in favour of the Panama route. By June 28, 1902, the "Spooner" + Act had been passed and ratified, authorising the President to purchase the canal works + at this price, and to acquire from the Republic of Colombia the necessary rights for + the control of a Panama canal, then to be constructed; but in the event of his not + being able to acquire such control, then to proceed with the Nicaraguan project.</p> + + <p>Meanwhile, by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, ratified by the Senate December 16, 1901, + Great Britain had waived the right of joint control of any Isthmian canal which she + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>had held since + the ratification of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty in 1850. It remained therefore only to + negotiate a treaty with Colombia. The treaty of 1846 with New Grenada afforded a + precedent as far as the question of control was concerned, and the negotiations appear + to have been related mainly to the question of price. A treaty was negotiated by + officials of the two Republics, by which the United States was to pay a sum of + $10,000,000 to Colombia, and after nine years an annual sum of $100,000. This was + confirmed by Congress but rejected by the Colombian Senate, and negotiations came to an + end with the adjournment of that body, October 31, 1903.</p> + + <p>Three days later the Province of Panama renounced its allegiance to Colombia.</p> + + <p>Another three days, and the independence of the New Republic was recognised and + guaranteed by the United States.</p> + + <p>In less than a fortnight afterwards a treaty was signed at Washington by which the + United States acquired complete ownership and control of the proposed canal for the + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>sum of + $10,000,000 and an annual payment of $250,000, to commence nine years afterwards. This + treaty was ratified at Panama December 2, 1903, and by the United States Senate + February 23, 1904.</p> + + <p>One significant point must be mentioned with reference to the Panamanian revolution. + The inability of Colombia to make an effective effort to assert its power on the + Isthmus was due to naval weakness in the absence of communication by land. No army + could march through the tropical forests which still isolate the Canal Zone from South + America, and control at Colon and Panama still depends upon sea power.</p> + + <p>Thus, at last, the United States owns and controls its Canal Zone. We will now state + precisely the position in which that nation stands in reference to this matter, and + then we may leave the work of the diplomats to consider the task of the engineers.</p> + + <p class="c11">The National Status of the Canal.</p> + + <p>The position which will be held by the United States in relation to other Powers + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>is foreshown in + the Hay-Pauncefote treaty with Great Britain and in Article XXIII. of the treaty with + Panama. The Hay-Pauncefote treaty is in supersession of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. The + latter stipulated that no fortifications should be erected controlling the Canal. In + the Hay-Pauncefote treaty this clause is omitted. On the other hand, it is stated in + Article III., § 2, that "the Canal shall never be blockaded, nor shall any right + of war be exercised nor any act of hostility be committed within it." Hence, the reader + may have remained in doubt whether the United States Government had intended to reserve + to themselves the right to fortify. However, the terms of the subsequent treaty with + the Republic of Panama answer this question, for after stating in Article XVIII. that + the Canal shall be opened in accordance with all the stipulations of the treaty of 1901 + with Great Britain, Article XXIII. states that "the United States shall have the right + to establish fortifications."</p> + + <p>As a matter of fact, such fortifications <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id= + "Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>are to be constructed, and the plan of the Canal has been + adjusted to the requirements of military defence.</p> + + <p>There have been, among public men in the United States, two schools of thought on + the vital question of the defence of the Canal. One school has held that the best + safeguard was to be obtained by leaving the Canal unfortified (as is the case with the + Suez Canal), and by the establishment of a general Convention, by which all the Powers, + including the United States, should bind themselves to respect the neutrality of the + Canal and leave it inviolate. Other public men preferred forts, guardships, and a + garrison. The general public in the United States, on the other hand, appears to have + unanimously held that an international guarantee would be ineffectual and, moreover, + derogatory. As we have seen, the popular view has prevailed, but traces of the + antagonistic and incompatible notion of internationalisation remain in the language of + the treaties. This is not surprising when we recollect that the first draft of the + Hay-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>Pauncefote + treaty was drawn up with a view to neutralisation, according to the precedents afforded + by the Suez Canal. Thus we find that Article III. commences with the words: "The United + States adopts as the basis of the neutralisation of the Canal ..."; and in Article + XVIII. of the treaty with Panama we find: "The Canal when constructed, and the + entrances thereto, shall be neutral in perpetuity...."</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/42a.jpg" width="500" height="323" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">CHAGRES RIVER NEAR + BABACOES.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/42b.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">CHAGRES RIVER NEAR + OBISPO.</span> + </div> + + <p>What then are we to understand by the term "neutral" as applied to the Panama Canal + in war time? I suppose the meaning to be that if there be a war to which the United + States is not a party, the Canal will be used by belligerents in exactly the same way + as was the Suez Canal, <i>e.g.</i>, in the Russo-Japanese War, and that the Government + of the United States has pledged itself to see that such neutrality is preserved. But + if there be a war in which the United States is a party, the circumstances of + fortification and operation by the United States in fact render it impossible for the + other belligerent to use the Canal, and are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id= + "Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>intended<sup>[3]</sup> to have that effect. This being so, + the United States is preparing to defend the Canal from attack. Thus it is important to + the proper understanding of the undertaking on which the United States Government has + embarked that we should clearly realise that the Canal is only neutral in a restricted + sense.</p> + + <p>The commercial status of the Canal, however, is similar to that of Suez, in that by + Article III., § 1, of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, "The Canal shall be free and + open<sup>[4]</sup> to the vessels ... of all nations ... on terms of entire equality, + so that there shall be no discrimination against any such nation, or its citizens or + subjects, in respect of the conditions or charges of traffic, or otherwise."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[3]</sup> See Report of Canal Commission, 1897, p. 168.</p> + + <p><sup>[4]</sup> In Article XVIII. of the treaty with Panama this clause is cited, + with the addition "and the entrances to the Canal."</p> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + + <h5>ON THE CANAL AS IT IS TO BE</h5> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">B</span>ETWEEN Colon and Panama the + American Isthmus is about 36 miles across as the crow flies, and is therefore nearly, + though not quite, at its narrowest. In this portion of its sinuous course both coasts + trend north of east and Panama lies nearly south-east of Colon. The Isthmus in general + is a very confused mass of hills and mountains. It is crossed by no transverse trench + (such as sometimes occurs in mountainous regions), neither by the trough provided by + down-folded strata, nor the rift valley produced by fracture and foundering of rock. A + low-level transverse can only be found by following up the course of a river, crossing + the divide, and following the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg + 48]</a></span>course of another river downwards to the other ocean. From the vicinity + of Colon, by following up the valley of the River Chagres, we are led in precisely the + required direction, <i>i.e.</i>, directly towards the Pacific, for nearly two-thirds of + the way. The distance from the head of Limon Bay, following the curves of the valley, + is 26 miles to this place, Obispo, and for the greater part of the distance the river + flows in a broad valley of deep alluvial deposits.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/48a.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">FRENCH DREDGER LAID + UP.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/48b.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">FRENCH + TRUCKS PARTLY COVERED WITH FOREST GROWTH.</span> + </div> + + <p>At the point mentioned, the Chagres abruptly changes its course, and, if followed + towards its source, will be found to be flowing from north-east to south-west. + Moreover, it is now confined to a narrow valley, with steep hills of rocky substance on + either side, and its gradient becomes much greater than hitherto. The course of the + Canal cannot therefore follow the Chagres valley further. Fortunately, the valley has + led us not only a long distance towards the Pacific, but to a place where the dividing + ridge only attains an elevation of about 300 feet above sea-level. Striking from Obispo + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>straight for the + Bay of Panama, we come in 9 miles to the low alluvial plain of the Rio Grande, which + leads straight to the sea in another 6 miles. Thus, from shore to shore, the course of + the Canal along this route is 41 miles; but to reach deep water 4-1/2 miles must be + dredged beneath the sea at either end, so that the total length of the artificial + waterway is 50 miles. Of the land-course less than a quarter, or about 9 miles, is hill + country, and most of this is less than 200 feet above the sea. The United States has + been committed to this route by the long chain of circumstances already narrated.</p> + + <p>Whatever type of canal was to be constructed along this route, there were certain + excavations which must necessarily be done. These were, firstly, dredging the sea + channels, and secondly, making a cut through the solid rocks of the divide. Thus, + although de Lesseps started operations upon inadequate data, yet most of the work done + by the first Panama Canal Company is available, either for the tide-level canal + proposed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>by de + Lesseps or for the 85-foot-level canal now being made by the United States. Similarly, + the New Panama Canal Company, although hampered by many uncertainties, continued to + work at the Culebra Cut, as it is called, that is to say, the trench through the rocky + hills which separate the alluvial valleys of the Chagres and the Rio Grande.</p> + + <p>Thus the works taken over by the United States in 1904 were available for any type + of canal, and the decision to adopt the 85-foot-level was not taken until 1906. Even + now, or in April, 1908, at the time of my visit, when so much work has been done upon + the locks, many of the rank and file of the employees still cherish the hope of a + tide-level canal, and there are not wanting well-informed people, both on the Isthmus + and in the States, who, while accepting the high-level scheme as inevitable, regard a + tide-level canal as essentially a better thing.</p> + + <p>Let us resume our description of the Isthmus, in order that we may be in a + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>position to + understand the conditions with which the engineers have to deal. The practicability of + the Panama route is due to the fact that rivers have already done a great part of the + excavation, and if desert conditions had supervened—if there were, as at Suez, + practically no rainfall—the construction of a tide-level canal would be simply + the excavation of a trench in dry material, which would be filled by the inflowing + waters of the sea. A tidal lock being added to regulate the ebb and flow at Panama (for + the Atlantic side is tideless), the canal would be complete.</p> + + <p>But as things actually are, the rainfall on the Isthmus is very heavy, particularly + on the Atlantic side, where it reaches 140 inches<sup>[5]</sup> per annum, and the + rivers have at all times considerable bodies of water, and during the rainy season + (commencing in May) are subject to sudden and violent freshets. The Chagres at Gamboa + has been known to rise 35-1/2 feet in 24 hours.<sup>[6]</sup> Suppose then <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>that a tide-level trench + were suddenly formed across the Isthmus, as by a convulsion of nature. We should then + see the rivers pouring into this fjord in a number of cascades of various height. Of + these the greatest would be the Chagres cascade, entering from the east near Gamboa and + Obispo. The height of the waterfall would be 46 feet in the driest season and as much + as 80 feet in occasional floods.<sup>[7]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[5]</sup> Abbot, "Problems of the Panama Canal," p. 96.</p> + + <p><sup>[6]</sup> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, p. 146.</p> + + <p><sup>[7]</sup> Abbot, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 116.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/52a.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">EXCAVATION NEAR + TAVERNILLA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/52b.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">RIVER CHAGRES AND + RAILWAY NEAR GORGONA.</span> + </div> + + <p>In order therefore to make a tide-level canal, some means must be found for + disposing of the waters of the Chagres and other rivers. De Lesseps's tide-level + project was rather an aspiration than a plan. He proposed to conduct the waters of the + Chagres to the sea by other channels. The magnitude of this task would be scarcely less + than that of cutting the Canal itself. The other rivers on both sides of the Canal + would likewise require diversion channels, so that the final result would be roughly + the formation of three channels, of which the centre one would be for navigation. The + Board of Con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg + 53]</a></span>suiting Engineers summoned by President Roosevelt in 1905 to advise the + Isthmian Canal Commission recommended, in a majority report, a tide-level canal as + practicable and best fulfilling the national requirements, defined by the Spooner Act + of 1902. But whereas they had detailed schemes for high-level canals before them, they + were in the matter of the sea-level project at the disadvantage of having to act in a + constructive capacity and elaborate the details of a scheme before they could criticise + it. Moreover, five of the eight who constituted the majority were European engineers, + who returned to their duties as soon as the report was drafted. The report of the + minority in favour of the 85-foot-level scheme having been adopted by Congress in 1906, + all available engineering talent has for the last two years been devoted to improving + the details of this scheme. The tide-level project of the majority of the Board has had + no such advantage, and the difficulty of estimating the relative advantages of the two + schemes is therefore all the greater.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> + + <p>Both schemes depend for their success upon the security of dams.</p> + + <p>The tide-level scheme has a dam at Gamboa, near Obispo, thus making a lake of the + upper waters of the Chagres, whose surface would be 200 feet above + sea-level.<sup>[8]</sup> The floodwater would partly be accommodated in the lake by + reason of the great height of the dam above low-water stage, and partly by running the + excess into the Canal, by which it would escape to the sea, generating currents which + the Board calculated would not attain an injurious velocity.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[8]</sup> Report, Board of Consulting Engineers, p. 205.</p> + </div> + + <p>Streams entering the Chagres in its lower reaches would be dammed back or + diverted—a considerable, but not momentous, undertaking. The three great + objections to the scheme appeared to be:—</p> + + <ol> + <li>The extra cost, and above all the extra time, required to complete the immensely + greater quantity of excavation required for the last 85 feet;</li> + + <li>The fact that the artificial lake was to be above the Canal, so that, if the dam + burst, the Canal might be ruined; and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id= + "Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></li> + + <li>That the velocity of currents in the Canal due to discharge of the surplus waters + might perhaps be a serious drawback to navigation in a narrow channel.</li> + </ol> + + <p>It will be seen presently that the second disadvantage is offset by corresponding + disadvantages in the dam required for the high-level canal.</p> + + <p>As for the cost, that has always been an unknown quantity, and, I think, has always + been a secondary consideration. The fear of undue delay seems to have been the + principal deciding factor in favour of the high-level scheme. Rival expert opinions + that the majority of the Board of Engineers had under-estimated the time required for + the tide-level canal were adopted by those in authority, and mainly on this account, I + think, the high-level scheme became law.</p> + + <p>Since visiting the Isthmus a second time, and inspecting the work in the great Cut + between Empire and Paraiso, it has seemed to me that there is an objection to the + tide-level project which did not fully appear in <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>the early stages of the work, viz., that the + behaviour of the rock might involve the engineers in ever-increasing difficulties as + the depths increased. The opinion which had been held by many that the difficulties + would diminish with the depth did not seem to me to be justified up to that time.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/56a.jpg" width="500" height="291" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">LIDGERWOOD + UNLOADER, WINDING APPARATUS.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/56b.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption"><i>ANOPHELES</i> BRIGADE OILING A DITCH.</span> + </div> + + <p>Next let us see what are the special difficulties of the high-level project.</p> + + <p>This also depends for its success mainly on the efficacy of one dam, which is now + being made at Gatun. It will hold up the waters not only of the Chagres but of its + tributaries, to a level of 85 feet above mean tide, and the area of the lake thus to be + formed is shown on the map. The Chagres will be ponded back far above the point where + it enters the Canal, and thus will be effectually tamed. The flood-waters will be + spread over an area of about 164 square miles—for Lake Gatun will be twice the + size of Lago Maggiore and about four-fifths that of the Lake of Geneva,<sup>[9]</sup> + and ships, in the ample waterway, will not be troubled by currents.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[9]</sup> The size, in fact, will not differ greatly from that of the + principal basin of the Lake of Geneva, all above the <i>petit lac</i>, or narrow part + at the Geneva end. A good idea of this area is obtained by recalling the well-known + view over the waters of this lake from the <i>quai</i> at Ouchy.</p> + </div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> + + <p>A flight of three locks at Gatun will raise ships to the level of this lake in + coming from the Atlantic, and one lock at Pedro Miguel and two at Milaflores will lower + them to the level of the Pacific.</p> + + <p>It has been claimed that if the Gatun dam burst the consequences would be less + disastrous than if the Gamboa dam burst, but there is in reality little to choose + between the two catastrophes.</p> + + <p>The great blot on the high-level scheme is that the great Gatun dam is not founded + on solid rock. The Gamboa dam of the tide-level project would have been founded + throughout on hard rock, from which it could have been built up of masonry so that the + structure should be part and parcel of the rocky framework of the globe itself. The + Gatun dam as recommended in the minority report, on the other hand, was <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>designed to consist + essentially of a mass of earth dumped upon an alluvial plain so as to fill up a gap of + 2,000 yards between two ranges of hills, the gap through which the Chagres escapes to + the Atlantic. Thus the Gatun lake was to be held up as a glacier lake is held by a + moraine blocking a valley.</p> + + <p>We shall presently describe the high-level canal as it is to be, from which it will + be seen that it will provide a magnificent waterway, but before concluding the present + section I must mention the special point in which it will be inferior to a tide-level + canal. This is for purposes of defence. A fortress has to be preserved from capture, + but not from damage. The locks, however, must be preserved from serious damage, which + demands far more elaborate protection. Such protection, moreover, has to be provided at + two positions (Gatun and Milaflores) about 30 miles apart.</p> + + <p class="c11">The High-level Canal as it is to be.</p> + + <p>The Spooner Act, the law under which the Canal is being constructed, enacts that + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>it shall be "of + sufficient capacity and depth as shall afford convenient passage for vessels of the + largest tonnage and greatest draft now in use, and such as may reasonably be + expected."</p> + + <p>Accordingly the following dimensions have been selected:—</p> + + <p>1. A minimum depth of 41 feet.</p> + + <p>The Suez Canal has a depth of 31 feet<sup>[10]</sup> admitting of the passage of + ships with a draft of 27 feet.<sup>[11]</sup> The channel of this canal is now being + deepened, so that by 1915 it is hoped that a depth of 36 feet<sup>[12]</sup> will be + obtained. The Kiel Canal has a depth of 30 feet. The average draft of the Cunard s.s. + <i>Mauretania</i>, the largest ship now afloat, is about 32 feet, but she is stated to + draw, when fully laden, about 37 feet, and there are comparatively few harbours in the + world which she could enter fully loaded.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[10]</sup> Report, Board of Consulting Engineers, p. 175.</p> + + <p><sup>[11]</sup> "Four Centuries of the Panama Canal," p. 436.</p> + + <p><sup>[12]</sup> <i>Daily Telegraph</i>, June 18, 1908.</p> + </div> + + <p>2. A minimum bottom width of 200 feet in the Culebra Cut.<span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> + + <p>The minimum bottom width, or width at a depth of 31 feet, in the Suez Canal is 108 + feet.</p> + + <p>The bottom width of the Kiel Canal is 72 feet.<sup>[13]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[13]</sup> Report, Board of Consulting Engineers, p. 173.</p> + </div> + + <p>3. Each lock will have a usable length of 1,000 feet and a width of 110 feet.</p> + + <p>The locks of the Kiel Canal have an available length of 492 feet and width of 82 + feet.</p> + + <p>The <i>Mauretania</i> has a length of 790 feet and beam of 88 feet.</p> + + <p>4. The minimum radius of the curves is 5,577 feet (1,700 metres).<sup>[14]</sup> + This curve, however, does not come in the Culebra Cut, where the bottom width is to be + 200 feet, but north of Bas Obispo, where the bottom width is 500 feet. Most of the + curves have a radius of 9,842 feet (3,000 metres).</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[14]</sup> <i>Vide</i> p. 205 of General Abbot's "Problems of the Panama + Canal" (1907). Slight changes in the projected course are made from time to time, so + that this figure is subject to slight modification.</p> + </div> + + <p>In the Suez Canal,<sup>[15]</sup> outside Lake Timsah, there are five curves with a + radius of 2,000 metres, or a little more, which are being enlarged to 2,500 metres + (8,202 feet). The usual bottom width in these curves was 184 feet, but this is being + increased to about 230 feet. The Kiel Canal has four curves with a radius of 1,000 + metres (3,284 feet).</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[15]</sup> Report, Board of Consulting Engineers, p. 178.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + + <p>A reference to the accompanying plan (<i>vide</i> Map, end of volume) of the Panama + Canal will show that most of the curves are situate in Gatun lake, where the width of + the canal proper is large, and where the spread of shallower waters secures better + steerage.</p> + + <p>Thus the high-level Canal is not only deep and wide, but also much freer from + troublesome curves than might be supposed from a casual inspection of its course. The + details of the bottom width of the high-level Canal in its different parts are as + follows:—</p> + + <table summary="canal zone"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15">Feet.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">From the Atlantic entrance to Juan Grande (27 miles)</td> + + <td class="td15">1,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Juan Grande to Bas Obispo</td> + + <td class="td15">500</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Bas Obispo to a point about half-way between Empire and + Culebra</td> + + <td class="td15">300</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Culebra Cut nearly to Pedro Miguel lock (about 4 miles)</td> + + <td class="td15">200</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Pedro Miguel to Pacific entrance</td> + + <td class="td15">500</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/62a.jpg" width="500" height="376" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">100-TON WRECKING CRANE, GORGONA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/62b.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">INTERIOR OF MACHINE SHOP, GORGONA.</span> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>Limon Bay + being shallow, the deep water where a battleship can freely navigate or manoeuvre lies + outside a line joining Colon Lighthouse with Toro Point, and at a distance of 7-1/2 + miles from Gatun locks. From this distance the lock-excavation can now be plainly + discerned from the deck of a ship without the aid of a glass. Here, when the Canal is + complete, a ship will enter the buoyed channel of the submarine portion of the Canal, + but this part of the channel does not lead directly towards the locks, which are not + visible upon the face of the water. Moreover, they are presently hidden altogether by + the land. Not until Mile 5, near Mindi, is reached does the course of the Canal, by a + slight bend, open up the locks to uninterrupted view, and at this point the ship is + already confined between banks. When the foot of the flight of three locks is reached a + vessel will no longer proceed under her own steam, but be warped through.</p> + + <p>The length and width of the locks has already been stated. The maximum lift will be + 32 feet, or about 4 feet more than in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id= + "Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>any other locks at present in use. As the width (110 feet) + is much greater than that of existing locks, it follows that the lock gates will be far + larger than any now in use. The vessel has to pass through a flight of three succeeding + locks. Parallel with this is a second flight of three locks, so that two ships could be + simultaneously put through either flight in the same, or in opposite, directions. Each + lock through which the vessel passes on her upward course is provided with two pairs of + mitre gates, <i>i.e.</i>, double-swinging doors, but the uppermost lock has in addition + a rolling gate near the lower end. This is a precaution against the breaking through of + the upper folding doors by a ship coming down, <i>i.e.</i>, from the Pacific side. An + emergency gate is also being designed, a sort of swing bridge, to close the upper + entrance to the flight of locks, for Gatun, Pedro Miguel, and Milaflores. It is hoped + that a vessel will be put through all three locks at Gatun in 50 minutes, to which must + be added some delay in approaching. Coming from the Atlantic <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>the water of the Canal will + be smooth, and the vessel somewhat sheltered, so that there should be no difficulty. + Approaching from the lake there may be some roughness, but anything more than a fresh + breeze is rare, and the lake will be practically free from currents, so that the + approach should present little difficulty. The Pacific side is always calm, so that no + difficulty of approach or exit is to be anticipated there on account of either winds, + waves, or currents.</p> + + <p>Our vessel, having been locked up to the broad surface of Lake Gatun, proceeds under + her own steam and at a fair rate of speed across that lake, slowing down to about 4-1/2 + miles per hour for the 9 miles of Culebra Cut, which will thus occupy two of the 8 or + 10 hours in which it is hoped to accomplish the whole transit. On this basis it is + calculated that 40 ships could be put through in 24 hours from the Atlantic to the + Pacific, or two fleets of 20 ships if passing simultaneously in opposite + directions.</p> + + <p>A 10-hour transit of the 50-mile channel is about the same rate of progress as that + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>in the Suez + Canal, where, though there are no locks, the speed has to be kept low on account of the + friable nature of the banks.</p> + + <p>It is evident that the time of transit cannot yet be certainly known to an hour or + two, but a considerable margin beyond the above estimate would enable the passage to be + made between dawn and dusk of the tropical day.</p> + + <p>At Pedro Miguel our vessel passes through one lock on her way down to the Pacific, + and at Milaflores through two locks. Each of these three locks has, of course, a + duplicate alongside, permitting, as at Gatun, the simultaneous passage of a companion + vessel, or of one passing in the opposite direction. In case of repairs to one set of + locks the parallel set would maintain the waterway.</p> + + <p>The lift of the lower lock at Milaflores is variable, depending upon the level of + the tidal water in the last reach of the Canal. The extreme range of the tide at La + Boca, the Pacific entrance to the Canal, is 20 feet; that is to say, low water during + "spring" tides is 10 feet below the average sea-level. <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>During low tide on the Pacific side, + therefore, the water in the Canal stands 95, instead of 85, feet above that sea. Hence + the maximum lift of 32 feet already stated, for</p><p><span class="c15">32 × 3 = + 96.</span></p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/66a.jpg" width="500" height="281" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">MACHINE SHOPS, + GORGONA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/66b.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">CLUB HOUSE FOR EMPLOYEES, GORGONA.</span> + </div> + + <p>Beyond the Milaflores locks our vessel enters a reach of the Canal which is exposed + to the ebb and flow of the tide and <i>which will be confined within banks or levees as + far as La Boca</i>. In this respect the plan and the section are both, unfortunately, + misleading. The La Boca lock and dam have been abandoned, and no Sosa lake will + therefore come into existence, the lowest lock being, as I have said, at Milaflores. I + have thought it better to reproduce the existing maps as they stand rather than to + attempt a re-draught which would necessarily be imperfect. Our vessel, then, below + Milaflores is in a tidal channel and will be subject to some tidal current. By + designing this channel so as to avoid a bottle neck, and by giving it a width of 500 + feet, the calculated current will, however, not exceed 1 foot per second.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + + <p>The La Boca site for locks was found to be much too exposed to gun fire and other + modes of attack from the sea, whereas the Milaflores site is not only distant about 5 + miles from the shore, but is well sheltered both by hills near it and by the position + of the hilly eminences of the shore line.</p> + + <p>It will be seen from the map that the dredged sea channel by which our vessel will + reach deep water on the Pacific passes to the west of the Isle of Naos instead of to + the east, as was proposed in the earlier plans.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Returning now to the Gatun locks. The mitre sill of the top lock is 37 feet above + mean sea-level, <i>i.e.</i>, 48 feet below the surface of the lake, which is 85 feet + above mean sea-level. But the bottom of the lake here is only about 5 feet above + sea-level, the total depth of water immediately above the locks and dam being 80 feet. + It follows that, in the extreme case of both gates of one of the top locks (as well as + the roller gate) being wrecked, the level of the water <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>in the lake can only fall to the level of +37, + which would leave a depth of 32 feet immediately above the dam. Ships of large draft + could therefore lie there without being stranded. Moreover, the lake is so large that + the outflow through the broken locks would only lower the level 2 feet <i>per diem</i>, + so that more than three weeks would elapse before the water sank to the level of the + mitre sill.</p> + + <p>Again, the channel provided by the broken lock would be so small that in the Canal + below the calculated current which would result from the outflow would have a velocity + of only 3-1/2 miles per hour.</p> + + <p>Above the Pedro Miguel and Milaflores locks there is not the same surplus depth of + water, so that vessels might be grounded if the locks were broken. Moreover, as there + is no wide-spreading lake above Pedro Miguel, the outflow of water would generate a + somewhat swift current above the lock, which might be a source of danger to ships.</p> + + <p>This circumstance serves to enforce the apparent paradox that the great area of + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Lake Gatun is in + several respects an element of safety, not, as the layman might suppose, of danger. The + hydrostatic pressure upon the dam depends, of course, solely upon the depth of water, + not upon the area of the lake, while the greater the contents of the reservoir the more + nearly stagnant are its waters.</p> + + <p>As there is to be no lock at La Boca, the dams shown there on the plan and profile + will not have to be constructed, so that it is not necessary to deal with the questions + to which they formerly gave rise.</p> + + <p>In the vicinity of the locks at Pedro Miguel and Milaflores, however, dams have to + be constructed to hold up the water. At both places the dams will be short, and will be + founded upon hard rock,<sup>[16]</sup> and in each case the head of water to be held up + will only be about 40 feet, instead of 80, as at Gatun. The construction of the dams at + Pedro Miguel and Milaflores is not, therefore, regarded with anxiety.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[16]</sup> "Canal Zone Pilot," pp. 316-317.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> + + <p>The great Gatun dam remains the one important experiment in the whole scheme of the + high-level Canal, and much attention is being devoted to the planning of this work. The + alluvial foundation is a disadvantage shared by the Bohio site formerly chosen, and all + other sites in the lower Chagres valley; so that, having decided upon the Panama route, + and a high-level canal, there appears to be no alternative to the construction of a dam + upon this kind of bottom. The details of the proposed structure, as elaborated in + April, 1908, were as follows:—</p> + + <p>The length of the great earthen dam at Gatun is 7,700 feet, its breadth no less than + 2,060 feet. The weight of the dam per linear foot is more than 60 times the horizontal + pressure of the water in the lake, so that the pressure could not move the whole mass; + and the weight of the dam is spread over such a great width that it is not thought that + the ground will sink beneath it. The form of the plan and section is shown on the map, + and an idea of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg + 71]</a></span>the topography may be obtained from the photographs, which I took in + April, 1908. The south-eastern end of the dam abuts on the hill of hard, fine-grained, + argillaceous sandstone in which the lock-site is being excavated.</p> + + <p>The dam, according to these plans, is not to be merely superposed upon the surface, + as originally proposed in 1905. Embedded in its earthy mass there is to be a puddled + core, and a trench will be excavated to a level of 40 feet below the sea (-40 feet) for + the lower part of this core. Nor is this all that is to be done to check seepage + beneath the earthen dam. From the bottom of the trench excavated for the puddled core, + sheet piling, made of 4-inch timbers, is to be driven down for another 40 feet, so that + sheet piling and puddled core together will form an impervious barrier to -80 feet; + that is to say, 80 feet below the surface-level of the sea, or about 85 feet below the + lowest natural surface of the ground. The puddled core is carried up through the + earthen dam to the level of +90, that is to say, 5 feet <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>above the level of the lake, which is to be 85 + feet above sea. The crest of the dam will be +135 feet, <i>i.e.</i>, 50 feet above the + level of the lake; this excess of height being to provide top weight for increased + stability of the whole structure, and also for the purpose of compacting the underlying + material. The underwater slopes of the earthy materials have been reduced from the 1:3 + of 1905 to 1:5. On the other hand, it has been decided that the width of 2,625 feet + given in 1905 was in excess of utility, and that a reduction of between 500 and 600 + feet can be made without loss of strength or efficiency.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/72a.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">EXCAVATION IN THE CUT.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/72b.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">PIPE FOR + DIVERSION OF A RIVER, NEAR EMPIRE.</span> + </div> + + <p>About half way across the valley occurs a low hill, on which a house is shown in the + photograph. This hill is on the crest-line of the dam, and is useful as giving support + to the sides of the regulating channel which will be excavated in it. The material of + the hill, however, is not the hard argillaceous sandstone of the lock site, but merely + alluvial. The regulating works themselves will be built of concrete: a solid mass built + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>up to +69 feet, + and on this piers will be constructed 8 feet in thickness, between which will be the + sluice-gates. By their means the level of the lake will be prevented from rising unduly + in flood time.</p> + + <p>The capability of the dam to maintain the waters of the lake at a sufficient level + in the dry season depends upon their not finding a ready way either through the dam + itself or below it. The construction of the dam is believed to guarantee its own + practical impermeability. Not only is there a puddled core, but the mud, sand, and + rocks of which the principal mass will be composed will be laid down in the manner best + calculated to secure compactness. With regard to underground flow, there is an + underlying bed of indurated clay which is regarded as sufficiently impervious, and + wherever the puddled core and piling are imbedded in that clay it may, I think, be + assumed with some confidence that the leakage will be unimportant. On referring to the + section (map), however, it will be seen that there are in the valley two old river + gorges, which to a depth <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg + 74]</a></span>of 200 and 260 feet are filled only with gravel, sand; sand, shells, and + wood; clayey sand, and so forth. These gorges, measured on the section shown in the + figure, have widths of about 1,200 and 500 feet respectively at the depth to which the + sheet piling goes, and extend about 120 and 180 feet below. How much water may escape + by these gorges it is difficult to say. This leads us to the next division of our + subject.</p> + + <p class="c11">On the Supply of Water Available for the Needs of the High-level + Canal.</p> + + <p>The construction of the Suez Canal was a work of excavation pure and simple. The + construction of any kind of canal across the Isthmus of Panama involves another task, + second only in importance to the primary work of excavation, viz., that of regulating + the rivers.</p> + + <p>In the case of a sea-level canal the problem would have been how to get rid of their + waters, particularly in the rainy season.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + + <p>In the actual case of an 85-foot-level canal, the regulation of the rivers, + particularly of the Chagres, presents two aspects, viz.:—</p> + + <p>(1) In the wet season, disposing of the surplus waters.</p> + + <p>(2) In the dry season, conserving water supplied by the rains so as to meet the + waste caused (<i>a</i>) by locking, (<i>b</i>) by evaporation, (<i>c</i>) by + percolation.</p> + + <p>The arrangements for taming the torrents of the Chagres and its tributaries have + already been described. They are, briefly, the construction of the Gatun dam and its + spillway.</p> + + <p>Turning to the other aspect of the problem, I have to answer the question, What is + the guarantee that there will be sufficient water in the dry season?</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/76a.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">IN THE CUT, WIDTH 500 + FEET.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/76b.jpg" width="500" height="330" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">IN THE CUT, + LOOKING SOUTH TOWARDS CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>Probably there is no problem of the Panama Canal which has received more prolonged + and careful study than this. From the outset the French engineers commenced collecting + data relating to the hydrology of the Isthmus, and when funds grew low, and the + pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>posed level + of the canal began to rise, the matter received ever-increasing attention. The + <i>Comité Technique</i> of the New Panama Canal Company commenced in 1894 + elaborate investigations to determine the catchment area, the amount of rainfall, and + the discharge of rivers. Brigadier-General Henry L. Abbot (late Corps of Engineers, + U.S.A.), whose investigations upon the Mississippi are known the world over, was a + member of this Committee of the New Panama Company until the work was taken over by the + Government of the United States, for whom he continued to act; and he was a member of + the Board of Consulting Engineers, signing the minority report in favour of an + 85-foot-level canal in January, 1906. A continuous study for seven years is an + advantage enjoyed by few of the American engineers, and the book on "Problems of the + Panama Canal" published by General Abbot in 1905 (new edition 1907) deals very fully + and ably with the hydrology and meteorology of the Isthmus. The observations were + continued under the direction of Don Ricardo <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" + id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>M. Arango, who has also a long experience on the + Isthmus. I shall not attempt to summarise the mass of data upon which the authorities + rely in their calculation that there is a sufficient water supply for the needs of the + Canal during the dry season, contenting myself with showing, as above, that in this + department of study, which more than all others connected with the Canal demands long + experience, this requisite has in fact been secured. Yet whatever depends upon climate + is liable to unexpected accidents, and personally I regard as an important safeguard + the fact that at Alhajuela, on the Chagres, 9 or 10 miles above Obispo, there is an + excellent site for a dam, which would form a reservoir where some of the surplus water + of the wet season could be stored, and supplied to the Canal as required. The details + for such a dam were elaborated in connection with one of the earlier plans of the + Canal, so that the necessary data would be immediately available in case its + construction should become necessary in the future.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> + + <p class="c11">Harbours and Fortifications.</p> + + <p>There are no storms in the Bay of Panama, and but little additional protection from + weather is needed there for shipping. The entrance to the Canal being at La Boca, a new + city will grow up there. This will be the second westward migration of the terminal + port, the present city of Panama lying between Old Panama and La Boca.</p> + + <p>Colon is exposed to northers, and protection against the heavy sea which then rolls + in will have to be provided. Whether this will be done by breakwaters or by forming an + interior basin is not yet decided, and the cost of this part of the Canal works is + therefore not yet known.</p> + + <p>The Canal, as already stated, is to be fortified; but I made no inquiries as to the + location or character of the proposed fortifications, a matter which I regarded as + outside my province. The cost of fortifications is included in the provision made by + Congress for the Canal.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + + <h5>ON THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE CULEBRA CUT, AND ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED FOR + EXCAVATION AND DISPOSAL OF THE SPOIL</h5> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">R</span>EFERENCE once more to the + plan and profile on the map will show at a glance the length and position of the rocky + divide, the whole of which is termed the Culebra Cut, from the name of the town near + the highest point. The proposed form and dimensions of this cut, throughout the 5 miles + of the greatest height, is also shown (the section adopted at the commencement of + 1906), and the stage reached in April, 1908, is shown by the photographs. The line + drawn across the above section at a level of 120 feet above bottom (160 feet above + sea), shows the general level of the bottom of the workings at Culebra itself at the + time the photographs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg + 82]</a></span>were taken. A narrow pilot cut, only, was then 20 feet lower.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/82a.jpg" width="500" height="566" alt="" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">ROCK DRILL.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/82b.jpg" width="500" height="373" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">ROCK DRILLS AT WORK IN THE CUT.</span> + </div> + + <p>All that part of the section below this line (+160) remained to be excavated.</p> + + <p>Most of the rock above this line has been removed, but not all, for the final width + is not, of course, reached at any level until the central portion has been excavated + below that level.</p> + + <p>The level of the original rock line shown in this section was +275, <i>i.e.</i>, 235 + above canal bottom, so that the photographs show excavation of 115 feet of rock. There + was, however, soil above the hard basaltic rock, of varying thickness—removed to + the slope 1:2 as shown on the section. The highest original surface of the soil on the + centre line of the Canal (between Golden Hill and Silver Hill at Culebra) was +312 + feet,<sup>[17]</sup> so that the photographs in which Golden Hill appears show a total + excavation of 152 feet along the centre line. As this line passed along a saddle + between the two hills, the original surface at the sides was considerably higher, so + that the total height shown in the photographs from the bottom of the cut to the + highest berm, or ledge, on Golden Hill is considerably more than 152 feet.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[17]</sup> The profile at end of volume shows the stage of excavation when + the height here had been reduced to +210.</p> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + + <p>The bottom of the Canal will be 272 feet below the original saddle, and its depth + below this berm, which is seen on the photograph, is considerably more. Thus will the + gorge appear when the excavation is finished and before the water is allowed to flow + in. When full, the surface of the water will be 227 feet below the original saddle, and + the passenger on a vessel will gaze upon the scarped banks of a somewhat greater height + than this.</p> + + <p>For a tide-level canal, not only would the depth be 85 feet greater, but, as the + slope could not be made steeper, the width of the whole cutting would be + correspondingly increased.</p> + + <p>With reference to the slope of the sides, it is important to note that it has not + been found practicable to adhere always to the proposed section, which has to be made + flatter, thus considerably increasing the amount of excavation required. The behaviour + of living rock is not susceptible of the precise specifica<span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>tion which can be applied to + quarried stone on the one hand or loose gravel on the other. Mechanically it is + complex, both on account of its structure and of the <i>rôle</i> which water + plays in its economy. In the case of the Culebra rock, the volcanic dykes by which it + is traversed have altered the nature of the rock in their vicinity, and the part played + by water is considerable, owing to the wetness of the climate. Moreover, the rock does + not remain wholly unchanged when exposed to air, but deteriorates by "weathering," a + chemical and physical process which proceeds much faster in an equatorial climate than + in the temperate zones. The climate, however, has a compensating action, in so far as + the rapid growth of vegetation soon clothes and protects the scarped slopes, thus + acting as a "revetment."</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Alighting at Culebra station on the Panama Railway, and proceeding to the western + side of the cut, one obtains the most impressive view of the Canal works, and this is + the spot usually visited by travellers and tourists. <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>I first stood there in January, 1907, and + returned in April, 1908. The impressions obtained were very different on these two + occasions. In January, 1907, after two and a half years of American occupation, what + struck me most was the enormous mass of material which had been removed by the French + companies, and the comparatively insignificant appearance of the American excavations, + which could readily be distinguished from the older work, already coated with + vegetation. It was then that I began to appreciate the heroic labours of the French + engineers, whose achievements under circumstances of great difficulty are being daily + more and more appreciated and praised by their successors. Turning to study the + progress of work, I watched with delight the operations of the 100-ton steam shovels, + which at a distance, when the human hands are not seen, appear endowed with volition, + and remind the spectator of elephants at work. The cars were loaded with surprising + celerity, and the dirt-train was hauled off to the distant dump by an old Belgian + locomo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>tive, part + of the machinery taken over from the New Company. But then the hitch came—there + were no cars to take the place of those already filled, and the steam shovel was idle. + Looking round, I found that many other steam shovels and their crews were idle from the + same cause, the machinery for transportation not having been provided in proper + proportion to the machinery of excavation. That the time required for the completion of + the rock-cut was limited by the possible rate of transportation of spoil, and not by + that of excavation, had long been known, and the report of the Board of Consulting + Engineers contains elaborate diagrams of space available for shovels and for tracks. It + was apparent, therefore, that the organisation of the work was not yet perfected. In + like manner, as far as I could judge during my first short visit, the West Indian + labour was not yielding the best results, owing to white foremen and coloured labourers + not being in perfect harmony.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/86a.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">THE CUT, LOOKING + NORTH FROM CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/86b.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">THE CUT, LOOKING + SOUTH FROM CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>While, however, the fighting force, so to speak, of the Isthmian army was obviously + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>imperfect in + many respects, great results had evidently been achieved by the auxiliary services. The + Department of Sanitation had already made the Isthmus healthier than most equatorial + countries, food and quarters were excellent, law and order were well maintained.</p> + + <p>On the first day of my second and prolonged visit, April, 1908, fifteen months + later, I went at once to the same spot on the Culebra Cut opposite to Golden Hill and + again surveyed the scene of operations. The change was enormous. The gorge below me was + greatly enlarged, the shape of the hills altered, the face of the landscape changed. As + I gazed into the deep trench below, the thought flashed across my mind, "If my life be + spared a few years longer, I will sail through this on a ship."</p> + + <p>The reason of the great change was readily apparent: organisation had now been + perfected. In the first place, the whole width of the cut was laid down in railway + tracks, tier above tier at the different levels, so that the view was like the approach + to the metropolitan terminus of one of the world's <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>great railways. Up and down these tracks there + came and went without ceasing the spoil-trains, now composed of larger trucks than + formerly, with new and ingenious devices for rapid unloading. The number of steam + shovels visible was much larger than in 1906, yet they were kept constantly busy, and + all the time the drilling machines were at work boring holes for charges of dynamite, + and gangs of men were completing the preparations for explosions in other holes already + made.<sup>[18]</sup> Yet if the eyes were raised for a moment from the busy scene + below, they rested on a silent wilderness of tropical forest, stretching unbroken to + the horizon. I stayed until, at the approach of sunset, the work of the shovels ceased, + and hundreds of men swarmed out of the Cut, and sought their quarters and the evening + meal. But all was not over for the day, for now, when the Cut was cleared, the + shot-firing began. At intervals there occurred a deafening explosion, the earth + trembled as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> in a + considerable, but preternaturally short, earthquake, and masses of rock rolled down the + slopes, disintegrated and ready for the shovel-man when he should arrive next morning. + I paid many visits to the Cut, between Empire and Pedro Miguel, but oftenest at Culebra + itself. The sight never palls, and is one of the wonders of the world. The Pyramids are + another wonder of the world which in common with many thousands in all ages I have + thought it worth going to see—but to go to Culebra is as if one were privileged + to watch the building of the Pyramids. Yet how few go to the Isthmus on purpose to see + these things, and, <i>mirabile dictu</i>, how few Americans! How is it that this + people, so enthusiastic in all that relates to national achievement and addicted to + foreign travel, does not include the Isthmus among its many recognised places of + pilgrimage? Of the Americans whom I met on the Zone there was scarcely one who had come + voluntarily for pleasure. The hotel accommodation, it is true, is limited, but it is + more than sufficient for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg + 90]</a></span>present needs, and is good, as hotels in the tropics are reckoned. + Moreover, Panama is now one of the healthiest places in the Equatorial Zone. English + tourists going out to the West Indies by the Royal Mail are generally able to cross the + Isthmus and see something of the work while their ship is unloading at Colon; but I + would venture to suggest, to such of these as care to follow the world's progress, that + they should make arrangements beforehand to step off at Colon, cross to Panama, put up + there, visit thence the Canal works at various points, and proceed by their next ship. + The West Indian tourist season coincides with the dry season on the Isthmus. At Panama + the mosquito is almost an extinct animal, and though the heat there is sometimes + trying, a run up to Culebra brings one to a dry and bracing atmosphere where a fresh + breeze is almost always blowing.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[18]</sup> During 1908 no less than one million dynamite charges were + exploded.</p> + </div> + + <p>The steam shovel is the principal agent of excavation. It scoops out loose soil + directly, but the basaltic rock has to be broken up first by blasting. One shovel + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>will load 1,200 + cubic yards of such materials upon the cars within the working day of 8 hours, an + amount equal to 600 two-horse loads.</p> + + <p>For accelerating transportation railway trucks provided with flaps are used, which + make of the whole train a single platform. At the rear of the train is a plough which + can be drawn by a wire rope attached to a drum carried on a special car in the fore + part of the train. When the train arrives at the dump the drum is started, and the + plough, advancing, clears the 320 cubic yards of earth and rock from the 16 cars in 7 + minutes. This is the Lidgerwood Unloader.</p> + + <p>Another important piece of machinery is the track-shifter, which picks up and relays + the railway lines of the ever-shifting spoil-tracks. This remarkably successful + contrivance was invented by an employee on the Isthmus, and is moreover manufactured + there in the great workshops at Gorgona.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/92a.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">FROM CULEBRA, + LOOKING EAST TO DISTANT HILLS.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/92b.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">FROM CULEBRA, + LOOKING EAST ACROSS THE CUT.</span> + </div> + + <p>From Bas Obispo to Pedro Miguel, which constitutes the Cut, is a distance of about 9 + miles, and excavation is so planned that a summit is maintained at Lirio, near Culebra, + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>about half-way + between these two points. On the north slope are<sup>[19]</sup> 21 steam shovels, + loading cars on 14 tracks. These, when loaded, are hauled down-grade to the northern + dumps at Tavernilla and elsewhere, or to the site of the Gatun dam, which is also a + dump. Nearly 4,000 cubic yards of rock are carried to the dam daily, a distance of + about 24 miles. The return up-grade is made with empty cars. On the southern slope + about the same number of steam shovels are at work, the spoil being taken to the + southern dumping grounds on the Pacific side, including the trestle dump for the + breakwater to Naos Island. The spoil-trains follow one another at intervals of about + three minutes, and if, from any cause, delay occur, the steam shovels, and indeed the + whole process of excavation, is brought to a standstill. Any cause of delay is + therefore reported at once by telephone to the Superintendent of Transportation at + Empire, and all energies are at once directed to clearing the way. On the Isthmus + everything gives way to the spoil-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id= + "Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>train, as in a city to the fire-engine. An excellent lesson + both in the complexity and urgency of the transportation is afforded by a run through + the Cut on a motor trolley in company with the Superintendent of the Department of + Excavation. Constantly shunted from one track to another, and occasionally having to + retreat, much ingenuity is required to thread a way among the spoil-trains, but even + the almost invaluable time of the Superintendent himself is sacrificed rather than any + delay should occur to the "dirt" train, as it is usually called. It is this dirt which + stands between the American nation and the realisation of their long cherished scheme, + and nowhere is the classical definition of dirt as "matter in the wrong place" so + appropriate as on the Isthmus.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[19]</sup> This is for July, 1908.</p> + </div> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Let us now see how much matter has been removed, and how much dirt remains which has + yet to be removed. I will give first the totals of what has been got out in both dry + and wet way, both in the Canal prism itself and for auxiliary works.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> + + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Total Excavations in Connection with the Panama + Canal.</span><sup>[20]</sup></p> + + <table summary="excavations"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15">Cubic Yards.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">By the French Companies about;</td> + + <td class="td15">81,548,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">By the American Isthmian Canal Commission up to the end of June, + 1908;</td> + + <td class="td15">40,923,533</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="overline">122,471,533</span></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[20]</sup> Canal Record, July 8, 1908.</p> + </div> + + <p>Much of the work of the French Companies, however, consisted in dredging out + sea-level channels at both ends of the Canal, whereas the principal American work has + been rock-excavation in the Culebra Cut—or <i>the</i> Cut, as it might equally + well be called. The figures relating to the Cut are:—</p> + + <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Excavation between Bas Obispo and Pedro + Miguel</span>, <i>i.e.</i>,<br /> + "<span class="smcap">The Culebra Cut," 9-1/2 Miles</span>.</p> + + <table summary="excavations"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15">Cubic Yards.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">By the French Companies;</td> + + <td class="td15">22,600,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">By the American Commission to end of June, 1908</td> + + <td class="td15">20,125,185</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Total excavated in the Cut</td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="overline">42,725,185</span></td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Remaining to be excavated</td> + + <td class="td15">37,973,063</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85"> </td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="overline">80,698,248</span></td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>so that at + the end of last June the Cut was half cut through, one quarter having been done by the + French Companies and one quarter by the American Commission.<sup>[21]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[21]</sup> The total excavation for the prism of a sea-level canal was + calculated by the Board of Consulting Engineers at 231,026,477 cubic yards.</p> + </div> + + <p>This statement by itself, however, would give a very inadequate idea of the rate at + which the excavation is now proceeding, for of the total taken out by the Commission + since 1904, 11,000,000 cubic yards were due to the work of the 12 months prior to June + last. It will be seen from what has gone before that the rate of progress is now even + greater than in the year June, 1907-May, 1908, for the daily output from the Cut for + July, 1908 (55,427 cubic yards), works out at 1,441,102 cubic yards, allowing 26 + working days of that month, which, moreover, is a wet month, when work is much + retarded.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/96a.jpg" width="500" height="352" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">FROM CULEBRA, + LOOKING EAST TO GOLDEN HILL.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/96b.jpg" width="500" height="564" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">THE CUT AT CULEBRA, LOOKING NORTH.</span> + </div> + + <p class="c11">On the Date of Completion of the Canal.</p> + + <p>Colonel Goethals, Chief of the Commission, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" + id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>when examined early in 1908 at Washington, declined to + bind himself to a date for completion, or to an estimate of cost; nevertheless, it is + not difficult to calculate the date of completion from the actual rate of progress on + the assumption that all goes well. The year 1915 is thus arrived at by the authorities + for the calculated, though not promised, completion. This is based primarily upon the + rate of excavation possible under the restrictions imposed by the narrow gorge along + which the spoil has to be transported. It has been also calculated that the + constructive works, the locks and dams, would require about the same time as, but not + longer than, the excavations. This just balance between the time required for the two + elements, excavation and building, was one of the arguments employed in favour of the + 85-foot-level canal, as securing "the utmost practicable speed of + construction"<sup>[22]</sup> which could be obtained in a canal "afford<span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>ing convenient passage for + vessels of the largest tonnage."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[22]</sup> See address by President Roosevelt to Board of Consulting + Engineers, September 11, 1905. Report of the Board, p. 12.</p> + </div> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>One of the most impressive features on the Isthmus at the present time is the great + workshop at Gorgona, where repairs of all kinds are done, and large machines such as + the track-shifter are actually built. As I passed from machine shop to boiler shop, + smith shop, car shop, pattern shop, and so on, I felt myself back among the + circumstances of one of the great manufacturing towns, and forgot for the time my + actual surroundings. It was with a feeling akin to surprise that, on quitting the + foundry, I found myself on the fringe of the tropical forest, now darkening with the + shadows of the swift-descending sun. I may here note by the way that the furnaces of + the foundry produced considerable relief from the effects of the tropical heat, which + that day was somewhat oppressive.</p> + + <p class="c11">Relaying the Panama Railway.</p> + + <p>Reference to the map at the end of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id= + "Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>volume will show how considerable is the task of + reconstructing the Panama Railroad—what embankments have to be formed, circuits + made, and (near Milaflores) a tunnel bored. The track, too, is being doubled, and the + rolling stock has been greatly improved. The passenger cars are both comfortable and + relatively cool, and the double journey from Pacific to Atlantic Ocean and back again + can be pleasantly performed between luncheon and dinner. Much of the verdant forest + land on which I have gazed with so much delight from the windows of the cars will soon + cease to be land at all. It will be drowned beneath the waters of Lake Gatun; virgin + forest, cultivated patch, squatter's hut, villages, and even small towns will + disappear, their sites submerged by water, and presently to be covered by the silt of + rivers.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + + <h5>THE MEN ON THE ISTHMUS</h5> + + <p class="c11">West Indian Labour.</p> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">T</span>HE success of sanitation, + and the modern facilities for storage of food, have greatly simplified the task of + obtaining an adequate supply of navvies for the pick and spade work. In the United + States the American-born, particularly the majority who are of Anglo-Saxon stock, now + form an aristocracy of labour, and for the last fifteen years or so have performed but + little of the pick and spade, or ordinary navvy's, work. In the Southern States the + unskilled labour is mainly performed by the American negro. Elsewhere the pick and + spade work is done by new immigrants, some of whom settle, <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>and some go home with + their savings. They are largely from Southern and Central Europe, many being Italians, + and in the extreme West there are Japanese also.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/102a.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">GANG OF WEST INDIAN LABOURERS.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/102b.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">GANG OF SPANISH + LABOURERS AT CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>The Commission, however, did not recruit in the United States, in order not to + disturb the labour market there, but sought elsewhere for the supply of unskilled + labour.</p> + + <p>At first they relied almost entirely upon the West Indian negro, who formed the + majority of the navvies employed under the French Companies. The Commission, however, + were profoundly dissatisfied with the result. In December, 1906, they reported + that—</p> + + <p>"Another year's experience with negro labourers from near-by tropical islands and + countries has convinced the Commission of the impossibility of doing satisfactory work + with them. Not only do they seem to be disqualified by lack of actual vitality, but + their disposition to labour seems to be as frail as their bodily strength."</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, they are still employed in undiminished numbers on the Isthmus, and + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>the tone of + the authorities towards them has changed. This change is noticeable both in the + official publications and also in the conversation of the foremen immediately in + charge. With regard to the latter, I found a great difference of tone between January, + 1907, and April, 1908.</p> + + <p>The improved relations with the West Indians is due to two causes, relating to the + alleged lack of vitality and of industry respectively. The lack of strength was found + to be due largely to improper diet, and most of the West Indians are now provided with + proper cooked meals, as is done in the case of American and European employees. In + order to ensure their profiting by this provision, however, the charge for meals in the + case of West Indians is deducted from wages. The result of supplying a nourishing diet + has been a marked increase in working strength as shown by output.</p> + + <p>In respect of disposition to labour there has also been an improvement. This is + shown both by the absence of animadversion in later official reports, and also by the + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>changed tone + of the foremen and other Americans in immediate control of the West Indians, when + questioned on the subject. In January, 1907, I heard little but disparagement, while in + April, 1908, a much more favourable account was given. To one who has seen something of + both the United States and of the West Indies, the reason for the improved state of + affairs was easily understood, viz., the American foremen and others in charge had + begun to understand the type of men with whom they were dealing. Accustomed to the + character of the American negro, and to the conventions which regulate intercourse with + the coloured man in the United States, they did not at first recognise that the West + Indian was a distinct type, and accustomed, at any rate in the British Colonies, to + very different social relations towards the white man. The handling of a gang of + negroes from the tropics is an art which has had to be learnt.</p> + + <p>The Barbadians are reported to be, generally speaking, the best of the West Indian + workmen, except the men from some of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id= + "Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>country districts of Jamaica, who are their equals. + Although the climate and products of the Isthmus are so similar to those of their own + islands, comparatively few of these employees settle there, but return to the homes + they love so well. It cannot but be gratifying to an Englishman to find that those who + come from the British islands are proud of their citizenship and pleased to greet him + as a fellow-subject.</p> + + <p>There are about ninety negro policemen on the Zone, most of whom were originally + trained by English officers in the Jamaica Constabulary. They are highly spoken of by + the Chief of Police, who finds that they know both when to arrest and when not to + arrest. They are also of much service to the new arrivals of their own colour, who + refer to them for all information.</p> + + <p>The ordinary West Indian labourer receives 10 cents gold (about 5d.) per hour and + free quarters. Deducting the 30 cents <i>per diem</i> charged for meals, he receives 50 + cents (2s. 1d.) for an 8-hour day, besides food and lodging.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/106a.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">STEAM SHOVEL + EXCAVATING SOIL AT CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/106b.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">STEAM SHOVEL + UNLOADING INTO A DIRT CAR.</span> + </div> + + <p>The total number actually at work on the Isthmus has been—</p> + + <table summary="length"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">June 30, 1907.</td> + + <td class="td15"> </td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">On the Canal Works</td> + + <td class="td15">14,606</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">On the Panama Railroad</td> + + <td class="td15">4,979</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Total</td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="overline">19,585</span></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>and on June 30, 1908, the number on the Canal Works alone was 16,078.</p> + + <p>The total number on the roll is, of course, considerably more than 20,000, as there + are necessarily absentees every day owing to sickness, accident, or other cause.</p> + + <p><i>European Labour on the Isthmus</i>.</p> + + <p>In 1906 the number of European labourers on the Isthmus was insignificant, and the + Commission, at that time profoundly dissatisfied with the West Indians, issued + invitations for proposals to furnish 2,500 Chinese labourers, with the privilege of + increasing the number to 15,000.<sup>[23]</sup> Nothing came of this scheme, however, + while, on the other hand, the already improved, and still improving, conditions on the + Isthmus enabled the Commission to obtain a largely increased supply of European labour. + While the supply of West Indians was maintained constant, or only slowly increased, the + additional force required was therefore obtained from Europe. The following figures + show this:—</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> + + <p class="center c11">European Labourers actually at Work on</p> + + <table summary="labourers"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">June 30, 1906</td> + + <td class="td15">500</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">June 30, 1907</td> + + <td class="td15">4,317</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">June 30, 1908</td> + + <td class="td15">4,913</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[23]</sup> Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1906, p. 14.</p> + </div> + + <p>A few Russian and Baltic folk came, but appeared unable to stand the work, and the + few French who arrived did not take to pick and spade. The majority were from Greece, + Italy, and Spain, each of these countries sending at first about the same number. The + Greeks proved to be physically inferior to the Italians and Spaniards, and their number + in April, 1908, was only about 300.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> + + <p>The Italians, physically excellent, and standing the climate well, were found + somewhat intractable. A large proportion were migrant labourers, who had become + somewhat prone to collective action when dissatisfied, and their numbers in April, + 1908, had been reduced to 500 or 600.</p> + + <p>The Spaniards, mainly Galicians and Castilians, were found to be quite equal to the + Italians in physique and health, and to give far less trouble, a fact which is + attributed partly to the circumstance that most of them came directly from their + villages. They are reported to be sober, patient, civil, and quick to learn. The number + employed in April, 1908, was about 5,000, so that the Spaniards constituted about + five-sixths of the European force, which numbered in all slightly over 6,000. The + figures given above for those at work on certain days are considerably less, there + being always a number absent from one cause or another.</p> + + <p>That the Spaniard is not oppressed by the tropical heat was apparent to me when + watching gangs at work near mid-day at about the <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>hottest time of year, viz., the last weeks + of the dry season, towards the end of April. Clothed in European kit, wearing velveteen + trousers and with only a cap for head-covering, these men showed no signs of distress, + or even discomfort. They showed, in fact, less sign of being heated than Americans of + apparently British or other Northern descent engaged upon less laborious work.</p> + + <p>The ordinary European labourer, in addition to free quarters, receives 20 cents gold + per hour, or $1.60 per 8-hour day; more when working overtime. He is charged 40 cents + <i>per diem</i> for his three meals, served in the European mess, which leaves $1.20 as + a <i>minimum</i> net wage <i>per diem</i>, or a little less than 30s. per week; but + many earn more, and it should not be difficult under these conditions for a labourer to + save £5 a month. I was informed of one instance of a Spanish labourer saving + £10 per month, but such virtue must be rare.</p> + + <p>The Spaniard shows no sign of settling upon the Zone. Sometimes he goes on to + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>railway work + in Brazil; more often he returns home with his savings.</p> + + <p class="c11">Skilled Labour on the Isthmus.</p> + + <p>The skilled labour on the Isthmus has from the outset been mainly done by white + Americans, but there are still on the "Gold Roll," as it is termed, some Europeans. New + rules reducing the maximum length of leave have, however, made these posts less + attractive to those whose homes are at a greater distance, and by an order of February + 8, 1908, all future appointments on the Gold Roll shall be American citizens, if the + special services required can be obtained in the United States; and in the event of any + reduction of force, preference shall be given to American citizens.</p> + + <p>The duties being various, the pay necessarily differs, but, taking free quarters + into account, is higher than in the United States, as is of course necessary in a + distant and tropical land. Since the industrial difficulties of 1907-8 there has been + considerable competition for these billets. An 8-hour day <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>is established by law for + employees on the Gold Roll, the quarters are excellent, and the three meals a day + provided at a fixed charge are up to the standard of a good hotel. Indeed, the + opportunity to share these meals, supplied in large airy rooms, screened by gauze but + open to the breeze, made my task on the Isthmus much lighter. From almost any part of + the Canal I could reach one of the Commission "hotels" for meal-time, and for 50 cents + (2s. 1d.) obtain better food than I have generally been able to get in the tropics at a + much higher price. I took pleasure also in my company, for, if I may be permitted to + say so, the skilled mechanic of the United States has always seemed to me a most + attractive representative of his nation; and here particularly so, where one is in + touch with his work. Moreover, each man's job on the Isthmus is part of a vast + undertaking, the progress of which he can watch, which fires his enthusiasm, and makes + him feel that he has a reward beyond his wage in the privilege of participating in + national achievement.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/112a.jpg" width="500" height="448" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">STEAM SHOVEL NEAR END OF STROKE.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/112b.jpg" width="500" height="445" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">STEAM + SHOVEL, STROKE FINISHED, LOADED WITH SOIL.</span> + </div> + + <p>I should like in this place to add a word of tribute to the great courtesy and + kindness which they show towards ladies, a circumstance which did much to render + pleasant the excursions which my wife took on the Isthmus, sometimes in my company and + sometimes alone.</p> + + <p>The number of Americans on the Gold Roll in January, 1908, was about 6,000, the + total number of employees on the rolls of the Commission and of the Panama Railroad + being then approximately 43,000. The total number of employees actually at work on + January 29, 1908, was</p> + + <table summary="employees"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">On the Canal works</td> + + <td class="td15">25,367</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">On the Panama Railroad</td> + + <td class="td15">6,557</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td class="td85">Total</td> + + <td class="td15"><span class="overline">31,924</span></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p class="c11">The Responsible Officials and the Scheme of their Organisation.</p> + + <p>The responsibility for Canal construction under the conditions laid down by Acts of + Congress is vested in the President of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id= + "Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>United States, within the limits of the money which has + so far been voted. The President appointed a Commission in 1905 to carry out the work. + The first chief engineer appointed was Mr. John F. Wallace, who arrived on the Zone + June 28, 1904, accompanied by Colonel Gorgas, U.S.A., head of the Sanitation + Department. Mr. Wallace was in favour of a tide-level canal. In April, 1905, the + President appointed a second Commission in place of the first, with a changed + <i>personnel</i>,<sup>[24]</sup> but Mr. Wallace was retained as chief engineer, and, + moreover, became a member of the second Commission.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[24]</sup> Colonel Gorgas, head of the Department of Sanitation, has + remained, however, through all changes. See <i>post</i>, Chapter V.</p> + </div> + + <p>He, however, resigned, June 26, 1905, and his place was taken by Mr. John F. + Stephens, who arrived on the Zone July 27th. At this time there was panic throughout + the Isthmus<sup>[25]</sup> owing to the prevalent sickness, and resignations were so + numerous that it was difficult to carry on work at all, and engineering operations were + partly suspended for a time. When the sanitary conditions improved, however, work was + resumed with vigour. This second Commission proposed that the work should be put out to + contract, and bids were invited. It was under this Commission that the 85-foot-level + canal became law. Mr. Stephens was in favour of this form. He resigned early in 1907, + his resignation taking effect on April 1st, and at the same time the President for the + second time reorganised the Commission.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[25]</sup> See Report of the Governor of the Canal Zone, 1905, p. 30, and + "Sanitation in the Canal Zone," by W.C. Gorgas, M.B., Colonel, <i>Journ. Am. Med. + Assoc.</i>, July 6, 1907, vol. xlix.</p> + </div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + + <p>The third Commission, appointed April 1, 1907, which is that under which the work + was being carried on at the time of my second visit, differs from its predecessors in + that its members are resident on the Zone. Thus the members of the Commission are the + actual executive, the chairman of the Commission being himself chief + engineer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> The + other important difference between the present and the former organisations is the fact + that almost all the important departments are now under officers of the United States + Army, and in one instance of the Navy. The chairman and chief engineer, + Lieutenant-Colonel George W. Goethals, of the Corps of Engineers, had previous + experience of the Isthmus, having been engaged upon work connected with fortification. + With respect to the other officers of engineers, the significance of the appointments + lies not in their being military men, but in their being permanent Government servants. + The Government of the United States, unlike that of his Britannic Majesty, does not + possess a large Civil Service whose members remain in the public employment through all + changes of political parties. In the absence of any considerable body corresponding, + for instance, to our Indian Civil Service, the Government of the United States + frequently relies upon the Corps of Engineers for the supervision of great public + works.</p> + + <p>At the time of my second visit the scheme <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" + id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>of organisation was as shown in the following + table:—</p> + + <p>GENERAL ORGANISATION OF DEPARTMENTS.</p> + + <table summary="organisation"> + <tr> + <td class="td40"> </td> + + <td class="td20">Men</td> + + <td class="td40"> </td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Excavation and Dredging</td> + + <td class="td20">12,359</td> + + <td class="td40">Major D.D. Gaillard</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Locks and Dams</td> + + <td class="td20">9,340</td> + + <td class="td40">Major Wm. L. Sibert</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Machinery and Buildings<sup>[26]</sup></td> + + <td class="td20">2,164</td> + + <td class="td40">H.H. Rouseau, U.S.N.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Labour, Subsistence, and Quarters</td> + + <td class="td20">2,048</td> + + <td class="td40">Jackson Smith (resigned)</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Material and Supplies</td> + + <td class="td20">1,220</td> + + <td class="td40">W.G. Tubby</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Sanitation</td> + + <td class="td20">2,449</td> + + <td class="td40">Colonel W.C. Gorgas</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Civil Administration</td> + + <td class="td20">451</td> + + <td class="td40">J.C.S. Blackburn</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="td40">Panama Railroad</td> + + <td class="td20">6,619</td> + + <td class="td40">W.G. Bierd</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[26]</sup> Now merged in other departments.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/116a.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">STEAM SHOVEL AT + CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/116b.jpg" width="500" height="330" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">SHOVEL-MEN AT CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>Technically the Panama Railroad is not a department, but practically the + construction of the Canal and the reconstruction of the Railroad are worked as parts of + a single scheme.</p> + + <p>In addition to the above are some smaller divisions, reporting directly to the + Chairman, such as that of Accounts. The office of the Purchasing Officer is situate in + Washington, practically all the supplies being obtained in the United States. This + officer also reports to the Chairman resident on the Zone.</p> + + <p>The numbers given above are subject to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id= + "Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>continual fluctuation, and are quoted more for the + purpose of showing the general proportions of the different parts of the undertaking + than to give an exact total of the force employed.</p> + + <p>Some account has already been given of the activities of the men employed on + excavation, on locks and dams, and on the railway. Those entered under the Department + of Machinery and Buildings are charged not only with this work in the Zone, but also + with the paving and other improvements in the cities of Colon and Panama. The + Department of Sanitation also undertakes the hygiene of these two cities, no small part + of its responsibilities. The Republic of Panama provides the cities with police, who + are Panamanians. The police force of the Isthmian Canal Commission (Department of Civil + Administration) numbers 200, of whom 88 are the West Indians already mentioned and the + remainder white Americans. The force is numerically small, but the power to deport all + undesirable persons is of great assistance. Moreover, as the Zone is practically + inaccessible except from the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg + 118]</a></span>ports of Colon and Panama, a fairly complete watch can be kept on all + entries. After making due allowance for all these advantages, however, one cannot but + be impressed, not only by the order, but by the respectability of the Isthmus, which is + singularly free from anything unseemly.</p> + + <p>A scattered force of 200 would be insufficient to deal with tumult among so large a + population of men, but there is maintained at Obispo, a central point, a force of about + 350 United States Marines.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> + + <p>The work of the Department of Sanitation is of such primary interest and importance, + especially to geographers, that I deal with it separately in the next chapter.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + + <h5>HEALTH ON THE ISTHMUS AND THE FUTURE OF THE WHITE RACE IN THE TROPICS</h5> + + <p class="c11">Yellow Fever.</p> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">T</span>HE cities of Colon and + Panama have never been particularly unhealthy to the Panamanian born, whether white or + coloured, or to the West Indian stranger.</p> + + <p>This population has merely been subject to the malaria common to equatorial towns, + especially when in the neighbourhood of swamps, and to the evils which attend imperfect + sanitation in a hot climate.</p> + + <p>The intervening country is very malarious in the low-lying parts, less so on the + hilly divide, differing in no way from other similar localities in the same + latitude.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/122a.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">READING ROOM, + EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/122b.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">HALL OF EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>The reputation of the Isthmus of Panama as a death-trap is due to the sickness which + (previous to 1906) has always been prevalent among white strangers, and most other + visitors, and particularly to the high percentage of death from yellow fever. To this + short, sharp, and most deadly disease the native-born is immune; hence the affairs of + the city of Panama have gone on well enough for centuries, as far as the residents are + concerned, except that travellers by the Isthmian route tarried no longer than they + could help. Whenever large numbers of strangers have congregated on the Isthmus, as + during the Californian gold-rush, the construction of the railway, and the Canal + construction of the French Companies, there has been an epidemic of yellow fever among + them, and a very large proportion of cases have terminated fatally.</p> + + <p>The immunity which the West Indian negro enjoys from this disease gave him a + superiority over other labourers on the Isthmus which, since the extinction of the + disease, is no longer his.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg + 123]</a></span></p> + + <p>During the American occupation of Havana, after the American-Spanish War, yellow + fever broke out among the strangers, and the mere cleaning up of the city, though + carried out with military thoroughness, had no effect in checking the disease. A + medical board was sent to study the matter. This was in 1900, four years after Major + Ronald Ross, of the Indian Medical Service, had discovered the cause of malaria. Ross + had proved that the cause of malaria in man was the presence in his blood of an + organism introduced by the attack of the <i>anopheles</i> gnat (or mosquito), and that + the species was only poisonous to man if it had itself become infected with the germ of + this organism in biting a man suffering from malaria. Thus man and <i>anopheles</i> act + alternately as hosts to the organism, which apparently requires their co-operation for + the continuance of its species.</p> + + <p>Gnats, or mosquitoes, as they are indifferently termed, being thus under more than + suspicion as an immediate cause of tropical fevers, the medical board turned their + attention <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>to + them, and Mr. Reed, a member of the board, tracked the yellow fever to another gnat, + the <i>stegomyia</i>, and, aided by the heroic devotion of his assistants, proved + beyond shadow of doubt that this disease is due to the activity of another minute + organism, which lives a double life in man and <i>stegomyia</i>. Mere contact with the + clothing, &c., of yellow-fever patients was proved to be no source of + infection.</p> + + <p>The <i>stegomyia</i> lives three months. It becomes dangerous only by imbibing the + organism through attacking man during the first three days of yellow fever, and, even + then, twelve days elapse before its bite is infectious. Six days after a man has been + bitten by an infectious <i>stegomyia</i> he develops yellow fever, and for the next + three days (as has been already said) he is infectious to the <i>stegomyia</i>.</p> + + <p>During the American occupation of Cuba attempts were made to obtain immunity from + yellow fever, but it was found impossible to regulate the disease when voluntarily + communicated by the bite of the mosquito, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" + id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>at present immunity is only enjoyed by persons who + inherit the privilege.</p> + + <p>The <i>stegomyia</i> does not breed in open swamps or large bodies of water, but + needs shelter, and is also incapable of sustaining a long flight. It breeds chiefly in + and near towns, depositing its larvæ upon the surface of cisterns or stagnant + pools.</p> + + <p>Colonel W.C. Gorgas, M.D., took charge of the Department of Sanitation of the + Commission in July, 1904. "The experience of our predecessors," he + writes,<sup>[27]</sup> "was ample to convince us that unless we could protect our force + against yellow fever and malaria we would be unable to accomplish the work."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[27]</sup> "Sanitation in the Canal Zone," by W.C. Gorgas <i>Journ. Am. Med. + Assoc.</i>, July 6, 1907, vol. xlix.</p> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2" style="padding-top: 1.5em;"> + <img src="images/126a.jpg" width="500" height="373" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">READING ROOM, + EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/126b.jpg" width="500" height="364" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">HALL OF EMPLOYEES' CLUB, CULEBRA.</span> + </div> + + <p>At this time there was but little yellow fever on the Isthmus, and, in spite of the + arrival of a large number of non-immunes, no alarming outbreak occurred during the + first ten months. During April, 1905, however, the administration building in Panama, + in which worked some 300 non-immune employees of the Commission, became infected. + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>In that month + there were 9 cases and 2 deaths; in May, 33 cases and 8 deaths, of which 21 cases and 2 + deaths were among employees of the Commission. In June there were 19 deaths from yellow + fever on the Isthmus, and in July 13. The Commission reported<sup>[28]</sup> + that:—</p> + + <p>"A feeling of alarm, almost amounting to panic, spread among the Americans on the + Isthmus. Many resigned their positions to return to the United States, while those who + remained became possessed with a feeling of lethargy or fatalism, resulting from a + conviction that no remedy existed for the peril. There was a disposition to partly + ignore or openly condemn and abandon all preventive measures. The gravity of the crisis + was apparent to all."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[28]</sup> Annual Report, 1905, p. 30.</p> + </div> + + <p>Colonel Gorgas writes<sup>[29]</sup> of this time:—</p> + + <p>"We could readily see that if the conditions as they existed in 1905 were to + continue the Canal would never be finished."</p> + + <p>And he adds that:—</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> + + <p>"The Executive Board of the Commission itself, as late as June, 1905, stated that + the sanitary work of the Isthmus had been a failure and recommended that the + <i>personnel</i> be changed and other methods tried. But the Supreme Authorities ... + gave us steady support, and by the following December yellow fever had disappeared from + the Isthmus."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[29]</sup> "Sanitation in the Canal Zone."</p> + </div> + + <p>The total deaths among employees of the Commission from yellow fever during the 12 + months October 1, 1904, to September 30, 1905, was 37, among about + 17,000.<sup>[30]</sup> The total from yellow fever among the whole population, + including Canal employees, during the four months May 1 to August 31, 1905, was 47, + while the number of deaths from malaria during the same period was 108. The effect of + malaria in impairing physical efficiency was even more in excess than these figures + indicate, for the fatal cases are a small proportion of the whole in malaria, and a + very large proportion in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg + 128]</a></span>yellow fever. The moral effect of the imminence of the more sudden and + fatal form of disease was, however, as these reports show, much the greater, and it was + this moral effect which caused the crisis above described.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[30]</sup> In 1883-84 the French Company lost by yellow fever 66 men out of + about the same number of employees.</p> + </div> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Previous to February, 1905, the Department of Sanitation had done little to improve + the hygienic conditions of Colon and Panama, chiefly owing to the opinion until then + maintained by the legal advisers that there was no authority to expend money in those + cities, which are not within the Canal Zone.</p> + + <p>In April the yellow fever broke out; the number of men employed by the Department of + Sanitation was increased to the huge total of 4,100, and the battle with yellow fever + began in earnest. All cases were either transported to screened buildings, or, if left + in their own homes, these were carefully screened with fine-meshed copper gauze. The + object of this isolation was to prevent the patient from infecting healthy + <i>stegomyia</i> mosquitoes.</p> + + <p>Every dwelling in Colon and Panama was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id= + "Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>thoroughly fumigated with pyrethrum powder or with + sulphur, and then cleared of dust and refuse, which, with the insensible but not always + dead mosquitoes, was then burnt. The complete, and, it is hoped, final freedom from + yellow fever in Colon and Panama has been obtained by means of a proper water supply + and universal paving with brick or cement, as well as the supply of proper drainage. + Formerly water for domestic use was stored in cisterns, tanks, tubs, jars, and so + forth, and, after rain, water stood stagnantly in a thousand ruts and holes in the + unpaved squares, streets, and lanes. These breeding-places of the <i>stegomyia</i> have + now been done away with completely in Panama, and almost completely in Colon. The + latter city is so low-lying and flat, and subject to such heavy rainfall, that pools of + stagnant water will form. They can, however, be oiled, which kills the larvæ, + and, moreover, it is Panama, and not the wind-swept, salt-saturated, town of Colon, + which has been the chief source of yellow fever.</p> + + <p>The last case of the disease in Panama <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id= + "Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>occurred in November, 1905, and in May, 1906, there was + an isolated case in Colon. The infection is considered to be at an end in a city three + months after the last case, that being the lifetime of <i>stegomyia</i>. After this + period, all infected <i>stegomyia</i> having died, those that remain are powerless for + harm. Nevertheless, the stringent measures for their destruction are not relaxed, as, + while <i>stegomyia</i> exists, the germ, if re-introduced, will be rapidly + disseminated.</p> + + <p>Thus the yellow fever, having taken toll for four hundred years of those who crossed + the Isthmus, has been completely eradicated by. Colonel Gorgas and his assistants. It + is a triumph of science and of despotic government combined; and only in this + combination can preventive medicine achieve full success.</p> + + <p>There is one other aspect of the yellow fever campaign which must be mentioned + before going on to describe the fight with malaria.</p> + + <p>Yellow fever, unlike malaria, does not occur in all tropical countries. Its home is + the West Indies, Central, and parts of South, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" + id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>America, and, before its extinction in Havana, it has + been a serious scourge in the Southern United States. In the New World cases have + occurred as far north as Quebec, in Europe cases have occurred in Wales and France, and + there have been serious epidemics in Spain. It has never been known east of Genoa, + whether in Europe or elsewhere. Thus in Africa it is known on the west but not on the + east coast. The fact that it is unknown in India is very remarkable, seeing that + <i>stegomyia</i> is a very prevalent variety of mosquito there. It follows from this + that if yellow fever once got hold in India it would probably spread and might work + great havoc. The same is true of China in an even greater degree, for such preventive + measures as have been taken in Panama would be far more difficult to carry out in the + great cities of India, and altogether impracticable in those of China. Thus, as Colonel + Gorgas has pointed out, if the Canal had been constructed in spite of yellow fever, and + if that disease had been allowed then to persist at Panama, the disease might not + improbably <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg + 132]</a></span>have been carried to Asia, for the three months of life of + <i>stegomyia</i> is ample for the voyage. In this event the Panama Canal might have + proved a curse rather than a boon to mankind.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/132a.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">CUT SOUTH OF + CULEBRA, LANDSLIP ON LEFT.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/132b.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class= + "caption">LOOKING NORTH, THE SCARPED FACE OF GOLDEN HILL ON THE RIGHT.</span> + </div> + + <p class="c11">Malaria.</p> + + <p>The campaign against malaria has been conducted on somewhat different lines. The + <i>anopheles</i>, which transmits that disease, deposits its larvæ in clean water + where grass and algæ grow, and is therefore almost entirely a mosquito of country + districts. But Colon and Panama, both small cities, are exposed to the disease, as are + about seventeen little towns and forty villages for labourers along the line of the + Canal. As the flight of <i>anopheles</i> is not more than one hundred, or possibly two + hundred yards, the working population can be in great measure protected from their + attack by destroying the breeding places for such a distance on either side of the + dwelling and working places. This in itself is a large task, which could not be carried + out in a short time, and while in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id= + "Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>progress the Sanitary Department relied mainly upon the + erection of buildings completely screened (including the verandahs) with fine copper + gauze, which effectually shields the employees against mosquito attack within doors, + and therefore during the particularly dangerous hours of night.</p> + + <p>In addition, the employees are supplied with quinine, and recommended to take three + grains daily while in health. This "cinchonises" the blood and renders it unwholesome + to the malarial parasite.</p> + + <p>The effect of screening is shown by the following example from the report of the + Commission, December, 1906:—</p> + + <p>"The first shipload [of European labourers] arrived during the dry season, when + mosquitoes were most scarce, and were quartered in unscreened buildings. Within six + weeks of their arrival 33 per cent. of these labourers had been taken sick with + malaria. The second shipload arrived during the rainy season, and were quartered in a + camp not 200 yards distant from that of their predecessors. The buildings of the camp + were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg + 134]</a></span>screened. Sickness among the men was infrequent, and when they had been + upon the Isthmus six weeks it was found that only 4 per cent. had found their way to + the hospitals."</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>The destruction of larvæ, and of their hiding places, is commenced by the + clearing of grass and bushes, which are cut down with the <i>machete</i>, a short + cutlass with which the Panamanian is very expert, <i>machete</i> work being, indeed, + the principal <i>rôle</i> in which the Panamanian is employed by the Commission. + Also ditches are cleaned out, and heavy oil poured upon the water in trenches and + pools, and land-crabs are caught and the holes in which they dwell are filled in or + oiled. Finally the soil is drained, which is the only means of making the ground + permanently unfit for mosquito breeding. Subsoil draining is the best, a tile drain + being put in; for, even in concreted gutters, pools will form, owing to accidental + obstruction, and remain sufficiently long for the deposition and hatching of the + larvæ. Such is the work of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id= + "Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span><i>anopheles</i> brigade, and the <i>stegomyia</i> + brigade carry out similar operations, in the neighbourhood more particularly of + Panama.</p> + + <p>With regard to the effect of these operations upon the numbers of the mosquitoes I + may narrate my own experience. I arrived at Colon first in January, 1907, and spent one + or two nights on board my ship. This was two years and a half after the commencement of + the mosquito campaign, and the officers of the ship congratulated themselves upon the + absence of the swarms of mosquitoes which formerly attacked them at night on their + vessel. I found, however, that although there was no swarm of mosquitoes, such as I + have seen, <i>e.g.</i>, when on board ship in the harbour of Colombo, Ceylon, yet that + the individuals who remained certainly caused me discomfort, and I think some + subsequent indisposition. In April, 1908, however, during two days at Colon, I did not + so much as see a single mosquito.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/136a.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">LOOKING + NORTH FROM RAILWAY BRIDGE AT PARAISO.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/136b.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">ABANDONED FRENCH + MACHINERY.</span> + </div> + + <p>At Panama, in January, 1907, my wife and I stayed in the Commission's screened hotel + on Ancon Hill, not caring to face the dirt <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id= + "Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>and squalor of the old city. In April, 1908, finding the + city properly paved, drained, and plumbed, we took up our quarters at the Hotel Central + in the town, where we spent a fortnight in perfect health; and although this building, + not being under the Commission, is unscreened, I was only bitten by mosquitoes, to my + knowledge, twice during that time, and this without subsequent ill effect. I may add + that the picturesque surroundings, not unlike those of some city on the Mediterranean, + greatly enhance the pleasure of a stay on the Isthmus, now that they can be enjoyed + without squalid accompaniments. I did not, except on one or two nights, even draw the + mosquito curtains. Out of doors, in the city of Panama, I was not bitten once, though I + was attacked once or twice by solitary mosquitoes when walking on roads or paths with + shrub or jungle adjoining. This was near the end of the dry season. When the rains + commence a greater number of mosquitoes must be expected.</p> + + <p>Natives of the Isthmus and the West Indies are not immune from malaria, and in + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>1904-5 about + one-half of the inhabitants who were examined proved to have the parasite of malaria in + their blood. As the <i>anopheles</i> becomes infectious through biting a malarious man, + it is evident that such a dissemination of the parasite throughout the blood of the + human population renders mosquitoes especially dangerous. In the same proportion as the + population becomes less malarious, so the mosquitoes become less dangerous, and + theoretically a millennium is possible in which man and <i>anopheles</i>, mutually + purged of the malarial organism, may live happily together. Unfortunately, a malarious + man it is believed remains infectious to <i>anopheles</i> for no less than three years, + instead of the three days' limit of yellow fever, and this greatly increases the + difficulty of exterminating malaria.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> + + <p>During 1906, with a force of 26,000, there were 21,739 cases of malaria admitted to + the Commission Hospitals, and the death-rate from this disease was among whites 2 per + thousand, among negroes 8 per thousand.</p> + + <p>In 1907, with a force of 39,000, there were 16,753 cases, the death-rate among + whites being 3 per thousand and among negroes 4 per thousand. The increase among whites + was due to the greater proportion of the European labourers, whose circumstances are + different from those of the skilled artisans and the "screened" clerical staff of + Americans.</p> + + <p>The total death-rate from all causes in 1907 is shown below:—</p> + + <table width="70%" summary="death-rates"> + <tr valign="top"> + <td></td> + + <td>Average<br /> + Number.</td> + + <td>Total<br /> + Deaths.</td> + + <td>Annual Death<br /> + Rate per<br /> + Thousand.</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>White Employees</td> + + <td>10,709</td> + + <td>179</td> + + <td>16.71</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>Black Employees</td> + + <td>28,634</td> + + <td>953</td> + + <td>33.28</td> + </tr> + + <tr valign="top"> + <td>Total</td> + + <td>39,343</td> + + <td>1,132</td> + + <td>28.77</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>—but accidents account for a considerable proportion of the deaths.</p> + + <p>During the same period the average number of American women and children in + Commission quarters was 1,337, among whom occurred nine deaths, an average annual + death-rate of 6.73 per thousand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id= + "Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> + + <p>In addition to malaria there is one other disease which proves fatal to considerable + numbers of employees, attacking principally the black labourers. This is pneumonia, to + which are attributed altogether 328 deaths as against 154 from malaria.</p> + + <p>It appears that special research is needed into the cause and prevention of this + disease among negroes in the tropics.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>In 1907 no less than 71,000 persons arrived on the Isthmus, all of whom had to pass + the Commission doctor at the entrance port. All but transients are vaccinated on + arrival, and great watchfulness is exercised against the introduction of any new + disease from abroad. Thus, when bubonic plague broke out at Guayaquil, the Department + of Sanitation commenced a campaign against rats as a precaution against the spread of + the disease (which is propagated by the rat flea) in case quarantine measures failed to + keep it out.</p> + + <p>Again, when one or two cases of rabies recently occurred on the Isthmus, all dogs + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>for whom an + owner could not be found were at once destroyed.</p> + + <p class="c11">Life on the Isthmus, and on the Future of the White Man in the + Tropics.</p> + + <p>The Canal Zone now being healthy, the life of the Americans is a cheerful as well as + a busy one. The climate, to which the local diseases used to be attributed, is not by + any means wholly bad. There are really two climates, that of the Atlantic seaboard and + that of the Pacific side. Colon is somewhat trying on account of the humidity, but a + healthy trade-wind blows. The town of Panama, though receiving much less rain, is also + somewhat humid, owing to there being less breeze. The temperature, however, is lower + than that of the great cities of the United States, even in the North, during summer + heat-waves, the hours of sunshine are shorter, and the general feeling of oppression + is, I think, distinctly less. The Ancon suburb, where the Commission buildings are + situate, is free from the humidity of the low-lying city. The high lands at or near + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>Culebra, + where a large part of the American population now resides in screened wooden buildings, + enjoy in the dry season a bracing climate, a fresh dry wind blowing across the divide, + imparting a sense of exhilaration, which is heightened by the fine scenery, the + pleasant scents of the surrounding woodland, and the ordered activity of the life. + Amidst such circumstances the Canal official finds it easy to work hard. I noticed in + this a great contrast to the condition ten years ago at Ismailia, the headquarters of + the Suez Canal Administration. This place, before Major E. Ross's discoveries, suffered + severely from malaria, and the officials of the Administration, some of whom had + resided there for twenty years or more, were in many cases saturated with malarial + poison. Work for them was a burden, bravely borne indeed, but taken up each day with a + sigh. I spent about a fortnight there in a hot season conducting some investigations + upon the forms and movement of drifting sand-dunes. I suffered during part of the time + from fever, and only kept on working with an effort, <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>whereas on the Isthmus I enjoyed more than + usual vigour. At Culebra, indeed, the dry season is so bracing that the arrival of the + rains is welcome for the soothing effect of greater humidity, as well as on account of + diminished dust. The white woolly cloud or mist which then wraps round the hill-tops is + no longer the "white death," as it was called in the days of the French Company, when + the vapours were credited the poison which really lurks in the mosquito. Even now, + however, there is an increase in the number of mosquitoes, and some increase in + malaria, when the rains come.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/142a.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">GANG OF EUROPEAN + LABOURERS (IN 1907).</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/142b.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">A FORMER HOT-BED + OF MALARIA, NOW DRAINED.</span> + </div> + + <p>Not only do the men look well, but the women and children also. The women in general + have the same appearance as in the United States; perfectly dressed, as always, quiet + in manner, and apparently happy, though occasionally somewhat bored. To the wife, not + having the absorbing interest of the Canal work, the Isthmus is generally less + interesting than to her husband, but of late there have grown up organisations for + promoting intellectual and other social inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" + id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>course which are rapidly relieving the threatened + ennui.</p> + + <p>The children, on the other hand, look actually happier and stronger than they do in + the cities of the United States. They are in the open air all day, for sunstroke is + rare on the Isthmus; they are bronzed, active, fearless in bearing, and apparently + thoroughly satisfied with themselves and with their surroundings. Even when within + doors they are still in a sense in the open air, for the windows are unglazed, and the + houses are constructed so as to secure a free circulation of air.</p> + + <p>It has been said that the possession of India taught the English the value of the + cold bath, an institution which has been slowly adopted from us by other Northern + nations in Europe. Perhaps the possession of the Canal Zone will lead to the salutary + open-window habit, which is not yet general in the United States.</p> + + <p>The Commission clubs for gold-employees at the principal stations are commodious + structures, admirably designed for social <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id= + "Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>recreation; their management is entrusted to the Young + Men's Christian Association. There are well-equipped reading and writing rooms and + gymnasia, mainly used by the men, but the interests of the women and children are not + neglected, and for the last playrooms are provided. The large halls are used for + entertainments and for meetings of the numerous benevolent "secret" societies which + have been so important a factor in the preliminary organisation of American society in + newly settled territories. In the clubs only "soft" drinks are provided, but I can + testify to their excellent effects.</p> + + <p>The question whether the white race can make a home in the tropics depends + ultimately upon the tropical baby—upon his own health and that of his mother. The + American occupation is still recent, but as far as experience goes it seems that the + white children born on the Isthmus have not shown unusual delicacy, and the mothers + have made a normal, though sometimes rather slow, recovery from confinement.</p> + + <p>The views of Colonel Gorgas upon the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id= + "Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>future of the white race in the tropics deserve + quotation. He writes<sup>[31]</sup>:—</p> + + <p>"I think the sanitarian can now show that any population coming into the tropics can + protect itself against these two diseases [malaria and yellow fever] by measures that + are both simple and inexpensive; that with these two diseases eliminated life in the + tropics for the Anglo-Saxon will be more healthful than in the temperate zones; that + gradually, within the next two or three centuries, tropical countries, which offer a + much greater return for man's labour than do the temperate zones, will be settled up by + the white races, and that again the centres of wealth, civilisation and population will + be in the tropics, as they were in the dawn of man's history, rather than in the + temperate zone, as at present."</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[31]</sup> "Sanitation in the Canal Zone."</p> + </div> + + <p>In this connection I may perhaps be permitted to refer to an interesting suggestion + made in the course of conversation by Colonel Gorgas, although I omitted to inquire if + it had been published. This suggestion was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id= + "Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>that the records of the movements of great armies under + the rulers of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt indicate that malaria did not then exist in + the nearer East, and that malaria, like yellow fever, was once a local disease.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/146a.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">NEAR THE SITE OF MILAFLORES LOCKS.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/146b.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">LOOKING + NORTH TO CULEBRA DIVIDE FROM ANCON HILL.</span> + </div> + + <p>From what I have seen as tourist and traveller (not as resident) in the West Indies + and in the Orient, I have arrived at the following tentative conclusions, + viz.:—</p> + + <p>That the debilitating effect which the tropics have been observed to exercise upon + those who come from temperate regions has been due mainly to the presence of certain + diseases which can be done away with.</p> + + <p>That the rapid deterioration of the white stock which is usually noticed in the + tropics, especially near the equator, is mainly due to the same cause.</p> + + <p>But that Anglo-Saxons cannot perform nearly the same amount of hard bodily labour in + a constantly hot climate as they can in the temperate zone, and Anglo-Saxon immigrants + never will be able to do so. In this I think the Mediterranean races—at all + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>events the + Spaniards and Italians—are our superiors.</p> + + <p>Whether the descendants of Anglo-Saxon stock who have settled in a tropical country + purified from tropical diseases will be able to support continued hard bodily labour + better than their immigrant ancestors is a matter about which we have at present no + direct evidence.</p> + + <p>It may possibly be worth noting, however, that some years ago, when wintering in + Manitoba, I found that some of the farmer immigrants from England felt the cold more as + the years went by, but that their children born in the country were unaffected by + it.</p> + + <p>It is the case that in the tropics, particularly in the equable equatorial belt, + many evils of the temperate zone are avoided, chiefly those due to cold and to sudden + changes of temperature. It is this equatorial belt of equable temperature and heavy + rainfall that I chiefly have in mind, for it comprises those vast regions of prolific + vegetation which appear capable of supporting so large a population.<span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + + <p>The white man already rules, or has marked off for rule, the whole of the equatorial + belt, but who is to be the peasant cultivating this belt? In those parts of tropical + Asia already peopled by industrious Orientals there can never be a white peasantry. + Equatorial Africa presents great differences in different parts with respect to native + population, and the question of a possible future for white peasantry is there a + complicated one. In South America, however, there are vast equatorial regions either + wholly unpeopled, or sparsely inhabited by tribes of that Indian stock which has + elsewhere proved so slight an impediment to the establishment of the white labourer. + Served by a system of rivers unrivalled elsewhere in equatorial regions, already + partitioned among Christian Governments, and for the most part uninhabited, the forests + and savannahs of Equatorial South America offer the readiest field for the + establishment on a vast scale of a white peasantry under the equator.</p> + + <p>By clearing the scrub within one or two hundred yards of his cottage, and by + em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>ploying + wire screens, the cultivator can protect himself against malaria, and his crops come + not once, but several times a year.</p> + + <p>If the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian peasant were to turn his attention to this + field, instead of, or in addition to, that of navvy work, great things might come of + it. The circumstance that South America is a Roman Catholic continent, where the Latin + races are dominant, would enormously favour the experiment. On the Zone, the Spanish + labourer works in order to save and to depart, the <i>milieu</i> being foreign to him + and unattractive. In a Latin State it would be different.</p> + + <p>In writing of the possibilities of the white race in the equatorial zone it is + understood that the problem relates to the lowlands. There are, of course, favoured + highlands, such as those of Colombia, where the temperature is at the same time + moderate and equable and the climate appears admirably adapted to white men.</p> + + <p>A healthy city life in the tropics would be easily attainable in a new country + settled <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg + 150]</a></span>wholly by white people and under a medical despotism.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + + <p>The general, but non-specialist, opinion upon the Isthmus is not as sanguine as that + of Colonel Gorgas upon the hygienic future of the white race in the tropics. The + general opinion among Americans seems to be that, as far as they are concerned, they + would, if engaged in the tropical parts of South or Central America, avail themselves + of the improving means of transit to revisit frequently the United States, and would + rely upon such vacations in higher latitudes for the retention of their native + vigour.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + + <h5>ON THE SHORTENING OF DISTANCES BY SEA, AND ON THE STEAMSHIPS AVAILABLE FOR CANAL + TRANSIT</h5> + + <p class="c11">The Shortening of Distances by Sea.</p> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">A</span>S the sole object of a ship + canal is to shorten sea distances, the figures given in this section are of primary + importance to a proper understanding of the subject. The figures here given are those + for steamships following the actual or prospective routes. They are adopted from the + figures supplied to the Canal Commission from the United States Hydrographic Bureau and + are expressed in nautical miles. It is perhaps not wholly superfluous to warn the + reader that the apparent relative distances as shown on charts of the world, especially + those on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg + 154]</a></span>usual Mercator projection, are very different from the real relative + distances. Moreover, it is impossible to see correctly the relative distances between + places far apart on a globe, for the foreshortening of the rounded surface produces + distortion. By applying a measuring tape to the globe the true relative distances can + be readily ascertained. This is a salutary exercise and serves to correct the erroneous + notions which tend to fix themselves in the minds of all of us owing to the appearance + of the surface of the globe on the plane of the paper or on the plane of vision. Such a + measurement of shortest distances would give a very fair notion of the actual + reductions due to the Suez and Panama Canals, but there would still be considerable + differences between these figures and the distance calculated from the actual courses + pursued by steamships, which in what follows will be referred to simply as "the" + distance between ports.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/154a.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">RIO GRANDE, NEAR LA + BOCA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/154b.jpg" width="500" height="321" alt= + "" title="" /> <span class= + "caption">RIO GRANDE, FROM ANCON HILL.</span> + </div> + + <p>The most notable effect of the Panama Canal will be the reduction of distance + between the Atlantic and Pacific ports of North <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>America. Taking New York as our port of + reckoning on the Atlantic, the distance thence to Panama and all ports north thereof on + the Pacific seaboard of Central and North America will be reduced by 8,415 miles.</p> + + <p>The reduction of distance from New York to the Pacific ports of South America, on + the other hand, is not constant, but varies from the above maximum of 8,415 miles at + Panama to a minimum of about 1,004 miles at Punta Arenas (in the Straits of Magellan). + The <i>average</i> shortening on this coast is therefore</p> + + <table summary="miles"> + <tr> + <td align="center">8,415 + 1,004</td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="center">——————</td> + + <td>= 4,709 miles</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td align="center">2</td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>The actual shortening to Iquique, the nitrate port in Chile, is 5,200 miles. We + shall not be far out in saying briefly that the distance between New York and South + American Pacific ports will be shortened by an average of 5,000 miles.</p> + + <p>The Canal shortens the distance between the Pacific coast of the Americas and the + ports of Europe also, though in a lesser degree. Thus, taking Liverpool as our + ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>ample (and + the reductions are much the same for London, Antwerp, or Hamburg), the Canal will + shorten the distance to Panama and all ports on the coast to the north by a constant + quantity, viz., 6,046 miles.</p> + + <p>The reduction to Pacific ports south of Panama is not a constant but a variable + quantity, ranging from the above maximum of 6,046 miles at Panama itself to zero at a + point between Punta Arenas and Coronel (the most southern industrial port of Chile). We + may put the average shortening of distance between Liverpool and South American Pacific + ports at about 2,600 miles.</p> + + <p>Viewing the whole matter from the standpoint of the Pacific ports of the Americas, + we see an absolute commercial advantage accruing to them all in the diminished distance + to the Atlantic and Gulf ports of North America and to the ports of Europe.</p> + + <p>Viewing the matter from the standpoint of the Atlantic and Gulf ports of North + America—to fix our ideas we will say from the standpoint of New York—we see + the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>same + absolute advantage <i>plus</i> a competitive advantage, in that the reduction is + greater for New York than for Liverpool (<i>i.e.</i>, Europe).</p> + + <p>As the world is at present constituted, steamers from New York and from Liverpool + proceeding to these Pacific ports all pass Pernambuco, in Brazil, near the easternmost + point of South America, not far south of the equator. This port is 4,066 miles from + Liverpool and 3,696 miles from New York, so that, by sea, San Francisco is only 370 + miles nearer to New York than to Liverpool. But Colon is 4,720 miles from Liverpool and + only 1,961 from New York, so that <i>viâ</i> the Canal all the Pacific ports of + the Americas are 2,759 miles nearer to New York than to Liverpool.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>Let us next consider the Canal as the starting place for Transpacific voyages, the + <i>rôle</i> for which it was originally projected in the sixteenth century. In + those days the Isthmus of Suez was firmly held by the hostile Moslem, and even if a + canal had then been open there, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id= + "Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>it would not have been available for the commerce of + Christian Europe. Thus the discovery of a strait, or the cutting of a canal, at the + Isthmus of Panama would at that time have opened to Europeans a shorter seaway to the + Orient. But now that the Suez route has been opened for ships, the <i>Panama Canal will + not bring any port in Australia or the East Indies, nor any ice-free port in Asia or + Asiatic Islands, nearer to any European port</i>. Of all ports on the west, that is to + say the Old World or "Oriental" side, of the Pacific, only those of New Zealand and + some in Siberia will be brought nearer to Liverpool, and that to an insignificant + amount.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/158a.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">LA BOCA, FROM ANCON + HILL.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/158b.jpg" width="500" height="333" alt="" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">ANCON CEMETERY.</span> + </div> + + <p>Distances are, however, much diminished between New York and both the northern and + the southern ports of the Oriental Pacific coasts, as the following table + shows:—</p> + + <table width="80%" summary="miles"> + <tr> + <td colspan="3">New York to—</td> + + <td>Reduction.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Yokohama</td> + + <td>by Suez</td> + + <td>13,564</td> + + <td rowspan="2">3,729 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama</td> + + <td>9,835</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Shanghai</td> + + <td>by Suez</td> + + <td>12,514</td> + + <td rowspan="2">1,629 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama</td> + + <td>10,885</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Sydney</td> + + <td>by Cape of Good Hope</td> + + <td>13,658</td> + + <td rowspan="2">3,806 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama (<i>viâ</i> Tahiti)</td> + + <td>9,852</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Melbourne</td> + + <td>by Cape of Good Hope</td> + + <td>13,083</td> + + <td rowspan="2">2,656 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama (<i>viâ</i> Tahiti)</td> + + <td>10,427</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Wellington,<br /> + N.Z.</td> + + <td>by Straits of Magellan</td> + + <td>11,414</td> + + <td rowspan="2">2,542 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama (<i>viâ</i> Tahiti)</td> + + <td>8,872</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + + <p>Since the Canal does not reduce the distances between these places and Europe + (except slightly in the case of Wellington), the competitive gain of New York is equal + in all cases to the absolute gain in distance. The following figures show the distances + from New York to Hong Kong and Manila by the Suez and Panama routes:—</p> + + <table width="80%" summary="distance"> + <tr> + <td colspan="3">New York to—</td> + + <td>Reduction.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Hong Kong</td> + + <td>by Suez</td> + + <td>11,655</td> + + <td rowspan="2"></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama</td> + + <td>11,744</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="3">Manilla</td> + + <td>by Suez</td> + + <td>11,601</td> + + <td rowspan="2">16 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama, <i>viâ</i> San Francisco and Yokohama</td> + + <td>11,585</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>by Panama, Honolulu and Guam</td> + + <td>11,729</td> + + <td></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>Ports on the mainland of Asia in these latitudes are of course nearer to New York by + way of Suez.</p> + + <p>The opportunities of a port for commerce obviously depend in a great measure upon + the centrality of its position with reference to the other ports of the world. Let us + see how Liverpool and New York were originally situated in this respect, and how far + their situations are altered first by the opening of the Suez route and secondly by + that of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg + 160]</a></span>Panama; remembering also that the changes introduced by the canals have + about the same effect on Antwerp or Hamburg as on Liverpool.</p> + + <p>Prior to the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 the route to Asia and Australia was + <i>viâ</i> the Cape of Good Hope from both Liverpool and New York. This gave + Liverpool an advantage of 480 miles for all Asiatic and Australian ports as well as for + the East Coast of Africa. For most of South America and all the Pacific coast of the + Americas the route was <i>viâ</i> Pernambuco, and New York had an advantage of + 370 miles.</p> + + <p>Suez being open but Panama still closed, the route to Asia is <i>viâ</i> + Gibraltar for both Liverpool and New York. New York is distant 3,207 miles and + Liverpool 1,283 from that place, so that Liverpool has an advantage of 1,924 miles + instead of 480 on the voyage to all Asiatic ports, a competitive benefit of 1,444 miles + resulting from the opening of the Suez Canal.</p> + + <p>The voyage to Australia from New York being still made <i>viâ</i> the Cape of + Good Hope, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg + 161]</a></span>while that from Liverpool is most shortly made by Suez, Liverpool is + 1,622 miles nearer by the canal and 480 by the Cape, thus obtaining a benefit of 1,142 + miles when the Suez route is taken.</p> + + <p>The opening of the Panama route leaves unchanged the relative distances to the + Atlantic coast of South America, to Africa, and to Asiatic ports south of Shanghai; but + it is New York and not Liverpool which is now the nearer port to Yokohama, Sydney, and + Melbourne; and Wellington, New Zealand, formerly nearly equidistant, is placed 2,739 + miles nearer to New York than to Liverpool.</p> + + <p>With reference to Northern China, however, it is to be noted that, although the + Panama route shortens the distance between New York and Shanghai by 1,629 miles, + Liverpool will still be the nearer to Shanghai by 295 miles, assuming the New York + vessel to call at San Francisco.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/162a.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt= + "" title="" /> <span class= + "caption">COMMISSION'S HOTEL AT ANCON.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/162b.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, ANCON.</span> + </div> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> + + <p>These facts are illustrated by the figures given on the next page.</p> + + <table width="80%" summary="facts"> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"></td> + + <td>Nearer to<br /> + New York than<br /> + to Liverpool by</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Yokohama</td> + + <td>New York <i>viâ</i> Panama,<br /> + San Francisco and by Great Circle</td> + + <td>9,835</td> + + <td rowspan="2">1,805 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Liverpool <i>viâ</i>Suez, Aden,<br /> + Colombo, Singapore,<br /> + Hong Kong and<br /> + Shanghai</td> + + <td>11,640</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Sydney</td> + + <td>New York <i>viâ</i> Panama<br /> + and Tahiti</td> + + <td>9,852</td> + + <td rowspan="2">2,383 miles.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Liverpool <i>viâ</i>Suez, Aden,<br /> + Colombo, King George's<br /> + Sound, Adelaide and<br /> + Melbourne</td> + + <td>12,234</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td rowspan="2">Wellington,<br /> + N.Z.</td> + + <td>New York <i>viâ</i> Panama<br /> + and Tahiti</td> + + <td>8,872</td> + + <td rowspan="2">2,759 miles.<sup>[32]</sup></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Liverpool <i>viâ</i>Panama and<br /> + Tahiti</td> + + <td>11,631</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[32]</sup> Liverpool to Colon, 4,720; New York to Colon, 1,961: difference, + 2,759, the subsequent routes being identical.</p> + </div> + + <p>Let us take a chart of the world and examine the portion comprised between the + parallels of 40° North and 40° South and the meridians of 120° East and + 160° East of Greenwich. This band, in which are included Japan and Korea, Shanghai + and the Philippines, New Guinea and most of Australia, is of particular interest in + relation to Canal trade. Let us take the standpoint, not of Europe or of America, but + of traders residing in this area. Near its western margin the Suez and the Panama + routes to New York are equal in length.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id= + "Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + + <p>Near its eastern margin, which lies, however, outside Japan and Australia and only + passes among small islands, the Suez and Panama routes to Liverpool are of equal + length.</p> + + <p>On a line rather west of the centre and running from rather west of north to rather + east of south, all places are equidistant from New York and Liverpool—the latter + <i>viâ</i> Suez, the former <i>viâ</i> Panama.</p> + + <p>It needs no prophet to foresee interesting commercial developments in a region where + the alternative routes and alternative sources of manufacturing supply offer almost + equal allurements.</p> + + <p>I must also draw attention to the position of New Orleans and other ports on the + Gulf of Mexico in relation to the Canal. At present New Orleans by sea is further than + New York from Valparaiso and San Francisco, Yokohama and Shanghai, but it is 581 miles + nearer to Colon. Hence, when the Panama Canal is open it will be 581 miles nearer than + New York to those ports, and to Sydney, Melbourne, and Wellington. <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>Thus, as the Mississippi + waterway is improved, an increasing proportion of the manufactures and other products + of the great Mississippi basin will find their way to foreign markets <i>viâ</i> + the Gulf ports, and an increasing proportion of imports will find their way to the + Mississippi basin through these ports.<sup>[33]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[33]</sup> Among West Indian ports affected by the Canal, Kingston, Jamaica, + must be particularly mentioned. Now situate at the entrance of a <i>cul de sac</i>, + it will then be placed in a position of much greater centrality for the world's + commerce, and astride the route from Colon to the North American Atlantic ports. Thus + the importance of Jamaica as a constituent of the British Empire will be enhanced. + May the opening of the Canal increase the prosperity of our fellow subjects who have + suffered so greatly from hurricane and earthquake!</p> + </div> + + <p>In dealing with the shortening of sea routes it was shown that the greatest + reduction was that between the two coasts of North America, but even so the sea route + remains longer than that by land, so that the question of commercial advantage is not + settled by a mere statement of sea distances, and the indisputable and undiluted + advantages of the Canal route for the Atlantic and Gulf <span class='pagenum'><a name= + "Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>ports of North America are those of + commerce with the Pacific coast of South America, with New Zealand, Australia, Japan, + Northern China, Manchuria, and Eastern Siberia.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>From the naval point of view, however, the results of shortening the sea distance + from New York to San Francisco are scarcely diminished by the fact of railway + communication, since only crews and stores, and not warships, can be transported by + rail.</p> + + <p>In order to understand the effect of the Canal upon the naval position of the United + States the student of affairs must, in addition to the information given above, examine + the positions relatively to the Canal of the possessions, particularly the insular + possessions, of the United States and of other naval Powers. This will enable him to + gauge for himself the more permanent factors which determine the value of the new line + of communication, the opportunities it affords for concentrating force where wanted, + and the responsibilities of defence which it entails. With the aid of a fairly good + atlas this can <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg + 166]</a></span>easily be done by anyone acquainted with the general facts of naval + power at the present time. The geographical facts, which are perhaps the only ones + beyond question or dispute, are sufficiently simple.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/166a.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt= + "" title="" /> + <span class="caption">VIEW FROM SPANISH FORT, PANAMA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/166b.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">CATHEDRAL SQUARE, + PANAMA.</span> + </div> + + <p class="c11">On the Steamships Available for Canal Transit.</p> + + <p>The Isthmian Canal Commission, in the Report of 1899, distinguishes between the + commercial and the industrial benefits of the Canal, meaning by the former term the + increased carrying of goods, and by the latter the development of production induced by + improved facilities of carriage.</p> + + <p>The tables of distances already given show the <i>potential</i> commercial + advantages, and how they are distributed in different measure among different + countries, and these figures have all the permanence which makes geographical figures + of such enduring importance.</p> + + <p>But the actual commercial advantage of a ship canal depends equally upon a second + factor, viz., the available ship-tonnage. Supposing a Panama Canal to be open at + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>the present + time, there would be hardly any United States ships to use it, except in transport + between home ports from which ships flying foreign flags are debarred. The transport to + South America, New Zealand, Australia, Northern China, and Japan would necessarily be + almost wholly carried on by ships of other nations, especially British.</p> + + <p>The absence of an American merchant marine trading with foreign ports is indeed a + circumstance without parallel among other nations engaged in modern manufacture. Many + interesting facts relating to this strange phenomenon were put on record in the debates + of the United States Senate in the early part of 1908.<sup>[34]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[34]</sup> <i>Congressional Record</i>, February 24, 1908.</p> + </div> + + <p>At that time there was not one steamship flying the flag of the United States + between her ports and those of Brazil, the Argentine, Chile, or Peru.</p> + + <p>The three steamships of the Oceanic Line formerly plying to Australia were then laid + up in the harbour of San Francisco, being unable, although subsidised for mails by + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>the United + States Government, to compete with foreign vessels. There were, however, three United + States steamers plying from Puget Sound to Japan and China, occasionally reaching the + Philippines.</p> + + <p>The mails from New York and the other Atlantic ports of the United States to Brazil + and the Argentine go <i>viâ</i> Europe, so that in this important matter New York + is actually 3,000 miles further than Europe, instead of being 370 miles nearer to those + countries.<sup>[35]</sup></p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[35]</sup> Senator Gallinger, <i>loc. cit.</i></p> + </div> + + <p>In the same debate Senator Depew said that ships receiving the United States mail + subsidy, the only form of subsidy given, have to be American built, manned by + Americans, and the diet of the sailors as prescribed by law. He added that—</p> + + <p>"The labour unions have rightly and properly taken care of their wages. The result + is that the cost in wages and food to run American ships under American conditions + across the Pacific is double that of European or Japanese steamers."</p> + + <p>The relative cost of operating American <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id= + "Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>and European vessels was given by the Hon. Elihu Root, + Secretary of State, in an address delivered November 30, 1906,<sup>[36]</sup> as + follows:—</p> + + <p>The operation of an American steamship of 2,500 tons costs $18,289 per annum more + than that of a British ship of this tonnage, or $7.31 more per ton; and</p> + + <p>The operation of an American steamship of 3,500 tons costs $15,315 per annum more + than that of a German ship of the same size, or $4.37 more per ton.</p> + + <div class="footnotes"> + <p><sup>[36]</sup> Address to Mississippi Commercial Congress, Kansas City, revised + by Mr. Root and published <i>Nat. Geogr. Mag.</i>, 1907, vol. xviii. pp. 61-72.</p> + </div> + + <p>Thus it is evident that, in spite of geographical advantages, there are at present + some grounds for the extreme opinion sometimes expressed in the United States that the + Canal is being built with American money for the use of Europe—and, one may add, + of Japan.</p> + + <p>What attempts may be made to remedy this state of things, and what effects such + attempts may have, are matters on which I shall not stay to speculate.</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + + <h5>THE COST OF THE CANAL</h5> + + <p class="introduction"><span class="first-letter">O</span>F the existing canals for + ocean-going ships, that of Suez was built by a company as a commercial undertaking to + earn dividends by tolls. It cost $90,000,000.</p> + + <p>The Manchester Ship Canal was partly commercial, partly industrial, <i>i.e.</i>, the + large contribution of the city of Manchester was made not as a financial speculation, + but in order to promote an undertaking likely to develop the industries of the city. + This canal, partly commercial, partly industrial, cost $75,000,000.</p> + + <p>The Kiel Canal has further a military purpose, providing a short line of + communication for warships. It cost $40,000,000. The Panama Canal is commercial, + industrial, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg + 174]</a></span>and military, and will cost more than all the above put together.</p> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/174a.jpg" width="500" height="447" alt= + "" title= + "" /> <span class="caption">PALACE OF + PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figcenter c2"> + <img src="images/174b.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="" + title="" /> <span class="caption">OLD FLAT ARCH AT + PANAMA.</span> + </div> + + <p>Up to June 30, 1908, the United States Government have spent $126,047,062 on the + Panama Canal, made up as follows:—</p> + + <table width="80%" summary="payment"> + <tr> + <td>Payment to New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000, and to Republic of Panama + $10,000,000</td> + + <td>$50,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Expenditure on work prior to July 1, 1907</td> + + <td>43,172,408</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Expenditure on work July 1, 1907-June 30, 1908</td> + + <td>32,874,654</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Total</td> + + <td><span class="overline">126,047,062</span></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>The amount authorised to be appropriated by the Act of June 28, 1902, was + $135,000,000, plus $50,000,000 purchase money, that is to say, $185,000,000 in all, for + "the canal, harbours, and defences."</p> + + <p>What the total cost will be is unknown, but Colonel Goethals stated in evidence + (January, 1908) that the Canal would cost at least $250,000,000, and possibly as much + as $500,000,000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg + 175]</a></span></p> + + <p>The combined cost of the Suez, Manchester, and Kiel Canals has been + $205,000,000.</p> + + <p>The following important ship canals have been completed for smaller sums:—</p> + + <table width="80%" summary="ships"> + <tr> + <td>U.S.S. St. Marie (somewhat more than)</td> + + <td>$6,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Canadian ditto nearly</td> + + <td>4,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Amsterdam</td> + + <td>10,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Corinth (about)</td> + + <td>5,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Cronstadt (about)</td> + + <td>10,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Welland (Lake Erie-Lake Ontario)</td> + + <td>24,000,000</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Total</td> + + <td><span class="overline">59,000,000</span></td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p>Adding these figures to those already given, we have a grand total of $264,000,000 + for the cost of nine of the greatest existing ship canals, which is about the same as + the lowest current official estimate for the final cost of the Panama Canal.</p> + + <p>In the case of a commercial company undertaking such a work as the Panama Canal, the + charge for compounded interest increases as the unremunerative years <span class= + 'pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>advance at an appalling + rate, which would surprise anyone not versed in the cumulative capability of figures + which increase in "geometrical progression."</p> + + <p>Fortunately it is not necessary for the United States to reckon the cost of the + Canal in this way, and the Government have been in a peculiarly advantageous position + for financing the Canal.</p> + + <p>The bonds bear interest at 2 per cent., and in December, 1907, were slightly above + 103. As all American banks have to deposit gold with the United States Treasury it + evidently pays to take up and deposit these bonds, which reckon as gold, receiving 2 + per cent. interest.</p> + + <p>Moreover, the small amount of securities with Government guarantee in America + renders such issues convenient, so that the Government can raise money more cheaply + than with us, although for industrial purposes the rates may be higher.</p> + + <p>At the present time the payments of Government pensions in connection with the Civil + War are yearly diminishing at a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id= + "Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>rapid rate. Finally, there has been in the Treasury a + large surplus of cash. Thus from one cause and another the expenditure already incurred + has not yet been felt.</p> + <hr class='c6' /> + + <p>As I write the last lines of the account in which I have endeavoured to state the + salient facts relating to a great undertaking at only moderate length, I recall our + departure from Colon harbour on the R.M.S. <i>Orinoco</i> homeward bound. I confess + that after the Canal Zone most places seem only half alive, and I long to be back where + one can watch human activities so great and so intelligent, while the spirit is soothed + by the balmy air which blows warm and fragrant from the tropical forest.</p> + + <p>May the arduous labours of the Isthmian Canal Commission be crowned with + success!</p> + + <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> + <hr class="c1" /> + + <h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2><p><span class="c15"><b>A</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Abbot, Brigadier-General Hy. L., <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Alhajuela, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">America, South, possibilities for white peasantry, <a href="#Page_148">148-9</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><i>Anopheles</i> mosquito, <i>see also</i> Malaria, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Antwerp, port of, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Arango, Mr. R.M., <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Aspinwall, W.H., and colleagues construct Panama Railway, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Asiatic ports, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Australia, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>B</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Barbadians as labourers, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Bohio, abandoned site of dam, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>C</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">California, rush of gold-seekers to, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg + 182]</a></span><span class="c15">Canal, Panama, national and commercial status + defined, <a href="#Page_39">39-43</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " tide-level schemes, 52, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " curvatures of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " time of transit through, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " date of completion, <a href="#Page_95">95-6</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Suez, opened 1869, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " effect on value of Panama route, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " dimensions and cost, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Caribbean Sea, Spain unable to protect her ships in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Chagres, River, course of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " sudden rise of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Charles V. of Spain, canal project, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Children, white, health of, on Isthmus, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Climate of the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_140">140-2</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Clubs for employees, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Colombia (formerly New Granada), treaty with United States, 1846, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Senate of, does not accept offer of United States, + 1903, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" want of sea-power, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Colon, protection from "northers," <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" yellow fever in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Columbus discovers Bay of Limon, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Commission, Isthmian Canal, Report of 1901, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " a second appointed, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " a third appointed, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Congress, appoints Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" "Spooner" Act of, <a href="#Page_37">37-58</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg + 183]</a></span><span class="c15">Congress, Act of, sanctioning 85-foot-level canal, + 1906, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Constantinople, conquest by Turks, 1453, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Contract Construction of Canal, proposed by Second Commission, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Cortes searches for a strait, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Culebra, view of works from, described, <a href="#Page_84">84-90</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Cut, form and dimensions of, <a href="#Page_81">81-84</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " amount excavated in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Currents in Canal advanced as objection to tide-level scheme, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" tidal, below Milaflores, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>D</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Dam, Bohio, abandoned, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Gamboa, controlling feature of tide-level scheme, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Gatun, as proposed in minority report of Board of + Consulting Engineers, <a href="#Page_56">56-58</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " plans of, April, 1908, <a href="#Page_70">70-74</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Milaflores, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Pedro Miguel, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">De Lesseps, Ferdinand, forms First Panama Canal Company, 1879, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " plan for tide-level canal, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Depew, Senator, on the cost of operating American ships, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg + 184]</a></span><span class="c15">Dimensions of Panama and other Canals, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Distances, Shortening of, by Suez Canal, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " by Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_153">153-165</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " to Pacific Coast of North America, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " to Pacific Coast of South America, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " to Asiatic ports, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " Australian and New Zealand ports, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>E</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Employees, number of, on Canal Zone, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Engineers, French, ability of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Board of Consulting, Majority Scheme for tide-level + canal, <a href="#Page_53">53-55</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " Minority Scheme for high-level canal, <a href="#Page_56">56-70</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" names of chief, <a href="#Page_113">113-115</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Corps of, U.S.A., and public works, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Excavation, amount of, by French Companies, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " by American Commission, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg + 185]</a></span><span class="c15"><b>F</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Fever, Yellow, <a href="#Page_121">121-132</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " geographical distribution of, <a href="#Page_130">130-131</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Malarial, <i>see</i> Malaria</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Floods of the Chagres River, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" control of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Forests, tropical, insulate the Canal Zone, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Fortifications for defence of the Canal, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">French Companies, excavation accomplished by, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Engineers, ability of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Investors, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>G</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gallinger, Senator, on the lack of U.S. steamships trading + with foreign ports, <a href="#Page_167">167-8</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gamboa, site of controlling dam of the tide-level scheme, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gatun dam, <i>see</i> Dam</span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Lake, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" locks, <i>see</i> Locks</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Germany, steamships of, cost of operating as compared with + American steamships, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Goethals, Colonel George W., Corps of Engineers, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " appointed Chairman of Commission and Chief + Engineer,</span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg + 186]</a></span><span class="c33">April, 1907, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">"Gold Roll," <i>see</i> Labour, skilled</span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " Europeans on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Golden Hill, highest original level at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gorgas, Colonel W.C, M.D., head of Department of Sanitation, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " on the future of the white race in the tropics, <a href="#Page_144">144-5</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gorgona, workshops at, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Grant, President, recommends construction of Isthmian Canal, 1869, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Greeks as labourers, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Gulf ports, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>H</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Hamburg, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Harbours, at terminals of Canal, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Havana, yellow fever at, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Hotels, Commission's, for employees, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>I</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Indies, East, original objective of Canal project, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Ismailia, effect of malaria at, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Italians as labourers, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" as peasantry in the tropics, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg + 187]</a></span><span class="c15"><b>J</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Jamaica, effect of Canal on position of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Jamaicans as labourers, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" as policemen, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Japan, steamships of, to use Canal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>K</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Kiel Canal, dimensions of, <a href="#Page_59">59-61</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " cost, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Kingston, <i>see</i> Jamaica</span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>L</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">La Boca, tide at, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " scheme for locks abandoned, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Labour on the Isthmus, Chinese proposed, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " West Indian, <a href="#Page_101">101-106</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " European, <a href="#Page_106">106-110</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " skilled, <a href="#Page_110">110-112</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" white, in tropical countries, <a href="#Page_140">140-150</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Panamanian, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Limon, Bay of, discovered by Columbus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Liverpool, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Lock at Pedro Miguel, depth of water above, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" gates described, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Locks, dimensions of proposed, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg + 188]</a></span><span class="c31">" at Gatun, distance from deep water, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " Gatun, course of Canal below, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " depth of water above, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" at Milaflores, variable lift of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Longitude, meridians between which distances <i>viâ</i> Suez + and Panama are equal, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>M</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">McKinley, President, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Magellan, Straits of, discovered 1520, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Malaria, <a href="#Page_132">132-137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Manchester Ship Canal, cost of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Manila, distance from New York <i>viâ</i> Suez and + <i>viâ</i> Panama, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Marines, U.S., force of on Isthmus, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><i>Mauretania</i>, s.s., dimensions of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Meteorology of Isthmus, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Mexico, war of United States with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Milaflores, <i>see</i> Dams and Locks</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Mississippi, basin of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>N</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Naos, Isle of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">New Granada, treaty of U.S. with, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">New York, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">New Zealand, <i>see</i> Distances</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Nicaragua, canal route through, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span><span class="c15"><b>O</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Obispo, change in course of Chagres River at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><i>Oregon</i>, battleship, voyage of, 1898, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Organisation, efficiency of, in 1907 and 1908 compared, <a href="#Page_86">86-88</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>P</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Panama Canal Company, First, formed 1879, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " in liquidation 1889, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " New, formed, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " accepts offer of $40,000,000, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " " work of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Isthmus of, topography, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Province of, revolts, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Railway, completed 1855, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " purchased by First P. C. Company, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " relaying of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" Republic of, independence guaranteed by U.S., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Pedro Miguel, <i>see</i> Dams and Locks</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Peru, Spanish possessions in, protected by Isthmus, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Police, force of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Pneumonia among negroes in the tropics, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Plague, bubonic, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span><span class="c15"><b>R</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Rainfall on the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Reed discovers cause of yellow fever, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Rio Grande, valley of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Ross, Ronald, discovers cause of malaria, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Roosevelt, President, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Root, the Hon. Elihu, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>S</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">St. Lawrence, the, a supposed route to China, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">San Blas route, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Sanitation, Department of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Sea-power, importance of, in Isthmian affairs, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Societies, benevolent, in the Canal Zone, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Spaniards as navvies and as peasantry in tropics, <a href="#Page_108">108-110</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Spanish War, voyage of <i>Oregon</i> during, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Steam shovel, rate of loading by, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Steamships available for Canal transit, <a href="#Page_165">165-169</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" relative cost of operating American and European, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><i>Stegomyia</i> mosquito, mode of infection by, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Stephens, John F., chief engineer 1905-1907, <a href="#Page_113">113-114</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>T</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Tide, range of, at La Boca, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Tolls on the Panama Canal equal for all nations, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span><span class="c15">Tourists, attractions for, on the Isthmus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Track-shifter, the, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Transportation of spoil in Culebra Cut, <a href="#Page_91">91-93</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Treaty between U.S. and New Granada, 1846, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " Great Britain (Clayton-Bulwer) 1850, + 29</span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " Great Britain (Hay-Pauncefote) 1901, + 19, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " " Republic of Panama, 1903, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Tropics, future of white race in, <a href="#Page_140">140-150</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>U</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">United States, civil war in, interrupts Canal scheme, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Unloader, the, for dirt-cars, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>W</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Wages on the Isthmus, <i>see</i> Labour</span><br /> + <span class="c15">Wallace, John F., chief engineer, 1904-1905, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Water supply for high-level canal, <a href="#Page_74">74-77</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">West Indians, relations with American employers, <a href="#Page_102">102-104</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " immunity from yellow fever, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> + <span class="c31">" " <i>see also</i> Labour</span><br /> + + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span><span class="c15">White race, future of, in tropics, <a href="#Page_140">140-150</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Women, white, life of, on Isthmus, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>Y</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Y.M.C.A. and management of clubs, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> + <span class="c15"><b>Z</b></span><br /> + <span class="c15">Zone, the Canal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span></p> + + <p>UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> + <a name="map" id="map"></a> +<a href="images/map_white_large.jpg"><img src="images/map_white_tn.jpg" width="400" height="398" alt="" title="" /></a> + <span class="caption">MAP OF CANAL ZONE.</span> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Panama Canal and its Makers, by Vaughan Cornish + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PANAMA CANAL AND ITS MAKERS *** + +***** This file should be named 37671-h.htm or 37671-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/6/7/37671/ + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Adam Styles and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print 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