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diff --git a/37657-h/37657-h.htm b/37657-h/37657-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5195ab8 --- /dev/null +++ b/37657-h/37657-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,15925 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Comic History of Rome, by Gilbert Abbott À Becket.. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.tdr { + text-align: right; vertical-align: top; +} /* aligning cell content to the right */ + +.tdrd { + text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; +} /* aligning cell content to the right and down*/ + +.tdc { + text-align: center; vertical-align: top; +} /* aligning cell content to the center */ + +.tdl { + text-align: left; vertical-align: top; +} /* aligning cell content to the left */ + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: #ACACAC; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption { + font-weight: bold; +} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft { + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 0; + margin-top: 0; + margin-right: 0.5em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright { + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes { + font-weight: bold; + text-indent: 2.5em; + background:#F5F8EC; + padding-top: 1em; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; +} + +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em; text-indent: 0em; font-weight: normal;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +a:link, a:visited { text-decoration:none; } +a:link:hover, +a:visited:hover { text-decoration:underline; } + + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Comic History of Rome, by Gilbert Abbott À Becket + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Comic History of Rome + +Author: Gilbert Abbott À Becket + +Illustrator: John Leech + +Release Date: October 7, 2011 [EBook #37657] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMIC HISTORY OF ROME *** + + + + +Produced by Margo Romberg, crana and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span> +<br /><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_f0002b.png" width="500" height="364" alt="Romulus and Remus discovered by a gentle shepherd." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><i>Romulus and Remus discovered by a gentle shepherd.</i></span> +<br /><br /><br /></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;"> +<img src="images/i_f0003.png" width="315" height="500" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<!-- +<h3><br /><br /><br />THE</h3> + +<h1>COMIC HISTORY OF ROME,</h1> + +<h2>FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE CITY TO THE END OF +THE COMMONWEALTH.</h2> + +<h2>BY GILBERT ABBOTT À BECKET.</h2> + +<h3>ILLUSTRATED BY JOHN LEECH.</h3> + +<h5>BRADBURY AND EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET. +</h5> + --> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h6>LONDON:<br /> +BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. +</h6> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h3>PREFACE</h3> + +<p>Some explanation is perhaps due from a writer who adopts +the title of Comic in relation to a subject which is ordinarily +considered to be so essentially grave as that of History. +Though the epithet may be thought by many inappropriate +to the theme, this work has been prompted by a very serious +desire to instruct those who, though willing to acquire information, +seek in doing so as much amusement as possible.</p> + +<p>It is true that professedly Comic literature has been the +subject of a familiarity not unmixed with contempt on the part +of a portion of the public, since that class of writing obtained +the popularity which has especially attended it within the last +few years; but as whatever disrepute it has fallen into is +owing entirely to its abuse, there is no reason for abandoning +an attempt to make a right use of it. The title of Comic +has therefore been retained in reference to this work, though +the author has felt that its purport is likely to be misconceived +by many, and among them not a few whose judgment he would +highly esteem, who would turn away from a Comic History +solely on account of its name, and without giving themselves +the trouble to look into it. Those persons are, however, +grievously mistaken who have imagined that in this, and in +similar books from the same pen, the object has been to treat +History as a mere farce, or to laugh at Truth—the aim of +the writer having invariably been to expose falsehood, and to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +bring into merited contempt all that has been injudiciously, +ignorantly, or dishonestly held up to general admiration. His +method of telling a story may be objected to; nevertheless, if he +does his utmost to tell it truly, he ought not, perhaps, to be very +severely criticised for adopting the style in which he feels himself +most at home; and if his opinions are found to be, in the +main, such as just and sensible persons can agree with, he only +asks that his views and sentiments may be estimated by what +they contain, and not by any peculiarity in his mode of +expressing them.</p> + +<p>The writer of this book is animated by an earnest wish to +aid, as far as he is able, in the project of combining instruction +with amusement; and he trusts he shall not be blamed for +endeavouring to render such ability as he possesses available +for as much as it is worth, in applying it to subjects of useful +information.</p> + +<p>Those who are not disposed to approve of his design, will +perhaps give him credit for his motive; and he may with confidence +assert, that, from the care and attention he has bestowed +upon this work, it will be found to form (irrespective of its +claims to amuse) by no means the least compendious and +correct of the histories already in existence of Rome to +the end of the Commonwealth. If he has failed in justifying +the application of the title of Comic to his work, he has reason +to believe it will be found accurate. Though the style professes +to be light, he would submit that truth does not necessarily +make more impression by being conveyed through a heavy +medium; and although facts may be playfully told, it is hoped +that narrative in sport may be found to constitute history in +earnest.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">CHAP. </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">I.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE FOUNDATION OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ROMULUS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">II.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE ACCESSION OF NUMA POMPILIUS TO THE DEATH OF ANCUS<br /> + MARTIUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">III.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE ACCESSION OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS TO THE DEATH OF<br /> + SERVIUS TULLIUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">IV.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE ACCESSION OF TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS TO THE BANISHMENT<br /> + OF THE ROYAL FAMILY, AND THE ABOLITION OF THE KINGLY DIGNITY</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">V.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS TO THE BATTLE<br /> + OF LAKE REGILLUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE CLOSE OF THE<br /> + WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE CLOSE OF THE WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS TO THE<br /> + PASSING OF THE BILL OF TERENTILLUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE TAKING<br /> + OF VEII</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">IX.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE TAKING OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO ITS SUBSEQUENT<br /> + PRESERVATION BY MANLIUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">X.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE TRIBUNESHIP OF C. LICINIUS TO THE DEFEAT OF THE<br /> + GAULS BY VALERIUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XI.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE FIRST WAR AGAINST THE SAMNITES TO THE PASSING OF<br /> + THE LAWS OF PUBLILIUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND TO THE END OF THE THIRD<br /> + SAMNITE WAR</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">ON THE PEACEFUL OCCUPATIONS OF THE ROMANS. FROM THE<br /> + SCARCITY OF SUBJECT, NECESSARILY A VERY SHORT CHAPTER</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>XIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE END OF THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION<br /> + OF ALL ITALY BY THE ROMANS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XV.—</td> + <td class="tdl">THE FIRST PUNIC WAR</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XVI.—</td> + <td class="tdl">SOME MISCELLANEOUS WARS OF ROME</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XVII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">THE SECOND PUNIC WAR</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XVIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">CONCLUSION OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XIX.—</td> + <td class="tdl">WAR WITH THE MACEDONIANS. PROCLAMATION OF THE FREEDOM<br /> + OF GREECE BY FLAMINIUS. WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS. DEATH OF<br /> + HANNIBAL, AND OF SCIPIO AFRICANUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XX.—</td> + <td class="tdl">PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. MORALS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND STATE<br /> + OF THE DRAMA AND LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMANS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXI.—</td> + <td class="tdl">WARS AGAINST PERSEUS. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR. SIEGE AND<br /> + DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE, AND DITTO DITTO OF CORINTH</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">WARS IN SPAIN. VIRIATHUS. DESTRUCTION OF NUMANTIA. THE<br /> + SERVILE WAR IN SICILY. APPROPRIATION OF PERGAMUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. RISE AND FALL OF TIBERIUS<br /> + AND CAIUS GRACCHUS</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIV.—</td> + <td class="tdl">THE JUGURTHINE WAR. WAR AGAINST THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXV.—</td> + <td class="tdl">MITHRIDATES, SULLA, MARIUS, CINNA, ET CÆTERA</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVI.—</td> + <td class="tdl">DEATH OF CINNA. RETURN OF SULLA TO ROME. C. PAPIRIUS<br /> + CARBO. DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">REACTION AGAINST THE POLICY OF SULLA. SERVICES OF<br /> + Q. SERTORIUS. METELLUS. CN. POMPEY. SPIRITED STEPS OF<br /> + SPARTACUS. THE IRATE PIRATE</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXVIII.—</td> + <td class="tdl">THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. DEPOSITION AND DEATH OF<br /> + MITHRIDATES</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXIX.—</td> + <td class="tdl">CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. INTRODUCTION OF CICERO. CÆSAR,<br /> + POMPEY, CRASSUS, AND CO.</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdr">XXX.—</td> + <td class="tdl">OVERTHROW OF CRASSUS. DEFEAT OF POMPEY. DICTATORSHIP<br /> + AND DEATH OF CÆSAR. END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC</td> + <td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><br /><br /></p> +<h2>ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL.</h2> + + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> </td> +<td class="tdl"> </td> +<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 1.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Romulus and Remus discovered by a Gentle Shepherd</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_i">i</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 2.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Tarquinius Superbus makes himself King</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#leathering">32</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 3.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Appius Claudius Punished by the People</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#countenance">80</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 4.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Gallant Curtius Leaping into the Gulf</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#family">104</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 5.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Pyrrhus Arrives in Italy with his Troupe</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#absurdity">138</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 6.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Hannibal, whilst even yet a Child, swears Eternal Hatred to<br /> + the Romans</span></td> +<td class="tdrd"><a href="#implacable">168</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 7.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Flaminius Restoring Liberty to Greece at the Isthmian Games</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#soldiers">195</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 8.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Mother of the Gracchi</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#again">234</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl"> 9.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Marius discovered in the Marshes at Minturnæ</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#inhabitants">261</a> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl">10.</td> +<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cicero denouncing Catiline</span></td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#utterance">292</a> </td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + +<p><br /><br /></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><br /><br /></p> +<h2>ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.</h2> + + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial T.—Æneas and Anchises</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_1">1</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rhea Silvia</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#irresistible">4</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Romulus Consulting the Augury</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_6">6</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Remus jumping over the Walls</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_7">7</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Awful Appearance of the Shade of Remus to Romulus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_8">8</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#curiosity">10</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial R</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_14">14</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Numa Pompilius remembering the Grotto</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_15">15</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Death of Cluilius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Cluilia">17</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#them">19</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_23">23</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Celeres</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_24">24</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Debtor and Creditor. Seizure of Goods for a Debt</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#debtors">28</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial T</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_33">33</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tarquinius Superbus has the Sibylline Books valued</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Antiquities">35</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The Evil Conscience of Tarquin</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_37">37</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mrs. Sextus consoles herself with a Little Party</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#of_antiquity">39</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tail-piece</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_42">42</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial B</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_43">43</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Aruns and Brutus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_45">45</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Horatius Cocles Defending the Bridge</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_49">49</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mucius Scævola before Porsenna</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_51">51</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Clælia and her Companions escaping from the Etruscan Camp</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_52">52</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial T</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_56">56</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Coriolanus parting from his Wife and Family</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#live_upon">63</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial A</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_65">65</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">A Lictor is sent to arrest Publilius Volero</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_68">68</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cincinnatus chosen Dictator</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#husbandman">70</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roman Bull and Priest of the Period</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_73">73</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Virginia carried off by a Minion in the pay of Appius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#finger-post">78</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">In the foreground of the Tableau may be observed a Patrician looking<br />very black at the Triumph of the General</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_83">83</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">In all probability something of this sort</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_84">84</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">School-boys flogging the Schoolmaster</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_88">88</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial A.—A Gaul</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_89">89</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The Citadel saved by the cackling of the Geese</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_93">93</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial R.—Roman Soldier</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_97">97</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Miss Fabia, the Younger, astonished at the Patrician's Double-knock</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_98">98</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Titus threatening Pomponius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_103">103</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Terrific Combat between Titus Manlius and a Gaul of gigantic Stature</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#true_glory">105</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial T</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_107">107</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">A Scare-crow</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#dissolution">109</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Metius aggravating Titus Manlius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Jupiter">111</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The Romans clothed by the Inhabitants of Capua</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#kettle">119</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Samnite Soldier</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#swallow">126</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial I.—Æsculapius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_129">129</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The Ambassadors purchasing Æsculapius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#back_again">133</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tail-piece</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_134">134</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial R</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_135">135</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Appearance in the Senate of a young Nobleman, named Meto</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#head_on_it">139</a> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Self-possession of Fabricius, the Ambassador, under rather Trying Circumstances</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#enemy">142</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Discovery of the Head of Summanus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#labours">145</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Curius Dentatus refusing the Magnificent Gift offered by the Samnite Ambassadors</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_146">146</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial A</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_150">150</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roman Man-of-War, from a scarce Medal</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#tactics">153</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial P</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_161">161</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hanno announcing to the Mercenaries the Emptiness of the Public Coffers</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#impossible">162</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Early Roman Gladiator and his Patron</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_165">165</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">His Excellency Q. Fabius offering Peace or War to the Carthaginian Senate</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_169">169</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hannibal crossing the Alps</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_173">173</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hannibal disguising himself</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_176">176</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The "Slow Coach"</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_179">179</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Young Varro</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#anything">180</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Archimedes taking a Warm Bath</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_186">186</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Considerate Conduct of Scipio Africanus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#laughed_in_it">188</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial W</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_193">193</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hannibal leads the Ambassadors rather a fatiguing Walk round Carthage</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_197">197</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hannibal requesting the Cretan Priests to become his Bankers</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_200">200</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hannibal makes the usual neat and appropriate Speech previous to killing himself</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#egress">201</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial I</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_204">204</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Roman Lady "Shopping"</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_205">205</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Terence reading his Play to Cæcilius</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_210">210</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Light Comedy Man of the Period</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#manners">212</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bacchanalian Group, from a very old Vase</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#been_given">223</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Assassination of Viriathus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_226">226</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Arrest of Eunus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#strangled">231</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tib. Gracchus canvassing</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_238">238</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Melancholy end of Tib. Gracchus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#triumvirate">239</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Scipio Æmilianus cramming himself for a Speech after a hearty Supper</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#society">240</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Rash Act of Caius Gracchus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#exhibited">244</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tail-piece</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#aspect">246</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Drusus is Stabbed, and Expires gracefully</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#expired">254</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial F</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_257">257</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">"Who dares kill Marius?"</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_261">261</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Marius in the Ruins of Carthage</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#city">263</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Marius in his Old Age</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_266">266</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Funeral Pile of Sulla</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_274">274</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial T—Cæsar and Pompey very much alike, especially Pompey</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_275">275</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sertorius and his young Friends</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_278">278</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Armed Slave</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#these_things">280</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Spartacus</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_281">281</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mithridates, his rash act</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_286">286</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Mithridates</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_287">287</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial A—Libertas, Æqualitas, Fraternitas</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_289">289</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Fulvia</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#necessities">291</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Cicero throws up his Brief, like a Gentleman</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_296">296</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Initial C</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_299">299</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">"Quid times? Cæsarem vehis."</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#butcher">301</a> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">The End of Julius Cæsar</td><td class="tdrd"><a href="#Page_308">308</a> </td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><br /><br /></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE</h2> + +<h2>COMIC HISTORY OF ROME.<br /></h2> + +<hr style="width: 35%;" /> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE FIRST.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE FOUNDATION OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ROMULUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0001.png" width="98" height="150" alt="Æneas and Anchises" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Æneas and Anchises</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">he</span> origin of the Romans has long +been lost in that impenetrable +fog, the mist of ages; which, it +is to be feared, will never clear +off, for it unfortunately seems to +grow thicker the more boldly we +try to grope about in it. In the +midst of these fogs, some energetic +individual will now and then +appear with a pretty powerful link, +but there are not enough of these +links to form a connected chain +of incidents.</p> + +<p>One of the oldest and most +popular traditions concerning the +origin of the Romans, is that +founded on the remarkable feat of +filial pick-a-back alleged to have +been performed by Æneas, who +is frequently dragged in head +and shoulders, with his venerable +parent, to lead off the march of +events, and, as it were, open the +ball of history.</p> + +<p>It is said that after<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> the siege of Troy, Æneas snatched up his Lares +and Penates in one hand, and his father, Anchises, in the other;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +when, flinging the former over the right shoulder, and the latter +over the left, he ran down to the sea-shore, called "A boat a-hoy," +and escaped from the jaws of destruction into the mouth of the Tiber. +There are many reasons for disbelieving this story, and it is quite +enough to deprive it of weight to consider what must have been the +weight of Anchises himself, and the large bundle of household images +that Æneas is alleged to have been burdened with. Putting probability +in one scale, and an elderly gentleman, with a lot of Lares and a +parcel of Penates in the other, there can be no doubt which will preponderate. +It happens, also, that Troy is usually said to have been +destroyed 430 years before Rome was founded,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> so that it would have +been to this day as unfounded as the tale itself, if the city had had +no other foundation than that which Æneas was supposed to have +given it.</p> + +<p>The Latin Bards have adorned this story in their own peculiar way, +by adding that Æneas, on his arrival in the Tiber, resolved to sacrifice +a milk white sow, in gratitude for his safety. The sow, who must have +been an ancestor of the learned pig, got scent of her fate, and running +two or three miles up the country, produced a sad litter of thirty little +ones; when Æneas, fancying he heard a voice telling him to build a +town on the spot, determined, "please the pigs," to found a city there. +The classical story-teller goes on to say, that Latinus, king of the +Latins, happened to be at war with Turnus—or as we might call him +Turner—King of the Rutuli, when the Trojans arrived, and the +former, thinking it better worth his while to make friends than foes of +the immigrants, gave them a tract of land, which rendered them extremely +tractable. On the principle that one good turn deserves +another, they turned round upon Turnus, and completely routed the +Rutuli. Latinus, to show his gratitude, gave Lavinia—not the "lovely +young" one, who Thomson tells us, "once had friends;" but his own +daughter of that name—in marriage to Æneas, who at the death of his +father-in-law, ruled over the city, and called his colony Lavinium. +Tradition tells us further that Æneas had a son, Ascanius, sometimes +called Parvus Iulus, or little Juli, who subsequently left Lavinium, and +built Alba Longa—a sort of classical long acre—in that desirable neighbourhood +known as the Alban Mount, which, from its becoming subsequently +the most fashionable part of the city, may deserve the name of +the Roman Albany.</p> + +<p>The descendants of Ascanius are said to have reigned 300 years, and +an attempt has been made to fill up the gap of these three centuries +with a quantity of dry rubbish of the antiquarian kind, which occupies +space, without affording anything like a solid foundation for the structure +to be built upon it. Of such a nature is the catalogue of matters alleged +to have connected Æneas with the actual founders of Rome; but though +names and dates are given, there is little doubt that the value of names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +is not even nominal, and that if we trust the dates, we shall rely on the +falsest data.</p> + +<p>The spirit of antiquarianism is as ancient as the subjects on which it +employs its ingenuity, and the Romans began puzzling themselves at +a very early period about their own origin. A long course of fabrication +ended in rearing up a legendary fabric, which was acknowledged by all +the Roman bards; and however much they may have doubted the +truth of the tale, they deserve some credit for the consistency with +which they have adhered to it.</p> + +<p>The legend states that one Procas, belonging to the family of the +Silvii, or Silvers, had two sons,—the elder, to whom the kingdom was +left, being called Numitor, and the younger going by the name of +Amulius. Though Numitor was the bigger brother, he does not seem +to have been, pugilistically speaking, the better man, for he was +deprived of the kingdom by Amulius, who, to prevent the chances of +the law of primogeniture again taking effect, by placing any of +Numitor's descendants on the throne, caused Rhea Silvia, the only +daughter of that individual to become a virgin in the Temple of Vesta. +The Vestals were, in fact, the old original nuns, withdrawing themselves +from the world, and entering into a solemn vow against marriage during +thirty years; after which period they were free to wed, though they +were scarcely ever invited to avail themselves of their rather tardy +privilege. The senior sister went by the highly respectable name of +Virgo Maxima—or old maid in chief—and was doubtless something +more than ordinary in her appearance, as well as in her position. The +Vestals were required to be plain in their dress, and in order to extend +this plainness as far as possible to their looks, their hair was cut very +short, however much they may have been distressed at parting with +their tresses. Their chief duty consisted in keeping up the fire on the +altar of Vesta, and they were prohibited on pain of death from giving +to any other flame the smallest encouragement. In the event of such +an offence having been committed by an unfortunate Vestal, who found +her position little better than being buried alive, she was made to +undergo literally that awful penalty.</p> + +<p>Though the duties of the Vestals were rigidly enforced, and the +letting out of the sacred fire was, in some cases, punished by the +extinction of the delinquent's vital spark, they enjoyed some peculiar +advantages. Though their acts were under strict control, they were, +in one sense, allowed a will of their own; for they were permitted, even +when under age, to make their own testaments. They occupied reserved +seats at public entertainments; and if they happened to meet a +criminal in custody, they had the privilege of releasing him from the +hands of the police of the period. Notwithstanding these inducements, +the office of Vestal was not in much request; and, in the event of a +vacancy, it was awarded by lot to some young lady, whose dissatisfaction +with her lot was usually very visible. Such is a brief outline of the +duties and liabilities of the order into which Amulius forced his niece,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +and it has been the subject of complaint in more recent times that +Rome still occasionally does as Rome used to do. We will now return +to Rhea Silvia, who appears to have entered the service of the goddess +as a maid-of-all-work; for she was in the habit of going to draw water +from a well; and it was on one of these aquatic excursions she met +with a military man, passing himself off as Mars who paid his addresses +to her, and proved <a name="irresistible" id="irresistible"></a>irresistible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0004.png" width="415" height="500" alt="Rhea Silvia." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Rhea Silvia.</span> +</div> + +<p><br />Rhea Silvia gave birth to twins; upon which her cruel uncle ordered +her to be put to death, and desired that her infant offspring should be +treated as a couple of unwelcome puppies, and got rid of by drowning in +the ordinary manner.</p> + +<p>The children were placed in a cradle, or, as some say, a bowl, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +turned adrift on the river; so that Amulius, if he had any misgiving +as to the security of his crown, preferred to drown it in the bowl with +his unhappy little relatives.</p> + +<p>It happened that there had been such a run on the banks of the +Tiber, that its coffers or coffer-dams had poured out their contents all +over the adjacent plains, and caused a very extensive distribution of its +currency. Among other valuable deposits, it chanced to lodge for +security, in a branch connected with the bank, the children of Rhea +Silvia, who, by the way, must have been very fortunate under the +circumstances, in being able to keep a balance. The infants were not +in a very enviable condition; for there was nobody to board and lodge +them, though the Tiber was still at hand to wash and do for them. +The high tide proved a tide of good fortune to the children, who were +floated so far inland, that when the river receded, they were left high +and dry at the foot of a fig<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> tree, with no one, apparently, to care a fig +what became of them. Under these circumstances a she-wolf, who had +gone down to the Tiber to drink, heard the whimpering of the babies +among the trees, and, her attention being drawn off from the water in the +river to the whine in the wood, she came forward in the most handsome +manner in the capacity of a wet-nurse to give them suck and succour. +How this wolf became possessed of so much of the milk of human +kindness, does not appear, and it is not perhaps worth while to inquire.</p> + +<p>The children, it is said, were awakened by receiving a gentle licking +from the tongue of the animal standing <i>in loco parentis</i> over them. +Finding the situation damp, the wolf removed the infants to her den, +where they were visited by a philanthropic woodpecker; who, when they +were hungry, would bring them some tempting grub, or worm, by +which the woodpecker soon wormed itself into the children's confidence. +Other members of the feathered tribe made themselves useful in this +novel nursery, by keeping off the insects; and many a gnat found itself—or +rather lost itself—unexpectedly in the throat of some remorseless +swallow. However well-meaning the animal may have been, the children +could not have profited greatly, if there had been no one ready to take +them from the month; and happily Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who +had watched them as they were being carried to the wolf's cave or loup-hole, +provided them with another loophole to get out of it. Taking +advantage of the wolf's temporary absence from home, the "gentle +shepherd," resolving to rescue the children, by hook or by crook, removed +the babes to his own hut, and handed them over to his wife Laurentia, +as a sort of supplement to their previously rather extensive family.</p> + +<p>Some historians, refusing to believe the story of the Wolf and the +Woodpecker, have endeavoured to reconcile probability with tradition, +by suggesting that the wife of Faustulus had got the name of the Wolf +from the contrast she presented to her lamb-like husband, and that the +supposed woodpecker was simply a hen-pecker, in the person of Laurentia.</p> + +<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 498px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0006.png" width="498" height="500" alt="Romulus consulting the Augury." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Romulus consulting the Augury.</span> +<br /></div> + + + + +<p>Romulus and Remus were the names of the two infants, who, as they +grew up, began to take after their foster-mother the wolf, turning out +exceedingly wild lads, with a lupine propensity for worrying the flocks, +and going on altogether in a very brutal manner. Remus was taken up +on a charge of sheep stealing, or something very like it, and brought +before Numitor, his own grandfather, when a recognition took place in +a manner not much in accordance with the ordinary rules of evidence. +Romulus had also been apprised of his relationship by Faustulus, who +must have made a pretty bold guess at a fact he could not have known; +and the two lads, being adopted by Numitor, were sent for their education +to Gabii, where everything was taught that men of rank in those days +were expected to learn, and whence the word Gaby is clearly derivable. +Anxious to do something for the old gentleman, their grandfather, +Romulus and Remus got up a demonstration in his favour, and they +succeeded in restoring him to the throne of Alba Longa, a long row of +white houses, which was less of a territory than a Terrace, and it is a +strange coincidence that Terracina, or little Terrace, formed one end of +it. Amulius was killed, and leaving Numitor sole master of White's +Row, Romulus and Remus resolved on a building speculation a great +deal higher up—that is to say on the spot where they had passed the +days of their infancy. Before the new city was commenced, a dispute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +arose, first, about what it should be called, and secondly, as to who +should govern it. Romulus and Remus, being twins, could not bring +the law of primogeniture to bear upon their little differences, and it was +therefore agreed to refer the matter to augury, which should decide who +was to be inaugurated as the ruler of the new colony. Romulus mounted +the Palatine Mount, and Remus took his station on the Aventine, when +both began to keep a very sharp look out for something ominous. +Remus was the first to remark something odd in the shape of six +vultures flying from north to south, but Romulus no sooner heard the +news than he declared he had seen twelve, and the question arose +whether, figuratively speaking, the one bird in hand seen by Remus +should outweigh the two in the bush that subsequently appeared to +Romulus. The augur, when appealed to, gave, as usual, a very ambiguous +answer. It amounted, in effect, to the observation that there were +six of one and a dozen of the other; so that the soothsayer, instead +of having said anything to soothe, was far more likely to irritate. +Both parties claimed the victory; Remus contending for the precedence +usually granted to the early bird, and Romulus maintaining that he had +been specially favoured, by having been permitted to see so many birds +of a feather flock together. +<img src="images/i_p0007a.png" width="40%" style="float: right;" alt="Remus jumping over the Walls" title=""/> +Romulus accordingly commenced drawing +his plans in the Etruscan fashion, by causing a boundary line to be +marked out with a plough, to which were yoked a heifer and a bull, a +ceremony from which, perhaps, the English term bulwarks, and the +French word boulevards or bulvards, may or may not be derivable. The +line thus traced was called the Pomœrium, and where an entrance was +to be made, it was customary to carry the plough across the space—a +little engineering difficulty that gave the name of Porta to a +gate, from the verb <i>portare</i>, to +carry. +Remus looked on at the +proceedings in a half-quizzing, +half-quarrelsome spirit, until the +wall rose a little above the +ground, when he amused himself +by leaping derisively over +it. "Thus," said he, "will the +enemy leap over those barriers." +"And thus," rejoined the superintendent +or clerk of the works—one +Celer, who acted in this instance +with thoughtless celerity—"thus +shall die whoever may +leap over my barriers."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> With these words he gave Remus a mortal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +blow, and the legend goes on to state, that Romulus was immediately +seized with remorse, and subsequent visits from his brother's ghost +rendered Romulus himself little better than the ghost of what he used +to be. Remus showed as much spirit after his decease as during his +lifetime; and took the form of the deadly nightshade, springing up at +the bed-side, to poison the existence of his brother.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0008.png" width="436" height="450" alt="Awful appearance of the Shade of Remus to Romulus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Awful appearance of the Shade of Remus to Romulus.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p><br />Tradition tells us that Romulus came at length to terms with +the ghost, who agreed to discontinue his visits, in consideration of +the establishment of the festival of the Lemuria—called, originally, +Remuria—in honour of his memory. The rites were celebrated bare-footed—an +appropriate penalty for one who had stepped into a brother's +shoes; the hands were thrice washed—a process much needed, as +a sort of expiation for dirty work;—and black beans were thrown +four times behind the back, with the superstitious belief that the +growing up of the beans would prevent the stalking abroad of evil +spirits. The unfortunate twin was buried on Mount Aventine, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +Romulus ordered a double set of sceptres, crowns, and royal +badges, in order that he might set up one set by the side of +his own, in honour of his late relative. These duplicates of mere +senseless symbols served only to commemorate the double part which +Romulus had acted; for a vacant throne and a headless crown were but +empty tributes to a murdered brother's memory.</p> + +<p>The city having been built, was found considerably too large for the +people there were to live in it; and as a place cannot, like a garment, +be made to fit by taking it in, there was no alternative but to fill the +city with any stuff that might serve for stuffing. Romulus, therefore, +threw open his gates to any one who chose to walk in, which caused an +influx of those who, from having no character at all, usually go under +the denomination of all sorts of characters. Society became terribly +mixed, and, in fact, the place was a kind of Van Demon's Land, +crammed with criminals, replete with runaway slaves, and forming—in +a word—a regular refuge for the morally destitute. It says something +for the females of the period, that women were very scarce at Rome, +and it is surprising that some learned philologist has never yet made +the remark, that the fact of the word Ro-man being familiar to us +all, while there is no such term as Ro-woman, may be taken as a +collateral proof of the scarcity of the gentler sex in the city founded +by Romulus.</p> + +<p>The ladies of the neighbourhood were indisposed to listen to the +addresses of the male population of Rome, which was quite bad enough +to suggest the possibility of the Latin word <i>male-factor</i> having supplied +the distinctive epithet "male" to the ruder sex in general. In vain +were proposals of marriage made to the maidens of the adjoining states, +who one and all declared they would not change their state by becoming +the wives of Romans. Irritated by these refusals, Romulus determined +to prove himself more than a match for these women, every one of +whom thought herself too good a match for any of his people. +He announced his intention to give a party or pic-nic for the +celebration of the Consualia, which were games in honour of Consus, +the god of Counsel,—a sort of lawyer's frolic, in which a mole was +sacrificed, probably because working in the dark was always the +characteristic of the legal fraternity. Invitations to these games were +issued in due form to the Latins and Sabines, with their wives and +daughters, many of whom flocked to the spot, under the influence of +female <a name="curiosity" id="curiosity"></a>curiosity.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0010.png" width="600" height="388" alt="The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Romans walking off with the Sabine Women.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>The weather being propitious, all the Sabine beauty and fashion were +attracted to the place, and the games, consisting of horse-racing, gave to +the scene all the animation of a cup day at Ascot. Suddenly, at a preconcerted +signal, there was a general elopement of the Roman youth with +the Sabine ladies, who were, in the most ungallant manner, abandoned +to their fate by the Sabine gentlemen. It is true that the latter were +taken by surprise, but they certainly made the very best of their way +home before they thought of avenging the wrong and insult that had +been committed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +Had they been all married ladies who were carried +off, the cynic might have suggested that the Sabine husbands would not +have objected to a cheap mode of divorce, but—to make use of an +Irishism—there was only one single woman who happened to be a wife +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +in the whole of the "goodly company." The small Latin states, +Antennæ, Crustumerium, and Cœnina, were very angry at the supineness +of the Sabines, whose King—one Tatius—seemed disposed to +take the thing rather too tacitly. The three states above mentioned +commenced an action on their own account, and Acron, the King of +Cœnina, fell in battle by the hand of Romulus, who, stripping off the +apparel of the foe, caused it to be carried to Rome and hung upon an +oak, where the arms and armour of Acron, glittering among the acorns, +were dedicated, as <i>Spolia opima</i>, to Jupiter Feretrius.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<p>Though Tatius had been the last, he was not destined to be the least +of those taking part in the Sabine war; and he determined to rely less +on strategy than stratagem. The water in those days was not so well +laid on as in later times; when the lofty aqueducts, still running in +ruins about the neighbourhood of Rome, were carried to an elevation +fitted for the very highest service that could be desired. Rome, instead +of being well supplied, was supplied by wells; and ladies of rank were +accustomed to draw the water required for domestic purposes. It +chanced, one afternoon, that Tarpeia, the daughter of Tarpeius, the +commander of the Roman city, on the Capitoline Hill, was proceeding +on an errand of the sort, when she met with Tatius, who, addressing her +in the language of a friend, requested "a drink" of her pitcher. +Tarpeia, dazzled by the splendour of his gold bracelets and glittering +armour, could not resist the request of such a highly polished gentleman. +Tatius had purposely electrotyped himself for the interview, and, +seeing the effect he had produced, he intimated that he had several +friends, who were covered with metal quite as attractive as that he +wore, and that, if Tarpeia would only open the gate of the citadel to +himself and party, she should have more gold than she could carry. +The bargain was faithfully kept on both sides; for Tarpeia opened the +gate to Tatius and the Sabines, who, on their part performed their +contract to the letter, for, as they entered, they threw at her not only +their bracelets but their breast-plates, completely crushing her with the +weight of the gold she had coveted; and making her think, no doubt, +that "never was poor woman so unmercifully put upon." So thorough +an illustration of an <i>embarras des richesses</i> is not often met with +in history.</p> + +<p>Being now possessed of the Capitoline, the Sabines were in an +improved position; and the Romans, having tried in vain to recover +the citadel, saw that they must either give in or give battle. Determining +on the latter course, Romulus selected the valley between the +Palatine and the Capitoline, where a general engagement began; but +the Romans seemed to have special engagements elsewhere, for they +were all running away, when their leader, with great tact, vowed a +Temple to Jupiter Stator—the flight-stayer. This gave to the action +a decided re-action; for the Romans, being rallied upon their cowardice, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +by their chief, began, in their turn, to rally. The contest grew +fierce on both sides, when suddenly the Sabine ladies, who were the +primary cause of the quarrel, threw themselves into the midst; +and, though female interference has rarely the effect of making peace, +the women were, on this occasion, the cause of a cessation of +hostility. It was agreed that the two nations should be henceforth +united under the name of Romans and Quirites, each having a distinct +king, a distinction which, had it continued, must in time have led to a +difference. In a few years, however, Tatius was slain at a sacrifice +which he had attended without the remotest idea of being made a +victim himself; and Romulus, finding nothing said about a successor, +thought it politic to hush the matter up without even avenging his late +colleague. Romulus is said to have reigned for seven-and-thirty years; +but when we enquire into the exact time and manner of his death we +learn nothing, beyond the fact that nobody knows what became of him. +According to the statement of one set of authorities, he was attending +a review in the Palus Capræ--a marsh near the Tiber--when a total +eclipse of the sun took place, and on the return of light, Romulus was +nowhere visible. If this was really the case, it is probable that he got +into a perilous swamp, where he felt a rapid sinking; and all his +attendants being in the dark as to his situation were unable to extricate +him from the marsh in which, according to some authorities, he went +down to posterity. + +It must, however, be confessed, that when we look for the cause of +the death of Romulus in this fatal swamp, we have but very poor +ground to go upon. It is, nevertheless, some consolation to us for the +mystery that overhangs the place and manner of his decease, that his +existence is, after all, quite apocryphal; and we are not expected to go +into an elaborate inquiry when, where, and how he died, until the fact +of his having ever lived at all has been satisfactorily settled. + +Before we have quite done with Romulus, it will be proper to state +how he is said to have divided the people under his sovereignty. He +is alleged to have separated them into three tribes--the Latin word +<i>tribus</i> will here suggest itself to the acute student--namely the Ramnes, +called after the Romans; the Tities, after Titus Tatius; and the Luceres, +who derived their appellation either from one Lucumo, an Etruscan +ally of Romulus, or Lucerus a king of Ardea; or <i>lucus</i> a grove, because +there was no grove, and hence we get <i>lucerus a non luco</i>, on the same +principle as <i>lucus a non lucendo</i>: or lastly, according to Niebuhr's +opinion, from a place called Lucer or Lucerum, which the Luceres +might have inhabited. + +Each tribe was divided into ten <i>curiæ</i>,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> every one of which had a +chapel for the performance of sacred rites, and was presided over by a +<i>curio</i>; and the reader must have little curiosity, indeed, if he does not +ask whether our modern word curate may not be referred to this remote +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +origin. The <i>curiæ</i> were subdivided into gentes, or clans, and each gens +consisted of several families, called gentiles; so that a man of family +and a member of the gentes, became somewhat synonymous. In time, +however, the gentiles got very much mixed by unsuitable marriages; +and hence there arose among those who could claim to belong to a gens, +a distinction similar to that between the <i>gentes</i>, or <i>gents</i>, of our own day, +and the <i>gentiles</i>, or <i>gentlemen</i>. Romulus is said to have selected his +body-guard from the three tribes, taking one hundred from each, and as +Celer, the Etruscan, was their captain, the guards got the name of +Celeres—the fast men of the period.</p> + +<p>In addition to the tribes, there existed in those early times a separate +body, consisting of slaves, and a somewhat higher class, called by the +name of clients.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The latter belonged to the common people, each of +whom was permitted to choose from among the patricians a <i>patronus</i>, +or patron, who could claim the life and fortune of his client in exchange +for the cheaper commodities of protection and patronage. The patron +gave his countenance and advice when asked, the client giving his +labour and his money when wanted—an arrangement which proves that +clients, from the remotest times to the present hour, were liable to +pecuniary mulcts, even to the extent of the entire sacrifice of the whole +of their subsistence, for the benefit of those who had the privilege +of advising them.</p> + +<p>The Senate—a term derived from the Latin word <i>Senes</i>, old men—formed +the chief council of the state, and its first institution is usually +referred to the reign of Romulus. Three members were nominated by +each tribe, and three by each of the thirty <i>curiæ</i>, making ninety-nine +in all, to which Romulus himself is said to have added one, for the purpose +of making up round numbers, and at the same time nominating a +sort of president over the assembly, who also had to take care of the city, +in the absence of the sovereign. There is a difference of opinion as to +whether one hundred new members were added to the Senate at the time +of the union with the Sabines, for Dionysius says there were; but Livy +says there were not; and we are disposed to attach credit to the former, +for he was an extremely particular man, while Livy was frequently +oblivious of caution in giving credence and currency to mere tradition.</p> + +<p>Before closing this portion of the narrative of the History of Rome, it +is necessary to warn the reader against believing too much of it. The +current legends are, indeed, <i>Legenda</i>, or things to be read, because every +body is in the habit of repeating them; but the student must guard +himself against placing credence in the old remark, that "what everybody +says must be true," for here is a direct instance of what everybody +says being decidedly otherwise. The life and reign of Romulus, are to +be taken not simply <i>cum grano salis</i>—with a grain of salt—but with +an entire cellar of that condiment, which is so useful in correcting the +evil consequences of swallowing too much of anything.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The Lares of the Romans are supposed to have been the Manes or shades of their +ancestors, and consisted of little waxen figures—such as we should put under shades made +of glass—which adorned the halls of houses. The Lares were sewn up in stout dog's-skin, +durability being consulted more than elegance. The Penates were a superior order of +deities, who were kept in the innermost parts of the establishment, and took their name +from <i>penitus</i>, within, which caused the portion of the house they occupied to be afterwards +called the <i>penetralia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Troy destroyed, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 1184. Rome founded, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 753.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> From this circumstance the fig was considered figurative of the foundation of the +city, and held sacred in Rome for many centuries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The Pomœrium was not the actual wall, but a boundary line, held very sacred by +the Romans. It consisted of nothing but the clod turned inwards by the furrow, and, it +is probable, that the offensive act of Remus was not his leaping over the wall, but his +hopping over the clod, which would, naturally, excite indignation against him as an +unmannerly clod-hopper.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The word Feretrius will strike the merest tyro as being derived from <i>fero</i>, to strike, +and meaning to designate Jupiter in his character of Striker, or Smiter.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The best derivation of the word <i>curia</i> is <i>quiris</i>, which, on inquiry, is found to +correspond with <i>curis</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The word "client" is probably derived from <i>cluere</i>, to hear or obey—at all events +cluere is the best clue we can give to the origin of the word in question.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE SECOND.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE ACCESSION OF NUMA POMPILIUS TO THE DEATH OF ANCUS<br /> +MARTIUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 59px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0014.png" width="59" height="150" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left:-1em;" class="smcap">omulus</span> having been swamped in the marsh of +Capra, or having disappeared down one of +those drains, which have carried away into the +great sea of conjecture so many of the facts of +former ages, the senate put off from week to +week, and from this day se'nnight to that day +se'nnight the choice of a successor. The +honourable members agreed to try their hands +at Government by turns, and they took the +sceptre for five days each by a constant rotation, +which any wheel, and more particularly +a commonwheal, was sure to suffer from. The +people growing tired of this unprofitable game +of fives, which threw everything into a state +of sixes and sevens, clamoured so loudly to be +reduced under one head, that permission was +given them to elect a sovereign. Their choice +fell upon Numa Pompilius, because he was +born on the day of the foundation of the city; +so that he may be said to have succeeded by +birth to the berth of chief magistrate. Numa +Pompilius was a Sabine, who we are told had +been instructed by Pythagoras, and we should +be happy to believe what we are told, if we did +not happen to know that the sage belonged to +quite a different time, having lived two hundred +years later than the alleged existence of the pupil.</p> + +<p>Before entering on his duties, the newly chosen king consulted the +augurs, with one of whom he walked up to the Temple on the Saturnian +Hill, where Numa, seated on a stone, looked to the south as far as he +could see, in order to ascertain whether there was any impediment to +his views and prospects. In the earliest periods of the history of Rome +no office was undertaken without a consultation of the augurs, or +auspices; and the continued use of these words affords proof of the +ancient custom to which they relate; though inauguration now takes +place under auspices of a very different character. The recognised +signs of those times were only two, consisting of the lightning, by +means of which the truth was supposed to flash across the augur's +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +mind; and, secondly, the birds, who, by being consulted for something +singular in their singing, or eccentric in their flying, might, had they +known it, have fairly plumed themselves on the honours done to them. +A crow on the left betokened that things were looking black, but the +same bird on the right imparted to everything a brighter colour; and as +these birds are in the habit of wandering right and left, the augurs could +always declare there was something to be said on both sides.</p> + +<p>Numa Pompilius was, according to all accounts, a just ruler, and he +began his career in a ruler-like manner by drawing several straight +lines about Rome, to mark its boundaries. He placed these under a +deity, termed Terminus, and he erected twelve stones within a stone's +throw of each other, at regular intervals along the frontier. These +were visited once a year by twelve officers, called Fratres Arvales, +appointed for the purpose, and the custom originated, no doubt, the +parochial practice of perambulating parishes with wands and staves, +placed in the hands of beadles, who not unfrequently add the luxury +of beating the boys to the ceremony of beating the boundaries.<br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0015.png" width="500" height="297" alt="" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">Numa Pompilius remembering the Grotto.</span><br /><br /></div> + +<p>Numa, though he had come to the throne, was fond of the retired +walks of life, and frequently took a solitary stroll in the suburbs. +During one of his rambles chance brought him to a grotto, and he was +induced to remember the grotto by the surpassing loveliness of its fair +inhabitant. Her name was Egeria, her profession that of a fortune-teller, +which gave her such an influence over the superstitious mind of +Numa, that she ruled him with her divining rod as completely as if it +had been a rod of iron. He professed to act under the advice of this +nymph, to whom tradition—an inveterate match-maker—has married +him, and he instituted the Flamines, an order of priests, to give weight +to the falsehoods or "flams" he thought fit to promulgate. The +privileges of the Flamines were not altogether of the most comfortable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +kind, and consisted chiefly in the right of wearing the Apex—a cap made +of olive wood—and the Laena, a sort of Roman wrap-rascal, shaggy on +both sides, and worn above the toga, as an overcoat. The Flamen was +prohibited from appearing in public without his Apex, which could not +be kept on the head without strings; but such was the stringency of +the regulations, that one Sulpicius<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> was deprived of his priesthood, in +consequence of his official hat, which was as light as a modern zephyr, +having been blown off his head in the midst of a sacrifice.</p> + +<p>Numa added, also, a sort of <i>ballet</i> company to the mythological +arrangements of his day, by establishing twelve <i>Salii</i>, or dancing priests, +whose duty it was to execute a grand <i>pas de douze</i> on certain occasions +through the principal public thorough fares. The Salii, though a highly +respectable, were not a very venerable order, for no one could remain in +it whose father and mother were not both alive, the existence of the +parents of the dancing priests being, no doubt, required as a guarantee +that their dancing days were not yet over.</p> + +<p>Several temples are dated from this reign, including that of Janus, +the double-faced deity, who presided over peace and war—a most +appropriate office to one capable of looking two ways at once, for there +are always two sides to every quarrel. This temple must have been +perfectly useless during the life of its founder, for it was never to +be opened in the time of peace, and Numa preserved for Rome +forty-three years of undisturbed tranquillity. He was emphatically +the friend of order, and its usual consequences, prosperity to trade, +with soundness of credit, and he encouraged commerce by giving a +patron-saint or Lar to every industrial occupation. He marked also the +value of good faith by building a temple to Bona Fides, and it may be +presumed that the creditor, who, putting up with the loss of his little +bill, sacrificed a bad debt in this Temple, was still in hope that he should +eventually find his account in it.</p> + +<p>If it cannot be said that Numa never lost a day, it must be admitted +that he made the most of his time; for he added two whole months to +the year of Romulus. January and February were the names given +to the time thus gained; but as the year did not then correspond with +the course of the sun, it was usual to introduce, every other year, a +supplementary month, so that if one year was too short, the next, by +being too long, made it as broad as it was long in the aggregate.</p> + +<p>Numa Pompilius lived to be eighty-two; when he had the beatitude of +dying as peacefully as he had lived; and so gently had Nature dealt +with him, that she had suffered him to run up more than four scores, +before her debt was satisfied. Certain stories are told of the funeral +ceremonies that followed Numa's death; and it is said that the Senators +acted as porters to his bier, in token of their appreciation of the imperial +measures which Numa had himself carried. It has been stated, also, +that he caused to be placed, within his tomb, a copy, on papyrus, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +palm leaves,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> of his own works, in twenty-four books; and it is certainly +a happy idea to bury an author with his writings, when, if they have +been provocative of sleep in others, he may eventually reap the benefit +of their somniferous properties.</p> + +<p>On the death of Numa, the country having been taught, by past +experience, the danger of allowing the crown to go from head to head, +without the slightest regard to a fit, determined that the interregnum +should be short, and the election of a new king was at once proceeded +with. The choice fell upon Tullus Hostilius, who was of a decidedly +warlike turn, and was ever on the look-out for a pretext to commence +hostilities. The Albans, our old friends of Alba Longa, or White's +Row, were the nearest, and consequently the most conveniently situated, +for the indulgence of his pugnacious propensities; and tradition relates +that on one occasion some Alban peasants, having been attacked and +stripped by the Romans, the former, who had lost even their clothes, +sought redress at the hands of their rulers. In the course of an +attempt to settle the dispute between Alba and Rome, each place sent +ambassadors, who crossed each other on the road, as if the two states +were determined to be in every way at cross purposes. The Alban +envoys were beguiled of all ideas of business by invitations to banquets +and feasts, so that whenever they attempted to ask for explanations, +their mouths were stopped with a dinner or a supper, given in honour +of their visit. The Roman messengers were prohibited, on the contrary, +from accepting invitations, or giving up to parties what was +meant for Romankind; and had received peremptory instructions to +demand an immediate settlement of their long-standing account from the +Albans. The parties could not +understand each other, or, rather, +they understood each other too +well; for war was the object of +both, though neither of them +liked the responsibility of beginning +it. The Albans, however, +prepared to march on Rome, +and encamped themselves within +the confines of a ditch, into +which ditch their King, Cluilius, +tumbled, one night, very mysteriously, +and died, which caused +them to dignify the ditch with +the name of <i>fossa <a name="Cluilia" id="Cluilia"></a>Cluilia</i>.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0017.png" width="300" height="290" alt="Death of Cluilius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Death of Cluilius.</span> +</div> +<p>The Albans appointed one Mettius +Fuffetius, a fussy and nervous +personage, as Dictator, in the place of the late King; and Fuffetius +requested an interview with Tullus, who agreed to the proposition, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +a determination, before meeting the Dictator, not to be dictated to. +Mettius represented the inconvenience of wasting whole rivers of blood, +when a few pints might answer all the purpose; and it was finally +agreed to settle the matter by a grand combat of six, sustained on either +side by three champions, chosen from each army. The Alban and the +Roman forces were graced, respectively, with a trio of brothers, whose +strength and activity rendered them worthy to be ranked with the +small family parties who attach the epithet of Herculean, Acrobatic, +Indian rubber, or Incredible, to the fraternal character in which they +come forward to astonish and amuse the enlightened age we live in.</p> + +<p>These six young men were known as the Horatii and Curiatii,—the +former being on the Roman, the latter on the Alban side; and to them +it was agreed, by mutual consent, to trust the fate of the battle. The +story-tellers have done their utmost to render everything Roman as +romantic as possible; and the legend of the Horatii and Curiatii has +been heightened by making one of the latter batch of brothers the +accepted lover of the sister of the Horatii.</p> + +<p>All the arrangements for the sanguinary <i>sestetto</i> having been completed, +the six champions came forward, looking fresh and confident, +not one of them displaying nervousness by a shaking of the hand, +though they shook each other's hands very heartily. Having taken +their positions, the men presented a picture which we regret has not +been preserved for us by some sporting annalist of the period. Imagination, +who is "our own reporter" on this occasion, and, perhaps, as +accurate a reporter as many who profess to chronicle passing events, +must fill up the outlines of the sketch that has been handed down to us.</p> + +<p>The contest commenced with a great deal of that harmless, but +violent exercise, which goes on between Shakspeare's celebrated pair of +Macs—the well known 'Beth and 'Duff—when the former requests the +latter to "lay on" to him, and there ensues a clashing of their swords, +as vigorous as the clashing of their claims to the crown of Scotland. +At length one of the Curiatii, feeling that they had all met for the +despatch of business, despatched one of the Horatii, upon which the +combatants, being set going, they continued to go one by one with great +rapidity. A few seconds had scarcely elapsed when a second of the +Horatii fell, and the survivor of the trio, thinking that he must eventually +become number three if he did not speedily take care of number +one, resolved to stop short this run of ill-luck against his race, by +attempting a run of good luck for his life; or, in other words, having a +race for it. The excellence of his wind saved him from drawing his +last breath, for the Curiatii, starting off in pursuit, soon proved unequal +in their speed, and one shot far in advance of the other two, who, though +stout of heart, were somewhat too stout of body to be as forward as +their nimbler brother in giving chase to their antagonist. The survivor +of the Horatii perceiving this, turned suddenly round upon the nearest +of his foes, and having at once disposed of him, waited patiently for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +other two, who were coming at unequal speed, puffing and panting after +him. A single blow did for the second of the Curiatii, who was already +blown by the effort of running, and it was unnecessary to do more with +the third, who came up completely out of breath, than to render him +incapable of taking in a further supply of that vitally important article. +The last of the Horatii had consequently become the conqueror, and +though when he began to run his life seemed to hang on a thread, +which an unlucky stitch in his side would have finished off, his flight +was the cause of his coming off in the end with flying colours. After +the first of the Curiatii fell, fatness proved fatal to the other two, for +Horatius, by dealing with them <i>en gros</i>, as well as <i>en detail</i>, settled all +accounts with both of <a name="them" id="them"></a>them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0019.png" width="450" height="461" alt="Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>Seeing the result of the contest, Fuffetius, on the part of the Albans, +gave out that they gave in, and the Romans returned home with +Horatius at their head, carrying—in a huge bundle—the spoils of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +Curiatii. At the entrance of the city he met his sister, who, perceiving +among the spoils, a garment of her late lover, embroidered with a piece +of work from her own hands, commenced another piece of work of a +most frantic and desperate character. Maddened at the sight of the +yarn she had spun for the lost object of her affections, she began +spinning another yarn that threatened to be interminable, if her +brother had not soon cut the thread of it. She called him by all kinds +of names but his own, and was, in fact, as noisy and abusive as a +conventional "female in distress," or, as that alarming and dangerous +nuisance, "an injured woman." Horatius, who had found the blades +of three assailants less cutting than a sister's tongue, interrupted her as +she ran through her wrongs, by running her through with his sword, +accompanying the act with the exclamation, "Thus perish all the +enemies of Rome." Notwithstanding the excitement and <i>éclat</i> attending +the triumphant entry of Horatius into Rome, the proper officer of the +period, whoever he may have been, was evidently not only on duty, but +prepared to do it, for the victorious fratricide, or sororicide, was at once +hurried off to the nearest Roman station. Having been taken before +the king, his majesty saw great difficulties in the case, and was puzzled +how to dispose of it. Taking out the scales of justice, he threw the +heavy crime of Horatius into one; but the services performed for his +country, when cast into the other scale, seemed to balance the matter +pretty evenly. Tullus, therefore, referred the case to another tribunal, +which sentenced the culprit to be hanged, but he was allowed to have so +capitally acquitted himself in the fight, that he was acquitted of the +capital punishment. This was commuted for the penalty of passing +under the yoke, which consisted of the ceremony of walking under a +pike raised upright on two others, and at these three pikes the only +toll placed upon his crime was levied.</p> + +<p>The fallen warriors were honoured with tombs in the form of sugar-loaves, +by which the unsatisfactory sweets of posthumous renown were +symbolised. Fuffetius, who though not wounded in his person, was +fearfully wounded in his pride by the result of the conflict, felt so +jealous of Tullus, that the former, though afraid to burst into open +revolt, determined on the really more revolting plan of treachery. The +rival soldiers had now to combine their forces against the Veientines and +the Fidenates, and, having set out together, they soon found the foe drawn +up in battle array, when Tullus with his Romans faced the Veientines, +and Mettius with his Albans formed a <i>vis à vis</i> to the Fidenates. When +the conflict commenced, the Alban wing showed the white feather, and +Fuffetius gradually withdrew his forces to an adjacent hill, which he +lowered himself by ascending for the purpose of watching the turn of +events, so that he might declare himself on the side of victory. Tullus +saw the unmanly manœuvre, but winked at it, and rushed like winking +upon the Fidenates, who ran so fast that their discretion completely +out-ran their valour. The Roman leader then turned his eyes, arms, +and legs towards the Veientines, who fled towards the Tiber, into which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +they desperately dived, but many of them, for divers reasons, never got +out again. The perfidious Albans, headed by Mettius Fuffetius, now came +down into the plain, and putting on a plain, straightforward manner, he +congratulated Tullus on the victory. Pretending not to have noticed +their treachery, he invited them all to a sacrifice on the following day, +and having particularly requested them to come early, they were on the +ground by sunrise, but were completely in the dark as to the intentions +of T. Hostilius. The Romans at a given signal closed in upon the +Albans, who were informed that their city should be razed, or rather, +lowered to the ground, and, that their chief, who had pulled a different +way from his new ally, should be fastened to horses who should be +driven in opposite directions. This cruel sentence, upon which we have +scarcely patience to bestow a sentence of our own, was barbarously +carried into execution. Alba fell to the ground; which is all we have +been able to pick up relating to the subject of this portion of our history.</p> + +<p>The remainder of the reign of Hostilius was occupied with military +successes; but he neglected the worship of the gods, who it is said +evinced their anger by a tremendous shower of stones on the Alban +Mount, in order to soften his flinty heart, by making him feel the weight +of their displeasure. From the extreme of indifference he went to +the opposite extreme of superstition, and called upon Jupiter to send +him a sign—which was, in fact, a sign of the King's head being in a +lamentable condition. The unhappy sovereign, imitating his predecessor +Numa, attempted some experiments in the hope of drawing down some +lightning, but it was not likely that one who had conducted himself so +badly could be a better conductor of the electric fluid, and the result +was, that though he learned the art of attracting the spark, it flashed +upon him with such force that he instantly expired.</p> + +<p>Such is the tradition with reference to the death of Tullus; but it is +hard to say whether the accounts handed down to us have been overcharged, +or whether the clouds were in that condition. Some speculators +insinuate that the royal experimentalist owed his sad fate to some mismanagement +of his electrical jar while attempting to produce an +unnatural jarring of the elements. The good actions of Tullus were +so few, that his fame will not afford the omission of one, and being +desirous to put the best construction we can upon his works, we give +him credit for the construction of the Curia Hostilia, whose site still +meets the eye near the northern angle of the Palatine. Ambassadors +are spoken of as existing in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, but whether +they owe their origin to Numa, who went before, or to Ancus Martius, +who came after him, is so much a matter of doubt, that some historians, +in trying to meet the claims of both half-way, stop short of giving the +merit to either. Tullus may, at all events, have the credit of employing, +if he did not institute, the art of diplomacy in Rome; for he appointed +ambassadors, as we have already seen, to negotiate with the Albans. +These envoys were called Feciales, the chief of whom wore on his head +a fillet of white wool, with a quantity of green herbs, formed into a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +turban, which must have had somewhat the appearance of a fillet of +veal, with the ingredients for stuffing. His duty was to proceed +to the offending country, and proclaim his wrongs upon the border, +though there might be no one there to listen, and having crossed +the boundary—if his indignation happened to know any bounds—he +was to astonish the first native he met by a catalogue of +grievances. On reaching a city, the ambassador went over the old +story to the soldier at the gate, just as though, at Storey's gate, +an irritated foreigner should pour out his country's real or imaginary +wrongs to the sentinel on duty. To this recital the soldier would, +of course, be as deaf as his post, and the Fecialis would then proceed +to lay his complaint before the magistrates. In the event of his +obtaining no redress, he returned home for a spear, and killing a pig +with one end, he poked the fire with the other. The instrument being +thus charred in the handle and blood-stained at the point, became an +appropriate emblem of hostility, and the Fecialis declared war by stirring +it up with the long pole, which he threw across the enemy's boundary.</p> + +<p>After the death of Tullus Hostilius, the people lost no time in +choosing Ancus Martius, a grandson of Numa, for their sovereign. +The new king copied his grandfather, which he had a perfect right to +do, but he imposed on the Pontifex Maximus the very severe task of +copying on white tables the somewhat ponderous works of Pompilius, +which were posted up for the perusal of the populace.</p> + +<p>Though partial on the whole to peace, Ancus was not afraid of war, +and, when his kingdom was threatened, he was quite ready to fight for +it. He subdued the Latins, and having first settled them in the field, +allowed them to settle themselves in the city. He enlarged Rome, but +abridged the distance between different parts by throwing the first +bridge across the Tiber, and his name has come down to posterity in the +ditch of the Quirites which he caused to be dug for the defence of the +city, against those who were unlikely to go through thick and thin for +the purpose of invading it. He also built a prison in the heart of the +city, and what might be truly termed a heart of stone, for the prison +was formed of a quarry, and is still in existence as a monument of the +hard lot of its inmates. Ancus Martius further signalised his reign by +founding the city of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth, and thus gave its +waters the benefit of that port which so much increased their value. On +the spot may still be seen some ruins supposed to belong to a temple +dedicated to the winds, among whom the greater part of the temple has +long since been promiscuously scattered. Salt-works were also +established in its neighbourhood, but the <i>sal</i> was of that volatile kind +that none now remains from which buyers could fill their cellars. +Ancus Martius reigned for a period of twenty-four years, and either in +tranquillity or war—whether engaged in the works of peace, or embroiled +in a piece of work—he proved himself thoroughly worthy of his +predecessors, and, in fact, he left far behind him many who had gone +before him in the task of government.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Val. Maximùs, i. 1. § 4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> There exist, in the British Museum, books older than the time of Numa, written by +the Egyptians, on these palm leaves, which show, in one sense, the palmy state of literature +at that early period.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE THIRD.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE ACCESSION OF TARQUINIUS PRISCUS TO THE DEATH OF<br /> +SERVIUS TULLIUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 50px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0023.png" width="50" height="100" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left:-0.5em" class="smcap">It</span> is the opinion of the best authorities +that the Muse of History has employed +her skipping-rope in passing, or rather +skipping, from the grave of Ancus +Martius to the throne of Tarquinius +Priscus; for there is a very visible +gap yawning between the two; and as +we have no wish to set the reader +yawning in sympathy with the gap, we +at once drag him away from it.</p> + +<p>Plunging into the times of Tarquinius +Priscus, we describe him as +the son of a Corinthian merchant, who, +being compelled to quit his country for +political reasons, had withdrawn all +his Corinthian capital, and settled at +Tarquinii, an Etruscan city. Having +fallen in love with a lady of the place, +or, more poetically speaking, deposited +his affections in an Etruscan +vase, he became a husband to her, and +the father of two children, named respectively +Lucumo and Aruns. Poor +Aruns had a very brief run, and soon +met his death; but we cannot say how +or where, for we have no report of the meeting. Lucumo married +Tanaquil, an Etruscan lady, of great beauty and ambition, who professed +to dive into futurity; and, guided by this diving belle, he threw himself +into the stream of events, in the hope of being carried onwards by the +tide of fortune. She persuaded him that Tarquinii was a poor place, +where nothing was to be done; that his foreign extraction prevented +him from being properly drawn out; and that Rome alone could afford +him a field wide enough for his vast abilities. Driven by his wife, he +jumped up into his chariot, which was an open one, and was just entering +Rome, when his cap was suddenly removed from his head by a +strange bird, which some allege was an eagle; though, had they said it +was a lark, we should have believed them far more readily. Lucumo +followed his hat as well as he could with his eyes; but his wife was so +completely carried away with it, that she declared the circumstance told<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +her he would gain a crown, though it really proved how nearly he had +lost one; for until the bird replaced his hat upon his head, there was +only a bare possibility of his getting it back again.</p> + +<p>The wealth of his wife enabled Lucumo to live in the first style of +fashion; and having been admitted to the rights of citizenship, he +changed his name to Lucius Tarquinius: for the sake, perhaps, of +the sound, in the absence of any sounder reason. He was introduced +at Court, where he won the favour of Ancus, who was so much taken +by his dashing exterior, that he gave him a commission in the army, as +Tribunus Celerum, a sort of Captain of the Guards, who, from the +title of Celeres, appear to have been, as we have before observed, the +fast men, as opposed to the "slow coaches" of the period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0024.png" width="300" height="177" alt="Celeres." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Celeres.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Captain made himself so generally useful to Ancus, that when +the latter died, his two sons were left to the guardianship of the +former, who, on the day fixed for the election of a new king, sent his +wards to the chase, that they might be pursuing other game, instead of +looking after the Crown, which Tarquinius had set his own eye upon. +In the absence of the youths, Tarquinius, who had got the name of +Priscus, or the old hand, which he seems to have well deserved, proposed +himself as a candidate; and, in a capital electioneering speech, +put forth his own merits with such success, that he was voted on to the +throne without opposition.</p> + +<p>The commencement of his reign was not very peaceful, for he was +attacked by the Latins; but he gave them a very severe Latin lesson, +and, crushing them under his feet, sent them back to that part of Italy +forming the lower part of the boot, with the loss of considerable booty. +He, nevertheless, found time for all manner of games; and he instituted +the Ludi Magni, which were great sport, in a space he marked out as +the Circus Maximus.</p> + +<p>The position of the Circus was between the Palatine and Aventine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +Hills, there being a slope on either side, so that the people followed the +inclination of nature as well as their own in selecting the spot for +spectacular purposes. In the earliest times a Circus was formed of +materials brought by the spectators themselves, who raised temporary +scaffolds, from which an unfortunate drop, causing fearful execution among +the crowd, would frequently happen. Tarquinius Priscus, desirous of giving +more permanent accommodation to the Roman sight seers, built a Circus +capable of containing 150,000 persons, and, from its vast superiority in +size over other similar buildings, it obtained the distinction of Maximus. +The sports of the Circus were extremely attractive to the Romans, who +looked to the <i>libelli</i>, containing the lists of the horses, and names and +colours of the drivers, with all the eagerness of a "gentleman sportsman" +seeking information from Dorling's correct card at Epsom. In +the early days of Rome the amusements of the Circus were limited to +the comparatively harmless contests of equestrian speed; and it was not +until the city had reached a high state of refinement—cruelty having +become refined like everything else—that animals were killed by +thousands, and human beings by hundreds at a time, to glut the +sanguinary appetites of the prince and the people. The ancient Circus +was circular at one end only, and the line of seats was broken by a sort +of outwork, supposed to have comprised the box and retiring-room of the +sovereign; while, at the opposite side, was another deviation from the +line of seats, to form a place for the <i>editor spectaculorum</i>—a box for +the manager. Though Tarquinius is said to have founded the Circus +Maximus in commemoration of his victory over the Latins, they were +not the only foes whom he might have boasted of vanquishing.</p> + +<p>Having fought and conquered the Sabines, he took from them +Collatræ, as a collateral security for their good behaviour; and coming +home with a great deal of money, he built the Temple of Jupiter on the +capitol.</p> + +<p>Tarquinius, being desirous of increasing the army, was opposed by a +celebrated augur of the day, one Attus Navius, whose reputation seems +to have been well deserved, if the annexed anecdote is to be believed; +for it indicates that he could see further into a whetstone than any one +who has either gone before or followed him. Navius declared that augury +must determine whether the plan of Tarquinius could be carried out, +which caused the latter to ask, sneeringly, whether he knew what he +was thinking about. The question was ambiguous, but Navius boldly +replied he did, and added, that what Tarquinius proposed to do was +perfectly possible. "Is it indeed," said the King, "I was thinking +of cutting through this whetstone with this razor." "It will be a close +shave," was the reply of the augur, "but it can be done, so cut away;" +and the bluntness of the observation was only equalled by the sharpness +of the blade, which cut the article in two as easily as if it had been +a pound of butter, instead of a stone of granite. This reproof was +literally more cutting than any other that could have been possibly +conveyed to the king, who ever afterwards paid the utmost respect to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +the augurs, of whom he was accustomed thenceforth to say, that the +affair of the whetstone proved them to be much sharper blades than he +had been willing to take them for.</p> + +<p>Having been at war with the Tuscans, whom he vanquished, he was +admitted into the ranks of the Kings of Etruria; a position which led +him to indulge in the most extravagant desires. He must needs have +a crown of gold, which often tears or encumbers the brow it adorns; a +throne of ivory, on whose too highly polished surface the foot is apt to +slip; and a sceptre, having on its top an eagle, which frequently gives +wings to the power it is intended to typify. His robe was of purple, +with so costly an edging, that the border exceeded all reasonable limits, +and furnished an instance of extravagance carried to the extreme, +while the rate at which he went on may be judged from the fact of his +always driving four in hand in his chariot. He did not, however, +wholly neglect the useful in his taste for the ornamental; and though +his extravagance must have been a drain upon the public pocket, he +devoted himself to the more honourable drainage of the lower portions +of the city. He set an example to all future commissioners of sewers, +by his great work of the <i>Cloaca Maxima</i>, some portion of which still +exists, and which contains, in its spacious vault, a far more honourable +monument than the most magnificent tomb that could have been raised +to his memory.</p> + +<p>Tarquinius had reigned about thirty-eight years, when the sons of +Ancus Martius, who had been from the first brooding over their own +ejection from the throne, carried their brooding so far as to hatch a +conspiracy, which, though regarded by the best authorities as a mare's +nest, forms one of those "lays" of ancient Rome which tradition gives +as part of her history. The youths, expecting that Tarquinius would +secure the succession to a favourite, named Servius Tullius, made an +arrangement with a couple of shepherds, who, pretending to have a +quarrel, went with hatchets in their hands to the king, and requested +him to settle their little difference. Tarquinius seems to have been in +a most accommodating humour, for he is said to have stepped to the +door of the palace, to arbitrate between these most un-gentle shepherds, +who, pretending that they only came with their hatchets to axe his +advice, began to axe him about the head; and while he was endeavouring +to act as an arbitrator, they, acting as still greater traitors, cruelly +made away with him. The lictors who stood by must have had their +faces and their fasces turned the wrong way, for they administered a +beating to the shepherds when, too late, after the regal crown was +already cracked beyond the possibility of repair, and the king was +almost knocked to pieces before he had time to collect himself.</p> + +<p>Tarquinius was a practical reformer, and rested his fame on the most +durable foundations, among which the still-existing remains of the +Cloaca Maxima, or largest common sewer, have already been noticed. +Those who are over nice might feel repugnant to come down to posterity +by such a channel; but that country is fortunate indeed in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +genius seeks "the bubble reputation" at the mouth of the sewer, +instead of in the mouth of the cannon.</p> + +<p>It must be recorded, to the honour of Tarquinius, that he organised +the plebeians, and elevated some of them to the rank of patricians, thus +giving vigour to the aristocratic body, which runs the risk of becoming +corrupt, and losing its vitality, unless a supply of plebeian life-blood is +from time to time poured into it.</p> + +<p>This measure would have been followed by other wholesome reforms, +but for the short-sighted and selfish policy of the patricians themselves, +who could not perceive the fact, full of apparent paradoxes, that if anything +is to remain, it must not stand still; that no station can be +stationary with safety to itself; and that nothing possessed of vitality +can grow old without something new being continually added.</p> + +<p>The sixth king of Rome was Servius Tullius, who is said to have +been the son of a female in the establishment of Tanaquil. His +mother's name was Ocrisia; but there is something vague about the +paternity of the boy, which has been assigned sometimes to the Lar, or +household god of the establishment, and sometimes to Vulcan. Whoever +may have been the father, it was soon intimated that the child was +to occupy a high position; and on one occasion, when sleeping in his +cradle, his head was seen to be on fire; but no one was allowed to blow +out the poor boy's brains, or otherwise extinguish the flame, which +was rapidly consuming the hair on the head of the future heir to the +monarchy. The nurses and attendants were ordered to sit down and +see the fire burn out of its own accord, which, the tradition says, it did, +though common sense says it couldn't; for the unfortunate infant +must have died of consumption had he been suffered to blaze away +in the cool manner spoken of. Though of common origin, at least +on his mother's side, young Servius Tullius was supposed to have +been completely purified by the fire, which warmed the hearts of all +who came near him; and not only did the queen adopt him as her +own son, but the partial baking had produced such an effect upon his +very ordinary clay, that he was treated like a brick required for the +foundations of the royal house into which Tarquinius cemented him, +by giving him, as a wife, one of the daughters of the royal family.</p> + +<p>Tanaquil having kept secret her husband's death, Servius Tullius +continued for some time to carry on the business of government, just as +if nothing had happened. When it was at length felt that the young +favourite of fortune had got the reins fairly in his hands, the murder +came out, and the barbarous assassination of Tarquinius was published +to the multitude. Servius was the first instance of a king who mounted +the throne without the aid of the customary pair of steps, consisting of +an election by the Senate, and a confirmation by the Curiæ.</p> + +<p>It might have been expected that Servius, when elevated above his +own humble stock, might have held his head so high and become so +stiff-necked as to prevent him from noticing the rank from which he +had sprung; but, on the contrary, he exalted himself by endeavouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +to raise others. His reign was not a continued round of fights, for +he preferred the trowel to the sword, and, instead of cutting his name +with the latter weapon, he wisely chose to build up his reputation +with the former instrument. His first care was to complete the city, +to which he added three hills, feeling, perhaps, that his fame would +become as ancient as the hills themselves; and with a happy perception +that if "walls have ears" they are just as likely to have tongues, he +surrounded Rome with a wall, which might speak to future ages of his +spirit and enterprise. He was a friend to insolvent debtors, to whom +he gave the benefit of an act of unexampled liberality. Desiring them +to make out schedules of their liabilities, he paid off the creditors in a +double sense, for they were extremely reluctant to receive the cash, the +payment of which cashiered their claim on the person and possessions +of their debtors. He abolished imprisonment for debt, giving power +to creditors over the goods and not the persons—or, as an ingenious +scholar has phrased it, the bona and not the bones—of their <a name="debtors" id="debtors"></a>debtors.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0028.png" width="500" height="548" alt="Debtor and Creditor.—Seizure of Goods for a Debt." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Debtor and Creditor.—Seizure of Goods for a Debt.</span><br /> +</div> + +<p><br />Servius found that while he was raising up buildings he was knocking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +down a great deal of money; but being nevertheless anxious to erect a +temple to Diana on the Aventine Hill he persuaded the Latins, who had +made the place a sort of <i>quartier Latin</i>, to subscribe to it. The Latins, +the Romans, and the Sabines, were every year to celebrate a sort of union +sacrifice on this spot, where the cutting up and cooking of oxen formed +what may be termed a joint festival. It happened that a Sabine +agriculturist had reared a prize heifer, which caused quite an effervescence +among his neighbours, and taking the bull quietly by the +horns, he asked the augur what it would be meet for him to do with it. +The soothsayer looked at the bull, who turned his brilliant bull's eye upon +the astonished sage, with a sort of supercilious stare that almost amounted +to a glaring oversight. The augur, not liking the look of the animal, +and anxious, no doubt, to put an end to the interview, declared that +whoever sacrificed the beast to Diana, off-hand, would benefit his race, +and cause his nation to rule over the other confederates. The animal +was led away with a shambling gait to the sacred shambles, where the +Roman priest was waiting to set his hand to any Bull that might be +presented to him. Seeing the Sabine preparing to act as slaughterman, +the pontiff became tiffy, and suggested, that if the other was going to do +the job, he might as well do it with clean hands, upon which the +Sabine rushed to the river to take a finger bath. While the owner was +occupied about his hands the Roman priest took advantage of the +pause to slaughter the animal, and, on his return, the Sabine found +that he had unintentionally washed his hands of the business altogether. +The oracle was thus fulfilled in favour of the Romans, who trumpeted +the fact through the bull's horns, which were hung up in front of the +temple in memory of this successful piece of priest-craft.</p> + +<p>The growing popularity of Servius with the plebs made the patricians +anxious to get rid of him, for they had not the sense to feel that if they +aspired to be the pillars of the state, a close union with the class +beneath, or, as they would have contemptuously termed it, the base, was +indispensable. It happened that Servius, in the hope of propitiating the +two sons of Tarquinius, had given them his two daughters as their wives, +though it was a grievous mistake to suppose that family marriages are +usually productive of family union. Jealousy and quarrelling ensued, +which ended in the elder, Tullia, persuading her sister's husband Lucius +Tarquinius to murder his own brother and his own wife, in order that +he might make a match with the lump of female brimstone that had +inflamed his brutal passions. Not satisfied with the double murder, +which would have qualified her new husband to be struck in the hardest +wax and to occupy chambers among the worst of horrors, Tullia was +always whispering into his ear that she wished her father farther, and by +this demoniac spell she worked on the weak and wicked mind of Lucius +Tarquinius. It having been reported that Servius Tullus intended to +crown his own reign by uncrowning himself, and exchanging, as it were, +the royal stock for consuls, the patricians thought it would be a good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +opportunity to speculate for a fall, by attempting the king's overthrow. +Tullia and her husband were asked to join in this conspiracy, when it +was found that the wretched and corrupt pair would be quite ripe for +any enormity. It was arranged, therefore, that Lucius Tarquinius, at +a meeting of the Senate, should go down to the House with all the +insignia of royalty, and, having seated himself upon the throne, the +trumpeters in attendance were, by one vigorous blow, to proclaim him +as the sovereign. When Servius heard the news he proceeded to the +Assembly, where all things—including the trumpets—seemed to be +flourishing in favour of the traitor. As the sound of the instruments +fell upon the old king's ears, he seemed to tremble for a moment before +the rude blast which threatened the blasting of all his benevolent views, +but calling out from the doorway in which he stood, he rebuked the +insolence and treachery of his son-in-law. A disgraceful scene ensued, +in which other blows than those of the trumpeters were exchanged, and +Servius, who had in vain desired the traitor to "come off the throne," +was executing a threat to "pull him off" as well as the old man's +strength, or rather, his feebleness, would allow him. The senators +were watching the scene with the vulgar interest attaching to a prize +fight, and were no doubt backing up the combatants with the ordinary +expressions of encouragement, which we can only interpret by our own +familiar phrases of, "Go it," "Now then young 'un," "Bravo old 'un," +and "Give it him." Getting rather too near the edge of the throne, +but holding each other firmly in their respective grasps, the two +combatants rolled together down the steps of the throne—an incident +not to be met with in the rolls of any other Parliament. Getting +immediately on to their legs they again resumed their hostile footing, +when Tarquinius being younger and fresher than his antagonist, seized +up the old man, now as feeble as an infant in arms, and carried his +brutality to such a pitch as to pitch him down the steps of the Senate +House. Servius tried in vain to pick up his courage, and being picked +up himself, he was on his road home when he was overtaken and +murdered in a street, which got the name of <i>Vicus Sceleratus</i>, or +Rascally Row, from the disgraceful row that occurred in it. Tullia was +driving down to the House to hear the news when her coachman pulled +up at the horrid sight of the king lying in the street, but the female +fury only ordered the man to "drive on," and it is said that she +enforced her directions by flinging a footstool at his head, though, on +subjecting the story to the usual tests, we find the footstool without a +leg to stand upon. Servius Tullus had reigned forty-four years, and +his memory was cherished for centuries after his death, his birthday +being celebrated on the Nones of every month, because he was known +to have been born on some nones, but which particular nones were +unknown to any one. We have already noticed the wall of Servius, +but we must not forget the Agger, or mound, connected with it, the +value of which was equal to that of the wall itself, and, indeed, those +who give the preference to the Agger over the wall do not much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +ex-aggerate. There remains to this day a great portion of the mound, +which was sixty feet high and fifty broad, skirted with flag stones +towards the outer side, and the Romans no doubt would derive more +security from laying down their flags on the outer wall than from +hanging out their banners.</p> + +<p>The greatest work, however, of the reign of Servius was the reform +of the Constitution, which he constructed with a view to the reconciling +of the wide differences between the patricians and the plebeians, so as to +form one powerful body by making somebodies of those who had +hitherto been treated as nobodies. His first care was to divide the +plebeians into thirty tribes—a name derived from the word <i>tribus</i>, or +three, and applied to the three plebeian tribes—the derivation being +so simple that were we to ask any schoolboy if he understood it, his +answer would be, that "he might be whipped" and he would assuredly +deserve to be whipped "if he didn't." These thirty tribes were placed +under an officer called a <i>tribunus</i>, whose duty it was to keep a list of +the members and collect the <i>tributum</i>—a word, to which in the reader's +ready mind, the word tribute will at once be attributed. Besides the orders +of patricians and plebeians, whose position was determined by descent +alone, Servius thought there were many who might be connected together +by a tie proper to them all, namely, that of property. He accordingly +established a census to be held every five years, in which the name of +every one who had come to man's estate was put down, together with +the amount of his other estate, if he was lucky enough to have any. The +whole number was divided into two heads, one of which was foot, or +<i>pedites</i>, and the other horse, or <i>equites</i>, among whom an equitable +share of rights and duties had to be distributed. The <i>pedites</i>, or +infantry, were not all on the same footing, but were subdivided into six +classes, according to the amount of their possessions, which determined +their position in the army; but even the sixth class, or those who had no +other possession than their self-possession, were not excluded from the +service. Each class was divided into seniors and juniors, the former +being men between forty-five and sixty; the latter, including all below +forty-five and above seventeen, at which early age, though frequently +not bearded themselves, they were expected to go forth and beard the +enemy. In addition to the two assemblies of the curiæ (the <i>comitia +curiata</i>) and the tribes (the <i>comitia tributa</i>), there was instituted by +Servius a great national assembly called the <i>comitia centuriata</i>, and +consisting of the whole of the centuries. Of these centuries there were +altogether one hundred and ninety-three; but, instead of every +individual member being allowed a separate vote, the suffrage was +distributed amongst classes according to their wealth or the number of +asses they possessed, a principle which the opponent of a mere property +qualification will regard as somewhat asinine. By this arrangement +the poor were practically excluded from voting at all, unless the rich +were disagreed among themselves, when the merely industrious classes, +such as the <i>Fabri</i>—the very extensive family of the Smiths and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +Carpenters—the <i>Cornicines</i>—the respectable race of Hornblowers—and +others of similar degree sometimes had sufficient weight to turn +the balance.</p> + +<p>Though the equestrian centuries comprised the richest class, they +seem to have been in one respect little better than beggars on +horseback, for each eques received from the treasury a sum for the +purchase of his horse and an annual grant for its maintenance. The +amount was levied upon orphans and widows, who were, it is true, +exempt from other imposts, though their contributing from their slender +means to keep a horse on its legs caused many to complain that the law +rode rough-shod over them. The Assembly of the Centuries was a grand +step towards self-government, and, though many may think that wealth +had an actual preponderance, it was always possible for a member of a +lower class to get into a higher, and thus an inducement to self-advancement +was secured, which is, certainly, not one of the least useful ends of +government. There were numerous instances of energetic Romans rising +from century to century with a rapidity showing that they were greatly +in advance of the age, or, at all events, of the century in which they were +originally placed by their lot, or rather by their little.</p> + +<p>Servius introduced into Rome the Etruscan As, of the value of which +we can give no nearer notion than by stating the fact that a Roman +sheep was worth about ten Etruscan asses. To the poorer classes these +coins could have been of little service, and by way of small change they +were permitted to use shells, from which we no doubt get the phrase of +"shelling out," a quaint expression sometimes used to describe the +process of paying. In some parts of the world shells are still current +as cash, and even among ourselves fish are employed at cards as the +representatives of money. Though in ordinary use for the smaller +purposes of commerce, shells were not receivable as taxes, for when the +Government required the sinews of war it would not have been satisfied +with mussels or any other similar substitute.</p> + +<p>The Roman As was of bronze and stamped on one side with a +portrait of Janus, whose two heads we never thought much better than +one, though they appeared appropriately on a coin as a sign, perhaps, +that people are often made doublefaced by money. On the other side +was the prow of a ship, which might be emblematical of the fact that +money is necessary to keep one above water.</p> + +<p>In the time of Servius all were expected to arm themselves according +to their means, and the richest were thoroughly clad in bronze for the +protection of their persons, while the poorer, who could not afford +anything of the kind, were obliged to trust for their self-defence to their +own natural metal. The patricians carried a clypeus, or shield, of +such dimensions as to cover frequently the whole body, and by hiding +himself behind it the wearer often escaped a hiding from the enemy. +The material of which the clypeus was composed was wood covered +with a bull's skin that had been so thoroughly tanned as to afford +safety against the severest <a name="leathering" id="leathering"></a>leathering.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0032c.png" width="500" height="344" alt="Tarquinus Superbus makes himself King." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><i>Tarquinus Superbus makes himself King.</i></span><br /><br /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE FOURTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE ACCESSION OF TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS TO THE BANISHMENT<br /> +OF THE ROYAL FAMILY, AND THE ABOLITION OF THE KINGLY DIGNITY.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0033.png" width="118" height="150" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left:-1em;" class="smcap">arquinius</span> had ascended the +throne more by the +force of his fists, than +by the strength of his +arms; for he had aimed +a blow, not only at the +crown, but at the face of +the unhappy sovereign +who had preceded him. +Carrying his hostility +beyond the grave, Tarquinius +refused to bury +his animosity, or to +grant his victim a funeral. +The upstart nature +of the new king gained +for him the nickname of +Superbus, or the proud, +though he had as little +to be proud of as some of +the most contemptible +characters in history. +He, however, asserted +himself with so much +audacity, that the people were completely overawed by his pretensions, +and many made away with themselves, to insure their lives, by a sort +of Irish policy, against Tarquin's violence. He took away the privileges +of the plebeians, and sent many to the scaffold, by employing them as +common bricklayers; but there were several who preferred laying violent +hands on themselves, to laying a single brick of the magnificent +buildings which he planned, in the hope, perhaps, that the splendour of +the constructions of his reign would induce posterity to place the best +construction on his character.</p> + +<p>He coolly assumed the whole administration of the law, and added +the office of executioner to that of judge, while he combined with both +the character of a criminal, by seizing the property of all those whom +he punished, and thus adding robbery to violence. To prevent the +possibility of a majority against him in the Senate, he cut off several +of the heads of that body; and though he never condescended to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +submit to the Assembly a single question, he treated the unhappy +members as if they had much to answer for.</p> + +<p>Finding the continued ill-treatment of his own people getting rather +monotonous, he sought the pleasures of variety, by harassing the +Volscians, whom he robbed of a sufficient sum to enable him to commence +a temple to Jupiter. Bricks and mortar soon ran up above +the estimated cost; and Tarquin had scarcely built the lower floor, +when he came to the old story of shortness of funds, which he supplied +by making the people pay as well as work, and taxing at once their time +and their pockets. This temple was on the Capitoline Hill; and it is said +that in digging the foundations the workmen hit upon a freshly-bleeding +human head, which, of course, must be regarded as an idle tale; nor +would it be right for history to hold an elaborate inquest on this head, +since it would be impossible to find a verdict without having first found +the body. The augur, who, according to the legend, was present on +the occasion, is reported to have made a <i>post-mortem</i> examination of the +head, which he identified as that of one Tolus; but who Tolus was, or +whether he ever was at all, we are told nothing on any competent +authority. The augur, whose duty it was to be ready to interpret +anything that turned up, no sooner saw the head, than putting upon it +the best face he could, he declared it to be a sign that Rome was destined +to be the head of the world—an obvious piece of fulsome adulation, +worthy of being offered to the flattest of flats, by one disposed to +flatter. The temple itself was a great fact, notwithstanding the numerous +fictions that are told concerning it; and there is little doubt that +though, as some say, Tarquinius Priscus (the old one) may have begun +it, Tarquinius Superbus put to it the finishing touch, and surmounted it +with a chariot and four in baked clay, which, had it been preserved to +this day, would have been one of the most interesting of Potter's +<a name="Antiquities" id="Antiquities"></a>Antiquities.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 328px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0035.png" width="328" height="400" alt="Tarquinius Superbus has the Sibylline Books valued." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Tarquinius Superbus has the Sibylline Books valued.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>A curious anecdote, connected with the bookselling business of the +period, has been handed down to us; and it is sufficiently interesting +to be handed on to the readers of this work, who are at liberty either to +take it up, or to set it down at its real value. It is said that Tarquin +was waited upon by a female, who brought with her nine books, and, +expressing herself willing to do business, asked three hundred pieces of +gold for the entire set of volumes. The King pooh-poohed the proposition, +on the ground of the exorbitant price, and desired her to be off with +the books, when she solemnly advised him not to off with the bargain. +Finding him obstinate, the woman, who was, it seems, a sibyl, and eked +out her bookseller's profits by the business of a prophetess, threw into +the flames three of the volumes, which, assuming, for a few minutes, +the aspect of illuminated copies, soon left no traces—not even a spark—of +any genius by which they might have been inspired. The sibyl, +soon after, paid a second visit to Tarquin, bringing with her the six +remaining volumes; and having asked in vain the same sum for the +imperfect copy as she had done for the whole work, she went through a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +sort of second edition of Burns, by throwing three more of her books +into the fire. To the surprise of Tarquin, she appeared a third +time with her stock of books, now reduced to three; and upon the +King's observing to her "What do you want for these?" she replied +that three hundred pieces of gold was her price; that she made no +abatement; that if the books were not instantly bought, they would +speedily be converted into light literature, and being condensed +into one thick volume of smoke, would, of course, take their final +leaves of the royal residence. The King, astonished at the woman's +pertinacity, resolved at last to send for a valuer, to look at the books, +who declared them to be well worth the money. They contained a +variety of remedies for diseases, directions for preparing sacrifices, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +other interesting matter, with a collection of the oracles of Cumæ, by +way of appendix, so that the volumes formed a sort of encyclopædia, +embracing the advantages of a Cookery Book, a Buchan's Domestic +Medicine, and a Complete Fortune-teller. Tarquin<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> became the purchaser +of these three very odd volumes, which seem to have been +estimated less according to their intrinsic value, than the price they +had brought; and they were carefully put away in the Temple library.</p> + +<p>It was the desire of the Government to prevent the people from +knowing what these books might contain, and the office of librarian was +entrusted to two individuals of illustrious birth, under the idea—not +very flattering to aristocracy—that patricians would be found the best +promoters of ignorance. One of these officers, having acted so inconsistently +with his rank, as to have imparted some information to a fellow-citizen, +was dismissed from his place and thrown into the sea in a bag; +so that he may be said, by the heartless punster, to have got the sack +in a double meaning.</p> + +<p>While building operations were going on at home, destruction was +being dealt out abroad; and the Gabii being about twelve miles from +Rome, were the objects of the King's hostility. Having sent one of his +captains against them, who was repulsed by a major force, Tarquinius +resolved on trying treachery. He accordingly despatched his son, Sextus, +to complain of ill-treatment at his father's hands, and to implore the pity +of the Gabii, who were gabies enough not only to believe the story, but +even to appoint Sextus their general. He was ultimately chosen their +governor; and finding the Gabii completely in his hands, he sent to his +own governor—Tarquinius—to know what to do with them. The King +was in the garden when the messenger arrived; and whenever the +latter asked a question, the former made no reply, but kept knocking +off the heads of the tallest poppies with his walking-stick. The +messenger ventured to intimate, once or twice, that he was waiting for +an answer; but the heads of the poppies flying off in all directions, he +began to tremble for his own, and he flew off himself, to prevent accidents. +On his return, he mentioned the circumstances to Sextus, who +regarded the poppies as emblems of the Gabii; and, indeed, the latter +seemed so thoroughly asleep, that the comparison was no less just than +odious.</p> + +<p>Sextus, taking the paternal hint, knocked off several of the heads of +the people; and keeping up the allegory to the fullest extent, cut off +the flower of the Gabii. Many of their fairest blossoms perished by a +too early blow; and being thus deprived of what might fairly be termed +its primest pick, the soil was soon planted with the victorious standards +of Tarquinius. He, however, instead of introducing any apple of discord, +judiciously grafted the Gabian on the Roman stock; and thus cultivated +the only really valuable fruits of victory.<br /><br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0037.png" width="400" height="256" alt="The Evil Conscience of Tarquin." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Evil Conscience of Tarquin.</span> +<br /><br /></div> + +<p>Tarquin was a great deal troubled by the signs of the times; or, +rather, he was made so uncomfortable by an evil conscience, that if a +snake appeared in his path, it seemed to hang over him like a horrible +load; and if he went to sleep, there was a mare's-nest always at hand, +to trouble him with a night-mare. He dreamed that some eagles had +built in his gardens, and that in their temporary absence from the nest, +some vultures had breakfasted on the new-laid eggs, and, armed with +their beaks, taken possession of the deserted small tenement. Unable +to drive the vultures out of his head, he was anxious to ascertain the +meaning of the omen, for he had become so superstitious, that if he saw +a sparrow dart from a branch, he regarded it as an emblem that he was +himself about to hop the twig in some unexpected manner. Doubting +the efficiency of his own augurs, on whom he was beginning to throw +some of the discredit to which prophets in their own country are liable, +Tarquin resolved on seeking the aid of foreign talent; and as the +omens were worse than Greek to him, he sent to the oracles at Delphi, +thinking if the matter was Greek to them they would be able to interpret +it. His messengers to the fortune-tellers were his two sons, Aruns +and Titus, together with his nephew, one Lucius Junius Brutus, who, +though an extremely sensible young man, was in the habit of playing +the fool, in order to avert the suspicions of his uncle. Though Brutus +assumed the look of an idiot, and generally had his eye on vacancy, it +was only to conceal the fact that a vacancy on the throne was +what he really had his eye upon. Valuable gifts were taken to the +oracle, which was slow to speak in the absence of presents. When +Brutus put a <i>báton</i> into the hand of the Priestess, she knew, by the +weight, that the <i>báton</i> was a hollow pretext for the conveyance of a +bribe, which she looked for, found, and pocketed. On the strength of +a large lump of gold, thus cunningly conveyed to the Priestess, Brutus +ventured to ask who would be the next King of Rome, to which she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +replied by a recommendation that all the applicants should go home to +their mothers, for that "he who kissed his mother first should be the +one to govern." Titus and Aruns made at once for their mamma, and +eager to kiss her, ran as fast as they could to catch the first bus, but +Brutus, whom they had perhaps tripped up, to prevent his getting a +fair start, saluted his mother earth with a smack of the lip in return for +the blow on the face that his fall had occasioned him.</p> + +<p>When the ambassadors returned to Rome they found Tarquin as +nervous as ever; and there is little doubt, that if tea had been known +in those days, the King would have sat for ever over his cups, endeavouring +to read the grounds for his fears in the grounds of the beverage. +The treasury having been exhausted by his building speculations, the +people were growing more dissatisfied every day; and, in order to turn +their discontent away from home, he engaged them in a quarrel with +Ardea, a city situated on a lofty rock, against which the Romans threw +themselves with a sort of dashing energy. The attempt to take the +place by a common assault and battery was vain, for the rock stood firm; +and it was probable, that if the Romans remained at the gates, and +continued knocking over and over again, they would ultimately be compelled +to knock under. They therefore resolved on hemming the Ardeans +in, as there was no chance of whipping them out, and military works +were run in a continuous thread round the borders of the city.</p> + +<p>The Romans, acting as a sort of army of occupation, had, of course, +scarcely any occupation at all; and there being nothing that soldiers +find it so difficult to kill as their time, the officers were in the habit +of going halves in suppers at each other's quarters. At one of these +entertainments the King's sons, and their cousin, one Tarquinius, surnamed +Collatinus, from the town of Collatia, were discussing the merits +of their respective wives, and each of the officers, with an uxuriousness +among the military that the commonest civility would have restrained, +was praising his own wife at the expense of all others.</p> + +<p>It was at length agreed that the husbands should proceed forthwith to +Rome, and that having paid an unexpected visit to all the ladies, the palm +should be awarded to her who should be employed in the most praiseworthy +way, when thus unceremoniously popped in upon. They first +visited the wife of Sextus, who had got a large evening party and ball +at home, and who was much confused by this unexpected revelation of +her midnight revels. Dancing was at its height; and as a great writer +has said of dancing among the Romans, "<i>Nemo fere saltat sobrius, +nisi forte insaniat</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>—any one who dances must be either very drunk, +or stark mad,—we may guess the state of the company that Sextus +found at his residence. In one corner the game of <i>Par et Impar</i>—"odd +or even"—might perhaps have been played; for nothing can be more +purely classical than the origin of some of those sports which form +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +almost the only pretexts for the employment of our modern street-keepers. +A portion of the guests might have been amusing themselves +with the <i>Tali</i>, or "knuckle-bones," others might have been employed +at <i>Jactus bolus</i>—"pitch and toss;" while here and there among the +revellers might have been heard the familiar cry of <i>Aut caput aut navem</i>—the +"heads or tails" <a name="of_antiquity" id="of_antiquity"></a>of antiquity.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0039.png" width="424" height="500" alt="Mrs. Sextus consoles herself with a Little Party." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mrs. Sextus consoles herself with a Little Party.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>Their next call was at the house of Collatinus, whose wife, Lucretia, +was also engaged with a ball, but it was of cotton, and instead of +devoting herself to the whirl of the dance, she was spinning with +her maids, by way of spinning out the long, dreary hours of her +husband's absence. Sextus at once admitted that Collatinus had +indeed got a treasure of a wife, and the officers returned to the camp; +but a few evenings afterwards, availing himself of the introduction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +her husband, Sextus paid the lady a second visit. Being a kinsman, +he was asked to make himself at home, but his manner became so +strange, that Lucretia could not make him out; and as he did not seem +disposed to go home till morning, she retired to her chamber, with the +impression, no doubt, that being left alone in the sitting-room he would +take the hint, order his horse, and proceed to his lodgings. Lucretia +was, however, disturbed in the middle of the night by Sextus, who was +standing over her with a drawn sword, and who was guilty of such +brutal insolence, that she sent a messenger, the first thing in the +morning, to fetch her husband from Ardea, and her father from Rome, +who speedily arrived with his friend, P. Valerius, a highly respectable +man, who afterwards got the name of Publicola. Collatinus brought with +him L. J. Brutus, and Lucretia having rapidly run through the story +of her wrongs, she still more rapidly run through herself before any one +had time to arrest the deadly weapon. Revenge against Tarquin and +his whole race was instantly sworn, in a sort of quartette, by the four +friends, and L. J. Brutus, snatching up the dagger, made a great +point of it in a speech he addressed to the people in the market place. +Indignation was now thoroughly roused against the Tarquin family, and +Brutus, proceeding to Rome, called a public meeting in the Forum. He +opened the business of the day by stating what had been done, and +having made his deposition he proposed the deposition of the king; +when it was moved, by way of amendment, and carried unanimously, +that the resolution should be extended by the addition of the words, +"and the banishment of his wife and family." A volunteer corps was at +once formed to set out for Ardea, where the king was supposed to +be; but on hearing of the insurrection, he had at once decamped from +the camp, and proceeded to Rome, where he found the gates closed, and +feeling himself shut out from the throne, he took refuge with his two +sons, Titus and Aruns, at Caere, in Etruria. There history loses sight +of the old king, but Sextus has been traced to Gabii, a principality +of which he thought he was the head; but the people soon undeceived +him, by showing him they would have no head at all, for they cut him +off one day in a tumult.</p> + +<p>Tullia had fled, and it is not known whither; but mercy to the +fallen king would lead us to hope that the queen had gone in a +different direction from that which he had taken. The Ardeans +agreed to a truce for fifteen years—a somewhat lengthy letter of +license—during which all hostile proceedings were to be stayed, and +the people decreed the total abolition of the kingly dignity. The royal +stock was converted, as it were, into consuls, and L. Junius Brutus, +with L. Tarquinius Collatinus, were elected for one year, to fill the +latter character.</p> + +<p>Before closing an account of what is usually termed the kingly period +of the history of Rome, it is due to truth to state, that though some of +the alleged kings were good and others were bad, they must all be +considered as very doubtful characters. The fact of their existence +depends on no better authority than certain annals, compiled more than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +a century and a half after the materials for compiling them had been +destroyed; and we are thus driven to rely upon the statements of certain +story-tellers, belonging, we fear, to a class, whose memories, according +to the proverb, ought to be excellent. In pretending to recollect what +they never knew, they have sometimes forgotten themselves, and in +building up their stories, they have shown how mere fabrication may +raise an ostensibly solid fabric.</p> + +<p>Of the seven kings, who are said to have ruled in Rome during a +period of nearly two hundred and fifty years, three or four were +murdered; another subsided in a bog, and another ran for his life, +which he saved by his speed, though he was the last of the race of royalty. +It is difficult to spread these seven sovereigns over a space of two +centuries and a half, and we feel that we might as well attempt to cover +an acre of bread with a thin slice of ham, or turn the river Thames into +negus by throwing a few glasses of sherry into it. Of the earliest +Roman annals, some were burnt, leaving nothing to the student but the +tinder, from which it is, in these days, hardly possible to obtain much +light, but the greater portion of the early history of Rome has come +down to us by tradition, that extraordinary carrier, who is continually +adding to the bulk, but diminishing the weight of the matters consigned +to it for delivery.</p> + +<p>Of the condition of the people at this early period little or nothing +can be known, and to amuse ourselves with idle guesses, would be scarcely +better than to turn into a game of blindman's buff the important +business of history. We can however state, with confidence, that the +earliest Romans had no regular coinage, but were in the habit of +answering with brass, in the rudest shape, the demands of their +creditors. Servius Tullius is reputed to have been the first who converted +the brass into coin, and marked it with the figure of a horse or +some other animal,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> as an emblem, perhaps, of the fact, that money +runs away very rapidly.</p> + +<p>Among the early Romans, the most honourable occupations were +agriculture and war; the latter enabling the citizens to make a conquest +of the soil with the sword, and the former teaching them to subdue it to +their purposes by the implements of husbandry. Trade and commerce +were held in contempt, and left to the plebeians; the patrician considering +himself suitably employed only when he was thrashing his corn, or +performing the same operation on his enemies.</p> + +<p>During the early existence of the city the native artists were few, and +the great works of architecture undertaken by the later kings were +embellished by foreign talent from Etruria. The writing-master had +made so little progress in ancient Rome, that it is doubtful whether +many of the patricians could write their own names; and even some of +the most distinguished characters of the day were men of mark, not only +by their position, but by their signatures. +</p> + +<p>It is not very gratifying to the friends of education to find that though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +ignorance was almost universal among the early Romans, there was a +wholesome tone of morality among the people, which led them, not only +to condemn in their traditions the cruelty and laxity of principle prevailing +in the family of their last king, but to pay due reverence to the +domestic virtues of Lucretia. The legend of the latter being found +spinning with her maids, while the princesses of the house of Tarquin +were reeling in the dance, during the absence of their respective husbands, +is sufficient to show the estimation in which decency and +sobriety were held, as well as the odium that attached to riotous revelry. +The patrician youth of infant and unlettered Rome would have been +ashamed of those nocturnal gambols which have prevailed among portions +of the juvenile aristocracy and gentry in more civilised countries, +and in a more enlightened age, when door-knockers, and bell-handles, +have been carried off as the <i>spolia opima</i> of some disorderly triumph.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0042.png" width="400" height="353" alt="" title="" /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Some say that Tarquinius Priscus bought the books; but it is of little consequence +who was the real buyer, as the whole story is very probably "a sell" on the part of the +narrators, as well as of the sibyl.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Cicero. It is true this was said at a much later time than that of which we are now +writing; but dancing, except in connection with certain ceremonies, was considered +degrading by the Romans from the earliest period.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Hence, from the word <i>pecus</i>, cattle, was derived <i>pecunia</i>, signifying money, and +giving rise to our own word "pecuniary."</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE FIFTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE BANISHMENT OF TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS TO THE BATTLE OF<br /> +LAKE REGILLUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 113px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0043.png" width="113" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left:-1em" class="smcap">rutus</span>, who had gained his eminence by +swearing that there should be no monarch +or single ruler in Rome, found himself in +sole possession of the supreme authority. +His position presents nothing very remarkable +to the modern observer, who is accustomed +to see those who have denounced a +system yesterday participating in the profits +of the same system to-day, and declaring +their own arguments to be thoroughly out +of place, as applied to themselves when in +office. Brutus, however, could not consistently +exercise a power he had sworn +to overthrow; and to carry out his anti-monarchical +principles, he had either to +go out himself, or to ask for a colleague. +On the same principle that prefers the half +quartern to utter loaflessness, Brutus proposed +a partnership in the government; +and Collatinus was taken into the firm, which proved to have no +firmness at all, for it was dissolved very speedily. The difficulty of +agreement between two of the same trade was severely felt by the +two popular reformers, who were dividing the substance without the +name of that power they had vowed to destroy; it was soon evident +that if they had thought it too much for one, they considered it not +enough for two; and they were accordingly always quarrelling. To +prevent collision, they tried the experiment of taking the supreme +authority by turns, each assuming the fasces for a month at a time; but +this alternate chopping of the regal sticks, or fasces, which were the +emblems of power, led to nothing satisfactory.</p> + +<p>A question at length arose, upon which the duality of the ruling +mind was so distinctly marked, that the two consuls, whose very name +is derived from <i>con</i>, with, and <i>salio</i>, to leap, were trying to leap in two +opposite ways; and an end of their own power was the only conclusion +to which they were likely to jump together. Tarquin had retired to +Caere, waiting the chances of a restoration of his line; but his line had +fallen into such contempt, that he was fishing in vain for his recall, +though he nevertheless sent ambassadors to demand the restoration of +himself, or at all events of his private property.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +The senate decreed that though Tarquin could not have the fasces, +he was at liberty to make a bundle of all the other sticks that might +belong to him. On this question Brutus and Collatinus were violently +opposed, and both becoming hot, their excessive warmth led to a mutual +coolness that ended in an open hostility, which shut out every hope of +compromise. Collatinus gave in by going out, and was succeeded by +P. Valerius, one of the party of four who had roused the popular spirit +over the bier of Lucretia.</p> + +<p>Tarquin's ambassadors, instead of being satisfied with the permission +to remove his goods, had other objects in the back-ground; for they +had a plan for his restoration in the rear, while they let nothing appear +in the van, but the late king's furniture. The plot was being discussed +after dinner, by a party of the conspirators, when one of the waiters, +who had concealed himself behind the door, overheard the scheme, and +ran to Valerius with the exclusive intelligence. The traitors were +secured, and when they were brought up before the consuls, Brutus +recognising among the offenders his two sons, subjected both them and +himself to a very severe trial. Asking them what they had to say to +the charge, and getting "nothing" in reply, he looked in the faces of +his sons, and declaring that he must class all malefactors under one +general head, which must be cut off, he called upon the lictors to do +their duty. In leaving the other prisoners to be tried by Valerius, +Brutus whispered to his colleague, "Now try them, and acquit them, if +you can;" but he could only execute the law, and the law could only +execute the criminals. The ambassadors were allowed to remain at +large, though their plotting proved that they had been at something +very little; and the government withdrew the permission that had +been granted for the removal of Tarquin's goods, which were divided by +means of a scramble among the populace.</p> + +<p>Thus Tarquin, who had broken the twenty valuable tables of Servius, +was doomed to have the tables turned upon him by the destruction of +his own, while every leaf of the former was restored under the Consular +government. The landed estates of the Tarquins were distributed +among the plebeians, so that the banished family had no chance of +recovering their lost ground, which was afterwards known as the Field +of Mars, or Campus Martius. The corn on the confiscated property +was ripe; but the people felt a conscientious objection to consuming +the produce which no labour of their own had reared; and they did not +allow the tyrant's grain to outweigh their honest scruple. Throwing +all idea of profit overboard, they cast the corn into the Tiber, which, it +is said, was so shallow, that the sheaves stuck in the mud, and +formed the small island known as the Insula Tiberina. That a piece +of land, however small, should be formed by a crop of corn, however +plentiful, is difficult to believe: but the story of the wheat can only +find reception from the very longest ears; for common sense will admit +that in the effort to give credit to the tale, it must go thoroughly +against the grain on a proper sifting of all the evidence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +Tarquin relinquishing his hopes of a restoration by stratagem, +resolved on resorting to strategy, and brought into the field a large +army, of which the Veii formed a considerable part, and his son Aruns +headed the Etruscan cavalry. The Roman consuls commanded their +own forces; Valerius being at the head of the foot, and Brutus +mounted on a clever cob, with a strong sword, that might be called a +useful hack, taking the lead of the equestrians. When Aruns entered +the field, he recognised Brutus in Tarquin's cloak, and the young man +felt the blood mantling with indignation into his cheek at the first +sight of the mantle. He instantly made for Brutus, who with equal +eagerness made for Aruns, and so violent was the collision, that the +breath was knocked at one blow out of both their bodies.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0045.png" width="350" height="233" alt="Aruns and Brutus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Aruns and Brutus.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>The hostile leaders having fallen to the ground, the battle shared +their fate, and both armies withdrew to their camps; but neither would +allow the other the credit of a victory. The legend goes on to state +that the god Silvanus—an alarmist among the classical deities, and +synonymous with Pan—was heard shouting in the night that the +Etruscans having lost one man more than the Romans, the latter had +gained the battle. This announcement of the result of the contest, +though only by a majority of one, so alarmed the Etruscans, who were +always panic struck at the voice of Pan, that they took to flight, leaving +the enemy to carry everything before them, including all the property +that the fugitives had left behind them. The remains of Brutus were +brought to the Forum, where they lay in state; but the state in which +they lay was truly deplorable; for the deceased consul had been so +knocked about, that had he been alive, he would scarcely have +known himself, even by the aid of reflection. His colleague, Valerius,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +delivered an oration over his departed virtues, making a catalogue of +the whole, and fixing the highest price to every one of them.</p> + +<p>The question of "Shall Brutus have a statue?" was soon answered +in the affirmative, and he was placed among the kings, though he had +destroyed the monarchy. Where failure constitutes the traitor, success +makes the patriot: and upon the merest accident may depend the question +whether the originator of a design against a bad government shall go to +the block of the sculptor, or to that of the executioner.</p> + +<p>P. Valerius was in no hurry to ask the people for a colleague, and +he for some time did the whole of the business of the chief magistracy +himself; so that had it not been for the mere name of the office, +Rome might just as well have remained a monarchy. This fact seems +to have flashed at last on the public mind; and when it was found that +P. Valerius was building himself a stone residence, in a strong position, a +rumour was spread abroad that he was aiming at the foundation of his +own house, or family, in the kingly power. On hearing the report he +immediately stopped the works of his intended residence, and having +called a meeting of the curiæ, he appeared before them with his fasces +reversed; a sign that the bundles of rods were not intended to be used on +the backs of the people alone, but that they were held, as it were, in +trust, and in pickle for the punishment of delinquency in general. This +treatment of the fasces so fascinated the people, that they acquitted +P. Valerius of every charge, and acknowledging their suspicions of a +plot to be groundless, they gave him a plot of ground to build his house +upon. Pleased with the taste of popularity, he continued to court it +with so much success, that he gained the name of Publicola, or one +who honours the public; and he certainly introduced many very wholesome +legal reforms, by dabbling in law, in a spirit truly lau-dable. He +gave an appeal from the magistrate to the people, in cases where the +punishment awarded had been a fine, a whipping, or a hanging; and +in the last instance the provision was extremely salutary, for the suspending +of a sentence might often avoid the necessity for suspending +an alleged criminal. This right of appeal was, however, limited to +within a mile from the city; an arrangement that would have justified +the formation of a league to abolish the mile, as an unnecessary distinction, +of which we can only expose the absurdity, by suggesting the +possibility of an offence committed at Knightsbridge being punishable +at Newgate with immediate death; while the culprit of Holborn Hill, +though nearer the place of execution, would be further from the scaffold.</p> + +<p>Having passed several salutary acts, and secured, as it were, the cream +of popularity to himself, he proposed the election of a colleague who might +share the skim with him. The new consul was Spurius Lucretius; but +poor Spurius enjoyed none of the genuine sweets of power. He was so +far advanced in years, at the period of his advancement to office, that he +had already one foot in the grave, and the other foot went in after it +immediately on his taking his new position. M. Horatius Pulvillius was +chosen in the poor old man's stead, and an incident speedily happened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +which caused a difference, leading to something more than personal +indifference between the two consuls. The temple of Jupiter, on the +Capitoline, so called from the incident already related, of the Caput +Toli, or head of Tolus, had not yet been dedicated; and it having been +arranged that the thing was to be done, the next question that arose +was, "Who is to do it?" Both consuls were anxious for the job; and +it was at length arranged that lots should be drawn, in order to settle +the undecided point, which had led to such a decided coolness between +P. Valerius and his colleague. Horatius was the happy man whom +fortune favoured by her choice; and he was in the act of performing +the ceremony, when, without any ceremony at all, a messenger rushed +in, exclaiming that the son of the consul had suddenly expired. Believing +the alarm to be false, Horatius hinted at his suspicion of its being +one of the blackest of jobs, by suggesting that those who brought the +news should go and attend the funeral. "As for me," he exclaimed, +"I have other engagements just now;" and, continuing the work of +dedication, he proceeded to mark the commencement of a new era, by +driving a huge nail into the wall of the temple. Such was the mode +by which chronology was taught to the early Romans, who had their +dates literally hammered into them; and, as long as the consul hit the +right nail upon the head, or went upon the proper tack, mistake was +almost impossible.</p> + +<p>The first specimen of diplomacy to be met with in the records of +Rome must be referred to the first year of the Republic, when a treaty +was concluded with Carthage, and engraved on brazen tables. The +material was appropriate to the purpose it served; and the language +was so obscure, that a modern treaty could scarcely have surpassed it +in ambiguity. Some parts of it were unintelligible to the most learned +of the Romans themselves; and, had any difference arisen as to the +interpretation of the treaty, the tables must have been left to brazen it +out; for no one could have explained their meaning. Though the document +may have mystified many things, it made one thing clear, for it proved +history to have been wrong in stating that Horatius succeeded Brutus, +for they are described as both being consuls together at the date of the +treaty. In following the ordinary version or perversion of the facts or +fictions connected with the rise of Rome, we take history as we find it; +and though much of it is known to be false, we, by continually making +the admission, prevent the bane from remaining very long without the +antidote.</p> + +<p>P. Valerius was still consul, with P. Lucretius for a colleague, when +the old King Tarquin happened to be on a visit, at Clusium, in Etruria, +with the local Lar, Porsenna.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> After supper, Tarquin often grew +garrulous about his alleged wrongs, and worked on the sympathies of +his host, who declared the Romans should receive, through the medium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +of Porsenna, a tremendous physicking. The Lar accordingly set forth +at the head of his army, and its approach being announced, the people +in the suburbs of Rome were frightened out of their wits, and into the +city. Throughout the whole of his journey, Porsenna administered a +strong dose to all that opposed his way; and he scoured the country by +the most drastic system of pillage. On arriving at Rome, he at once +forced the Janiculum, the garrison rushing with their leader at their +head, and the foe almost at their heels, into the city. Nothing was now +between the Romans and their assailants but the wooden bridge, or +<i>Pons Sublicius</i>; and when the people asked for consolation from their +consul, he had none to offer them. Looking at the water, he saw there +was no time for reflection; and he ordered the bridge to be cut down, +when Horatius Cocles, the gatekeeper, volunteered to offer a check to +the enemy. "I want but two," cried Horatius, "two only are wanted, +to join with me in throwing for that great stake, the safety of Rome;" +and there immediately presented themselves, as ready to "stand the +hazard of the die," if die they must, the youthful Spurius Lartius of the +Neminian race, and Herminius, belonging to the Tities. The three +heroes took their station at the foot of the bridge, resolved that no one +should pass without paying a poll-tax, in the shape of a blow on the +head, which the valiant trio stood prepared to administer. A shout of +derisive laughter was the only salute they received from the Etruscan +army; but the laughter was soon transferred to the other side of the +Etruscan mouth, and subsided altogether when no less than half-a-dozen +tongues were found to have licked the dust, instead of the enemy. +Porsenna's army had advanced to the sound of trumpets, which seemed +no longer in a flourishing condition, but were as incapable of dealing +out a blow as the soldiers themselves. A few of the troops in the rear +shouted "Forward!" to those in the van; but there was such a determined +cry of "Keep back!" among the foremost men, that all were +under the influence of a general gib, and every rank gave evidence of +rank cowardice.</p> + +<p>While the Etruscans were shaking in their shoes on one side of the +river, the Romans were shivering their own timbers, and knocking +down beams and rafters on the other. They had razed the bridge to +the ground, or rather lowered it to the water, when they called to their +gallant defenders to come back, while there was still a plank left—a +single deal to enable them to cut over to their partners.</p> + +<p>Lartius and Herminius, seeing the game was nearly over, thought the +only card they had to play was to discard their companion, and save +themselves by a trick, which, however, would leave all the honours to +Horatius. The two former darted across just before the remainder of +the bridge fell, splashing into the water below, and rendering the tide +untidy with the broken fragments.</p> + +<p>Horatius was now alone in his glory, with the foe before him, and +the flood behind; his only alternative being between a fatally hot reception +by the one, and an uncomfortably cold reception by the other. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +Disdaining to beg for mercy from Porsenna, he prayed for pity from the +Tiber, and making a bold plunge, he threw himself on the kind indulgence +of the river. Being fastened up in armour, his case was a particularly +hard one, and being encumbered as he was with his arms, to +use his legs was scarcely possible. He nevertheless got on swimmingly, +for his heart never sank, and at length, feeling his foot touch the +bottom, he knew that his hopes were not groundless.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0049.png" width="400" height="330" alt="Horatius Cocles Defending the Bridge." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Horatius Cocles Defending the Bridge.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>By courage and strength Horatius prevailed over every obstacle, and +Cocles owed to the cockles of his heart, as well as to the muscles of his +body, the happy results of his hazardous experiment. To recompense +him for his risk by water, the grateful nation gave him a large portion +of land, and erected his statue in the Comitium, a portion of the Forum +from which orators were in the habit of holding forth, and where the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +figure of Horatius was placed to speak for itself to the populace. +Though the enemy was kept out of the city, the Romans were kept +in, while provisions were growing shorter and shorter every day—a sort +of growth that led of course to a constant diminution. Such was the +gratitude of the citizens to Horatius, that they subscribed to give him +always as much as he could eat; and although the fact involves a pun +we abominate, we are obliged to state the truth, that, in order to give +him his desert, many went without their dinners.</p> + +<p>The Romans had declared they would hold out to the last, and +though they were left with scarcely any food, though they might +have at once procured it, had they consented to eat their own +words, they declined to satisfy their hunger by such a humiliating +process. All hope of saving the city being apparently lost, the senate +entered into an agreement with one Caius Mucius, who could talk a +little Tuscan, and who undertook to go across the water for the purpose +of killing Porsenna. Mucius disguised himself in an Etrurian helmet—a +sort of Tuscan bonnet—and with a sword concealed under the +folds of his ample Roman wrap-rascal, he arrived at Porsenna's +camp, just as the salaries were being paid to the soldiers. While +the troops were intent on drawing their pay, Mucius slily drew +his sword, and seeing an individual rather handsomely dressed, rushed +upon him to administer to him, with the weapon, a most unhandsome +dressing.</p> + +<p>The individual thus assailed was rapidly despatched, but it turned out +that the victim, instead of being the king, was an unfortunate scribe, or +writer, who could have been by no means prepared for this unusual fate +of genius. Had the critics unmercifully cut him up, the scribe would +have felt that his death was, to a certain extent, in the way of business; +but to be murdered by mistake for a king, was a result that any member +of the republic of letters might fairly have objected to. It may appear +at first sight startling that a literary man should have been well-dressed, +and in the company of a king, but it must be remembered +that the scribe was not necessarily a man of remarkable ability. His +art was that of a mere copyist, which, even in these days, frequently +gains a reputation for the imitator, who is often confounded with, +instead of being confounded by the man of original genius. The +scribes of antiquity, like many modern writers, did no more than set +down the thoughts of others, and, as their style was extremely hard, +consisting of a piece of iron, with which they wrote upon wax, their +works were not likely to make a very deep or lasting impression.</p> + +<p>Our pity for the unfortunate literary character is considerably +lessened by the fact, that being in the camp he had no doubt been dining +with the guards; and we know he was wearing a showy dress—two +circumstances indicating an affectation of the manners of the fast man, +which are always unbecoming to the man of letters.</p> + +<p>Mucius was about to retire after the execution of the deed, but he was +seized by the attendants, and then seized by remorse when he was informed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +that he had despatched a harmless literary man instead of Porsenna. +Being taken to the king, Mucius found him sitting before the fire of a +large altar. The Etruscan chief, on hearing the charge, pointed out the +penalty that had been incurred, when the prisoner, thrusting his right +hand into the fire, allowed it to remain, with extraordinary coolness, or, +rather, with most intense heat, until it was consumed as far as the wrist; +and he concluded the act of self incendiarism, by declaring there were +three hundred others who were just as ready as himself to take up arms +and burn off a hand, in defiance of their oppressor. Porsenna, who had +watched the painful process with extreme interest, was so delighted at the +fortitude displayed, that he jumped from his seat, and mentally remarking +that "the fellow was a wonderfully cool hand at an operation of the +kind," ordered some guards to conduct him in safety to Rome; at the +same time advising Mucius to conduct himself more wisely for the +future.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0051.png" width="400" height="380" alt="Mucius Scævola before Porsenna." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mucius Scævola before Porsenna.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>Mucius returned to Rome, where he obtained the name of Scævola +(from <i>Scærus</i>) in consequence of his being left-handed, or it might have +been because of his having evinced such an utter want of dexterity in +the business he had undertaken.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +Porsenna, having heard that there were three hundred Romans +ready to take his life, felt uneasy at such fearful odds as three +hundred to one against him; nor could he enjoy a moment's peace with +himself until a peace with Rome was concluded. He sent ambassadors +to negotiate a treaty, which was soon arranged; the only difficulty +arising on the subject of the proposed restoration of Tarquin, which his +subjects would not listen to; and, though he and Porsenna had hitherto +rowed in the same boat, the latter found it absolutely necessary to +throw the former overboard. Rome was compelled to return the territory +taken from the Veii, and Porsenna claimed several hostages, among +whom were sundry young ladies of the principal Roman families. One +of these was named Clælia, who, with other maidens, having resolved on +a bold plunge for their liberty, jumped into the Tiber's bed, and swam like +a party of ducks to the other side of the river. Clælia ran home in her +dripping clothes, but, instead of a warm reception, she was met with a +wet blanket, for her father fearing that her having absconded would be +visited upon Rome, sent her back like a runaway school-girl to the +camp of Porsenna. That individual behaved with his usual magnanimity, +for he not only pardoned Clælia and her companions, but sent +them home to their parents, who, perhaps, knew better than Porsenna +how to manage them.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0052.png" width="400" height="276" alt="Clælia and her Companions escaping from the Etruscan Camp." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Clælia and her Companions escaping from the Etruscan Camp.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The Etruscan monarch seems to have been one of those who could +do nothing by halves, but having once granted quarter to the foe, he +was not satisfied until he had surrendered the whole of what he had +taken from the vanquished. He gave them unprovisionally all the +provisions remaining in his camp, and, in fact, he left behind him so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +many goods and chattels, that at public auctions it was customary for +many years afterwards to advertise the effects as "the property of +King Porsenna." Returning to Clusium, he is believed to have shut +himself up at home, and never stirred out again, for we meet with him +no more in any of the highways or byways of history.</p> + +<p>The Romans having recovered from the blow, or series of blows, they +had received from Porsenna, were prepared to turn their anger on the +subject nearest at hand, and the Sabines were conveniently situated to +receive a great deal of it. Irritated by the enemy, the Sabines lost +their temper towards each other, and several of them, among whom +were Atta Clausus, or Appius Claudius and family, went over to Rome. +The renegades were received by their new allies with honour; for +apostacy, which should carry with it disgrace, was even in those days +treated too often as a virtue. The Claudii were made patricians of +Rome, which seems to have always courted converts by offering the highest +price to those who were ready to part with their old opinions and principles. +Valerius Publicola—or as some call him, Popli-cola, one who +honoured the people—died soon after the last-mentioned event, and +received the compliment of a magnificent funeral. The procession +commenced with a band of pipers, every one of whom the public +paid, and the crown was carried in state; but on such an occasion +as this, the empty crown could be suggestive of nothing but its own +hollowness.</p> + +<p>The armour belonging to the deceased was buried with him, as if in +mockery of its uselessness against the attacks of the grim enemy; and +the face was painted, as is still the custom in Italy, where the attempt +to disguise the complexion to which we must come at last, only gives to +the reality a hideousness neither necessary nor natural. After the +funeral of a great or a much lamented man, it was usual to hang branches +of cypress on his house, and his gates were decorated with pine by those +who were left pining after him.</p> + +<p>It was about this period that the great battle of Lake Regillus is +supposed to have been fought, when the Latins, who had been trying to +translate into Latin everything belonging to Rome, were at length +taught that the Roman character was strong enough to maintain its own +individuality.</p> + +<p>In times of extreme peril, it has always been found that two heads, +instead of being better than one, are likely to neutralise each other, and +to reduce the supreme power under one head is the best mode of making +it effectual. The Romans, when seriously threatened by the Latins, +proceeded at once to the appointment of a dictator, from whose decrees +there should be no appeal; so that whatever he said should be no +sooner said than done—a principle of action which contributes materially +to the success of every great enterprise. P. Lartius was the first +dictator; but we can find no traces of his dictation, and he seems to +have been speedily superseded by Aulus Postumius, whose sword is said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +to have been known "to bite,"<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>—a propensity which must have +rendered his blade rather liable to snap, unless its temper was excellent. +The appointment of dictator was only for six months; so that the people +were soon absolved from the absolute power under which they placed +themselves. The best piece of patronage at the disposal of the dictator, +was the place of Master of the Horse, which Aulus conferred on +Æbutius; the latter acting completely under the guidance of the +former, who never parted with the reins while deputing the mastership +of the horse to another. Aulus and Æbutius set forward towards the +Lake Regillus, on the margin of which they waited till it was pitch dark +before they pitched their tent, with the intention of preparing for a +pitched battle.</p> + +<p>The Latins were led by Mamilius, and the foe being face to face, +engaged themselves hand to hand with the most desperate energy. +According to the legend, Æbutius and Mamilius, meeting in the thick +of the fight, came individually to blows, which resulted in the unhorsing +of the Master of the Horse, who was almost bored to death with the +points of the swords of the enemy. At one time the battle seemed so +much in favour of the Latins, that Aulus entreated the Romans not to +resign themselves to the ravens, to be crowed over in a double sense, by +the birds of prey and the enemy. So mutual was the slaughter, and so +equal the bravery on both sides, that it would have been difficult to +decide the battle; and the legend, in its equal apportionment of valour +to each party, would have come to no practical result, had not supernatural +agency stepped in opportunely to give to one side the victory. +Two gigantic youths were seen fighting on the Roman side, and though +nobody knew their names, their address was the admiration of every +one. Their valour was shown at the expense of the unfortunate Latins, +who, unable to sustain the heavy charge that was now made upon them, +made no further attempt to meet any engagement, but resorted to +flight, as the only act that seemed to offer benefit.</p> + +<p>The warriors wore nothing on their heads, and many surmises arose +as to who they could be; but nobody suspected the truth,—that the +heroes, without helmets or hats, were Castor, who never was unaccompanied +by his friend Pollux, and Pollux, who never went anywhere +without his Castor. The same noble youths were the first to announce +in Rome the news of the victory, acting as "their own reporters" of +their own exploits. Having delivered their message, they disappeared +as mysteriously as they came; for the legend loses sight of them in a +horse-trough near the temple of Vesta. Hither they repaired to water +their steeds, and to refresh themselves at an adjacent well; and those +who feel the insatiable thirst of curiosity, are referred to the bottom of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +this well for the truth, if a deeper inquiry into the legend is desired. +For many ages a superstitious reverence was shown for the margin of +the Lake Regillus, where a mark, said to be the impression of a celestial +horse's hoof, remained, to make a lasting impression on the softness of +credulity.</p> + +<p>We have hitherto been swimming, as well as we can, in the sea of +conjecture, catching eagerly at the lightest cork or bladder, in the shape +of fact, to keep us afloat in the stream of events flowing from legendary +sources.</p> + +<p>The continuation of the journey will be chiefly on the <i>terra firma</i> of +fact; and, instead of being, now and then, so thoroughly at sea as to +find ourselves wandering into the wildest latitudes, with no other pilot +than tradition, we shall henceforth, in our progress, have good and +substantial grounds to go upon. Hitherto we have had credulity +pulling at the oars, the idle and uncertain breezes of rumour filling our +sails, and our rudder in the hands of various authorities distinguished +for nothing but their disagreement with each other, and who would, in +fact, be without distinction of any kind if they were without a difference.</p> + +<p>We are now about to pursue our journey by a more certain road, to +carry on our history, as it were, by the rail; and, though the line may +be a peculiar one of our own, the train of facts will be regular, coming, +we trust into no violent collision with others pursuing the same path, +and arriving, in due time, at the appointed terminus.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Niebuhr spells the word with a double n, in the penultimate syllable; but Macaulay, +who quotes four verses from different writers in favour of his orthography, writes the +word Porsena, with the penultimate short.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> +</p> +<p> +"Camerium knows how deeply<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The sword of Aulus bites,</span><br /> +And all our city calls him<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The man of seventy fights."</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 2em;" class="smcap">Macaulay</span>'s <i>Lay of the Battle of the Lake Regillus</i>.<br /> + +</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE SIXTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLUS TO THE CLOSE OF THE<br /> +WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 151px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0056.png" width="151" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span class="smcap">he</span> resources of Rome had hitherto +been derived from the plunder +taken in war, but the field of battle +is always far less fertile than the +field of industry. In the former +case, the crop once gathered is +rendered for ever unproductive, +and to beat the same enemy twice +over, is like the useless operation +of thrashing straw; for if, in either +case, the first thrashing has been +complete, there is nothing to be +got by a second. The plebeians +had been so long withdrawn from +the cultivation of the land, that +they found it extremely awkward +to cultivate a second time an +acquaintance once dropped; and +the earth having been hitherto +regarded as <i>infra dig.</i>, was not +likely to yield much to those who had despised until they wanted it. +The plebeians could only reap what they had sown, and as they had +sown nothing of any value, they had fallen into a state of extreme +seediness. Begging and borrowing were the only alternatives of those +who could no longer steal, and the patrician body became a sort of loan +society to the plebeians, who pledged themselves not only morally, but +physically, for the return of the money that had been advanced to them. +The law of debtor and creditor was extremely stringent in ancient Rome; +and indeed its stringency amounted almost to a rope round the debtor's +neck; for if he could not pay within a certain time, he was tied down as +the slave of his creditor. In this position the assailant was called an +<i>addictus</i>, for he was regularly sold, without even the equity of redemption +being allowed to him. If the borrower had only pledged himself +without an actual sale, he was simply a <i>nexus</i>, with the power of paying +off his debt by either money or work; but if he could do neither, he +became an <i>addictus</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> forthwith, when he was thrown into chains, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +wore nothing but the stripes, which were the ordinary livery of that +disgraceful state of servitude.</p> + +<p>Appius Claudius had been chosen Consul, with P. Servilius as a +colleague, in the year of the City 258, when a miserable old insolvent, +with his hair like a mat, giving evidence of the severe rubs that had +fallen on his head, rushed into the forum. His face had the paleness +of ashes, and many tried to sift his countenance, in which the marks of +his having been ground down to the dust were plainly visible. His +back bore traces of recent scores, every one of which he declared should +be accounted as a score to be paid off upon his oppressors. His farm +had been burned down, and its contents burned up; his cattle had been +driven he knew not where, while he himself had been driven to distraction. +The tax-gatherer had, nevertheless, been as punctual as ever in +his calls, and having soundly rated the ruined agriculturist for not being +ready with his rates, the latter had been compelled to run into debt; +for the Romans had not made insurance against fire any feature of their +policy. Having been unable to pay his debts, the impoverished farmer +became the slave of his creditor; and the shoulders of the former bore +unmistakeable marks of the latter having got the whip-hand of him. +The excitement in the forum was intense; for all were seized with indignation, +who might possibly be seized for debt; and every one who +owed anything to anybody began to feel that he owed a great deal more +to common humanity. A popular outbreak seemed to be close at hand, +and the two Consuls consulted together on the crisis. Appius Claudius +gave it as his opinion, that as the people were put up, the best way was +to put them down; but his colleague, Servilius, was an advocate for a +milder regimen. At this juncture, news arrived of the Volscian army +having set out for Rome; and the plebeians being called upon to enlist, +declared that they would not enlist themselves at the bidding of those +who would do nothing to enlist their sympathies. In this difficult +dilemma, P. Servilius promised that if they would come out and fight, +they should be released from prison during the war; and guaranteed +that if they would present a bold front to the enemy's sword, their +backs should be safe from the scourge of domestic tyranny. There was +an immediate rush of insolvents into the ranks, which were soon filled +almost to overflowing; for as a great majority of the population +happened to be hopelessly in debt, a summons to the field was the +only sort of summons their appearance to which might have been +reasonably relied upon.</p> + +<p>They fought with the energy of desperation, for each rank had sworn +an oath, and there was an affidavit, therefore, on every file, to do +execution on the Volscians. Never were bankrupts more determined +to avoid a surrender than the band of defaulters who went forth to +meet the foe with a confidence, which would, probably, have disappeared +had they recognised at the meeting a single one of their creditors. +The success of the Romans was complete, and those who had fought +upon the understanding that every blow they struck was to wipe out a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +debt, returned home in the expectation that every old liability had been +rubbed off, and that they would be free to rub on as they best could for +the future. They were, however, doomed to bitter disappointment, for +Appius Claudius declared that no faith ought to be kept with those who +had kept no faith with their creditors; and all the debtors who were not +prepared to pay upon the nail had the screw cruelly applied to them. +The debtors were sent back to their prisons, and many an unfortunate +insolvent, as he thought of the imposition that had been practised upon +him, could only cast his eyes upon the walls of his dungeon, and +murmur at the dreadful cell of which he had become the victim. The +bolts and bars of oppression would have brought liberty to a dead lock, +had it not been for the people outside the gaols, who threatened to rise +for the purpose of falling upon the tyrants. At this critical period +Rome was menaced by the Sabines, when the plebeians were called upon +to enlist; but they declared they would be recruits of the very rawest +description if they allowed themselves to be again done as they had been +already. Public meetings were held on the Esquiline and Aventine +hills, where liberal sentiments, which have now become as old as the hills +themselves, fell upon the popular ear with all the charm and force of +novelty. The patricians were divided as to the best means of dealing +with the difficulty their own misconduct had created, and it was obvious +that the fatal error having been committed of refusing to accede to a +just demand, the scarcely less dangerous mistake of yielding to violence +and clamour was the only course that could now be followed. The +patricians would have stood by their order; but the difficulty was to +know how public order, as well as their own order, could be preserved; +and it was at length agreed that a dictator should be appointed. The +choice fell upon M. Valerius, a moderate man, whom the plebeians could +trust, for he came of a good stock, his father being no other than that +great gun of the popular party, the famous Publicola. A large army +was soon ready to take the field, or to take anything else that came in +the ordinary course of battle. Valerius marched against the Sabines, +who fled, or, more literally speaking, decamped; for they left behind +them their camp, which was taken by the enemy.</p> + +<p>On his return to Rome in triumph, the dictator asked for an inquiry +into the people's wrongs, with a view to giving them their rights; but +the patrician party in the senate refusing him his committee, Valerius +sent in his resignation, which was accepted by the senate. He +apologised to the plebeians for not having been able to carry his measures +of reform; and the patricians, pleased by his moderation in resigning +his seat, gave him a curule chair—a sort of portable stall, or reserved +seat, which, at the Circensian games he was privileged to occupy.</p> + +<p>The Curule Chair, or Sella Curulis, invites us to pause for a moment, +and hold a short sitting upon it, for the purpose of inquiring into its +origin. Comfort seems to have been supplied most charily in the +construction of this official chair; but there was a fine touch of +morality in giving uneasiness to the seat of unlimited power. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +legs of the Sella Curulis folded like those of a camp-stool; a device +which may have been emblematical of the fact, that the dictatorial +office was liable to a speedy shutting up, for the appointment was +never more than of six months' duration. The material of which the +chair was formed was the smoothest and most highly-polished ivory; +so that the fatal facility of a fall must have been frequently suggested +to the occupant of the seat by its exceedingly slippery surface.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> + +<p>The Consuls, fearing an outbreak if the army was disbanded, ordered +the soldiers to remain on duty in the capacity of special constables +over each other—the staff being held responsible for the conduct of the +main body. To be continued thus as a standing army, was more than +the troops felt disposed to stand; and, determining to take high +ground, they withdrew to the top of the Mons Sacer or Sacred Mount, +in the neighbourhood of Crustumenium. Electing L. Sicinius as their +leader, they accommodated themselves as well as they could, until +matters should be accommodated with the senate.</p> + +<p>The patricians began to be greatly alarmed at the secession of the +plebeians; for though the former had been accustomed to trample the +latter under foot, all the foundations of society seemed to be withdrawn +in the absence of that part which, though it may be called the base, is +essential to the existence of the capital. Rome, in fact, was beginning +to find out that an aristocracy cut off from all connection with the +people at large, is little better than a flower separated from the tree, +and doomed to fall speedily into bad odour. The patrician order +happily recognised the important truth, that the most delicate tendrils +owe all their vitality to the sap, carried up to the top of the tree from +those portions that are in the closest connection with the soil; and +steps were therefore taken to prevent the final severing of the sturdy +trunk from the higher branches. An embassy, consisting of ten patricians, +was sent to negotiate; but as the patricians were no orators, and +their stupidity spoke for itself, Menenius Agrippa, who had once been +a plebeian, was sent as their head, which of course included their +mouth-piece.</p> + +<p>Menenius, using his authority as spokesman for the common weal, +cited the fable of the Belly and the Members, to the bellicose <i>plebs</i>, +who seemed struck by his relation of it to them, and its own relation to +their existing position. He told them that, once upon a time, all the +members of the human body resolved on aiming a blow at the stomach, +which was accused of leading a life of idleness. The hands struck with +no particular aim; the legs, moved to rebellion, refused to stir; the +eye shut down its lid; the mouth went into open hostility, and the +nose joining in the general blow, there seemed every prospect that the +proud stomach would be glad to eat humble pie in the absence of all +other provisions. It was, however, soon found that, in nourishing their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +animosity, the members were keeping all nourishment from themselves, +and that they and their revenge were about equally wasted.</p> + +<p>The plebeians, understanding the moral of the story, were disposed +to treat, on the understanding that they should henceforth be better +treated. An agreement was entered into, by which the sponge was to +be applied to all old debts; and all who had lost their liberty by being +the slaves of bad circumstances were restored to freedom. The new +compact provided also for the institution of two officers, named Tribunes, +who were invested with authority over the concerns of the plebeians; +and it was certainly one of the best investments ever made for the +profit of the Roman people. The person of the Tribune was so sacred, +that a common assault upon this officer, when in the execution of his +duty, rendered the assailant liable not merely to be taken up, but to be +knocked down and killed in the streets by any one having a mania for +manslaughter.</p> + +<p>The Tribune was allowed such an unlimited liberty of speech, that +it was punishable to interrupt him; and in default of bail, it was death +to cough him down while addressing the people. Even to yawn +during one of his discourses, was to open an abyss into which the +yawner might be plunged before he was aware of it; and the involuntary +action of his distended jaws would often render them the jaws of +his own destruction.</p> + +<p>The house of the Tribune was open day and night; so that it +was as easy to find one of these officers as it is in these days to +find a policeman, and sometimes rather easier. The Tribunes had +power to bring parties before them, or, in other words, to issue summonses, +as well as to enforce fines, which, if not paid, involved the +forfeiture of property, or, in simpler terms, were recoverable by distress +warrant upon the defaulter's goods and chattels. One of the greatest +privileges of the Tribunes was the right of exercising a veto on any +decree of the senate. Though they had no seats in the assembly, they +were permitted to look in at the door; and if any act was passing that +they disapproved, they had the privilege of exercising, by a shout of +"No," a sort of negative authority. This power of prevention left +fewer evils to be cured; and the plebeians, having at last obtained an +organ of their own, may be said to have found the key to their liberties.</p> + +<p>The Tribunes seem to have had power to add to their number, for they +selected three colleagues, soon after they themselves had been chosen; +and, from this time forth, a struggle ensued between plebeian energy, +seeking its fair share of right, and patrician tenacity, holding on with +obstinate determination to exclusive advantages.</p> + +<p>Contemporaneously with the institution of the Tribunes, some new +officers were appointed, under the name of Ædiles, who were something +like our Commissioners of Woods and Forests, of Sewers, and of Paving +combined; for they had the care of public buildings, roads, and drains, +as well as of baths and washhouses. They sometimes decided small +disputes, and acted as Inspectors of Markets, examining weights, settling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +quarrels, and holding the scales of justice as well as of merchandise. +They kept an eye to unwholesome provisions, and a nose to stale fish; +their ears took cognisance of bad language; in their hands they carried +a staff; and they were, in fact, a curious compound of the beadle, the +commissioner, the policeman, and the magistrate.</p> + +<p>While the plebeians had been sulking on the Mons Sacer, a treaty +between the Latins and the Romans had been brought about by +Spurius Cassius, a Consul, who, though his name sounds like counterfeit +coin, seems to have possessed a good deal of the true metal. By +the treaty, both nations were to be almost entirely equal in every +respect; and, even with regard to booty, they were to be on the same +footing.</p> + +<p>By another clause in the act, those insolvent debtors who had been +converted into "alarming sacrifices!" and were reduced to slavery, +because their creditors "must have cash," or its equivalent, were +restored to freedom. The ceremony of manumission was curious, and +comprised so many indignities done to the slave, that, although +free, he could not have been very easy under the process. He +was first taken before the Consul by his master, who gave him a +blow on the cheek, which was rather a back-handed mode of making +an independent man of him. The Consul then laid his wand about the +insolvent's back, at the same time declaring him perfectly free, and +telling him to go about his business—if he happened to have any. +The beating having been gone through, there was still more lathering +to be endured; for the head of the freedman was closely shaved, as a +precaution, perhaps, against his going mad on the attainment of his +liberty. His release from his chains was not complete until he had +been deprived of his locks; and to crown all, he was invested with +that emblem of butchery in a political, as well as a social point of view, +the red cap of liberty.</p> + +<p>During the internal quarrels of Rome, agriculture had been so +thoroughly neglected, that the harvest had completely fallen to the +ground, or, rather, had never come out of it. The husbandman had +husbanded nothing, either for himself or others; and as nothing had +been sown but civil dissension, there was nothing to reap but the fruit +of it. The Romans, who, until lately, had been thirsting for power, +were now hungry for food; and, to prevent the people from dying at +home, envoys were sent to scour the surrounding countries,—a process +which involved many a brush with the inhabitants. It is stated, by +some historians, that, during the famine, an order was forwarded to +Gelo, of Syracuse, for corn, which that individual was quite ready to +supply, but for which he was so thoroughly unbusiness-like as to refuse +the money. The incident, though utterly without commercial interest, +would have been pleasing in a different point of view, were it not for +the stern realities of chronology, which prove that Gelo could not have +acted as a gratuitous corn-dealer at the time specified, for he was not +alive at the period.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +While Rome was suffering from want of corn, it was wasting the +very flower of its population in a war with the Volscians. Among the +most distinguished warriors on the side of the Romans was Caius +Marcius, a young patrician, who led all his own clients into an action +in which the defendants—the unfortunate Volscians—were subjected to +enormous damages. He subsequently proceeded against Corioli, which +made an obstinate defence; but was ultimately beaten, and compelled +to pay the whole of the costs of the conflict. From this affair he took +the name of Coriolanus, by which he is better known than by his original +appellation of C. Marcius, for mankind will too often award the largest +measure of fame to the most extensive perpetrator of mischief; and he +who would carve himself a name, may carve it much more deeply and +durably with the sword than with any other instrument.</p> + +<p>When the corn arrived from Sicily, the popular party proposed a +gratuitous distribution of the boon; but the patricians, headed by Coriolanus, +who was a tyrant in grain, recommended that the plebeians +should pay for what they required. Complaint is never so open-mouthed +as when it has nothing to eat; and the people became desperate when +they found Coriolanus advising, without a scruple, that not a grain should +be given, nor an ear lent to their sufferings. He proposed the abolition +of the Tribunes as the condition of food being supplied to the people; +but they, becoming every day more crusty from the want of bread, +insisted on his being tried for treason. Coriolanus saw the people waxing +resolute to seal his doom, and he accordingly made his escape, so that +when the time came for him to be tried, he was found wanting. Judgment +went against him by default; his name was struck out of the list +of patricians—a sort of peerage of the period. He was sentenced, moreover, +to <i>aquæ et ignis interdictio</i>—prohibition from fire and water; a +punishment which, looking at the fiery nature of all spirituous liquors, +may be fancifully supposed to have involved especially a stoppage of +grog, as it certainly prevented everybody from entertaining him. This +sentence amounted, in fact, to banishment; and, indeed, it was designed +to do so; for the interdiction of fire and water left the culprit nothing +on earth but air, which of course it was quite impossible to <a name="live_upon" id="live_upon"></a>live upon.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 341px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0063.png" width="341" height="400" alt="Coriolanus parting from his Wife and Family." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Coriolanus parting from his Wife and Family.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>Stung with what he called the ingratitude of his countrymen, though +they had really not much to thank him for, Coriolanus, in a spirit not +very magnanimous, proceeded to offer his services to the enemy. Taking +leave of his wife Volumnia, a voluminous woman, who had had greatness +thrust upon her by nature to an awkward extent, he departed for +the country of the Volscians, and arrived at Antium about supper time. +His name was taken up at once to Attius Tullius, who, though sitting +at his meal with the usual accompaniment of <i>manus unctæ</i>, or greasy +hands, determined not to allow the illustrious stranger to slip through +his fingers. Coriolanus was hospitably entertained, and induced to +take the command of the Volscian army against the Roman colonists. +He drove them from place to place until he had got them up against the +Cluilian ditch, and into it many were thrown; a sad proof of his animosity +having been carried to a pitch that must always leave a black stain on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +his memory. Here also he pitched his tent within almost a stone's +throw of Rome; and as the plebeians were unwilling to fight, ambassadors +were sent to entreat Coriolanus to lay down his sword; but, contemptuously +folding his arms, he returned no answer. The priests next +tried their powers of persuasion, but though they did all they could +to convert Coriolanus to the cause of Rome, it was not until female +influence was brought into requisition, that the attempt proved successful. +His mother Veturia, accompanied by his considerably better +half, Volumnia, and a party of Roman ladies made up for the occasion, +visited him at his camp, when the clamour of the strong-minded, the +sighs and sobs of the weaker, the sneers of some, the tears of others, +and the importunity of all, proved irresistible. He had been resolute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +for some time; but when his wife, with a heavy heart added to her +natural weight, fell upon his neck, he seemed to be sinking under that +which he could no longer stand up against.</p> + +<p>His mother, Veturia, following up the advantage that had been +gained, tried the power of the female tongue, to which time seems to +go on adding all the force of which it deprives the rest of the body. +The old lady raved and shouted with a degree of anile energy that +struck Coriolanus with dismay; and when she threw herself on the +ground, declaring he should walk over her body if he attempted to +march upon Rome, he felt that he could not take another step without +trampling on the tenderest relations of humanity. With Volumnia +hanging to his neck, and Veturia clinging to his heels,—with a wife +pouring the loudest lamentations into his ear,—with a mother cursing +everything in general, but his own birthday in particular,—with a bevy +of Roman ladies shrieking and sobbing in the background,—Coriolanus +could no longer resist, but ordered his camp to be broken up, and led +his legions back again. Tradition differs as to the date of the death of +Coriolanus, who, according to some accounts, sunk under the attack +made upon him by the weaker sex; while others assert that he lived to +a good old age, which is likely to have been the case, if the scene we +have described was not immediately the death of him—for the constitution +that could have survived so severe a trial must have been of a +strength truly wonderful.</p> + +<p>Coriolanus has been held up as a model of disinterestedness, but we +cannot help setting him down as a selfish upstart, who turned traitor to +his country, because it did not form the highest estimate of his personal +merits. His deserts are overbalanced by the fact of his being a deserter; +and it was, assuredly, the reverse of magnanimity to evince his spite +against the nation to which he belonged, merely because his own value +had not been put upon his own services. Such is our view of Coriolanus +without the masquerade dress in which he has been often made to appear; +for truth compels us to take off the gilt in which he has hitherto shone, +and to substitute the guilt that really belongs to him.</p> + +<p>The Temple of Fortuna Muliebris was raised, in compliment to the +women who, by their hysterical, and now historical efforts, were said to +have saved Rome; and indeed, considering the frequency with which +female influence operates the other way, the fact of its having been +exercised for the prevention of mischief, deserves the commemoration of +a monument.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> This law is said to have been altered by Servius Tullius; but if legislation on the +subject was at one time loose, it became very binding afterwards, and was extremely strict +at the date above alluded to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The Curule Chair is said to have been imported, with other articles of state furniture, +from Etruria. In some cases, the feet were formed of ivory in the shape of elephant's +tusks; but there are other proofs of their Tuscan origin.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE SEVENTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE CLOSE OF THE WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS TO THE PASSING<br /> +OF THE BILL OF TERENTILLUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0065.png" width="174" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left:-1.5em;" class="smcap">fter</span> the war with the +Volscians was at an end, +the Romans are said to +have entered into a treaty +with their former foe, the +object of which was a +sort of partnership in +plunder; it being agreed +that the new allies should +take the field together, +and divide the produce. +Ill-gotten gain is never +a source of real profit; +and the land stolen in +war became a ground of +contention among the +Romans. The patricians +had hitherto grasped the +whole of the conquered +soil, though they could +not do so with clean hands; and Spurius Cassius proposed that the +plebeians should have a share of it. The suggestion, though violently +resisted, became the law of the land; but the land was not appropriated +in conformity with the law until a much later period. Spurius Cassius +did not long survive, when the year of his Consulship had expired; for +the patricians caused him to be impeached, and his head was struck off +upon a block, though, from the services he had performed, it deserved +rather to have been struck off upon a medal.</p> + +<p>The patricians tried to divert the attention of the plebeians from +domestic affairs by leading them constantly into battle; but the latter, +though compelled to march into the field, would take no steps to secure +a victory. Like horses brought to the water but refusing to drink, the +soldiers, though conducted to the field, evinced no thirst for blood; +but firmly declining to aim a single blow, they presented a striking +picture of passive disobedience. In vain did the officers suggest, that +for those ambitious of a soldier's grave, there was at length an eligible +opening; they would gain no laurels, but allowed themselves to be +kept at bay; they laughed outright at their commanders, and, instead of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +straining every nerve for success, they kept their risible muscles only +in full exercise.</p> + +<p>There existed at this time a gens in Rome which had managed to +obtain such a share of power for itself, that it was generally recognised +as the governing family. The gens alluded to was that of the Fabii, +whose union formed their chief strength; for no member of the family, +though he might be unmindful of his antecedents, was ever known to +forget his relatives. The Fabii derived their name from Faba, a bean, +because their ancestors had cultivated that kind of pulse; but in later +times the gens became remarkable for feeling the popular pulse, and +making a cat's-paw of the patricians. By an arrangement with the +order to which they belonged, the Fabii were ensured one of the +consulships, on condition of their influencing their clients to elect a +patrician to the other; and thus both the people and the senate were +played off against each other for the special advantage of the "family." +Fortunately for society, there is in all corruption a rottenness which is +always bringing it towards its conclusion while it seems to be gaining +its end; and the usual difficulty of getting unprincipled men to hang long +together by a rope of sand, was illustrated in the case of the patricians +and the Fabii. The quarrels among themselves helped to render them +contemptible to the plebeians, and the troops had become so accustomed +to treat their leaders with disrespect, that many an intended fight ended +without a sword being taken from its sheath, and nothing was drawn +but the battle.</p> + +<p>One of the Consuls had, for several years, been chosen from the family +of the Fabii; when its members growing tired, at last, of their patrician +stock being a laughing-stock to the army, determined to make themselves +popular. Marcus Fabius won the hearts of the soldiers, by +dressing their wounds, and promising to redress their grievances. +Kæso Fabius, his successor, recommended the distribution of the land +among the plebeians, by whose sweat it had been gained; but he had +not been always equally anxious to acknowledge the claims of popular +perspiration; for he had been one of those who condemned Spurius +Cassius for having made a similar proposition.</p> + +<p>Tradition states that the Fabii afterwards emigrated in a body, upwards +of three hundred strong, taking with them four thousand clients; but +whether the clients went at their own solicitation, or whether the Fabii +were the solicitors, we are not in a position to determine. It is said +that the whole party of four thousand three hundred went into action +together, and paid with their lives the costs of the sad affair; but the +critical authorities doubt the whole story; and it is satisfactory to our +best feelings to know that we, on this point, know nothing.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<p>The Etrurians soon after wasted the country near Rome, and wasted +their own time into the bargain, for they were at last glad to treat, +though not until they had retreated. A peace was concluded; and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +parties held their peace for forty years,—or, at all events, if they +ever had words, they did not come to blows during that lengthened +period.</p> + +<p>As some of the events recorded in this chapter arose out of the Roman +law of debtor and creditor, it may be just as well to include in this +account a few items of a commercial character. When a man ran into +debt, he was almost sure to be brought to a stand-still, for compound +interest continued to accrue so rapidly that there was no chance of +compounding with those to whom he owed money. Thirty days after a +debt being demanded, the defaulter was handed over to his creditor, and +bound with a cord, by way of accord and satisfaction; but, at the end of +sixty days, a crier, whose office was enough to make him shed tears, +advertised the insolvent for sale as a slave in the market-place. It is +not surprising that the plebeians should rise against their being put up +to this degrading auction, more particularly when the masters to whom +they were knocked down were in the habit of beating and cruelly ill-treating +them. The patricians laid violent hands, not only upon the +plebeians, but upon all the property of the State, assuming to the utmost +all its rights, and repudiating all its duties. They took as a matter of +right all the offices of state; and so complete was the seizure made +by the patricians of every thing in the shape of a Government situation, +that the name of the order which absorbed to itself all the good things +is to be traced in the modern word "patronage." The whole of the +profits of war went into the pockets of the upper class; and though the +plebeians drew the sword, the patricians drew whatever money was +to be obtained from the enemy.</p> + +<p>The patricians, however, were not allowed to exercise their tyranny +always without resistance; for, if their conduct was revolting to human +nature, it was to be expected that human nature would revolt against +them when opportunity offered. An instance occurred during the +Consulship of Appius Claudius, who had been elected by the senate, +and who, wishing to levy troops, caused the names of all the men +between eighteen and forty-five to be called over in a list, which +furnished the materials for enlistment. Amongst the names was that +of Publilius Volero, who had formerly held a commission as a centurion, +or captain; and, being now selected to serve as a common soldier, +declared indignantly that rather than go as a private into the ranks, +he would continue in a private station. Publilius, in fact, kicked +violently against the orders of the Consul, and being a man of very +powerful stamp, it was felt that when Publilius kicked in earnest, there +was something on foot that it was not easy to contend against. Appius +intimating that the Consuls must be obeyed, desired one of the lictors +to do his duty; when Volero, being a strong and robust man, received +the lictor with open arms, and lifting him from the ground, gave him +a setting down that shook the nerves of the astonished officer. Having +thrown the lictor on the ground, where the unhappy functionary took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +his own measure, instead of carrying out those of his superiors, Volero +threw himself on the public, upon whom he made a very strong +impression.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0068.png" width="400" height="397" alt="A Lictor is sent to arrest Publilius Volero." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Lictor is sent to arrest Publilius Volero.</span><br /><br /></div> + + +<p>Publilius from this moment had considerable weight with the plebeians, +who made him one of their Tribunes; and he at once proposed +a large measure of reform in the mode of electing those officers. He +suggested an extension of the suffrage, by giving it to the tribes instead +of the centuries; and public meetings were got up in support of the +project. These meetings were attended by the patricians, and disturbances +ensued, owing to the attempts of one party to put the other +party down; for public discussion in all ages seems to have been +conducted on the principle that it is to be all on one side, and that any +opinion opposed to that of the majority is not to be listened to. When +the strength of lungs happens to be with the party having the strength +of argument, there is not much harm done; but as the patricians and +plebeians mustered in nearly equal numbers at the meetings alluded to, +personal altercations frequently took place; and the Tribunes as well as +the Consuls sent their respective officers to arrest each other.</p> + +<p>At length Lætorius, who had been elected as the colleague of Publilius +Volero, marched into the Forum with an armed force, determined +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +that he would that morning carry the day; and as he drew his sword, he +declared he would go through with it. The patricians, losing their own +resolution, offered to agree to any that he might propose; but, refusing +to trust them, he took possession of the Capitol, as a guarantee for the +fulfilment of their promise. The <i>Lex Publilia</i> was accordingly passed, +to the great annoyance of Appius, who always treated the plebeians as +if different sorts of clay, as well as different moulds, were employed by +Nature in her great man—ufacture. When his year of office was over, he +was impeached by the Tribunes; but on the day when the trial ought +to have come on, the worldly trials of Appius were all past, for he died +the night before the cause stood for hearing. Posterity has agreed +on the verdict which the judges were not required to pronounce; +and it has even been said that he fell by his own hand, in consequence +of his sense of guilt preventing him from knowing how to acquit +himself.</p> + +<p>To add to its troubles, Rome was visited by a double plague, in the +shape of an external foe and an internal pestilence. The enemy +having approached the gates of the city, the country people had taken +refuge inside the walls, bringing with them their cattle in such numbers +that the place was literally littered with pigs, while the oxen and sheep +were packed in pens to an extent of which our own pen can furnish but +a faint outline. The summer was at the height of its heat, and the +sufferings of the poor dumb animals, as they lost their fat, and met +their fate, were enough to melt not only a heart of stone, but many a +stone of suet. The foe, fearing from the pestilence a plaguy deal of +trouble, broke up their camp; and Rome was allowed to enjoy an +interval of peace, though disease did more havoc than might have been +expected at the hands of an enemy.</p> + +<p>We now come to the legend of Cincinnatus; and though it is no better +than a legend, which, as the smallest student will be aware, is so called +from <i>legendum</i>, a thing to be read, we must proceed upon the assumption +that, as it is a thing to be read, it is <i>à fortiori</i> a thing to be written. +Lucius Quinctius, surnamed Cincinnatus from his curly locks—for nature +had dressed his hair to a turn—was of a high patrician family. He +passed his life as a country gentleman occupying his own estate, and +occupying himself in looking after it. His land, it must be admitted, +was better cultivated than his manners, which were haughty and imperious. +His virtues were all of the domestic kind; he was equally +attached to his wife and his farm, and he was an excellent husband, as +well as a good <a name="husbandman" id="husbandman"></a>husbandman.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0070.png" width="400" height="258" alt="Cincinnatus chosen Dictator." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Cincinnatus chosen Dictator.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>It happened that Rome was in such a perilous state as to need a +strong hand, when Cincinnatus, being famed for the use of the spade, was +invited to leave his <i>otium cum dig.</i>—as everybody knows already, and +somebody may have said before—that he might assume the office of +dictator. When the messengers arrived from the senate, Cincinnatus +was at work in the fields, perhaps sowing up some old tares, or examining +the state of his pulse—a favourite crop in those days—or cutting out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +the sickliest of his corn with the sickle. The soil being loamy, and +Cincinnatus being in the thick of his work, he was not very presentable; +but hastily throwing his toga round him, he made the best appearance +he could before the messengers of the senate. They at once hailed him +as dictator, and carried him to Rome, where he called out every man +capable of bearing arms; and every man thus called out, accepted the +patriotic challenge. Every soldier was to carry with him food for five +days, and twelve stakes cut into lengths to form a barricade; so that, +as the stakes weighed several pounds, and the eatables were solid, the +burden of each man, together with his accoutrements—which included a +cask on the head from which the perspiration poured—must have been +inconveniently ponderous. Notwithstanding their heavy load, the legend, +which is less weighty than their equipments, goes on to state that the +soldiers started at sunset, with Cincinnatus at their head, and reached +the camp, a distance of two-and-twenty miles, at a quick march, or rather +at a fast trot, by midnight. Though the story runs thus, we are compelled +to doubt the running of the troops, who, with their legs +encumbered by their arms and other equipments, must have found speed +impossible. On arriving at Mount Algidus, where the enemy was +encamped, Cincinnatus made his soldiers surround the place, and by +aiming at all in the ring, they were sure to hit somebody. Finding +themselves in the midst of a circle by no means social, the Æquians +sued for mercy; but Cincinnatus threw Gracchus Clœlius and his +lieutenants into chains, which was equivalent to making them enter +into bonds for their future good behaviour. Clœlius continued in his +command after having been thus formally tied down, and Cincinnatus +returned to Rome in triumph. Having held the dictatorship only sixteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +days, he laid it quietly down, and returning to his farming operations, +after having submitted the enemy to the yoke, he fitted it once +more to the necks of his oxen.</p> + +<p>While engaged in fighting with an external enemy, a nation often +forgets the foes she has within; and it is the cruel policy of despotism +to waste the popular energy on quarrels with strangers, in order to +divert the attention of the public from domestic grievances. The war +being ended, the people began to look at home, and they soon perceived +that, while the sword of aggression had been in constant use, the sword +of justice had been rusting in the scabbard, or had been only drawn +forth to inflict, occasionally, a wound on public liberty. A movement +arose in favour of law reform, and C. Terentillus Arsa brought in a bill +for getting the patricians and plebeians to a better understanding, by +putting them on nearly the same footing. The measure led to considerable +agitation; for, though the tribunes passed it, the senate could +not get over it at all; and, the latter having thrown it out, the former +brought in a bill, containing a great deal more than the original demand, +in the year following. In political, as well as pecuniary affairs, a just +claim carries interest, which accumulates as long as the claim remains +unsatisfied; and every day, while it augments the debt due, increases +the difficulty of meeting it.</p> + +<p>The proposition of Terentillus was much discussed in large assemblies, +the harmony of which was disturbed by some of the young +patricians; for, even in the early days of which we write, the noble art +of laughing down, or crowing over a discomfited orator, was understood +by some of the juvenile scions of aristocracy. It happened that +Cincinnatus had four sons, who were exceedingly fine young men, with +very coarse manners. One of them, named Kæso, was continually +getting into street rows, or disturbing public meetings; and frequently +went so far as to interfere with Virginius, a tribune, in the execution of +his duty. The officer was for a long time patient; but, at length, was +goaded to take the matter, as well as the offender, up; and Kæso was +charged with a series of assaults, of a more or less aggravated and +aggravating character. While these accusations were hanging over him, +an old case of manslaughter came to light; the victim having been an +aged invalid, whom Kæso, in a disreputable night brawl, had cruelly +maltreated. He was already under heavy sureties when this fresh +charge was brought up, and, to avoid meeting it, this proud patrician +ran away from his bail, leaving their recognizances to be forfeited.</p> + +<p>Reports were soon afterwards spread, that the man who had left the +city as a contemptible runaway, was about to return to it in the more +formidable character of a robber and a murderer. One night when the +people had gone to bed, many of them heard in their sleep the trampling +of horses, which seemed to come like a tremendous nightmare over the +city. Presently a shout arose, which beat upon the drum of every ear +like a call to battle. The Consuls sprang out of bed, and throwing +about them the first substitute for a toga that the bedclothes presented,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +they made at once for the walls of the city. The plebeians, when called +upon, refused to serve; and the Consuls, feeling how weak they were +in going to the wall alone, made the usual promises, which the people, +as usual, were induced to discount, at a great personal sacrifice. Proceeding +to the Capitol, they found it in the possession of a large band +of exiles and runaway slaves, who would have been glad to run away a +second time, had escape been possible. Many fell, and were felled to +the earth, on both sides, while P. Valerius after putting several to the +sword, had the sword put to him in a most uncomfortable manner.</p> + +<p>The exiles took nothing by their expedition as far as the attack was +concerned; but many of them owed something to the expedition with +which they fled from the contest. After this battle, all traces of Kæso +Quinctius are lost; but whether he fell in the fray, or whether the +thread of his existence was frayed out in some other way, is a mystery +we have no means of unravelling.</p> + +<p>Appius Claudius was now called upon, as the surviving partner of +P. Valerius, to redeem the pledge given by the latter; but Appius, with +a chicanery worthy of Chancery in its best, or rather in its worst days, +pleaded the death of his colleague as a bar to the suit, declaring that +both consuls must be joined in it, though he knew all the while that a bill +of revivor for the purpose of including the deceased consul was quite +impossible. During these unhappy differences between the two orders, +many of the leading plebeians were murdered at the instigation of the +patricians, who, however, were rapidly cutting their own throats; for +violence, while it thinned the body, added to the stoutness of heart +of the popular party. The tribunes were increased in number from five +to ten; and, somewhat later, a still higher point was gained for the +plebeians by limiting to a couple of sheep and thirty beeves the fines to +which they were liable. These exactions were, however, enforced with +such rigour that the tenderest lamb was allowed no quarter if a fine had +been incurred, and the smallest stake in the country—if the stake +happened to be beef—was seized without remorse if the owner had +become subject to a penalty.</p> + +<p>It was many years before the Bill of Terentillus—which has been +specially noted—was at length taken up, when the patricians graciously +consented to a change in the laws, and offered the benefit of their +services into the bargain, by taking upon themselves to determine the +sort of change that was required. Hitting, by anticipation, on the +modern expedient for delaying useful measures, the patricians appointed +a select committee to inquire into law reform, and, by way of rendering +the chances of legislation still more remote, they ordered the +members to proceed to Athens, where, under the enervating influence +of Attic associations, they were likely to go to sleep over the subject +of their labours. The special commissioners became, no doubt, so +thoroughly Greek in all their ideas, that, even the preparation of their +report was deferred until the Greek Kalends.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTE: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Among the other difficulties of this story is the comparatively trifling one, that the +Fabian race did not become extinct; but tradition hops over this dilemma, by leaving one +of the family behind to serve as a father to future Fabii.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE EIGHTH.</h2> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> +<h3>FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE TAKING<br /> +OF VEII.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0073.png" width="250" height="250" alt="Roman Bull and Priest of the period." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Roman Bull and Priest of the period.</span> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left: -1em;" class="smcap">he</span> Romans, being at peace +abroad, began to think of +improving the means of +quarrelling among themselves +at home, and a desire +for law reform became general. +Three senators had +been sent to Athens to collect +information, but what +they picked up in +Greece was so thoroughly +Greek to +them, that they were +obliged to get it +translated into Latin +by one Hermodorus, +an Ephesian refugee, +before they could +understand a word of it.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> As one job naturally leads to another, it was +arranged that three commissioners having been employed in cramming, +the process of digesting should be entrusted to ten more, who were +called the Decemviri. These were appointed from the patricians, after a +struggle on the part of the plebeians to get five selected from their own +order; but, with a laudable regard to public order, they withdrew +their opposition. The especial object for which the Decemviri had been +appointed was to frame a new code of laws, but it seems to have been +always understood that the practical purpose of a commission is to delay +an object, quite as much as to further it. Lest the Decemviri should +proceed too rapidly with the work they had been specially chosen to do, +arrangements were made for distracting their attention from it by +throwing on them the whole business of Government. Had they been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +modern commissioners of inquiry, they would have needed no excuse for +delay; but, with a stubborn resolution to get through their task, they +surmounted, or avoided, the obstacles they might have been excused for +stumbling at. Instead of making their administrative duties an interruption +to their legislative labours, and urging the necessity for +attending to both as a plea for the performance of neither, the commissioners +took the sovereignty in rotation for five days at a time, and +as ten rulers acting all at once would have kept nothing straight, this +arrangement for obtaining the strength of unity was altogether a +judicious one. At the expiration of their year of office the Decemviri +had completed a system of laws, which was engraved on ten tables;—a +proof of the industry of the Government of the day, for in these +times it would be hopeless to expect ten tables from those who might +be, at the same time, forming a cabinet.</p> + +<p>Though the Decemviri had done enough to win the public favour, +they had left enough undone to afford a pretext for the prolongation of +their powers. It was suggested that though the ten tables were very +good as far as they went, there was room for two more; and to give an +opportunity for this small sum in addition being completed, the continuance +of the decemviral form of government was agreed upon. As +the time for the election approached, the most disgraceful election +intrigues were practised, and in order to disqualify Appius Claudius—one +of the former Decemviri—the patricians put him in the chair, or +elected him president, on the day of the nomination of the candidates. +Appius had for some time been acting the character of the +"people's friend," and he had shown himself a consummate actor, for, +being a tyrant by nature, he must have been wholly indebted to art for +appearing otherwise. Having been called upon to preside, he opened +the business of the day by proposing nine names of little note—including +five plebeians—and then, with an air of frankness, he suggested himself +as a fit and proper person to complete the number. The people—surprised +and amused at the coolness of the proposition—proceeded to +elect the very candid candidate, who, being joined with a number of +nonentities, formed the unit to the ten of which the rest composed the +cipher. Soon after their election, the new Decemviri proceeded to complete +the twelve tables—and as they formed the origin of the Civil Law, +embodying principles which the best jurists have been unable to improve—we +will spread these tables before the student, and ask him to sit +down with us for a few moments over them.</p> + +<p>We cannot promise him any other than a dry repast, with little or +nothing to whet his curiosity; and unless his appetite for information +is extremely vigorous, there will be little to suit his taste on those +plates of bronze or ivory—the material is immaterial, and has been +variously described—on which the provisions we are about to serve up +were originally carved.</p> + +<p>The first table coincided in some respects with our County Courts +Act, and furnished a cheap mode of bringing a defendant into court by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +a simple summons, though if he refused to walk, a mule, an appropriate +type of obstinacy, was to be provided for him.</p> + +<p>By the second table, it was justifiable to kill a thief in the night; +but a person robbed in the day was to have the thief as his slave; +a privilege equal to that of being allowed to take into your service, as +your page, the urchin who has just picked your pocket. Such an +exploit would no doubt indicate a smart lad, and, in order to make him +literally smart, the Roman law, in the spirit of our Juvenile Offenders +Act, ordered the knave a whipping.</p> + +<p>The third table was in some respects an interest table; for it +prohibited the taking of more than 12 per cent. on a loan; but if a +debtor did not pay within thirty days, he might be bound with chains; +an arrangement by which his exertions to get out of difficulty must +have been grievously fettered. Having been made to enter into these +unprofitable bonds for sixty days, the debtor, if his creditors were +more than one, might have been divided between them; but human +nature must have found it difficult, under such circumstances, to declare +a dividend.</p> + +<p>The fourth table seems hardly to have a sound leg to stand upon; +for it gave a father the right of life and death over all his children, +together with the privilege of selling them. To prevent a parent from +pursuing a disgraceful traffic in a series of alarming sacrifices of his +family stock, he was not permitted to sell the same child more than +three times over, when the infant was permitted to go into the market +on his own account, free of all filial duty.</p> + +<p>The fifth table related to the estates of deceased persons; and if a +freedman died without a will or a direct heir, the law provided for the +distribution of his goods without providing for his family. Fallacious +hopes among poor relations were checked by handing over to the patron +all that remained; and thus the client may be said to have been subject +to costs, even after the debt of nature had been satisfied.</p> + +<p>In the sixth table, there is nothing worthy of remark; but the +seventh guards against damage done by quadrupeds, and not only meets +the old familiar case of the donkey among the chickens, but declares +that any one wilfully treading on a neighbour's corn shall pay a suitable +penalty.</p> + +<p>Agriculture was protected by making it a capital offence to blast by +incantation another's wheat; so that had the farmers of the day moaned +over each other's ruined prospects as they have done in more recent +times, performing a sort of incantation by singing the same old song of +despair, they might have been liable to lose their heads in the literal +as well as in the intellectual sense of which the phrase is susceptible. +By the same table, a man breaking another's limb was exposed to +retaliation; and a simple fracture was compensated by a simple fracture, +though the parties were allowed to compound if they preferred doing so.</p> + +<p>The eighth table was equivalent to a Building Act; and by providing +a space of two feet and a half between house and house, it prevented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +collisions among neighbours; while the fruit dropping from one person's +tree into another's garden, fell by law into the hands of the latter.</p> + +<p>The purity of justice was provided for by the ninth table, which +ordered the execution of a judge who accepted a bribe in the execution +of his office. It inflicted the same penalty on a corrupt arbitrator, or—that +greater traitor still—the wretch who should deliver up a Roman +citizen to the enemy.</p> + +<p>The tenth table might teach a lesson to our own enlightened age, in +which it is too generally the custom to waste in hollow and costly ceremonies +over the dead, much that might be made serviceable to the +living. More than twenty centuries have passed since the Roman law-makers +seeing how mourners might be caught by the undertakers in +the traps and trappings of woe, limited to a certain sum the costs of a +funeral. The outlay upon the "infernal deities," to whom sacrifices +were made in those days, and to whom, therefore, we may compare the +black job-masters of our own time, was also reduced to the very lowest +figure. In measures of health the Romans were equally in advance of +us; for we still accumulate our dead in the grave-yards of our towns, +though by the laws of the twelve tables, burials within the city were +prohibited.</p> + +<p>The eleventh and twelfth tables have come down to us in such mere +fragments, that it is difficult to make up an entire leaf from both of +them put together. To the eleventh, is attributed the aristocratic +provision against marriages between the patricians and the plebeians; +but as the law could not always prevent a flame, it was at last found +expedient to allow a match which was permitted five years later by the +Lex Canuleia.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>Such is a brief account of the Laws of the Twelve Tables; which +although cut up by the shears of time into very little bits, say much, +in broken sentences, to the honour of their authors. Even as late as +the days of Cicero, it was a part of a boy's education to learn these +laws as a <i>carmen necessarium</i>—or necessary verse—though they were +not necessarily in verse at all; for the better opinion is, that they were +all in prose, and that they were, in fact, as free from rhyme as they +were full of reason.</p> + +<p>The Decemvirs had now completed their allotted task; but, though +elected for a limited time, they seemed determined to remain in their +offices after their office hours were fairly over. During the first +Decemvirate the members had taken the Government alternately for +twenty-four hours at a time, on the principle of every lucky dog having his +day: but now the whole ten assumed, at once, the insignia of royalty. +Unable to resist the fascination of the fasces, the Decemvirs were each +of them preceded, when they walked abroad, by a bundle of those +imposing sticks; the sight of which, at last, aroused public attention to +the number of rods that might be in pickle for the backs of the people.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> +<p>Murmurs at home were echoed by rumours of war abroad; the +Æquians and Sabines had renewed their hostility; and the Decemvirs, +who could not levy troops or money, summoned the country gentlemen +from their seats out of town to their seats in the senate. Many +honourable members protested strongly against the Government, but +agreed to the necessary supplies; from which it seems that the practice +of speaking one way and voting another is a very ancient one. The +Decemvirs stuck to their places with an adhesiveness that might suggest +a comparison with Roman cement, but for the fact that the adhesiveness +is not uncommon in modern times, though the secret of the Roman +cement has perished. Armies were despatched to meet the foe, the people +having met the expenses, and Appius remained at home with one of his +colleagues. The Roman forces abroad had to contend with internal as +well as external enemies; for a venerable, but too garrulous soldier, one +Dentatus, called also Siccius, was constantly declaring himself heartily +sick of the tyranny of the Decemvirs. He had even talked of another +secession of the plebs; and, to prevent him from taking himself off, a +plan was formed to cut him off by a summary process. He received +orders from his superior officer to go up the country, with a few others, and +select a spot where a tent might be pitched, in the event of a pitched +battle. His companions were assassins in disguise, who, on arriving at +a lonely spot, threw off their masks, and appeared in their true features. +They immediately fell upon the astonished Dentatus; who must have +seen through his assailants before he died, for many were found +perforated with the sword of the veteran.</p> + +<p>While the rest of the Decemvirs were disgusting the people by +their tyranny, Appius was proceeding to render himself one of those +objects of contempt at which not only the Roman nose, but the nose +of all humanity, was destined to turn up, and at which scorn was to +point her imperishable <a name="finger-post" id="finger-post"></a>finger-post.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0078.png" width="332" height="400" alt="Virginia carried off by a Minion in the pay of Appius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Virginia carried off by a Minion in the pay of Appius.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>A centurion, named Virginius, had an only daughter, named Virginia, +whom her father, with a want of caution pardonable, perhaps, in a +widower, permitted to go backwards and forwards alone through the +public streets to a private day-school.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The young lady, in all the playful +innocence of sixteen, was in the habit of dancing and singing along the +thoroughfare, when the smallness of her feet, and the beauty of her voice, +struck the eye and ear of Appius. According to some authorities, +Virginia was attended by a nurse-maid; but it is scarcely necessary to +remark, that the same fatal fascination, which in military neighbourhoods +attracts female attention from children that ought to be, to men that are, +in arms, was no less powerful in the Via Sacra than in Rotten Row,—by +the banks of the Tiber, than on the shores of the Serpentine. One +morning, as Virginia was passing through the market-place, on her way +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +to the seminary, with her tablets and school-bag—or more familiarly +speaking, her slate and satchel—on her arm, a minion, under the +dominion of Appius, seized an opportunity for seizing the maiden by the +wrist. The nurse was either absent, or more probably talking to one +of the officers on duty round the corner; for the fasces were as irresistible +to the female servants of the day, as the honied words and +oilskin capes of a similar class of officials at a much later period. +Virginia screamed for assistance, and they only who have heard the cry +of a female in distress, can imagine the shrillness of the shriek that +rang through the market. Marcus—for such was the minion's name—was +instantly surrounded by a circle of respectable tradesmen, who knew +and desired to rescue Virginia. The smith, though he had other irons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +in the fire, left his bellows to deal Marcus a blow; the butcher, with +uplifted cleaver, was preparing a most extensive chop; and the money-changer +was just on the point of paying off the ruffian in a new kind of +coin, when he declared Virginia to be his slave, and announced himself +as the client of the dreaded Appius. At this formidable name, the +smith's work seemed to be done, the butcher became a senseless block, +and there was a sudden change in the note of the money-changer.</p> + +<p>The officer on duty, who had arrested the attention of the nurse, +being at length called away by some trifling charge, had left her +at leisure to look after the more precious charge with which she had +been entrusted. As those usually talk the loudest who do the least, +the remonstrances of the female attendant were, no doubt, vehement +in proportion to her neglect; and, indeed, the confusion created by the +shrieks of the nurse was rather calculated to draw off the attention of +the crowd from Virginia herself, who was carried away by Marcus, with +an intimation that he should at once take the case before a magistrate. +Among the other consequences of the neglect of the maid, was an +attachment that had sprung up between the day-school miss and a +young gentleman, named Icilius. This impetuous youth, having heard +of what had happened, proceeded to the court at which the case was +about to come on, and which was presided over by the tyrant Appius. +Icilius prayed for an adjournment, on the ground of the absence of the +young lady's father; and it was found impossible to resist the application +of such an earnest solicitor. This point having been conceded, +the friends of Virginia applied for her admission to bail; and there was +such a general tender of securities among the throng, that Appius felt +he could not calculate on his own security if he refused the request +that had been made to him. The next morning the matter again came +on, in the shape of a remanded case; and Virginius, who had been on +duty with his regiment the day before, was now present at the hearing.</p> + +<p>Had there been in those days the same love of the horrible that has +prevailed in our own times, the startling incident of a girl killed by her +own father, would have probably come down to us, through the medium +of the fullest reports, amplified by "other accounts," and a long succession +of "latest particulars." We must, however, on the present occasion, +be satisfied with the merest summary; for the Romans, in the +time of Appius, were equally destitute of relish for the details of the +spilling of blood, and of "family Sunday newspapers," whose respectable +proprietors are always ready to avail themselves of a sanguinary affair, +with an eagerness that seems to show that they look upon blood as +essential to the vitality of a journal, and involving the true theory of +the circulation. It remains only to be told, that Virginius, after taking +leave of his daughter, and finding her escape from the power of Appius +impossible, stabbed her with a knife, snatched up from a butcher's stall, +and, brandishing the weapon in the air, threatened perdition to the +tyrant. Appius, at the sight of the blood-stained steel, felt his heart +fluttering, as if affected by magnetic influence; and losing, for the time, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +his own head, he offered ten thousand pounds of copper for that of +Virginius.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>It is the common characteristic of a moving spectacle to strike every +one motionless; and the guards of Appius, when ordered to seize Virginius, +found themselves fixed to the spot by so many stirring incidents. +In vain did Appius call upon his clients and his lictors to do their duty. +Among all his numerous attendants there was not a sole but shook in +its shoe, while the tyrant trembled from head to foot with bootless +anger. Urged at length by the commands of Appius, the officers +attempted to clear the spot, when a severe scuffle ensued, and +the authorities were assailed with all sorts of missiles. The market-place +supplied abundance of ammunition. Ducks and geese flew in all +directions. Some of the lictors found calves' heads suddenly lighting +on their shoulders. Others, who were treated, or rather maltreated, +with oysters, suffered severely from an incessant discharge of shells, and +many received the entire contents of a Roman feast, <i>ab ovo usque ad +malum</i>,—from the assault and battery of the egg, to the <i>malum in se</i> +of a well-aimed apple. The stalls of the dealers in vegetables were +speedily cleared of their contents; and a trembling lictor, smothered—like +a rabbit—in onions, might be seen, trying to creep away unperceived, +while others, who were receiving their desert in the form of +fresh fruit, fled, under a smart shower of grape, from the fury of the +populace. At length, the stock of the market being exhausted, the +assailants had recourse to stones; and Appius, feeling that he was +within a stone's throw of his life, entreated the lictors to remove him +from the scene of danger. Four of the stoutest of his attendants, +hoisting his curule chair on to their shoulders, made the best of their +way home, where Appius at length arrived, with the apple of his eye +damaged by a blow from a pear, his mouth choked with indignation and +mud, his lips blue with rage and grape juice, his robe caked with confectionary, +and his head, which had been made spongy with the loaves +thrown at it, affected with a sort of drunken roll.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Such is the melancholy +portrait which historical truth compels us to draw of the unhappy +Appius, for whom, however, no pity can be felt, even though his case +and his countenance presented many very sad features. The assault in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +the market-place must have rendered it difficult for an artist of the day +to have taken his likeness, after the carrots, whirling about his head, +had settled in his hair, the rich oils having given to his Roman nose a +touch of grease, and the eggs thrown by the populace, who continued to +egg each other on, having lengthened his round cheeks into an oval +<a name="countenance" id="countenance"></a>countenance.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0080b.png" width="500" height="346" alt="Appius Claudius punished by the People." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><i>Appius Claudius punished by the People.</i></span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>Having gained his palace, the wretched tyrant ran up stairs, in the +hope that he might save himself by such a flight; but he was overtaken, +and thrown into gaol, where he, who had hitherto been permitted to do +precisely as he pleased, was allowed just rope enough to hang himself; +a process, it is believed, he performed, though the subject is so knotty, +that we are not prepared to disentangle it.</p> + +<p>Virginius had returned to the camp, where the soldiers, having heard +of the fall of the decemvir, proceeded to hit him, as usual, when down, +renouncing the authority of Appius and his colleagues. The valour of +the insurgents was, however, of a negative kind; for in times of danger +they seemed to think absence of body better than presence of mind, and +their policy was to secede from the city. They withdrew to the Sacred +Mount, where ambassadors from the Senate were sent after them, to see +if matters might not be arranged; when the popular chiefs, with a sort +of one-sided liberality, in which some friends of freedom are too apt to +indulge, asked an amnesty for themselves, and the immediate putting to +death of the whole of the late government. The ambassadors, not +liking a precedent, which might be applied to succeeding administrations, +of which themselves might form a part, suggested the propriety of +trying the decemvirs first, and executing them, if necessary, afterwards. +It was some time before the friends of freedom and justice could bring +themselves to consent to the trial preceding the punishment; but upon +being assured that the decemvirs would have little chance of escape, it +was at length agreed to allow them the preliminary forms of a trial.</p> + +<p>The plebeians having got the upper hand, became almost as intolerant +as the tyrants they had displaced,—a common error, unfortunately, +among the professing lovers of liberty. They demanded that the +Tribunes should be restored, which was well enough; that the Tribunate +should be perpetual,—which was an insolent and overbearing interference +with the will of any succeeding generation; and, by way of +climax, they required that any one suggesting the abolition of their +favourite office should be burnt as a traitor. They were no doubt +fully justified in having a will of their own, but they had no authority to +entail that will upon a subsequent age; and least of all had they the +right to make bonfires of those who were of a different way of thinking. +It is true that, at such a moment, few are willing to put their lives +literally at stake, by uttering their opinions; but these arbitrary pranks, +so frequently committed in the name of freedom, account sufficiently for +the frequent use of the words "more free than welcome." The truth +is, that when Liberty becomes a notorious public character, she seems +to disappear from private life; and, indeed, how is she to be found at +home, if she is occupied out of doors, knocking off the hats of those who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +will not give her a cheer, or breaking the windows of those who will not +illuminate in her honour?</p> + +<p>The plebeians having gained the permission of the Senate to hang +and burn to their hearts' content all who might give way to difference of +opinion, under the weak-minded impression that it would never alter +friendship, proceeded to the election of Tribunes in place of the Decemvirs, +who were thrown into prison. This is said to have been the first +instance of the incarceration of any one belonging to the patrician order; +and the sensation in the upper circles was immense when they heard +that a few exclusives of their own set were in actual custody. Some +aristocratic families went into mourning on the melancholy occasion, and +offered any fine, as a matter of course, for the release of their kindred.</p> + +<p>Appius Claudius and Spurius Appius—probably an illegitimate +member of the family—were thrown into the same cell, where, it is +said, they made away with themselves or each other; but whether there +is any truth in this story of the cell, or whether it is merely a cellular +tissue of falsehood, it is difficult to decide, after so long an interval. +The eight remaining Decemviri went into exile, or, in other words, were +transported for life; while Marcus Claudius, who had claimed Virginia, +repaired to Tibur, now Tivoli, and may be said to have taken his +conscience out to wash in the famous baths of the neighbourhood. +Other authorities say that he fled to avoid the ironing for life with +which he had been threatened, or that he feared the mangling to which +he might be exposed at home, at the hands of the infuriated populace.</p> + +<p>Consuls had already been elected, in the persons of L. Valerius and +M. Horatius; but ten Tribunes were now chosen, among whom, of +course, were the leaders in the revolution; for it is a popular notion, +that those who have overthrown one government, must necessarily be +the fittest persons to construct another. It is, however, much easier to +knock down than to build up; and those who have shown themselves +extremely clever at bowling out, are often bowled out rapidly in turn, +when they get their innings.</p> + +<p>It is a characteristic of nations, as well as of individuals, that those +who have no affairs of their own immediately on hand, are apt to concern +themselves with the affairs of their neighbours. The Romans having +arranged matters among themselves, began to look abroad, and having +rid themselves of domestic foes, they sent their Consuls, L. Valerius +and M. Horatius, to deal with foreign enemies. Valerius seized upon the +camp of the Æqui, just as they were canvassing their prospects under +their tents; and Horatius, after routing the Sabines, made them free of +the city; thus converting into respectable tradesmen those who had +been hitherto extremely troublesome customers.</p> + +<p>When the Consuls returned to Rome, they expected the Senate +would pay them the usual compliment of a triumph; and instead of +entering the city at once, they put up at the temple of Bellona, outside +the walls, waiting for orders. The patricians, who were jealous of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +generals, thought to deprive them of the customary honours, by a low +trick; but the tribes dealing more fairly with the warriors, or, to use a +familiar expression, lending them a hand, decreed the triumph which +the Senate had denied to them. Thus did the patricians lose a privilege +they had abused; and the two Consuls drove four-in-hand into the city +in spite of them.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0083.png" width="400" height="259" alt="In the foreground of the Tableau may be observed a Patrician looking very black at the +Triumph of the General." title="" /> +<span class="caption">In the foreground of the Tableau may be observed a Patrician looking very black at the +Triumph of the General.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>In modern times, the nearest approach we have to a triumph is the +entrance into a country town of a company of equestrians, or a travelling +menagerie. The arrangements were in many respects suitable to a +fair, and it would seem to have been the opinion of the Romans that +none but the brave deserved the fair, for it was only the most eminent +warriors who were awarded the honours of a triumph. There was, +however, something very undignified in the practice of hanging about +the outskirts of the town until regularly called in, which was the usual +course adopted by those who anticipated the glory of a summons from +the senate. It sometimes happened that the summons never arrived, +and the General, who had hoped to make his entry in a chariot and +four, was at last compelled to sneak, unattended, into the city. Such +might have been the lot of L. Valerius and M. Horatius, had it not +been for their popularity, aided, probably, by the senseless love of show, +which often causes the hero to be degraded into the mountebank. As +triumphs, like Lord Mayors' shows, were nearly all the same, the following +account will comprehend, or lead the reader to comprehend, the +general features of these military pageants.</p> + +<p>The procession opened with a band of trumpeters, and as much +breath as possible was blown out of the whole body. Next came +some men with boards, inscribed with numerous achievements, and +forming, in fact, the posting bills, or puffing placards, of the principal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +character. These were followed by a variety of objects, taken from the +enemy, and may be compared to the properties used in the show, the +next feature of which was a file of flute-players, who walked in a sort of +fluted column. Next in order came the white bulls, or oxen devoted +for sacrifice, accompanied by the slaughtering priests, or holy butchers; +and immediately afterwards a remarkable beast, odd fish, or strange +bird, that had been snared, hooked, or caged, in the conquered country. +These were followed by the arms of the foe, with as many captives as +possible, in chains, and the larger the string of fettered victims, so +much the greater was the amount of "linked sweetness, long drawn out" +before the eye of the conqueror. After these were carried the gifts the +General had received from allied or friendly powers, consisting usually +of crowns made of grass, every blade of which was a tribute to the +sword of the victor. Next came a file of lictors, and then the General +himself, in a chariot and four, with a slave on the footboard behind, +whispering in his ear, to remind him of his being still "a man and a +brother."<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0084.png" width="350" height="229" alt="In all probability something of this sort." title="" /> +<span class="caption">In all probability something of this sort.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>The Consuls having gained a civil as well as a military triumph, by +their defeat of the patricians, would have been re-elected by acclamation +for another year; but they had the good sense to retire upon the popularity +they had gained, without waiting to become bankrupt of that very +fleeting commodity. The patricians, getting tired of an exclusiveness +which seemed likely to exclude them from real power, condescended to +vie with the plebeians as candidates for the office of Tribune. They +judiciously came to the conclusion that it was better to cast their pride +under foot, than to stand too much upon their dignity; and the result +was, that, by the election of two of their order, they obtained a voice in +the new government.</p> + +<p>Popular measures were now the order of the day; and C. Canuleius, +one of the tribunes, brought in a bill to legalise the connubium +between the Patres and the Plebs, so that the fathers of the senate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +might marry the daughters of the people. This proposition for an +enlargement of the connubial noose gave rise to several very knotty +points, and to much opposition on the part of the patricians. The +greater number of them believed themselves to be the essence of all +that was rare and refined, until the more sensible portion of them +perceived that the essence was growing rarer every day, and that unless +it formed a combination with something more solid, it would all very +soon evaporate. The law was accordingly allowed to pass; and by the +timely application of some common clay, the roots of aristocracy were +saved from the decay that had threatened them. Many of the +patricians, who had long been wedded to old prejudices, found it far +more agreeable to be married to young plebeians; and matrimony was +contracted, or, rather, greatly extended, among the different classes of +society.</p> + +<p>The Reform party had now become strong enough to propose that +one of the consuls should always be a plebeian; and though the Senate +tried very hard to maintain the principle, that those only are fit for a +snug place who have been qualified by a good birth, the tide of opinion +had set in so strongly the other way, that it was hopeless, with the +thickest sculls, to pull against the current.</p> + +<p><i>Tribuni militum</i>, with the power of consuls, were instituted; but +the patricians managed, by a trick, to reduce these consuls into a sort +of stock for their own use, by selecting from their own body two officers +named Censors, who were to be employed in taking the census, an +extremely important part of the consular authority. The mere +enumeration of the people was not of itself a high privilege, and +required no acquaintance with the law, or of any of the twelve tables, +excepting, perhaps, the simple tables of arithmetic. Besides the +privilege of looking after the numbers of the people, the office gave +especial opportunities of looking after number one; for the administration +of the finances of the state was committed to the Censor;<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> and it has too +often happened that a collector of duties has considered that there was +a duty owing to himself, out of those received on behalf of the Government. +They were also Commissioners of the Property Tax, with full +inquisitorial powers; but, most odious part of all, they had authority +to ascertain the dates of the birth of females, as well as males, and +could mercilessly surcharge a lady for her age, as well as her husband +for his income. They were also controllers of virtue and morality, their +duty being to maintain the <i>mos majorum</i>, or manners of the old school; +for it seems to have been always the custom of mankind to lament the +past as "the good old times," no matter how bad the old times may +have been, and how infinitely inferior to the present.</p> + +<p>The Censors, however, derived their chief influence from their power of +determining the rank of every citizen; for, from the very earliest times, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +the multitude were in the habit of pursuing, through thick and thin, +that perilous Will o' the Wisp—a wisp that reduces many a man of +substance to a man of straw—a position in society. This the Censors +could award; and people were ready to pay any price for that most +costly of all stamps—though perhaps, after all, the most difficult to +purchase—the stamp of fashion. From the early days of Rome to the +present hour, we meet with frequent counterfeits of the stamp in +question, the forgery of which has spoiled, and continues to spoil, a +quantity of calves' skin, and asses' skin, that might otherwise be found +of service, at least to its owners.</p> + +<p>Rome had begun to enjoy a short repose, like an infant in its cradle, +when it was unexpectedly made to rock to its very foundations, by a +shortness of provisions; for the absence of anything to eat is sure to +afford food to the disaffected. Grumbling is the peculiar attribute of an +empty stomach; and flatulence, caused by hunger, is an ill wind, that +blows good to nobody. During the scarcity, a wealthy citizen, one +Spurius Maelius, anxious to give his fellow-citizens a genuine meal, +purchased corn at his own expense, and sold it for a mere song—taking +the produce, perhaps, in promissory notes—to his poorer countrymen. +This liberality rendered Maelius extremely popular with all but the +patricians, who declared that they saw through his design in selling +cheap corn; that as old birds they were not to be caught with chaff: +and that his real aim was the kingly dignity. Under the pretext of +preventing him from accomplishing this object, the patricians appointed +a Dictator; and poor old Cincinnatus, bowed down with age and agriculture, +which had been his natural bent, was dragged from the tail of the +plough to the head of the state, though his own state was that of +extreme bodily decrepitude. His Master of the Horse, who really held +the reins, was Servilius Ahala, by whom Maelius was summoned before +the Dictator, to answer any charge that might be brought against him. +If the mode of making the accusation was strange, the method of +answering it was equally irregular; for Maelius, instead of meeting it +with dignity, ran away from it, with a butcher's knife, which he snatched +from a stall in the market-place. Flourishing the formidable weapon, +he cut in among the crowd, and was immediately followed by Servilius +Ahala, with a party of young patrician blades, who, in a manner that +would have pierced a heart of stone, plunged their swords into their +victim's bosom.</p> + +<p>Ahala was charged with the murder, but he was enabled to avoid the +consequences, as men of consequence in those days could do, by a +voluntary exile. Though domestic cookery had received a check from +the dearth at home, there was no scarcity of foreign broils, and the +Romans created Mam. Æmilius dictator, to encounter the Fidenates +and Veientines. Three ambassadors were sent to Fidenae, but the +diplomatic service could not have been so desirable in those days as in +our own, for the three ambassadors were slain, and perhaps the financial +reformers would say that it was very proper to cut down such a piece<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +of gross extravagance. The order emanated from Lar Tolumnius of +Veii; and while it said little for his heart, it cost him his head, which +was cut off by Cornelius Cossus—the master of the horse to Æmilius.</p> + +<p>The Veientines continuing troublesome, Furius Camillus was appointed +dictator, when, with an engineering talent rare in those days, +he commenced a mine, and overcoming all minor, as well as major, or +general difficulties, he forced a way into the city. The King of Veii +was offering a sacrifice in the Temple of Juno, just as the Romans had +completed their tunnel, and as the soldiers burst like a crop of early +champions through the earth, he saw his fate written in bold Roman +characters. Everything was given to the conquerors, and it is said that +the statue of Juno, followed of its own accord; but the probability is, +the statue remained <i>in statu quo</i>, for miraculous instances of going +over to Rome were not in those days numerous.</p> + +<p>Rome was once more at peace, when the citizens, with peculiar ingratitude, +having no other foes, began to quarrel with Camillus himself, +to whom they owed their tranquillity. They accused him of having +unduly trafficked in shares, by appropriating more than his due portion +of the booty. His unpopularity had not, however, come down upon him +until it was found that he had, in a fit of piety, dedicated a tenth of the +spoils of Veii to the Delphic God—a circumstance he had forgotten to +mention, until he had disposed of the whole of his own share of the prize, +and it became necessary for the other participators in the plunder to +redeem his promise at their own cost, and, with their own ready money, +to save his credit. His name fell at once from the highest premium of +praise to the lowest discount of disparagement, and he incurred the +especial detestation of those whom he had served; for kindnesses are +often written in marble in the hearts of those who remember them +only to repay them with ingratitude. Not liking to lie under the imputation +of dishonesty, and being unable to get over it, he chose a middle +course, and passed a sort of sentence of transportation upon himself by +going into voluntary exile. He, however, with a littleness of mind that +was not uncommon among the early Romans, vented his spite as he +left the city gate, expressing a wish that Rome might rue his absence; +but Rome consoled herself for the loss she might sustain in him by +confiscating the whole of his property.</p> + +<p>Among the incidents of the life of Camillus, a story is told of an +event that happened, when, after having subdued the Veientines, he +drove the Faliscans out their city of Falerii. There existed within +the walls a fashionable boys' school, to which the patricians sent their +sons, who were frequently taken out walking in the suburbs. One +morning the pupils, who were two and two, found themselves growing +very tired one by one, for their promenade had been prolonged +unusually by the pedagogue. The wretch and his ushers had, in +fact, ushered the unsuspecting infants into the camp of Camillus, with +an intimation that the parents of the boys were immensely opulent, that +the schooling was regularly paid, and there could be no doubt that a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +rich ransom could be procured for such a choice assemblage of fathers' +prides and mothers' darlings. Camillus nobly answered, that he did +not make war on young ideas not yet taught to shoot, and he concluded +by giving the schoolmaster a lesson; for, causing him to be stripped, and +putting a scourge into the hands of the boys, the young whipper-snappers +snapped many a whip on the back of their master.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0088.png" width="400" height="400" alt="School-boys flogging the Schoolmaster." title="" /> +<span class="caption">School-boys flogging the Schoolmaster.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> It has been often a subject of regret that the particulars of this expedition have not +been handed down to us, and that the three Roman excursionists did not put their heads +together to form a log during their voyage. It is, however, seldom that the marine +expeditions of the sages are fully detailed, for nothing can be scantier than the account of +the journey of the three wise men of Gotham who went to sea in a bowl; and there +is reason to believe that many a chapter has been lost to the philosophical transactions of +the world, by the chapter of nautical accidents.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "Law of the Twelve Tables," <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 450. "Lex Canuleia," <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 445.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> It seems, however, to have been the custom of the period for plebeians to send their +daughters from six to sixteen to a scholastic establishment from about nine to five; and +it is ten to one that Virginia was a pupil at one of these cheap nursery grounds, in which +young ideas were planted out for the purpose of shooting.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> +</p> +<p> +"Then up sprung Appius Claudius, 'Stop him—alive or dead,<br /> +Ten thousand pounds of copper to the man who brings his head.'"—<br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome.</i></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> This description is not exaggerated, at least, if the authority of Macaulay is to be +relied upon; and for the incidents of this remote period we are perhaps justified in trusting +quite as much to the lay of the poet, as to any other source. The following lines refer to +the state of Appius, when taken home, after the death of Virginia:— +</p> +<p> +"One stone hit Appius in the mouth, and one beneath the ear,<br /> +And ere he reached Mount Palatine he swooned with pain and fear.<br /> +His cursed head, that he was wont to hold so high with pride,<br /> +Now like a drunken man's, hung down, and swayed from side to side.<br /> +And when his stout retainers had brought him to his door,<br /> +His face and neck were all one cake of filth and clotted gore."<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> At a later period, the Censors had the entire control over the public expenditure, +even to the feeding of the sacred geese; and there is no doubt that even the geese were +made to yield a considerable nest egg to a dishonest functionary.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE NINTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE TAKING OF ROME BY THE GAULS, TO ITS SUBSEQUENT<br /> +PRESERVATION BY MANLIUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0089.png" width="128" height="200" alt="A Gaul." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Gaul.</span> +</div> +<p> +<span style="margin-left:-1em;" class="smcap">s</span> a prophet is sure to come right +in the end, if he will go on prophesying +a thing until it really +happens; so the soothsayers, who +had been constantly predicting +the taking of Rome, seemed +likely, at last, to have their forebodings +verified.</p> + +<p>The Gauls were destined to +be the invaders, and tradition +tells us that they were attracted +to cross the Alps by the reputation +of the Italian grapes, which +induced them to expect a superior +glass of wine on the other +side of the mountains. The Gauls +were remarkable for the hugeness +of their bodies, which presented +a series of gigantic pictures +in their iron frames; and +their faces being covered with +long shaggy hair, they seemed +ready, by their ferocious aspect, +to beard an enemy. These people +were the ancient inhabitants of modern France, and it is a curious +fact, that the occupants of the country have, up to the present time, +cultivated that hairiness of visage, in which they may be said to +have literally aped their ancestors. Tradition—that wholesale carrier, +who delivers so many parcels at the historian's door, some of which +are scarcely worth the carriage—has handed to us a small packet, +with reference to the Gauls and their origin, the contents of which +we proceed to examine. On taking it up, we find that it possesses +very little weight; but we, nevertheless, proceed to the operation of +unpacking. Beginning as we would with a basket, we find ourselves +hampered to a considerable extent, for on opening the lid, and using +the eye of discernment, we turn over the contents with eagerness, +and after all catch at little better than straw, in our attempts to +take hold of something tangible. Turning over the flimsy mass, we +arrive at very little of a solid description, though, on getting to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +bottom of it, we establish the fact that the Gauls, under Brennus, their +chief, marched upon Clusium, one of the states of Etruria. People in +difficulties are apt to grow exceedingly amiable towards those who are in a +position to help them; the man of money becomes the very "dear Sir" +of one who needs a loan, and the Clusians appealed to their "friends," +the Romans, of whom they knew nothing, for their kind assistance.</p> + +<p>The Roman Senate, adopting the quarrel of the Clusians, sent three +ambassadors, the sons of M. Fabius Ambustus, to the Gauls, desiring +them to withdraw; but the Gauls sent back a very galling answer. They +declared their own country was little, and their necessities were large; +that they had not land enough to supply them with bread; and, though +they wished not to tread on a neighbour's corn, they could not help +feeling where the shoe was pinching. They added, that, as to Clusium, +they did not want it all, but would willingly share it with its owners; +a proposition similar to that of a pickpocket, who, while robbing you of +your handkerchief, politely offers you the joint use of it.</p> + +<p>This arrangement not having been acceded to, the Clusians and the +Gauls came into collision; when the Roman ambassadors, who only +went to have a few words, so far forgot their diplomatic character as to +come to blows; and, though it is not unusual for peace-makers to cause +more mischief than they prevent, it was rather too much to find the +pacificators, who had gone forth to knock discord on the head, engaged +in fracturing the skulls of those whom they went to propitiate. One of +the Fabii not only killed a Gallic chief, but, having made away with +the individual, was making off with his arms and accoutrements; when +a cry of "shame!" arose from the Gauls, who did not approve of an +arrangement by which the envoy was killing several of them, while a +delicate regard to the law of nations prevented them from killing the +envoy. It is difficult for men to stand upon a point of etiquette when +threatened with the point of the sword; but the Gauls, with extreme +moderation, resolved on sending envoys to complain of the envoys; +and thus, as it were, fight the ambassadors with their own weapons. +The Roman Senate felt the justice of the complaint; but, seeing that +public feeling ran the other way, the Senators were base enough to do +an injustice rather than make an honourable stand against the +wilfulness of the people.</p> + +<p>The Fabii, whom the Senate had been too cowardly to punish, the +million thought proper to reward by appointing them Consular Tribunes +for the year ensuing; and when the news reached the Gauls, it excited +in them a very natural bitterness. After their first burst of rage, they +began to collect themselves; and finding, when collected, they could +muster 30,000 strong, they were joined by upwards of 40,000 Senones, +in alliance with whom they reached Allia, a little stream flowing +towards the Tiber. Here they were met by the Romans, who threw up +entrenchments to prevent the enemy from entrenching upon their +domain; but being comparatively few in numbers, they endeavoured to +spread themselves out as far apart as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +As a kettle of water thrown upon a spoonful of tea, with the intention +of making it go further, produces a weakening effect; so did the expansion +of the Roman line dilute its strength to such a degree, that the right +wing became panic-stricken, and the left catching the infection, both wings +began to fly together. Several of the Romans plunged into the Tiber, +to save their lives, and the dux or general set the ignominious example. +Some lost all self-possession, and fell helplessly into the possession of +the enemy; while others finding their heads beginning to swim violently +on shore, could not obtain the chance of safety by swimming across the +river.</p> + +<p>A few only of the soldiers got home in safety, soaked to the skin; +and though there may be something ignoble in the picture of a party of +Roman warriors dripping in their wet clothes, we are compelled to +follow the dry threads of history. Those who escaped by means of the +friendly tide, took the sad tidings to Rome, which would now have +fallen an easy prey to the Gauls, had they not remained on the field of +battle, uttering horrid yells, shaking their yellow locks, and intoxicating +themselves with something more potent than the stream cup of success +which they had quaffed so easily. When the bad news reached Rome, the +citizens began to fly apace, and some were startled by their own shadows, +as if, like guilty creatures, they were unable to bear their own reflections. +Many of the patricians ran for safety into the Arx, or topmost part +of the city, which was carrying cowardice to the utmost height; and +some who tried to save their goods as well as their lives, packed their +property in casks with the hope of preserving it.</p> + +<p>On the arrival of the Gauls, they found the walls and the inhabitants +completely unmanned, and though nearly every one who remained was +somebody beside himself, the population had, owing to the foolish panic, +been most sensibly diminished. Among those who remained were +eighty old patricians, who had filled in their turns, the chief offices of +state, and who, having sworn to die, took the oaths and their seats in +the Forum. They wore their official robes, occupied their ivory chairs, +and being carefully got up with venerable white beards, they had all +the imposing effect of a <i>tableau vivant</i> upon the Gauls who entered the +Forum. One of the barbarians, attracted by the singularity of the +scene, stroked the beard of the aged Papirius to ascertain if he was +real, when the aged P. having returned the salutation by a smart +stroke with his sceptre, the inquisitive Gaul found his head and the charm +broken together. Though the patricians had, at first, worn the +appearance of mere wax-work, they now began to wax warm, which led +to their speedy dissolution; for the Gauls, falling violently upon them, +converted the whole scene into a chamber of horrors. The eighty +senators were slain, to the immense satisfaction of the Romans themselves, +who felt a conviction that after this alarming sacrifice they were +sure of a triumph. They seemed to look upon the venerable victims +as so much old stock that must be cleared off, and the previously +depressed citizens began to rally with all the renewed vigour of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +bankrupt who has just undergone the operation of an extensive failure. +The Gauls invested the Capitol, but its defenders feeling that no one +had a right to invest that Capitol but themselves, did their utmost to +keep it standing in their own names; and, not even for the sake of +ensuring their own lives, would they agree to an unconditional surrender. +The barbarians, finding nothing better to do, commenced firing the city +in several parts, pulling down the walls and throwing them into the +Tiber; a species of sacking that must have been very injurious to the +bed of the river.</p> + +<p>The occupants of the Capitol continued to hold out, or rather, to +keep in, and it being desirable to communicate with them, a bold +youth, named Pontius Cominius, attempted the hazardous enterprise. +Having encased himself in a suit of cork, he crossed the Tiber, and +clambering on his hands, he performed the wonderful feat of reaching +the Capitol. He returned in the same manner; and, on the following +day the Gauls observing the track, thought to be all fours with him, +by stealing up on the points of their fingers and the tips of their toes, +to the point he had arrived at. With a cat-like caution, which eluded +even the vigilance of the dogs, and while the sentinels were off their +guard, a party of the Gauls crept up one by one to the top of the rock, +which was the summit of their wishes. Just as they had effected their +object, a wakeful goose,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> with a head not unworthy of the sage, +commenced a vehement cackle, and the solo of one old bird was soon +followed by a full chorus from a score of others. Marcus Manlius, who +resided near the poultry, was so alarmed at the sound that he instantly +jumped out of his skin—for, in those days, a sheep's skin was the usual +bedding—and ran to the spot, where he caught hold of the first Gaul +he came to, and, giving him a smart push, the whole pack behind fell +like so many cards to the bottom.</p> + +<p>Manlius was rewarded with the scarcest luxury the city contained, in +the shape of plenty to eat, and it cannot be said that we have greatly +improved upon the early Romans in matters of the same kind, for a +dinner is still a common mode of acknowledging the services of a public +man, and literally feeding his vanity.</p> + +<p>The Gauls continued to invest Rome, and heard with savage delight +of the diminishing supplies, or rather, to use an Irishism, the increasing +scarcity. News at last came that the garrison had been for some time +living upon soles, and it is an admitted fact that they had consumed all +but a few remaining pairs belonging to the shoes of their generals. +Driven at length to desperation, they baked as hard as they could the +flour they still had on hand, and making it up into quarterns, or four +pounders, threw it at the enemy. The Gauls looked up with astonishment, +when another volley of crust satisfied them that bread was coming +"down again;" and not wishing to get their heads broken with the staff +of life, which they fancied must be very plentiful in Rome, they offered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +terms of ransom. The price fixed upon was one thousand pounds of +gold, in the weighing of which the Gauls are said to have used false +weights, but it is difficult to say what weight ought to be given to the +accusation. The story goes on to say that the Gallic king, on being +remonstrated with for his dishonesty, cut dissension short with his +sword, and throwing it into the scale with a cry of <i>Væ victis</i>, turned +the balance still more in his own favour.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0093.png" width="366" height="450" alt="The Citadel saved by the cackling of the Geese." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Citadel saved by the cackling of the Geese.</span> +<br /><br /></div> + +<p>In the meantime the Romans at Veii had called Camillus from exile, +and chosen him Dictator; for it was the opinion of the day that good +use could always be made of a man after thoroughly ill-using him. +Camillus arrived at Rome just as the gold was being weighed, when he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +declared that he would deliver his country, but would not allow the +delivery of the treasure. He added, that the metal with which all +claims upon Rome should be met was steel; that he cared not who +might draw upon him, for he was ready, at sight, with prompt acceptance. +While the discussion was proceeding, a Roman legion arrived; +and the Gauls were driven out of the city, having lost not only their +self-possession, but possession of the gold that had been assigned to +them. On the road to Gabii a battle ensued, in which every Gaul, it +is said, was slain, not one being left alive to tell the tale; and as +there are two sides of a story, as well as of a fight, it is impossible, in +the absence of the other party, to say which side was victorious.</p> + +<p>When the Romans returned to their city, they found it little better +than a dust-heap, or a plot of ground on which a shooting party had +met for the purpose of shooting dry rubbish. The people were called +upon to rebuild their houses; but even in those days the principle of +the proverb, that fools build houses for wise men to live in, appears to +have been recognised. There was a general disinclination to dabble in +mortar; and there seemed to be a conspiracy not to enter upon a plot +for building purposes.</p> + +<p>Rome seemed very unlikely to be built in that day; and it might +never have been restored, had not an accident—on which they put an +ominous construction—caused the citizens to proceed to the re-construction +of their city. While Camillus was "on his legs" in the senate, a +centurion, passing the House of Assembly with a flag in his hand, was +heard to say, "Let us plant our banner here, for this is the place for us +to stop at." The senators, rushing forth, declared their acceptance of +the omen, though there was nothing ominous in the fact; and the +people, carried away, or rather attracted to the spot, by the same +stupidly superstitious feeling, declared that on that place they would +rebuild the city. There is no doubt that the anxiety of the senators for +the restoration of Rome was owing to the fact of their own property +lying near at hand; and they were desirous, therefore, of improving the +neighbourhood. There was very little patriotism, and a large amount +of self-interest, in a suggestion that materially enhanced their own +estates; and it was extremely easy to find an omen that would put +twenty or thirty per cent. upon the value of their property. In pursuance +of the "omen," they liberally gave bricks that did not belong to +them, and followed up their munificence by allowing stone to be cut +from the public quarries, in order that the works might be hastened; +while, as a further act of generosity, it was permitted to the citizens to +pull to pieces their houses at Veii, for the purpose of embellishing +Rome and its vicinity. Speed being the order of the day, every other +kind of order was neglected. All idea of a general plan fell to +the ground, in consequence of every one having a ground plan of +his own. The houses, instead of wearing the aspect of uniformity, +showed a variety of faces, and told each a different story; while +the streets were so constructed, with reference to the sewers, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +the latter were as useless as if they had been devised by a modern +commission.</p> + +<p>Rome was still exposed to aggression on various sides from numerous +foes; but Camillus, in his capacity of Dictator, first vanquished them, +and then, admitting them to the franchise, received them in the light +of friends, as if, like old carpets, a thorough beating brought them out +in new colours. Whatever may be the fortune of war, it is its misfortune +invariably to entail a heavy debt; and it is a truth of universal application, +that a country, like an individual, no sooner gets into hot water, +than liquidation becomes extremely difficult. Such was the case with +Rome, where taxation became so high, that the poor were compelled to +borrow of the rich, who, with the usual short-sightedness of avarice, +added an exorbitant claim for interest to the principal debt, and thus, +by insisting on both, got in most cases neither.</p> + +<p>Manlius, whose quick apprehension of a goose's cackle had rendered +him the deliverer of his country, was exceedingly hurt at the neglect +with which he had been treated, though he had little cause of complaint; +for his merit, after all, consisted chiefly in the fact of his living within +hearing of the fowl-house. He was, however, jealous of the honours +conferred on others; for he expected, no doubt, that the whole of the +plumage of the sacred geese would have been feathers in his cap in the +eyes of his countrymen. Seeking, therefore, another mode of gaining +popularity, he cast his eye upon some unfortunate birds of a different +description—the unhappy plebeians, who were being plucked like so +many pigeons in the hands of their patrician creditors. He went about +with purses in his hand, like the philanthropist of the old school of +comedy, releasing prisoners for debt; and declaring his determination +to extend his bounty to all who needed it. This advertisement of his +intention brought crowds of applicants to his house; for there was always +"a case of real distress" at hand, for the indulgence of one whose greatest +luxury was the liquidation of other people's liabilities. The popularity +of Manlius excited the jealousy of the patricians, who, not appreciating +his magnanimity, thought him little better than a goose that was always +laying golden eggs, and he retaliated upon them by declaring he had +rather be a fool than a knave; that the money he disposed of was his +own, but that they had grown rich upon gold embezzled from the price +of the city's ransom. Their only answer to the charge was to get him +thrown into prison for making it. The plebeians, finding their friend +and banker in gaol, with nobody to pay their debts, were dissolved in +tears—the only solvency of which they were capable. Some went into +mourning, while those who could not afford it put on black looks, and +threatened to release him from custody.</p> + +<p>The Senate, unable to maintain any charge, and tired, perhaps, of +the expense of keeping him in prison, sent him forth to maintain +himself at his own charge; but his means having been greatly reduced, +he found a corresponding reduction in his popularity. While his +resources flowed in a golden stream, he was a rich pump that any one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +was ready to make a handle of; but no sooner did the supply fall off, +and the pump cease to act, than he was left destitute of the commonest +succour. He was eventually brought to trial; and being called upon +for his defence, he produced four hundred insolvents whose debts he +had paid—and who passed through the Court of Justice—as witnesses +to his liberality. He then showed his wounds, which were not the sore +places of which the patricians complained; and he ultimately pointed to +the Capitol, in the preservation of which he had acquitted himself so +well, that on the recollection of it, his acquittal was pronounced by the +citizens. His persecutors, however, obtained a new trial, upon which +he was condemned to death; and a slave having been sent with the +despatch containing the news, proceeded to the despatch of Manlius +himself in a treacherous manner. Proposing a walk along the cliff, +under the pretence of friendship, the slave gradually got Manlius near +the edge, until the latter suddenly found himself driven to the last +extremity. Upon this he received a push which sent him down the +Tarpeian Rock; and the man who pretended to have come as a friend, +had been base enough to throw him over. The sudden idea of the +traitor was afterwards carried into frequent execution; for the practice +he had commenced, was subsequently applied to the execution of +criminals.</p> + +<p>After the death of Manlius, his house was levelled with the ground, +and he himself experienced the fate of most men when thoroughly +down, for he was repudiated even by his own family. The gens, or +gents, of the Manlii, with a contemptible want of manliness, resolved +that none of the members should ever bear the name of Marcus, which +they avoided as a mark of disgrace, though at one time it had been a +title of honour.</p> + +<p>Rome seemed now to be declining, and going down all its seven hills +at once; pestilence killed some, and gave the vapours to others, and +the sewers no longer fulfilled their office, but overflowing, in consequence +of the irregular rebuilding of the city, they threw a damp +upon the inhabitants. The free population was growing daily less, +while the number of patricians continued the same, and there seemed +reason to fear that Rome would soon become one of those most +inconvenient of oligarchies, in which there are many to govern and +comparatively few to be governed. The "eternal city" was in danger +of being prematurely cut off by an early decline, for its constitution was +not yet matured; and though it had once been saved by mere quackery,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> +it was now to be preserved by a bolder and wiser regimen.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> These geese were sacred to Juno, who was the goddess of marriage; but we cannot +say whether the goose became identified with her on that account.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> See <a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><i>ante</i></a>, the anecdote of the Sacred Geese.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TENTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE TRIBUNESHIP OF C. LICINIUS TO THE DEFEAT OF THE<br /> +GAULS BY VALERIUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0097.png" width="96" height="200" alt="Roman Soldier." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Roman Soldier.</span> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left: -1em;" class="smcap">ome</span> was now overwhelmed with debt, and +fresh taxes were imposed to rebuild the +wall of stone; but it would have been as +easy to have got blood out of the stones +themselves, as money from the pockets of +the people. The more they went on not +paying, the more were they called upon to +pay; and ruin appeared inevitable, until +it occurred to the great financial reformers +of the day that there can be no permanent +balance to the credit of a state without a +due adjustment of the balance of power. +Happily for the interests of humanity, there +is scarcely ever a crisis requiring a hero, +but there is a hero for the crisis,—no situation +demanding a man, without a man +for the situation; and though there may be +on hand a formidable list of those who perpetually +"Want places," we have the consolation +of feeling that when there is a +vacant place to be filled up, there is no +lack of the material required to fill it.</p> + +<p>The man for the situation in which Rome then happened to be, was +a certain C. Licinius, who had married the younger daughter of the +patrician, M. Fabius. The lady was considered to have wed below her +station, and the Roman noses of her relatives were converted into +snubs, by the habit of turning up for the purpose of snubbing her. +Being on a visit with her sister, who was the wife of Servius Sulpicius, +the Consular Tribune, she was one day alarmed by such a knocking at +the door as she had never yet heard, and on inquiring the cause, she +found that the lictors of old, like the modern footmen, were in the +habit of estimating, by the number of raps he was worth, the dignity of +their master. The elder Fabia, perceiving her sister's surprise, took +the opportunity of administering a rap on the knuckles, through the +medium of the knocker, and observed, that if the latter had not +married a low plebeian, she would have been accustomed to hearing +her own husband knock as loud, instead of being obliged to knock under.</p> + +<p>The vanity of Fabia had received a blow which had deprived her of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +sense; and the effect of the knocking at the door had been so stunning, +that she could scarcely call her head her own. She was resolved that +her husband should make as much noise in the world as her brother-in-law,—that +he should gain an important post, and win the privilege of +knocking as violently as he chose at his own threshold.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0098.png" width="500" height="392" alt="Miss Fabia, the Younger, astonished at the Patrician's double-knock." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Miss Fabia, the Younger, astonished at the Patrician's double-knock.</span> +<br /><br /></div> + +<p>Those who would supply a higher motive to the ambition of C. Licinius, +have asserted that his wife must have been accustomed to the loud +knockings at the house of her father, who had once been consul; but +whether the young lady heard them, unless she remained at home to +answer the door, may be an open question. Whatever may have been +the spur used to stir up ambition in his breast, we, at all events, know +the fact, that C. Licinius was elected a tribune of the people, in conjunction +with his friend Lucius Sextius; so that even if the former +were roused by the knocker, it is not likely that ambition was hammered +into the latter by the same ignoble instrument.</p> + +<p>Having obtained their places, they began to bid very high for popularity; +but, like many other bold bidders in the same market, it was by +no means at their own expense that they proposed to make their purchases. +They introduced three new laws: the first, touching other +people's money; the second, touching other people's land; and, in +reference to both these matters, touching and taking were nearly +synonymous.</p> + +<p>The first of these laws related to the debts of the plebs, and furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +an easy mode of payment, by providing that all the money +paid as interest should be considered as principal. By this arrangement, +if Spurius owed his tailor one hundred asses, and paid him five +per cent., by way of interest, the tailor would, in thirty years, not only +have had his debt cancelled, without receiving his money, but he would +have to refund no less than fifty asses to Spurius.</p> + +<p>This law was sure to obtain for its framers a certain kind of popularity; +for as those who do not meet their engagements are always a +numerous class, it is a safe clap-trap to legislate in favour of the insolvent +classes of the community. C. Licinius became at once the idol +of all those who were continually running into debt one day, and out +of the way the next, and whose valour far outstripped the discretion of +those who had trusted them.</p> + +<p>The second law related to land, enacting that no one should occupy +more than five hundred jugera, or acres, and that if he had a surplus, he +should be deprived of it, for the benefit of those who wished to settle +their own liabilities with other people's property. From this arrangement +there was no appeal, for the land was taken away; and if the +owner wished to complain, he had no ground for it.</p> + +<p>The third law provided for the restoration of the Consuls, and stipulated +that one should always be a plebeian; but the patricians, who +wanted everything their own way, just as the plebeians wanted everything +theirs, succeeded in putting a veto upon the propositions.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the people, placed between two parties—one of +which was seeking popularity at any price, while the other was endeavouring +to preserve its exclusive interests at any cost—were for eight +years deprived of all benefit from either side; and though the public +would have accepted a compromise, Licinius, who knew that when the +point was settled his popularity would be on the wane, declared that +they should either have all or nothing. This policy, which is the same +as that of prohibiting a starving man from accepting a moderate meal, +unless he is invited to a banquet, was well adapted to the purposes of +those whose happiness depends upon the dissatisfaction of all around, +and to whom the success of all their avowed designs is the consummation +of failure.</p> + +<p>As long as the bills continued to be thrown out year after year, +C. Licinius and Sextius were pretty sure of their annual election to the +tribuneship. At about the end of the fifth year, the opposition began +to wane, and it became exceedingly likely that the three bills would +pass, when Licinius kept the popularity market brisk, by proposing a +fourth measure, which was sure to be strenuously objected to. This +was a proposal to put on eight new hands to the keeping of the Sibylline +books, by increasing from two to ten the number of the librarians. As +the books were but three, there would, of course, be no less than three +book-keepers and a fraction to each volume,—an arrangement as objectionable +as pluralism, though in an opposite direction; for it is scarcely +worse to give ten offices to one man, than to put ten men into one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +office. Excuses were, however, found for the suggestion, on the ground +that as five of the book-keepers were to be plebeians, the skill they +would acquire in the interpretation of auguries would qualify a larger +number for the consulship; the patricians having maintained that at +least a smattering of the fortune-telling art was required for the due +execution of the office.</p> + +<p>Rome was now suffering from domestic wounds, when, fortunately, a +little counter-irritation was got up, by an attack of the Veliternians on +Tusculum. There is no better cure for a family quarrel, than the +sudden incursion of a neighbour; and when relatives are breaking each +other's heads at Number One, a stone thrown from the garden of +Number Two will frequently, by the establishment of a single new wound, +be the cause of healing half a-dozen. The threatened aggression from +without had caused the ten Tribunes to agree to the measures of their +colleagues, Licinius and Sextius; but the patricians still held out, and +appointed the veteran Furius Camillus to the dictatorship. The +tribes were in the act of voting, when Furius ordered them away, with +violent menaces; but the fury of Furius was impotent from age, and +the Tribunes coolly threatened him with a fine of five hundred thousand +asses. They had come to the correct conclusion that he could not get +together so many asses without selling himself up; he thought it better +to abdicate, and P. Manlius was chosen to stop the fermentation that +the sour old man had created.</p> + +<p>The bills were now all passed; and L. Sextius had been appointed +plebeian consul, when the patricians, refusing to sanction what they +could not prevent, declined to ratify the election. As the avalanche +does not wait for the consent of the object it is about to sweep away, so +the will of the public overcame the feeble opposition of the patricians. +The latter, however, succeeded in taking a large portion of power from +the consuls, and giving it to a new magistrate, called a Prætor, who was +invested with authority that some historians have described as almost +preternatural. He was chosen from the patricians, and was, in fact, a +sort of third consul, whose duty it was <i>Jus in urbe dicere</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> to lay down +the law—a privilege that, if improperly exercised, might include the +prostration of justice—in the city. The patricians thus kept to themselves +the power of interpreting the law; and as ambiguity seems +inherent in the very nature of law, almost any latitude was left to those +who were at liberty to declare its meaning. The power of the patricians +was further augmented by the appointment of two curule or aristocratic +Ædiles, in addition to the two chosen from the plebeians; and though +their duties related chiefly to the mending of the roads, they had +opportunities of paving the way for many encroachments on the part of +their own order.</p> + +<p>The struggle between the patrician and the plebeian parties was +severe, and each endeavoured to represent itself as the only real friend +of the people. Among other acts, in the interest of the masses, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +was a measure introduced by C. Poetelius, consisting of a <i>lex de ambitû</i>, +an election law, relating to the getting round, or circumventing, of the +electors by the candidates. It will astonish those acquainted with +election practices to be told, that the word "candidate" is derived from +<i>candidus</i>, in allusion to the white robe usually worn as an emblem of +purity by the seeker of popular suffrages. The white robe, however, +was notoriously, in many cases, a white lie, and the law <i>de ambitû</i> was +passed to prohibit canvassing on market-days, when many more things +were purchased than the articles ostensibly sold; and the butcher has +been known to include in the price of a calf's head, the value he placed +upon his own judgment.</p> + +<p>The cause of reform made slow but inevitable progress, though +it was occasionally discredited by some of those incidents which still +cause us to look well to our pockets in the presence of the professional +lover of liberty. C. Licinius, the framer of the law against +occupying more than a certain quantity of the public land, was, it is +said, the first to pay the fine, for holding a double allowance, comprising +five hundred jugera in his own name, and five hundred in that +of his son; a piece of duplicity which was detected and duly punished. +Other instances of private peculation were discovered among those +most clamorous for the public good; and it became necessary in those +days, as in our own, to look among the loudest talkers for the smallest +doers, and the greatest doos of the community.</p> + +<p>The law of debt had been rendered somewhat less severe; but the +impossibility of permanently helping those who could not help themselves +was strikingly exemplified. The rate of interest had been +reduced; and advances were to be made by the State to those who +could give security; but those who could give none were to have no +assistance whatever. To those who could pay no interest at all, it +mattered little whether the interest was moderate or high; and an +extension of time for discharging a debt, in the case of a man who +could pay nothing, was only like lengthening the rope with which he +was to hang himself.</p> + +<p>In the year of the City 390, a plague broke out in Rome, and the +calamity, which swallowed up thousands, being ascribed to the gods, +repasts were prepared for them, under the title of <i>lectisternia</i>, in order +to draw off their appetites from the people. The richest luxuries were +laid out upon tables, to which the gods were invited; but these tables +caused no diminution in the tables of mortality. As the guests did +not accept in person the invitations addressed to them, they were +represented by images; but this imaginary attendance at a real feast +fed nothing but the superstition of the people. A statue of Jupiter +was laid, at full length, upon a couch of ivory, covered with the softest +cushions; but it was found impossible to produce the sort of impression +that was so earnestly desired. Chairs were also set round for the +goddesses, but none came forward to take the chair at this unfortunate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +banquet. An effort was then made to divert the attention of the gods, +by getting up stage plays, or histriones:<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> but the gods did not patronise +the drama in those days, more than in our own; and whether the +Olympian dinner-hour interfered, or whether no interest was felt in an +entertainment translated from Etruria, as the English drama is from +France, the result was the same in both cases, for the plays, during +their short-lived career, were dead failures. To add to the misery +of the whole affair, while the stage performances were unattended, +there was an inconvenient "succession of overflows" of the Tiber's +banks, which damped the spirits and deluged the houses of the +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Seizing hold of every piece of superstition, instead of taking the +pestilence fairly in hand, the Romans, hearing that a plague had once +been stopped by knocking a nail into the wall of a temple, resolved on +going on that absurd tack; and, for this purpose, a hammer was put +by the ninny-hammers into the hands of Manlius. As the pestilence +had by this time begun to wear itself out, the people were foolish +enough to suppose that the plague had been driven in with the nail; +and Manlius having fulfilled the task, which any carpenter might have +performed, resigned the dictatorship.</p> + +<p>It is always the fate of a real or supposed benefactor of the public to +have plenty of private foes; and, indeed, an elevated position is usually +an inviting mark for the arrows of malevolence. Manlius became a +target forthwith; and, had the very bull's eye been aimed at, the apple +of his eye could not have been more effectually hit, than by a wound +sought to be inflicted on him, through his son Titus. The youth had, +it seems, an unfortunate hesitation in his speech, which irritated his +hasty parent; and as the boy could scarcely stammer out a word, a few +words with his father became a very frequent consequence. As he +laboured so much in his speech, the unhappy lad was sent to labour +with his hands among the slaves; and Pomponius, the plebeian +tribune, having a spite against the father, began to regard the son with +the most enlarged benevolence.</p> + +<p>Pomponius, by way of prosecuting his vindictive plans, resolved on +prosecuting Manlius, for cruelty to his son; but the boy, in a powerful +fit of filial piety, though he had a considerable hesitation in his own +delivery, had no hesitation whatever about the delivery of his father +from the hands of his enemies. Proceeding to the house of Pomponius, +under the cloak of friendship, and with a dagger under his cloak, he +desired to speak with the Tribune, who was still in bed, and not being +up to the designs of Titus, ordered his admission to the chamber. +The young man had been received in a spirit of friendly confidence by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +Pomponius, who only discovered that young Manlius was at daggers-drawn, +when he was seen to brandish a glittering weapon. He +demanded an unconditional withdrawal of the charge against his father; +when the terrified Tribune, finding it impossible to bolster up his +courage, muttered a promise to stay all proceedings; and Titus, who +had formerly irritated his father by stammering, was received with open +arms, for having spoken out so boldly in his favour.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0103.png" width="500" height="392" alt="Titus threatening Pomponius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Titus threatening Pomponius.</span><br /><br /> +</div> + +<p>No sooner were the divisions of the people healed, than the city +itself began to be torn to pieces in a most extraordinary manner. +Rome was convulsed to its centre: the earth began to quake, and the +citizens to tremble. A tremendous chasm appeared at length in the +Forum; and as the abyss yawned more and more, it was thought unsafe +for the people to go to sleep over it. Some thought it was a freak of +Nature, who, as if in enjoyment of the cruel sport she occasioned, had +gone into convulsions, and split her sides. Others formed different +conjectures; but the chasm still remained,—a formidable open question. +Some of the people tried to fill it up with dry rubbish, but they only +filled up their own time, without producing the least effect upon the +cavity. In vain did the largest contractors undertake the job, for it was +impossible to contract the aperture, that, instead of being small by +degrees and beautifully less, grew every day large by fits and starts, +and horribly greater.</p> + +<p>At length the augurs were consulted, who, taking a view of the hole, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +announced their conviction that the perforation of the earth would +continue, and that, in fact, it would become in time a frightful bore, if the +most precious thing in Rome were not speedily thrown into it. Upon +this, a young guardsman, named Marcus Curtius, fancying there could be +nothing more precious than his precious self, arrayed himself in a full +suit of armour, and went forth, fully determined to show his metal. +Notice was given that at an appointed time a rapid act of horsemanship +would be performed by M. Curtius; and as there is always great attraction +in a feat which puts life in jeopardy, the attendance, at a performance +where death for the man and the courser was a matter of course, +was what we should call numerous and respectable. All the rank and +fashion of Rome occupied the front seats, at a spectacle throwing every +thing else into the shade, and the performer himself into the very centre +of the earth, which was to prove to him a centre of so much gravity. +Having cantered once or twice round the ring, he prepared for the bold +plunge; but his horse having looked before he leaped, began to plunge +in a different direction. Taking another circuit, M. Curtius, spurred +on by ambition, put his spurs into the animal's side, and the poor brute +was hurried into the abyss, though, had there been any way of backing +out, he would have eagerly jumped at it. The equestrian performance +was no sooner over, than the theatre of the exploit was immediately +closed, and a lake arose on the spot, as if to mark the scene as one that +might command a continued overflow. The place got the name of the +Lacus Curtius, in honour of the hero, if such he may be called; and +his fate certainly involved the sacrifice of one of the most precious +articles in Rome, for it would have been impossible to find in the whole +city such a precious simpleton.</p> + +<p>Rome continued at war with the Gauls, who made frequent inroads; +and on one occasion, during the dictatorship of T. Quinctius Pennus, came +within a short distance from the city. The two armies were divided by +the Anio, when the Gauls, who had a giant in their van, sent him on to +the bridge, with an offer to fight any one of the enemy. The Gaul being +at least twenty stone, was far above the ordinary pitch; but Titus +Manlius, a tight-built light-weight—the plebeian pet, who had already +proved himself too much for the Tribune, Pomponius—came forward to +accept the polite offer of the giant. The fight was one of extreme +interest, and both parties came up to the encounter with surly confidence. +The plebeian pet wore a suit of plain bronze; but the +giant was painted in various colours, presenting a formidable picture. +The giant aimed the first blow with his right, but the young one +having got away cleverly, commenced jobbing his opponent with such +effect, that the latter, finding it a bad job, fell heavily. The giant +was unable to continue the contest, and young Manlius, taking the +collar, or torques, from his victim's neck, got the title of Torquatus, +which, from its connection with his neckcloth, descended to his domestic +ties, and became a stock name in his <a name="family" id="family"></a>family.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0104b.png" width="500" height="328" alt="The Gallant Curtius leaping into the gulf." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><i>The Gallant Curtius leaping into the gulf.</i></span><br /><br /> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Gauls retreated for a while, but having subsequently joined the +Volscii, they got into the Pontine Marshes, and resolved to go through +thick and thin for the purpose of attacking the Romans. Again a +giant appeared in the Gallic ranks, where, it would seem, a giant was +always to be found,—an appendage indicating less of the brave than of +the fair in the composition of the Gallic army. Again a young Roman +was ready to meet an opponent twice his size; and Marcus Valerius +declared that if the giant meant fighting, he, Marcus Valerius, was to +be heard of at a place agreed upon. The terms were concluded, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +the giant came up, with the appearance of contemplating mischief, +when a crow, settling on the Gaul's helmet, by way of crest, soon +enabled the Roman to crow over his crest-fallen antagonist. The bird, +flapping his wings whenever the giant attempted to hit out, put so many +feathers in his face as to render his position ticklish; and as he could +not see with a bundle of crow-quills in his eye, his look-out became +rather desperate. Valerius, in the mean time, laid about him with such +vigour and effect, that the giant, who was doubly blinded with rage and +feathers, knew not where to have him. The contest soon terminated in +favour of the Roman youth, who took the name of Corvus, or the Crow, +from the cause already mentioned. The Gauls were vanquished, and +Valerius was awarded no less than ten prize oxen; so that he obtained +in solid beef, rather than in empty praise, an acknowledgment of his +services. At his triumph, 4000 Volscians were drawn up on each side +of him in chains; but there is something in the idea of his passing +through this Fetter Lane which is repugnant to our more civilised +notions of <a name="true_glory" id="true_glory"></a>true glory.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0105.png" width="373" height="500" alt="Terrific Combat between Titus Manlius and a Gaul of gigantic stature." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Terrific Combat between Titus Manlius and a Gaul of gigantic stature.</span> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Livy, vi., 42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The word "Histriones" is said to be derived from the Etruscan <i>hister</i>, a dancer. +The earliest performers introduced into Rome were dancers—in fact, a ballet company—from +Etruria. Those sensitive admirers of the purely classical in the entertainments of +the stage, who clamour against opera and ballet, will, perhaps, be surprised to learn that +the most truly classical performances are those which they most energetically protest +against.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE ELEVENTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE FIRST WAR AGAINST THE SAMNITES TO THE PASSING OF<br /> +THE LAWS OF PUBLILIUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0107.png" width="166" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span style="margin-left: -0.5em;" class="smcap">he</span> Romans were now about to encounter a truly formidable foe, in the +Samnites,—a warlike people, who had +been extending their territory, by going +to great lengths, and allowing themselves +extraordinary latitude. Coming +down upon Campania, they overlooked +Capua, or rather they did not overlook +it; for, having an eye to its wealth, +they resolved to do their utmost to +become possessed of it. Under these +circumstances, the Campanians, being +unable to find the means of a successful +campaign, applied to Rome for +assistance.</p> + +<p>Two consular armies were equipped; one under M. Valerius Corvus, +or the Crow, who was really ravenous for glory, and the other under +A. Cornelius Cossus; this A. Cossus being in fact <span class="smcap">THE</span> Cossus already +spoken of.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> + +<p>Corvus was an enormous favourite with the soldiers; less, however, +on the strength of his moral qualities, than on the strength of his arms +and legs; for he was an athlete of remarkable power. He could leap +so high as to be able to jump over the heads of others of his own standing; +and the rapidity of his promotion is therefore not astonishing. He +was no less light with his tongue than with his legs; for he could run +on almost as pleasantly with the former as he could with the latter. +He was, in fact, an agreeable rattle, who could make and take a joke +with equal ease,—a quality common in more modern times; for those +who profess to make jokes of their own are very much in the habit of +taking those of other people. He loved a glass of wine, and could +drink it without professing his connoisseurship, after the manner of those +learned wine-bibbers of the present day who are addicted to talking so +much unmeaning buzz on the subject of bees-wing. His relish for the +grape allured him to Mount Gaurus, then clad with vines, where he +could take his observations among the raisins, and make in his mind's +eye a sort of <i>catalogue raisonnée</i> of the enemy.</p> + +<p>On this spot a battle ensued, which was fought with such fierceness on +the side of the Romans, that the Samnites afterwards declared they had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +seen fire in their opponents' eyes; but the Samnites must have been +light-headed themselves, to have made so absurd a statement. Valerius +having been thus far successful, advanced into the Apennines, where, +what are called the mountain fastnesses, are rendered dangerous by +those occasional loosenesses of the earth that give rise to, or cause the +fall of, an avalanche. Though nothing of this sort fell upon him, he +was expecting the descent of the foe, which suddenly appeared on the +topmost heights, and came down with such a run, that the escape of the +Romans seemed impossible. In this difficult dilemma, a subordinate +officer proved to be the safeguard of the whole Roman army; and as the +noble lion, when netted to the profit of a bold hunter, was delivered by a +mouse, so was the noble-hearted Valerius indebted to P. Decius Mus +for the safety of himself and his followers. P. Decius laid, in fact, a +snare for the Samnites, who were caught in this trap of Mus, or military +mouse-trap. He climbed, with a little band, a height so narrow, that +large numbers could not reach it to dislodge him, though it was necessary +to keep an eye upon him; and, while the Mus attracted the cat-like +vigilance of the whole Samnite army, Valerius and his followers were +allowed to steal away unperceived to their own quarters.</p> + +<p>When the enemy, tired with watching, had fallen asleep, Mus crept +out, as quietly as his name would imply, and reached his camp in safety. +He received immediately from the Consul an ox, with gilded horns, +through which he might trumpet his fame; and the soldiers presented +him with a <i>corona obsidionalis</i>—a crown made of blades of grass—in +commemoration of their having been gallantly rescued from the blades +of the enemy. The materials for a crown of this description were +plucked on the spot, in memory of the pluck shown on the spot by the +gallant recipient. Such a crown conveyed a finer lesson of morality +than anything that the cold brilliance of gold or jewels could suggest; +for the wreath of grass, converted, by the very sunshine in which it +basked, into the dry and lifeless hayband, told, in a few hours, the +perishable nature of glory.</p> + +<p>Aided by the manœuvre of the Mus, the success of Valerius +was complete: the Samnites fled in such consternation that they +left behind them 40,000 shields and 170 standards; so that the +Romans must have found the way literally paved with the flags of the +vanquished. A triumph was decreed to both the Consuls, and foreign +nations sent to congratulate the Romans on their success; the Carthaginians +forwarding a crown of gold, twenty-five pounds in weight, the +mere cartage of which from Carthage must have been costly and +difficult. Compliments poured in upon the conquerors from every side; +for good fortune increases the number of addresses to a state, just as +the success of an individual causes a sensible, or rather a senseless, +addition to the contents of his card-basket. Rome was inundated with +calls upon her—many of which were for assistance from feeble countries, +whose weak states seemed to be threatened with speedy <a name="dissolution" id="dissolution"></a>dissolution.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0109.png" width="500" height="389" alt="A Scare-crow." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A Scare-crow.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +It was about this time (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 342) that the garrison at Capua broke +out into revolt, arising, it is said, from the fact that Capua was extremely +rich, and the soldiers very poor; that the latter were hopeless debtors, +and forgot what they owed their country in the vast sums they owed to +their creditors. The story goes on to say, that a corps of heavy +insolvents first originated the idea of sacking the city and bagging its +wealth, by placing it among their own baggage. The Consul, C. Martius +Rutilius, was sent to take the command, and he attempted the soothing +system; but the soldiers were goaded with the fetters of debt, and +refused to be smoothed over, or to submit to remain under irons. +Being in want of a leader, they seized on T. Quinctius, an aged veteran, +whose head was so completely bowed down, that he could not do otherwise +than bow when asked if he would lead them as their general. The nod +of palsy was interpreted into the nod of assent, and T. Quinctius was +selected to oppose Corvus, or the Crow, though the only chance for the +veteran was, that in the capacity of a scare-crow he might succeed in +frightening his antagonist. The armies at length met, when the +insurgents, led by a shivering veteran, began to follow their leader, and +to shake with fear, which induced Valerius to offer them terms, and the +quaking Quinctius was the first to recommend his troops to accept an +amnesty. Thus ended an insurrection, of which the motive appears +vague, and the management thoroughly contemptible. The best opinion +of its origin seems to be, that the army abounded in debtors, who were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +afraid to go home, and who preferred the chances of a mutiny to the +certainty of having to meet their creditors. The only concession they +asked was the cancelling of all their debts; a proposition that savours +rather of the swindler than the patriot. It is, however, an almost +universal fact, that the insolvent classes of a community are to be found +in opposition to the constituted authorities; and, indeed, the strength +or weakness of such an opposition is no bad test, after all, of the merits +of an administration; for if the majority of the people are well-to-do, +the inference must be favourable to the government.</p> + +<p>Peace was concluded with the Samnites, but Rome was now on the +brink of a war with the Latins, who sent ambassadors, proposing that +the two people should henceforth be considered as one, in order to +establish their unity. The Senate was to be half Latin and half +Roman; but the latter declared they would not recognise this sort of +half and half in any of their measures. The Consul, T. Manlius, when +he heard the terms, went off into a series of clap-traps, in which he +knew he was perfectly safe; for the contingency in which he might have +been called upon to keep his word, was not at all likely to happen. +He exclaimed, that if the Senate should be half Latin, he would enter +the assembly with his drawn sword, and cause vacancies in half the +seats of the house by slaying all the Latin occupants. This species of +paulo-post-future patriotism is equally common and convenient, for it +pledges the professor to do nothing until after the doing of something +else, which, in all probability, may never happen. T. Manlius was not +put to the test, though he certainly proved himself, in some respects, +ready for the Latins, had they come on in earnest; for poor Annius, +their spokesman, having tumbled down stairs from top to bottom, the +consul brutally chuckled over the weak legs of the unhappy legate. +"Ha! ha!" roared Manlius, with savage mirth, "thus will I prostrate +all the Latins;" and he proceeded to kick at the ambassador, who, +being a man of several stone, was completely stunned by his too facile +descent from the upper landing to the basement of the Temple of +<a name="Jupiter" id="Jupiter"></a>Jupiter.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0111.png" width="443" height="500" alt="Metius aggravating Titus Manlius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Metius aggravating Titus Manlius.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The two Consuls went forth to fight, and both commenced their +campaign by going to sleep, which led naturally to the inquiry, what +they could both have been dreaming about. So thoroughly sympathetic +were they in their drowsiness, that they had dreamed precisely the same +dream, in which each had seen a ghost, who had addressed both in the +same spirit. The spectre, who was decidedly on the shady side of +existence, professed through his lantern jaws to throw a light upon +Rome's future destiny. He told the Consuls that the general on one +side was doomed; but, as this was merely dealing with generalities, he +went on to add, that the whole army on one side was to be buried in +the earth; a suggestion neither side would be very anxious to fall in +with. The spectre, who was rather more communicative than spectres +usually are, and who was not so monosyllabic as a fair average ghost, +proceeded to further explanations, in the course of which he remarked, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +that "the general who first devoted himself to the infernal gods, would, +by that act of devotion, consign the whole of the opposing army to" +a most unpleasant neighbourhood. Both agreed that the one whose +army was the first to back out, should be the first to rush into danger. +The hostile armies accordingly began to recede as far as they could, and +the only contest was to ascertain who could be the cleverest and quickest +in walking in one direction, whilst looking in another. It was an +understood thing that nobody was to fight unless first attacked, and the +general aim was to avoid aiming at anything. Foraging parties went out +daily to try and provoke each other to an onslaught, and the prevailing +sentiment on both sides was a hope, that "somebody would only just +do so and so." Titus Manlius, the son of Torquatus, approached the +Latin camp, when Metius, of Tusculum, attempted by all sorts of provoking +signals to induce the raw youth to commence a combat; but the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +boy for some time combated nothing but his own inclination, which +would have set him on to an onset. At length he became so irritated +that he could restrain himself no longer, but hurling his javelin with all his +might, it stuck in the mane of the horse of Metius. The poor brute, +looking for sympathy to his master, fell back upon him for protection; +but this act of affectionate confidence was fatal to Metius, who, being +brought to the ground, was saddled with the whole weight of the +unfortunate quadruped. Titus, taking advantage of the position of +Metius, stabbed him with his sword, and the latter, feeling himself pierced, +could only set up a piercing cry, by way of retaliation upon his antagonist. +Having stripped off the armour of his victim, young Titus bore it in +triumph to his father, Torquatus Manlius, who proceeded to imitate +Brutus; but, like most imitations, the appearance of T. Manlius in the +part of the "heavy father" was by no means successful.</p> + +<p>Collecting the troops by the sound of trumpet, so that the audience +might be sufficiently large, he threw himself into an imposing attitude; +but the imposition was seen through, and the reception he met with was +far from flattering. He next called forward his son, and denouncing +him as an officer who had disobeyed his governor in a double sense—his +father and his consul—the lictors were ordered to proceed, by the +execution of the son, to the execution of their duty. Manlius, having +witnessed the ceremony, buried his face in his toga, expecting at least +three rounds of applause; but the performance fell as dead as his +unhappy offspring. On his return to Rome he was universally cut by +the young men, who were peculiarly alive to a penalty that might be +the death of any one of them. The remains of young Manlius were +collected into a dreary pile, and the trophies he had illegally won were +added as the materials for a bonfire. His obsequies were the first of +the same kind among the Romans that we have been able to meet +with, after a truly industrious analysis of every hole in which the +dust of ages might be found, and a careful sifting of the ashes of +antiquity.</p> + +<p>The two armies were still standing, when Decius Mus, who was most +anxious to distinguish himself, and was watching intently to discover +which way the cat would jump, observed a backward movement among +his spearmen. His opportunity for glory had now arrived, and the +gallant Mus, rushing recklessly to the scratch, behaved himself less +like a mus than a lion in the conflict. He fell under a perfect shower +of javelins, and lay on the field literally <i>piqué</i> with the pikes of his +enemies. The latter were dismayed, and his own friends animated by +what had taken place; but the rule of contraries must here have prevailed, +for the death of an adverse general should not have disheartened +the Latins, while the sacrifice of their own chief was, if looked at +in a proper light, but poor encouragement for the Romans. They, +however, grew bold; but it was scarcely necessary for them to strike a +blow, as the Latins yielded under the stroke of a panic. They fell in +such numbers, that three parts are said to have perished, and only a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +fourth of the army remained to tell of the little quarter allowed them +by the enemy.</p> + +<p>The Latins suffered so severely from the victory of Decius Mus, that +like rats running from a tottering house, their allies, one by one, fell +away from them. Numisius, the Latin commander, did his utmost to +stir up the spirit of the nation; but the spirit was so thoroughly +weakened by cold water, that it was the act of a spoon to endeavour to +agitate so feeble a compound. He succeeded in raising a slight fermentation, +but what little spirit remained, went off by speedy evaporation +in the process of warming up, under the influence of patriotic fire. +A small and disorderly band, which could not act in concert, was brought +into play, but produced no effect, though it was conducted by Numisius +with considerable energy. The Romans succeeded on every side, the +Latin army was broken down, the confederacy broken up, and one town +after another showed a preference for the better part of valour by +surrendering at discretion. The land taken from the conquered was +distributed among the Roman people; but the word "people" has +frequently a very contracted meaning when profits are being shared, +though the term is comprehensive enough to take in a whole nation +when the services of the "people" are required. It is to be feared +the people who went out for the fight were far more numerous than those +who came in for the spoil that had been got by it.</p> + +<p>The beaten Latins had the additional mortification of having to pay +their successful assailants; an arrangement as provoking as it would be +to the victim of an assault to be obliged to discharge the amount of +the penalty, in addition to suffering the inconvenience of the outrage. +Thus was Capua compelled to pension 1600 Campanian knights; and +this pension the Capuans had to give to the knights, simply because the +knights had, in a different sense, given it—severely—to the Capuans. +It is doubtful whether the Samnites took anything by the general +adjustment—if that can be called an adjustment in which justice had +little share; but that they left much behind them is quite notorious.</p> + +<p>Among their equipments for battle had been several gorgeous gold +and silver-mounted shields, in the shape of a boy's kite, and as the +Samnites ultimately protected themselves by flying, the kite-like form +of their shields was thoroughly appropriate. Their breasts were covered +with sponge, which gave them a soft-hearted air; and the sinking of +their bosoms under nearly every blow, was clearly perceptible. They +wore a shirt of mail, composed of brazen scales, and the display of so +much metal in their shirts enabled them to present at times a bold +front to the enemy. They had greaves upon their legs, which were a +grievous impediment to their running away; and their helmets, adorned +with lofty plumes, only served to render more conspicuous in defeat +their crest-fallen condition. They wore tunics or coats of cotton next +their skin, and put on their shirts outside; but between these, was a +short garment of wool: so that the only idea we can give of the mode of +making a Samnite <i>toilette</i> is by asking the reader to begin by putting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +on his coat; to place over that his flannel waistcoat, and to add his +shirt by way of finish.</p> + +<p>Among the other spoils of the war with the Latins, were the ships +taken from the port of Antium; but the Romans, who were not a +nautical people, had so little idea of the value of a fleet, that they +carried the beaks or prows of the vessels to Rome, and fixed them in +the Forum, as pulpits for their orators.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> How the ships could have +kept above water when subjected to mutilation, it is difficult to conceive; +and indeed it would appear probable that having been deprived of their +heads, they must have gone down, as a matter of stern necessity. We +must, however, do the Roman people the justice to add, that two officers +had been appointed to the superintendence of naval affairs; and some +will declare they see in the mere existence of an Admiralty Board sufficient +to account for much extravagance, and all sorts of blundering. Rome +had hitherto been in the condition of a house divided against itself, or +rather of the adjoining houses pulling against each other, and every +widening of the breach must of course have been attended with danger +to both of them. The cessation of war with the Latins enabled Rome +to draw closer the neighbouring social fabric, and many of its inhabitants +were invited to join, and make themselves part of the family of the Romans. +The latter also began to see the impolicy of keeping up certain distinctions +between class and class, which have the same effect upon a nation, as +the bitter feuds between separate floors are likely to produce upon the +happiness and comfort of a lodging-house. When an upstart one-pair-front +sneers at its own back, or looks down upon an abased basement; +when a crushed and crouching kitchen, waiting in vain for its turn at +the only copper, revenges itself by cutting the only clothes-line—if the +line is drawn only for the good of those in a higher station, instead of its +being a line drawn, as every line should be, for the good of all;—when a +household is in such a state, we may see in it the type of a badly ordered +community. Such had been long the unhappy lot of Rome, until it +began to strike on the minds of a few influential men, that no nation +can be really great while the mass of its people are in a state of abject +littleness. The majority of the patricians fortunately took an equally +sensible view of their case, and arrived at the wise conclusion, that +moderate privileges fairly held, and freely conceded, are preferable to +any amount of exclusive advantage, improperly assumed on the one +hand, and impatiently submitted to on the other. Happily for the +patricians, they had among them a man bold enough to incorporate in a +law the opinions of the main part of his own order, and strong enough +to prevail over the weakness and prejudice of the meaner members of +the body.</p> + +<p>The name of this patrician reformer was Q. Publilius Philo, who +introduced three laws calculated to extend the basis of political power. +By the first, the <i>curiæ</i>, consisting of patricians only, were compelled to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +confirm the laws passed by the centuries in which the two orders were +mixed; by the second, the <i>plebiscita</i>, or decrees of the plebs, were to +be binding on all Roman citizens; and the third provided, that there +should always be one plebeian censor. These laws, though, perhaps, +well adapted to the wants of the age, were not exactly such as we +should hail with enthusiasm if they were to be brought forward in our +own day by the head of a government. Depriving the curiæ of a veto +was a measure equivalent to a proposition that the measures of the +House of Commons should not require the concurrence of the House of +Lords; and giving the force of law to a <i>plebiscitum</i> was much the same +thing as determining that every resolution of every public meeting +should at once be embodied in the statute-book. Such an arrangement +in the present day would render our laws a curiosity of legislative mosaic +work, laid down without the advantage of uniformity or design. If the +interpretation of an act of Parliament is sometimes difficult, we may +conceive the utter hopelessness of the effort to understand the laws, if +they were to consist of a body of resolutions pouring in constantly +from Exeter Hall, or Freemasons' Tavern, and, occasionally, from a +lamp-post in Trafalgar Square, or a cart on Kennington Common.</p> + +<p>With every due respect for the <i>plebiscita</i>—or resolutions of public +meetings—we doubt whether any party would be desirous of accepting +them as a substitute for our present method of law-making. The only +chance of safety would be in the fact, that the <i>plebiscitum</i> of to-morrow +would be sure to repeal the <i>plebiscitum</i> of to-day, and the best security +for the state would consist in keeping a public meeting always +assembled to negative every new proposition.</p> + +<p>It was many years, however, before Rome, though it had suffered so +much from patrician insolence, was prepared to go to the length of allowing +a <i>plebiscitum</i> the force of law without being subject to the veto of the +senate.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Aristocratic pretension had, however, been carried to such +an extent in Rome, that we could hardly be surprised at any amount of +democratic license; for extremes are sure to meet, and it is unfortunate, +indeed, for a country that is reduced to such extremities.</p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <a href="#Page_87"><i>Vide</i> page 87</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> From this circumstance, the word Rostrum, which means the prow of a ship, has +been derived, and has got into such universal use as to describe the box from which an +auctioneer launches his eloquence.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> The Hortensian Law, carried some years later by Q. Hortensius.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWELFTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE SECOND TO THE END OF THE THIRD<br /> +SAMNITE WAR.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Rome</span> had entered into an alliance with the Samnites; but the +latter became rather suspicious, when they found the former making +friends with all their enemies. Every one who aimed a blow at +Samnium was forthwith taken into the favour of Rome; and as Samnium +was being attacked on every side, the new connexions of Rome became +very numerous. Alexander of Epirus, who had come over as a friend +to the Tarentines, thought he might vary the object of his visit by +becoming the foe to somebody else; and he accordingly pitched upon the +Samnites, who might fairly have traced the Roman hand in some of the +hostile demonstrations that were made against them. There being +some inconvenience in fighting through a third party, to say nothing of +the unsatisfactory nature of such an arrangement to the go-between, +the Romans and the Samnites soon came into direct collision.</p> + +<p>One of the Consuls, D. J. Brutus, was sent with troops to Apulia; +but the other Consul, L. Furius Camillus, was in such wretched health, +that he could scarcely hold up his own head, and was quite unfit for the +head of an army. L. Papirius Cursor, the dictator, undertook the +command himself; but on his way to Samnium he was suddenly +recalled to Rome, in consequence of some blunder with the auspices. +Leaving behind him Q. Fabius, his master of the horse, he desired that +officer to do nothing; for L. P. Cursor having taken a cursory view of +the state of affairs, saw there was a victory to be gained, and wished to +reserve to himself the glory of gaining it. Q. Fabius, with a natural +reluctance to be shelved, determined to do the work himself; and by +the time his chief returned, had won a brilliant victory. The rage +of the principal knew no bounds, when he discovered that everything +had been accomplished in his absence; for though there might have +been no objection to the subordinate's actually doing all that was to be +done, there was an unpardonable violation of official etiquette in its +having been got through when the chief was away, and when it was, +therefore, notorious that he could have had no hand in it. The +dictator was so indignant, that he would have visited his deputy with +all the severity of military law, for having dared to show a capacity to +command, when his capacity was, in fact, subordinate. It was looked +upon by official men as an act likely to spoil the official market, by +showing that the most highly-paid services are not always the best; +and it was felt, also, that the chief had been ousted of his prescriptive +title to claim, as his own perquisites, all the tact and talent of his +underling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +L. P. Cursor swore vengeance upon the head of Q. Fabius; but the +soldiers threatened a revolt in the event of his being punished, and +the hero who had put a whole army to flight was obliged to take to his +heels for having dared to use his head in the absence of his superior.</p> + +<p>The Dictator had rendered himself very unpopular with the troops +by his injustice and cruelty to Q. Fabius; but he regained his popularity +by allowing them to be guilty of all sorts of injustice and cruelty +towards a vanquished enemy. Though their indignation had been +raised against him, through the medium of their generous sympathies, +he now appealed to their meanest passions, by promising them the +fullest license in plundering the foe; and such is the inconsistency of +human nature, that he did not appeal in vain; for, urged by avarice, +they fought with such determination as to secure a victory. Pillage +became at once the order of the day, and a truce was granted for one +year, on condition that the Samnites, who had been robbed of everything +available at the moment, should become responsible for a twelvemonth's +pay to the Dictator's army.</p> + +<p>The period of the truce was occupied in negotiation; for it would +have been rather too gross a piece of effrontery on the part of the +Romans to continue attacking the very party from whom they were +receiving their pay: and having waited till the receipt of the last +instalment, they announced that the only terms they would accept +would be the unconditional assent of the Samnites to anything that +might be proposed to them.</p> + +<p>This result was so excessively disgusting to the Samnites, that some +actually cried with rage, while others cried for vengeance. A few of +the most influential, with tears in their eyes, went to their fellow-countrymen +literally with a cry; but amidst all this broken-heartedness, +there was a general raising of the nation's spirit. The Samnites felt +that the time for action had arrived, and C. Pontius was chosen to act +as their general. He at once laid siege to Luceria, when disguising ten +of his soldiers as shepherds, he sent them forth with instructions to look +as sheepish as they could, and they had also full directions how to +act in the event of their being captured. The Romans, commanded +by T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius, soon fell in with the Samnite +masqueraders, whose real character was not suspected; for it does not +appear to have excited any surprise that ten shepherds should be +hanging about a neighbourhood in which no sheep were perceptible. +With a simplicity more suited to romance than history, the Romans +submitted themselves to the guidance of the ten anonymous shepherds, +who conducted the whole army into the Caudine forks, as easily as if +the veterans had connived at their own betrayal. No sooner were they +lost among the forks, than the soldiers learned what spoons they had +been, for they found themselves blocked in by the enemy. They fought +with considerable bravery, but the Samnites, who lined the surrounding +heights, were completely out of their reach, and the Romans, having +made a few vain efforts to throw up their spears, suddenly threw up +the contest. Of every weapon they hurled, the consequence fell upon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +their own heads, and nothing was left but to make the best terms they +could with the enemy.</p> + +<p>Pontius, the Samnite general, was puzzled how to act, and sent to +inquire of his father what he should do, when the old man replied, +"Release them unhurt!" and the answer not being quite satisfactory, +another messenger was sent, who brought back the brief but expressive +recommendation to "cut them all to pieces." Pontius, thinking the +old gentleman had gone out of his mind, sought a personal explanation; +but the veteran, who was clearly averse to doing anything by halves, or +meeting anybody half-way, persevered in his recommendation to his +son, to do one thing or the other. The Samnites were struck with +admiration at the wisdom of the sage; but although all were dumbfounded +by the profound philosophy of the advice, nobody thought of +taking it. Pontius proposed terms, and having been deceived so frequently +by the Romans before, he magnanimously resolved to try and +be even with them at last, by putting them and his own countrymen on +a perfect equality. He stipulated for the restoration to the Samnites of +all the places taken from them; but the most painful portion of the +arrangement to the Romans was their being called upon to pass under +the yoke,—a ceremony which was supposed to lower for ever all who +had once stooped to it.</p> + +<p>Six hundred equites were held as hostages for the due observance of +the treaty, and these knights were, in fact, so many pawns, held in +pledge for the honour of the Romans. The Consuls, stripped of every +thing but their shirts, and looking the most deplorable objects, crawled +under the yoke, followed by the whole army in the same wretched +undress as their leaders. As they passed through Capua, the inhabitants, +touched with sympathy, came forth with bundles of left-off wearing +apparel, which was tendered to the humiliated troops; but their wounds +were too deep for ordinary dressing. They walked silently to their +homes, through the back streets of the city. All business was suspended +on the day of their arrival, and though the Romans had seen suffering +in almost every variety of guise, they had never met with it under such +melancholy Guys as those that were then before them. The Consuls +resigned their offices as rapidly as they could, for their nominal dignity +only added to their real disgrace, and they may be supposed to have felt +the relief experienced by the broken-spirited cur, whose tail has just +undergone the curtailment of the hateful, but glittering <a name="kettle" id="kettle"></a>kettle.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0119.png" width="409" height="500" alt="The Romans clothed by the Inhabitants of Capua." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Romans clothed by the Inhabitants of Capua.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Rome, smarting under the disgrace of a defeat, brought on by want +of resolution in the troops, proceeded to incur a still greater disgrace by +a resolution of the Senate. That body having met to consider the +agreement entered into with the Samnites, determined not to ratify it; +and, though aware of the fact, that six hundred Roman knights were +detained as hostages, in chains, the Senate cared as little for their bonds +as for the words of the Consuls, which had been passed for the fulfilment +of the treaty. Spurius Postumius, who had nothing genuine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +in his conduct, was among the first to propose the violation of the +arrangement he had made, and recommended that he himself, as well +as all who had agreed to peace, should be, for the look of the thing, +surrendered to the Samnites. He entered so fully into the deception +about to be enacted, that when the Lictor was tying the cord loosely, as +if conscious of the illusory character of the whole proceeding, Spurius +insisted upon the cords being drawn sufficiently tight to enable him to +declare to the Samnites that his hands were really tied, and that, if +the Senate refused to be bound by his arrangements, he was so +thoroughly bound by theirs as to be utterly powerless. Carrying the +farce still further, he was no sooner delivered up to the Samnites than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +he turned round upon the Roman Fecial, and exclaiming, "I am now +a Samnite," administered to the proper officer a violent kick, as if to +show that he and Rome were to be henceforth on a hostile footing. +The Samnite general looked on with contempt at the whole affair; +the hostages were refused, and the 600 knights were also sent back; for +Pontius had expected the Romans to keep their word, and was neither +ready nor willing to be burdened with the keep of several hundred +captives. This remarkable breach of their own faith left a more +permanent mark upon them than any breach that could have been made +by an enemy in the walls of their city; and the fact of their having +built a temple to Public Credit, rendered their discreditable conduct +still more remarkable.</p> + +<p>The Samnites and the Romans were now perfectly agreed in their +determination to fall out, wherever they might happen to fall in with +one another. A series of small conflicts ensued, of which the accounts +are almost as conflicting as the battles themselves; but there is every +reason to believe that Fortune showered her favours right and left, by +giving them first to one side and then to the other. L. Papirius +Cursor, the Roman Consul, seems to have made himself the pre-cursor +of his country's ultimate success, for he is said to have led the way to +it by recovering Luceria. Hostilities had by this time become so fierce, +that it was necessary to take a little breathing time on both sides, and +a truce of two years was agreed upon. The war was then renewed +under L. Æmilius and Q. Fabius, the dictators, who fought with various +results, taking occasionally a city, and at other times being compelled to +take what they were not at all disposed to receive at the hands of an +enemy. No very remarkable incident occurred at the recommencement +of the war, excepting the taking of the town of Sora by treachery; but +meanness and deception were so common in the time we write of, that +any event involving those despicable qualities cannot be considered +unusual. Sora was situated on a rocky eminence, and though secure to +a certain extent in its lofty position, it was not above the reach of that +low cunning which will stoop to anything for the attainment of its object. +A deserter, who appears to have had everything his own way among the +Samnites, as well as among the Romans, persuaded the latter to retire +some miles off, as if they had abandoned the siege, and then ordered +them to have a regiment of cavalry concealed in a wood near the city. +What the Samnites were about during these proceedings does not +appear; nor is it easy to understand how they could have overlooked an +important branch of the forces of the enemy among the trees; but +tradition, when she wishes to shut her eyes to a difficulty, never hesitates +to shut the eyes of all whose vigilance might have been fatal to the +incident about to be related. The inhabitants of Sora may therefore +be supposed to have been fast asleep and slow to wake, or to have had +their backs turned, or to have taken something which had turned their +heads, when the deserter was making his arrangements for the betrayal +of their city. Having taken the steps already described, he conducted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +ten Roman soldiers up a sort of back staircase behind the crags; and +the blindness of the inhabitants of Sora had come to such a pass, that +the mountain pass was so thoroughly lost sight of as to be left without +a single sentinel. Having lodged the ten men in the fortress, he +concealed them there until night; but it is difficult to say how the ten +stalwart soldiers could have been so thoroughly put away in the day-time +as not to be observed, unless tradition, wishing to put her own construction +on the affair, has proceeded to the construction of some secret cupboard +in the fortress, where the men may have been closeted together +until the hour arrived for their being brought into action. Waiting +till the dead of night, the deserter desired the ten men to shout +as loud as they possibly could, and to keep on hallooing until the cavalry +were out of the wood; a movement which was to be effected when the +deserter, rushing into the city, had frightened the inhabitants out of it, +by running all over the town in a state of pretended alarm, which was +to be accounted for by the continued shouting of the ten men in the +citadel. Notwithstanding the numerous objections to the veracity of this +story, tradition has handed it down to us, and we, as in duty bound, +continue to hand it on, though we do not allow it to pass through our +fingers without taking the precaution to stamp it with the mark of +counterfeit. Tradition proceeds to say that the scheme was perfectly +successful: that the citizens, frightened by the shouting of the ten +soldiers in the citadel, ran into, or rather on to, the arms of the legions +who were advancing with drawn swords to the gates of the city.</p> + +<p>The Samnites having become weary of war, and tired of an existence +which was passed in continually fighting for their lives, determined to +bring matters to an issue as fast as possible. They met the Romans +under Q. Fabius at Lautulæ, where Q was driven into a corner, and ran +away, when his army not receiving from him the cue to fight, rapidly +followed his example. C. Fabius having subsequently come to the +assistance of Q., they united their forces, and being almost two to one +against the Samnites, they obtained a victory.</p> + +<p>Rome had, however, quite enough to contend against in various +quarters; and, among others, the Ausonians betrayed hostile feelings, +which were rendered abortive by another betrayal of a very disgraceful +character. Among the Ausonians there existed a nominal nobility, +whose rank gave them a sort of respectability to which they possessed +no moral title. These nobles, by name and ignobles by nature, were +mean enough to admit, by stealth, into some of the cities of Ausonia, a +number of Roman soldiers in disguise, who, with the cruelty so commonly +associated with fraud, commenced a general slaughter of the +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>It would be a waste of time and patience, both to writer and reader, +were we to ask him to accompany us into every little field where a little +skirmish may have taken place, at about this period, between Rome and +her enemies. To describe the fluctuations of the fortune of war, would +be as dry and unprofitable as the minute narration of all the incidents +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +of a long game at heads and tails; nor would the historian have +repeated very often the particulars of the throwing up the coin, before +the reader would be found throwing up the history. We shall, therefore, +content ourselves with giving the heads in a curtailed form, +without going into the particulars of the movements of the generals. +There was an enormous quantity of putting to the sword on both sides, +but without running through the whole, we will submit to the eye of +the reader the points best adapted for the use of the pupil. In the +north of Samnium, the Romans were surprised by an Etruscan army, +and nearly destroyed; but when they were more than half killed, they +began to look alive, and completely exterminated the foe, whose +survivors, consisting of their cattle, fell into the hands of the conquerors. +The Consul, C. Marcius, had succeeded in taking a place +called Allifæ; but the Samnites soon afterwards brought themselves +completely round, and made him the centre of a circle, which, as he was +entirely cut off from Rome, was to him a centre of extreme gravity. +Not even a messenger could find a way to take to the city the tidings +of the Consul's perilous position; but it seems to have become known, +by some means or other, for L. Cursor hastened to the scene, and +caused the Samnites to abandon their position. Beginning to despond, +they sought a truce, for which they had to pay a most exorbitant price, +in cash, corn, and clothes; for they had to pay, feed, and clothe for +three months the troops who had paid them off, in another shape, and +submitted them to a long series of thorough dressings. They, however, +still held out against acknowledging the sovereignty of Rome, +and thought themselves exempt from humiliation in making themselves +the slaves in fact, as long as they remained independent in +name, of that ambitious power. The main point of dispute remaining +still undisposed of, more fighting ensued, until Samnium was at length +so thoroughly reduced as to be obliged to confess itself beaten at last; +and the Samnites, who had by degrees parted with everything they +possessed for the luxury of maintaining that they were free to do as +they pleased with their own, acknowledged Rome to be their master. +Rome also needed relaxation; for her energies had become relaxed by a +war of twenty years; and both parties having done each other all the +harm they could, ceased only because the power of mischief had become +completely lost on one side, and seriously impaired on the other.</p> + +<p>So inveterate was the hostility between Samnium and Rome, that +any pause in their actual conflict was filled up by preparations for a +renewal, the first opportunity for which they were eagerly expecting to +take advantage of. The third Samnite war was commenced by an +attempt on the part of the Samnites to recover Lucania, and for that +purpose they stupified the Lucanians by a series of severe beatings, +which deadened the sense of the inhabitants to their danger. The +nobles, who seem to have had the instinct of self-preservation in a higher +degree than the virtue of patriotism, were quite prepared to obey a +master who would purchase, rather than resist an enemy who would +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +harass, them. They accordingly offered their allegiance to Rome, on +condition that Rome would save them the trouble of defending themselves +against Samnium. Roman envoys were despatched, in compliance +with this arrangement, to call upon the Samnites to evacuate Lucania; +but the envoys were unceremoniously ordered off, and betook themselves +to a very quick return, unattended by the smallest profit. After a +few minor encounters, the two Consuls, Q. Fabius and P. Decius Mus, +the son of old Mus, already alluded to, led their combined forces +into Samnium, and went different ways, though they fully purposed +pulling together. Q. Fabius met the whole of the Samnite army, +and a battle commenced, in which each was rapidly destroying the +other's soldiers in about equal numbers, without any good to either, +beyond the very melancholy satisfaction of being even with each +other in the losing game that both sides were playing. This would +probably have continued until the chances of war had degenerated into +a game of odd man, in which the sole survivor would have been the +victor, when a Samnite soldier, rather more far-seeing than the rest, +espied what he supposed to be the army of Decius. That there are +some things to which it is better to shut one's eyes, was proved on this +occasion; for the long-sighted Samnite had no sooner espied a body of +men in the back-ground, who were in reality the reserve of Q. Fabius, +than he frightened himself and his fellow soldiers, by spreading a rumour +that Mus was creeping slowly, but surely, up to them. The Samnites +were at once struck with a panic, the blow inflicted by which is always +more fatal than that of the sword, and the loss of spirit led to the +destruction of nearly the whole body. Decius having joined his colleague, +the two Consuls hunted the country of the Samnites, making game of +everything that came in the way, while Appius Claudius carried on the +war in Etruria. We should be curious to see the population returns—if +any such existed—in relation to the Samnites, who were, according to +tradition, being continually cut to pieces, routed, ravaged, and otherwise +destroyed; but who, nevertheless, were, according to tradition, continually +taking the field again in large numbers, as if nothing had +happened. L. Valerius had just returned from assisting his colleague, +Appius Claudius, in Etruria, when the Samnites turned up rather +abundantly on the Vulturnus, and being at once attacked, were again +cut to pieces, for by no means the last or only time on the great stage of +history.</p> + +<p>At about the same time, when the news of this victory reached Rome +the Gauls were expected, and though it was against the law that the same +Consul should be elected twice in ten years, the Romans, altering the +constitution, without the trouble of revision, suspended the law for the +purpose of securing the services of Q. Fabius.</p> + +<p>He was re-elected with his colleague Decius Mus, and before +setting out for battle, they consulted the augurs, who evinced their +usual readiness to interpret the omens in the most favourable manner. +On coming to the fortified camp of Appius Claudius, Fabius found the +soldiers collecting wood, to form a stockade, which drew from him the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +remark, "It is not by cutting sticks you can succeed, but by showing a +bold front to the enemy." The soldiers, animated by his words—which, +to say the truth, do not appear to have anything particularly invigorating +about them—were suddenly roused into lions, after having been in a +lamb-like or sheepish condition, and instead of cutting any more wood, +or pulling up the trunks of trees, began to pluck up a proper spirit. +The Romans had now about 90,000 troops in the field, if we adopt the +round numbers handed down to us, which do not always square with +probability; but the historians wisely provide, as far as possible, for any +deficiency that may arise in the course of the various cuttings to pieces, +annihilations, and other contingencies which are at one time or other +the alleged fate of nearly every army. The vast necessity for a surplus +that may be boldly dealt with, can perhaps be understood from a circumstance +recorded with reference to a legion led by L. Scipio. It had +been stationed near Camerinum, and had in an engagement with the +foe been cut to pieces without having been missed; nor was the loss +discovered until their own countrymen recognised their heads carried on +the lances of the advancing enemy. When the fact thus frightfully +stared them in the face, the countenances of the Romans fell with +sympathy at the fate of their comrades, which it must be confessed +presented some very horrid features.</p> + +<p>At length the hostile armies met near Sentinum in Umbria—the +Romans mustering in considerable force, and the Samnites, in spite of +much pruning, which seemed only to have the effect of increasing their +growth, forming a highly respectable remnant. The latter had also a +considerable accession in the shape of Gauls, Umbrians, and Etrurians; +for tradition, when it desires to give interest to a battle, is always +prepared to scrape together from all quarters a sufficient number of +soldiers, on both sides, to equalise the chances of victory. While the +armies were drawn out in line before each other, they are said to have +been suddenly occupied in the contemplation of the following rather +remarkable incident. A deer, pursued by a wolf, ran rapidly down +the middle, and the two animals were on the point of going up again, +when the deer, apparently changing its mind, ran among the Gauls, +who, without hesitation, converted it into venison. The wolf, with a +cunning worthy of the fox, declined venturing on an experiment that +had been so costly to the deer, and turned in among the Romans, who, +perhaps, fearing that the wolf might have a taste for calves as well as +for sheep, took the precaution to save their legs, by making as wide an +opening as possible. No sooner was the wolf out of the way, than the +Romans began to boast that fear had gone to the foe in the shape of a +deer, while valour had come to their side in the person of Mars, whom +they declared they saw hidden under the hide of a wolf, his favourite +animal. The battle at length commenced, and the day being exceedingly +warm, added, in one sense, most inconveniently to the heat +of the contest. The Gauls created immense consternation among the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +Romans by rushing down upon them in chariots armed with scythes, at +the sight of which they were terribly cut up, and unmercifully cut down, +before they had time to recover from their astonishment. Not wishing +to be left as a wretched harvest on the field, the Romans were about to +fly, when they were once more saved by a Mus, who on this occasion +will be thought by some to have deserved the epithet of "<i>ridiculus</i>." +Recollecting the example of his father, he resolved to sacrifice himself +for the benefit of his country, and, calling upon the pontiff, he caused +his vow to be regularly registered. The ceremony having been +gone through, in due form, he put spurs to his horse, and rushing +in among the foe, he became, as it were, a scabbard for the +swords of all who could get within reach of him. The Gauls were +so completely stupified by what they saw, that they were literally +lost in wonder; for, while they stood staring with astonishment, the +Romans fell upon and massacred nearly the whole of them. Gellius +Egnatius, the Samnite General, was slain, together with many thousands +of his own countrymen, who are described by tradition as having +been once more cut to pieces, though these pieces are not the last +in which they are destined to make their appearance. History, +with a natural anxiety to keep a stock of Samnites on hand for +future use, suggests that 5000 ran away, though the Romans were +too much reduced to run after them, and as the fugitives lost a +thousand of their number by fighting, during their retreat, it must +be presumed that, in their extreme nervousness, they began attacking +each other.</p> + +<p>Q. Fabius led back his army into Etruria, which had recently been +thoroughly ravaged by Cn. Fulvius; and the Etruscans, who had already +been beaten once, were thoroughly beaten again, so that any residue of +strength might be effectually knocked out of them. The retreating +Samnites had by this time arrived at the valley of Vulturnus, where the +country was in such a state that they could find nothing to eat; but, +for a people who were accustomed to survive the constant infliction of +the sword, the absence of food was a very subordinate grievance. +Volumnius and Appius Claudius fell upon them with their united forces, +and the Samnites were once more cut to pieces; but, notwithstanding +their fragmentary condition, they were able to appear collected and calm, +before the end of the following year, in Etruria. They, at length, +mustered all their strength, and determined on making a desperate +effort against the Romans, who were in great force under Papirius +Cursor, near Aquilonia. Papirius sent for an augur, who kept a small +brood of sacred chickens, for the purpose of hatching up something to +say to those who consulted him. The augur declared that the omens were +favourable, for the chickens had eaten a hearty meal; but an officer, +who had watched the birds at breakfast, and had been struck by the +extreme delicacy of their appetites, came forward to impute foul play +to the augur. Papirius immediately ordered the soothsayer to be placed +in the front of the line of battle, where the poor old man, who was no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +chicken in age, whatever he may have been at heart, was made to +answer with his life for having failed to answer with truth the questions +proposed to him.</p> + +<p>The Samnites paid no attention to omens, but bound each other by +awful oaths to undergo their usual fate of being cut to pieces rather +than surrender; and it must be admitted that they bore the penalty +of defeat with a coolness that can only be accounted for by their being +thoroughly used to it. No less than 16,000 took the oath, and kept +it so well that the whole 16,000 were found in bits precisely where they +had taken their places in battle. We might express our doubts upon +this subject, were it not that the sage critics, who are averse to any +departure from the gravity of history, would perhaps accuse us of levity +in refusing credence to Livy, on whose authority the tale is told, though +dulness itself will probably be roused to a stare, if incapable of a smile +at the remarkable dish of hash which the serious historians call upon +him to <a name="swallow" id="swallow"></a>swallow.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0126.png" width="450" height="448" alt="Samnite Soldier." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Samnite Soldier.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The victory of Rome was complete, and the Samnites, whose riches +seem to have been almost as inexhaustible as their numbers, yielded up +spoil that might appear fabulous in the eyes of any but those who are +so thoroughly matter-of-fact as to be incapable of distinguishing a +matter of fiction. To swell the triumph of the conquerors, Papirius is +said to have given crowns of gold and silver to officers and men, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +collars and bracelets of the same precious material; from which it +would seem that the Samnites had abandoned their ornaments in +running away; for metal, though current on ordinary occasions, goes a +very little way in the hands of those who are groaning beneath the +weight of it.</p> + +<p>Once more the Samnites poured themselves as copiously and mysteriously +as the streams that flow from the inexhaustible bottle of the +conjuror over the greater part of Campania, and Q. Fabius Gurges +took the command of the Roman army. The Samnites were led by +C. Pontius, an aged prodigy, who had seen much service, which had +been of no service whatever to his countrymen, for they had not +even learned to profit by the lessons of experience. C. Pontius +combined, in a remarkable degree, the imbecility of age with the +rashness of youth, and presented the sad spectacle of juvenile and +senile indiscretion combined, or the junction of the characteristics of an +old fool and a young fool in the same individual. Q. Fabius, however, +reckoned too confidently on success; and seeing a detachment of the +Samnites executing a manœuvre, he thought it was the whole body in +the act of retreat, which caused him to proceed so carelessly, that he +was himself defeated, and would have had his army utterly destroyed, +but for the feebleness of his antagonists.</p> + +<p>The news of the defeat of Fabius excited much dissatisfaction +at Rome, and the General was about to be recalled, when his father, in +an uncontrollable fit of nepotism, implored the people to allow the +young man to keep his place—a request that was at length granted. +The impolicy of overlooking the incompetence of the son at the +request of the father, was nearly being exemplified in a fatal manner; +for the younger Fabius was on the point of another failure, and an +alarming sacrifice of all his army, when Fabius Maximus came up with +a reserve, which turned the fortune of the day, by the cutting to pieces +of 20,000 Samnites; while 4000, including poor old Pontius, were +made prisoners. It will be seen that tradition, while dooming 20,000 +Samnites to the sword, reserves 4000 in captivity as a surplus to +supply future contingencies. Although the better authorities consider +that in the last-mentioned battle this people, who were almost as +endless as their hostilities were aimless, must have been used up, +there are still a few skirmishes to be met with on the borders, if not +within the verge of truth, which require that a few thousand Samnites +should be kept as a reserve for the purposes of the historian.</p> + +<p>C. Pontius was led as a prisoner in the triumph granted to the +Fabii; but this triumph, and everything connected with it, was converted +into a disgrace by the beheading of the poor old Samnite chief, +who, if he had been weak enough to place himself in opposition to +Rome, had, after the battle of the Caudine forks, evinced an amiable +weakness towards the captives that had fallen into his power. Fabius +Maximus having died soon after, tradition, who is much addicted to +returning verdicts in the absence of evidence, declares the cause of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +death to have been a broken heart; and, as it would certainly have +been proper under all the circumstances that he should have done so, +we have no inclination to disturb the rather doubtful decision.</p> + +<p>Some authorities,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> finding they have a Samnite surplus to deal +with, describe the Samnites as being again defeated by M. Curius +Dentatus, who seems to have been a curiosity in his way; for, having +been offered a house with seven hundred jugera as his share of booty, +he refused to accept more than seven, which was the portion allotted to +his comrades. Those who are accustomed to read of, and admire, the +system on which prize-money is apportioned in modern times,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> will +probably set down Curius Dentatus as a remarkable fool; and indeed, +though his self-denial smacks of patriotism, we are not sure of its +justice; for, if he had performed his duty as a general, his services to +his country must have been more valuable than those of the ordinary +soldiers under him. It may be, however, that he knew best what he +had done, and what he deserved; nor must we forget the great fact +that in taking a man's own estimate of his own merits, we run very +little danger of underrating them.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Eutrop. ii., 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> A reference to any Gazette containing the announcement of an appropriation of +prize-money, will introduce to the reader's notice such items as the following, which are +extracted from a very recently-published document, stating the proportions of prize-money +granted on the seizure of a slave-vessel:—Flag, £87 12<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>; Lieutenant commanding, +£164 5<i>s.</i> 7<i>d.</i> The proportions then diminish rapidly through several classes down to the +tenth, which is adjudged to receive £2 13<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> The ratio may be all fair enough, +but we must confess the large sum always wrapped up in the flag seems somewhat of a +mystery.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> + +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE THIRTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>ON THE PEACEFUL OCCUPATIONS OF THE ROMANS. FROM SCARCITY OF<br /> +SUBJECT, NECESSARILY A VERY SHORT CHAPTER.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 127px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0129.png" width="127" height="200" alt="Æsculapius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Æsculapius.</span> +</div> + +<p><span style="margin-left:-1em" class="smcap">t</span> is with sincere satisfaction that +we turn from the monotonous +details of war to the arts of peace; +and though it is usually said that +the stain of blood can never be +wiped out, we are glad to find +that the marks and traces of discord +are doubtful and few, while +the evidences of the nobler pursuits +of man are numerous and +genuine. Among the most enduring +monuments of the art +and industry of the Romans, may +still be traced the remains of the +celebrated Via Appia, or Appian +Way, the secret for the formation +of which would be invaluable to +the inhabitants of our large towns, +and particularly to the Paving +Boards of the Metropolis. While +parts of the Via Appia remain +perfect after upwards of twenty +centuries, the streets of London +are torn to pieces year after year; and it might melt a heart of stone—if +stone possessed a heart—to see the granite continually disturbed +by the remorseless pickaxe. The Via Appia was constructed of large +blocks placed very closely together; and though modern Paving Boards +have done their best by laying their heads together to imitate the plan, +success has never rewarded their labours.</p> + +<p>Not less wonderful than the road of Appius, was the aqueduct that +bore his name, and which had solved the question so apparently +incapable of solution in our own times, of the means of securing a +supply of water to a great Metropolis. Though water was not commonly +drunk by the Romans as it is by ourselves, and though the +Tiber was purity itself compared with the Thames, the liquid was so +clearly or rather so thickly undrinkable, that a supply was brought from +a distance of eight miles, in the manner we have mentioned.</p> + +<p>While all admit the grandeur of the aqueducts of ancient Rome, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +objection has been made to their construction as a needless expense; +and it has been said, that their lofty arches proved only the height to +which folly and extravagance could be carried. Pipes have been +suggested as capable of answering every useful purpose; but considering +the difficulty of obtaining them sufficiently large, of keeping them always +free from obstruction, and other obvious disadvantages, it is doubtful +whether the pipe, after payment of the piper, would prove so economical +in the main. The aqueduct, indeed, has been recently adopted on a +large scale, by a people not likely to retrograde in arts and sciences, +though the rapidity with which they go a-head may cause them to run +through the whole circle of ingenuity, till the most modern invention, +arriving at the same point as the most ancient, affords an illustration of +the meeting of extremes. New York now receives its supply of water +through an aqueduct,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> carried on solid masonry, over valleys and rivers, +under hills and tunnels, for a distance of forty miles; a proof that when +a city has the will to obtain pure water, there is always a way—though +it may be forty miles in length—for getting what is required.</p> + +<p>In Rome, it had been customary to bore a well where water was +wanted, but the water was so impure, that it soon became necessary to +let well alone. The science of engineering, aided by that great moral +engine, their own energy, enabled the inhabitants to bring their supplies +from a considerable distance, and as the aqueducts were gradually sloped, +the water followed, as it were, its own inclination in coming to Rome. +Filtration was ingeniously provided for, at convenient distances, by +reservoirs having two compartments, into one of which the water fell, +and passing into the other before returning to the main body, there was +time for the deposit of all impurities. Every precaution was taken +against the intrusion of those unhappy families of animalculæ, which are +continually tearing each other to pieces in every drop of the London +element, and whose voracity seems to hold out a faint hope that, as they +are continually demolishing each other, they may be all mutually +swallowed, before the supply of the Metropolis with pure water is +achieved.</p> + +<p>During the Censorship of Appius Claudius, the cause of literature, +or at least the dignity of the profession of a public writer, was advanced—though, +perhaps, we ought rather to say, that official employment was +honoured—by the promotion of Cn. Flavius, a scribe, to the Curule +Ædileship. This individual appears to have possessed the happy gift of +investing dry subjects with the garb of popularity; and he had won +considerable reputation by giving the forms of legal actions in a shape +that rendered them comprehensible to the general reader. He made +law legible in his work on <i>legis actiones</i>, and had assisted the spread +of information by an almanack or calendar, in which the <i>dies fasti</i> and +<i>nefasti</i> were marked down, and other information afforded which could +only have been obtained previously from the pontiffs.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> +<p>The lawyers and the priests, who were less liberal in those days +than in our own, were both enraged with an author who had laid +open the mysteries of both professions by a few happy touches of his +pen; and on his being called upon to give the public the benefit +of his services as a curule ædile, they appealed to the miserable +prejudice existing against a man who had shown talent in one line, +when called upon to exert his abilities in some new direction. The +nobility were especially affected at the prospect of the public service +being thrown open to merit alone, instead of gentle or gentile dulness +being allowed the sole use and abuse of official honour and emolument. +Exclusiveness and illiberality could not, even in those days, wholly +prevail, though the opponents of the public writer succeeded in causing +him to abandon not only his literary pursuits, but to give up all his +books, and thus render himself emblematically on a par with themselves +in ignorance, by divesting himself of the types of knowledge on his +acceptance of office.</p> + +<p>At about the same period other and more important measures were +adopted for infusing into the service of the State some of that intellectual +vigour which is to be found most abundantly in the main body of +the people. The pontiffs and the augurs had been hitherto chosen +from the patricians alone, when by the Ogulnian law, passed in the +tribuneship of Q. and Cn. Ogulnius, it was enacted that four pontiffs +out of eight, and five augurs out of nine—at which the numbers were +then fixed—should be plebeians. The science of augury certainly +required no particular talent; but, as its professors were held in very +high repute, the introduction of the plebeian element into the body, +was a triumph for popular principles. The divining rod in an age of +superstition was also a very powerful rod in the hands of those who +held it; and the privilege of reading or rather interpreting the signs of +the times according to the wish of the interpreter, was a source of so +much influence among a people guided by omens, that the admission of +the plebeians to the exercise of these functions was equivalent to +allowing them an important share in the government.</p> + +<p>The science of augury is intimately connected with the history of the +Romans, for they never took a step of a private or a public nature +without consulting the soothsayers, who were, in fact, the fortune-tellers +of antiquity. That a nation should place its destinies in such doubtful +hands, seems in the present day as absurd as if the Prime Minister, +before arranging his measures for a session, were to take counsel with +Dr. Francis Moore, and the Opposition were to frame their tactics on +the advice of Zadkiel. A glimpse at the nature of the art of augury +will demonstrate to the student the ease with which the seer could see +exactly the thing he wanted. The subjects of his observation were, +first, the clouds, which afforded ample opportunity for obscurity; +secondly, the birds, which, when seen to the right, meant exactly +opposite to that which they indicated when seen on the left—thus +allowing for a good deal to be said on both sides; thirdly, the chickens, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +who were supposed to give a favourable omen if they ate abundantly—a +theory which gave rise to many a tremendous cram; fourthly, the +quadrupeds, from which the augurs could easily draw a deduction at all +fours with their own wishes; and, fifthly, and last, a miscellaneous class +of signs, or incidents, comprising a sneeze, which enabled the augur to +lead the sneezer by the nose, or a casualty, such as a tumble, which, in +the absence of any other more important sign, the soothsayer was always +willing to fall back upon.</p> + +<p>A remarkable instance of ignorance and superstition was afforded by +the conduct of the Romans, when the city, being in about its four +hundred and sixtieth year, was visited by a pestilence. Recourse was +had to the Sibylline books for a prescription to get rid of the plague, +when the augurs, like a doctor who, unable to cure his patient, orders +him abroad, declared that the only thing to be done was to go to +Epidaurus, a town in Greece, and bring to Rome the god Æsculapius. +Ten ambassadors were despatched on the mission; but after looking in +all directions for Æsculapius, they happened to stumble over a stone, +in which they were told he was resident. Having been induced to +purchase the article at a high price, they were taking it on board their +ship, when they fell in with the proprietor of a small menagerie, who, +directing their attention to a tame snake in the collection, offered it to +them a bargain as the identical Æsculapius they were looking for. The +Roman envoys, thinking there might, after all, be nothing in the stone, +concluded there might be something in the snake, which began to twine +itself affectionately about them; and having been bought and paid for, +sagaciously glided through the town, made for the Roman vessel, and +coiled himself up like a coil of rope in the cabin of the ambassadors.</p> + +<p>On their way home, a storm caused them to put in at Antium, when +the snake, who might have been a very good snake, but was a very bad +sailor, went ashore, took a turn or two round a palm-tree, hung out +there for three days, and then went back to the vessel. On the arrival +of the ambassadors at Rome, they began describing at some length the +result of their journey, when the snake gave them the slip, and while +their tongues were running on, managed to run off to the island in the +Tiber. Having looked in vain for the snake in the grass, they built a +temple on the spot, in honour of Æsculapius, and the serpent glided on—no +one knows where—to the end of his existence.</p> + +<p>The wars which had been so exhausting to the almost inexhaustible +Sabines, had been scarcely less ruinous to the Romans, and indeed the +opening up of so many bones of contention had, to use the words of a +recent writer, consumed "the very marrow of the nation."<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> In spite of +all their conquests, the people were miserably poor; for destruction, instead +of production, had been their occupation during a series of years; +and though their wants had been supplied for a time by plunder, scarcity +was sure to ensue at last, from a stoppage of the very source of all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +wealth, the peaceful exercise of industry. The tide of adversity which, +in the first instance, overwhelms only the lower ranks, rises, with +unerring certainty, until even the highest are absorbed, and few are able, +in the end, to keep their heads above water. When circumstances +appear hopeless, remedies become desperate, rash legislation ensues, +and thus, during the distresses of Rome, the plebs having seceded, a +proposal was adopted, in the shape of the Hortensian Law, to allow them +to do just as they liked, in order to tempt them <a name="back_again" id="back_again"></a>back again.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 407px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0133.png" width="407" height="500" alt="The Ambassadors purchasing Æsculapius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Ambassadors purchasing Æsculapius.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />This was, happily, the last secession of the plebs, who, in their dignified +withdrawal, remained completely within the pale of the law, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +passing beyond the gates of the city. The intention of the seceders +was to get on as they could without the patrician class, leaving the latter +to do their best by themselves—a proceeding that had speedily the effect +of showing that there is a mutual dependence between all ranks, and +that one cannot exist in comfort without the association and support of +the other. In Rome, the patricians had played the dangerous game of +exercising the rights of their position without fulfilling its duties; and +the plebeians finding themselves deprived of their share of the profits +of the connection, were quite justified in cutting it. After the passing +of the Hortensian Law, the invidious distinction between the patricians +and the people was at an end, and the word <i>populus</i> was applied to the +whole body of citizens; but with the natural tendency of all classes to +level only down to themselves, the Romans who were well to do in the +world continued to use the term <i>plebs</i>, or <i>plebecula</i>, in a depreciatory +sense, to denote the multitude.</p> + +<p>It is true, that some works of great utility were accomplished during +the unhappy period to which we have been alluding; and the aqueduct as +well as the Via Appia, to both of which we have already referred, were +executed at the time stated. Instead, however, of being the result of the +free industry of the nation, these undertakings were extorted chiefly from +the labour of the Samnite prisoners; so that the Romans may be said +to have watered their city with the tears, and paved their road with the +sighs,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> of their miserable captives. The arts made considerable progress, +notwithstanding the general poverty, and perhaps the fact, that necessity +is the mother of invention, may account for the stimulus given to the +skill and ingenuity of the nation. The still existing figure, in which +two bronze babies are represented in an attitude of playful satisfaction, +deriving sustenance from a bronze wolf, who looks as easy as the hardness +of the material will allow, has been assigned to the age alluded to, +and the Sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus, complete even to the ancient +funeral verse, which the irreverent might estimate at the value of an +old song, belongs, probably, to the same period.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0134.png" width="450" height="175" alt="" title="" /> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The Croton Aqueduct, commenced in 1837, and finished in 1842, for conveying +water from the river Croton to the City of New York.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Dr. Schmidtz, p. 223</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> The sigh of a pavier is really a very formidable matter. We always fancy the +heart of the poor fellow is in his mouth, whenever we hear him at his labours.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE FOURTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>FROM THE END OF THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGATION OF<br /> +ALL ITALY BY THE ROMANS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0135.png" width="110" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left: -1em" class="smcap">ome</span> was for a time at rest; but its +repose was broken by the alarm-bell +of war still ringing in its ears, while +dissension, hanging over it like a +nightmare, placed a weight upon its +chest, and became a constant burden +on its resources. As if the Romans +had not enough troubles of their own, +they became involved with the disputes +of their foreign relations, who +were, most of them, very poor relations +indeed—a sort of connexion +which nations, as well as individuals, +are apt to find extremely burdensome.</p> + +<p>A number of petty states began +urging each other to do something +that would embarrass Rome, and +many who had not the courage to +strike were desirous of seeing others +display their valour. The Tarentines +and the Volsinians being anxious +to fight their own battles with other +people's arms, succeeded in making +cats'-paws of the Gauls, who were induced to pounce upon Arretium. +The Romans were appealed to for assistance, and they immediately sent +an army just large enough to be too little. Defeat ensued, as a matter +of course; and L. Cæcilius, the leader, being slain, M. Curius was +despatched to head the troops; but on his arrival, he found there was +no body to which he could serve as a head, for the army had been either +killed or captured.</p> + +<p>In this disagreeable dilemma, he sent ambassadors to know the +terms on which the prisoners would be given up; but the ambassadors—like +good money sent after bad—never came back again. The +Romans perceiving at last that they were only cutting their army into +convenient pieces for the enemy to swallow up, despatched, at length, +a force large enough to put a stop to any further consumption of such +valuable material. The Romans were now decidedly successful, and +the Senones were, according to certain authorities, "just annihilated;" +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> +but as the Senones are frequently met with again, it must be presumed +that the assertion, <i>ex nihilo nihil fit</i>—"nothing can come of nothing"—is +unacknowledged by the writers of classical history.</p> + +<p>Foreign intervention seems to have been quite the order of the day; +for the Boians rushed forward to show their sympathy at the fate of the +Senones, which, if it consisted of annihilation, must have been nothing +to the parties themselves, and should have been, <i>à fortiori</i>, nothing +to others. Touched with a similar infection, the Etrurians began +to sympathise with the Boians, and having met the Romans near Lake +Vadimo, the sympathisers were "cut to pieces," if we are to believe +report; but we know not whether to the scissors of the reporters or the +shears of fate, the cutting to pieces in question may be attributed. +The Etruscans, at all events, were able to return to Etruria<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> in +sufficient force to render them a still formidable foe to the Romans, +who were eventually glad to grant a peace on very favourable terms; +and, putting all things together, we are inclined to believe that the +Etruscans were not in that very piecemeal state to which tradition is +fond of reducing them.</p> + +<p>A quarrel between the Lucanians and the Thurii caused another +call on the intervention of Rome, who was a thorough polygamist in +espousing the quarrels of others. C. Fabricius was sent to the relief +of Thurii with an army so small, that it began to shrink from the +encounter, and thus increase, as it were, its own littleness. The spirit +of the Romans had something, however, of the caoutchouc in its composition; +for it could be drawn out as easily as it gave in, and a trifling +circumstance showed its elasticity on the occasion of the attack on +Thurii. A gigantic lad, with a ladder in his hand, was seen approaching +the ramparts, which he proceeded to mount, and by this simple act +of scaling the wall, he turned the scale of victory.</p> + +<p>The opposing general was taken prisoner, and numbers were left +dead on the field, including several of the Samnites, who in devoting +themselves to glut the appetite of war, appear to have formed the +great <i>pièce de résistance</i> of the period. The feast of carnage seems +never to have been complete in these days, without this very substantial +dish, which seems to have formed literally an instance of "cut and +come again," for we find a supply of Samnites always ready for fate's +relentless carving-knife. The treasure taken by Fabricius, the Roman +general, was immense, and much of it was derived from the inexhaustible +Samnites, who, though constantly being cut up like the goose with the +golden eggs, possessed one extraordinary advantage over that auriferous +bird, for they could bear the operation as often as avarice itself could +require. The booty was wonderful in amount; but the mode in which it +was disposed of, was more marvellous still; for the general, instead of +following the general custom, by pocketing all he could, distributed +a large portion of it among the soldiers, reimbursed the amount of a +year's taxes to the citizens, and sent a handsome surplus to the treasury. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +It is to be regretted that we have no such examples of justice and +generosity in the present age; for if every man were to return as +conscience money to the Exchequer all that he did not fairly earn, the +National Debt might soon figure—without any figures at all—as a +myth in our financial annals.</p> + +<p>Thurii received a small Roman garrison, which not being strong +enough to defend itself, was <i>à fortiori</i>, or rather <i>ab impotentiori</i>, too +weak to protect those for whose safety it had been appointed. Rome, +therefore, despatched ten ships to its aid, in defiance of a treaty with +Tarentum, that no armed vessel should proceed beyond a certain point. +The people of Tarentum, who happened to be at the theatre, which +commanded a view of the sea, and who were evidently looking at the +ocean as a much finer spectacle than the play, observed the approach of +the ships, and leaving the actors to finish their performance to empty +benches, they rushed out to meet the enemy. The commander of the +squadron was not prepared for an audience that would hear nothing he +had to say, the sailors were alarmed at finding themselves suddenly +assailed, and the poor rowers were completely overawed at their unexpected +position. Only five ships escaped, the remainder being sunk or +captured, with all their crews and cargoes. The Tarentines fell upon +Thurii, whose cause was now completely undefended; but the Roman +garrison, instead of being despatched by the sword, was generously +despatched home by the earliest means of conveyance.</p> + +<p>The Romans, having lost a considerable number of men, thought it +better to recruit themselves by peace, as they were unable to find +recruits for their army. It was accordingly determined to try the effect +of an embassy upon the Tarentines, and some Feciales were employed +to propose—what Rome considered—very moderate terms of arrangement. +L. Postumius is said to have been one of the envoys, and it is +added that upon his commencing a speech in bad Greek, there was a +burst of laughter at his mistakes in grammar, orthography, and accent. +He had been selected for the charm of his eloquence, but the spell was +broken by the spelling, and in the confusion of his nominatives and +datives, he was unable to make out a case of any kind. The Senators +gave way to bursts of laughter—those bursts of nature which it is +often difficult to control—and a buffoon, encouraged by the bad example +of his betters, played some practical joke upon L. Postumius. The +insulted emissary immediately held up his toga, which had been soiled +by the jester, whose wit seems to have consisted in throwing dirt; but +a shout of laughter was the only reply that the complaint of Postumius +elicited. Desiring them to laugh on, he made an allusion to the possibility +of the operation being transferred to the other side of the Roman +mouth, and he added that a lavatory supplied by their blood was the only +wash to which he would send his toga. Returning to Rome, he pointed +out the stain that had been thrown upon him, and the Senate declared +war on the spot the moment the spot was exhibited. An army was +accordingly sent against Tarentum, but the leader, L. Aemilius Barbula,—so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +called probably from his being the little-bearded or the downy one—offered +peace a second time. The Tarentines, thinking the Romans were +afraid of fighting, refused to come to terms; but seeing that the latter +did not retire, it became necessary to seek assistance in meeting them.</p> + +<p>It appears that in these early days there were a set of persons willing +to undertake butchery as a trade, by hiring themselves, or rather +lowering themselves, to fight for any one who would pay them. Among +these, one of the most respectable was Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, whom +we may almost regard as a professional spiller of blood, for he took care +to turn his labours to a profitable account, by bleeding those on whose +side he fought, as well as those he fought against. According to some +writers, Pyrrhus was no mercenary, because in agreeing to lend his +arms to the Tarentines, he had in view a kingdom, rather than cash, or, +in other words, he did not propose to be paid by those whom he assisted, +because he intended to appropriate to himself everything out of which +they would have the means of paying him. Pyrrhus, in fact, can only +be excluded from the order of mercenaries by transferring him to the +catalogue of thieves, and of this arrangement we have no objection to +give him the benefit.</p> + +<p>Though he lived in an age when the education of sovereigns was +sadly neglected, he possessed a fair amount of information, and he had +the fortunate habit of listening to good advice, so that he got credit for +being wise on the strength of the wisdom of his counsellors. His tongue +was no less polished than his sword, and his manners would have fully +justified their being charged as extras in the bill of any school in which +they may have been acquired. He was only thirty-seven years old when +he entered Italy with a stud, including no less than twenty elephants +and two thousand horses, though he was, of course, the principal lion of +his great travelling menagerie. He was accompanied by a vast number +of slingers, whose arms were in their slings, and a large body of bowmen, +who could draw the longest bow with a truthfulness quite astonishing. +An incident connected with the invocation of the aid of Pyrrhus by the +Tarentines has come down to us by tradition, that common carrier who +lays much at the historian's door, that he is not always inclined to +answer for. It is said that a respectable young nobleman, of the name +of Meto, appeared one day in the Tarentine senate with a quantity of +faded flowers in his hair, as if he had just come home late from a dinner +party, and had passed on his way through one of the markets. Being +attended by a female with a pipe, the Tarentines were seized with a +sudden desire to cheer, a propensity still evinced by a modern mob in +the presence of any <a name="absurdity" id="absurdity"></a>absurdity.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0138b.png" width="550" height="368" alt=" + +Pyrrhus arrives in Italy with his Troupe. +" title="" /> +<span class="caption"> + +Pyrrhus arrives in Italy with his Troupe. +</span> +</div> + + + +<p><br /><br />The excitement at length broke out into a general demand for a +dance, and a shout arose similar to the unmeaning cry of "Hornpipe!" +that is heard in a modern theatre on the first performance of a pantomime. +The young noble, feeling that he might be involved in an +extraordinary caper, seems to have suddenly resumed his senses; for he +exclaimed with a serious air, "Yes, we must dance and feast now, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +Pyrrhus will soon put an end to all our merriment." The words of +Meto seemed too prophetic; for Pyrrhus had no sooner arrived, than, on +the principle, perhaps, that where there is a great deal of work, there +should be no play, he shut up the theatre of the Tarentines. He stopped +everything in the shape of amusement, and the young noble's prediction +as to the city's dancing days being nearly over, was completely verified. +It would certainly have been better for Pyrrhus in the end had he +listened in the beginning to his counsellor, Cineas, who, according to +Plutarch, talked the matter over with his royal master, in the most +familiar manner possible. "Now, tell me," said Cineas, "supposing +our expedition to be successful, what will be the next step?" a query +which elicited from Pyrrhus a whole catalogue of arduous exploits, +which he had in contemplation. "Very good," said the sage, "and +when all is conquered, what then?"—"What then?" responded +Pyrrhus, "why, then, of course, we can take our ease, drink, and be +merry."—"True enough," rejoined Cineas, "but why not take your +ease, drink, and be merry at once, without all the preliminary toils and +dangers you propose to undergo, and by which you only postpone, +instead of advancing, your ultimate object?" Unfortunately Pyrrhus, +like many others, failed to see the force of this kind of reasoning, and +he continued to encounter immediate peril and fatigue, with the remote +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +prospect of future repose, which there was nothing to prevent his taking +at once if he had really set his <a name="head_on_it" id="head_on_it"></a>head on it.<br /><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0139.png" width="500" height="471" alt=" +Appearance in the Senate of a young Nobleman, named Meto." title="" /> +<span class="caption"> +Appearance in the Senate of a young Nobleman, named Meto.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Though he would not acknowledge himself to be convinced by the +arguments of the philosopher, it is probable that Pyrrhus secretly +felt the value of the advice that had been given him; for his +first step was a proposal to treat; and he even offered a draft by +way of preliminary, but the Roman Consul rejected the proffered +measure. The armies accordingly met on the banks of the Siris, a +small river near Heraclea, and Pyrrhus sent a spy with a spy-glass, +to inspect the position of the enemy. The spy was immediately spied +out on the other side, and arrested forthwith, so that the look-out +of the spy appeared utterly deplorable. Having, however, been shown +everything there was to be seen in the Roman camp, as if he had been +a traveller in search of information, instead of a sneak traversing a +hostile area, the spy was sent back with care—right side upwards, which +he scarcely deserved—to his master. This incident elicited from Pyrrhus +the remark, that "the barbarians had an exceedingly gentlemanly way +of conducting a war;" and the next day being fixed for the battle, he +felt that he should have the satisfaction of a gentleman in going out +with them.</p> + +<p>The attack was commenced by the Romans; and the Consul, resolving +either to sink or swim, sent a body of cavalry across the river. Pyrrhus, +putting himself at the head of his horse, proceeded to meet the charge, +but he soon perceived that his brilliant armour was rendering him +uncomfortably conspicuous, and he exchanged his dazzling coat of mail for +an old rusty suit worn by his friend Megacles. The latter was perhaps +proud to wear the trappings of royalty, but the emptiness of false glitter +was speedily exemplified, for Megacles being mistaken for the king, was +killed, and the shining armour was carried in triumph to the enemy's +camp before the hollow mockery was discovered.</p> + +<p>The battle was fought with determined bravery on both sides, but +brute force decided it at last, for the elephants of Pyrrhus weighed +immensely in the scale of victory. The creatures coming down <i>en +masse</i>, were more effective than the heaviest of ordinary heavies, and +advancing with all their might upon the horses, the latter, though resisting +with all their mane, felt their animal spirits rapidly oozing out +of them. The carnage committed upon the Romans would have been +merciless and complete, had it not been for the humanity of one of the +elephants, who, taking a benevolent turn, pulled himself short round, +and prevented his own side from continuing the pursuit of the fugitives. +Pyrrhus, having laid his hands on everything he could take, proceeded +to take everything he could lay his hands upon. A rich harvest having +been collected, he, on the day following, went to glean what he could on +the field of battle. Perceiving that the Romans had all fallen with +their eyes towards the foe, he could not but acknowledge, with so much +bravery staring him in the face, the courage of his antagonists. "With +such soldiers as these," he exclaimed, "the world would be mine, or, at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +all events, it would be theirs if I were their general." He had, however, +lost half his own men; and as they lay prostrate before him, they +seemed to offer a flat contradiction to the congratulations offered to him +on his victory. "Another such a triumph," he replied, "and I should +return to Epirus thoroughly unmanned, for there would not remain to +me a single soldier." He offered to the prisoners employment in his +own army, but they, without exception, refused; and, considering their +conduct unexceptionable, he had their chains taken off, that they +might feel themselves quite unfettered in their future movements. He +burned the bodies of the dead, out of compliment to their remains, +whose combustion, could they have acted for themselves, would no +doubt have been spontaneous. He made a tolerably fair division of the +spoil, giving some to his allies, and devoted a considerable slice to Zeus—a +piece of devotion of which the priests of the temple got the chief +benefit.</p> + +<p>The policy of Pyrrhus was to turn old foes into new friends; and he +sent his trusty counsellor, Cineas, to Rome, with a suggestion that +all animosity should be buried in the graves of those who had fallen on +both sides. The Senators were beginning to waver, when Appius +Claudius the Blind—who had been carried down to the house by his +four sons—an arrangement that suggests the picture of a veteran +supported by a youth at each arm and at each leg—declared suddenly +that he could see through the whole affair, and called upon the +Romans to open their eyes to the designs of Pyrrhus. The veteran, +who, from infirmity, was unable to stir without assistance, could still +agitate with his tongue; he urged that the proposals of Cineas should +be rejected; and the assembly having first carried the motion, carried +home the mover in triumph.</p> + +<p>Cineas, on returning to his master, described the city as a temple, +and the Senate as an assembly of kings; for he could not get the +temples out of his head; and the magnificent curule chairs kept +reminding him of the dignified setting down he had received from the +Senators.</p> + +<p>Pyrrhus, finding his friendly advances repulsed, resolved on advancing +upon Rome in a less amicable spirit. Proceeding towards Capua, he +encountered Laevinius, the consul, whom he had on a previous occasion +beaten; but he was now not quite so fortunate; for, after a severe +contest, neither side could say exactly which had got the worst of it. +Pyrrhus, however, marched upon Praeneste, which fell into his hands, +in consequence of the Romans having let it slip through their fingers. +From the acropolis of Praeneste he is said to have seen Rome, at a +distance of eighteen miles; but he must have seen very little, if so far +off, unless he was accustomed to magnify what he saw in a very remarkable +manner. The sight was sufficiently imposing to cause him to +retreat; and he went into winter quarters at Tarentum, where he spent +his own time, and the money he had taken from the <a name="enemy" id="enemy"></a>enemy.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0142.png" width="441" height="550" alt="Self-possession of Fabricius, the Ambassador, under rather Trying Circumstances." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Self-possession of Fabricius, the Ambassador, under rather Trying Circumstances.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />While Pyrrhus was thus engaged, or rather disengaged, three ambassadors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +named C. Fabricius, Q. A. Papus, and P. Dolabella, were sent +to him from Rome, to negotiate for the release of prisoners. C. Fabricius +was a very superior man; and Pyrrhus, thinking to gain over the +superior man, employed means by which none but a very inferior individual +was at all likely to be influenced. Bribery was the first expedient +attempted by Pyrrhus; but C. Fabricius showed his contempt for +money by pursing his eyebrows. Having failed in his coarse appeal to +avarice, Pyrrhus tried what was to be done through fear; and one day +a <i>tête-à-tête</i> between the king and the ambassador was disturbed by the +sudden introduction of a third <i>tête</i>, in the shape of the head of an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +elephant. The sagacious brute stood concealed behind a curtain, and, +with a blow of the trunk on the cheek, he administered a smart box on +the ear to the startled ambassador. The animal accompanied the act +with a hideous roar, and threw his trunk over the head of C. Fabricius, +who remained for a moment unable to see the clumsy joke that was +being played upon him. He, nevertheless, retained his self-possession, +remarking simply that neither by throwing gold dust in his eyes, nor +by the still blacker job of the elephant's trunk, was he to be blinded +to his duty.</p> + +<p>Though Pyrrhus would not accede to the terms proposed for ransoming +the Roman prisoners, he allowed them to go to Rome, for the +season, to be present at the celebration of the <i>fêtes</i> of the Saturnalia. +These games appear to have included some rather melancholy mirth, +the principal fun of the affair consisting in the practice of shouting out +"Io!"—which is equivalent to "Go it!"—in the public thoroughfare. +Presents were exchanged among friends; and servants were in the +habit of offering wax candles to their masters,—a sort of composition, +perhaps, which the former came to with their consciences, in memory of +the enormities of the grease pot. The domestic was allowed to wear his +employer's clothes; and this portion of the ceremonies of the Saturnalia +is still privately observed by the gentleman's gentleman of the family. +While the wardrobe of the master remained at the mercy of the valet, +the synthesis, or dressing-gown, was the fashionable attire; and for a +period of general relaxation, this loose wrapper was perfectly appropriate.</p> + +<p>Having done at Rome as Rome was doing, during the Saturnalia, the +prisoners returned to Pyrrhus, who opened the campaign in Apulia, +and met the two Roman consuls—P. Sulpicius, and P. Decius Mus—at +Asculum. This Mus is the third to which the labours of the historical +muse have given birth; and he is said to have shared the fate of +his grandfather and father—if at least that fate can be said to have been +"shared," of which each had to bear the whole inconvenience. The +battle fought at Asculum was severe, the Romans having lost +6000 men; for tradition delights in round numbers, with which +probability often refuses to square; and no less than three thousand +five hundred and five—for in this case exactness is carried to a degree +of excess—are said to have fallen on the side of Pyrrhus.</p> + +<p>War was found to be doing its usual work, the sword was cutting both +ways at once; the candle was burning away at both ends, and the +litigants were figuratively cutting their own throats, as well as those of +their enemies. Each party would have backed out, if he could have +seen his way, when an incident occurred that opened the door to a compromise. +Pyrrhus had a medical attendant; who, perhaps, felt that +doctor's work might as well be done at first as at last, and offered to +poison by one dose, instead of by slow degrees, his illustrious patient. +The medical traitor accordingly prepared a draft, which he knew he +could persuade Pyrrhus to accept; but the Romans rejected the idea +with scorn, and denounced the scoundrel, who when taken was severely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +shaken by his indignant countrymen. The wretch at first denied having +written the prescription, and attempted to eat his own words; but they +stuck in his throat, and he died from the physical impossibility of getting +them either one way or the other.</p> + +<p>Pyrrhus was so pleased with the treatment of the empiric who +would have poisoned him, that he sent back all his prisoners to Rome +without ransom, togged<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> out in new togas, and attended by pages, +stitched in neat wrappers. After some negotiation, which was assisted +by the returned prisoners, who urged their own new suits in support of +that of Pyrrhus, now eager for peace, a truce for four years was agreed +upon. It was stipulated that he should leave Italy, and he took the +opportunity to cross to Sicily with the benevolent intention of freeing +the people from the Carthaginian yoke; but, like most foreign liberators, +if he took off an old yoke with one hand, he had in the other a new +apparatus, which he was anxious to substitute. His object was to have +made himself master of the place; but after remaining three years, he +began to lament the faithlessness of friends, and helping himself to as +much booty as he could lay his hands upon, he left the Sicilians to +deplore the loss of himself and the treasure he took away with him. +He had, in fact, been sent for by the Tarentines, and was on his way to +see what he could do for them, when he was met by a Carthaginian +fleet, which sank seventy of his ships—as we are told by the same +authority that represents him to have started with only sixty,—a fact +which leaves little doubt as to which party profited most by the friendship +between Pyrrhus and the people of Sicily. He suffered a further +loss in the mountain passes, where he had some very narrow escapes; +but he nevertheless continued to keep a balance of 20,000 foot, and +3000 horse for the purpose of meeting any future engagements.</p> + +<p>On his arrival at Tarentum, there was such a panic among the +Romans that nobody would enlist, until Curius Dentatus announced his +intention of confiscating the property of the first who refused to enter +the rank that was open to him. Besides the panic caused by the name of +Pyrrhus, an alarm had sprung up in consequence of the head of the +god Summanus having been struck off his statue by lightning, and +nobody could ascertain what had become of it. Accident led to its +discovery in the bed of the Tiber, from which it had probably been +fished by one of those extraordinary hooks which so many of our +historical facts are found to hang upon. The augurs were consulted as +a matter of course, and on a case being submitted to their opinion, they +advised that the action against Pyrrhus should be carried on; for, +according to the soothsayers, the loss and subsequent finding of the +head, proved that after hair-breadth escapes victory would crown their +<a name="labours" id="labours"></a>labours.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0145.png" width="450" height="392" alt="Discovery of the Head of Summanus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Discovery of the Head of Summanus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Pyrrhus in the mean time marched to Beneventum to attack Curius,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +intending to surprise the latter by sending, through a mountain pass, +some troops and elephants. The idea of a short cut for these massive +brutes was absurd, and the unwieldy bulk of the elephants caused a succession +of stoppages in the highways and byeways through which they +were being driven. The Greek columns got occasionally into a fearful +fix, and it was with difficulty they could lug through the mountain pass +their extremely bulky luggage. Instead of completing their journey by +night, it was daylight before they had commenced their descent on +Curius, who saw them at a distance, and prepared a warm reception for +the elephants. He attacked them with burning arrows, and lighted +barrels of tar, which were pitched among the poor brutes, who fell back +upon their own camp, and every tent was turned into a crush-room. +Several elephants were killed, and four, being taken alive, were made +to march as prisoners in the Consul's triumph. Pyrrhus reached +Tarentum with a handful of horse, and a pocket-full of bread; but, +being unable to pay the salaries of his adherents, they soon fell away in +the absence of the usual golden rivets. He retired to Greece, where +he engaged in all sorts of adventures, till the want of money prevented +him from carrying on the war in any shape; and it is said that he had +come down, at last, to such very petty disputes, that he died of a blow +on the head, from a stone aimed at him in a street-row by an angry +woman. On the death of Pyrrhus, those whom he had assisted +relinquished all hope of maintaining themselves against such a +formidable enemy as Rome, and the Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites +proceeded to do homage to a power they had been in the habit of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +defying as long as they had any one on their side strong enough to +assist them in fighting their battles. The Samnite ambassadors, who +were entrusted with the humiliating duty of conveying the submission +of their countrymen to Curius Dentatus, found him at his Sabine farm, +engaged in the discussion of a large dish of turnips. He received the +envoys with no other form than a wooden one, upon which he was +seated, and he continued his vegetarian meal, as he listened to their +overtures. They offered to bribe him with gold; but, taking up a +spoonful of the mashed turnips, he declared that, as long as he could +make sure of his daily bunch of his favourite luxury, wealth had no +charms for him.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0146.png" width="450" height="347" alt="Curius Dentatus refusing the Magnificent Gift offered by the Samnite Ambassadors." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Curius Dentatus refusing the Magnificent Gift offered by the Samnite Ambassadors.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The Samnites made one more desperate effort against Rome, and +Lollius, a runaway hostage, who had escaped to his native mountains, +found life such thoroughly up-hill work, that he resolved to change it, or +part with it. Having got round him a band of robbers, who were just +the sort of persons to do everything by stealth, he secretly prepared to +attack the Romans; but they, hearing of the approach of the marauders, +were early in the field, and, securing the leaders of the insurrection, +struck off their heads in order to break the neck of it.</p> + +<p>Rome was now mistress of Italy, but her ambition, which, though +always vaulting, knew no bounds, would not allow her to keep her +empire within its natural limits. In the management of her conquered +possessions she affected much generosity, in professing to admit the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +vanquished to a share of her own advantages,—an operation she effected +by taking all the advantages to herself in the first instance, and then +conveying a small moiety back to those from whom they had been +wrested.</p> + +<p>The Colonial system pursued by Rome was peculiar, for instead of +selecting uninhabited places, she preferred a population ready made, +possessing wealth already acquired, of which she usually helped herself +to a full third in exchange for a Government, which she supplied from +her own large stock of persons in want of places. The relationship +between Rome and her colonies has been compared to that of parent +and child; but considering the stripping process to which Rome had +recourse, she seems to have acted less as a mother than a kidnapper. +The Roman Constitution, like the Roman cement, was an excellent +compound, of which it is impossible to describe the ingredients; and, +indeed, it is found that the best Constitutions—like our own British—are +those which cannot be defined by a written prescription, or made +the subject of a perfect analysis. There was a judicious spreading of +political power over a considerable surface, and thus—to use a figure +from the chemist's shop—a plaster was always ready to be applied +to the sores, or even the trifling eruptions that might make their +appearance on any portion of the great body of the nation.</p> + +<p>As in our own admirable form of government, there were three +estates, comprising the people, the senate, and the executive; but the +want of a permanent and universally recognised head of the state, +kept the country continually exposed to agitation on the part of +designing demagogues.</p> + +<p>As the sword, unfortunately, cuts the most prominent figure in +the early history of Rome, we must not omit to speak of its military +organisation, which was very complete; for in early times there seemed +to be an impression that neighbours ought to be approached with the +arm of war, rather than with the hand of friendship. Every Roman +citizen was a soldier, and was liable at any moment to be called upon +to turn his ploughshare into a sword, though when his special service +was over he was at liberty to turn his sword back again into a ploughshare. +This transformation was not effected without damage to the +instrument, and the ordinary operations of agriculture were frequently +interrupted by calling the labourer from the garden to the field, and +forcing him to drill when engaged in sowing broad-cast. We have in a +single chapter of Livy<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> an account of what a Roman army consisted +of during the great Latin war, and though learned writers<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> have snarled +and quarrelled over the materials, like dogs over a dry and meatless +bone, we quietly walk into the midst of them, and deliberately extract +the marrow. An army may be described in half-a-dozen lines, though +it consisted of five, which were termed respectively, <i>Hastati</i>, <i>Principes</i>, +<i>Triarii</i>, <i>Rorarii</i>, and <i>Accensi</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> +<p>The <i>Hastati</i>, so called from their carrying the <i>hasta</i> or spear, consisted +of youth in the bloom of early manhood, and who went in front, +that their early bloom might encounter the first blow of the enemy. +The next row was formed of the <i>Principes</i>, or men in the vigour of +life, distinguished by the abundance and splendour of their shields, +arms, and accoutrements, and comprising what may be termed the +heavy swells of the army. Next in order came the <i>Triarii</i>, a body of +veterans, selected for their past experience—a quality which, however +valuable in council, may be often useless in war; for though experience +might have told a veteran that he ought to run for his life, his heels, +being as old as his head, might have refused to do the latter's bidding. +The fourth rank was composed of <i>Rorarii</i>, from the word <i>Rora</i>, dew, +who sprinkled the enemy with various missiles, and who standing +behind the <i>Triarii</i>, must occasionally, by aiming short of the foe, have +given more than their due to the veterans immediately in front of them. +Last in order came the <i>Accensi</i>, or supernumeraries, whose courage and +fidelity were not of the highest class, and who either brought up the +rear or left it behind, as their resolution urged them on, or their want +of it kept them back, while there was always an opening left in case +their fears should run away with them. It was frequently the practice +of the <i>Accensi</i> to reserve the vacant back-ground as a sort of race-course, +in which races between their valour and their discretion were being +continually run, and in the majority of cases the latter got by far the +best of it.</p> + +<p>The habits of the early Romans were extremely simple; agriculture +was their most honoured employment; and it was thought high praise +to say of any man, that he was a good husband, and a good husbandman. +Their food was chiefly corn; and many a happy family afforded an +illustration of the fact that love, notwithstanding the assertion of the +song writer to the contrary, can sometimes live on flour. Wine was so +precious, that, in libations to the gods, it was poured out drop by drop, +to prevent their getting a drop too much; and, indeed, so scarce was it +in the early days of Rome, that Romulus is said to have used milk in +his sacrifices; while Papirius, at a later period, vowed, in the event of +his victory over the Samnites, a small glass—or <i>petit verre</i>—to Jupiter.</p> + +<p>Long beards were worn by the Romans until the arrival of a Greek +barber from Sicily; and he is said to have plucked out, with a pair of +tweezers, the beard which had grown for four centuries and a half into +a rooted habit. On some he employed the razor, and he was able to +reap an abundant harvest from the chins of a people who had never yet +worn a smooth-faced aspect.</p> + +<p>The invasion of Pyrrhus caused the adoption at Rome of many +Grecian luxuries, and among others was the luxury of substituting +a silver coinage for copper, which had been found so inconvenient that +a rich man had been obliged to use a wagon instead of a purse, if he +wished to take his money about with him. Silver was, however, so +scarce, that one Cornelius Rufinus was turned out of the Senate for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +having on his sideboard more than ten pounds of plate; for it was +believed that he could not have come honestly by so much of it, and he +was regarded as either a thief, or at least as a receiver of stolen +property.</p> + +<p>So humble were the pretensions to display in those early days, that a +silver cup and a salt-cellar formed, usually, the entire contents of a +Roman noble's plate-basket. Music, among the early Romans, was at +the lowest possible pitch, and the only professors were flute-players, of +scarcely any note, from Etruria. Their strains were so dismal as to +be employed only at a sacrifice or a funeral, when extreme melancholy +was required. On one occasion the band is said to have struck, and +retired to Tibur, when the musicians were only brought back by being +made helplessly drunk,—a weakness to which some of those hirelings +who assist at the performance of funerals are in our day liable.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Polybius.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Polyb., ii. 20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The ignorantly squeamish, who may object to the word "togged," will please to observe +that it is purely classical—the Latin <i>toga</i> being the root of the participle "togged," as +well as the substantive "toggery."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Livy, viii.—8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Lipsius and others.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE FIFTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>THE FIRST PUNIC WAR.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0150.png" width="250" height="212" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left:-2em" class="smcap">ll</span> Italy now belonged to Rome, +but the thirst for conquest was +not quenched even by the sea +itself, beyond which the Romans +prepared to extend their power. +Among those who made a business +of bloodshed, by lending +themselves out as soldiers to any +one who paid them, the Campanians +enjoyed—if there could +have been any real enjoyment +in the matter—a bad eminence. +They had followed the trade of human butchers for about fifty years; +and, among other sanguinary engagements, they had accepted a job +from the tyrant<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> of Syracuse.</p> + +<p>The Campanians had done their work of devastation; and there being +no further use for them, they had received notice to quit; but instead +of returning home, they resolved to stay, and perpetrate a little plunder +for their own exclusive benefit. They accordingly surprised the town +of Messana—if any enormity may be considered surprising, when committed +by such a set—and calling themselves the Sons of Mamers, or +Mars, they established themselves under the title of the Republic of the +Mamertines. From this point they carried on their trade of robbery +and murder, which they put in practice right and left, upon most of +their neighbours. On the unerring principle, that wrong never comes +right, the rulers of Syracuse, who had, for their own bad purposes, +introduced the Campanians into the place, became, in turn, the victims +of that lawless band of freebooters. At length, Hiero, a king of Syracuse, +determined on getting rid of the nuisance which his predecessors +had established, and fell upon the Mamertines with such effect, that +they were on the point of being crushed, when they were saved by the +interference of a Carthaginian Admiral. The Mamertines being themselves +faithless, were suspicious of every one else, and were as false to +each other as they were untrue to all besides; so that they looked +distrustingly on the offer made, and were unable to agree as to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +policy of accepting it. They were speedily in the position of a house +divided, for some were ready to receive the protection of Carthage, +while others sent for help to the Romans, who, to their utter disgrace, +passed a decree, pledging themselves to an alliance with the Mamertine +miscreants. It must be stated, to the honour of the Senate, that a +majority of that body rejected the humiliating proposal with scorn; but +the Consuls, desirous of giving <i>éclat</i> to their term of office—an evil +incidental to the system of having a temporary, instead of a permanent, +head to the state—did all they could to plunge the country into a war, +and brought the question before the assembly of the people.</p> + +<p>The lower passions of pride and avarice are soon aroused among the +mass by specious promises of glory and conquest; and though each man +might, for himself, have spurned an alliance with the Mamertine +mercenaries, the result proved the truth of the saying, that "a corporation +will do what an individual will shrink from with shame;" for the +Comitia Tributa voted that the disgraceful compact should be formed.</p> + +<p>Appius Claudius, the son of the blind Consul, was sent to Messana +with a fleet of <span class="smcap">TRIREMES</span>, or vessels with three ranks of oars, which had +been borrowed from the Greek towns of Italy; for the Roman Admiralty, +in the true spirit of a board, though continually building ships, +was unable to produce an effective navy. Appius Claudius was not +seaman enough to carry his <span class="smcap">TRIREMES</span> to Sicily, and his rowers were not +so expert as they should have been in the management of the oars, +which were placed in ranks, one above the other, to a considerable +height, so that a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull altogether was +extremely difficult.</p> + +<p>Having at last got near enough for a parley, he invited Hanno, the +Carthaginian general, to a conference; and, finding him a weak and +nervous person, he seized him by the neck, and fairly shook the whole +of his resolution out of him.</p> + +<p>Hanno was frightened into delivering up the citadel, and returning +to Carthage, he was hurried off to speedy execution, for having failed in +the execution of his duty. King Hiero, being deprived of his Carthaginian +aid, was completely beaten, and was glad to offer peace, or +rather he was glad to get it, on any conditions, for his own condition +was truly deplorable. He paid down 200 talents in ready money, +which was equivalent to about fifty thousand pounds of our modern +coin, to prevent the sacking of Syracuse, and by sacrificing all his cash in +hand, he was able to save his capital. From this period may be dated +the commencement of the first Punic War; and as a feeble-minded +reader may be dwelling on the word Punic, in the silly expectation of a +pun, we, by explaining that it is derived from Phœnicia, whence +Phœnic or Punic, at once check the morbid appetite. The city of +Carthage is said to have been about one hundred years older than +Rome; but cities, like ladies beyond a certain date, baffle all attempts +to reduce their age to a matter of certainty. Tradition assigns the +foundation of Carthage to Dido, who, having been converted into an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +unprotected female by the murder of her husband, fled from Tyre, +and when completely tired out, sat down to rest on the coast of Africa. +Here she agreed to take, on a building lease, as much land as could be +covered with a bull's hide, when, to the astonishment of the lessor, she +produced a skin cut up into thongs, and acting as her own surveyor, +she claimed to be monarch of all she surveyed, by putting this new +species of leathern girdle round as much earth as possible. There +was certainly less of the princess than of the tradeswoman in this +transaction, which, however, was characteristic of the future city, for it +became famous for its business and its bargains, as well as infamous for +its bad faith; the term <i>Punica fides</i> having become a by-word to +express the grossest dishonesty. Her devotion to commerce led to +the establishment of a powerful navy, and her citizens having something +more profitable to do than to fight, her army was always hired from +abroad when occasion required. Rome, on the other hand, had made +war her chief pursuit, and the consequence was, that she had plenty of +soldiers, but no ships, except a few she had taken from her foes; and +her occupations being mostly of a military or destructive kind, she had +no resources but her valour to rely upon.</p> + +<p>The Romans remained in Sicily, where several powers claimed their +protection; but Hannibal Gisco, anxious to preserve Agrigentum, threw +himself and sixty elephants into it. Here he was besieged for seven +months with an army of 50,000 men, who, of course, consumed daily +a large quantity of food; but there was something utterly irrational in +providing daily rations for sixty elephants. It was arranged, therefore, +that Hanno should proceed to the relief of Agrigentum, but he was +defeated with the loss of thirty elephants, left dead on the field—a +field which must have been necessarily a very wide one for conjecture. +Hannibal Gisco's army consisted of a medley of mercenaries, including +some Gauls, who, having much money owing to them, refused to strike, +except for their pay, and who intimated that they would not draw their +swords until they had drawn their salaries. Their general, unable to +settle with them in cash, chose a more treacherous way of paying +them off; for, getting them into an ambush, he caused a volley of +missiles to be aimed at them, and the discharge was in full of all +demands, for it effectually stopped all further clamour.</p> + +<p>Agrigentum was plundered by the Romans, who sold 25,000 of the +inhabitants for slaves—at least, according to tradition, who usually deals +in round numbers, amounting often in value to the sum which a +perfectly round number or figure indicates.</p> + +<p>Though the Carthaginians had failed on land, their fleet gave them +advantages at sea, for there the Romans were completely out of their +element. The latter, however, resolved to have a navy of their own, +and the Board of Admiralty set to work in good earnest, with the cooperation +of the Woods and Forests, which supplied the requisite timber. +The difficulty now felt, was to obtain a design upon which to build, and +instead of trusting to official surveyors, who might have shown plenty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +of cunning, without producing any craft, the Romans took for a model +a Carthaginian quinquereme that had come ashore on the coast of +Bruttium. Being relieved from the supervision of the professional +architects, the ship-building progressed rapidly, and within sixty days +after the trees had been felled, one hundred and thirty ships were built; +though the builders must have been as green as the wood, and as crazy +as the craft, to have imagined that such a fleet could have any but the +most fleeting existence. While the vessels were being got ready, it +occurred to the authorities that crews would be required, and as +the Romans had as yet neither ships nor sailors, a few scaffolds +were erected on land, that the intended tars might try their hands +at naval <a name="tactics" id="tactics"></a>tactics.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0153.png" width="422" height="500" alt="Roman Man-of-War, from a scarce Medal." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Roman Man-of-War, from a scarce Medal.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Matters went smoothly enough on shore, till the would-be seamen, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +having ventured out to sea, found themselves as ignorant as babies, when +rocked in the cradle of the deep; and as the waves washed over them, +they perceived they had learnt nothing of their new art but its driest +details. With seventeen of these queer quinqueremes, each with 300 +rowers, who by their misunderstandings kept up a continual but useless +row, the Consul, Cn. Cornelius Scipio, sailed for Messana, when the Punic +Captain Bugud, a regular Carthaginian tar, sent him flying, with half +his timbers shivered, into a port of the Lipari. The crews, most of +them half dead with sea sickness, scrambled as well as they could on +shore. Their commander, Cn. Scipio, was taken prisoner, and so +ridiculous had been the figure he cut, that his countrymen conferred +upon him the name of Asina—or the donkey—a character that +might in these days have qualified him for an appointment to a +jackass frigate.</p> + +<p>After this ludicrous defeat, the command of the Roman navy was +taken by the other Consul, C. Duilius, who determined to wash out in +the ocean, as well as he could, the stain thrown upon his countrymen. +He felt that naval tactics were out of the question among those who +were, in one sense, sailors of the first water, for they had never been on +the water before; and as to rowing, he knew it to be so impracticable that +he resolved to throw the oars overboard. He hit on an expedient for +making a naval engagement resemble as much as possible a fight on +shore; and by overcoming in some respect the inequalities of the +waves, he put his own men on nearly the same footing with the enemy. +He constructed boarding bridges, capable of holding two or three persons +abreast, and these bridges being thrown on to the enemy's ships, enabled +the Romans to walk into them.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians who were not prepared for such close quarters, and +had trusted rather to the roughness of the sea, to deprive their opponents +of an even chance of success, were so thoroughly taken by surprise, +that they suffered their ships to be taken one after the other. C. Duilius +was handsomely rewarded for his victory; he was hailed as the first naval +hero that Rome had introduced, and as if the festive propensities of a +sailor on shore had been foreseen, he was allowed the curious privilege +of being accompanied home at night from banquets by an attendant +with a torch—in which we see a foreshadowing of the policeman and +the bull's-eye. He was further honoured by a <i>columna rostrata</i>, a sort of +Nelson Column, adorned with the beaks of ships—a short stumpy looking +affair, of which the museum at Rome contains an imitation from the +hand of Michael Angelo,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>—who has afforded us a fair copy of one +of the columns of the Times, in which the deeds of great men were +advertised.</p> + +<p>This nautical exploit of Rome was followed up by minor successes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +and L. Scipio made an attack upon Corsica, where he was opposed by a +Carthaginian fleet, under the command of Hannibal Gisco, who was +killed by his own men, but honourably entombed by the Romans, who +nobly buried their former animosity.</p> + +<p>Carthage and Rome were mutually suffering by their hostilities, and +each nation lost its thousands alternately, according to what is called +the fortune of war; but which, like the fortune of the gaming-table, +must end in the ruin of both sides, for the sole profit of the grim +enemy. While the forces of Rome were being diminished nearly every +day, her enemies were multiplying; and that inextinguishable race, +the Samnites—the increase of whose population would present a most +startling series of returns—appeared to the number of upwards of +4000, who had been enlisted into the Roman navy. Their intention +was to set the city on fire, but their own leader threw cold water on it +before it was even lighted, by making himself an engine of communication +with the Roman Government.</p> + +<p>In Sicily the Romans were continually in motion, but they took little +by their motion beyond a few small towns. At length they determined +on one grand naval effort, and they prepared 330 quinqueremes, which +were placed under the Consuls, L. Manlius and M. Atilius Regulus, who +were probably selected as the most likely to be able to command a fleet +because they had never tried. The Carthaginians went to meet them +with 350 quinqueremes, in which were—according to tradition—150,000 +men; an instance of overcrowding which would have qualified +the commander, Hamilcar, for the captainship of a Thames steam-boat. +The collision between the two fleets was as destructive as might be +anticipated. Thirty ships of the Carthaginians went to the bottom; and, +considering their cargo, we can only wonder how they remained at the +top. The Romans lost comparatively little, for with them matters +went on pretty swimmingly. Regulus was so elated that he sailed for +Africa, and, having taken Clupea, the neighbourhood of which was +cultivated like a garden, he sat down to enjoy the fruits of success. +He took the pick of everything he could lay his hands upon, and he +pounced upon the cattle wherever a herd was to be seen. At the end +of the year his colleague, L. Manlius, returned to Rome, with a portion +of the fleet, and 27,000 prisoners—an arrangement that savours of an +enormous cram—and left Regulus alone in his glory, which was destined +to become his shame.</p> + +<p>Early in the year of the city 498, Regulus, having the field to himself, +went into it with great confidence. He laid siege to the town of +Adis, which the Carthaginians tried to relieve; but getting among the +mountains with their elephants, they were unable to turn round, and +found themselves encumbered by the trunks as well as the bodies of +these ponderous animals. Regulus took Tunis, and several other places, +though in the course of the campaign he is said to have encountered an +unexpected enemy in the form of a snake in the grass—a species of +serpent one hundred and twenty feet long, which swallowed up his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +soldiers by hundreds—swords and all—though the reptile ran the risk +of cutting its own throat by such extreme voracity.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>The Carthaginians were anxious for peace, and sent ambassadors to +the Roman camp to negotiate, but Regulus, in his proposal of terms, +exceeded all reasonable limits. He pretended to act on the principle +of give and take, but the giving was to be all on one side, and the taking +all on the other. The Carthaginians returned no answer to these insolent +demands; but it is probable their silence must soon have been +construed into consent, had it not been for the valour of a Spartan +of the name of Xanthippus. This individual was a mere mercenary, +who put other people to death for his own living; but he was, at +all events, a working man, and infused his own spirit of energy into the +Carthaginian army. He personally superintended the training, not +only of the men, but of the elephants, and taught the soldiers how +to wield as a power those hitherto unwieldy animals. Taking a hundred +under his immediate tuition, he brought them into such a state of +docility, that when turned out for exercise, they formed a stud worthy +of the zoologist's attentive study.</p> + +<p>With these sagacious brutes, and a large number of troops, he went +forth against Regulus, whose army amounted to 30,000 men; but the +soldiers of Xanthippus fought with the courage of lions, which, backed +up as it was by the firmness of the elephants, gave them a decisive +victory. More than 30,000 Romans perished, if the accounts handed +down to us are to be believed, and 500 were taken prisoners, though, if +the same accounts are to be believed, the Roman army was only 30,000 +strong; so that the 500 captives must have been supplied from some of +those exclusive sources which are open to none but the historian. 2000 +more are alleged to have escaped, but we must leave the reader to solve +the difficulty as he can; for as two into one will not go, so 33,500 out +of 30,000 will not come by any process we are acquainted with. +Xanthippus, the mercenary, had made it worth his while, for he was +highly paid, and received rich presents, with which, as he dreaded the +envy of the nobles, he thought he had better make himself absent as +speedily as possible. He returned, therefore, to Sparta, to astonish the +natives of his own city with the wealth he had acquired.</p> + +<p>The Consuls of the year, Ser. Fulvius and M. Aemilius, were now +despatched with the whole of the Roman fleet, amounting to about 300 +ships, to Africa, where, after destroying the whole of the Carthaginian +fleet, it went ashore on the southern coast; and this fleet of 300 ships +lost, according to the authorities,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> 340 vessels. The Carthaginians, +whose army on land amounted to about 18,000, managed to lose about +30,000 at sea; but an abundant population was still left for the historian +to deal, or rather to cut and shuffle, with. We must confess +ourselves wholly incompetent to grapple with the arithmetical problems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +that continually present themselves to us in the course of our researches, +and we therefore postpone all attempt at a solution of the +difficulty until the universal solvent shall be discovered.</p> + +<p>The Romans and Carthaginians, instead of being overwhelmed by +their own misfortunes, were in high spirits at the disasters of each other, +and both parties proceeded to repair the damage done to themselves, in +order to qualify them for doing further injury. At Rome the Senate +ordered a new fleet to be built, which took several Carthaginian towns, +and Carthage ordered a fresh army to be levied, which took nearly all +the Roman vessels.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards another naval force was despatched under the +Consuls, Cn. Serulius Cæpio and C. Sempronius Blaesus, who had got +together 260 ships, with which sundry ravages had been committed on +the African coast, when the sea, with its insatiable appetite, swallowed +up at a few gulps the greater part of the squadron.</p> + +<p>Rome was now thoroughly sea-sick, and determined to have nothing +more to do with the water, but to wash her hands of it. She was, +however, still powerful by land, and encountered the Carthaginians at +Panormus, where the pro-consul, L. C. Metellus, gained a decisive +victory, by turning the elephants against their owners, and fighting the +latter as it were with their own weapons. This defeat led to a desire +on the part of Carthage for peace, and an embassy was sent to Rome, +accompanied by Regulus, who had been a prisoner five years, and who +agreed to consider himself morally in pawn, pledging himself to +return, if the terms proposed by Carthage should not be acceded to by +his countrymen. The conduct of Regulus seems to have been dictated +by a strong love of histrionic display, for he appears to have been +acting a part in which he sought to make as many effective points as +possible. In the first act we find him at the gates of Rome, refusing +to come in, although he had left Carthage for the purpose of doing so. +His wife and two children having gone to meet him, he looked at +them as strangers; but this piece of dramatic effect may be accounted +for as springing from various other motives than those affecting the +patriot.</p> + +<p>Having been invited to take his seat in the Senate, he at first refused, +but he yielded after a considerable amount of pressing; a proof that his +refusal was founded on no fixed principle. When asked for his +opinion on the Carthaginian question, he spoke against the arrangement +he had been sent home to further, and the noble Romans strongly +urged him to stay behind, though he had pledged his honour to return, +and the Pontifex Maximus, the head of the religion of the nation, devised +a dodge by which Regulus might have evaded his promise. It must, +however, be stated, to his credit, that he kept his word to the Carthaginians, +and returned among them; but instead of being hailed as a hero, +he was denounced as an impostor, and put to death in the most cruel +manner. The stories told of his being corked up in a cask filled with +nails and serpents, are altogether false; for, after carefully looking into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +the matter, we are glad to be enabled to knock the cask to pieces by the +gentlest tap possible.</p> + +<p>Rome, having refused to make peace, was compelled, in self-defence, +to go to war, and ordered 200 new ships with the recklessness of the spend-thrift +who, calling on his coachmaker, desired that "some more gigs" +should be immediately sent home to him. The Carthaginian fleet was +in the harbour of Drepana, when P. Claudius Pulcher—son of Appius +the blind, and who seems to have wilfully shut his eyes to the danger +he ought to have seen—determined to surprise the enemy. Every +attempt to dissuade him from his rash purpose was vain, and he persevered +in spite of the auspices, which were declared to be unfavourable; +for the sacred chickens were completely off their feed—a fact he set at +defiance, by observing that, if the birds would not eat, he would at least +make them drink; and he threw them all neck and crop into the water. +The fate of the chickens went to the hearts of the Roman soldiers, who +became thoroughly chicken-hearted, and fought so languidly, that they +allowed themselves to fall by hundreds into the hands of the enemy. +The Senate recalled Claudius to Rome, where a charge of high treason +was preferred against him; but a thunder-storm interrupted the proceedings, +which were never resumed, for the thunder seems to have +cleared the air of all the clouds impending over him. As he must have +ultimately died in some way or other, and as there are no records +of his having been put to death, history has returned an open verdict, +which is equally adapted to the suspicion that he came to his death by +his own hands, or that it was brought to him by the hands of his fellow +countrymen.</p> + +<p>The reverses of Rome by sea were a second time the cause of her +giving up her naval establishments, and she sold her marine equipments +to the dealers in marine stores, at a ruinous sacrifice. Carthage, therefore, +became mistress of the seas; but the mistress being unable to pay +the wages she owed, began borrowing money of her neighbours. Ptolemy +of Egypt was applied to, but he civilly laid his hand on his heart, +declaring he had nothing to lend, and kept his money—if he had any—in +his pocket. In this dilemma, the command of the Carthaginians +fell upon Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, or the lightning, from his being +one of the fastest men of the day; and though any general, equal +to the general run, might head a force with plenty of money to pay the +troops, a genius was required to keep an army going, or rather to keep +up a standing army, with empty pockets. He found the mercenaries +in a state of insubordination for want of their customary emolument; +but, having no money of his own, he made Bruttium and Locri his +bankers, and gave his soldiers a general authority to draw, with their +swords, for whatever they required. Taking his position on Mount +Hercte, now the Monte Pelegrino, he maintained himself and his army +for three years, enabling his troops to carry out the principle of spending +half-a-crown out of sixpence a day—the sixpence being their own, and +the half-crown being anybody else's, from whom it could be most conveniently +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +taken. After remaining three years at Hercte, he removed to +the town of Eryx, intending to tire the Romans out; but like many +others who attempt to exhaust the patience of others, he found his own +stock rapidly diminishing. He was drawn into an engagement, in +which he lost so many of his soldiers, that he was obliged to ask for a +truce to bury the dead; but the Roman general would give him no undertaking +not to proceed during the funerals. A short time afterwards, +when the fortune of war had changed, Hamilcar was asked to give a +similar permission, and, by allowing the burials to proceed, he has raised +a monument to his own magnanimity.</p> + +<p>The Romans, who were as fickle on the subject of a fleet as the +element to which it was destined, resolved a third time to have a +naval force; but ships were out of the question, when raising the wind +was quite impossible. The state being without funds, appealed to the +merchants, who consented to sink a large sum in an entirely new +navy, with the understanding that if the tide of fortune should turn in +their favour, they were to receive their money back again. The +Romans had by this time become better sailors than before, while the +Carthaginian tars had greatly deteriorated for want of practice. The +ships of the latter were so heavily laden with corn that they could not +proceed like chaff before the wind; and the sailors, encumbered by the +cargo, found themselves going continually against the grain in attempting +to work the vessels. The Romans obtained an easy victory, but it +could not have been so easy to dispose of its results; for, after killing +14,000 men, they found themselves still saddled with 34,000 prisoners. +A peace was concluded; one of the conditions being, that Carthage +should pay to Rome 200 talents by instalments extending over twenty +years—an arrangement equivalent to the discharge of a liability at the +rate of one shilling per annum in the pound, and the extinction of the +whole debt by simply paying the interest.</p> + +<p>The first Punic War was now at an end, and it was high time it +should be, for the losses sustained on both sides were enough to have +exhausted the Roman as well as the Carthaginian population; and our +history would then have come to an abrupt termination, like the tragedy +of the youth, who was obliged to drop his curtain in the second act, in +consequence of his having killed all his characters. It is fortunate, +therefore, that the classical authorities, after "cutting to pieces" their +thousands and drowning their hundreds, in a day, should have paused +in their career of devastation just in time to leave something to go on +with, to the conscientious historian.</p> + +<p>While, however, war killed everything else, it kept itself alive in the +most extraordinary manner; for though brought to a temporary pause +by having swallowed up all its usual articles of consumption, fresh food +was speedily found, and the jaws of destruction were again on active +service.</p> + +<p>The Romans having subdued Sicily, proceeded to prepare a constitution, +or, in other words, having rendered the place subservient to +themselves, they took measures for supplying a livery. Being tired of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +the old pattern, they devised something new, and produced an article +of the following fashion:—They made Sicily a province; but those +whose province it is to say what a province was, have left us in some +doubt as to its precise meaning. The best definition is that which +derives the word from Providentia, a duty, or a thing that ought to be +done, and the provinces of the Romans were sometimes done indeed, +though in a sense more modern and familiar than classical. A province, +instead of becoming a part of Rome, retained its national existence, +though such existence was scarcely worth having, for it was accompanied +by a loss of sovereignty,—a condition that may be compared to that of a +body living after its head was off.</p> + +<p>A governor was sent annually from Rome with a long train of officials, +and the appointment being only for a year, leaves no doubt that the +holder for the time being made the most he could of it. His staff +included two Quæstors or tax-collectors, and a number of Præcones or +auctioneers, who were always ready to sell off, in the event of a seizure. +Sicily was, in fact, in a state of complete servitude to Rome, the only +anomaly in the relationship consisting in the fact that the master, or +rather the mistress, received the wages, instead of paying them. The +amount was fixed at one-tenth of the wine, the oil, the olives, and +other products of the soil; so that much of the fat of the land became +the perquisite of the mistress of Sicily. These tenths were called +<i>decimæ</i>, and so ruinous was their effect on the place whence they were +drawn, that the words decimation and destruction have become nearly +synonymous.</p> + +<p>The constitution of Rome had remained much the same during the +period to which the present chapter refers, though the aristocracy of +birth was beginning to give way to the far more objectionable aristocracy +of money. Such was the influence of wealth, that the Quæstors or tax-collectors +became members of the Senate as vacancies occurred, and +the enormous riches of these persons proved how much of the public +money, of which they had the entire handling, stuck to their fingers.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The word "tyrant" meant, originally, nothing more than a sovereign who had arrived +at supreme power by rather irregular means; but, as power thus obtained was most +commonly abused, the words "tyrant" and "tyranny" became universally odious.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The curious reader, who is disposed to go over to Rome, will find the work of art +alluded to in the text at the southern extremity of the vestibule, just at the foot of the +staircase leading to the upper apartments, and close to a marble statue of Augustus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The tale of this serpent has come down to us from Livy, and would, no doubt, form +a very suitable companion to the sea serpent, if the latter could be found.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Diodorus.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE SIXTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>SOME MISCELLANEOUS WARS OF ROME.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0161.png" width="250" height="187" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left:-1.5em" class="smcap">rostrate</span> greatness always +offers an inviting +mark to upstart littleness; +and the story +of the Lion <i>couchant</i> +kicked by the Jackass +<i>rampant</i>, is as old, +at least, as the days +when Rome, exhausted +by her wars with +Carthage, was attacked +by the imbecile +inhabitants of the +feeble city of Falerii.</p> + +<p>Had the Faliscans dashed their heads deliberately against a brick +wall, they could not more effectually have shown how few brains they +possessed; and, to carry out the figure of the Lion and the Ass, a +switch of the former's tail soon told the latter's story. A few days +sufficed to lay the Faliscans in the dust they had so foolishly kicked up, +and in the clouds of which we very rapidly lose sight of them.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians had been compelled to evacuate Sicily, and the +mercenaries were of course to be paid off in one way or the other. On +a former occasion, some of the hired soldiers who had demanded their +money were taken to a bank—which proved to be a sand-bank in the +sea—where, at the rising of the tide, they, instead of their claims, were +subjected to immediate liquidation.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The army from Sicily took, however, +a firmer stand, and proceeded to Carthage with a determination to do +business in the city. It contained, as they knew, the spices and +luxuries of India on which they loved to live; the purple of Tyre, which +taught them how to dye; and the ebony and ivory which proclaim in +black and white the wealth of Ethiopia. The persons who poured into +the place formed an assemblage less pleasing than picturesque, for the +group comprised all sorts—except the right sort—of characters. +Among the mass might be seen the almost naked Gaul, who was +outstripped in barbarity by some of the other tribes; the light cavalry +of dark Numidians, and men who had their arms in slings; for such +were the weapons of the Balearic slingers. The mercenaries, immediately +on their arrival in Carthage, proceeded to the Treasury, where they found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +nobody but Hanno, who in an appropriately hollow speech, announced the +emptiness of the public coffers. He regretted the necessity for appearing +before them in the character of an apologist; but while admitting how +much Carthage owed to the troops, he announced the impossibility of +paying them. The State, he said, was heavily taxed, and, he added, with a +feeble attempt to be facetious, that he must lay a small tax upon their +patience, by getting them to wait for their money. The speaker was +at once assailed with imprecations in ten different languages; but he +stood firm under the polyglot uproar. The cry of "Down with him!" +reached his ears in nearly a dozen different tongues; and when he tried +to remonstrate, through the medium of interpreters, the worst interpretation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +was put on all that was said, and a good understanding seemed +quite <a name="impossible" id="impossible"></a>impossible.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0162.png" width="440" height="500" alt="Hanno announcing to the Mercenaries the emptiness of the Public Coffers." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hanno announcing to the Mercenaries the emptiness of the Public Coffers.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />An attempt was then made to stop the mouths of the mercenaries +with food; and provisions were sent in abundance; but the only reply +was, an unprovisional demand for the money owing. At length the +pay had been got together, and was about to be distributed, when an +Italian slave, named Spendius, who had probably spent by anticipation +all he had to receive, advised his companions to decline the offer, on the +ground that if they refused what was due, their policy might obtain for +them a large additional bonus. The suggestion was popular with the +mercenaries, who held a meeting to discuss the point, and who, to save +the time of the meeting, overwhelmed with a shower of stones anybody +who rose to speak on either side. The resolution was soon carried; +but it was by the aid of what may be termed the casting votes of those +who sent up, in the impressive form of a plumper, the first missile they +could lay their hands upon. For three years these intestine disturbances +raged in Africa, and reduced it to the lowest point of exhaustion, till at +length the malady wore itself out, though Hamilcar Barca, by intercepting +the supplies of the rebels, assisted greatly in depriving treachery +of the food it lived upon.</p> + +<p>The pecuniary panic of Carthage spread in nearly every direction, +and the mercenaries at Sardinia, affected by the tightness of money, +called upon the African colonists to pay with their lives the debt +they could not discharge with their pockets. While the Sardinians and +Carthaginians were reducing each other to a state of such weakness that +neither could make any further effort, Rome stepped in, and like the +lawyer between the exhausted litigants, carried off the whole of what +they had been fighting for. Sardinia became a Roman province; +when Carthage, whose bad faith has passed into a proverb, complained +bitterly of the treachery of Rome: for we find the story of the kettle +accused of blackness by the pot, is as old as the earliest pothooks +employed in the writing of history. Hamilcar, who was the patriotic +mouthpiece of the day, declared that he would raise his country; and +it must be admitted, to his honour, that he did not take the means +employed by self-styled patriots, who pretend to raise a country by +stirring it up from the lowest dregs, but he tried to elevate it by all the +honourable means in his power.</p> + +<p>Rome had at this time her hands tolerably full, and found employment +for her arms in all directions; when, to add to her embarrassment, +the Cisalpine Gauls were set in a flame by one of the many irons +that she had in the fire. An Agrarian law, proposed by the tribune, +C. Flaminius—whose name savours of the firebrand—was the cause of +the outbreak. The measure enacted, that the land taken from the +Gauls should be distributed among the Romans; and accordingly some +settlers were sent out, who unsettled everything. The Cisalpines commenced +negotiations with their Transalpine allies; but though the negotiations +were carried a very long way, they eventually came to nothing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +Rome was so occupied with foes, that she had scarcely time to turn +round; but when she did turn round, she discovered that some very +objectionable proceedings were being carried on behind her back by a +set of people called the Illyrians. These persons picked up a dishonest +living as pirates, and had plundered, among others, some Italian +merchants who supplied the Italian warehouses of Rome and its neighbourhood. +The Illyrians were ruled over by a woman, named Teuta, +who, when applied to for reparation, observed that she was sorry for +what had occurred, but that piracy was what her subjects got their living +by, and she did not see how she could interfere with the manners and +customs of her people. The Roman ambassadors answered, that the +custom of their country was to protect the injured; but on this occasion, +at least, the country failed in its Protectionist principles, for the +ambassadors were slain before they could get home again. When their +death was known at Rome, every exertion was made to afford them that +protection which came too late to be of any use, and a large army was +sent into the country of the Illyrians. The Roman arms were perfectly +successful, and Teuta was glad to obtain peace by promising to put +down piracy, and by actually putting down a very large sum of money +by way of tribute. Rome had done considerable service to the Isles of +Greece by checking the disreputable trade of piracy; and as the +Romans took evident pride in being noticed by the Greeks, the latter +paid the former for their military aid, by some of those civil attentions +which cost nothing. At Athens, as well as at Corinth, Roman embassies +were received; and though the ambassadors might be considered rather +too venerable for sport, they were allowed to take part in the Isthmian +Games, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries.</p> + +<p>The Isthmian Games were the same as those at Olympia, of which +we furnish a brief outline for the information of those who feel an +interest in the sporting annals of antiquity.</p> + +<p>During the first thirteen Olympiads, the only game was the foot-race, +of which the spectators and the competitors, but especially the latter, if +they selected it as their walk of life, must have been at last thoroughly +tired. Wrestling was next introduced under the name of πάλη, or Lucta; +and though wrestlers have for centuries been endeavouring to throw +each other, they have not yet fallen to the ground, for they still maintain +a footing in the sports and pastimes of our own people. Next +came the Pentathlon, a sort of five-in-one, which comprised, in addition +to the foot-race and wrestling, the practice of leaping, in which much +vaulting ambition was displayed; and throwing of the discus, as +well as of the spear—an exercise that required the utmost pitch of +strength and dexterity. Subsequently boxing was introduced, under +the name of Pugilatus, and it seems to have resembled pretty +closely our own pugilistic encounters; for in ancient works of art +we find the boxers represented with faces whose indentures witness +their apprenticeship to the degrading trade they followed. The +physicians of the period are said to have recommended boxing as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +remedy for headache;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> but this application of the theory of counter +irritation is not adopted in modern practice. Another feature of the +Olympian and Isthmian Games was +the Pancratium, a contest calling +for all the powers of the combatant. +In this exercise biting +and scratching were allowed—a disgraceful +license which leaves us in +no doubt as to the classical source +whence the vulgar phrase of "going +at it tooth and nail" is derivable. +Horse and chariot races were also +introduced, as well as contests of +trumpeters, who dealt out blows +of the most harmless description +against each other.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 306px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0165.png" width="306" height="400" alt="Early Roman Gladiator and his Patron." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Early Roman Gladiator and his Patron.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Such were the games in which +the Roman visitors to Corinth were +allowed to take part; and we will +now proceed to confer on the reader +the privilege once peculiar to the +inhabitants of Athens, by initiating +him into the Eleusinian Mysteries. Their celebration lasted several +days, the first of which was occupied in getting together the mystæ, or +initiated, whose qualification consisted in their having sacrificed a sow—an +act less worthy of a priest than of a pork-butcher. On the second +day the mystæ went in solemn procession to the sea-coast, where they +took a bath, by way of wetting the public curiosity. On the third day +they went through the interesting ceremony of a fast, which, to the +looker-on, must have been a somewhat slow process. The fourth day +was devoted to the carrying about of a basket containing poppy seeds; +and this literally seedy procession was closed by a number of women, +each holding in her hand a mystic case, the contents of which were in +no case allowed to be visible. On the fifth day the mystæ went, with +lighted torches, to the temple of Demeter, at Eleusis, where they spent +the night; but the torches throw no light upon what they were looking +for. The sixth was the grandest day of all, and was employed in +carrying about a statue of the son of Demeter; in whose honour the +mysteries were held; because, when wandering about in search of her +daughter, she had supplied corn—though nobody can say how she +carried it about with her—to the inhabitants of Athens. During the +night of this important day the mystæ were taken, in the dark, to see +what nobody appears to have seen at all; and we are therefore spared +the trouble of describing it. On the seventh day the initiated returned +to Athens, and stopped on their way at a bridge over the Cephisus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +from which they indulged in jests at the passers-by; and the obscurity +of the jokes would, no doubt, if they had come down to us, have been +thoroughly in keeping with the mysteries they were intended to +celebrate.</p> + +<p>Such were the games and mysteries to which the Romans were +admitted in Athens and Corinth, though they had, at about this time, +established among themselves a sport exceeding in ferocity the +scratchings and bitings of the Greek Pancratiastæ, or the ear-flattening +and nose breaking efforts of the Corinthian pugilists.</p> + +<p>Until the Punic War commenced, the state had found money for the +public games at Rome; but war having exhausted the treasury, the expense +of amusing the people was thrown upon the Ædiles, who made the matter +a medium of corruption, for they vied with each other in their outlays, +in order to catch the votes of the people. The Ædile who had carried +on the most extravagant games was the most likely to get elected to +higher dignities; for popularity has ever been, and it is to be feared ever +will be, the prize of those who possess the art of dazzling, rather than +permanently enlightening the people. That their taste was degraded +by those who sought their suffrages, we learn from the fact, that at about +this time the sanguinary conflicts of the gladiators<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> were first added to +the amusements of the populace.</p> + +<p>There seems to have existed in almost all ages and countries a morbid +appetite, similar to that which formerly gorged itself on the spectacle of +human beings "butchered to make a Roman holiday." When the +brute-tamer promises to thrust his head into the mouth of the lion, or +the "intrepid aëronaut" is about to risk the dashing to pieces which +some previous aëronauts have experienced, and from which others +have narrowly escaped, the crowds who flock to be present are actuated +by the same sanguinary thirst for brutal excitement which filled the +Roman amphitheatre when an encounter of gladiators was advertised. +The attraction was great enough on ordinary occasions, but an overflow +could always be secured by announcing an entertainment <i>sine missione</i>, +which implied that the lives of the conquered were not to be spared. +It is to be feared that many of those who have never been at Rome +are nevertheless prepared to do as Rome did on the occasions alluded +to; and if the certainty, instead of the mere chance, of a sacrifice of +human life were to be announced as an entertainment, the largest place +of amusement in the metropolis would, in all probability, be thronged, +though the ordinary charge for admission should be doubled.</p> + +<p>The early Roman gladiators were either captives or malefactors, and +were fed on a particular kind of diet, as brutes in the present day are +fattened for the prize-show and the shambles. To give as much +variety as possible to the sport, the gladiators were divided into +different classes, and, with an excess of ferocity almost incredible, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +measures were adopted to give a dash of mirth to the frightful +encounters. Some of the combatants, called Andabatæ, wore helmets +without any apertures for the eyes, so that "roars of laughter" might +be excited at an occasional display of blind fury. Others, called Retiarii, +carried nets to throw over the heads of their antagonists, and when +caught in these nets, their lives hung upon a thread; for, if the net +did not break, their defeat was unavoidable.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>The foes of Rome were just about this time so numerous, that whichever +way she looked, she had in her eye the sword of an enemy. The +Boians, the Tauriscans, and the Insubrians, with a number of miscellaneous +tribes, entered into an alliance, and threatened to enter into +Rome itself, where a prophecy was current, that the Gauls and Greeks +would take the city. Having consulted the book of fate, the Romans +found instructions for burying alive in the forum two Gauls and two +Greeks; a proceeding which, but for its connection with the grave, +would border on the ludicrous. An army, under the Consul L. Æmilius +Papus, was sent to Ariminum; but the Gauls, ignoring the movement, +advanced within three days' march of Rome, and ultimately found +themselves between the army just mentioned and another army that +had been stationed in Etruria. Flight was their only resource; and +though the cavalry took to their horses' heels, and the infantry took to +their own, forty thousand are said to have fallen on the field; but +even imagination, which is accustomed to wander in very wide fields, +can scarcely find one sufficiently extensive for such an incident.</p> + +<p>It would seem that population in those days partook of the nature of +corn; for however thoroughly a people might be cut down and thrashed +in one year, there was always an abundant supply for the sword of an +enemy to go to work upon in the year following. The Gauls were +accordingly to be found in full force within twelve months after their +having been destroyed, and the consul, C. Flaminius, killed them all +over again; but they still were numerous enough in body, and sufficiently +poor in spirit, to acknowledge the sovereignty of their conquerors.</p> + +<p>While the attention of Rome had been divided among her numerous +foes, the remnant of the Carthaginians had been expanding with the +usual rapidity, and had extended to Spain, where, under Hamilcar +Barca, a Carthaginian empire was in the course of being established. +Hamilcar's policy towards the Spaniards was bold and rather original, +for he determined to win their affections by thoroughly beating them. +Every blow he aimed produced a favourable impression, and the +Spaniards were as ready as so many spaniels to lick the hands that +were continually smiting them.</p> + +<p>The system of Hamilcar was followed after his death by his son-in-law, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +Hasdrubal, who ruled in Spain for eight years, and who proved so +good a ruler, that matters were kept as straight as could be desired. +He was, however, assassinated at last by some culprit, who has eluded +the vigilance of the historical detectives, for not even Niebuhr, who +stands acknowledged as A 1, has been able to lay his finger on the +criminal.</p> + +<p>Hasdrubal was succeeded by the son of Hamilcar Barca, a young +man, named Hannibal, whose precocity as a lad was exemplified by an +awful oath, which he took at nine years old, under the direction of his +father. Whether it was judicious of a parent to teach his son to swear, +is a question for the moralist; but whether a child of nine could have +understood the nature of an oath, is usually a question for a judge; and +any intelligent reader may safely act as a judge in the matter +alluded to.</p> + +<p>The biographers of Hannibal have endeavoured to prove that he was +that precocious nuisance, an infant prodigy, because, at the age of nine, +he expressed a desire to accompany his father to the wars; though there +is scarcely an infant of those tender years who, if asked "whether he +would like to go with his papa," would not answer "yes," as a matter of +course, without having the slightest notion where he might be going to. +Young Hannibal is said to have learned the art of war in the camp, and +to have gone into arms before he could be considered fairly out of them. +Before leaving Carthage, his father administered to him a soldier's oath, +and the boy swore like a trooper that he would be Rome's <a name="implacable" id="implacable"></a>implacable +enemy.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 552px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0168b.png" width="552" height="362" alt="Hannibal, whilst even yet a child, swears eternal hatred to the Romans." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal, whilst even yet a child, swears eternal hatred to the Romans.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />On succeeding to the command in Spain, he was twenty-six years old—a +proof that promotion had been very rapid in his case; and, although +merit may have had something to do with his rise, there can be little +doubt that he owed much to interest. Adopting the policy of his predecessor, +he attempted to engrave his name in the hearts of the +Spaniards by the agency of the sword; and he may be said to have +literally thrust himself upon them, though they were often bored to +death by his too pointed attentions. All the South of Spain was under +his thumb, with the exception of Saguntum, which had hitherto slipped +through his fingers. He proceeded, therefore, to take it immediately in +hand, when the Saguntines sent for assistance to Rome, whose Senate +resolved unanimously that Hannibal could not attack the place; but +when a copy of the resolution reached him, he had already begun +besieging the city. He sent word to the ambassadors who brought the +intelligence out, that they would display a sad want of intelligence if +they ventured to come too near to him; and, as he had no time to go to +them, they had better retire. Acting upon his suggestion, they repaired +to Carthage, where they demanded that Hannibal should be given up; +and there being some hesitation among the Carthaginian Senate, +Q. Fabius, one of the Roman ambassadors, made a fold in his toga as +if he had some mystery wrapped up in it. "Here," he exclaimed, "is +either peace or war, whichever you prefer;" to which the Senate, in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +spirit rather military than civil, replied, "Whichever you think proper." +Fabius, throwing back his toga, and assuming an imposing attitude, +exclaimed, "Then I offer you war;" when the Punic Senators, taking +up his last word, raised through the senate-house a shout of "War," +which, vibrating through every pillar, was conveyed by every post, and +echo sent back an immediate answer.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0169.png" width="361" height="450" alt="His Excellency Q. Fabius offering Peace or War to the Carthaginian Senate." title="" /> +<span class="caption">His Excellency Q. Fabius offering Peace or War to the Carthaginian Senate.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />This was a declaration of that Second Punic War, for which Hannibal +began to prepare when Saguntum, after having held out for eight +months, was starved into submission. Though rich in the precious +metals, and particularly in silver, the Saguntines experienced the bitter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +truth, that to be born with a silver spoon in one's mouth, is but an +empty gratification, after all, when the spoon has nothing in it. Hannibal +sacked the city, and converted into baggage all the loose silver he could +find, which he kept in hand for the purpose of glutting the avarice of +his troops, whose valour depended materially on other people's metal.</p> + +<p>The battle of Saguntum was signalised by the introduction of a +weapon called the Falarica, which was in one respect a species of firearm,—for +its point was covered with flaming pitch and tow, that, when +pitched with effect, carried fire into the ranks of an enemy. It was, +perhaps, fortunate, that inventive ingenuity had not gone very far +among a people who seemed only disposed to throw away the little they +possessed of it, in the form of destructive missiles.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Diod. 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Aretæus de Morb. diut. Cur. i.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The first public exhibition of the kind at Rome took place <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 244, at the funeral +of the father of Marcus and Decius Brutus; but the Ædiles carried out the idea +on what they considered a grand scale, and immense numbers of gladiators were +sacrificed for the "amusement" of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> It may be hinted to the student that the Dying Gladiator in the Museum at Rome +is no gladiator, but a Gaul; and the collar round his neck, supposed to be a mark of +disgrace, is, in fact, the Torques, a symbol of honour. The sculpture is Greek, and +belongs to a period of Art long previous to the introduction of gladiatorial displays.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE SEVENTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now arrived at the great historical drama of the Second +Punic War, which some authorities have divided into five acts; the +principal part being undertaken by Hannibal, and the scenery being +laid in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Africa. The first act opens with the +passage of Hannibal over the Alps, which forms one of the most remarkable +passages in the life of that renowned soldier. In the second act +we arrive at the taking of Capua; and in the third, we see Hannibal on +the look-out for reinforcements, which never arrive from his brother +Hasdrubal. The fourth act brings us to Italy, from which the +Carthaginian commander makes a forced exit; and for the last act +of all, the scene is changed to Africa, when the curtain and 20,000 +Carthaginians fall together.</p> + +<p>Hannibal having resolved on the part he was about to play, called +together those who were to act with him in the stirring scenes in which +he intended to figure. His company consisted of 90,000 foot, 12,000 +horse, and an unrivalled stud of 37 elephants. With this troop he +crossed the Pyrenees, by means of slopes, which nature had kindly provided, +instead of platforms. The first incident of importance which +happened on the way, was a mutiny among those, who, when they +arrived at the foot of the mountain, protested against being brought to +such a pass; and Hannibal wisely sent the discontented back, that the +insubordination might go no further. Forty thousand foot retraced their +steps, and 3000 horse backed out, on the opportunity being offered +them. With the rest of his army, he reached the banks of the "arrowy +Rhone," which he found particularly arrowy when he made an effort to +cross; for he did so under a shower of darts from the Gauls, who thus +pointedly objected to his progress. The hostility manifested towards +the invaders was not simply on account of their appetite for conquest, +but their appetite for food was productive of a most inconvenient +scarcity. To provide every day for 60,000 soldiers was difficult enough, +but there was something awful in the idea of the daily dinner-party +being increased by 9000 hungry horses, and nearly 40 healthy +elephants. The passage of the Rhone was a matter of considerable +difficulty; for the horses stood plunging on the banks of the river, +instead of plunging boldly into it. The elephants were still less +tractable, and were, after much trouble, pushed or persuaded on to a +raft, covered with earth and bushes, to make it resemble dry land; but +it no sooner began to move, than the unwieldy animals felt themselves +and their confidence seriously shaken. This caused them to crowd +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +together to the edge; and, while taking this one-sided view of their +position, they turned the matter over so completely, that they all +fell in with one another, and most of them came to the same conclusion. +Continuing his journey, Hannibal arrived at the bottom of +the Alps, and, coming to the foot of St. Bernard, he extracted from the +foot all the corn he could lay his hands upon. The weather was, +unfortunately, so severe that the cold nearly broke his army up into +shivers; while provisions were so scarce that at one time there seemed +to be no chance of anything to eat but ice, and though the air was +thoroughly gelid, it was impossible to live on it. Tradition tells us, that +when Hannibal came to this point of his journey he found two brothers +in the middle of a fight for a crown; but what was the country to +which the crown belonged, or whether the article was a mere bauble +that had been picked up in the road, or whether the crown was a sum +of money representing the stake for which the brothers fought, we have +no means of determining. The combatants, at all events, agreed +that Hannibal should arbitrate between them; when, adopting the +principle of "Age before honesty," he adjudged the article in dispute +to the elder of the litigants. The decision did not involve any +very remarkable acuteness on the part of the umpire, who seems simply +to have sided with the big brother against the little one. The successful +claimant was so delighted with the judgment delivered in his favour, +that he placed a large stock of clothes, for the army, at the disposal of +Hannibal. Some fearful misfits arose from this neglect of the wholesome +maxim, "Measures, not men," for there was not a man whose +measure could have been properly taken.</p> + +<p>It was now time to undertake the ascent of the Alps, and to +commence operations on a scale so grand, that all former experience in +scaling a height, was little better than useless. Many of the soldiers +at the sight of the mountains, instead of rising with the occasion, sunk +with it into a fainting state; and others objected to venture into the +snow, on the ground that they did not understand the drift of it. +Hannibal represented the whole affair as a mere nothing; and added, +that the passage over the Alps was not such very up-hill work after all, +for that men, women, and even children, had often been quite up to the +work he now proposed to cut out for his army. "Soldiers!" he +exclaimed, "you have no choice, except between certain famine on one +side of the Alps, or fertile plains, which you may see plainly enough in +your mind's eye, on the other." Hannibal having made this brief +speech, was rewarded with loud cheers; the army followed him, and +proceeding to the passes, he found them lined with Gauls; but he tore +the lining out in the most merciless fashion.</p> + +<p>On reaching the Valley of the Tarentaise, Hannibal was offered +guides, whom, however, he distrusted; and refusing, therefore, to be +led away by specious promises, he sent his baggage by way of experiment; +intending, when he heard of the safe arrival of his soldiers' +trunks, to despatch by the same route their entire body. When the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +elephants came within a stone's throw of the Gauls, the latter hurled +down rocks in vast masses on the affrighted beasts, and snowballed +them with the snow from the loftiest part of the mountains. The +assailants, however, completely missed their aim, for Hannibal threw +himself upon them, and succeeded in completely crushing them.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0173.png" width="361" height="450" alt="Hannibal crossing the Alps." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal crossing the Alps.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />It was a fine October morning when the Carthaginian general set out +to cross the Alps by the road over the Little St. Bernard, and after a nine +days' march, which was at that time a nine days' wonder, he reached +the top of the mountain. The fatigue endured by Hannibal and his +army cannot be described, and the toils of the journey were aggravated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +by the chance of their falling into the toils and snares of the enemy. +Little passed their lips in the shape of food, and very little passed their +lips in a contrary direction, for they were afraid to speak, lest their +words should disturb the impending avalanche. The way was rugged, +save where it was carpeted by the snow; but even where it was trodden +hard enough to serve as a sort of track or guide, they could scarcely +trust to it, for it gave them the slip every now and then in the most +unsatisfactory manner. On the tenth day they began their descent: +and they, perhaps, little thought at the moment that in quitting the top +of the Alps they were coming down to posterity. The two first days +slid away merrily enough over the ice and snow, but on the third they +arrived at a point where the ground had slipped out of its place, and +left to the enterprising travellers a far from eligible opening.</p> + +<p>The shifting of the earth had, in fact, put them to the most perplexing +shifts, for the old road had perversely gone out of its way to baffle +the travellers, and lay at the distance of 1000 feet below them. As +Hannibal looked down upon the chasm, his spirits fell for a moment; +but he speedily rallied, and determined, rather than allow his army to +perish with cold, that he would make a way with them. Nature, however, +opposed him by means of a mass of rock; and as he and Nature +were at variance, he began to think how he could best split the difference. +How he made his way cannot be confidently stated, though several of +the learned,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> who have gone deeply into the subject, have come out of +it in opposite directions; and the authorities cannot be said to clash, +for they are as wide apart as possible. Tradition, who never fails to +take a trenchant way of getting through a difficulty, settles the point at +once, by attributing to vinegar the success of Hannibal's scheme; but +the vinegar must have been sharp indeed to have cut asunder the rocks +which barred the progress of the illustrious traveller.</p> + +<p>It is difficult, also, to conceive how he could have carried with him +the liquid in sufficient abundance to enable him to accomplish the object +he had in view, and we are inclined to the belief that it was by continued +assiduity, rather than by a mere acid, that the wondrous task was +effected. A good-sized cruet full of vinegar would produce no impression +on a common pebble, and when we imagine how many hogsheads +after hogsheads must have been necessary to moisten the rocks +through which Hannibal passed, it can only be the sheerest pig-headedness +that would still obstinately adhere to the supposition we have +stated.</p> + +<p>The passage of Hannibal over the Alps may be regarded literally as +one of the grandest passages in history. Though subsequent generals +have, in some degree, generalised the achievement, the special merit of +it belongs to the Carthaginian leader, whose superiority over his +followers consists in the fact that they did but find the way, while he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +might have claimed the credit of making it. The exploit of Napoleon +has been compared to that of Hannibal, though the former, after all, +did but follow what had been, for two thousand years, a beaten track; +the latter being the individual who beat originally a track for himself, +and thoroughly vanquished every obstacle.</p> + +<p>At length, after having nearly lost himself in the Alps, Hannibal +found himself, at the end of a journey of fifteen days, in the plain +of Turin. On mustering his army, he discovered that considerable +reductions had taken place in it; for the foot, which had stood +at 50,000 when he crossed the Rhone, had now dwindled to less +than half the number. He had lost 3000 horse, and his stock of +elephants had materially diminished—the few that remained having +become so thin, that there was a striking falling off in the material +as well as the numbers of the body. So little had his visit been +expected, that the Romans were not prepared for it; and Scipio, who +ought to have been waiting at the foot of the Alps, did not arrive at +Pavia until Hannibal had had time to recruit himself after his late +fatigue. Here both armies met, and Scipio gave battle; but Hannibal's +cavalry gave it to him in a sense more familiar than satisfactory. In +the course of the engagement, the Roman general received a wound, +which wound him up to the highest pitch of rage; and he would have +exposed himself to certain death, if his son had not valiantly rushed +between him and the enemy.</p> + +<p>The Romans now began to rate each other for having underrated the +strength of the foe; and Tib. Sempronius was recalled from Africa, +where he was wasting his time by wasting the coast in the most unprofitable +manner. Hannibal pitched his camp on the banks of the Trebia, +where, among the bushes, he found for his army a convenient ambush. +Sempronius had by this time joined Scipio, who was still a great invalid, +and being generally indisposed, was not at all disposed for battle. +Sempronius, on the other hand, thinking he should obtain all the glory +that was to be acquired, felt eager for the fight; and Hannibal, from the +other side of the river, assumed the most provoking attitude, in order to +tempt the Romans to come after him.</p> + +<p>At length, some of the guards became so irritated, that they volunteered +into the cold-stream, and plunged into the icy river. There +happened to be at the moment a fall of snow, which was taken by the +wind into the faces of the soldiers, who, nevertheless, fought with +bravery, though in appearance they seemed to exhibit a mass of white +feathers. The Romans, though nearly frozen to death, were not only +cool and collected, but eagerly sought, in the hope of warming themselves, +the heat of the battle. They were, however, completely +beaten, and retired to Placentia, from which the Consuls, with much +self-complacency, sent to Rome an account of the battle, in which they +attributed to the wind the blow they had sustained, and, plausibly +suggesting the ice as the cause of their failure, they endeavoured to slip +out of it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Hannibal determined to pass the winter as quietly as he could, but he +appears, according to the authorities,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> to have indulged in a little +masquerading, for the purpose of deceiving the Cisalpine Gauls, who +more than once conspired to kill him. He would frequently change his +dress; and he appears to have had a large assortment of wigs, in one or +other of which he was accustomed to disguise himself. Sometimes he +would appear in hair of the richest brown, and at other times it was of +the reddest dye; so that the people were puzzled to understand how the +same head could, on one day, appear covered with the luxuriant chestnut, +and on another day, disfigured with an untidy bunch of carrots. On +one occasion, when a conspiracy against him was ripe, he came to the +council with a limping gait, and thus saved himself from a much more +serious hobble.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0176.png" width="450" height="390" alt="Hannibal disguising himself." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal disguising himself.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />In the spring of the next year, the Consul, C. Flaminius, was sent to +Ariminum with an army, and Hannibal started for Etruria. This +expedition—if expedition is the proper term for an affair so extremely +slow—lasted three days and three nights; the soldiers proceeding +through marsh and morass, through thick and thin, to the end of their +journey. The Spaniards went first, who picked their way, followed by +the Gauls, who stuck in the mud, and were spurred on by the swords of +the Numidians, who followed. All the horses were knocked up, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +Hannibal, to whom all the glory of the march has been given, endured +the least of the fatigue, for, while the common soldiers were wading +through the mud, their chief was elevated on the back of the only +surviving elephant.</p> + +<p>The advantages of a high position were, in this instance, strikingly +exemplified, for if Hannibal had moved in the humbler walks on this +occasion, the probability is, that he could not have walked at all; but +that, sinking in the marshes, he would have gone down—in a swamp—to +posterity. He, himself, lost the use of one of his eyes, though, +indeed, he exhibited throughout this disastrous affair an unusual amount +of shortsightedness. After reaching Fæsulæ, now Fiesole, near +Florence, he made for Rome, and Flaminius made after him as far +as Cortona; but Hannibal, turning sharp round the corner of the Lake +Trasimenus; ran unperceived up the heights, getting round to the rear +of the Roman general, who thought the foe was still in front of him. +While Flaminius was pressing forward, Hannibal and his forces fell +upon him right and left, as well as behind, and a fog coming on at the +time added to the perplexity of the Consul, by preventing him from +seeing his danger. A fight in a fog is one of the most dismal pictures +that can be described, if, indeed, it can be called a picture at all, when +nothing can be seen, and the whole is a mere daub, caused by a fearful +brush between two conflicting armies. Such was the fury of the fight, +that it is said an earthquake, which happened at the time, was +unperceived by the combatants; and, indeed, so shocking was the +carnage, that a shock of nature might have sunk by its side into +comparative insignificance. 15,000 Romans were slain, and those who +are always ready to prophecy after an event, began to see clearly in +certain omens that had happened some time before, the cause of all +that had lately happened.</p> + +<p>A shower of stones had fallen at Picenum, but it does not appear +whether those who told the story of the stones had a hand in throwing +them. In Gaul a wolf had swallowed the sword of a sentinel; and in +Cœre the answers of the oracle were suddenly written in smaller +characters—a proof only that the oracle had got from text into round-hand—the +ordinary result of improved penmanship.</p> + +<p>The battle had undoubtedly been fearful in its results, for Flaminius +himself was slain; and 15,000 Romans having been cut to pieces, were +thrown into a brook, which still bears the name of Sanguinetta, from +its being turned into the colour of blood, though the statement is too +extravagant to have the colour of probability. The horrors of the war +were great enough without the aid of exaggeration, and though the +instances of suffering were no doubt great, we are inclined to doubt the +story, that the Numidians went without their allowance of wine, in +order to wash the feet of their horses; for, though the animals might +have been unable to do without their hock, they could surely have +dispensed with their Falernian.</p> + +<p>On the news of Hannibal's victory reaching Rome, the prætor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +announced the distressing circumstance to a numerous meeting of the +people, who, in the absence of the Consul, took upon themselves to +appoint a dictator. Q. Fabius Maximus was chosen, and the mastership +of the horse was conferred on M. Minucius. Hannibal was +expected at Rome, but, like a wise general, he defeated general +expectation, and proceeded to Spoletum, a Roman colony, which he +hoped would have held out great advantages; but it held out with +great spirit against him. Wishing to avoid the inconvenience of a +siege, and of sitting down before the city with nothing but a marsh to +sit down upon, he marched into Picenum, which contained abundance +of everything necessary for the support of his army. His soldiers were +afflicted at this time with a cutaneous disease, and, though this +annoyance was only skin-deep, he feared a general breaking-out, if he +had detained them against their will in an unhealthy country. From +Picenum he passed into Apulia; and though he was disappointed in +the hope that the inhabitants would join him, they were too weak to +resist, and he turned every Italian city into an Italian warehouse for +the supply of the comestibles he required. The dictator Fabius +followed at a short distance, but always taking the high ground, by +hovering about the hills and keeping the upper hand of Hannibal.</p> + +<p>His intention was to proceed to Casinum, but by some stupid misunderstanding, +the general led the way to Casilinum, and the result +was, that Fabius got ahead of him. On the mistake being discovered +by Hannibal, he got 2000 oxen—but where he got them from does not +exactly appear—and, having procured several thousand bundles of +wood, he tied them to the horns of the animals. Having set the wood +on fire, he turned the oxen out among the Romans, whose quarters +soon were thrown into the sort of confusion prevalent in a London +thoroughfare on a Smithfield market-day. In order to inflame the oxen, +their horns had been covered over with pitch, which gave them an +inclination to toss, and the poor creatures were running about in all +directions, under the influence of fear and fury. Fabius is said to have +mistaken the cattle for the Carthaginians, and to have rushed forwards, +sword in hand, resolved on butchery. The Romans were thus drawn +out of their favourable position, and Hannibal slipped into it, leaving +the bulls to decide by a toss-up, if they pleased, the chances of victory +over their aggressors. On the mistake being discovered by Fabius, he +backed out as well as he could, and ventured on a few skirmishes, in +which he met with some success, but he continued his policy of trying +to tire out the enemy.</p> + +<p>The plan he adopted was to continue always in an imposing attitude +but to be ready to slip away, so that, when his antagonist gathered up +his strength to make a hit, the force was always expended on vacancy. +The Romans grew extremely impatient of a series of tactics which +showed no immediate result; and Fabius, having occasion to return to +Rome, was insulted by having the epithet of Cunctator, the dawdler, +or the slow-coach, applied to him. One of the tribunes even went so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +far as to charge him with treachery; to which he made, what is usually +called, the "noble" reply, "Fabius cannot be suspected."</p> + +<p>It seems to have been extremely easy to get a reputation for "noble" +replies among the Romans, since the mere denial of a charge, amounting +to the commonplace plea of "not guilty," is frequently cited by the +historians as a noble reply, because an individual in a toga happens to +have uttered it. For the purpose of annoying Fabius, or the "slow +coach," the people conferred on Minucius, who, for the sake of distinction, +may be appropriately +termed the "fast man," +an equal share of +power with the dictator +himself, and half the +command of the army. +On the return of Fabius +to the camp, Minucius +proposed that they should +command on alternate +days, a course that would +have been extremely inconvenient; +for if Minucius +had ordered the army to take a week's march, it is possible +that on the day ensuing, Fabius would have ordered the army back +again. The latter, therefore, proposed that each should take a separate +half; but an army, like a house, cannot be divided without weakness +being the inevitable consequence. The ill effects of the separation +were soon shown; for Minucius, who was hot and hasty, was soon +provoked by Hannibal to make an attack, and the Carthaginian general, +who had been accustomed to talk of the Romans hanging over +him like a cloud, declared that they had now come down upon him +in a weak and watery shower. Minucius and his army would certainly +have been absorbed, or, to use a more powerful figure, they would +have been effectually wiped out, but for the generous intervention +of Fabius. The latter saved the former from destruction, when +Minucius, who was no less mawkish than rash, followed up the allegory +of the rain by bursting into tears, and throwing himself on the neck, as +well as on the generosity, of Fabius. Minucius resigned the dictatorship +into the hands of his colleague, who leisurely wound up the campaign; +and having resigned his power, has to this day reigned supreme as the +example of the slow-and-sure principle in the theme of every schoolboy.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0179.png" width="400" height="272" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Hannibal was now beginning to feel the effects of the policy of delay, +for he was getting out of heart, and was terribly out of pocket. The +harvest had been all gathered in before he could lay his hands upon it; +and he felt it would be idle to take the field, unless he could take the +corn that had grown in it. His army was clamorous for food; and +complaint is never so open-mouthed as when hunger is at the bottom of +it. The Romans began to think the time had arrived for a decisive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +blow, and had chosen as one of the Consuls of the year an individual +named C. T. Varro, whom Livy has described as an eloquent meat +salesman.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> He had been in the habit of going from door to door in the +service of his father, collecting orders for meat in the morning, and +taking it round in the afternoon; but he was determined that his voice +should be heard in something more impressive than a cry of "butcher," +at the door-ways of the citizens. His first flights of eloquence were +in the market-place, where he interlarded his ordinary exclamations of +"Buy, buy," with sarcastic inquiries how long the people would consent +to be sold by those who professed to be their friends and rulers. By +degrees, he quitted the shambles for the platform, and he began attending +public meetings as a professional demagogue. Like those who pursue +patriotism as a trade, he accepted the first offer of a place that was +made to him; and he became in succession a quæstor, an ædile, and a +prætor. At length he was elevated to the consulship, or rather the +consulship was lowered to him; for though the name of Varro became +afterwards truly illustrious, we cannot allow to C. T. the title of +respectable. His colleague, as Consul, was L. Æmilius Paulus, a +patrician, who is said to have cherished a profound hatred of the people; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +but why he is said to have done anything of the sort—except it is in +slavish subjection to the old prejudice, according to which all the +patricians are supposed to hate all the people—we are at a loss to +discover. The two Consuls were at daggers drawn between themselves, +which prevented them from agreeing as to the proper time for drawing +the sword against the enemy. C. T. Varro, the ex-butcher, was for +cutting and slashing at the Carthaginians off-hand; but Æmilius Paulus, +having consulted a poulterer, declared the sacred chickens to have lost +their appetites, which some considered a foul pretext, and others a fair +excuse, for avoiding a battle. The Consuls had, however, set out with +80,000 foot, and 6000 horse, which were encamped on the river Aufidus; +their stores being packed up in baskets and cans at the little town of +Cannæ. Hannibal, who was completely out of elephants—there being +not even one left for the saddle for his own especial use—was compelled +to ride the high horse—the highest he could find among his cavalry—as +a substitute. He took Cannæ under the very eyes and Roman +noses of the consuls, one of whom, Varro, would have fought, but +Æmilius Paulus, the other, had taken the sacred chickens so much to +heart, that he had not courage for <a name="anything" id="anything"></a>anything.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0180.png" width="400" height="429" alt="Young Varro." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Young Varro.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />At length, on the 2nd of August, Hannibal, whose pockets were +empty of cash, and whose baggage was bare of provisions, determined to +provoke the Romans to a battle. Had the policy of Fabius Cunctator, +"slow coach," been pursued at this stage, the defeat of the Carthaginians +was certain, for they were an army of mercenaries without pay, and in +ten days there would not have been a bone for the dogs of war to feed +upon. Hannibal, who had always much tact in discovering which way +the wind blew, was taking a walk in the morning, when his eyes getting +suddenly filled with dust, caused him to see a point that had hitherto +escaped him. It occurred to him at once that, by placing his army +with its back to the wind, the Romans who faced him would have to face +a blow which might prove very embarrassing. He knew that the dust +would set the Romans rubbing their eyes, or even if they did not raise +a hand against the inconvenience, they would, at all events, be compelled +to wink at it. In order to increase the annoyance, he ordered the ground +to be thoroughly well ploughed, and though he had not the advantage of +shot, he found the dust a very good substitute for powder. He had +placed the Gauls in the middle, supported by Africans on each side, and +the Romans having first attacked the centre, which gave way, were +enclosed between the two wings; a position in which they were so hard +pressed, that they could not get out of the claws of the enemy.</p> + +<p>The slaughter was, as usual, tremendous, 45,000 being left dead on +the field, or rather, in conformity with the excess of caution used in +those days to prevent the return of an adversary to life, being "cut to +pieces." Æmilius Paulus, the patrician, who had been reluctant to +fight, was killed while boldly combating with his sword in his hand, +but Varro, the patriotic butcher, who had been all ardour and +enthusiasm to strike the decisive blow, ran off as fast as his horse's +heels could carry him. He reached Rome in safety, and such a perfect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +master was he of the demagogue's art, that he succeeded in obtaining the +thanks of the Senate for his services. It was true that he had shown +boldness, amounting to rashness, when the security of the army was at +stake, and he had exhibited caution amounting to cowardice, in taking +care of himself, by running away when the battle was lost; but he had +got the character of the "people's friend," and the people are often a +long time in finding out, and casting off, those who are in the habit of +duping them.</p> + +<p>Among other instances of gross popular delusion which occurred about +this time, was the sending of Fabius Pictor as ambassador to Delphi, to +consult the Oracle. Fabius was the historian of his age, and was supposed, +therefore, qualified to record all sorts of falsehood; for history in +those early days had not been dignified by that conscientious accuracy +which is in our own time indispensable. His second name of Pictor +was acquired rather by his industry as a house-painter, than by his +talent as an artist, for he had done the whole of the painting of the +Temple of the Goddess of Health; and he probably devoted himself +rather to the pound-brush than the pencil. As a writer of history, there +was something of the painter in his labours; but he was unfortunately in +the habit of employing very false colours. On his return from Delphi, +the public seemed to have derived very little instruction from his +journey; for the sacrifice of two pairs of human beings, a male and +female Greek, and a male and female Gaul, was the principal result of +the information he brought home with him.</p> + +<p>As it may be interesting to the student to be told how the Oracle +was worked in those days, we furnish a few particulars. The office for +making inquiries of the Delphic Oracle was in the Temple—dedicated to +Apollo—where a fire was continually burning, fed with the wood of +laurels, which typifies the ever-greenness that deception lives upon. +In the centre of the Temple was a small opening which emitted +intoxicating smoke, and, as the Pythia sat immediately above it, she +was rapidly reduced to a state in which she fell on the floor and +uttered incoherent sounds, which were said to be inspired. A prophet +was in attendance to write down the pith of what the Pythia was +supposed to say, and the purport of these drunken ravings was accepted +by nations and individuals as a guide to their conduct in cases of the +most serious interest.</p> + +<p>Originally the Pythia was always a young girl, but, subsequently, a +law was passed, limiting the office to those who had passed their fiftieth +year; and there is no doubt that intoxication being the chief duty, +rendered the place peculiarly eligible to the old women. At first there +had been only one female employed, but when the business increased, +a second, and subsequently a third, was appointed, so that there might +always be one at hand to perform the duty, while the other was drunk +and incapable. Of course, a fee was exacted from all who came to consult +the Oracle, which was entirely in the hands of a few aristocratic families +of the place, who made a double profit, by taking money, and giving +only such advice as was calculated to promote their own class interests.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> See the "Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascertained," by Whittaker, London, +1794, 2 vols. 8vo.; and "A Dissertation on the Passage of Hannibal over the Alps," by +Walsham and Cramer, Oxford.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Polybius, 3. Appian, c. 316. Livy, 22.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Polybius says nothing about the origin of Varro; and as there was no directory in +those days, we are unable to decide whether the omission of Polybius, or the assertion of +Livy, is more to be relied upon.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE EIGHTEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>CONCLUSION OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Hannibal</span> was now strongly urged by one Maharbal, the commander +of the cavalry, to march against Rome, and the gallant general went so +far as to promise that if he had permission, he would go and take it +so easy, that in five days they might sleep in the Capitol. "The +idea is indeed a good one," said Hannibal, with an incredulous smile, +"but the only objection to its being carried out, is that it's utterly +impossible." Maharbal persevered in his recommendation; but finding +his advice rejected, he grew sententious and sentimental, which is often +the effect of a snubbing. "Alas!" he exclaimed, with that anti-colloquial +style of expression, which characters in history—but not in real life—are +so fond of assuming,—"Alas! thou knowest how to gain a victory, +but thou knowest not how thou oughtest to use thy victory when thou +hast gained it." If this was the ordinary mode in which Maharbal +expressed himself, it is not surprising that Hannibal preferred his +deeds to his words, the use of his sword to the abuse of his tongue, and +his hand in war to his advice in council.</p> + +<p>The object of Hannibal had been to attach to himself the Italian +towns, but they naturally repudiated an attachment, which consisted in +his fastening himself on to them with an army which they were made to +support at a ruinous sacrifice. He had, however, succeeded in winning +over Capua to his designs, for it was inhabited by a contemptible race, +who lay continually in the lap of luxury, where the lapse of all the +better qualities would seem to be unavoidable. Not satisfied with +treachery to the parent state, the Capuans added cruelty to their other +vices, and stifled in their hot baths all the Romans who were living +among them—an enormity which sends the blood immediately to boiling +heat, to contemplate. The faithless inhabitants stipulated that they +should be allowed to break all their engagements with Rome, on entering +into new engagements with Carthage,—an arrangement like that of a +dishonest servant, who, having robbed a former master, stipulates for +impunity for past roguery as the condition of future fidelity. Hannibal +was weak or politic enough to enter into terms with this contemptible +set; but he incurred the unfailing penalty of wrong, for his own army +became corrupted by contact with the Capuan crew, and his fortunes +began to decline from the time of his alliance with this degraded +people.</p> + +<p>The exertions of Rome to repair her reverses were extreme after the +battle of Cannæ; and though nearly every family had lost a relative, +the period of mourning was limited to thirty days, while a law was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +passed prohibiting all women from weeping in the streets, for they had +been found a crying evil. Sparing no expense, the state performed an +operation of a rather curious kind, for 8000 slaves were bought on credit—the +Government thus making a large purchase without any money at +all—and freeing these slaves, made them fight; thus retaining them +actually in bondage, while nominally giving them their liberty. Even +gladiators were allowed the valuable privilege of fighting the foe instead +of each other, and of falling in the field instead of falling in the circus.</p> + +<p>Hannibal having used up nearly all his men and materials, was compelled +to send to Carthage for fresh supplies, when his old rival Hanno +exclaimed in the senate, that if the Carthaginian general had been +unsuccessful, he deserved no help, and if he had been victorious, he +could not possibly need any. The speech of Hanno on this occasion +would have done credit—or discredit—to a political partisan of the +present day; for it was essentially the language of a disappointed +leader of the opposition. "If," said the honourable—or dis-honourable—member +(for in mere party dissensions it is difficult to distinguish +one from the other), "if Hannibal has conquered all our enemies, why +does he send to us for soldiers? If he has reduced Italy—the most +fertile country in Europe—why does he ask us for corn? And if he +has obtained such rich booty, what on earth can he want with money? +The truth, I suspect, to be, that his victories are sham—his territorial +acquisitions sham—the riches (of which he has sent us specimens, in +the shape of a few rings,) sham,—while his necessities, and the burden +thrown upon us in supplying them, are the only things that are real."</p> + +<p>This argument, though specious, did not altogether prevail, for the +senate decreed him four thousand Numidians and forty elephants, the +men and the brutes being looked upon as equally articles of consumption +in the game of war that had been so long playing. The Romans +began to act with increased determination, and blockaded Capua, which +was left to its fate by Hannibal, though an attempt to relieve it was +made by a detachment which received a severe beating at the hands of +Tib. S. Gracchus.</p> + +<p>This period is rendered additionally remarkable by the siege of +Syracuse, which eventually fell into the hands of M. Claudius Marcellus, +whose efforts had long been thwarted by the genius of Archimedes. +This illustrious inventor lived to the good old age of seventy-five; but +how he lived so long is a matter of almost as much wonder as some of +his inventions, for his biographers tell us that he always forgot to eat +and drink; nor could he ever be persuaded to take a bath, except when +his friends pushed him into one. Even when this was accomplished, +he was sure to be found under the ashes of the fire-places, writing +problems among the cinders, and endeavouring to sift some important +point; so that a bath was really thrown away upon the great philosopher. +In a visit to Egypt, he became anxious to elevate the Nile +to a certain point; but he remained in Egypt until all his money was +spent, for the philosopher had never thought of raising the wind while +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +intent on raising the water. He invented a screw, which still bears his +name; but he is said to have amused himself, during the siege of +Syracuse, by sitting at the window and inventing all sorts of missiles to +hurl at the ships of the enemy. One day he might be seen throwing +stones from a newly-invented sling, and a few days after he was found +casting out chains, to pull—with a tremendous hook—the ships of the +foe completely out of the water. He was so intent upon everything he +came near, that he gave a lift to enemies occasionally as well as to +friends, as in the instance just recorded, and he declared his ability to +give the whole world a lift if he could only find a convenient spot in the +neighbourhood for himself and his lever to rest upon. That in one +sense he carried out his boast, we are willing to admit; for he undoubtedly +elevated the world by raising the standard of science, and he exalted +the whole of civilised humanity by his great discoveries. The part he +took in the siege of Syracuse has been underrated by some, and +exaggerated by others; for though the story of his pulling the ships +out of the sea requires a length of rope, and other apparatus, which +none but the greatest stretch of imagination can supply, his destroying +the vessels by burning-glasses is perfectly credible. He is supposed to +have used very powerful reflectors, capable of taking effect within the +distance of bow-shot; and though for some time the moderns insisted +that the long-bow had been pulled for the purpose of increasing the +space, the powers of the burning-glass are now familiar to every +schoolboy.</p> + +<p>On the fall of Syracuse, orders were given by Marcellus, the Roman +general, that the philosopher should be respected; but he was so +absorbed in a problem, that the soldier who was sent after him not +being able to solve the problem of who he was, or what he was about, +fell upon and slew him.</p> + +<p>It is of the great man we have been noticing that a story is told, +which proves that the pursuit of the laws of gravity may sometimes be +associated with the ludicrous. King Hiero, of Syracuse, had handed +over a good lump of pure gold to a working jeweller to be converted +into a crown, with the distinct understanding that the true metal only +should be used, and that there might be no alloy to the pleasure his +Majesty would feel in wearing it. The goldsmith brought back an +article of the proper weight; but the king, after trying it on his head, +turning it over in his mind, and revolving it beneath his eyes in the +sun, declared his suspicion that the metal had been tampered with, and +a base imposition had been practised. He consulted Archimedes as to +the means of detecting the imposture; and on one of those days when +the friends of the philosopher had forced him to take a bath, he became +immersed as deeply in speculation as in the water.</p> + +<p>The bath into which he plunged having been full to the brim, the +apartment was soon flooded by the water he displaced; and looking at +the wet floor, he thought only of the dry facts of science. It occurred +to him that any body of equal bulk would have done exactly the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +thing; and he immediately thought of his royal master's crown, which, +if all the gold sent for its construction had been fairly used up, should +displace as much water as a piece of pure metal equal in weight to that +which the crown ought to contain. The moment the idea struck him +he jumped out of the bath, and thinking of nothing but the bare facts, +he ran through the streets, perfectly unconscious of the naked truth of +his own condition. His shout was εὕρηκα<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>—I have found it; but +everybody thought, when they saw him, that whatever he might have +found, he had certainly lost his senses.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0186.png" width="450" height="442" alt="Archimedes taking a Warm Bath." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Archimedes taking a Warm Bath.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />There is, no doubt, much exaggeration in the absurd stories told of +Archimedes; but we may excuse a little oddness in a great man whom +none was even with. He ran so far in advance of his age, that eighteen +centuries had nearly elapsed before any one came up to him, and then +it was chiefly by following the track marked out by his footsteps.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +We must now leave the nobler instruments of science, to return to +the engines of war, which were as usual in full play, and had been +employed in the total dissolution of the already too dissolute city of +Capua. The dissipated nobles, palsied by their excesses, and paralysed +by their fears, fell by their own hands; for they had neither the courage +to fight for the chance of success, nor the nerve to meet the consequences +of failure.</p> + +<p>It is stated that one Vibius Virrius, the chief of the Senate, on the +eve of the opening of the gates, gave a sort of legislative supper to +twenty-eight of the members, and, at the conclusion of a hearty meal, +he produced a cup, with the contents of which he proposed that every +one present should poison the remainder of his own existence. The +deadly potion was poured out into twenty-nine different vessels, and, +with faces more or less wry, the Senators swallowed the fatal mixture. +On the surrender of the place, the citizens were sold for slaves; and it +must be admitted that they had shown themselves fit for little better +than the fate assigned to them.</p> + +<p>In the year previous to the fall of Capua, Hannibal had taken +Tarentum; but, three years later, the stupidity or treachery of the +general in charge, or man in possession, had allowed Q. Fabius +Maximus to take it back again. Hannibal was thus daily losing territory, +and his cause was consequently losing ground. Many small states +which had adhered to him because they believed him to be strong +enough to assist them, withdrew from him directly he appeared as if he +could not help himself.</p> + +<p>Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, had been harassed in Spain by +the two Scipios—Cn. C. and P.—when fortune cleared the stage for +him, by killing both within a month, and annihilating both their armies. +The fate of the two leaders had such an effect in Rome, that when those +eligible to command had heard the particulars, they had no inclination +to act as generals. Every one seemed to fear that if he went to head +the army in Spain, he should be simply going to his own funeral, and +every one naturally shrunk from such an undertaking. At length young +P. C. S. A. M.—or, to give his name at full length, Publius Cornelius +Scipio Africanus Major—who was only twenty-four years of age, though +he had entered the army at seventeen, and had been present, or rather +absent, at the battle of Cannæ, where the only survivors were those +who ran away—volunteered to supply the places of his deceased +relatives. An objection was, at first, made to his age—or rather to his +want of age—but, as there was no older candidate for the post of +honour and of danger, he was permitted to step into it. His popularity +was, in some measure, owing to his having acquired the character of a +serious young man; for ever since he had assumed the toga virilis—an +assumption something like the modern practice of going into stick-ups—he +had been in the habit of passing his mornings in the Temple of +Jupiter. He proceeded to Spain, with the title of Pro-consul, and an +army of about 11,000 men, at the head of whom he proceeded to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +Carthagena; where he knew the enemy kept the greater portion of +their cash, their corn, and their captives. He was accompanied by his +friend Lælius, who commanded the fleet, and who was sent to make an +unexpected attack from the sea; for Scipio, who was very deep, had +ascertained that the water was very shallow. The defenders of New +Carthage had relied upon the ocean as a defence; but they had, in +reality, built their hopes on sand, which, during the prevalence of a +particular wind and tide, afforded easy access to the city. The place +speedily fell into his hands; and his gallantry—in a double sense—made +him with the brave and the fair an equal favourite. Towards the +ladies he was particularly amiable; and he not only sent back to her +lover an interesting young girl, but he returned to her husband a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +maudlin old woman. The latter was the aged wife of the chief +Mardonius, who weepingly implored that her sex might be treated with +respect; when the young soldier, hiding his face in his sleeve, either +cried or <a name="laughed_in_it" id="laughed_in_it"></a>laughed in it.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0188.png" width="419" height="500" alt="Considerate Conduct of Scipio Africanus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Considerate Conduct of Scipio Africanus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Hasdrubal now turned his attention to Italy, while Scipio continued +his conquests in Spain, and, among other places, took Astapa, which, if +tradition tells the truth, he must have found without a single inhabitant. +It is said that the place was defended with such valour that only fifty +men remained alive, and these became impressed with the feeling that +when a thing must be done, it is better to do it oneself than to leave it +to be done by others. They came to the resolution that they were sure +not to be spared, and they had, therefore, better get rid of one another. +They accordingly proceeded to the sanguinary task of mutual destruction; +though, as one must have remained to the last, and there would have +been some difficulty in disposing of him, it is probable that he survived +for the purpose of acting as his own reporter of the dreadful incident. +The graver historians insist that not one was left alive in the city; that +the last fifty soldiers, having first killed all their women, and all their +children, made away with all of themselves; a state of things which +induces us to ask how the particulars have come down to us. If, +however, we were to indulge this spirit of inquiry to any extent, we +should, we fear, be compelled to throw a doubt upon many of those +interesting particulars which form the most agreeable portions of +history.</p> + +<p>Hasdrubal resolved to make a grand effort, and assembled an army, +which including some Iberians, under his brother Mago, as well as +some Numidians, headed by Masinissa, their king, numbered 75,000 +men, and six-and-thirty elephants. Scipio, though objecting to attack +a power more than twice his size, was compelled to do so, by a want +of provisions, for he had so little food that his army could not even have +grubbed on for a month or two. He was again victorious, and Hasdrubal +proceeded to join his brother Hannibal; but the letters written by the +former to apprise the latter of his coming, instead of going regularly +through all the military posts, fell, by some misdirection or indirection, +into the hands of the enemy. The Consul Livius Salinator went into +the neighbourhood of Sena Gallica—now Senigaglia—and was joined +by his colleague, C. Claudius Nero, who came, under cover of the night, +with a large army; and it would appear that the forces of Hasdrubal +kept such very early hours, that they had all gone to bed, and knew +nothing of the reinforcements that had been sent against them. +Hasdrubal, however, saw among the Romans, on the following morning, +some soldiers, whose faces were so sun-burnt, as to give a strange complexion +to a part of the troops, and he concluded that they had recently +been on a journey. After having indulged in an inquiring look, he commenced +a patient listen, and he fancied he heard two trumpet calls in +the hostile camp, when, without considering whether the second might +have been the mere echo of the first, he resolved, in his own mind, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +the armies of the two Consuls had joined together. He accordingly +determined to fly, and began by trying to swim across the river Metaurus, +which is usually shallow enough; but the rains had swelled it to such a +torrent that he was soon plunged into the depths of misery. His guides, +following the impulse of their own cowardice, ran away as fast as they +could, and he, in perfect ignorance of the country, found the river rising +and his spirits sinking in about an equal ratio. The Romans came up +with him in time to find his army completely damped, and his troops +were, according to the military practice of the period, cut, at once, to +pieces.</p> + +<p>Hasdrubal, who had lost heart early in the battle, seems ultimately to +have lost his head, for rushing into the midst of a cohort, he was decapitated +by a Roman soldier. It is said that the head of Hasdrubal was +afterwards brutally thrown into the camp of his brother Hannibal; but +happily for the credit of humanity, this story of the head is absurd on +the very face of it.</p> + +<p>Spain was now subject to Rome; and Scipio, after quelling an +insurrection in his army, paid a visit to Syphax, who was king of a +portion of Numidia, and who was desperately in love with a young +lady, named Sophonisba, the daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco, a Carthaginian +general. Sophonisba was one of those troublesome persons, +known as fascinating creatures, who, by attracting the eyes of mankind, +set them very often by the ears, and lead to much calamity. This too +interesting individual had also won the admiration of Masinissa, +another king of another part of Numidia, when her father, irrespective +of any attachment she might have formed, gave her hand to Syphax, +by way of attaching the latter to his interests. Masinissa, in a fit of +jealousy, went over to Rome, leaving Syphax and Hasdrubal to fight it +out with Scipio.</p> + +<p>The Africans and Carthaginians were, to a certain extent, people of +straw, which was the material they used in constructing their tents, +and Scipio, basely pretending that he desired to negotiate a peace, +sent a set of firebrands, under the garb of envoys, into the camp of the +enemy. These hypocritical incendiaries carried fire among the foe; +and, though the elephants fought like lions, the Carthaginians behaved +like lambs, for the poor creatures, thinking the burning of their tents +was accidental, looked on with simple bewilderment. 40,000 Africans +were cut to pieces on the spot; and Syphax, who had managed to +escape, was ready immediately with 30,000 more, to engage Scipio in +the neighbourhood of Utica. Syphax was urged on by his wife, who is +described as a woman of remarkable spirit—a character equivalent to +that of a very troublesome body. Poor Syphax did all he could against +a very superior force, but he was ultimately taken prisoner, and sent to +Scipio, while Sophonisba remained at home to receive Masinissa—like +a woman of spirit—at the gates of her husband's palace.</p> + +<p>The lovely creature, admitting that she was vanquished, and declaring +that further opposition would be vain, appealed, in the character of an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +unprotected female, to the generosity of Masinissa. Expressing the +utmost horror at being placed as a captive behind the car of Scipio, she +entreated the protection of her husband's conqueror; and Masinissa, +not knowing exactly what to do, politely offered to marry her. She at once +consented; and, after a widowhood of a few hours, she was presented to +Lælius, the Roman Consul, in her new character.</p> + +<p>Syphax, not being dead, was of course rather painfully alive to the +conduct of his wife, and having hinted to Scipio that she might be the +cause of further mischief, an order was immediately sent to Masinissa +to send her back by the bearer. This her new husband was unwilling +to do, but he forwarded her a cup of poison, which she drank off with the +air of a tragedy queen, and died with a clap-trap in her mouth, which +was almost as nauseous as the stuff that she was called upon to swallow.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians now began to feel that every thing went wrong in +the absence of Hannibal, whom they invited home, and on his arrival +he was really anxious for peace and quietness. Scipio felt much the +same, and the two generals, having met, looked at each other for some +time in silent admiration. It may be doubted whether they got any +further than this point, for even if they had a few words, it did not +prevent them from ultimately coming to blows at the great and decisive +battle of Zama. Hannibal brought into the field 50,000 men, and +about 80 real elephants; but his soldiers were most of them raw, and +liable to be roasted on the ground of extreme awkwardness. He put +the Moors, the Gauls, and Libyans in front, the Carthaginian cowards +in the centre, for they were but a middling set, and he brought up the +rear, with a few of his best soldiers. Scipio exhibited some very skillful +generalship on this momentous occasion, and by a clever arrangement of +his forces, he left room for the elephants to run through the ranks +without coming into contact with any of his soldiers.</p> + +<p>The success of Scipio was complete; and Hannibal returned to +Carthage after an absence of thirty-six years; having so far forgotten +the manners and customs of his country, that, during a debate in the +Senate, he dragged a noble—whose sentiments did not exactly coincide +with his own—by force from the tribune. On being called to order, he +explained that he had forgotten the forms of the house; and the discussion +proceeded as if nothing particular had happened. Carthage made +peace with Rome, on very advantageous terms to the latter; and Scipio, +who took the name of Africanus, enjoyed the honours of a triumph, at +which poor Syphax—who appears to have been everybody's victim—was +obliged to figure in fetters.</p> + +<p>The terms imposed upon Carthage were very severe; for she was to +deliver up, without ransom, all the Roman prisoners: to surrender +nearly all her ships; and to part with all her elephants. She was also to +pay over a considerable sum in cash,—a stipulation which set the Senate +off into a roar of anguish, and caused Hannibal sneeringly to exclaim +that "the only thing to draw tears from their eyes was to draw money +from their pockets."<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> +<p>Though Rome had been victorious, so fatal is war to all who engage +in it, that her successes had brought her almost to the verge of +ruin. Scenes of cruelty had dyed the country with blood, and left a +stain upon it which could not easily be effaced; and wherever the +sword of war had been brandished, nothing else had flourished. Troops +had been raised merely to be cut down; the country had been wasted +on all sides; and there had been a still more terrible waste of human +existence. While life was being made so cheap, the means of supporting +it were getting dearer every day; for provisions rose to an enormous +price under the influence of a system which converted the ploughshare +into the sword, and turned what should have been fields of corn into +fields of battle. To meet the expenses of the war, the public had been +obliged to run into debt; and there is no process to which the term +running is more properly applied, though the opposite movement is +always slow, and often impossible.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginian fleet having been destroyed, Rome became +nominally mistress of the seas; but, for want of means, she made a +very bad mistress, and the sea might be said to maintain a mastery +over her.</p> + +<p>War, however, had been in some degree productive of good; for it +had led to the recognition of the great principle that the public service +was not to be monopolised by the privileged few, inasmuch as where +there is real work to be done, there is scope for the talents and energies +to be met with among the many. Wealth, however, had become a +passport to public employment; and the door could be opened by a +golden key, which has, in modern times, served most appropriately as +the emblem of office.</p> + +<p>The drain upon the resources of the nation was so considerable, in +consequence of the frequent wars, that the Senators sent their plate to +the treasury, and received bank bills instead,—an arrangement as +satisfactory as exchanging silver dishes for silver paper. The merchants +supplied dresses for the troops on the same terms, and accepted +printed rags for comfortable clothing.</p> + +<p>Superstition also sensibly—or rather foolishly—increased during the +wars against Carthage; and the Sibylline books were consulted from +time to time, though usually with no other result than the recommendation +of a job, to be performed by Government Commissioners. On one +occasion the books were declared to require that Cybele should be +brought to Rome; and ambassadors were appointed, at a considerable +expense, to go to Phrygia, for the purpose of fetching her. They professed +to find her, and bring her home; but upon their arrival, they +produced nothing but a large black stone, which the people welcomed +as a most precious stone, and which they were contented to receive as +the goddess they required.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> The term εὕρηκα has lately been applied to a newly-invented shirt; but the term is +extremely inappropriate, for the philosopher had no shirt on when he proclaimed his great +discovery.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Stevinus, the Flemish mathematician, and Galileo, both of whom were born about +the middle of the sixteenth century, were the first who came after Archimedes in any great +mechanical discoveries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Livy, xxx. 44.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE NINETEENTH.</h2> + +<h3>WAR WITH THE MACEDONIANS. PROCLAMATION OF THE FREEDOM OF<br /> +GREECE BY FLAMINIUS. WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS. DEATH OF HANNIBAL,<br /> +AND OF SCIPIO AFRICANUS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0193.png" width="450" height="435" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap" style="margin-left:-1em">ar</span> being still +the theme of +our history, we +are obliged to +ask the reader +to accompany +us into the +field, though +we are aware +that battles, +and their +deadly details, +cannot inspire +a very lively +interest.</p> + +<p>Philip of +Macedonia +had become +jealous of the +power of +Rome, which +had now got a +footing in the +boot of Italy; +and, as Greece lay nearly under the heel, it was natural that the +Grecians should prepare to resist being trampled on. Philip, therefore, +concluded a treaty with Hannibal, and sent ambassadors with the +document; but, instead of delivering it into the hands for which it was +designed, they themselves fell into the hands of the Romans.</p> + +<p>Rome at once despatched to Illyricum a fleet of 50 sail, when Philip, +observing that the vessels were being wafted over by a favourable +breeze, saw there was something in the wind, and resolved—whatever +the blow—to be prepared for it. This was the commencement of the +Macedonian War, which became extremely unpopular with the Romans; +for the people at large regarded it as a bitter cup, though the nobles +desired it for the sake of the "bubble reputation" that the few might +find in it. In vain did the tribes protest against the proposed war, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +declaring they were no enemies to Philip, for the Senate insisted he +was an enemy of theirs, and that it was accordingly their duty to fight +with him.</p> + +<p>The campaign was opened by P. Sulpicius Galba, who crossed the +Adriatic, but did little, and was succeeded by Villius Tappulus, who +did nothing. Fortune had hitherto observed a sort of stiffness towards +both sides, leaning neither to the right nor to the left, when she +suddenly took a turn under the consulship of T. Quinctius Flaminius. +This individual was, comparatively, young in years, but superlatively +old in cunning; and he possessed in an eminent degree the low arts of +deceit which are usually held to constitute the high art of statesmanship. +He could electrotype falsehood with the external appearance of truth, +and he had no lack of that lacquer which brazens out a fraud with the +brass of impudence. Everything in the shape of rust had been rubbed +off his manners, which had become smooth in the extreme, and had +acquired that high state of polish which is frequently associated with +a very slippery character. He slid, as it were, into the confidence of all, +with the easy lubricity of the serpent, and with not a little of its +wiliness. His smile won, or rather lost, those whom he wished to +deceive, and he tried its fascination with such effect on some of the +Greek chiefs, that they permitted him to enter Thebes, and either did +not see what he had in his eye, or were induced to wink at it. He +pretended that he wished to parley with the authorities; but, when the +citizens were waiting to see what would take place, they found the +place itself quietly taken by Flaminius.</p> + +<p>Thessaly now became the scene of war, and the Romans met the +Greeks near a line of small hills, called, from their shape, the Dogs' +Heads, or Cynocephalæ. Here both parties fought with a dogged +obstinacy, which was quite in character with the place, until the Greek +phalanx, or Macedonian heavies, gave way before the Roman legions. +The principle of the phalanx was to pack the soldiers so closely together +that their shields touched, and their spears being upwards of twenty +feet long, the arms of the rear ranks leaned on the shoulders of those +in advance, so that they went forth arm in arm, as it were, to meet the +enemy. The Romans, on the contrary, preserved a sort of open order, +in which there was room for the exercise of their limbs; while the +Greeks, if they were able to raise their arms at all, were very likely to +lift them against each other. If the Romans were in need of assistance, +there was space left in their ranks for reinforcements to come up. But, +amidst the density of a Greek phalanx, nothing could make its way +except a panic, which will always find room to run through an entire +army. Though presenting, by these means, a formidable front, their +line was no sooner broken than they offered a most unprotected rear to +an active foe, and the Greek files on the occasion in question bore +marks of a special endorsement at the hands of the Romans. Having +been packed as closely as cards, 8000 Macedonians fell upon the field, +or rather upon one another, and Philip fled to Tempe, as if he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +desirous to hide his face in its well-known vale after his discomfiture. +Here he negotiated an arrangement, which may be termed the peace of +the valley, though it was a kind of peace with which he could scarcely +be contented, for it stipulated that he should give up all his ships +except five; but he was, nevertheless, permitted to retain 500 men +of war in the shape of that number of heavy-armed <a name="soldiers" id="soldiers"></a>soldiers.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0194c.png" width="550" height="358" alt="Flaminus restoring liberty to Greece at the Isthmian Games." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Flaminus restoring liberty to Greece at the Isthmian Games.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />He was also to pay 1000 talents, which would have taken every +talent he possessed, and put him to his wit's end at once, if he had not +been allowed ten years, within which to find the money. He was +furthermore compelled to send his son Demetrius to Rome for his +education—a stipulation, of which the object is not particularly clear, +unless it was thought that while the offspring was being schooled, a +lesson was also being given to the father. Flaminius, laying aside the +character of the warrior, proceeded to Greece as a tourist; and, though +in private life he was as gentle as a lamb, he was everywhere received +as a lion. Having visited the Isthmian games, he interrupted the +herald who was about to open the proceedings with the usual proclamation, +and putting into the hands of the officer a scroll, desired +him to "read it out" before proceeding with the programme. The +document was an announcement of the freedom of the Greek cities over +which Macedonia had domineered; and the people, finding that +Flaminius had made them free, resolved on making him welcome. +Frantic with joy, they nearly deafened him with cheers, and almost +buried him in flowers; nor could he keep at bay those who pressed +forward to crown him with laurel. So dense was the throng, that he +must have felt a smothered satisfaction, if he felt any at all; and +even if he could have found words to return thanks, he could find +no breath to give them utterance.</p> + +<p>In order that the Greeks might be shown the use of their new +freedom, Flaminius remained behind, to give an illustration of the +method of taking a liberty. Calling to his aid ten commissioners from +Rome, he proceeded to apportion the free cities of Greece in the manner +most agreeable to his own views; for it is a peculiarity of all freedom +imported from abroad, that it must be a freedom in conformity with the +taste of the importers, and not of those for whose use the article is +required. It thus frequently happens that what is recommended as a +luxury from abroad proves far from palatable to a people not accustomed +to the new commodity; and, though efforts may be made to force it +down their throats, at the point of the sword, the morsel is not easy of +digestion, and is only revolting to those whom it may have been intended +to satisfy.</p> + +<p>After completing the independence of Greece, by forcing republics on +some of its cities, taking possession of some others, and establishing +internal discord in nearly all, Flaminius returned to Rome in the year +of the City 559, and enjoyed the honours of a triumph.</p> + +<p>As no one is at times louder in his denunciations of dishonesty than the +practised rogue, so the Romans, who were for enslaving and plundering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +all the world, found it convenient, occasionally, to protest against the rapacity +of such as were rivals in the game of conquest. Philip had already +been dealt with on the principle that it is impossible for two of a trade to +agree; and a quarrel was now picked with Antiochus, who was doing a +somewhat extensive business as a wholesale appropriator of what did +not rightly belong to him. Flaminius, therefore, while declaring, after +his own fashion, the independence of Greece, stipulated that freedom +should be restored by Antiochus to all the Greek cities in Asia,—an +arrangement that would have left the cities at liberty to be made free +with by Rome in her usual manner. Antiochus justified his own wrong +by denying the right of any one else to interfere, and continued appropriating +to himself other places to which he had no legal or equitable title. +He seized on the Thracian Chersonesus, on the ground that one of his +ancestors had seized it once before,—a principle about as just as if the +grandson of a thief, who had been transported for stealing a watch, +should, on the strength of his ancestral crime, rob the owner anew of +the same property.</p> + +<p>Finding Lysimachia deserted, he took it as his own desert; when the +Romans, growing jealous of his success in the predatory line, declared +that they should regard, as a direct opposition to Rome, any further acts +of plunder.</p> + +<p>While matters were in this state, Hannibal was living in scarcely any +state at all, as an ordinary member of the Carthaginian Senate. He +had taken the opposition side of the house; and though he was a proposer +of many useful reforms, he was frequently coughed down, and in +a minority always. Finding little sympathy amongst his own countrymen, +who were all for peace and quietness, he entered into a negotiation +with Antiochus, for the purpose of ascertaining whether they could +arrange to create a joint disturbance, and thus weaken the Roman +power. Treachery was, however, going on in all directions; for, while +Hannibal was plotting with Antiochus against Rome, some of the +Carthaginians were plotting with Rome against Hannibal; and a +further breach of trust in some other quarter made him acquainted with +his danger. He accordingly resolved to escape; and having a small +tower—or marine residence—on the coast, he sent orders that a ship +should be ready to sail, and a berth secured for him. He walked about +the streets of Carthage all day, as if nothing had happened, and nothing +was likely to occur; for the Roman ambassadors were continually +dogging his footsteps; and he led them about so perseveringly all day, +that when the evening arrived they had scarcely a leg to stand upon. +Hannibal had, however, ordered his horse, which flew with him across +the country to the spot where the ship was in waiting; and, after +a difficult passage, by land as well as by sea, he arrived at the Court +of Antiochus.</p> + +<p>True to his infantine oath, Hannibal did his utmost to excite hostility +against the Romans; and asked Antiochus to lend him a trifle, in the +shape of 10,000 men, as if they were so many counters, that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +game of war required. Antiochus, however, like a boy jealous of his +toys, refused to hand over the 10,000 men, whose lives might be +required as playthings for himself; and he was not long in making use +of them.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0197.png" width="379" height="450" alt="Hannibal leads the Ambassadors rather a fatiguing Walk round Carthage." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal leads the Ambassadors rather a fatiguing Walk round Carthage.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The Greeks, being unable to appreciate the sort of independence +they had received at the hands of Rome, sent an invitation to Antiochus; +for it is the characteristic of slavery, as a moral disease, to seek relief +from the existing cause of oppression by the introduction of some +more violent form of the same malady.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> +<p>As the interference of strangers will usually lead to family quarrels, +so the effect of foreign influence on Greece was to keep the people +continually involved in disputes with each other. Part of the population +would have welcomed Antiochus warmly, while others received him +coldly; and the king, who had penetrated into Thessaly, had sufficient +penetration to see that he had better go a considerable part of the way +back again.</p> + +<p>By way of narrowing the ground of dispute, he took his position in +the Pass of Thermopylæ, and had, for some time, maintained an advantage +over the Romans, when M. Porcius Cato, ascending the heights, +ran round to the rear, and, by a decisive blow on the enemy's back, +changed the whole face of the engagement. Antiochus fled in dismay, +and never stopped to look behind him, until he reached Asia Minor, +when he sat down, and took a gloomy retrospect of all that had +happened. While he met with reverses on land, he heard of the +reverse, or rather the same thing, that had happened to his fleet at sea; +and he fairly gave up, not only his cause, but the Chersonesus, Lysimachia, +Sestos, and Abydos, with all their contents and non-contents; the +latter of which included the inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Antiochus, though subdued in spirit, was not quite beaten in form; +and a large army was sent to Asia, under the command of the two +consuls, L. Cornelius Scipio and C. Lælius. L. C. Scipio, though +without any acknowledged merit of his own, had the good fortune to be +the brother of the celebrated Scipio Africanus, who got him the place; +but it is manifest that such an illegitimate step to an appointment will +often end in a grievous disappointment of one kind or another. To +provide against the ill consequences of this flagrant job, the celebrated +Scipio went out in the capacity of legate, to counteract the consequences +of his brother's general incapacity in the capacity of general. The +Romans had 20,000 men, who, having arrived in Asia, met 70,000 +soldiers of Antiochus, at Magnesia, where the latter received a dose +from which they never recovered. Peace was granted to them on very +humiliating terms; but, however bitter the cup prescribed for Antiochus, +so disagreeable was the recollection of Magnesia, that he was obliged to +swallow almost anything that came after it.</p> + +<p>Rome continued her system of giving independence to various places +and people, many of whom seemed so little to appreciate the proffered +boon, that in some cases money was tendered and accepted as the price +of exemption from the proposed advantages. The Cappadocians were +so alarmed at the prospect of their new freedom, that, being still free +to confess their dislike to it, they sent 200 talents to the Romans, who, +no doubt, mentally impressed with the proverbial baseness of the "slave +who pays," quietly pocketed the money.</p> + +<p>While the principles of independence were being promulgated in the +East, the Romans were also employed in carrying their notions of +emancipation into the North, where several tribes were cut to pieces, in +order that they might feel the interest which Rome condescended to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +take in them. In some places the old inhabitants were rooted up like +old trees, while the younger branches were transplanted to other soils; +and a large quantity of Ligurian offshoots were carried off from their +parent stems to fill some vacant ground at Samnium. Many places +were thoroughly destroyed; and among others, Cremona was so unmercifully +played upon, that it was utterly broken up, and the lamentations +of its inhabitants were regarded no more than the moanings of a set of +old fiddle-strings.</p> + +<p>Not satisfied with being the masters of Italy and the tyrants of +Greece, the Romans aimed at establishing their dominion in Spain, +which was partly achieved by the treachery of some of the inhabitants, +and the cowardice of others. Some of its most powerful men entered +into an alliance with Rome, and were treated as insurgents or rebels, +when they dared to revolt against the foreign authority that had either +cowed or corrupted them.</p> + +<p>The subjugation of Spain was mainly effected by M. Porcius Cato, +who took a rather remarkable way of reducing the country to submission; +for he induced several places to commit a sort of moral suicide; and +after condemning them in his own mind, he arranged that they should +become, as it were, their own executioners. He sent circulars to a +large number of fortified towns in Spain, with instructions that the +communications were not to be looked into before a certain day; and +the inhabitants of every town experienced the agony of suspense, in the +fear that their doom was sealed in a letter they were not allowed to open. +At length, when the day arrived for penetrating the envelope in which +the mystery was enclosed, every circular was found to contain a command +that the walls of the town to which it was addressed should be razed to +the ground, or, in case of disobedience, that the heaviest punishment +should light on its inhabitants. The authorities not being able to communicate +with each other, fancied their own town the only one that was +doomed, and proceeded to pull the place about their own ears, until it +was reduced to a heap of dry rubbish.</p> + +<p>When the mischief was done, it was too late to discover that it need +not have been done at all; and though unity is in ordinary cases +strength, the unity with which the Spaniards had acted in demolishing +their own towns, had reduced them to a condition of utter feebleness.</p> + +<p>For some time they lived in peace, though their homes were knocked +to pieces; but a war broke out again, in the year of the City 572 +(<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 181). The Spaniards, however, were not thoroughly reduced until +four years after, though they were being continually killed, beaten, cut +to pieces, and otherwise dealt with, in a manner from which their reduction +would seem to flow as a natural consequence. It was Tib. Sempronius +Gracchus—the father of the two great Gracchi, of whom we shall +have something to say hereafter—that concluded peace with several of +the Spanish tribes, who were brought down so low, that their being +otherwise than peaceable was almost impossible.</p> + +<p>The Romans continued to intrude themselves and their system on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +different parts of Europe, and planted a colony at Aquileia, in Istria, +which caused the Istrians to try and put a full stop to the disposition +which Rome had shown to colon-ise. A war ensued, which resulted in +the loss of three towns and one king, when the Istrians came to the +conclusion that they had had enough of it, and immediately submitted +to the Roman authority.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0200.png" width="450" height="339" alt="Hannibal requesting the Cretan Priests to become his Bankers." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal requesting the Cretan Priests to become his Bankers.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Having, for a time, lost sight of the illustrious Hannibal, we begin to +look about for him once more, and find him living in a Court, kept by +one Prusias, the greedy and needy king of Bithynia. After the treaty +made by Antiochus and the Romans, Hannibal had fled to Crete, where +he could not long remain; and, though history is silent as to the cause, +we may conjecture something from the fact, that he effected a clandestine +removal of all his wealth, though he pretended to leave behind him +a vast amount of treasure. Tradition states that, having procured a +number of earthen jars, he filled them with lead, and, strewing a little +gold, or loose silver, over the top, he carried them to the temple of +Diana, and requested the Cretan priests to become his bankers, for the +purpose of his entrusting to them this valuable deposit. The priests +assured him, with many protestations, that he would find it all right +on his return; and Hannibal, having previously packed all his real +gold into the hollow insides of some statues of brass, which he pretended +to carry with him, in his character of an admirer of the arts, got +clear off with all his money. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +He continued to travel from place to place, and had spent the contents +of nearly all his statues, except a small one, so that his means had +literally come down to the lowest figure. In this dilemma he found +himself at Bithynia, where Prusias gave him house-room for a short +time; taking advantage of the visit, to render his guest useful in a +war that was being carried on against Eumenes, king of Pergamus. +Hannibal, however, could not persuade the parsimonious Prusias to go +to the expense of conducting hostilities in an effective style; and, +indeed, there being no money to carry on the war, it was impossible to +do so with credit; for nobody would make any advance on the security +of a bad sovereign. The Romans regarding Hannibal as a dangerous +agitator, which he had indeed proved himself to be, required that he +should be given up; but Prusias, declining to be at the expense of +carriage, intimated that whoever wanted Hannibal had better come for +him. The Carthaginian general, foreseeing his fate, endeavoured to +make his escape by one of seven secret passages leading from his +house; but his enemies had found them out, and were therefore certain +of finding him at home; for they had taken care to bar his <a name="egress" id="egress"></a>egress.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0201.png" width="450" height="442" alt="Hannibal makes the usual neat and appropriate Speech previous to killing himself." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hannibal makes the usual neat and appropriate Speech previous to killing himself.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Though possessing all the courage of a soldier, he was miserably +destitute of a superior kind of fortitude, and he always carried a +bottle of poison about with him. Finding escape impossible, he drew +the fatal phial from his pocket, and, as he shook it up, he indulged in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +one of those speeches which are usually attributed by classical historians +to men on the point of suicide. "I will," he said—or is said to have +said, for nobody could have heard him, as he was quite alone, and nobody +could have been listening, or the bottle would have been snatched out of +his hand; "I will deliver the Romans from the dread which has so +long tormented them, since they think it too long to wait for the decease +of a worn-out old man." Here he may be supposed to have paused; +and, after giving the bottle another final shake, to have continued as +follows: "Flaminius's victory over a foe, unarmed and betrayed, will +not redound much to his honour;" and, with a mental once, twice, +thrice, and away, the wretched Hannibal may be imagined to have +raised the nauseous draught to his lips, and to have tossed it off with +desperate energy.</p> + +<p>Hannibal had certainly, in his lifetime, shown proofs of greatness, +though, in the manner of his death, he gave evidence of lamentable +littleness. On the admirable principle of "look to the end," we are +unable to agree with those classical enthusiasts who regard Hannibal +as one of the most illustrious of mankind, because he was more daring +and more skilful in the art of exterminating his fellow-creatures than +many of his competitors. His personal ambition brought misery on his +own, as well as other countries, and his obstinate hatred to Rome was +not justified by his juvenile oath, for the taking of which he deserved +rather the birch than the laurel. The first public act of his life was +to swear when he was too young to have known what he was about, +and the last act was to poison himself at the age of sixty-two, when he was +quite old enough to have known better. He made a bad beginning, but +a worse ending, and he proved that, though aspiring to rule over others, +he was unable to command himself, and was in nearly every respect a +melancholy specimen of ill-regulated humanity.</p> + +<p>Within about a year of Hannibal's death, Scipio Africanus also died +in exile. This great man, as it has been customary to call him, because +he was a large destroyer of the human race, was taken up before the +Senate on a charge of embezzlement. The case happened to be +appointed for hearing on the anniversary of some battle he had won, +when he declared the day was ill-suited for litigation, and the people, +who are always ready for an excuse for a holiday, immediately agreed +with him. His brother Lucius was involved in the same accusation, +which he met by producing his accounts; but, the popular idol seizing +the books, declared it was shabby for a nation to be too particular with +those who had served it so well, and tore up the whole of the financial +statement. Lucius Scipio remained in Rome; but Africanus ran away to +a villa in Campania, leaving his brother to undergo the confiscation of the +whole of his property. The innocence of Lucius was subsequently established, +and, though no "money returned," is generally the motto of the +law, he succeeded in getting back a part of what he had been unjustly +deprived of. He, however, having lived without his income, had no +sooner got the means restored to him of living within it, than he died, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +with the melancholy satisfaction of having had justice done when it was +too late to be of the smallest earthly use to him.</p> + +<p>The merits and demerits of Scipio Africanus have been differently +estimated by different authorities; and though it is charitable to give to +any man the benefit of a doubt, no one would be thankful for the +admission that his was a doubtful character. Scipio Africanus was a +great patron of letters; but he seems to have been a despiser of figures, +if the story relating to his contempt for the accuracy of his accounts is +to be relied upon. Cicero has spoken eloquently of the simple habits of +Scipio Africanus, in his marine retirement, throwing stones into the +sea, and skimming with them the surface of the water; but this innocent +pastime does not relieve him from the accusation of making "ducks +and drakes" of the public money, which was the charge that Cato +had endeavoured to bring home to him.</p> + +<p>He is said to have been generous to his relatives; but to help them, +after freely helping himself, may have been nothing more than nepotism, +under the disguise of a domestic virtue. It is stated that he +showed his disregard for wealth by relinquishing to his brother his own +share of his patrimony; but there is little merit in his having despised +the comparatively mean contents of his family purse, if he was unscrupulous +during the time that he had the public pocket to dip into.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTE: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> This is, in fact, the homœopathic principle applied to politics; the counteracting of +like by like, <i>similia similibus</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTIETH.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. MORALS, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, AND STATE OF THE<br /> +DRAMA AND LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMANS.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 65px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0204.png" width="65" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap" style="margin-left:-1em">t</span> is customary with the grandiloquent to declare that +the page of history is stained with gore; but we limit +ourselves to ink, which perhaps, after all, furnishes a +decent type of mourning over the deeds we are compelled +to chronicle. It is true that history has too +often wars for her principal facts, and the numbers of +dead for her figures; but she is apt to speak rather +figuratively in estimating the thousands upon thousands +who are said to have fallen, sword in hand, or to have +been terribly put to it.</p> + +<p>The weapon of war cuts, however, both ways; and +a nation cannot play with edged tools more safely than +an individual can indulge in such dangerous pastime.</p> + +<p>The state of war in which Rome habitually lived, +had encouraged the worst passions of the people; and +nearly every vice had taken an iron hold of them. By +continually fighting, they had become familiar with +murder and violence, while the practice of plunder +had accustomed them to robbery. Military stratagem—which +was the very essence of strategy—had taught +them to regard cunning as a virtue; and he was a hero, in their +opinion, who would face the swords and spears of a foe, but sought in +poison a cowardly refuge from the "slings and arrows" of his own +conscience. The wealth taken by force was often appropriated by +fraud; and a successful leader thought nothing of putting into his +own pocket an enormous sum, declaring that it was unreasonable to +expect a general to be particular.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The few became enormously rich, +while the many were miserably poor. The higher orders grasped +everything, leaving nothing to those beneath, and the consequence was +a state of top-heaviness, which, when existing in the social column, +exposes base and capital—but especially the latter—to extreme danger. +Money had been acquired by some, who did not know its use; and its +abuse was the inevitable result; for the improper employment of gold +leads to every kind of guilt on the part of those who are possessed of it.</p> + +<p>With the wealth of other nations, foreign fashions were imported, +and Roman simplicity was superseded by the art and cunning of the +Grecian craftsmen. The pleasures of the table were carried to a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +gluttonous excess; and a slave who, in the capacity of a cook, could set +before his master an agreeable kind of sauce, was often allowed impunity +for insolence.</p> + +<p>Extravagance began to prevail to such an extent among the Roman +women, that those females whose wardrobe was of a gaudy hue, were +virtually condemned to dye, for a law was passed by the tribune Appius, +prohibiting them from wearing dresses of a gay colour. The same +law limited them to half-an-ounce of gold; but this was unnecessary; +for the extravagantly-disposed would spend all they had; and they +were further restricted from riding at or near Rome, or any other city, +in a carriage drawn by two horses; for it was considered that with one +the road to ruin could be quite rapidly enough travelled. This law occasioned +some violent agitation among the Roman women, who manifested +the force of female influence so effectually, that in a few years the law +was repealed.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0205.png" width="500" height="380" alt="Roman Lady "Shopping."" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Roman Lady "Shopping."</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The stern necessities of historical truth compel us to attribute to +what is termed the gentler sex, the introduction, among the Romans, +of some vices so foul, as to be at variance with all our notions of the +fair. One of the worst of these enormities was the celebration of the +Bacchanalia, introduced from Etruria; and recent discoveries<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> in that +locality have initiated us into the secret of what are usually termed the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +Bacchic mysteries. The mystification of the votaries was accomplished +by drink; under the influence of which they wound up their festivities +with a reel, such as may be traced in ancient paintings; and round +every such reel there is twined some important thread of history.</p> + +<p>Imitation is seldom respectable in any case; for even merit loses +half its value when it is not original; but nothing can be more contemptible +than a people putting on bad habits at second-hand. Such, +however, was the practice of the Romans, who borrowed nearly all +their iniquities from Athens or other cities, and who wilfully brought +upon themselves the moral stain of Greece. Cruelty, which goes hand +in hand with depravity, had reached such an infamous excess, that it +was practised openly by those whom the people delighted to honour. +Among other instances, may be cited the example of the Consul +L. Quinctius Flaminius, who, while encamped in Gaul, happened to be +feasting with one of his degraded creatures, when the latter lamented +he had never seen a gladiator killed. A noble Boian entering at the +moment, to ask for shelter, Flaminius observed that, though unable to +treat his friend to the sight of a dying gladiator, he might satisfy his +appetite for cruelty by the exhibition of a dying Gaul. The "creature" +had no sooner expressed his readiness to accept the lighter relish as a +substitute for the more substantial meal, than Flaminius, drawing his +sword, smote the unfortunate Boian on the head, and ran him through +the body. So brutalised had the people become by continual war, that +no notice was taken of this occurrence until eight years afterwards, when +Cato, the Censor, brought up the charge, with a variety of others, more +or less weighty, against Flaminius, and caused his expulsion from the +Senate.</p> + +<p>The name of Cato the Censor, naturally induces a few observations +on the character of this ancient specimen of the</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left:6em">"Fine old Roman gentleman all of the olden time."</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>He was the son of a respectable Sabine farmer, and passed his earliest +years in the country, where he followed the plough—a peaceful pursuit, +which imprints no early furrows on the forehead, but leaves many on +the earth it at once improves and lacerates. At seventeen, every Roman +became, of necessity, a soldier; and though in the game of life fortune +had dealt him a spade, he was obliged to throw it out of his hand. +Such was the lot of young Marcus Porcius Priscus; for that was in +reality his name, though he afterwards had the title of Cato, or the +"knowing one," bestowed on him. His military duties were performed +with credit, though he preferred cultivating any other seeds than the +seeds of dissension; and he was more at home in a trench dug for +celery, than in one designed for undermining a fort.</p> + +<p>After returning from the wars, he took some ground adjoining that +which had been occupied by Dentatus; and regarding that individual +as a model farmer, Cato tried to make his own a model farm. So +thoroughly did he throw himself into his agrarian occupation, that he +may be said to have buried himself in his land. He wrote a work on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +Agriculture,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> which included much miscellaneous information, from +the mode of buying an estate to the art of making a cheesecake, the +curing of a side of bacon, and the setting of a dislocated bone. While +attending to his own business, he found leisure to attend to that of his +neighbours; and in all their petty disputes before the local tribunals, he +was in the habit of attending the hearing of summonses for and against +his friends. He had a word of advice or a maxim to meet every +circumstance in which his advice was asked or offered; and he could +always cut through a difficulty with one of his wise saws. Some might +be disposed to term him a busybody and a meddler; but at all events +a young patrician, named Valerius Flaccus, considered him to be a +meddler well worth transplanting, and persuaded him to go to Rome, +"as," in the language of Plutarch, "a plant that deserved a better soil." +Here he "put up" for various places in the public service, and we +find him climbing successively to several very high posts, where the +example he set by his externally virtuous mode of living, formed a +decent contrast to the undisguised vices of the age.</p> + +<p>Such was Cato in his earlier years; but the melancholy fact must be +stated, that, though flattery paints only one side of every picture, there +is none to which truth may not be called upon to add a reverse. In his +youthful days Cato had worked with his labourers; had partaken of the +same fare with them at the same board, and drank nothing stronger +than water; but, in after-life, he contracted a disreputable marriage, +and, giving himself up to the dissipations of the table, might have +found himself occasionally under it. So thoroughly utilitarian was he +in his political philosophy, that he looked upon a labourer as a mere +machine, which, when worn out, he contended ought to be got rid of as +speedily as possible. Cato the Censor owes much of his reputation for +morality to the fact of his having set himself up as a professional +moralist. Though he was useful as a castigator of the vices of his age, +there was nothing very amiable in the rancorous and uncharitable spirit +in which he performed his office. He had a keen appetite for an abuse +or a piece of scandal, but, while crime or error excited his hatred, virtue +and generosity seemed to rouse less of his admiration than his jealousy. +If he had lived in modern times, he would, probably, have been a +common informer, a rigid observer of all the outward appearances of +virtue, and a discounter of bills; for it is said of Cato, that he advanced +money at exorbitant interest to those whose necessities or recklessness +induced them to comply with his terms.</p> + +<p>Religion had, at about this period, sunk to a very low ebb in the +hands of a crafty priesthood, who used the influence of their position +for their own temporal purposes. Prodigies were declared to have +happened; such as the talking of a cow, which was alleged to have +"whispered low" in a priest's ear; statues were said to have wept; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +the tale was listened to by those who believed that their augurs could, +if they pleased, get blood out of a stone.</p> + +<p>In literature, though it is customary to speak of Roman characters as +an original form of letters, Rome had nothing new, but trusted to what +was already known; for she not only copied the vices of the Greeks, +but took a leaf out of their books in a more literal manner. She had +no writers of her own; but what literary food she possessed was +supplied by those translating cooks who make a hash of nearly everything +they lay their hands upon.</p> + +<p>The earliest Roman dramatist is supposed to have been one Lucius +Andronicus, who had formerly been a slave, and who continued his +slavish propensities by a servile adaptation of Greek plays, instead of +boldly attempting an original production. Like many of the modern +translators, he was himself an actor in his own pieces; and it is +declared by Livy the historian, that he lost his voice by the frequency +with which he was encored by the audience. This statement seems to +show that puffs were not unknown when the Roman drama was in its +very earliest stage; for the assertion in question could scarcely have +been true, since Cicero<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> has told us that there was nothing worthy of +being read or listened to twice, in the plays of Lucius Andronicus.</p> + +<p>The greatest comic writer of the period at which our history has +arrived, was Marcus Accius Plautus, of whose origin little is known; +for the Romans held their wits and humorists in such little respect, +that as long as they could raise a laugh, it mattered little who they +were, whence they sprung, or what became of them. It was not until +after a writer's death that any interest was felt in his life, and such was +the case with regard to Plautus, who has been the subject of more +invention than is to be found in all his comedies. Conjecture—the +author of half the history, and three-fourths of the biography, which the +world possesses—describes Plautus as a low-born fellow, made of the +very commonest clay, moulded by one of Nature's awkwardest journeymen +into a misshapen lump, and whose angular deformities constituted +his chief points of humour. Having made a little money as a dramatist, +he is said to have embarked it in the baking business; some would say +that he might make his own puffs; but his shop failed, and as the +public would not, he of course could not, get his bread at it. He next +entered the service of a miller and master baker, where he attempted, +in grinding corn, to turn at once the handle of a mill and an honest +penny. Even in the bakehouse he was unable to forget the flowery +path of literature; and while watching the bread, he managed to +inscribe on different rolls no less than three comedies. Of these he +made sufficient to enable him to quit the oven, which was incapable of +warming his imagination; and taking lodgings in Rome, he resumed +the life of a dramatist.</p> + +<p>What Plautus may have wanted in originality, he made up for by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +industry, there being still extant twenty of his plays, and he was, +according to some, the author of one hundred pieces.</p> + +<p>The mantle of Plautus—supposing the dramatist to have died with a +coat to his back—may be said to have fallen on Terentius Afer, or +Terence. He is believed to have been born at Carthage, and to have +been the slave of a Roman senator; for his biographers—who, by +the way, were writers themselves—will not hazard the supposition +that one of their own order could have been the son of a gentleman. +Terentius, however, got into what is usually termed the best society, +which had the usual effect of the "best society" on a literary man; for +it took what it could never compensate him for—his time; it led him +into idle and extravagant habits, and thus brought him, where it +will inevitably leave him, if it once gets him there—to ruin. His +fashionable friends carried their patronage so far, as to tax his reputation +as well as his means, and even claimed a share in the credit of his +writings, declaring the best part of them to be their own, though they +suffered Terentius to affix his name to them.</p> + +<p>Scipio Africanus, who stands convicted of fraud and embezzlement in +a former chapter,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> had the effrontery to say, or allow it to be said, that +he had written portions of the plays in question, or, at least, contributed +some of the jokes; but we have nothing to support the claim, except +the fact that he might, perhaps, have made a pun, as he is known to +have picked the public pocket. The following anecdote, related by his +biographer, Donatus, or Suetonius—for the learned are at issue, and +have long been stumbling over the two styles—may afford some idea of +the treatment to which authors were submitted in the age we are +writing of. Having completed his play of "Andria," Terence was desirous +of getting it licensed, and applied to the Ædiles, who referred him to +Cæcilius, for an opinion on the manuscript. The critic being at dinner, +desired the dramatist to take a seat on a low stool, and read his piece, +so that Cæcilius might, at the same time, swallow his meal, and digest +the new comedy. Terence had read but a few verses, when the critic +declared he could not continue selfishly putting good things into his +own mouth, while so many good things were coming from the mouth of +his visitor. He was requested to put the comedy away until after the +dinner, which he was invited to share; and, having done so, the play +was finished over a glass or two of wine, which increased the enthusiasm +with which the author read, and the critic listened. Both were +delighted with each other. Their better acquaintance was drunk; +success to the comedy was drunk; their healths were drunk together; +and, ultimately, Cæcilius and Terence were drunk separately as well as +jointly, before the termination of the evening.</p> + +<p>The plays of Terence, though of Greek origin, were moulded after a +fashion of his own, and what little of the material he borrowed was +almost immaterial to the value of his productions. He received for one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +of them "The Eunuchus," no less than 8000 sesterces (about £64), +which was, in those days, the largest sum that had ever been paid for a +five act comedy. After having been successful for some years, he +embarked, according to some authorities, for Greece—as our dramatists +embark occasionally for Boulogne—to lay in a new stock of pieces for +future translation. Other authorities assert that he went to Asia, +taking a number of translations with him, and was never heard of +again, the ship having been sunk, perhaps, by the weight of his too +heavy manuscripts.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0210.png" width="500" height="447" alt="Terence reading his Play to Cæcilius." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Terence reading his Play to Cæcilius.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Among the writers of the period, we must not forget to mention +Ennius, a Calabrian, who gave lessons in Greek to the patrician youths, +at a small lodging on the Aventine. He is regarded as the father of +Latin poetry; but Latin poetry could profit little from the paternal +care of one whose devotion to the bottle rendered his own care of +himself frequently impossible. His productions are of a very fragmentary +kind; and, indeed, his habits of intemperance prevented him from +making any sustained effort. He was the boon companion of several +patricians, who helped him to ruin when alive, and gave him a monument +at his death;—one of them (Scipio Africanus) accommodating +the poet with a place in his tomb, so that the patron might literally go +down to posterity with the man of genius.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +While on the subject of the drama, as represented at Rome in the +days of Plautus and Terence, we may refer to the fact that masks were +worn by the actors, which gave to a theatrical performance some absurd +and not very interesting features. There were several sets of masks +among the properties of a regular theatre, beginning with that of the +first tragic old man, which had a quantity of venerable white worsted +attached to it for hair, with cheeks as chalky as grief and tears, strong +enough to have washed out the fastest colour, might be supposed to +have rendered them. The mask of the second tragic old man was less +pale than that of the first, for he was not supposed to have attained to +that universal privilege of aged heroism,—a countenance sicklied o'er +with a pale coat of whitewash. The mask of the tragic young man, or +youthful hero, was remarkable for its luxuriant head of hair, which, +from the earliest days of the drama to the present hour, seems to be +accepted as the stage indication of a noble character. The tragic +masks for slaves embraced some interesting varieties, including a sharp +nose, intended to be indicative of many a blow from fortune's hand,—a +sunken eye, to bespeak a sorry look-out,—and, occasionally, long white +hair, quite straight, which was supposed to convey the idea of the party +having seen better days, though the analogy is difficult, unless the +lankiness of the locks may be held to show that a favourable turn has +in vain been waited for. The mask of a tragic lady had all those +signs of a genuine female in distress which are even to this day required +on the stage, where long black hair, in terribly straightened circumstances, +is the emblem of an anxious mind, which has long been a +stranger to curl-papers. When insanity, as well as anguish, had to be +represented by the mask, the hair was undivided in the centre, but floated +in wild profusion, as if the wearer had gone through a great deal, and as +if, whatever she had gone through, her hair had caught in the middle of.</p> + +<p>The classical mask of the first comic old man was drawn excessively +mild and benevolent, to indicate that propensity for scattering purses +among the poor, and bestowing his daughter, with some millions of sesterces, +on young Lucius, which were the probable attributes of the Greek +and Latin stage veteran. There was also the mask of the testy old +man, who was represented perfectly bald, as if he was always taking +something or other into his head which had torn all the hair out of it. +The masks for comic young men had the ordinary characteristics of stage +humour, including red hair, pug noses, broad lips, and raised eyebrows, +which are in these days supplied from those recognised sources of +dramatic drollery, the burnt cork, the gum-pot, and the paint-box.</p> + +<p>We might enumerate a long list of different masks, without introducing +any variety, for they were very nearly the same; but we have +shown enough to prove that the classical taste for which so many +clamour without knowing what they talk about, was very little, if +at all, above the modern standard. Some authorities<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> assert that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +masks were not worn in the earliest representations of the Roman +drama; but some of the oldest MS. of Terence contain figures of the +required masks, just as a play of the present day has prefixed to it a +list of the costumes of the characters. The admirers of the classical +may be grieved and astonished to hear that the taste, for the restoration +of which they so much pine, took greater delight in the deadly games +of the Circus, than in the lively representations of men and <a name="manners" id="manners"></a>manners.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0212.png" width="450" height="463" alt="Light Comedy Man of the Period." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Light Comedy Man of the Period.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Historical literature was in a very humble condition, and had much, or +indeed all, the prolixity, with little of the accuracy, of a modern report for +a newspaper. It is, however, hardly fair to judge the authors severely for +writings which we have never seen, and are never likely to see; for they +have never come down to us, except in scraps—the result of the various +cuttings-up they have encountered at the hands of Polybius and other +critics. For the same reason, we are unable to praise conscientiously +the "Origines" of Cato, which has long ago been lost, and we are +unwilling to adopt the "opinions of the press," which have too often been +at the disposal of the member of a clique, or of the purchaser of a puffing +paragraph. Oratory always was, and always will be, an important art, +except in those countries which are so excessively republican and free, +that the people are free for every imaginable or imaginary purpose, +except to do as they please, and to say what they think proper. The +Romans took the art of rhetoric from the Greeks, but even a good thing +is distasteful if forced where it is not asked; and, when the Athenians +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +sent three professed orators as propagandists of their art to Rome, the +foreign agitators were ordered—very properly—to quit the city.</p> + +<p>As lawyers, the early Romans are entitled to high praise, and they +evinced their prudence by making juris-prudence an essential part of +their ordinary studies. The Roman youth were required to get the +Twelve Tables by heart, or rather, by head, which was supposed to be +sufficiently furnished when the whole of the Twelve Tables alluded to +were crammed into it.</p> + +<p>The science of Medicine was not in very high repute among the early +Romans, and physic was, commercially speaking, in very little demand, +so that it would have been a mere drug if brought into the market. The +aristocratic families generally expected one of their slaves to know something +of the healing process, as they usually did of other arts or trades; +and a surgical operation, like a gardening operation, or any piece of merely +manual labour, was frequently entrusted to the hands of a simple bondsman. +Physic was scarcely known in Rome as a distinct pursuit, until the +year of the City 534 (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 219), when the Greek physician Archagathus +opened a shop with an extensive stock, and an establishment of baths; +the expense of which would have plunged him into hot water, had not +the public come forward to make him a present of his premises. The +shops of the doctors were lounging places for the idle, who are always +the most profitable patients; for there is no ailing so troublesome as +that of having nothing to do, and abundance of time to do it in. The +Romans had made little advance in art, though they professed to show +their love for it by robbing other nations of their treasures. On the +same principle, the pickpocket, who pilfers a handkerchief, might ask +credit for being attracted by the beauty of its design; and the knave +who walks away with a set of silver spoons might pretend to be actuated +by a desire to patronise their pattern or their workmanship. Rome, +indeed, can scarcely be said to have introduced the arts from Greece, +but merely to have introduced a few of the articles on which the arts +had employed themselves.</p> + +<p>Commerce was looked down upon for a long period as a degrading +pursuit; but from the time of the Second Punic War, the equites, with +a total disregard of equity, began lending out money at exorbitant +interest. Though they would not condescend to trade for gain, they +were prepared to pocket the profits of usury. They would also purchase +corn at a low price abroad, and sell it at a dear rate at home; for they +understood and practised all the tricks of the tradesman, though they +sneered at and repudiated his position. The slave trade was also +carried on to a vast extent by the higher classes, and even Cato is said +to have done a little in that way himself, notwithstanding the stiffness +of his notions, and the alleged purity of his morals. The patrician +principle seemed to be, that the same thing which would be blamable +on a small scale, was excusable when practised on a broad basis—that to +sell a little was degrading, but to sell a great deal was no disgrace at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +all; and by a parity of reasoning, they must have held, that so far from +its being the same thing whether to be hanged for a sheep or a lamb, +it would only be the smaller depredator who would deserve any punishment +whatever.</p> + +<p>Robbery had greatly augmented the public wealth; but individuals +were wretchedly poor, with the exception of the few who had had a +hand in the pockets of the conquered nations. Slaves were brought in +such numbers to Rome, that at length they would hardly fetch a price; +and so many were brought from Sardinia, who were constantly being +put up, knocked down at nothing, bought in, and left on hand, that +"Sardians to sell!" passed into a proverb to express an unsaleable +article. In vain were the poor creatures prepared to do as they were +bid, for no one would give them a bidding. The Greek captives +fetched a higher price, for they were many of them accomplished men, +and became tutors, music-masters, or teachers of painting, in the +families of their purchasers. Among the hostages brought to Rome, +was Polybius the historian, who got so good a living by giving lessons, +that though he had been brought to Rome against his will, he solicited +the privilege of remaining there. His "Universal History," in forty books, +was a work that ought to be, and would have been, in every gentleman's +library, but for the unfortunate fact of its having been nearly all lost: +and we may judge of the excellence of the whole, from the knowledge +that though what remains of the work is very good, by far the best +part of it is missing.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> P. Cornelius Scipio gave no better answer than this to a charge of having embezzled +a sum amounting to 36,000<i>l.</i> sterling.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> "The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by Dennis.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> De Re rustica.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Brut., c. 18</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Chapter xix., p. 202.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Diomedes, iii., p. 486, ed. Putsch.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-FIRST.</h2> + +<h3>WARS AGAINST PERSEUS. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR. SIEGE AND DESTRUCTION<br /> +OF CARTHAGE, AND DITTO DITTO OF CORINTH.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Philip</span> of Macedon bad been from time to time waging war with +Rome; but the wages of the troops were so exhausting to his means, +that he was driven to a hollow peace by his empty pockets. He had +agreed to confine his dominion within a certain space; but, as his +ambition had no bounds, he would not be content that his territory +should have any limits. He accordingly fought with and thrashed the +Thracians, who sent ambassadors to Rome for the purpose of showing +him up, as it were, to their common master. Rome punished him by +ordering him to keep within bounds; and threatened, that if he should +be found venturing out of bounds, he should be severely punished. +Philip muttered something about seeking justice elsewhere—a threat +of paulo-post-future revenge which is common with those who, being +engaged in a dispute, have got decidedly the worst of it.</p> + +<p>His prospects of ulterior measures were, however, sufficiently remote +to induce him to attempt an arrangement through the intervention of +his son Demetrius. The latter had been educated in Rome, and of +course had a thorough understanding of the Roman character. He +succeeded in his mission, but he obtained his end in a less agreeable +sense; for his existence was brought to a close by treachery. Some +designing persons fomented a feeling of jealousy between himself and +his elder brother, Perseus, who poisoned the mind of Philip with such +fatal effect, that he caused the poisoning—not merely mental, but +physical—of his son Demetrius. When the wretched parent discovered +that he had been duped, he became so uneasy in his mind, that +he went quite out of it, and died at the age of three-score, unable to +meet the heavy score that he had run up against himself in the court of +his own conscience.</p> + +<p>Perseus was hailed by the Romans as king; but all their hailing +could not render his reign prosperous. He endeavoured to cement his +power by a marriage with the daughter of Antiochus Epiphanes, +for Perseus thought that the aid he would derive from the match, +would render him more than a match for his enemies. He gave his +sister to Prusias of Bithynia, in the hope that the latter, having married +into the family, would feel himself wedded to its interests. Avarice was, +however, the ruin of Perseus; for he did not understand the true use +of the purse, which he used his utmost exertions to fill, and then held +its strings with parsimonious stringency. He had promised to pay +his allies, but their zeal in his cause subsided when they were left +without their subsidies.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +Eumenes of Pergamus being among others seized with a panic, went +to Rome to ask advice, and on his return nearly lost his life on the +highway, by some persons who attacked him in a very low manner. He +was passing a narrow footpath near Delphi—from which it would appear +that he had walked at least a portion of the way—when some persons +concealed in the rocks, hurled down several large blocks of granite, +which though not causing his death, brought him within a stone's +throw of it. Several huge pieces having fallen upon him, something +struck him that all was not right; and he was revolving the affair in +his mind, when he found himself rolling down the precipice. He was +picked up nearly lifeless, but though very much jammed, he was +preserved; and though almost dashed to pieces, he was sufficiently collected, +in a few days, to be enabled to go home, by another road, to Asia. +It was said that Perseus had had a hand in this disgraceful affair; but +he declared that even if he had wished for the death of Eumenes, he +would not have been guilty of making such a desperate push for it.</p> + +<p>This circumstance gave an impetus to the hostilities between Rome +and Perseus, who was driven by the Consul Paulus Æmilius to a place +called Pydna, where the two armies came to such very close quarters, +that their cavalry were compelled to go halves in the same stream of +water. A Roman horse happened to be drinking, when, startled by his +own shadow, and not giving himself time for reflection, which would +have shown him the cause of his alarm, he ran away into the camp of +the enemy. The animal, though goaded on by nothing but the spur of +the moment, continued his flight; and some Roman soldiers running +after him into the enemy's camp, were speedily followed by so many +more, that, though they had come after their own horse, they began +attacking the foot of the enemy.</p> + +<p>The battle was commenced under such unfavourable circumstances, +that Æmilius, the Roman leader, thinking it all lost, declared that it +was all one to him what became of him. He manifested his grief by +tearing his robe to show how much he was cut up; and beating his +foot impatiently on the ground, he stamped himself for ever as a man +without strength of mind, in a case where fortitude was required. The +Roman cavalry beginning to bear down successfully, the Consul began +to bear up; and the tide of fortune being turned, the Macedonians +were, according to those grave authorities—which never mince matters, +though always mincing men—cut, as usual, to pieces. Perseus flew to +Pella; but having omitted to close the gates after him, he was shut out +from all chance of escape had he remained in the place, and he went on, +therefore, to Amphipolis. There he attempted to address the inhabitants +on his own behalf; but he shed so many tears, that he drowned +his own voice, and choked his own utterance. He had hoped to rouse +the inhabitants by going to the country with a cry; but he damped their +enthusiasm with a flood of tears, when they had been looking for a flow +of eloquence.</p> + +<p>After flying from place to place, like a hunted hare, he felt the game +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +was up, and, retreating to Samothrace, he consigned his weary head to +the shelter of Castor, in whose temple he hid himself. He had +managed to carry about with him a large supply of treasure, which he +was anxious to save, and had hired a mariner to take him to Crete; +but the money having been first sent on board, the crafty seaman, out +of curiosity, weighed the gold, and immediately weighed anchor. +Perseus having gone down to the beach, to embark, saw the ship in the +offing, and, having watched it, he perceived that it was fairly, or rather +unfairly off, with all his treasure. As he paced the shore, he felt +himself quite aground, and, having no lodging for the night, or the +means of obtaining one, he returned to the solitary chambers of the +temple. Having a wife and family to provide for, he threw himself on +the generosity of Æmilius, who gave him a subsistence, but loaded him +with chains, that he might feel the weight of his obligations. The +unhappy Perseus was made to walk in a triumph before the car of his +conqueror; and though he had entreated that he might not be so +lowered, he was still further let down, by cruel confinement in a subterranean +dungeon. His fellow-prisoners are said to have offered him a +sword, to end his days, but, on looking at the weapon, he very properly +declined to bring his sufferings to a point, by an act of folly and wickedness. +He eventually found his way to Alba, where he died in about +two years; his son, Alexander, having adopted the trade of a turner, +with the laudable view of turning an honest penny.</p> + +<p>Paulus Æmilius exercised the usual privilege of a conqueror, by +robbing the vanquished of all they had possessed; and Macedonia was +declared free, in the customary manner, by placing it entirely under the +government of its foreign victors.</p> + +<p>The triumph of Paulus Æmilius was one of the most magnificent +shows that had ever been seen, and lasted three days, during which a +perpetual fair was kept up; for, among the Romans, "None but the brave +deserve the fair" was a maxim literally followed. On the first day there +was a procession of pictures, showing the exploits of Æmilius in the +brightest colours. The second day was devoted to the carrying of the +trophies and the silver coin; but, on the third, which was the grandest +day of all, the gold was paraded, followed by 120 bulls, which seem to +be suggestive of nothing belonging to war but its butchery. After +these came the unhappy Perseus, loaded with fetters, and having about +him some other links of a far more affecting kind, in the shape of his +three children.</p> + +<p>The fame spread by the fate of Perseus was general among the kings +of the earth, who flocked like sheep, or rather, crawled like curs, to do +homage to the Roman Senate. Perseus arrived with his head shaved, +as if to show that he owed not only his crown, but his hair and all, to +Rome; and he wore the tattered garments of a freed slave, as if to +prove that he had not a rag to his back, but what he held at the +pleasure of his masters.</p> + +<p>All who had shown any sympathy with the cause of Perseus were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +cruelly persecuted, and the unfortunate Rhodians were so terrified with +the bare anticipation of their fate, that they began to anticipate it in +reality, by making away with themselves and with one another. On +the few who remained the hardest conditions were imposed, which +made their own condition the more deplorable. Carthage and the +Achaian League were the only two powers that seemed to stand in the +way of Rome, and of these the latter was thought so contemptible, that +some Achaians who had been detained in Italy were saved by a sarcasm +of Cato on their feebleness and decrepitude. "We have only to decide," +said he, "whether these poor creatures shall be buried by their own +grave-diggers, or by ours;" a cruel pleasantry, which, however, had a +humane result, for it was decided that they should be at liberty to go +home and yield to their native undertakers the profit—or loss—attendant +on their funerals.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians had been for some years at peace with Rome, but +had been much harassed by some of her allies, and particularly by +Massinissa, their neighbour, in Numidia. It was annoying enough to +be subjected to attack, but it was still more provoking to be unable to +return the blow, which was the case with Carthage, whose hands were +tied by a bond prohibiting her from going to war without Rome's +permission. An appeal was addressed to Rome, which sent ambassadors, +who were instructed to hear the Carthaginians, but to decide in favour +of Massinissa. Carthage at length grew tired of allowing Rome to hold +the scales of justice; for, though the scales might have been true, a +false weight was always attached to one side, which gave it a vast +preponderance.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginians, therefore, took up arms against Massinissa, who, +though ninety years of age, fought with great determination; for he felt, +probably, that he was too old to fly, and that his only chance was to +make that determined stand so well adapted to a time of life when +progress is somewhat difficult. The Carthaginians were worsted, but +they were not yet quite at their worst, until Rome was seized with the +idea of destroying their city. Cato was especially bent upon this +design, or rather he pursued it with unbending obstinacy, for he +finished every speech with the words "<i>Delenda est Carthago</i>," which +may be freely rendered into "Carthage must be smashed." Whatever +might have been the commencement of his oration, he always ended +with the same words, and whether he spoke in the Senate, the market-place, +or his own house, though the premises might be different, he +always came to the same conclusion. He went about as a man with +one idea, and his conduct was almost that of a monomaniac; for, if he +met a friend in the street, and conversed on different or indifferent +subjects, he would take his farewell with the accustomed words, "<i>Valete; +delenda est Carthago</i>,"—"Good-bye; we must smash Carthage." During +a debate in the Senate he pulled some figs out of his pocket, which he +exhibited to some of his brother members as being "remarkably fine." +As the fruit was being examined, he observed, that he had "picked +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +them up in Africa;" that "they were capital;" that "there were plenty +more where those came from," and, in a word, he added, "<i>Delenda est +Carthago</i>"—"We really must smash Carthage."</p> + +<p>Rome agreed with Cato, more especially when he pointed out that the +place was exceedingly rich; for the Romans, whenever there was anything +to be got by robbery, were quite prepared for violence. The Consuls, +M. Manilius and L. Marcius Censorinus, assembled with a large force +in Sicily, where some ambassadors appeared from Carthage; but the +only result of negotiation was an order that 300 members of the best +Carthaginian families should be sent over by way of hostages. The +Romans then passed over into Utica, where the Carthaginian ambassadors +again tried to treat, but the treatment they experienced was a +demand for the instant giving up of all their arms and ammunition. +Commissioners were sent into the city to see the orders carried out, +which comprised the carrying out of 200,000 suits of armour, and 3000 +catapults.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The Carthaginians appear to have lost the use of their +heads when they so quietly resigned their arms; but when they were +told that they must, in the next place, abandon Carthage, and build +another city ten miles off, they began to feel—somewhat too late—that +it was time to defend themselves.</p> + +<p>The Carthaginian ambassadors proceeded to the usual expression of +anguish by tearing their hair out by the roots, instead of trying to pluck +up a little courage. Some, who were already bald, rolled themselves in +the dust; and only a few went, like sensible men, to communicate to +the Carthaginians the doom with which their city was threatened.</p> + +<p>The receipt of the news seems to have deprived the Carthaginians of +all their natural intelligence; for their first step was to maltreat the +envoys. An effort was then made to save the city, by shutting the +gates; and the citizens armed themselves with stones, having determined +to set their lives upon the cast of these unwarlike missiles. It +is impossible not to respect and admire the heroism displayed under the +very trying circumstances; but, unfortunately, trying was of little use, +for the chances were all against the Carthaginians. Hasdrubal, who +had been living in exile, at the head of 20,000 men—a somewhat large +party to remain in banishment—was sent for to take the command, and +occupied a post outside the city. The inhabitants, having given up all +their ordinary arms to the enemy, supplied fresh ammunition by devoting +all their gold and silver to the furnace; and it was a melting sight to +see their treasure sacrificed for this patriotic object. The women cut +off their hair, to devote it to the making of crossbows, and the sex took +a characteristic pride in furnishing as many strings to a bow as possible. +They worked so energetically, that they are said to have fabricated as +many as 500 javelins, 140 bucklers, and 300 swords each day; but this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +statement seems to involve so much of fabrication, that we find difficulty +in believing it.</p> + +<p>The resistance of Carthage was obstinate; and the confidence of +Rome led to a sort of indolence on the part of the latter, which protracted +the siege, until a new life was put into the affair, by the +appointment of young P. C. Scipio, the son of Paulus Æmilius, to the +Consulship. The Carthaginians also were urged to fresh exertion, and +a party of 300 waded through the harbour, with torches in their hands, +to burn some engines; but the water damped their efforts, which might +be compared to an attempt to set the Thames on fire; and all who were +not drowned were glad to make their way back again. The suggestion of +the use of flame was an unfortunate one for Carthage, since it seemed +to cause the breaking in of a new light upon the Romans, who had +recourse to incendiarism in their turn for the accomplishment of their +object. Having got within the walls, they ignited several houses, and, +carrying fire from street to street, they invested their cause with a glare +which is none the less hateful for having been the glare of victory.</p> + +<p>After nearly everybody had been killed, 50,000 men and women came +forth with olive branches to meet the conqueror; and 900 Roman +deserters were still stowed away in the citadel. Hasdrubal yielded; but +his wife, who was a strong-minded woman, reviled him in a speech from +the ramparts, and, parading her poor helpless children up and down for +a few minutes, she threw them before her, and ultimately flung herself +into the burning ruins. Preceding historians have expressed their +admiration of this frantic female, for the act of murder and suicide which +we have described; but we must confess our total inability to appreciate +the heroism of a piece of cruelty and cowardice, involving a large +amount of brutal daring, but wholly destitute of moral fortitude.</p> + +<p>Carthage was now utterly destroyed, and Scipio, who had been the +main instrument of its having been set on fire, is said to have shed tears +over its smouldering ashes; but we should be inclined to attribute the +fact to the smoke having got into his eyes, rather than to any feeling of +humanity. Even those who give him credit for sensibility, accuse him of +selfishness, for they say that he alluded to the possibility that the same +fate would befal his own country; and they add that, while thinking of +his home, he quoted Homer, who had foretold the doom of Troy through +the mouth of Hector.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The Romans having possession of the place, +razed to the ground every part that had escaped the flames; but they +lowered themselves even still more completely than they levelled the +city. Thus fell a place which had maintained a noble rivalry with +Rome, and which, in many respects, surpassed her proud competitor.</p> + +<p>The greatness of Carthage had been, undoubtedly, the cause of that +littleness of feeling which had been manifested towards it by Cato, who +could not bear the idea that there should exist a city rivalling in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +grandeur the place he inhabited. The walls, which were triple, were +divided into two stories, the upper for men, and the lower for brutes; +the former comprising barracks for soldiers, and the latter being fitted +up as stables for elephants.</p> + +<p>The chief glory of the place was, however, to be found in its aqueducts, +which ran in a long line of seventy miles, and of which the people had +more reason to be proud than of even a still longer line of ancestors. +That a place surrounded almost by aqueducts should have been destroyed +by fire, is an extraordinary fact, though it is possible that turncocks may +have been neglectful, and if called upon to turn the water on, they may +have turned it off in favour of some more agreeable engagement.</p> + +<p>There were not so many spoils as had been expected, for everything +was spoilt by the mischief that had been done, and though there had +been plenty of gold, the fearful amount of violent change had so +scattered the gold, that there was not so much remaining as there +otherwise would have been. With a touch of that honour which the +proverb says is to be found among thieves, Scipio called upon the +places formerly plundered by Carthage to reclaim their goods; and +the people of Agrigentum demanded a brazen Bull they had once used +as an instrument of torture, though the invention was so discreditable +to humanity, that its inventors ought to have been ashamed to ask for it +back again. Among the prizes secured by the Romans, was a very +small parcel of books, including a little work on agriculture, by Mago, +which had taught the Carthaginians to till the earth, though not how +to keep their ground, for they had lost every foot of it.</p> + +<p>Carthage became a province of Rome, under the name of Africa, and +Scipio, who subsequently styled himself Africanus, enjoyed one of those +triumphs, which were in fact disgraces to the object they were designed +to honour. Part of the "triumph" consisted in the barbarity of throwing +as food to lions the fugitives that had fallen into his hands, and +games were celebrated, in which death to the conquered was the chief +sport to the conqueror.</p> + +<p>Macedonia, which was groaning under the freedom forced upon it by +Rome, was glad to become the slave of everybody who offered to ease it +of the obnoxious burden. The Macedonians, therefore, became the +dupes of three impostors in succession, who, with all their imposition, +were less objectionable than the hardships imposed by Rome in her +character of liberator to the world in general. The impostors—one of +whom was a runaway gladiator—were in turn subdued, and Macedonia +was swallowed up by Rome's insatiable appetite for conquest.</p> + +<p>Of the three pretenders just alluded to, the only one who had been +able to maintain his ground—though, by the way, the ground was +never his to maintain—was a young man, who declared himself to be +Philip, the son of Perseus. The youth was certainly very like his +alleged father; and, upon the strength of the resemblance in features, +he put upon his claim such a bold face, that the Macedonians favoured +it. They put their crown upon his head, and the kingly name seemed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +to have invested the young adventurer with a tower of strength; for he +was successful in an attack upon the Romans, under the consul +Juventius. The impostor, however, soon lost control over himself, +and there was at once an end to his influence over his new subjects. +They threw him off, and he was compelled to take refuge in a Court +inhabited by one Bysas, a petty Thracian prince, who gave up, or, more +probably, sold, the fugitive, who had sought his hospitality. The pretender, +who had led away so many others, was eventually led away +himself, and made to march as a "frightful example" in the triumph +of Metellus.</p> + +<p>About this time the Achaians, who had entered into a league, began +to quarrel among themselves; for Sparta, like a spoiled child, wanted +to have its own way, and sulked, as it were, alone in a corner, apart +from the rest of the confederacy. Rome was appealed to for advice, +and Roman ambassadors came to Corinth; but they were so unpopular, +that on a visit to the theatre, where they had gone, expecting fair play, +they were insulted and pelted by the audience. This irritated the +Romans, and an army was sent, under Mummius, to encounter the +Greek general Diæus, who made so certain of victory, that he had +seats erected for the women and children to see him win a battle. He +had prepared everything in the neighbourhood of Corinth, and appropriating +the privilege of the brave who are said to deserve the fair, he +clustered a large bevy of female beauty round the spot of his intended +achievement. The ladies were all expectation, and Diæus was all +confidence, until Mummius made his appearance, and in a very few +minutes sent Diæus flying towards Megalopolis. Here he entered his +own abode, and setting fire to the premises, celebrated, with the most +dismal of house-warmings, the defeat that took the place of his intended +victory.</p> + +<p>Mummius, thinking it idle to pursue the fugitive, preferred following +up his advantage, and arrived at the gates of Corinth, which had been +left wide open by the citizens. The place was deserted; and Mummius +not only sacked its palaces, but ransacked its private houses, and, +looking into its magazines, extracted from them some very valuable +articles. So little, however, did he understand or appreciate art, that +when sending valuable pictures or pieces of sculpture to Rome, he told +the sailors, that if any damage was done on the voyage, he would make +them execute objects precisely similar to those with which he entrusted +them. Among the pictures was the celebrated "Bacchus" of Aristides,—which +was so perfect as to be looked upon as one of the wonders of +the world—and, when consigning it as part of a cargo of curiosities, he +declared that, if any injury was done to it, the ship's painter should +immediately paint another. Such was the barbarism of the destroyers +of Corinth, that this picture was only rescued by Polybius from the +hands of the soldiers, who were gambling on its face, and who, with +every throw of the die, took off a portion of its colour.</p> + +<p>The scenes enacted during the pillage of Corinth were barbarous in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +the extreme, and involved the total destruction of what may have been +termed one of the chief pillars of civilisation—or, at all events, its +Corinthian capital. Many of the Roman soldiers, intoxicated with +success and something more, perished in the flames, to which the city +was doomed by the barbarous order of Mummius. When the conflagration +first commenced, it is said that a liquid metal was seen to flow through +the streets, which induced the invaders to rush forward in the hope +of profiting by such a strange metallic currency. Those, however, +who laid their hands upon the tempting issue, as it ran from the banks +on either side of the thoroughfare, found it a mass of floating fire, with +which they terribly burned their fingers. On cooler examination the +material proved to be a fusion of beautiful ores, to which the name of +Corinthian brass has since <a name="been_given" id="been_given"></a>been given.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 347px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0223.png" width="347" height="500" alt="Bacchanalian Group, from a very old Vase." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Bacchanalian Group, from a very old Vase.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Greece was now at the feet of Rome, which trampled not only on her +fallen foe, but upon all the obligations of honour and morality. The +population and wealth of Corinth were disposed of—the former by +murder, and the latter by robbery. Greece was formed into a Roman +province under the title of Achaia, and Mummius, glorying in, rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +than being ashamed of, his share of the work, took the surname of +Achaicus. We may instance as a redeeming feature of the period, the +erection at Rome of a clock, which was in some degree at variance with +the time; for the useful arts were neglected amid the pursuits of war +and rapine. The clock consisted of a bottle with a narrow neck, filled +with water, divided into twelve measures, to mark the hours; but it +was only a minute observer that could ascertain the minutes. The only +mode of telling the time at Rome, had been previously by means of +the sun-dial, which was, of course, useless in the absence of sun, and +those who were particular to a shade, could derive from it no assistance +in their evening arrangements.</p> + +<p>We dwell with some satisfaction on the introduction of the apparatus +we have described; for the mere manifestation of a desire to note the +progress of time is indicative of a wish to make an improved use of it. +The application of the bottle to a wholesome purpose must also be a +cheering symptom, when it is met with among those who had previously +looked at the bottle as the means of killing time, rather than as an +instrument for making its flight perceptible.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> A catapult was an instrument for throwing arrows to a considerable distance. The +arrows were called <i>Tormenta</i>, not from the torment they inflicted, but from <i>torqueo</i>, to +twist, because they were made of twisted hair, and perhaps the sight of them was +calculated to give a turn to the enemy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> +</p> +<p> +"The day shall come when Ilium's self shall fall,<br /> +With Priam and his strong-spear'd people all."—<i>Iliad</i>, vi. 446.<br /> +</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-SECOND.</h2> + +<h3>WARS IN SPAIN. VIRIATHUS. DESTRUCTION OF NUMANTIA. THE SERVILE<br /> +WAR IN SICILY. APPROPRIATION OF PERGAMUS.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">War</span> had become so familiar to the Romans, that they never felt at +home unless they were fighting abroad, and the sword was the only +thing they took in hand with real earnestness. The intoxication of +success, like other habits of intoxication, cannot be easily got rid of, and +the Romans sought to indulge their thirst for conquest in a manner +wholly at variance with sober judgment. Their design was to conquer +Spain, and in the execution of this design they cruelly executed large +numbers of the Lusitanians, who had laid down their arms, in consequence +of a promise that if they quitted the field of battle, they +should be allowed quiet possession of the fields of peaceful industry. +On this assurance, they divided themselves into three parts, and were +then—as we are gravely assured by the chroniclers—treacherously cut +into several thousand pieces. One of the few that escaped was +Viriathus, who combined the qualities of the wolf and the lamb, for +he had turned a desperate robber, after having been employed as a +gentle shepherd. Abandoning the honest hook of a pastoral life, he had +adopted the more crooked ways of the common thief; and he seems +to have gradually stolen upon the confidence of his countrymen, until +they made him a general. He had passed his early days among the +mountains, and was prepared for the ups and downs of life, which he +afterwards experienced. His predatory properties had taught him how +to attack, and his practice as a robber—which rendered it necessary for +him frequently to keep out of the way—had familiarised him with the +art of avoiding an enemy. He would appear suddenly from the thick of +a thicket, and after doing considerable mischief, he would find concealment +in the hollow of some rock which his companions would never +split upon. Though he had commenced his career as a poor country +clown, he had trained himself to perform feats of activity worthy of the +most experienced Harlequin. Life, which is a drama in the case of +most men, was, in his case, a series of scenes in a pantomime. He was +here, there, and everywhere, when he was not expected, and he was +immediately nowhere when his opponents were in pursuit of him. His +policy was first to scatter, and then to destroy; to divide an enemy <i>en gros</i>, +and cut it to pieces <i>en detail</i>. He had encountered Vitellius, the Roman +Prætor, near a place called Tribula, where the latter got into the utmost +tribulation by being led through briers and bushes into an ambush, +where he lost half his army. The other half lost him, for he was +killed by the sword of some one who did not know him, though, had he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +been known, the acquaintance would, most probably, have been cut in +the same barbarous manner.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0226.png" width="412" height="500" alt="Assassination of Viriathus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Assassination of Viriathus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Viriathus for some time baffled the enemy by cunning and address, +or rather by having no address at all, for he had no fixed residence; +and there was, consequently, much difficulty in finding him. At length +he fought a battle, in which he was so far successful that a peace was +concluded, in which he was acknowledged as the friend and ally of +Rome; but having no one to save him from his friends, he was basely +murdered in his sleep by some Lusitanian assassins that the Roman +general had hired. The instigators of this barbarous act refused to pay +when the sanguinary work was done; and the murderers, in making a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +demand on account of their crime, may be said to have, figuratively, cut +their own throats, for they were threatened with punishment for the +iniquity they confessed themselves guilty of. After the death of +Viriathus, the Lusitanians having lost their head, were without the +brains necessary to defend themselves, and fell an easy prey into the +hands of Q. Pompeius. This individual was the son of a musician; but +instead of following his father's profession, he had become the leader of +a warlike band, and he found the soldiers willing instruments to play +into his hands, or act in concert with him, for the gratification of his +personal ambition. He attacked Numantia, though with so little success, +that he was compelled to conclude a peace; but treacherously declaring +that the conclusion of a peace meant the beginning of a war, he renewed +hostilities at the first convenient opportunity. Subsequently, C. Hostilius +Mancinus commenced an attack, but 10,000 of his men having been +killed, and 20,000 more being blocked up in a ravine, he could not +exactly see his way out of it without a surrender. The Numantines +refused to treat with him, until young Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, +whom they trusted, came forward to pledge his honour that Numantia +should be fairly treated. The Senate, however, repudiated the arrangement, +and the honour of young Tib. remains among the enormous stock +of unredeemed pledges which history has handed down to us.</p> + +<p>The Romans began to feel that none but the best man was likely to +win, and they accordingly looked out for the best man, whom they found +in Scipio Africanus, the destroyer of Carthage. He was sent against +Numantia, which he surrounded by fortifications, in order that he might +starve out the inhabitants by keeping them in, and he did his utmost to +restore the discipline of the Roman army. He hardened the soldiers by +making them carry loads of wood, a novel plan of providing them with a +billet; he forced them to sleep on the ground, which they complained +of as hard; and he allowed them no other cooking utensils than a +saucepan, which caused the indignation of many to boil over.</p> + +<p>Numantia stood upon a lofty rock, and its inhabitants displayed a +courage worthy of its high position. The river Durius (now the Douro) +washed its feet; there were forests on either hand; while the mounds +and ditches abounding in the vale before it, rendered any attempt to +approach it in the front almost unavailable. Scipio Africanus soon +perceived the hopelessness of succeeding by a direct attack, and he proceeded, +therefore, to raise round the place a double stockade, to prevent +any aid in the form of a stock of provisions being carried into it. He +impeded the navigation of the river by throwing across it large beams, +perforated with swords, which, revolving with the tide, cut off all communication +by means of water.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding all the precautions that had been taken, a party of +about half-a-dozen young men, having slipped through the lines—and +very hard lines they were—succeeded in reaching the town of Lutia. +The head of the party, holding an olive-branch, begged for assistance +with such effect, that the Lutians offered to lend him a hand in his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +terrible emergency. Scipio, who had been in pursuit, no sooner heard +of the Lutians having offered to lend a hand, than he savagely declared +that they should have no hands to spare, and he barbarously ordered the +cutting off of the hands of four hundred citizens.</p> + +<p>The Numantines being completely hemmed in, were unable to obtain +provisions; but though reduced at last to eat cats, they became only the +more dogged in their resistance to the enemy. Eventually, they begged +for a truce of three days, which they employed in destroying their wives +and children—a species of heroism not easily understood; for to kill +those who are dear, by way of protecting them, is a mode of insurance of +which we must dispute the policy. The men were so sadly dispirited, +and so fearfully cut up by their own or each other's swords, that the +conquerors had only a remnant to take, in the shape of population, when +they entered the city.</p> + +<p>In conformity with the custom of the period, Scipio Africanus Minor, +whose atrocities, in connexion with the siege of Numantia, have branded +his name for ever with disgrace, proceeded to make arrangements for a +triumph. Instead of feeling a decent shame, he manifested a most +unbecoming pride in what he had done; and to identify himself more +completely with the horrors of the siege, he took the name of Numantinus. +So thoroughly had starvation done its work, that of the few +citizens who were found alive, only fifty were in sufficiently good condition +to appear in the show got up in celebration of his dishonourable +victory.</p> + +<p>While Rome was thus extending her arms, she may be said to have +been painfully on the stretch; and Scipio, during his consulship, seeing +the republic was likely to outgrow its strength, caused prayers to be +said for its safety. Rome was certainly in danger, though from a +different cause than that which had been apprehended; for the free +population had been greatly reduced by war, and the captives, or slaves +to circumstances, had been vastly multiplied. The office of the latter +was to tend flocks; and they were so thoroughly regarded as a portion +of the stock, that they were treated like brutes by their masters.</p> + +<p>The system of slavery which existed at Rome, had so much influence +upon her fate, and is calculated to afford such an insight into her morals, +that the fetters she placed upon others may be regarded as so many +links in her history. We will, therefore, break for a moment the chain +of narrative, and proceed to a brief consideration of the Roman system +of slavery and chains, to which we cannot hope that the attention of the +reader can remain long riveted.</p> + +<p>According to the strict letter of the Roman law, a master could treat, +or maltreat, his slave in any way he pleased, either by death, sale, or +punishment. Though the slave could hold no property, he had the +power of taking anything he could get, but simply as a medium for conveying +it to his master. So thoroughly were the slaves looked upon as +articles of traffic, that they were liable to be pledged or put into pawn—a +position in which they were the subjects of a melancholy sort of interest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +The demand for slave labour in Rome was caused by the annual +consumption of the free population in war, at whose bidding many who +should have remained to cultivate the land, were sent forth to plough +the ocean. The result was a redundancy of slave population, accustomed +to agricultural labour of every kind, and which, having been already +brought under the yoke, had become sufficiently brutalised to do the +work of oxen. The chief supply of slaves was drawn from the prisoners +taken in war, and an army was generally attended by dealers, who, in +case of a glut, could frequently buy a lot cheap; and at the camp of +Lucullus they were being picked up for about three shillings and three-pence +of our money—or four drachmas. In Rome it was usual to sell +slaves by auction, and, as if the poor wretches were not already low +enough, they were knocked down by the hammer. The dealers were in +the habit of practising the same sort of tricks to conceal the defects of a +slave, as are, in these days, employed to hide the faults of a horse, and +it was customary therefore, in purchasing, to require a warranty. The +character was often suspended on a scroll round the neck, and their +chief recommendation consisted in a guarantee that they would neither +commit suicide, nor steal—having no tendency to make away with +either themselves or their master's property. There was a considerable +variation in the value of slaves, and fancy prices have been +known to be given for some curious specimens of captive humanity. +A fool has been known to fetch 20,000 sesterces—about one hundred +and seventy pounds—a sum that would seem to show that folly was +scarce; but when we remember how wise a man is required to make a +fool, we may take it for granted that the wisdom comprised in the +subject of the bargain was the rare and costly part of it. Literary men +were often exposed for sale like cattle when they happened to be slaves, +and the useful hack, or occasionally the literary lion, might be seen +chained to a pen in the public market-place. Slaves had no distinctive +dress; and when it was once proposed to give them one, the measure +was rejected, on the ground that it might show them their numerical +strength, and that if they once saw their power by obtaining their livery, +they might attempt to take up their freedom. It was deemed better to +keep them in the dark, by clothing them in sombre colours, and their +numbers not being manifested to them by any peculiar dress, it was +not likely they would unite in order to redress their grievances.</p> + +<p>There is, however, something elastic in human nature, which causes it to +rise after being trodden on. Such was the case with the slaves, who began +to swell with indignation, which was rendered particularly tumid by the +inflated and inflating eloquence of one Eunus, a Syrian, who was a +member of their own body. This individual possessed the art of +oratory in a high degree, and there is nothing more stimulating to the +breeze of discontent than the breath of an enthusiastic demagogue. +He persuaded the slaves to revolt, and while preaching to them the +doctrine of equality, he claimed to be not only their leader, but their +prince and ruler—a species of practice which is not uncommon with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +propounders of the most levelling theories. Pretending to possess the +gift of prophecy, he predicted that he would be a king one day; and +the rich, putting a mimic crown on his head for a few hours, jeeringly +told him that he had been a king one day—or at least half a day, and +that his prediction had been therefore verified. The slaves, however, +put faith in him, and shouldering their spades, axes, poles, and hatchets, +made themselves, as well as their implements, the tools of Eunus. No +less than 70,000 slaves acknowledged as their head the man who taught +them that they ought to have no head at all, and he urged them to a +merciless massacre of their vanquished foes, while inculcating the +doctrines of humanity. Rage without restraint, and revenge without +reason, were, however, of no permanent avail, and the slaves under +Eunus were soon routed by the disciplined forces of the Consul, Rupilius. +He besieged Tauromenium; and the slaves, by being completely shut +in, were altogether shut out from the chance of obtaining provisions. +Their condition from day to day was so desperate and monotonous, that, +with nothing to eat, they furnish but sorry food to the historian. +Having swallowed their last morsel, the inhabitants could not satisfy +their hunger by bolting the gates, and Rupilius was admitted within the +city. Eunus escaped into a cutting in the rocks; but when he relied +on the friendly shelter of the cave, he found it a hollow mockery. His +retreat was discovered, and he was taken into custody with his cook, his +confectioner, his butler, and his buffoon, who, with the exception of the +last, must have held sinecures in their master's limited establishment. +The buffoon must have been worked the hardest of the party, for the +pursuit of mirth under difficulties is one of the most melancholy tasks +that can be imposed on the professed humorist. Eunus himself was +transferred from his subterranean cellar to an underground cell, where +it is said he was devoured by rats; but happily this horrid tale receives +no authentic ratification at the hands of history.</p> + +<p>The Servile War had not yet ceased, when Attalus, the King of +Pergamus, died, and left no sign; for there was no succeeding king's +head for the crown of Pergamus to rest upon. It was fortunate, +perhaps, that Attalus left no heir; for had there been any inheritor of +his qualities as well as his title, the perpetuation of a nuisance would +have been the deplorable consequence. The man was so thoroughly +wicked that it is charity to pronounce him mad, and we accordingly +set him down as a lunatic, though we feel scarcely justified in acquitting +him of his many crimes on the single ground of insanity. He is said +to have been so much addicted to the practice of poisoning his relations, +that he found it cheaper to grow his own plants; and he cultivated the +hemlock, or the night-shade, as others grew their own faba or cicer, their +beans and chickweed. Death lurked at the root of everything his +garden contained, and it is probable that he sent many a present of +putative mushrooms to his unsuspecting kindred. So odious had he +become, that it is said he would have been murdered, if he had not died +a little too soon for the arrangements of the assassins to be completed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +Having been in the habit of expressing his will very briefly in his +lifetime, it is not surprising that he should have left at his death a +will, so short, that it purported to say in four letters all he desired. +His last testament was comprised in the characters P. R. H. E.; +and all his property was supposed to be represented in this small +collection of capitals. The Romans affecting to be initiated in the +meaning of these initials, declared them to signify, <i>Populus Romanus +hæres est</i>, Let the Roman people be the heirs of my property. Regarding +these letters as letters of administration, the Romans possessed +themselves of all the effects of Attalus; but the will was disputed by +the next of kin, one Aristonicus, a natural brother, whose claim to +succeed, as a member of the testator's line, was stifled by a rope, with +which the unfortunate claimant was cruelly <a name="strangled" id="strangled"></a>strangled.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0231.png" width="451" height="500" alt="Arrest of Eunus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Arrest of Eunus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +Pergamus became a Roman province under the name of Asia +Proper—a species of appropriation which there was nothing to justify.</p> + +<p>Rome was now in the position of a man who had outgrown his +strength, or rather of an adult still wearing the clothes of its infancy. +Its measures had been adapted to a social body which had since spread +itself in all directions, while the constitution, with which it was +clothed, had not been extended to the new growth; and the extreme +points of the Republic were therefore reduced to all sorts of extremities. +The people at large had become so miserably poor, that they were +easily bribed to become the tools of their own further abasement; and +they were not only ready to sell themselves for a mere nothing, but to +lend themselves to almost anything.</p> + +<p>The tribuneship, which had been originally a purely popular institution, +had changed, or rather lost, its character. Instead of being +stationed outside the entrance of the Senate House, to prevent the door +from being opened to abuse, the Tribunes were, by a law of C. Atinius, +constituted <i>ex-officio</i> members of that aristocratic body. The design of +the tribuneship was to insure to the people a certain number of friends +invested with high authority; but the people were eventually anxious +to be saved from their friends—a result that is by no means rare in +ancient or modern history. As the bitterest vinegar can be made from +the most generous wine, the sharpest of despots is often created out of +the blandest of demagogues.</p> + +<p>So great had the power of the Tribunes become, and so much had it +been abused, that even the Senate grew jealous of it; and a law was +enacted to bring the tribuneship under the operation of signs and +omens. These were interpreted by the Augurs, who of course had the +power of reading in the lightning, and hearing in the reports of the +thunder, whatever it suited their purpose to circulate.</p> + +<p>Aristocracy had lost its exclusive privileges; but these had only +become more objectionable by being spread over a larger surface; for +they were now extended to a certain portion of the plebeians, who went +by the name of <i>novi homines</i>, or upstarts. These were distinguished +from the Nobiles, or, to speak shortly, the nobs, who enjoyed the right +of having the images of their ancestors in wax; but this <i>jus imaginum</i>, +as it was termed, conferred only an imaginary dignity. There was no +legal privilege attached to the sort of nobility above described; but +those persons who were qualified by the possession of the waxen forms +of their fathers, were looked upon as men making in society a highly +respectable figure.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the liberty which is declared by republicans to be +inseparable from the Republican form of Government, laws were passed +to restrain the liberty of private action in the days of the Roman +Commonwealth. By the Orchian law, made in the year of the city +572 (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 181), the number of guests that might sit down to dinner +was limited: and as a further illustration of republican freedom, it may +be mentioned that the entertainer was obliged to keep open his doors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>, +so that all who were freely-and-easily inclined might enter his house to +see that the law was complied with. Twenty years later, it was +decreed by the law of Fannius, that no entertainment should cost more +than one hundred asses, or six shillings and five-pence farthing, on high +days and holidays; on ten other days in the month, the meal was not +to exceed thirty asses, or one and eleven-pence farthing; but on ordinary +occasions seven-pence farthing was the figure to which even the richest +man was to limit the cost of his dinner. The law not only interfered +with the bill of expenses, but with the bill of fare; and, under the +Consulship of M. Scaurus, the dormouse was excluded from the dinner-table +as an enervating luxury. Vegetables were allowed to any extent, +and bread might be eaten at—or even beyond—discretion.</p> + +<p>To such a ridiculous extent did the Romans carry their interference +with the private expenditure of each other, that when Crassus and Cn. +Demetrius were Censors, they endeavoured in the most absurd manner +to damage each other's popularity. Demetrius publicly charged +Crassus with having been guilty of extravagance for going into mourning +on the death of a favourite fish; and Crassus retorted by declaring that +Demetrius had lost three wives without exhibiting signs of mourning +for any one of them.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> +<br /></p> +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTE: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Macrobius, Saturnal., lib. ii., c. 1.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-THIRD</h2> + +<h3>THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. RISE AND FALL OF TIBERIUS<br /> +AND CAIUS GRACCHUS.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">A people</span> trained to live chiefly on spoils taken from others must be +continually spoiling itself for any peaceful occupation; and those whose +chief support is the sword, must be always destroying the food they live +upon. When foreign means are exhausted, it becomes necessary to +look at home, and those who have existed by robbing strangers, are no +sooner deprived of their external sources of support, than they begin to +rob each other. Such was the order—or rather the disorder—of things +in Rome, where wealth had got into the hands of the few, and the social +fabric, like a building too heavy at the top, was in immediate danger of +a downfall. There were large classes of persons who were assured that +they were perfectly free; but, though enjoying the freedom of air itself, +they found in it no element of comfort, when they had nothing more +substantial than the air to live upon. Deprived of every inch of land, there +was but a flatulent sort of satisfaction in the enjoyment of the atmosphere, +nor could the most long-winded of orators impress the people with +the idea that life could be maintained by simply imbibing the breath of +liberty. They were informed that they were the lords of the earth;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> +but this mockery of respect was simply insulting the emptiness of their +mouths by a scarcely less empty title. The plebeians were like a +number of ciphers without a preliminary figure, and, though possessing +all the materials of strength in their vast body, were powerless until a +head could be found for them. This at length appeared in the person +of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the grandson of the elder Scipio, and as +two heads are said to be better than one, Tib. united his brother Caius +with him in the office of leader to the great plebeian movement.</p> + +<p>The elder Gracchus had been tutored by his mother Cornelia—one +of the earliest members of the ancient and honourable order of blue-stockings. +She had superintended the education of her children, and +had personally tutored them in eloquence; an art of which the female +tongue is peculiarly capable. Her own house was the resort of some of +the first philosophers of the day, who, like many modern philosophers, +were thoroughly impressed with the idea that the way to penetrate the +youthful mind, is to continue for ever boring it. In this manner the +understandings of the young Gracchi had been thoroughly drilled, and +the treasures of science had been admitted at so many apertures, that +the only fear was lest the treasures, through some of the numerous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +openings by which they had got into the mind, might find their way +out <a name="again" id="again"></a>again.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 549px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0234b.png" width="549" height="362" alt="The Mother of the Gracchi." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Mother of the Gracchi.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Tib. had already won some reputation in Spain, and was returning +home, when he saw the Etrurian estates of the wealthy being cultivated +by foreign slaves in chains, whose bonds not only bore the seal of +degradation for themselves, but were the means of fettering native +industry. These slaves were housed and huddled together in places +called Ergastula, which were literally workhouses, but practically, +prisons. They are said to have been built under-ground in the shape +of vaults; but, in giving this account of their construction, there has +perhaps been some misconstruction on the part of Columella, who is the +chief authority for the statement.</p> + +<p>We must now return to Tib. Gracchus, who had, by this time, +returned to Rome, and had formed the noble resolution of remedying +abuses, though he knew that loud abuse of himself would be the +inevitable consequence. He had seen that the aristocracy had got +possession of nearly all the land, allowing the plebeians to have no share +in it, except the ploughshare, and even this was often denied them by +the employment of slaves instead of the free agricultural labourer. +Tib. was learned in the law, and recollected the existence in the books +of the old statute of Licinius, which had fallen into disuse, and the +renewal of which he thought might put new life into the plebeian body. +By this law, no one was allowed to occupy more than 500 jugera—about +330 English acres—of the land of the state; but the state of the +land exhibited a very different distribution of the public property.</p> + +<p>The poorer occupants of the soil had been compelled by their necessities +to sell to the richer, and Tiberius made the popular but scarcely +honest proposal, that those who had bought should give back to those +who had sold—a suggestion which was hailed by the masses as the +happy inspiration of a patriot. The idea was simple enough, and if +simplicity is an element of grandeur, the notion was so far a great one; +though, as it is based on the principle, that when a man has sold +everything he possesses, the purchaser or the possessor should hand +the property back to the original vendor, the project is not well +adapted to business purposes. The suggestion was, however, one which +enabled a patriot to go to the country with a "cry," and though the end +proposed was laudable enough, the means, which involved an interference +with the means of the wealthy, could not command the general +approval. It is true that much of the property had been unfairly +obtained, and that much more was held in illegal quantities; but some +had been the subject of regular sale, and the general confiscation +proposed was but a Procrustean measure of justice.</p> + +<p>The plan was of course opposed, and the term of "selfish aristocrat" +was liberally, or illiberally—for they are unfortunately too much alike, +sometimes, in their political sense—bestowed on every one who did his +utmost to protect what the law had allowed him to regard for years as +his own property. Common sense, however, began so far to prevail over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +clamour, that the proposal of Tib. Gracchus was modified to some +extent, and the distribution of the surplus land was confided to a +permanent commission of three men, who were called the Triumviri. In +order to give something like consistency to the measure, it provided, +that the land which had been taken away from its old possessors should +not be sold by the new; and thus a sort of uniformity was observed +by robbing the former, and restricting the latter; so that the principle +of not being able to do what one likes with one's own, was affirmed in +each instance. The injustice of the whole proceeding was so palpable, +notwithstanding the "popularity" of the scheme, that a compensation +clause was introduced to indemnify those who had built houses at their +own expense upon the ground; but nothing was awarded to those who +had only built upon it their hopes of being allowed to continue in quiet +possession of the property.</p> + +<p>Party feeling ran, of course, exceedingly high, or, in other words, its +proceedings were extremely low on both sides. Tib. Gracchus was +lauded by the people as the essence of everything noble, and denounced +by the patricians as the incarnation of everything contemptible. On +one side he was hailed as a patriot, and on the other side he was hooted +as a fraudulent demagogue; so that if everything that went in at one ear +went out at the other, his head must have been a thoroughfare for every +kind of vehicle of abuse and flattery. The Senate took the meanest +means of revenge, and reduced his official salary to one denarius and a +half, or about a shilling a day in English money. Tiberius, thus +curtailed of the means on which he lived, declared there was a conspiracy +against his life, and rather prematurely went into mourning for +himself, to excite the public sympathy. Putting his children into +black, he took them with him from house to house, requesting that they +might be taken in as orphans; but the public refused to be taken in by +a trick so obvious. False accusations were, however, brought against +him; and a next-door neighbour stood up in the Senate, declaring that +he had that morning observed a diadem and a scarlet robe delivered at +the back door, which proved that Tiberius intended to usurp the regal +authority. In order to obtain the weight of an official position for his +reforms, Tiberius got himself elected tribune of the people, and the apparently +inevitable effects of taking office were at once shown in his introduction +of a modified edition of the measure he had previously clamoured for.</p> + +<p>The aristocratic party set every engine and every old pump at work +to throw cold water on his project, and they at length persuaded one of +his colleagues, named Octavius, who was played upon as easily as an +octave flute, to take part against him. The mode of opposition resorted +to by Gracchus was rather more effective than constitutional, for he +called upon the people to dismiss his colleague—an arrangement almost +as equitable as it would be for one judge to insist upon the dismissal of +another, who might refuse to announce himself submissively as "of the +same opinion" with his learned brother. When, however, the people +are once fairly off, in a certain or uncertain course, they seldom think +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +how unfairly their precipitancy may operate. They had set their hearts +on a particular measure, and they refused to be guided by their heads; +but without deliberation, drove away every obstacle that impeded the +accomplishment of their wishes. As Octavius still held his position, +Gracchus gave notice that he had a resolution to propose, and, on the +following day, he moved the removal of his colleague. Octavius, +however, met the proposed resolution by a remarkable display of +resolution on his own part, and he declared that he should stick to +his office, notwithstanding the other's unfriendly offices. These means +having failed, Tiberius made a personal appeal to his colleague, and +pointed out to him the gracefulness of a voluntary resignation; but +Octavius, who rated himself very highly, objected altogether to +the voluntary principle. Tiberius next attempted to starve his colleague +out by sealing up the treasury; but the sealing made no impression +on Octavius, who retained his official seat until it was drawn +from under him by the mob, and he fell to the ground, between the +two stools of himself and his unscrupulous colleague. A client or +creature of the Gracchi was elected in the place of the deposed Tribune, +who had been got rid of by upsetting one of the most important forms +of the constitution—that form being no other than the bench occupied +by one of the highest officers of the government. Octavius was hurried +out among the mob, who thrust him about in every direction; but, +when it came to the push, Tiberius Gracchus endeavoured to pull him +through his difficulties. The effort was almost vain; and Octavius owed +his life to a faithful slave, who lost an eye in seeing his master through +the dangers that surrounded him. After this manifestation of the popular +opinion, no Tribune ventured to have an opinion of his own—or, if he had, +he kept it to himself, with a prudent regard to his personal safety.</p> + +<p>The new bill for distributing the soil became at once the law of the +land, and the two Gracchi—Tib. and Caius—with Appius Claudius, +the father-in-law of the former, became a permanent triumvirate. This +desire of the temporary holders of power to change their tenancy at will +to a life estate, has been in all ages conspicuous. The stability of +authority is so desirable, that a fixed executive seems to be everywhere +a natural want; but the mushroom might as well seek to substitute +itself for the oak, whose roots have struck deep into the soil, as the +mere chief of a revolution might hope, without any hold on the affections +of a nation, to become the founder of a dynasty.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0238.png" width="408" height="500" alt="Tib. Gracchus canvassing." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Tib. Gracchus canvassing.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Tib. Gracchus, in the true spirit of a patriot by profession, proposed +limiting every power but his own, which he sought to render as extensive +as possible. When his term of office had legally expired, he +declared that the safety of the republic required his re-election, and he +accordingly forced himself on the attention of the electors as the only +desirable candidate. On the day previous to the election, he spent all the +afternoon in the mourning he had already bought, and leading his children +by the hand, he exhibited himself and them as the "un-happy family," +in the public thoroughfares. The election had already commenced, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +following day, when the Conservative party objected to it on the ground +of illegality. The proceedings were already opened, when Tib. Gracchus +set out on a canvass, expecting that his canvass would enable him to +reach the desired point with a wet sail and flying colours. Not content +with going alone to solicit the electors, he took one of his own boys in +his hand, and he got all the mothers on his side, by introducing what +may be termed child's play into his electioneering movements. In the +afternoon, the candidate doubted whether he would go personally to the +poll, when his friends—some of them from whom he would have been +glad to have been saved—assured him that he had better go, for there +was no danger. Taking their advice, he had got as far as the area in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +front of the Capitol, when he was seized with the irresolution of an area-sneak, +and hanging about the spot, he refused to go further. A debate +was in progress among the senators, when one of them, P. Scipio Nasica, +called upon the house to come to the door, and save the republic by +sacrificing Tiberius. The whole assembly rushed upon its legs and its +crutches; some of the members seized hold of sticks, others snatched +up their clubs, and declared that the vengeance of the clubs should fall +on Tiberius. In this spirit they sallied forth, and looking for Gracchus, +they soon knocked dissension on the head, by one of those blows which +disposed of any pretensions he might have had to a crown when they +first encountered him. His brother, Caius Gracchus, fell politically with +his relative; but without resigning his office, he abandoned his post, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +and he withdrew to a little place he had in the country, though neglecting +to give up his place in the <a name="triumvirate" id="triumvirate"></a>triumvirate.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0239.png" width="366" height="500" alt="Melancholy End of Tib. Gracchus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Melancholy End of Tib. Gracchus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Scipio Æmilianus was on his return from Spain to Rome when he +heard of the death of his brother-in-law; and, quoting a line from +Homer, to the effect that</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left:6em"> +"All thus perish who such deeds perform,"</span> +</p> + +<p>he declared that his relative Tib. had met with such a fate as his antecedents +warranted. Scipio at once assumed the leadership of the +Conservatives, or rather of the destructives; for their Conservatism +consisted merely in a desire to keep all they had unfairly got, while +their policy tended to break all the bonds of mutual interest and goodwill, +which can alone permanently bind <a name="society" id="society"></a>society.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0240.png" width="446" height="450" alt="Scipio Æmilianus cramming himself for a Speech after a hearty Supper." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Scipio Æmilianus cramming himself for a Speech after a hearty Supper.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The plebeian party became quite as unreasonable on one side of the +question, as the patricians had been on the other; and C. Papirius +Carbo, a demagogue, who had got the place of tribune, proposed that +the people should have the right of re-electing the same person to the +tribuneship over and over again,—a suggestion designed to render his +own position permanent. Scipio Æmilianus opposed the measure to +the utmost; and after going home one night, he had no sooner finished +his supper, than he began to cram himself for a speech, with which he +contemplated coming out on the day following. He was, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +found dead in his bed; and, though probability points to apoplexy as +the cause, the historians have—without much, indeed, of evidence—returned +a verdict of Wilful Murder against C. P. Carbo. We have +no hesitation in acquitting him of this dreadful crime; but we cannot +say that we shall be able to allow him to quit these pages without a +stain on his character. It is to be regretted that the Senate had not +the courage to institute an inquiry at the time when the occurrence +took place, and when only the real facts could have been ascertained; +for such a course would have saved considerable trouble to those +chroniclers who are always ready to frame an entirely new set of +circumstances of their own, to replace those which contemporaneous +investigation has omitted to supply us with.</p> + +<p>Caius Sempronius Gracchus was getting daily more tired of his +thoroughly retired life; and, being an excellent spokesman, he began to +flatter himself that the commonweal might profit by his services. He +is said to have been urged on by his brother's ghost; but there is +reason to believe that he was impelled by a more commendable spirit. +This fraternal shade is stated to have appeared to him in his dreams; +but the matters he now began to take in hand were not those which he +could afford to go to sleep over.</p> + +<p>In republics, where he who is the humble servant of the people +to-day, may be, to-morrow, the people's master, talent is looked upon +with jealousy by the governing power, which, while ostensibly employing +an able instrument, may be, in fact, promoting a dangerous rival. +Thus, when the head of a nation is removable, it is reluctant to employ +the best men, lest they prove better than the head itself, and aspire to +the very highest position.</p> + +<p>Where the form of government is monarchical, it is to the interest of +the ruler to avail himself of the ablest assistance he can obtain; for, +being himself irremovable, he becomes the fixed centre towards which +the glories and successes of his ministers and servants continually +gravitate.</p> + +<p>It was on the principle of getting rid of a dangerous rival, that the +republican government had sent away Caius Gracchus from Rome,—where +he might have been everything—to Sardinia, where he would +almost inevitably sink to nothing. He was himself apprehensive of +this result, and he consequently returned to Rome, leaving Sardinia +without the leave of any one. His duty should have kept him abroad, +but ambition urged him home; and, in a republic, there is little to +insure the fidelity of one who, though the servant of the Government +to-day, may be its master to-morrow. Leaving the interests of his +country in Sardinia to take care of themselves, this professed patriot +came to look after his own interests in Rome, and took his talents +into the political market. He immediately stood for the tribuneship; +and though he had abandoned one post—that of Quæstor in +Sardinia—he was elected to the more important post, which might, +indeed, be termed the chief pillar of popular liberty. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +Though he had, of course, solicited and obtained his high office on +purely public grounds, he at once endeavoured to use it for the gratification +of personal animosities. His first two measures were proposed +with a view to avenging his brother's death; and he sought to give +the intended new laws a retrospective effect, for the purpose of gratifying +his private enmity. He introduced a law to prevent a person +deprived by the people of any office, from being appointed to the public +service again; but this exalted patriot withdrew the bill to please his +mother. He carried various measures of more or less value, and +among them was a law for the establishment of granaries for supplying +the poor with corn at a very low price; but though this might have +been very attractive to buyers, and insured a brisk demand, it does not +seem calculated to encourage growers and sellers to such an extent that +a supply could always be relied upon. Of course, the deficiency had to +be made good from the pockets of the public; and therefore the process +amounted to little more than receiving with one hand what had been +paid by the other.</p> + +<p>The privilege of purchasing cheap corn was not limited, as some<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> +have supposed, to the poor; but every citizen could claim his share; +and even Piso, a Consul—though perhaps he was one of the greatly +reduced Consuls—had been shabby enough to demand the privilege. +Piso had been an opponent of the law; and Gracchus, seeing him among +the crowd receiving a bushel of the cheap grain, taunted him with his +inconsistency in taking advantage of a corn measure which he had set his +face against. The answer of Piso was sensible and just; for, said he, +"though I had a strong objection to your giving away my property, +I think I have a right to try to get my share of it." Another +of his enactments vested the right of putting a Roman citizen to death, +in the people themselves, a measure that was no doubt theoretically +attractive, though practically inconvenient. To vest in the public at +large the privilege of applying the sentences to the highest offences, +would really be giving a nation so much rope, that business would be +suspended very often, instead of the criminals.</p> + +<p>Caius Gracchus next applied himself to Law Reform with considerable +zeal; but it was not so much the law itself, as those who +administered it, that required amendment. Those who held the scales of +justice, used to weigh only the gold of the suitors; and the judges were +so far impartial, that they had no bias towards any particular side, but +favoured that which was the most liberal in bribing them. Many of +the defendants had been guilty of extortion, which was a common +practice with the judges themselves; and therefore a rude sort of +honour, commonly known as honour among thieves, was not altogether +banished from the judgment-seat. Caius Gracchus, however, caused +a law to be passed, in which we trace the origin of that glorious +institution, familiarly known as "twelve men in a box," so dear to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +hearts, and sometimes, also, to the pockets of Englishmen. The law +alluded to, provided for the trial of causes by a middle class of equites +or knights, who were, literally speaking, men who could keep a horse, +and who, on the same principle adopted in modern times as to the +keepers of gigs,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> were considered to be respectable.</p> + +<p>The Senators had made a practice of acquitting all criminals of their +own class, and, by acquitting themselves thus shamefully, they had +become guilty of the grossest corruption; but the equites were +frequently regardless of equity, and were found leaning with undue +leniency towards offenders of their own order. Gracchus had now +become the popular idol, but he never had an idle hour, and was +always busy in building up a reputation for himself by the construction +of works of permanent utility. He knew that general occupation is +necessary to public content, and he felt that as long as he could keep +the hands of the multitude employed on bricks and mortar, he was, in +reality, cementing his own power. This policy placed considerable +patronage at his command, and he rallied round him a crowd of contractors +and artificers, who, but for his power of giving them something +better to do, would, perhaps, have been contracting the bad habit of +political agitation, or resorting to every kind of revolutionary artifice.</p> + +<p>The greatest political work of Caius was that in which he did the +least; and his legislative successes sink into insignificance by the side +of the real grandeur of his extensive failure. This was his attempt to +extend the franchise to all the Italians, and the other allies; but Rome +refused to aid him in the grand design, and determined to rivet upon +Italy those Italian irons with which Rome at a future period was +destined to burn her fingers. So popular was Caius Gracchus, that, +upon his re-election to office, the people, who could not get near +enough to the Campus Martius on account of the crowd, voted for him +from the tops of houses or unfinished buildings; and many came up +to the poll by climbing an adjacent scaffold.</p> + +<p>He who would keep himself constantly sailing before the wind raised +by the breath of public applause, must be for ever on some new tack; +for no airs are more variable than those which the people are apt to +give themselves. Caius Gracchus was soon destined to discover the +fact that, amid the storms of political life, the highest point can be +safely occupied by none but the political weathercock. He had too +much rigid inflexibility to turn with every breeze; and instead of being +moved by each passing gust, he was simply dis-gusted by the vacillation +<a name="exhibited" id="exhibited"></a>exhibited.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0244.png" width="375" height="450" alt="Rash Act of Caius Gracchus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Rash Act of Caius Gracchus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The aristocratic party, perceiving this, resolved to beat him with his own +weapons; and they prevailed upon M. Livius Drusus, his colleague in +the tribuneship, to outbid him by all sorts of extravagances for the prize +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +of popularity. When Gracchus proposed to distribute land among the +poor at a small fixed rental, Drusus moved, by way of amendment, that +they should have it for nothing at all; and as to the corn in the public +granaries, if Gracchus said the people ought to have it at half price, +Drusus would insist upon their right to be paid for the trouble of walking +away with it. The people, as a matter of course, followed the man who +was most profuse in his promises, rather than him who had been the +most liberal in his performances. Caius Gracchus was, in the mean +time, induced to go to Africa to mark out the ground for a new city. +The reporters of the period—who were, no doubt, in the pay of his +opponents—circulated all kinds of ill-natured stories, in which it was +alleged that the omens had been unfavourable; that the flags had been +blown down, or the pavement blown up; and that the wolves had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +eaten up every flag-staff—a thing not very easy to swallow. On his +return to Rome, from which he had been absent only seventy days, +he found Drusus amazingly popular, and every nose turned up at +himself, which induced him to recognise a general snub in the faces +of many of his old followers. He offered himself a third time for +the tribuneship, but he was at the bottom of the poll, and an election +row commenced, when an officious lictor lost, first, his fasces; secondly, +his securis—which he had done his utmost to secure; and ultimately +his life, in the scuffle. Caius Gracchus, who had mainly endeavoured +to keep the peace, knew he would be accused of breaking +it, and he accordingly ran as fast as he could; but in scaling a wall to +get into another street, he unfortunately sprained his ankle. His +friends continued to carry him until, moved by a sudden instinct of +self-preservation, they dropped an acquaintance it would have been no +longer safe to keep up, and poor Caius was left alone with a single manservant. +His pursuers being at his heels, the ex-tribune desired the +faithful attendant to stab him, and the man was too much in the habit +of obeying his master's orders to hesitate. Having respectfully run his +employer through, he found himself so terribly out of place in the world, +that, apologising for the liberty, he finished himself off with the same +dagger.</p> + +<p>A reward of its weight in gold had already been offered for the head +of Caius Gracchus, when one Septimulcius, having picked it up, carried +it home, and plumbed it with lead before he took it to the authorities. +Opimius, the Consul, weighed it, and exclaiming, "Bless me! seven +pounds and a half!" threw down in exchange for the head, the same +quantity of the precious metal. His customer having gone away, +Opimius proceeded at his leisure to examine his bargain. "Well!" +said he, "I don't know that it's worth its weight in gold, but the offer +was my own, and I must make the best of it." On a minuter inspection, +he detected the trick that had been played, and though he had looked +upon Caius as somewhat leaden-headed, he at once perceived that nature +had not been the only plumber employed in this disgraceful transaction.</p> + +<p>All the friends of Gracchus were cast into prison and slain; but it +was astonishing to observe how contracted his circle became when it was +known that ruin awaited every member of it. They who had been his +intimates made the sudden discovery that they had never known him at +all, and others, who had been too frequently in his company to +repudiate the acquaintance, declared that they had been grievously +mistaken in his character. Several of his radical associates joined the +aristocratic party, and his friend Carbo was so severely bantered on his +having gone over to the other side, that after trying both sides, he took +refuge in suicide as the only side left for him.</p> + +<p>Rome owed much to the Gracchi; but it paid them both off in a +most unsatisfactory manner. Tiberius was an orator of such power, +that, to prevent his voice from being too loud, he took with him a +piper—paying the piper out of his own pocket—to prevent him from +pitching it too strong when he was addressing the multitude. Tiberius +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +Gracchus was the first orator who introduced the graces of action into +the art of public speaking; and he was in the habit of rolling, as it were, +from side to side, which gave him great sway with his audience.</p> + +<p>Caius Gracchus was a man of action, rather than of words, and was +the first to divide distance into portions of one thousand paces, each of +which he called a mile, and which was one of his really useful measures. +He was also the inventor of milestones, and of those stations for +awkward equestrians, which enabled many to ride the high horse, who +would otherwise have been placed on their own humble footing.</p> + +<p>The two Gracchi owed, no doubt, to the teaching of their mother, +much of their success—if, at least, that can be called success which ended +in the violent death of both of them. Cornelia was, however, a little +too much addicted to making prodigies of her sons; and it is said of her, +that, on one occasion, when receiving a visit from a Campanian lady, +who came to display her jewels, the mother of the Gracchi, having +privately sent for the children, exclaimed, as they stole gently in with +their nurse, "These are my jewels: what do you think of them?" So +maudlin was her maternal sensibility, that she never spoke of her sons +without tears, which were always responded to by the infants themselves, +with sympathetic, but uncomfortable, moisture. Nothing, however, +can damp parental love; and, to a fond mother's feelings, +childhood has no unpleasant features; though it is different to him who, +if approaching them at all, prefers looking at them in a drier <a name="aspect" id="aspect"></a>aspect.<br /><br /></p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0246.png" width="450" height="341" alt="" title="" /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Plut., Tib. Gracch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Plutarch implies that it was so; but Cicero relates anecdotes showing the fact to +have been otherwise.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> The following question and answer, uttered in a Court of Law on a modern trial, are +well known:— +<br /> +<i>Counsel.</i> "What do you mean by respectable?" +<br /> +<i>Witness.</i> "He keeps a gig."</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-FOURTH.</h2> + +<h3>THE JUGURTHINE WAR. WAR AGAINST THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Rome had been making the numerous conquests already +described, self-conquest—the most important conquest of all—had been +altogether lost sight of, and she had failed in obtaining the victory +over her own vices. Though she possessed, nominally, a constituted +body of rulers, money was actually the governing power; and so +debasing is its influence, that it is more fatal to the liberty of a people +to be ruled with a rod of gold, than with a rod of iron. No consideration +but pecuniary consideration had any weight, corruption presided +in the courts of law, the people were bought by the Senate, and the +Senate sold the people. In the army there was a system of shameless +plunder on the part of the commanders, and the soldiers followed their +leaders with avidity.</p> + +<p>Numidia had, since the death of Masinissa, been ruled over by his +son Micipsa, who, by his will, put his kingdom, as it were, into commission, +by giving it to his two sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, conjointly +with a lad whom he had adopted, and whose name was Jugurtha. +Jugurtha was a person of excellent manners and genteel address, an +excellent horseman, the first to strike the lion<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> in the field, and himself +a lion much run after in society.</p> + +<p>On the death of Micipsa, when the three rulers came to the throne +of Numidia, they found the accommodation rather insufficient, and +Jugurtha insolently threw himself down in the middle of it. By this +act the two sons of Micipsa were practically set aside, and Jugurtha +assumed that in himself alone the monarchy was centered. His next +act was to propose the abolition of the acts of the last five years of +Micipsa's reign, declaring that they ought all to be dotted out, on the +ground of the old man's dotage. Hiempsal, with a touch of sarcasm, +assented to the proposal, observing—"We shall then get rid of you, as +your adoption was an act performed within the prescribed period." +This attempt to be funny was a serious matter to Hiempsal, for Jugurtha +caused the would-be wag to be murdered in the palace.</p> + +<p>After this instance of sharp practice, on the part of Jugurtha, +Adherbal began to tremble in his shoes lest he might be made to walk +in his brother's footsteps. This fear was so nearly on the point of +being realised, that Adherbal took to flight, and ran all the way to +Rome, to ask for aid; upon which a commission of inquiry, consisting +of ten members, was despatched to Numidia.</p> + +<p>To refer any matter to a commission, has always been considered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +equivalent to laying it permanently on the shelf; and such might have +been the result of the quarrel of the Numidian princes, had it not been +for the fact that Jugurtha had settled the dispute in his own way, +before the commissioners had even opened their inquiry. By the time +they had arrived on the spot to which they had been sent, they found +one of the parties dead, and the other in possession of all that he +desired. Jugurtha was, of course, the survivor in this affair; and when +the ambassadors, on their arrival, expressed their astonishment at their +services having been dispensed with, he, by offering them something for +their trouble, sent them home fully and shame-fully satisfied.</p> + +<p>Every spark of honour was not, however, extinct in Rome; for the +tribune, C. Memmius, who had not received, or, indeed, had not been +offered, any of Jugurtha's gold, became virtuously indignant at the disgraceful +harvest made by the ten commissioners. His agitation was so far +successful, that war was declared, and the Consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, +with his legate, M. Æmilius Scaurus, were sent to invade Africa. +Bestia immediately made the best bargain he could for himself, by concluding +a peace with Jugurtha, on certain terms, for which the Roman +Consul's own terms were most exorbitant. He and his legate, Scaurus, +accepted a nominal surrender of all Jugurtha's tents, horses, and +elephants; but he was allowed to reserve nearly the whole of his canvas +booths and his menagerie.</p> + +<p>When the tribune Memmius heard of the venality of the ambassadors, +and of the money they had corruptly made by their services abroad, +he, whose duties kept him at home, became more indignant than ever. +He denounced, in abusive language, the abuse of which they had been +guilty, and succeeded at last in carrying a motion that Jugurtha should +appear to answer for his offences of bribery and corruption before the +Senate. The summons was carried to Africa, by the stern and incorruptible +Cassius, who refused every offer of cash, and insisted on the +personal appearance of Jugurtha at the time and place appointed. The +artful Numidian came with a very small retinue and a very long purse; +for he knew that in meeting such an antagonist as Rome, he should not +have to draw the steel from the scabbard, but the gold from the +treasury. He threw purses in all directions; and so extensive was his +bribery, that the criminals who had accepted his money were a strong +majority over the few who were qualified, by not having participated in +the offence, to sit in judgment over it. Memmius, who had seen none of +Jugurtha's gold, insisted on his giving up the names of those who had +received it; but there was such a vehement and general shout of "No," +that any further inquiry as to who were the culprits, would have been +quite superfluous.</p> + +<p>The only punishment the Senate ventured to inflict upon Jugurtha, +was a sentence of banishment; and it was indeed quite natural that the +dishonourable members should have been glad to send speedily out of +the way the principal witness to their own turpitude. As Jugurtha +quitted Rome, he expressed his disgust at her venality, in a sentiment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +which came with but an ill grace from an accomplice in her infamy. +"Oh!" he exclaimed, with an air of affected horror, "Oh! thou +venal city; thou wouldst sell thyself to perdition, if thou couldst only +find a purchaser!" The exact point at which this claptrap was uttered, +who was at hand to hear it, and supposing the reporters to have been +present, whether they proceeded to take it down, are points which the +historians have not shown any disposition to look into.</p> + +<p>After the retirement of the only witness, the inquiry into the +bribery cases was prosecuted with considerable vigour. Scaurus, who +had been one of the chief delinquents, attempted to expiate his own +faults by getting himself appointed a member of the committee, and +passing as severe sentences as he could upon his fellow criminals.</p> + +<p>War with Jugurtha was again declared; for it was one of the +most prolific sources of a profitable job to those in power. The Consul, +Spurius Posthumius Albinus, was despatched with an army to Africa; +but he soon came home, like his predecessors, with a large fortune, +which seemed to be the kind of fortune of war that attended all who +went to fight against Numidia. He left the army under the guidance +of his brother Aulus, who, with his officers, were easily bribed into +accepting any terms, provided they were of a pecuniary nature, that +Jugurtha proposed to them. The Senate, however, refused to ratify +the dishonourable peace concluded by Aulus; and thus, by the somewhat +dishonest process of repudiating the acts of an authorised agent, +Rome was again free to make a further property of the Numidian +sovereign. At last, however, the affair was placed in honourable hands, +by the appointment of Metellus (Q. C.) to the command of the army. +His probity placed him far above any bribe that Jugurtha could offer; +and though it is a maxim with many, that every man has his price, it +may be said of Metellus that his moral standard was too high for any +pecuniary standard to be applied to it.</p> + +<p>With the generosity of true genius, Metellus selected as his legate +a man capable of sharing with himself any of the honours that might +be gained in the wars about to be undertaken. This man was Caius +Marius, who had been, in early life, a labourer; but, while working +with the spade, he felt sure that something would eventually turn up +in his favour. He had served as a common soldier, but proved himself +no common man; and he rose, step by step, to a highly respectable +position. Vanity, however, was one of his weak points, and he fell into +the hands of an old Syrian fortune-teller, who resorted to all sorts of +tricks to persuade him that he was destined for the highest honours. +He mentioned his aspirations to Metellus, and hinted at the possibility +of his obtaining the Consulship; but his superior officer burst into a +loud laugh, which, instead of putting Marius out of conceit, put him +further into it. He proceeded to Rome, and, by a series of popular +speeches, in which he promised everything to the people, he, of course, +gained their suffrages. Having obtained the Consulship, he was despatched +to finish the war against Jugurtha; but Metellus, having first +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +pretended that there was nothing more to be done, for that he had +settled the whole business himself, resigned his post to Marius.</p> + +<p>Peace had indeed been already concluded with Jugurtha; but Rome, +with its habitual want of faith, re-opened the war, which terminated at +last in Jugurtha's being taken prisoner. He was drawn behind the +chariot of Marius—a situation little less exalted than being tied to a +cart's tail, and in that position received the pelting of a pitiless storm of +mud from the congenial hands of a cowardly populace. Being thrown +into a damp dungeon, he—as we are told by the grave historians—still +preserved his wit; for he exclaimed, as he entered his prison, "By +Hercules, what a cold bath!"—a touch of humour which seems to us +remarkable for neither breadth, point, nor neatness. When, however, +we consider the moisture of the circumstances under which he was +placed, we cannot be surprised that he should have failed in an attempt +at dry humour.</p> + +<p>The war with Jugurtha was no sooner at an end, than Rome found +herself threatened by the swords of half-a-dozen different foes; and, in +default of being able to cut herself into six, for the purpose of dividing +her strength, she seemed in danger of such a cutting-up at the hands +of her enemies. It would be a tedious task to unravel the excessive +tangle into which the threads of history are thrown by the windings of +those numerous lines of barbarians who kept themselves suspended +over Rome at about this period. The Cimbri, a Celtic race, entered +into an alliance with the Teutoni—a German band—and threw themselves +upon Gaul; which was unable to throw them off again. They +encountered the Consul, M. Junius Silanus, to whom they applied for a +country to be assigned to them; but, as this modest request could not +be attended to, they set upon Silanus, and gave him a sound beating. +At length the Consul, Q. Servilius Cœpio, offered to meet the difficulty, +and approached the Rhone, but the Cimbri cut to pieces 80,000 soldiers +and 40,000 camp followers; at least, if we are to believe the authorities, +who are always ready to mince men, though never mincing matters. +Cœpio—according to the same authentic accounts—was glad to make +his escape across the Rhone with a handful of men, and the term, +"handful" is in this instance not misapplied; for as the number is said +to have been exactly ten, he might have easily told them off on his fingers. +As if to show that they had not been actuated by mercenary motives, +the Cimbri threw into the river the whole of their booty; and, not +satisfied with spoiling the foe, they proceeded to spoil the property taken +in battle.</p> + +<p>It says little to the credit of Rome that her dangers seemed to +damp the ambition of her citizens, and no one evinced an anxiety for +the perilous honours of the Consulship. Those among the aristocracy +who claimed a sort of prescriptive right to the government in times +when there was everything to be got, now that there was a prospect of +everything being lost, shrunk from the responsibility of a high position. +The plebeian, Marius, was declared to be the only man for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +situation; and, instead of being obliged to solicit the Consulship, it +was thrust upon him even before he had returned from Africa.</p> + +<p>His first care was to get together an army capable of bearing the +fatigues of a military life, in preference to those who were only fit to +support its gaudy trappings. He enlisted large numbers of working +men, and tested their strength by putting into their hands a spade +before he entrusted them with a sword, subjecting them to all sorts of +privations, and putting them even upon reduced rations—an experiment +that was by no means rational. Many of the soldiers, who, under a +generous diet, would have become strong healthy men, dwindled to +mere skeletons, and many of the recruits were reduced so low that their +strength was past recruiting. Those who were able to stand against +the fatigue, were hardy enough to stand against anything; and, in +order to give them the benefit of a lengthy training, he refused to +accept battle until a convenient opportunity. He allowed the Teutoni +to pass his camp, and, as they did so, they inquired tauntingly if there +were any messages or parcels for Rome, as they—the Teutoni—were +on their journey thither. Marius pursued them to Aquæ Sextiæ—now +Aix—and purposely pitched his camp in such a place, that water could +not be obtained without a fight for it. Every soldier who went down +to the river was obliged to draw his sword as he drew the water he +required, and, while he fought with one hand, defended himself as well +as he could with a bucket in the other. The Teutoni were completely +defeated, and rushed, for safety, to their wagons; but all who remained +in the rear, together with many who had got into the van, were cut +to pieces.</p> + +<p>Marius had no sooner disposed of the Teutoni, than he heard that +the Cimbri were pouring themselves all over the plains of Lombardy; +and, proceeding to meet them, he threatened to "turn their bones into +whitening for the fields," a menace that proves the practice of bone manuring +to be an agricultural process of great antiquity. He drew up his +army near Verona, at a place called the Campi Raudii, and found the +front ranks of the Cimbri linked together by chains,—an arrangement +adopted, probably, to prevent their running away, and making them +feel bound to stand against the enemy. Marius, with considerable +tact, got into such a position that the sun got into their eyes, and the +wind blew their noses. Unable to look their danger in the face, they +were sent winking and sneezing to destruction.</p> + +<p>Marius celebrated the success of the day in a magnificent triumph, +and paraded, among his trophies, a Cimbric king of such a gigantic +height, that, notwithstanding his humiliating position, everybody looked +up to him.</p> + +<p>For the sixth time the consulship was bestowed on Marius, though not +without a vast amount of bribery on the part of the successful candidate, +who, while he corrupted the electors with one hand, raised a temple to +Virtue and Honour with the other. He had now become so inflated with +vanity, that he came swelling into the Senate in his triumphal robes; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +he was so coldly received, that he pretended he had forgotten to change +his dress, though his astonishment was as clearly put on as his objectionable +attire. He caused to be engraved upon his buckler the image +of a Gaul pulling out his tongue; an allegory rather difficult to comprehend, +except by adopting the somewhat vulgar reading, that the design +was emblematical of the fact that, after the victory of Marius, the Gaul +might as well pull out his tongue at once, as there could be no chance +of his giving a licking to the Romans.</p> + +<p>Marius was so popular, that he was acknowledged as the third +founder of Rome; Romulus, Camillus, and himself being figuratively +regarded as so many bricks that the city had been built upon.</p> + +<p>Success had rendered Marius so arrogant, that he committed many +illegal acts, declaring that, amid the clashing of the swords of war, the +silent motion of the sword of justice could neither be heard nor attended +to. His morbid appetite for mob popularity caused him to enter +into a disgraceful alliance with an unprincipled demagogue, named +L. Appuleius Saturninus, whose performances equalled his promises; +but he always promised one thing, and performed another. He adopted +the extremely liberal side in politics, and proposed, among other liberal +measures, that every member of the Senate should bind himself by an +oath to support some very liberal law for dealing with property, by +taking it from those who had it, and giving it to those who were ready +to take it. This friend of freedom suggested, further, that every senator +attempting to exercise a free will, should pay a heavy penalty. One of +the aristocratic party having ventured on proposing an amendment, was +driven from the Senate by a shower of missiles. Another having +suggested that he heard thunder—a sign at which the Assembly should +have broken up—was told that there would probably be some hail, with +hail-stones of real stone, if he opposed the project of Saturninus. Marius +had the courage to declare that he would never take the degrading oath; +Metellus seconded his resolution; and the whole Senate, with one +voice—which turned out, ultimately, to be <i>vox et præterea nihil</i>—swore +that they would never swear to what the people had dared to demand +of them. Notwithstanding this spirited proposition, Marius had not +sufficient bravery to brave the popular clamour, and his courage had +died away before five days had expired. Having called a special +meeting of the Senate, he intimated that second thoughts were sometimes +best, and that, after his first thought, there had occurred to him a +second, which he proposed that they should place upon their minutes. +He concluded by intimating that he had been pelted in public for the part +he had taken, and, as the people were determined, apparently, on having +their fling, there was little use in opposing them. He declared his attachment +to his native soil; and, though he had always kept it in his eye, +he objected to its being thrown in his face by his own countrymen. +He finished by proposing that the oath should be taken, with a mental +reservation that it should not be kept—a disgraceful compromise +between cowardice and conscience, which the Senate without hesitation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +assented to. There was, after this, so little disposition to freedom +among the members, that Metellus Numidicus was the only one who +held out; and he, instead of remaining to battle with the abuse, preferred +sneaking away from it into voluntary exile.</p> + +<p>Saturninus not only put himself up for the tribuneship a third time, +but endeavoured to get the Consulship for one Servilius Glaucia; and +these noisy demagogues—by way of guiding the people in their choice—coolly +murdered C. Memmius, who had started as an opposition +candidate.</p> + +<p>Marius now began to perceive that he had connected himself with a +disreputable set, and finding his popularity on the wane, he repudiated +his new political allies as suddenly as he had joined with them. He +drove Saturninus to the Capitol, where, being without provisions, the +demagogue found himself at last driven to an unprovisional surrender. +Saturninus, Glaucia, and others were put to death by the command of +Marius, who thus regained the good opinion of the people, though he +had, in fact, simply trampled under foot, when down, those whom he +had taken by the hand when they were uppermost. Having so far +reinstated himself in the favour of the public, Marius retired into +private life; and it was time that he should do so, while he had yet +a certain amount of popularity left to fall back upon.</p> + +<p>Law Reform, and the extension of the franchise, had now become +the two great questions of the day; for the tribunals were courts of +in-justice, and the Italians thought that as much weight ought to be +allowed to the Italic as to the Roman character. It was the policy of +the Senate to purchase popularity at almost any price, and the members +were ready to outbid each other by the most extravagant offers, for the +object of their ignoble competition. Among the boldest of the bidders +was M. Livius Drusus, the son of old Drusus—the colleague of Gracchus—who +seems to have inherited his father's propensity for sacrificing all +his principle, in order to convert it into political capital. Young Drusus +is said to have been a remarkable man, because, when Quæstor in Asia, +he dispensed with the insignia of office, preferring to depend upon his +own personal bearing, and, perhaps, wishing to save the cost of those +externals which, sometimes, take from the public functionary quite as +much in the way of emolument, as they bring him in the way of dignity. +He had been elected to the Tribuneship, and in that capacity he did +everything he could to catch the breath of popular applause, which often +sullies the brightness of the object that seeks to reflect the evanescent +vapour.</p> + +<p>One of the principal propositions of M. Livius Drusus was, that the +judges should be liable to be brought to trial themselves, for their mode +of conducting the trials of others. This attempt to undermine the +independence of the judicial order, was shown to be so fatal to the +administration of justice, that the people, who, after all, require only to +be convinced of what is right in order to take the right direction, repudiated +the proposal which Drusus had intended to be the means of misleading +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +them, and obtaining for himself—under false pretences—a little +additional popularity. It was pointed out to them, that a judge who felt +every trial at which he was presiding to be his own, and who would be +always divided between the calm demands of justice on one hand, and +the unreasoning voice of public clamour on the other, would feel himself +exposed to a pressure that would prevent him from maintaining an upright +position. Notwithstanding his failure in this instance, M. Livius +Drusus made himself the champion of the movement, and opened his +house every evening, to give political advice gratis to all who were +desirous of consulting him. He was engaged in this manner during +one of his evenings at home, when he was suddenly stabbed by a shoe-maker's +knife; and though the assassin was never discovered, the blow +was supposed to have been connived at by some persons who had +persuaded the cobbler to risk his awl in the dangerous effort. As a +Roman could never die without a claptrap in his mouth, Drusus was of +course prepared with a neat speech on the melancholy occasion. +Having ejaculated, "Oh! thou ungrateful Republic, thou hast never +lost a more devoted son!" he arranged his toga in becoming folds, and +bowing to circumstances—bowing, perhaps, to the audience as well—he +gracefully <a name="expired" id="expired"></a>expired.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0254.png" width="450" height="439" alt="Drusus is stabbed, and expires gracefully." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Drusus is stabbed, and expires gracefully.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +The Italians, being deprived of the support of Drusus, were more +than ever oppressed, and the multitude, whom it is customary to +regard as synonymous with the liberal party, became vehement in +denouncing the idea of allowing an equality of rights to all classes of +Roman subjects. The Italians, therefore, came to the resolution, that if +Rome was not to exist for them, it should not exist at all; but that they +would either bring the city to the ground, or raise themselves from the +dust to which injustice had lowered them. Several of the Italian +nations formed themselves into a league, but never did a league go to +such lengths as the one in question; for some of its members murdered +the prætor, Servilius Cœpio, and his legate, who attended a meeting in +the hope of conciliation at the Theatre of Asculum.</p> + +<p>The next step of the Italians was to start a republic of their own, +under the name of Italica; and by way of giving it an imposing appearance, +it was to have a senate five hundred strong—though in a deliberative +assembly numbers are not so much an element of strength as of +weakness. It was to have two annual consuls, and no less than twelve +prætors; it being perhaps the policy of the framers of the constitution +to have plenty of patronage to tempt adherents to the new government. +The two consuls first appointed were Silo Popædius, a Marsian, and +C. Papius Mutilus, a Samnite, who took the field with great vigour, +but took little else in the first instance; for Silo fell in the fight, though +Mutilus, whose army was terribly mutilated, obtained some success in +Campania.</p> + +<p>Though the Italians had commenced their operations as fast friends, +they loosened considerably in their friendship as the war advanced, and +made separate treaties of peace, by which Rome was enabled to deal +with them piecemeal, instead of being compelled to stand against their +united efforts. The Samnites evinced their old obstinacy, and waited, +as usual, to be cut to pieces, before they abandoned the hope of holding +together. When the sword had been busy among them for three years, +there remained still a mass of sufficient importance to induce the +Romans to offer the franchise to all who would lay down their arms; +and of this proposal the Samnites at last reluctantly availed themselves.</p> + +<p>Rome having acquired a large accession of new citizens, was puzzled +to determine what to do with them. Had they been distributed amongst +the thirty-five country tribes, the old members would have been +swamped by the new, and the latter were, therefore, formed into—some +say six, some say eight, and some say fifteen separate bodies. Such is +the disagreement of the learned doctors on this head, that we cannot put +confidence in one without discrediting two; and we consequently take +the more impartial course of believing none of them. So great is the +discrepancy of the authorities on nearly every point, that, for the +sake of history, we can only hope they do not go for their facts to +the same sources which have supplied their figures. It is true that +they usually profess to deal with round numbers alone; and perhaps if +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +every number employed were literally round, it would represent the +sum of what is known with certainty on the subjects that are spoken of.</p> + +<p>The fact, however, is indisputable, that, in the times to which our +history relates, the weaker states were the prey of the stronger,—might +overcame right; and the only mode by which a small society could save +itself from destruction by one power, was by the sale of its independence +to another. Those places which were incompetent to practise the noble +art of self-defence, could only obtain protection against violence on the +right hand, by submitting to robbery on the left; and the Romans, +who were usually appealed to for aid, always plentifully helped themselves +at the cost of those by whom their help was required.</p> + +<p>By the foreign policy of Rome, ambassadors were always planted in +all places of importance, to interfere in the quarrels between nations +and their kings; and the ambassadors took care, by fomenting quarrels, +that there should be no lack of material for their diplomacy. The cost +of intervention fell heavily on those upon whom it was bestowed, but it +eventually helped to ruin Rome itself; for neglect of one's own affairs +is the inevitable consequence of interfering with the affairs of one's +neighbours. The professed object of this meddling on the part of the +great republic, was to give to other states the benefit of freedom. +There is, however, no slavery more abject than that which induces a +nation to accept a foreign, instead of a domestic, tyranny. Those who +are willing to import their independence from abroad, will never find it +flourish at home; and there is not a more melancholy object—as +recent events have proved—than a transplanted tree of liberty.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTE: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Sallust, Jugurthine War, c. vi.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-FIFTH.</h2> + +<h3>MITHRIDATES, SULLA, MARIUS, CINNA, ET CÆTERA.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 310px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0257.png" width="310" height="400" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left:-3em" class="smcap">ollowing</span> the order of dates, +we come to Mithridates, the +son of old Mithridates the +Fifth, surnamed Eupator, who +had been a fast ally of Rome; +but his son, who was much +faster in another sense, soon +came to hostilities.</p> + +<p>The birth of young Mithridates +had been, according +to Justin,<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> signalised by the +appearance of a wondrous +comet, which was, probably, an +idle tale; but those whose eyes +are always strained +towards a rising +sun, are liable to +be dazzled by all +sorts of illusory +visions.</p> + +<p>If the comet was +to have brought +prosperity to Mithridates, +the consignment +must have +been dropped on the +way, inasmuch as +none of it reached the young prince, whose early years were passed in hot +water; for he was in one continual perspiration, caused by the constant +discovery that his life was in danger. His grandmother, Laodice, had +killed five of her children, when young Mithridates, fearing that infanticide +might run in the family, resorted to matricide, as an alternative +for checking the fearful disease, and, according to Appian,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> murdered +his mother. It is said that his guardians did their utmost to get rid +of him, by encouraging him in all sorts of dangerous games;—that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +gave him weapons for playthings, and that one of his toys was a real +sword, with which the child might have accidentally cut the slender +thread of his own existence.</p> + +<p>They mounted him, also, upon the highest horses that could be +found, which was the height of cruelty; but though the animals often +kicked and hurled the youngster from his seat, fortune always decided +the throw in his favour. He soon acquired such skill, that he was deep +enough to meet the most fearful amount of plunging; and when placed +upon a determined jibber, he could always back out of his danger. +Though the horses given him to ride were quite unbroken, his neck +remained entire; and he at length became such an excellent horseman, +that he could travel on horseback—according to Polybius—125 miles a +day, a length to which we are not prepared to go with the ancient +historian. Young Mithridates, going at full gallop, for several successive +hours, presents a spirited picture to the mind's eye, but duty compels us +to pull him up at the turnpike of truth; for we can allow no evasion +of the important trust of history.</p> + +<p>Among his other accomplishments, it is said that he could hurl the +javelin to such a distance, that the enthusiasm of the spectators would +be roused to the utmost pitch; but we are obliged to add, that his power +in throwing the spear was not equal to that of the chroniclers in +throwing the hatchet.</p> + +<p>His guardians having failed to kill him by physical force, attempted +to do so by the force of physic, and were continually giving him poisonous +drugs, which, though exceedingly unpleasant, he was not nice +enough to reject, for he had the bad taste to swallow them. They put +him through a course of hen-bane, but he was now no chicken, and had +learnt to neutralise the effects of the bane by a powerful antidote. So +admirably did the latter answer its object, that he could swallow arsenic +by the drachm without a scruple, and his inside was rendered thoroughly +poison-proof, though there is an utter absence of historical proof to +support the statement.</p> + +<p>In order to harden himself externally, as well as internally, we are +informed that he would lie at night in the open air; but we do not +believe he was any more hardened by lying than those who make +the statement. He would trust to the chase for a dinner, and he was +often very hard run for a meal, which he sometimes sought by a contest +with a wild beast: and the question then was, whether the latter was to +be cooked, or Mithridates himself done for.</p> + +<p>The excitement of an encounter with some ferocious animal furnished +the continual source of a <i>sauce piquante</i> to what he took to eat, which +formed food for his courage as well as for his appetite. He was well +versed in physics, which he was continually imbibing at the hands of his +enemies, and, in accordance with the saying <i>fas est ab hoste doceri</i>, he +turned the dosing to good account by studying the power of antidotes. +He became a master of languages, and taught himself; so that he was, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +in fact, his own master and his own pupil. His object appears to have +been to save the trouble and expense of diplomatic agents, by qualifying +himself to talk with all foreign ambassadors, and to prevent the +chance of matters being misinterpreted through the mouth of an +interpreter.</p> + +<p>Those historians who have built up a considerable fabric on inconsiderable +grounds, do not hesitate to add to their fabrications another +story, by describing Mithridates as a giant in growth, and as a lad so +tall that he might have overlooked an ordinary ladder.</p> + +<p>Such had been the education and pursuits of the young man whom +we find occupying the throne of Pontus, and interfering in the affairs of +Cappadocia, to which he undertook to supply a king, from his own +family, whenever a vacancy happened. Rome, also, began to take an +interest in Cappadocia, and the only party without a voice in the affair, +consisted of the Cappadocians. They were assailed with the offer of freedom +and a republic at the point of the sword, on one side,—while, on +the other, they were asked to pin their faith to a monarchy which would +otherwise be pinned to them by the blades of a foreign army. The +Cappadocians had a wholesome horror of republican freedom, especially +when imported from abroad; and Rome, therefore, sent them a king, +who was accepted until his throne was overthrown by Mithridates—the +Cappadocians having to pay a heavy fine on each change of +government.</p> + +<p>The king, who was thoroughly put out by Mithridates, applied to +Rome, which raised an army in three divisions; but the Romans were +so hated in Asia Minor, that they encountered every opposition from the +inhabitants. Appius and Aquilinus, who were leaders of two of the +divisions, soon fell into the hands of Mithridates, and it is said that he +punished their avarice by pouring melted gold down their throats; but +this is more than any one could swallow.</p> + +<p>The Roman Senate, irritated by defeat, called upon L. Cornelius Sulla—or +Sylla, as, by an alteration of the first syllable, he is sometimes +called—to take the command of the army. The family boasted of its +antiquity, though one family must be quite as old as another, if everybody's +pedigree could be traced; and the real wonder would be to find a +man whose ancestors had a beginning, instead of the ordinary case of one +with an apparently endless line of progenitors. The family of Cornelius +Sulla claimed connection with that of Cornelius Rufinus, who, in the year +of Rome 540, instituted the Ludi Apollinares, in honour of Apollo, and in +conformity with the directions of the Sibylline books, from which he +had taken the name of Sibylla. This had, according to the interpretation +put upon it by family pride, been corrupted into Sulla; and such +is the empty boast of ancestry, that even corruption is eagerly acknowledged +as a proof of ancient lineage. The father of L. Cornelius Sulla +had left little—not even an unsullied name—to his son, but had been +equally wasteful of fortune and character. The boy was clever and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +quick, but his speediness speedily degenerated into fastness. Having +neither morality nor means, he took a cheap apartment, where he entertained +a low set, and there was nothing to be envied either in his room +or his company.</p> + +<p>In early life he had distinguished himself as a soldier in the Jugurthine +War; and he subsequently obtained the office of Prætor, in which +he won the affections of the people, by introducing into the entertainments +of the amphitheatre the extraordinary attraction of 100 real +lions.</p> + +<p>These noble animals had been the gift of a Mauritanian king, and as +Sulla might have wished the present absent, if he had been saddled +with the cost of the keep of no less than one hundred monarchs of the +forest, the donor forwarded a band of Moors, who were to serve as food +for the lions, by being turned into the arena with them when occasion +required.</p> + +<p>Sulla had excited the jealousy of Marius during the Jugurthine War, +and the latter, though now a man of seventy, still cherished his old +animosity with all the obstinacy of a most inveterate veteran. He was +still ambitious of the laurel, though he should have been thinking only +of the cypress; and with one foot in the grave, he was anxious to march +with the other at the head of an army. Limping into the Campus +Martius, where the soldiers were being drilled, he placed himself by +the side of the youngest, and hobbled through the exercise with an +air of ill-assumed juvenility. His feeble evolutions excited a mixed +feeling of ridicule and disgust among the lookers-on, instead of obtaining +for him the command to which he aspired. Having been disappointed +of producing the effect he had anticipated, he had recourse to +his friend, the tribune P. Sulpicius, who exercised a sort of reign of +terror by means of 3000 gladiators, whom he always had about him. +This formidable band of armed ruffians went by the name of the +Anti-Senate of Sulpicius, who employed them to carry any measure he +proposed, by showing the point of the sword to those who did not see +the point of his argument. In order to gain time, the Senate appointed +a series of holidays, or Feriæ, during which all business was suspended +for the celebration of public sports, which often enabled the authorities +to play a game of their own, by delaying any measure that was opposed +to their interests. After a brief interval, the Senate appointed Sulla +to the chief command, whereupon the Anti-Senate appointed Marius; +and the former had no sooner heard the news, than he marched upon +Rome with the whole of his army. The utmost consternation ensued; +for no army having been expected at Rome, there had been no preparations +for defence; and though the gates were closed, they were +almost as crazy and unhinged as the terrified <a name="inhabitants" id="inhabitants"></a>inhabitants.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0260c.png" width="550" height="353" alt="Marius discovered in the Marshes at Minturnæ." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Marius discovered in the Marshes at Minturnæ.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />A feeble attempt was made to bolt the doors against Sulla and his +soldiers, but it was impossible to bar their entrance. As they marched +through the streets, they were assailed from the houses with showers of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +brick, which, though very destructive, could not have been so damaging +as the modern mortar. Some of the inhabitants were armed with +slings, and now and then an arrow was discharged from a bow window. +Orders were immediately given to set fire to the quarters whence +the annoyance proceeded, and the directions were acted upon with +that indiscriminate ferocity which is too often displayed by an incensed +soldiery against an unarmed populace. The anger excited +by the few was vented on the unoffending many, and the troops performed, +with savage alacrity, the most humiliating service on which +they could have been employed—the butchery of their defenceless +fellow-citizens.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0261.png" width="450" height="344" alt=""Who dares kill Marius?"" title="" /> +<span class="caption">"Who dares kill Marius?"</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The leaders, or, rather, the mis-leaders of the people in this miserable +conspiracy, were the first to seek their own safety in flight, and the +tribune P. Sulpicius, who had set the example of employing brute force, +evinced the most cowardly haste in running away from it, when he +seemed likely to become one of its victims. Marius made for the +marshes near Minturnæ, where he stuck in the mud, and covered his +reputation with a number of stains that are quite indelible. On being +discovered in his ignoble retreat, by those who had pursued him through +thick and thin, he was dragged to the town and lodged in the nearest +station. A price had been put upon his head, but the article does not +seem to have been worth much, for he had shown very little sense in +the part he had been playing. His gray hairs, or, perhaps, rather, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +total baldness, still commanded so much of sympathy, that nobody +evinced a disposition to become his executioner, until a Cimbric soldier +undertook the discreditable office. He approached the veteran with a +drawn sword, but Marius had got into a dark corner, and succeeded in +frightening the man-at-arms by putting on a voice of the most dismal +character. The soldier fancying himself in the presence of a ghost, +failed in plucking up a sufficient spirit; and when a moan was heard—inquiring, +"Who dares kill Caius Marius?" the would-be assassin, +having flung down his sword, ran away, exclaiming—"Not I, for +one, at any rate!" The soldier, of course, exaggerated the cause of +his fears, and declared that the eyes of Marius had appeared to him +like two candles burning in their sockets. The inhabitants of Minturnæ +became as nervous as the panic-stricken soldier, and put Marius on +board a ship, which, after being tossed about for several days, came to +an anchor, or ran aground, high and dry, on the fine old crusted port of +Carthage. Here he rambled about the ruins, and rested his aching +head upon its broken temples. The Roman Governor, Sextilius, not +knowing what to do with such an embarrassing visitor, sent a messenger +to request him to "move on;" but the exile, with a dignified air, +claimed his right to repose upon the dry rubbish. "Tell thy master," +he observed to the officer on duty, who had respectfully told him he +must "come out of that," in compliance with the orders of the authorities,—"Tell +thy master that thou hast seen Marius, sitting on the +ruins of Carthage." The intelligence was not new, but it seems to have +been rather startling, for it had the effect of causing Marius to be +allowed to remain; and we will, therefore, leave him there, while we +proceed with the march of our history.</p> + +<p>Sulla having reduced the city to the most complete subjection, made +a merit of not pursuing his vengeance farther against the defenceless +inhabitants; and so great was his confidence in the efficacy of his +work, that he acquiesced in the appointment of L. Cornelius Cinna, a +partisan of Marius, to the consulship. Sulla proceeded to Greece, +where he blockaded Athens, whose inhabitants he plundered, as a practical +acknowledgment of their worth; and he spared their lives, to show +how he valued their ancestors. He manifested his respect for their arts +by robbing their city of its chief ornaments; and he paid their learning +the compliment of stealing their principal libraries.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Cinna had entered on the duties of the consulship +at Rome, but there the truth of the maxim, that two heads are better +than one, was rendered extremely doubtful by the constant dissensions +between himself and his colleague. The latter was Cn. Octavius, who +opposed whatever the former recommended; and while one tried to +carry his measures by brute force, the other endeavoured to defeat them +by armed violence. Cinna appealed to the mob, and Octavius trusted +to the army, both forces being the principal movers under a republican +rule or misrule, and both being equally repugnant to the spirit of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +constitutional government. The arms of such a republic might have for +its supporters the bludgeon and the sword, with the figure of Liberty +battered and bleeding, slashed and sabred, gagged and fettered, in the +middle. Octavius and the sword had, on this occasion, got the upper +hand; and Cinna, the clubbist, was glad to break his bludgeon or cut +his stick, in flying from the <a name="city" id="city"></a>city.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0263.png" width="399" height="500" alt="Marius in the Ruins of Carthage." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Marius in the Ruins of Carthage.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The Senate decreed that he had forfeited the consulship, and Cinna, +having been well received in the Italian towns, decreed that the Senate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +had forfeited their authority. The Government was thus reduced to +two negatives, which could not make an affirmative; and in the midst +of a theoretical perfection of republican forms, there existed only the +substance of practical anarchy. The inhabitants of the Capitol, with the +sword at their throats, elected a Consul, who was, of course, declared by +the executive to be their free choice; while the people in the provinces +protested, as loudly as they dared, against the violence that had +been done to all the principles of law and liberty. Cinna, who had +possessed himself of large sums of public money, employed bribes and +promises to get himself acknowledged as the lawful Consul, for it is customary +with despotism, acting under the name of freedom, to rob the +people with one hand, in order to corrupt them with the other.</p> + +<p>The veteran Marius, who, after making his bed on the ruins of +Carthage, was not too anxious to lie there, had been wanted to join the +party of Cinna, and the great captain of the age was received with +enthusiasm, in consideration of the great age of the captain. Papirius +Carbo and Q. Sertorius also gave in their adhesion; but Cn. Pompeius, +who was stationed with an army at Umbria, waited to see which side +would pay him best, and of those who would bid the highest, he was +prepared to do the bidding. Marius, in the meanwhile, landed in +Tuscany with a few friends; but to excite commiseration, he dressed +himself in rags, which was, indeed, putting on the garb of poverty. +He spoke so repeatedly of his reverses, and touched so frequently on his +old clothes, that the subject was completely threadbare. Rags are seldom +attractive, but in this instance, they were successful in obtaining for the +wearer a large crowd of followers.</p> + +<p>Cn. Pompeius had at length consented to espouse the cause of the +Senate, but the alliance was one of interest on his side, for he would not +espouse anything without a very large pecuniary settlement having been +made in his favour. He met the army of Cinna under the walls of +Rome, but both forces were enfeebled by sickness. Each party proceeded +to do its best, but the soldiers on both sides were so wretchedly +ill, that none of them could, for one moment, stand at ease; and all +were much fitter to be in bed than in battle. A storm did sad havoc +among the defenders of Rome, and a flash of lightning falling naturally +upon the conductor of the army, caused the death of Cn. Pompeius. +The gates of the city were thrown open, Cinna was restored to the +Consulship, and though there had been an understanding that no blood +should be shed, Marius set a band of slaves and mercenaries upon the +defenceless people.</p> + +<p>Under the pretence that he would only act according to law, this +sanguinary impostor, declaring himself an exile, pretended that he +would not enter the city until the sentence should be repealed; and with +a sword at every throat, he demanded an expression of the voice of the +people. The decision need scarcely be told, and Marius entered the +city, where, standing behind Cinna's consular chair, he made a series of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +savage grimaces at his intended victims. Among these was the Consul, +Octavius, who, soothed by the soothsayers into the belief that he had +nothing to fear, boldly refused to fly, until some hired assassins executed +their task, by executing the unhappy officer. He met his death +while still maintaining his seat, and expired in the arms of his armchair +of office.</p> + +<p>Marius being now master of the situation, did all he could to make +the situation vacant by a system of indiscriminate murder. The heads of +the nation were not only imprisoned, but struck off. The two Cæsars +were savagely seized and killed, while Marc Antony—an orator of considerable +mark—had concealed himself in a place that was made known +to Marius. The tyrant was at supper when he heard the news, and as +if determined to sup full of horrors, he started up with a determination +to witness the murder, which he desired should immediately take place; +but his friends pacified him with the assurance that the head should be +brought in to him.</p> + +<p>If the chroniclers are to be credited, Marc Antony owed his detection +to his fastidiousness as to the sort of wine that was placed before him. +While in concealment, his daily supply was procured from a neighbouring +tavern, by a messenger who was in the habit of tasting several +bottles before he was satisfied. This excited the curiosity of the landlord, +who became anxious to know the name of his very particular +customer. The messenger, on one occasion, had taken so much of +the wine in, that he let the truth out, when the wine-merchant +treacherously proceeded to betray the hiding-place of Marc Antony. +Soldiers were sent to his lodgings; but he grew so eloquent over his +generous wine, that he excited among the guards a generous spirit. +His life would probably have been spared, had not the tribune Annius +rushed up-stairs, and himself struck off the head of the unhappy +Antony.</p> + +<p>Several men of consideration, in the most inconsiderate manner, +killed themselves, to avoid the fate which was intended for them by +Cinna, and that still greater sinner, Marius. Q. Lutatius Catulus +proceeded to the temple, and getting into a corner among the statues of +the gods, placing himself opposite Pan, perished by the fumes of charcoal. +Merula, the Flamen of Jupiter, may be said to have snuffed himself +out, or extinguished his own vital spark; for, seating himself in the +portico of the Capitoline, he calmly made preparations for suicide, +and took off his flame-coloured cap, in which it was not lawful for +him to expire. Producing some surgical instruments from his pocket, +he sat ruminating over his case, and taking out a lancet, he showed +that he was no longer in the vein to live, but quite in the vein to die, +for he opened an artery. The tyrant himself took to drinking in his +old age, and frequently rolled about in a state of frenzy, under the +impression that he was commanding an army against Mithridates. +He ultimately drove himself to <i>delirium tremens</i>, and he contracted a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +constant shake of the hands by his frequent use of cordials. He died +after a short illness, on the 15th of January, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 86, without having +devoted himself to that sober reflection, which would have induced him +to repent of his numerous enormities. Such was the end of a man, +whose faults have been sometimes glossed over with the varnish of +flattery, though at the hands of truth they can only receive an appropriate +coat of blacking.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0266.png" width="355" height="450" alt="Marius in his Old Age." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Marius in his Old Age.</span><br /><br /><br /> +</div> +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Some say that Just-in was just-out, on this occasion, for that no comet appeared at +the time stated. See Justin, xxxvii. 2, <i>et seq.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> "De rebus Mithridaticis."</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p> + +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-SIXTH.</h2> + +<h3>DEATH OF CINNA. RETURN OF SULLA TO ROME. C. PAPIRIUS CARBO.<br /> +DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Liberty</span> being now established on a republican basis, by the massacre +of all who had a word to say against the military usurper Cinna, that +individual began the task of consolidating his power. He nominated +L. Valerius Flaccus to the consulship; and those of the aristocracy who +wished for freedom, were free to leave Rome if they did not like living +under a tyrannical government. To speak openly in the forum or the +courts of justice, was prohibited; and the scantiness of the reports that +have come down to us of the events of the times, can be no matter of +surprise, when we consider that the reporters were not permitted to give +an account of actual occurrences.</p> + +<p>It was necessary to amuse the masses by what are termed liberal +measures, and as an excess of liberality, it was proposed that every +debtor, paying one fourth of his debt, should be released from all further +liability to his creditor. This was sure to be a popular act in a country +already ruined by political agitation, and the despotism to which it +frequently leads; and, as the debtors were by far the most numerous +class, a sort of general Insolvent Act was hailed with acclamations by a +bankrupt community.</p> + +<p>Sulla, who was still in Greece, refused his allegiance to the despot at +home, and L. Valerius Flaccus was sent to supersede him in the +command of the army. Flaccus was not popular with his soldiers, and +as the head of the Government had set the example of setting aside all +law by a <i>coup d'état</i>, an imitator was soon found in the person of one +Flavius Fimbria, a lieutenant, who, by a <i>coup de tête</i>, got rid of his +obnoxious general. Flaccus being thus disposed of, Fimbria promoted +himself to the chief command; but, cowardice and cruelty going hand +in hand, he took his own life on hearing that Sulla was setting out +against him. The soldiers of Fimbria, with the most revolting faithlessness, +revolted to Sulla, who was now master of Asia. He called upon +the conquered nation for 20,000 talents, and as the subdued people had +not so large a sum by them, they were obliged to borrow it with one +hand at enormous interest, in order to pay it with the other. The +Roman capitalists lent the cash, and the Roman soldiers assisted them +with their swords to draw a ruinous per-centage from the unfortunate +borrowers. Sulla now prepared to march upon Rome, where Cinna had +re-elected himself as Consul, in conjunction with one Papirius Carbo, a +political incendiary, who acted like so much touch-paper and coal upon +the flame of discord. Intending to meet their rival, they proceeded with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +an army into Italy; but the soldiers no sooner found themselves on the +Italian soil, than they declared their determination to remain there. +Cinna called them together, and endeavoured to persuade them to go +forward, but even when he gave the word of command there was no +advance on his bidding. From passive resistance they proceeded to +active insubordination, and, denouncing him as a tyrant whom it was +high time to see through, they perforated him with their swords in +several places.</p> + +<p>On the death of Cinna, legal authority began to raise its humbled +head, and Carbo was summoned to hold a Comitia at Rome; but on +the day appointed, the attendance of voters not promising a satisfactory +result, the augurs declared the auspices unfavourable, and dissolved the +meeting.</p> + +<p>A deputation had been sent to Sulla to endeavour to make terms, but +the members of the deputation were forced to return without any terms +having been agreed upon. Sulla did not march immediately upon Italy, +but went to Ædepsus, in Eubœa, for the benefit of the hot baths, though +he did not limit himself to the waters, for he addicted himself to the +spirits abounding in the neighbourhood. He amused himself in the +society of those who are sometimes said to live upon their wits, though +their existence is really derived from the want of wit in others. Sulla, +however, had a counterpoise to any demerits of his own, in the still +greater demerits of those who were opposed to him.</p> + +<p>The new Consuls were L. Cornelius Scipio, a highly respectable man, +and C. Julius Norbanus, a mere creature of Carbo. Against these +leaders Sulla marched from Greece in the rudest health and the most +exuberant spirits. His pockets, however, were as light as his heart; +but this signified little, for the troops were so devoted to him that there +was not an officer unattached; and so far from making any difficulty +about their pay, they undertook to raise money among themselves, if +necessary, for the use of their leader.</p> + +<p>The expedition landed at Brundusium, where the inhabitants received +Sulla with open arms, or rather without any arms at all, for they permitted +him to occupy the place without opposition. Passing through +Calabria and Apulia, he approached the encampment of Norbanus, in the +neighbourhood of Capua, and sent ambassadors to treat; but their treatment +was anything but courteous. They were insulted by all kinds of +abuse, and it is said that they had a great deal more thrown in their face +than mere reproaches. When Sulla heard of their reception, or rather +their rejection at the enemy's camp, he fell upon it with such force that +everything fell under him.</p> + +<p>He next turned his attention to L. Scipio, whose army went over in +a body to the side of Sulla, while Scipio and his son were sitting +together, talking over general matters in the tent of the general. +L. Scipio had despatched his son with directions for the right division, +when the youth returned to say, that of the right division, there was not +one man left; and when Scipio himself went to look after his men, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +found there was not one remaining, even for the look of the thing, to +mount guard at the tent of their commander. He, of course, proposed +a series of strong resolutions, seconded by his son, that all those who +had joined Sulla were enemies to the state; but the state in which he +then was, rendered his denunciations idle, if not ridiculous. The +position of Sulla was becoming rather alarming to the party of Carbo, +who caused himself to be appointed Consul, for the year <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 82, in +conjunction with young C. Marius, who, as the heir of his father, had +inherited a large stock of wickedness. Cn. Pompeius had already sent +in his adhesion to Sulla, who had received him as a very promising +young man, for he had a fair share of popularity, and a good amount of +property. Young Pompey was opposed to old Carbo, and the former so +harassed the latter, that his temper, always sour, became equal to carbonic +acid in its inflammable tendency.</p> + +<p>Sulla took young Marius in hand, and followed him up to a place +called Sacriportus, where, in consequence of a dream—for the ancients +were addicted to taking advice with their eyes shut—an attack by the +former on the latter was resolved upon. Sulla ordered his soldiers to +advance, but they were so fatigued that they fell asleep on the road, and +caused their leader to wonder what they could possibly be dreaming of. +Instead of their being equipped in the arms of the warrior, they were +stretched in the arms of Somnus, and Sulla, though reluctant to go +counter to his dream, perceived the folly of marching to battle with a +somnambulist army. He gave orders, therefore, to halt, and the men +had commenced digging the foundations for a camp, when the cavalry +of Marius rode up for the purpose of annoying them. Irritated by the +conduct of the enemy's horse, the soldiers of Sulla kicked against it, and +even while engaged in their work, picked out, with their pickaxes, a few +of the foremost of the Marian army. This led to a general engagement, +in which Sulla's forces forgot their fatigue, and pursued the +enemy to the neighbouring town of Præneste, the gates of which were +shut in such haste, that all the fugitives had not time to get in, and +Marius himself was pulled up by a rope over the wall, together with a few +immediate hangers-on, who had tied themselves to his fortunes. Sulla +is said to have slain 20,000 men, and to have taken 8000 prisoners, +while he lost only twenty-three; but as he is his own authority for the +statement,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> we must take in a purely figurative sense many of his figures.</p> + +<p>The Marian party, fearing that the successes of Sulla might encourage +resistance to the despotism still prevailing at Rome, determined on +getting rid of the principal politicians of the day, the heads of the +National Assembly of the period. The modern practice might have +been to have shut up the place of meeting, and prevent the members, +by armed force, from going in—slaughtering them, of course, in case of +their perseverance; but the Marian policy was to summon them to the +Curia Hostilia, and having got them in, to butcher those who attempted +to go out again.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +The prætor, L. Damasippus, was entrusted with this sanguinary +business; and every eminent politician, who was suspected of having an +independent opinion of his own, was at once massacred. This step was +declared to be necessary to give strength to the Government, and to +insure the unanimity of the nation, by cutting the throats of all who +ventured to be of a way of thinking contrary to that of the ruling power. +Unfortunately, some of the best and wisest men of the day were blind +to the virtues of the chief of the republic; and the whole of these, +including Q. Mucius Scævola, the eminent jurist, were unceremoniously +sacrificed.</p> + +<p>The news of the success of Sulla at Sacriportus, caused a panic +among those who had been combining the butcher's business with that +of government at Rome, and the perpetrators tried to fly when they +heard the enemy was approaching the city. Sulla, leaving Lucretius +Ofella to keep watch at the gates of Præneste, lest Marius should attempt +to creep out, marched in person on the capital. Directing his steps +towards the Colline gate, he found there an army of those same Samnites, +who had been previously cut into so many pieces, and who were +ready to be cut into so many more, should occasion require the alarming +sacrifice. Their general, Pontius Telesinus, rode in front of them, +entreating them to come and be killed for positively the last time; and +the dux had sufficient influence to induce them to rush like a flock of +geese on their own destruction. The victory of Sulla was complete; +and Pontius Telesinus having been overlooked by the foe in the heat of +battle, supplied the omission in the business of the day by making away +with himself—after the usual cowardly fashion of the heroes of antiquity.</p> + +<p>Sulla's success seemed only to have effected a change of tyrants; and +his conduct proved that the monster grievance of Rome was the series +of inhuman monsters who had got hold of the government. The +atrocities attributed to Sulla are, however, so enormous, as almost to +border on the burlesque; and it is comfortable to feel in the exaggeration +a ground for hope that in the account furnished by the historians, +much may fall under the head of "Errors excepted."</p> + +<p>It is said that 3000 of the enemy at Antennæ implored his mercy, +which he granted, on the understanding that they were to assassinate +their associates—a service that was performed with brutal +eagerness. When the 3000 claimed their own pardon as a reward, +they were, according to Plutarch, conveyed to Rome, and butchered +with a few thousand others, who had the misfortune to differ in opinion +with the chief of a republican government.</p> + +<p>It was found so extremely embarrassing to heads of families and +others who were liable every day or hour to be cut off, that it was at +length proposed, as a matter of convenience, that Sulla should save +time by publishing a short list, containing the few names of those +whom he did not intend to sacrifice. He replied, by bringing out a +very long list of those he did, which he stated to be merely the first +number of a serial work, which he did not pledge himself to complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +within any particular period. As every copyright is liable to be +infringed, the work of Sulla was the subject of numerous imitations; +and there were many who made lists of their own, containing names disagreeable +to themselves; so that no man could walk the streets without +the chance of reading his own death-warrant on the walls of the capital. +Sulla, in many instances, offered rewards for the heads of his victims, +and his doors were beset from morning till night with the cry of, +"Butcher!" by those who called for the sums they had earned as +slaughtermen. Assassinations proceeded to such a fearful degree, that +Q. Catulus asked Sulla, in confidence, whether it was the intention of +the latter to spare any human being at all? for there seemed a chance +of his having no one left to rule over but himself; and such a man was +likely to find self-government exceedingly difficult.</p> + +<p>While these things were going on at Rome, Marius was besieged in +Præneste, from which he tried to make his escape through the common +sewer; a mode of insuring his life that was far from dignified. He, +however, was espied through an iron aperture, which was so grating to +his feelings, that he called upon his slave to run him through; when +the faithful fellow immediately bored him to death with a trusty and +rusty weapon.</p> + +<p>Sulla, the perpetrator of all the acts of despotism and cruelty which +are above described, was without any legal authority, and had no more +right than the meanest subject of the republic to the power which he +exercised. His reign was a reign of terror, supported by the swords of +a sordid soldiery. Of the two Consuls, Marius was already dead; and +Carbo, being taken prisoner, was condemned to death; so that Carbo—the +blackness of whose conduct justified his title of the coal—was soon +reduced to ashes.</p> + +<p>The senate, which had been cut down by assassination to suit the +views of Sulla, elected L. Valerius Flaccus as interrex, who immediately +caused Sulla to be invested with the power of doing whatever he +liked, as long as he liked; or, to use the official phraseology, made +him dictator for an unlimited period.</p> + +<p>On receiving his appointment, the first measure of Sulla was +to reward the tools who had assisted him, and L. Valerius Flaccus +was immediately made master of the horse, while the military +murderers, who had acted as executioners in the execution of his plans, +received grants of land in the places which had been unfavourable to the +tyrant. He courted a certain sort of popularity by extending the suffrage +to some 10,000 emancipated slaves, who retained enough of their +slavishness to cause them to vote as their master desired. He affected +to reconstitute the legislative body which he had illegally destroyed, and +he sent into it a quantity of that noxious scum which, in the troubled +waters of revolution, is frequently cast up to the surface of society.</p> + +<p>Having established his position through the brutality of one part of +the people, and the cowardice of the other, he set about the business of +a reformer; and, though he did much harm, the little good that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +accomplished must not be denied to him. Being a despot by nature, +he limited, as far as he could, the popular element in the constitution, +by curtailing the power of the tribunes; and he increased the government +patronage by adding to the number of pontiffs and augurs, so that +he might have the privilege of appointment to lucrative, but useless, +offices. His changes in the criminal code were, however, really beneficial, +for he made murder, whether committed by poison or violence, a +crime by law; and, indeed, it was necessary that the point should be +clearly defined, for military murders at the hands of the executive had +been so numerous that it was reasonably doubted whether human life +was henceforth to be protected at all by the government. Many old +laws were re-enacted, though they had never been repealed; but the +usurpers of power had so thoroughly trampled on every legal form, that +it was impossible to know which of the laws were to be regarded as +imperative on the people.</p> + +<p>Sulla, and his friends, boasted that his firmness had given tranquillity +to Rome; but tranquillity can scarcely be a desirable condition to one +whose quietude is the result of a gag in the mouth, a sword suspended +over the head, and chains on every part of the body. The repose, or +rather, the stillness thus obtained, was no less costly than inconvenient, +for there was a wholesale confiscation of the property of all who were +supposed to entertain views different from those of the government. +The iniquities of the master will often be followed by the man, and, +in conformity with this rule, a fellow, named Chrysogonus, one of +Sulla's creatures, caused the murder of Roscius of Armenia, in order to +get the opportunity of robbing him. The property of Roscius was +knocked down at a mock auction to a bad lot of ruffians, who were +there to intimidate the auctioneer into doing their smallest bidding. +Everything went for positively nothing, and Chrysogonus was understood +to have got nearly the whole of it at a ludicrously low figure.</p> + +<p>The laws made by Sulla, though perhaps plain enough in their +purport, had an ambiguity in their application which was extremely +inconvenient. Though binding at some times, in some places, upon +some persons, they were not so at other times, in other places, upon +others. He had laid it down as a rule that no one could be elected +consul until he had been prætor; though, in the case of his own +adherents, Sulla was not at all particular. When, however, L. Ofella, +the commander at Præneste, who had never been prætor, put up for the +consulship, Sulla declared such conduct was not to be put up with at all, +and had him killed in the middle of a morning's canvass. The people +were rather angry at the outrage, when Sulla, walking among a group +with a sword in his hand, "demanded silence for an anecdote."<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> A +circle drew round him, tremblingly alive to what he was about to say, +when the despot proceeded as follows: "A labourer," said he, "was at +work at the plough, when he was annoyed by insects, which caused him +to stop and beat them off by dusting his own jacket. Finding himself +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +annoyed a second time he took off his jacket and threw it into the fire. +Now, I advise those whom I have twice conquered not to oblige me to +try the fire," The people, who knew something of Sulla's threatened +fire, dreaded it with all the horror of a burned child, and he was left to +pursue his career of unchecked atrocity.</p> + +<p>A man who has the cruelty of a brute has, generally, the other +debasing appetites of the lower order of animals; and Sulla had as +much of the sensualist as of the tyrant in his character. To a thirst +for blood he added the appetite of a glutton; and, having amassed +enormous wealth by murder and rapine, he longed for the opportunity +to expend his ill-gotten means in idleness and debauchery. He +accordingly called the people together in the forum, and, having +walked up and down for some time asking if anybody dared to make a +charge against him, he resigned the dictatorship. This abdication has +been lauded by some as a proof of magnanimity and disinterestedness; +but, to sum up the truth in a few words, he had practised human +butchery as a trade, and, having realised an enormous fortune, he +retired from business. Having secured all the profits that were likely +to accrue from his unprincipled career, he left to others the difficult +work of sustaining the results of his policy. He retired to Puteoli, +where he passed much of his time in the company of actors, and became +the intimate associate of one or two popular low comedians. In his sober +moments—which were very few during the latter part of his life—he +wrote his own memoirs, and was employed upon the work until within +a few days of his death, which happened <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 78, when he had reached +the age of sixty. Seldom had a man, who had reached but three-score, +left so many scores unsatisfied. Such was his cruelty, that he +delighted in loading prisoners with fetters, and then shedding their +blood, which caused it to be said of him that he was no less fond of +mangling than of ironing. He had so little regard for old associations, +that when one of his acquaintances reminded him of the days +when they lived in the same house—Sulla paying 2000 sesterces +for the basement, and his former friend 3000 for the first floor—the +Dictator refused to spare his fellow-lodger's life, but brutally +remarked, that the story, whether upper or lower, was an old one, and +had long ago lost its interest. It is said that dungeons or cellars +were attached to Sulla's house for the purpose of keeping a supply of +human beings always on hand for occasional sacrifice. The manner +of his death rendered him an object as repulsive as he had become by +his mode of life; for, his licentiousness led to a disease which developed +itself in the generation of vermin in his skin; and he may be said to +have been almost eaten up with corruption before he expired. By his +own desire his body was burned; as if he had thought that fire might +act in some sort as a purifier of his memory. The ladies of the nobility +threw perfume on the funeral pile,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> but it was too late to bring him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +into good odour. Numerous attendants carried spices of every kind; +and, in addition to the ordinary mace-bearers, there were several officers +laden with cinnamon. The fact of incense having been offered at the +funeral pile of such a monster, is enough to incense any one who reads +a statement so humiliating to humanity.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0274.png" width="426" height="460" alt="Funeral Pile of Sulla." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Funeral Pile of Sulla.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />In personal appearance Sulla was by no means attractive; for he +had a quantity of green in his eye, an abundance of red in his hair, +and a profusion of purple in his countenance. His face was, like his +character, full of spots; and those who accused him of aspiring to the +purple, said the fact might be read in his look, for his cheeks were of +blue, and caused himself, as well as his acts, to wear a very dark complexion. +He was coarse in his manners, and had no appreciation of +any kind of delicacy but the delicacies of the table. Notwithstanding +the unpleasant features of Sulla's person and character, he was married +five times; for divorce had become so easy, that a man could always +put his old wife away when he wished for a new one.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> As quoted by Plutarch, in Sulla, c. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Vide the account given by Appian, c. 102.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Plutarch in Sulla, c. 38.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-SEVENTH.</h2> + + +<h3>REACTION AGAINST THE POLICY OF SULLA. SERVICES OF Q. SERTORIUS.<br /> +METELLUS. CN. POMPEY. SPIRITED STEPS OF SPARTACUS. THE<br /> +IRATE PIRATE.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 224px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0275.png" width="224" height="250" alt="Cæsar and Pompey very much alike, +especially Pompey." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Cæsar and Pompey very much alike, +especially Pompey.</span> +</div> + +<p><span style="margin-left:-1em" class="smcap">he</span> tyrannical acts of Sulla had +smothered, but not extinguished, the +flame of liberty, and every piece +of injustice had been so much fuel +heaped upon a smouldering fire. At +the death of Sulla, the population +consisted of little else than those +who had been beggared by a rapacious +soldiery, and the military desperadoes +who had done the tyrant's +work; a melancholy combination of +the victimisers and the victimised. +The Consuls were M. Æmilius Lepidus +and Q. Lutatius Catulus; the +former having enriched himself by +connexion with the dictator's party, +but the tide having turned, he turned +with it, in the hope that it might again lead on to fortune. Catulus, on +the other hand, adhered to the policy of Sulla; and there being reason +to fear that the two Consuls would get up a quarrel—in the course +of which the lookers-on would be robbed—the Senate made the Consuls +swear that they would not take up arms against each other. The +oath was readily taken, and no less readily broken by those republican +chiefs, who came into violent collision near the very gates of Rome; +and Lepidus, having got the worst of it, fled to Sardinia, where, having +laid down his plans for the future, he laid down himself, and died +rather unexpectedly.</p> + +<p>Several of the laws of Sulla were so manifestly unjust as to be indefensible +even by his own partisans; and many of them were repealed +under various consulships. Cn. Pompey, who had been a warm +adherent of the dictator, had a much warmer feeling for himself, and he +courted popular favour by the promise of many reforms which involved +a compromise of his former principles. The republic was, in fact, the +sport of a set of unprincipled men, who were trying, by every artifice +and crime, to get to the head of it. They cared nothing for the public +interests, but thought only of their own; which will be too often the +case when the chief power in the state is open to any who will make the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +highest bid for it. Pompey had gone into the market with his abilities +when tyranny required tools; but perceiving that demagogues were +now in demand, he endeavoured to make a profit of popular principles. +Others had embarked on the same voyage, shifting their course with the +breath of public opinion, and having no rudder but self-interest. One +of these was L. Licinius Lucullus, a man of excessive wealth, which he +used, or rather abused, in excessive luxury. He employed art for the +purpose of opposing nature; and, among other pieces of prodigality, he +endeavoured to convert a portion of the sea into a private fish-pond. +This he attempted at his winter residence near Naples; where, by a +cutting through the rocks he formed an opening into the bay, and kept +upon his own premises a continual supply of fresh fish in a reservoir of +salt water. His tastes were not, however, limited to the pleasures of +the dinner-table; for he had not only studied the law, and had the +Twelve Tables at his fingers' ends, but he had collected a library of such +vast extent, that it comprehended a store of information far beyond the +comprehension of its owner.</p> + +<p>M. Licinius Crassus was another candidate for power, which he sought +rather by means of his wealth, than his talents; for he had far more +money than wit; and Crassus often evinced signs of crass ignorance.</p> + +<p>Almost the only illustrious man of the period was C. Julius Cæsar, +who could turn his hand, no matter what was in it, to anything. He +was as ready with the pen as with the sword; but the latter was not +sharper than his tongue; while his mind was so capacious and elastic, +that it could adapt itself to small or great things with equal facility. A +very little subject is often lost in the vast expanse of a very great +intellect; and a diminutive understanding cannot afford space for the +admission of a grand idea; but there was suitable accommodation for +either one or the other, or both at once, in the self-adapting mind of +Cæsar. He was an author without jealousy, a scholar without pedantry, +and a politician without quackery.</p> + +<p>These, and other illustrious men, flourished in Rome about this +time; but Pompey, who had a natural love of pomp, possessed the art +of concentrating upon himself the rays reflected from the brilliant +personages who surrounded him; so that it was difficult to distinguish +at all times between him and the other men of distinction of the period.</p> + +<p>During the lifetime of Sulla, Q. Sertorius had been serving, or rather +commanding, in Spain, where he held the post of prætor, and was engaged +in keeping the interests of his party—that of Marius—alive, by killing +all who were opposed to them. His professed object was to unite +Spaniards and Romans as one people; but his mode of reconciling any +differences was to put to the sword those who, after he had put their +opinions to the test, were found to disagree with him. Sulla had sent +an army, under C. Annius, to attack Sertorius in Spain, when Sertorius, +looking upon C. Annius as a mere deputy, with whom a deputy on his +side might deal, despatched Julius Salinator to meet the envoy. The +result proved that the prætor had done wisely in acting on his discretion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +rather than giving way to any sudden impulse of valour; for Salinator, +whom he had sent as a substitute for himself, was killed, when, +in his capacity of proxy, he approximated too closely to the enemy.</p> + +<p>Sertorius, who had sent out Salinator as a sort of feeler—not exactly +expecting that the latter would have to feel his death-blow—perceived +there was little prospect of his own success; and he made his escape to +Africa. While in Mauritania, having no quarrel of his own, he interfered +in the quarrels of other people; and there being two claimants to +the Mauritanian crown, he supported one, and—by way of keeping his +hand in—picked the pocket of the other. His meddling having paid +him extremely well, he made up his mind and his luggage to retire +into private life, and an account he had heard of the Canary Islands +tempted him to deposit his well-feathered nest in that congenial locality.</p> + +<p>The Lusitanians, however, who had been robbed by the Romans +belonging to Sulla's party, having a vague idea of the propriety of +setting a thief to catch a thief, entreated Sertorius to defend them +against their enemies. The engagement was entered into after some +little delay as to the terms; when Sertorius set to work with so much +ardour, that he was soon fighting four Roman generals at once; and, +what was still more remarkable, he was getting decidedly the best of it. +His mode of warfare was to pour down from one fastness to another +with such speed, that his foes never knew where to have him, until he +had them in the most unexpected manner. If they began to march, +says Plutarch, he was upon their heels,—if they sat still, he was upon +their back,—and if they invested a town, he turned the investment to +his own profit by intercepting all their convoys. The enemy had no +resource against his arms but their own legs, for flight was their sole +safeguard.</p> + +<p>Not satisfied with fighting the battles of the Spaniards, he began +regulating their civil domestic affairs, and endeavoured to translate the +Spanish into the Roman character. His object was to establish a +Roman republic in Spain; but it is difficult to manufacture a foreign +article of native materials. He appointed 300 persons as a senate; +and, though the greater part were Spaniards, he took as many proscribed +Romans as he could find, in the hope that they would serve as +a sort of Roman cement, to make it hold together. He established a +school—a classical academy—where Latin and Greek were taught, and +where the pupils wore boys' tunics, after the Roman fashion.</p> + +<p>Sertorius was a general favourite with all classes, besides the classes +of the school; and happening to have a favourite fawn, which followed +him wherever he went, flattery declared the fawn was sent him by the +gods, as a mark of favour.</p> + +<p>Fortune appeared to favour him in all he undertook; and even +Q. Metellus, with a large army, could produce no effect,—a failure that +was attributed to the age and imbecility of that illustrious veteran. +Sertorius was joined by Perperna, who, on the strength of the forces he +brought, expected to share in the command; but such is the influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +of success, that Perperna's men repudiated their own leader, and +insisted on having Sertorius as their general.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0278.png" width="400" height="314" alt="Sertorius and his young Friends." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Sertorius and his young Friends.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The constant arrival of unfavourable news at Rome, at length induced +Pompey to exclaim—"This will never do; I must go and settle the +matter myself;" for Pompey's conceit induced him to conceive that +he should easily conquer Sertorius. The latter was besieging Lauro, +the modern Liria, to which the former advanced for the purpose of +relieving it. There was, near the walls, a hill that it was important to +possess, and both parties tried for it; but Sertorius, setting his eye on +the top, was the first to get up to it. Pompey, with consummate vanity, +expressed his determination to dislodge the fellow forthwith, and sent a +message to the town, desiring the inhabitants to sit upon the walls, +that they might see how cleverly he would dispose of their enemy. +Sertorius, on hearing the boast, observed, smilingly, that "a general +should watch behind as well as before,"—an observation that Pompey, +who did not see behind him at the time, would often afterwards look +back upon. Sertorius had, in fact, a very considerable reserve, with +which he hemmed the besiegers in while he burned the inhabitants out, +to the utter astonishment of Pompey, who, though near enough to the +flames to warm his hands, could not interfere without burning his +fingers.</p> + +<p>Pompey was, nevertheless, impatient to measure swords with Sertorius; +an operation which, though it seems indicative of coming to close quarters, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +must always keep a soldier at arm's length, at least, from his antagonist. +Desirous of all the glory that might be obtained, Pompey, hearing that +Metellus was coming up with assistance, resolved on precipitating a +battle, and he accordingly commenced one rather late in the afternoon, +though he knew he might be quite in the dark as to the issue. +Sertorius and Pompey each advanced at the head of a division, but by +some accident they did not happen to meet; and each of them came +back to the main body of his army with the conviction that he had +been victorious. On the renewal of the conflict the generals met, the +armies knocked their two heads together, when Pompey, being stunned +by the blow, and having no one to advise him what to do, took to flight +for the purpose of consulting his own safety.</p> + +<p>Though apparently invincible by his enemies, Sertorius was not +safe from his friends, for he was murdered at a dinner-party given to +him by Perperna. The cloth had not been removed, when Sertorius +was startled by a singular <i>entrée</i>, in the shape of a band of assassins, +who set upon him and slew him. So much was he respected by the +Spaniards, that it is said his death brought dying suddenly into fashion, +and many killed themselves at his funeral, for the purpose of taking +Sertorius as their pattern. Perperna immediately declared himself +commander-in-chief, but he was quite unfit for the place, and in his very +first engagement he was cut to pieces, with the whole of his army. +Whether they were literally cut to pieces, is a matter of doubt to us, +though the account is placidly adopted by the graver historians; but +when we consider the quantity of cutting and coming again of the same +parties—as exemplified particularly in the case of the Samnites—which +we are continually called upon to place faith in, we find belief +rather difficult.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0280.png" width="261" height="350" alt="Armed Slave" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Armed Slave</span> +</div> +<p>While <a name="these_things" id="these_things"></a>these things were proceeding in Spain, the slaves were going +on in the most perplexing manner in Italy and its neighbourhood. +Some of the ablest of them had been trained in gladiatorial schools to +afford amusement in the Circus; but this outrage to humanity brought +much misery in its train to those who were the cause of it. The slaves +were exercised in the use of all sorts of weapons, and humanity was +lowered by hiring them out for shows on public occasions. Being +skilled in the employment of the sword, they began to think of wielding +it against their oppressors, instead of trying it upon each other, and +about seventy of them escaped under the leadership of a Thracian of +their body, named Spartacus. Being unprovided with arms, they +plundered the cook-shops, where they seized spits for spears, skewers +for daggers, carving knives for swords, dripping-pans for shields, and +basting-spoons for general purposes. They next entered the shops +of the carpenters, and seized the tools of the workmen, many of +whom concealed the implements of their industry; but, if a saw +happened to show its teeth, it was immediately captured. Their +party, though at first small, was increased by all the runaway debtors +of the district; for it is a remarkable fact that those who owe +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +privately more than they can pay, are often foremost among those +who talk the loudest about what they owe to the public interests. +They took up their position on Mount +Vesuvius—an appropriate place for +a breaking out—and their numbers +having swelled to 10,000, they poured +themselves down, like a devastating +stream of lava, on many neighbouring +towns, which were speedily laid in +ashes. Spartacus pushed forward as +far as the foot of the Alps; but his +followers were intent on returning to +Rome, in order to sack it, and add +its contents to their baggage. M. +Licinius Crassus was sent after him; +and having undertaken to overtake +him, came up with him in Lucania. +The slaves fought like lions, or, +rather, with the ferocity of the brutes +with whom they had been taught +to contend, and were, in some instances, victorious. +</p> + +<p>Crassus had sent Mummius to keep the army in check, but the latter +had received particular directions not to fight; for the object of the +republican general was to take all the glory for himself, irrespective of +his country's interests. Mummius, however, had the same feeling, and +was desirous of winning a reputation, regardless of the orders of his +superior; for he knew that a military success, in the unstable condition +of the executive, would, however irregular, be passed over by the +people, and perhaps made a stepping-stone for himself to supreme +power. His men, who were not actuated by the same personal motives +as himself, saw the insufficiency of their force, and, being seized with a +panic, ran away, without stopping to draw their swords from their +scabbards. Spartacus formed the idea of passing into Sicily, and proceeded +to Rhegium, where he bargained with some pirates to supply +him with vessels; but after pretending much friend-ship, they never +furnished him with any ship at all, though he had paid the knaves the +price of a small navy.</p> + +<p>Spartacus found himself blockaded in Rhegium; and Crassus, cutting +a trench all round, thought to prevent all egress from the place; but +neither Crassus nor his trench proved deep enough to answer the +purpose proposed, for Spartacus filled up a portion of the ditch, and +walked over it. Crassus, now fearing that his cause was lost, sent to +Rome for the assistance of Pompey, who, priding himself on his previous +victories, and mentally ejaculating, "I'm the only man; they 're always +obliged to send for me," proceeded to meet Spartacus. No sooner had +Crassus sent for help, than he recovered from his panic, and sent to say +he should require no aid; but he had calculated in the absence of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +host, for when the host of Spartacus appeared, Crassus found it no easy +matter to contend with them. The latter, however, grown too confident +of success, determined on running the chance of striking or receiving a +decisive blow, notwithstanding the misgivings of their leader.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0281.png" width="385" height="450" alt="Spartacus." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Spartacus.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Spartacus commenced the day by sending for his horse, and killing +it, to the utter astonishment of the spectators, and the intense bewilderment +of the unfortunate animal. "If I win the day," said he, "I shall +have many better horses; but if I lose it, the poor creature would be +useless to me in my very humble walk of life, or my more probable +walk out of it." Such was his only mode of accounting for an act, +which none who pitied the suffering of an equine animal could regard +with equanimity. On the day of the battle, Spartacus was soon +wounded, but falling on his knees, he continued to fight in that uneasy +position. Being at last overpowered, he fell, with 40,000 of his +men, who, according to the authorities, were sent to destruction; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +though there is no hesitation in saying where they went, the question +where they came from, is one which the grave historians have paid no +attention to. Of the whole 40,000 who are said to have been found +dead upon the field, it is asserted that two only had their backs +to the foe; but we suspect that if there had been time for the defeated +to have turned themselves round, there would have been many more in +the same position.</p> + +<p>Crassus marched towards Rome, expecting to be received with +enthusiasm; but Pompey who had met and exterminated 3000 +Thracians, sent a letter home, declaring that "what Crassus had done +was all very well, but that he (Pompey) had really put an end to the +war by his act of determined butchery." Knowing the value attached +by a military republic to a sanguinary act, he was sanguine enough to +expect the office of Consul. This he obtained in conjunction with his +rival Crassus, who laid himself out, and laid out a considerable sum of +money as well, for the purchase of mob popularity. He gave the +people corn for nothing, and invited them to dinner-parties of +10,000 at a time; but his prodigality only proves the extent of his +plunder, for nothing could have gone into the public mouth, but that +which had in some shape or other come out of the public pocket. +Pompey, on the other hand, practised the profession of humility, which +perhaps answered better in a double sense; for it was certainly cheaper, +and possibly somewhat more effective, than ostentatious prodigality. He +used to lead his own horse in a procession, to show that he was a +simple <i>eques</i>, on a footing of equality with other citizens. When his +consulship was at an end, he retired into a private station, where he +lived like a prince—a style that seems to be much in favour with those +who preach the doctrine of perfect equality.</p> + +<p>It was impossible for such an active participator in public affairs to +remain wholly idle; and the alarming spread of piracy soon gave him +an opportunity for really honourable distinction. The pirates were +becoming a scourge to Rome, but Rome had richly deserved it, for it +had been her own injustice that had called into existence these +dangerous enemies to humanity. They consisted, in the first instance, +of men ruined by Roman extortion, who took to the mountains and the +sea, where the true excitement of the ups and downs of life may be +most vividly experienced. These men had in time been joined by the +once rich and noble, some of whom, having sold the wives and families +they could no longer keep, began to plough the ocean as the only field +of enterprise. Piracy thus became a regular business of man, just as +in more civilised times it has become a regular part of the business of +bookselling. Towns were plundered, the cattle were carried off, and +the inhabitants walked off to captivity. The rich were frequently kidnapped +on the roads, and nothing but a handsome ransom would obtain +their liberty.</p> + +<p>The pirates had been often reduced, but had never been rooted out; +and the tribune, A. Gabinius, proposed, therefore, that Pompey should +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +be called upon to do extraordinary things with extraordinary powers. +He was to have supreme command for three years, during which period +he was to have whatever was asked, and to order everybody or everything +that he required. He took his own measures extremely well, +and took the measure of the pirates also with such effect, that he soon +drove them from all their fastnesses, with a speed quite marvellous.</p> + +<p>Though his extraordinary powers had been conferred upon him for +three years, he had such still more extraordinary power over himself, that +he made a voluntary surrender of the former, when the object for which +they had been entrusted to him was accomplished. Everything was +achieved in three months, during which period he had taken several +towns, none of which he had kept to himself, though one of them, in +Cilicia, called Soli, he made a solitary exception of, by giving it the +name of Pompeiopolis. The people of Soli talked a mixed dialect of +Asiatic and Greek, which caused such a confusion of speech, that a great +deal of confounded nonsense was the result; and it is said that the +word solecism, as applied to an inaccuracy of speech, is derived from +the name of the place alluded to.</p> + +<p>That the Romans should have been hostile to piracy is somewhat +inconsistent with the principle, or rather the want of principle, on which +they acted themselves, for they pirated almost everything. Their +literature was mere piracy from the Greeks; and according to some +authorities, the Romans pirated even from the pirates themselves; for +the former are said to have pirated from the latter the idea of the +system of the Zodiac.</p> + +<p>The pirates carried on their lawless trade with such success, that +they had a fleet of more than 1000 galleys, many of them being handsomely +gilded—a fact that glossed over in the eyes of many the iniquity +of the means by which such wealth had been acquired. A dash of gaiety +is said to have pervaded the enormities of these lawless depredators; +and when among their prisoners they captured a Roman of high rank, +they would politely request him to walk into the sea; for "to enslave +one of the lords of the earth was an act they could not think of being +guilty of." Young Julius Cæsar, who fell into their hands when a mere +boy, on his voyage to Rhodes, appears to have met them more than +half way in their sallies of humour. They asked twenty talents for +his ransom, when he offered them fifty; and even then was so little +anxious to leave them, that he remained thirty-eight days after having +paid his money and become entitled to his quittance. During his stay +among them he wrote satirical verses on their barbarous mode of life, +and parried off their swords by the still keener weapons of ridicule. +The pirates were amused by the sallies of their prisoner, who conveyed +to them all the bluntness of truth in all the sharpness of epigram. +They were sorry enough to part with him, when the money for his +ransom arrived; but they had reason to be still more sorry when they +met him again; for when he did so, it was only to capture them and +carry them to Pergamus.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></p> +<h2><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-EIGHTH.</h2> + +<h3>THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. DEPOSITION AND DEATH OF<br /> +MITHRIDATES.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Pompey had been busy in punishing the pirates, Rome had +something to fear from another quarter; for Mithridates had been +everywhere beating up for recruits to beat down the Commonwealth. +He was extremely rich, and had an army of 150,000 men; for the +trade of war is unhappily one of those in which there is never any lack +of hands ready to wage war, when their wages can be relied upon.</p> + +<p>Bithynia was one of the first objects of the attack of Mithridates, +who was opposed by the Consul, M. Cotta; but the place was burned to +the ground, and the ashes of poor Cotta were found in the condition of +terra cotta among the ruins. Lucullus, the colleague of Cotta, was +sent into Asia with a great army, which attacked Mithridates with such +effect, that the king only saved his own life by emptying his pockets of +all the money he had about him, and making a scramble of it among +the hostile soldiers. The mercenaries, in fighting with each other for +the loose silver, forgot to make sure of the sovereign. Mithridates fled +to his son-in-law Tigranes, who, having named the metropolis Tigranocerta, +after himself, had established himself as King of Armenia. +Lucullus proceeded across the Tigris, and required that Mithridates +should be given up; but Tigranes, looking at his venerable though +determined father-in-law, referred the legate for an answer to the old +gentleman. The King of Pontus answered by requesting that the +enemy would come and take him, which the Romans were actually +about to do, when Mithridates and Tigranes thought it safer to run for +their lives; Tigranes ingloriously taking his crown from his head, and +putting it in his pocket, to avoid being recognised.</p> + +<p>The treasury of Tigranocerta, with a surplus of two millions sterling, +fell into the hands of the Romans, who seized on the spoil, and who had +become so independent by their temporary wealth, that they criticised, +approved, and abused or disobeyed, when and why they pleased, the +orders of their general.</p> + +<p>Mithridates, taking advantage of this state of things, collected a +numerous army, and fell wherever he could upon the Roman garrisons. +On one occasion he approached so near the enemy as to be within a +stone's throw, and as they happened to be throwing stones, he received +one on the knee; while an arrow, fixing itself under the eye, at once +opened it to the full extent of his danger. He soon recovered from the +effect of his wounds, and was ready by the ensuing spring to attack +C. Triarius, when a Roman soldier, disguised as a native, pretended to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +whisper something in the ear of Mithridates, at the same time giving +him a most unfriendly poke in the ribs with a concealed weapon. The +King was so unprepared for the wound that he fainted right away, and +his troops were so taken up in catching him, that they forgot to catch +the foe, who were suffered to escape, though they might otherwise have +been easily seized upon. Mithridates, having come to, expressed his +anger at the carelessness of his officers, and, notwithstanding his wound +and his age, he would have attempted the pursuit—under difficulties—of +the enemy. The next morning he renewed the attack on Triarius, +and cut to pieces 7000 men; an operation, however, which seems +almost too extensive for even the scissors of Fate, and we cannot help +regarding it, therefore, as a sheer invention of the graver historians.</p> + +<p>Pompey was now sent to supersede Lucullus in the command; a +measure that had become doubly necessary, for Lucullus had not only +failed as a leader, but his soldiers were daily refusing to follow him. +When his troops approached within a short distance of Mithridates, they +seemed more inclined to engage with him in a friendly than in a hostile +sense, for many of them joined his forces. Soon after the arrival of +Pompey, a battle was fought by night on the banks of the Euphrates. +The moon, being near its setting, had lengthened the reflection cast by +the Roman troops, and the soldiers of Mithridates, mistaking the +reflection for the substance, began fighting most energetically with +mere shadows. Every missile, thrown apparently into the midst of +the Romans, was as ineffective as a miss, and the soldiers of Mithridates +believing the foe to be invulnerable, fled in a state of panic. +The King himself fought valiantly at the head of his body-guard; a +corps which counted among its members his own wife, who, in the arms +of a man, committed fearful havoc upon the Roman soldiery. Notwithstanding +the powerful assistance of this strong-minded and able-bodied +woman, Mithridates was compelled to fly, though he made extensive +arrangements for renewing the war on the first favourable opportunity. +This opportunity seems never to have arrived, or, if it came, it was +lost by the treachery and cowardice of his son Pharnaces, who persuaded +the soldiers that his father was an old fool to think of fighting +with the Romans. Several of the principal officers took the same +view of the subject, and joined in a conspiracy to depose the King, for +the purpose of setting up Pharnaces as his substitute.</p> + +<p>Mithridates was in bed one morning, when, woke by a considerable +shouting under his window, he heard the words, "Pharnaces is king!" +and sent to know the meaning of such an outcry. The answer was +unsatisfactory, when the veteran, mounting his charger, made a speech +on horseback, which nobody listened to. His son gave orders that he +should be seized, when the old man, putting spurs to his horse, +galloped up a hill, which for a man in the decline of life, who had been +going down hill rather rapidly, was a bold and hazardous experiment. +From the eminence he had gained, he saw the depth to which he had +fallen; for he witnessed the coronation of his son Pharnaces, amidst +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +the acclamations of the army. The poor old man was so affected at the +sight, that he took from a fold in his dress a deadly drug, which, in +anticipation of an alarming self-sacrifice, he always carried about with +him. He was about to take off the mixture, when his two daughters, +who were standing at his side, entreated the privilege of a drink at the +deadly decoction. For some time he hesitated; but he was at length +touched by their looks of mute entreaty at the fatal liquid. Dividing +the contents of the bottle into three parts, he gave a dose to each of his +daughters, reserving a dose for himself; and on a signal from the old +gentleman, the two young ladies swallowed the nauseous stuff they had +so earnestly solicited.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0286.png" width="450" height="350" alt="Mithridates, his rash act." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mithridates, his rash act.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The poison took effect at once upon the females; but their father +experienced only a disagreeable taste, without the deadly result he had +looked for. Though too much for two, it was not enough for three, and +the poor old man tottered about in a state of nausea, unattended with +danger. Having been previously tired of existence, he was now +thoroughly sick of it, and turning to a loyal servant at his side, he +requested that he might immediately be put out of his misery. The +faithful fellow, making a compromise between his morality and his duty, +turned away his eyes, and held out the point of his sword, when +Mithridates, coming speedily to the point, fell on the outstretched +weapon.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the Mithridatic War, as well as Mithridates himself; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +and his cowardly son Pharnaces sent in his adhesion to Pompey, +acknowledging, in a spirit of humility and subservience to Rome, that +he only held his kingdom at the pleasure of the Senate.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0287.png" width="340" height="470" alt="Mithridates." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mithridates.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The character of Mithridates has been drawn by so many different +delineators, that his portrait, as taken by the historians, presents a +daub in which it is difficult to recognise the true features. So many +skilful artists have been employed upon the task, that we hesitate in +submitting Mithridates to a fresh canvassing at our hands; nor are we +desirous of using the pencil, as some have done, for the purpose of +imparting additional blackness. Some of those who have taken the +sketch in hand, have thrown in the shadows with a ten-pound brush, +while others have clothed him in several coats and overcoats of varnish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +for the purpose of glossing over the defects of his character. All are +ready to admit that he was an able ruler; but he had not that perfect +uprightness and straightness which give to a ruler the qualities most to +be desired. He could speak twenty-five different languages; and thus +he was often able to talk over those with whom he might not have been +able to come to an understanding, had his conversation been less +versatile. He was of gigantic stature, which caused him to be looked +up to by those who were placed under his authority. Notwithstanding +his excessive height, he was not at all ungainly in his appearance, but +his well-moulded frame was a perfect picture.</p> + +<p>His fondness for the fine arts was exhibited in the rapacity with +which he seized upon the choicest efforts of human genius, which were +in turn stolen from him by other amateurs, whose patronage of talent +was evinced in the ardour with which they appropriated the result of +its labours. In Sinope, one of his cities, was found an astronomical +sphere, which seems to show that the science of the stars was within +the circle of his knowledge. In one of his fortresses was discovered a +statue of himself no less than twelve feet high, in pure gold, which +proved not only the value he set upon himself, but showed how completely +he was wrapped up in the precious metal.</p> + +<p>Credit has been given him for the possession of many domestic +virtues; because, though he was cruel to one half of his numerous +wives, he treated the other half with considerate tenderness. He +excited the terror of his foes, but enjoyed the affection of his servants; +and though hated in the field, he was beloved in the kitchen. +According to Paterculus, Mithridates was a man of whom it is difficult +to speak, and still more difficult to say nothing.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> The same authority +confers upon him a character for greatness of mind during the whole of +his life; but when, having a great mind to kill himself, he prevailed +on a slave to put him to death, he evinced—to use a contradictory +expression—a vast amount of mental littleness.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTE: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Mithridates, Ponticus Rex, vir neque silendus, neque dicendus sine curâ. Vell. +Paterc., lib. ii., c. 18.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE TWENTY-NINTH.</h2> + +<h3>CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. INTRODUCTION OF CICERO. CÆSAR,<br /> +POMPEY, CRASSUS, AND CO.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0289.png" width="192" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>Republic without republicans may +be an exceptional state of things; +but ancient as well as modern history +furnishes proof that the existence +of a republic is not incompatible +with the absence of anything +for which such a form of government +is usually desired. It is +now an ascertained fact, that the +people have no greater enemies to +liberty than themselves; and that +universal suffrage is the surest +instrument to effect the objects of +a despot. Equality, in a republican +sense, seems to imply a condition +in which all are equally debased; and a nation appears to be +never so thoroughly slavish as when it is free to choose its own ruler.</p> + +<p>The Romans had for some time been in the habit of placing themselves +in the hands of a succession of tyrants and knaves, who obtained +popularity by the display of the worst attributes. One would win the +public voice by his boldness as a thief; another would render himself +the elect of the people by his sanguinary successes as a wholesale +murderer. It is unfortunate for what is termed the liberal cause, that +the vulgarest qualities often attract the largest share of applause; and +that those who are entrusted most freely with the confidence of the +people are almost always the most unscrupulous in betraying it.</p> + +<p>Rome had now sunk to the lowest condition; and society, under the +republic, had become so dissolute, that its dissolution might be looked +for as a natural consequence. Among the nobles of the period was a +certain mass of cruelty and corruption, under the name of Sergius +Catiline. He boasted of a long line in connection with his family tree; +but a much shorter line, in connection with any ordinary tree, would +have been more appropriate to his merits. Having spent all his own +money, he spent as much as he could of other people's, by running into +debt as deeply as possible. In order to meet some of his old engagements +sufficiently to enable him to contract new, he murdered his +brother, with a few more of his family connections, and, in fact, justified +the opinion formed of him on account of his antecedents, by killing his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +relatives. Having obtained a Proprætorship in Africa, he followed up +his career of private swindling, by the wholesale practice of public +robbery. He used his office for the purposes of extortion; and the +only proof he gave of exactness was in the exactions to which he submitted +all who were under his authority.</p> + +<p>On his return to Rome he hoped to have a wider scope for his +dishonesty in the office of Consul, to which he aspired; and he formed +a party of ruined spendthrifts, whose only chance of supporting themselves +was by supporting him as a candidate for power. These desperadoes +had nothing to lose, and everything to gain,—all that they had +to lose being their own, and all that they had to gain being the property +of others. Catiline had attracted the sympathies of these adventurers +by promising to divide among them all the official salaries; and he had +rallied round him a considerable number of adherents by offering to the +"million" an opportunity of helping themselves to that which did not +belong to them. He professed to be able to relieve all classes at once, +by relieving the poor of their burdens, and the rich of their property. +The dregs of the populace were easily stirred up, and even some of the +nominal nobles were base enough to join in a conspiracy against their +own order. The object of the conspiracy was to murder the whole of +the senate by a massacre <i>en masse</i>; but the scheme was frustrated by +that treachery which is almost sure to be found among a set of men +who are banded together for a bad purpose. One Curius was induced +to gratify the curiosity of a woman, named Fulvia, with whom he was +in love; and the secret having reached female ears, flew to the tip of a +female tongue, when the secret oozed out as naturally as water finding +its level.</p> + +<p>Cicero, who had been the competitor of Catiline for the Consulship, +soon became aware of the facts; and the former resolved to try and +talk the conspiracy down, by making it the subject of several bursts of +indignant eloquence.</p> + +<p>On the entrance of so illustrious a person as Cicero on the historical +scene, it is fit that we should act the part of cicerone, for the purpose +of introducing him. This celebrated character was born on the 3rd of +January, in the year of the City 647, at Arpinum, where his father had +a seat before the future orator was capable of standing. His grandfather +was a man of some consideration, pecuniary as well as moral; for +he was possessed of some property, and looked up to as an authority in +questions of local politics. He had two sons, the eldest of whom, +Marcus, was the father of the celebrated Marcus Tullius, from whom +the family has derived that indelible mark which time is not likely to +obliterate. After receiving the rudiments of his education at his native +place, he was sent to Rome, where he studied Greek; and the flame of +oratory was first kindled in his mind by contact with the Greek poetic +fire. As soon as he had assumed the toga, he became wrapped up in +manly pursuits, and was placed under the care of Mucius Scævola, the +augur, who augured extremely well of his pupil. The young Cicero<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +soon evinced a turn for poetry, which caused his head to be constantly +running upon poetical feet; and he came out rather strong in numbers +at a very early period. At the appointed age he joined the army; for +the laws of his country required that on his entrance into life he should +incur the risk of being sent out of it. He was present in the Marsic +War, at the taking of the Samnite camp; but being in-tent on another +part of the field, he saw little of the battle. At the end of the war he +devoted himself to literary pursuits, and wrote his work <i>De Inventione</i>, +which, in accordance with the maxim that necessity is the mother of +invention, no doubt derived its existence from the author's <a name="necessities" id="necessities"></a>necessities.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0291.png" width="392" height="450" alt="Fulvia." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fulvia.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />He next studied the art of reasoning, under Diodorus, who came to +live under Cicero's roof, so that the latter probably found, or rather +provided, lodging, while the Stoic "stood" the logic, which was +undoubtedly a reasonable consideration for the accommodation afforded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +him. In his twenty-sixth year Cicero came out regularly as a professed +orator; and the public voice soon accorded to his own a reputation of +the highest character.</p> + +<p>After talking incessantly for nearly two years, he found it necessary +to take breath in retirement; and proceeded to Athens and to Rhodes, +where he cultivated a more subdued style of oratory, getting rid of a +disagreeable redundancy of action, and avoiding that motion, of course, +of the arms, which is the common defect of the youthful advocate.</p> + +<p>On his return to Rome, after an absence of two years, he appeared +in the courts of law with distinguished success, and had the next best +business to those popular leaders, Cotta and Hortensius. The three +learned brethren were all of them successful candidates for the offices of +Consul and Quæstor, in the last of which capacity Cicero was sent to +Sicily. There his chief employment was to keep up a good supply of +wheat for the capital, and, by the production of large crops of corn, he +cultivated his growing popularity. During his Quæstorship he visited +Syracuse, and discovered the tomb of Archimedes, which was thoroughly +overgrown with briers, presenting an apt monument to one who had +trodden, during life, the thorny paths of science. Cicero left the +island with the pleasing idea that all Rome had been resounding with +the praises of his administration; but, on landing at Puteoli, he was +not a little disgusted at meeting a friend who asked him "where he had +been, and what was the latest news in the city?" Cicero, at once perceiving +that out of sight and out of mind were the same thing, determined +to keep himself henceforth in the public eye to prevent its being +shut to his merits.</p> + +<p>It was not long after this period of his history that he came into +collision with the conspirator, Catiline, whom he denounced before the +assembled Senate, in an oration which has been preserved to this day, +by the pungency of its sarcastic reasoning. Every sentence smacked of +Attic salt, and every word was so much pepper to the guilty Catiline. +The latter attempted a reply; but the senators were seized simultaneously +with one of those coughs which spread like an influenza over an +unwilling audience. The mask was now fairly torn off; and Catiline +stood revealed in all his naturally atrocious features. He fled from +Rome; but Cicero continued to show that though his hostility was all +talk, it was of the most effective kind; for he sent forth speech after +speech, and every sentence involved a sentence of "guilty" against Catiline. +All those conspirators who had remained in Rome were seized, and +strangled by the executioner, who, when they cried for pity, abruptly +choked their <a name="utterance" id="utterance"></a>utterance.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0292b.png" width="550" height="336" alt="Cicero denouncing Catiline." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Cicero denouncing Catiline.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />The conspiracy, though in great part stifled, was not wholly extinguished; +for Catiline did his utmost to keep it alive, by assembling an +army in Etruria. There he was to have been opposed by the Consul, +C. Antonius; but that individual pleaded illness, and declared that a +severe headache would preclude him from encountering the din of war, +while a hoarseness, which he said had seized him by the throat, incapacitated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +him, as he alleged, for giving the word of command on the +field of battle. His troops were, however, so determined on action, +that they no sooner heard of their general being an invalid, than they +insisted that his appointment was invalidated, and they proceeded to +business under the command of his legate, M. Petreius. A fierce +battle ensued, at Pistoria, and both sides fought like lions; though, to +say he fought like a tiger would have been more appropriate to one of +the race of Cati-line. Nobody fled, if the accounts are to be believed; +but 3000 conspirators fell with their swords in their hands, causing +a perfect mountain of slain; and, to crown the whole, their leader +is alleged to have formed the summit of this cadaverous pyramid. +Those of the conspirators who were not killed by the sword were suffocated +under the heaps of their companions; and the conspiracy itself +was effectually smothered.</p> + +<p>Cicero having saved his country, went out of office,—a course exactly +opposite to that followed by modern statesmen, who sometimes quit the +service of their country when they have placed it in danger. He +received the thanks of the Senate; was hailed as Pater Patriæ, the +father of his country, and was invested with a civic crown,—a head-dress +of oak-leaves; the material being a fitting type of that popularity +which falls away and is scattered to the winds with such fatal facility.</p> + +<p>The fickleness of public favour was speedily shown in the case of +Cicero; for it was proposed that Pompey should be recalled from Asia, +to restore the Constitution; it being one of the inconveniences of a +republic, that though the constitution is said to be always the best in +the world, it is always in need of a succession of restoratives. Pompey +landed at Brundusium, where he disbanded all his army, in order to +show his attachment to republican simplicity,—a term which is often +misapplied; for the simplicity of republicans consists chiefly in their +aptitude for being imposed upon.</p> + +<p>Though Pompey arrived at Rome without his soldiers, he took care +to show his grateful sense of services to come, by causing every man of +them to receive a sum equal to about forty-five pounds sterling from the +public treasury. He devoted a portion of his gains to building a temple, +ostensibly to Minerva, but, in reality, dedicated to himself; for it was +inscribed with an account of his victories.</p> + +<p>Having sought in vain the support of the Senate, he abandoned the +aristocratic party, and threw himself upon the people, who received him +with open arms; but the arms that are open to admit a candidate for +popularity are often equally open to let him fall from his position.</p> + +<p>As Pompey is destined to lose his life before the end of the chapter, +it may be as well to give some account of his birth, that the reader may +be able to estimate the loss at its true value.</p> + +<p>Pompeius Cneius was born on the 30th of September, <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 106, a few +months later than Cicero, and breathed his first at about the time when +Jugurtha breathed his last, in a Roman prison. The family of Pompey +belonged to the plebs; and one of his ancestors may be said to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +lived upon air, for he was by profession a flute-player. His father, +Pompeius Strabo, had imbibed aristocratic ideas, and fought in the +Marsic War; but he seems to have despised the laurel of fame for the +more profitable branch of plunder. His wealth had been considerable; +and after his death his son was accused of having participated in the +ill-gotten gains, when young Pompey, knowing the corruption of the +tribunals, married the daughter of the judge, as a sure mode of getting +a decision in his favour.</p> + +<p>His acquittal followed as a matter of course; for when public officials +were immersed in every kind of selfishness and degradation, the sinking +of the judge in the father-in-law was comparatively venial. By dishonest +means the elder Pompey had come to a great estate, from a low condition; +and the son sought to hide, in the abundance of his means, the +meanness of his origin. He became proud and upstart, evincing a predilection +for aristocracy, which often animates those of lofty talent and +low birth; who frequently affect the littlenesses of the nominally great, +instead of showing that true greatness can exist among the so-called +little. Self aggrandisement was his grand, or rather his petty, object; +and he owes to his ignoble attempts to elevate himself, the low place he +occupies in the opinion of the impartial historian.</p> + +<p>Soon after his return from Asia to Rome, he celebrated a triumph, +which had all the attributes of a vulgar puff; for there were carried +before him long lists of his achievements, followed by several wagon-loads +of goods, the produce of much pillage. Finding his political +designs opposed by Cato and others, he was anxious to form a party of +his own; and C. J. Cæsar, who saw the necessities of Pompey, determined +on turning them to his own advantage. He made overtures, to +which the other listened, and effected a reconciliation between Pompey +and Crassus, who having both met, were capable of contributing in more +senses than one to the success of the plans of Cæsar. These three +men entered into a sort of political union, which is usually distinguished +by the name of The First Triumvirate.</p> + +<p>Cæsar had become Consul in the year of the City 694, (<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 59) when +the party of the Senate, wishing to have a check upon him, practised +every sort of bribery to obtain the election of one Bibulus as his +colleague. This individual was a mere nobody, with a remarkable +deficiency of head; and the small wits of the day were accustomed to +date their notes "in the Consulship of Julius and Cæsar," instead of in +the Consulship of Cæsar and Bibulus.</p> + +<p>It is a remarkable fact that despotism always looks for its tools +among those whom it designs for its victims; and there are no instruments +so ready as the people themselves to put an end to popular liberty. +It is the policy of a tyrant to destroy all power but his own; and the +destruction of legal authority is always favourable to those who are +playing the game of unprincipled ambition. Cæsar began by flattering +the people at the expense of the Senate; and he enacted that records +of the proceedings of the latter should be published under the title of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +<i>Acta Diurna</i>, which may be regarded as the origin of our journals of the +House of Commons, and our daily newspapers. A second measure was +a sort of Insolvent Act, for the benefit of the farmers of the public +revenue, who, in their anxiety to obtain the contract, had offered more +than they could pay for the privilege of collecting the taxes. His third +great project was an agrarian law, in conformity with which any pauper +citizen who could show at least three children—whether genuine, or +borrowed for the occasion, it might have been difficult to ascertain—were +entitled to a grant of land in Campania. This premium on +improvident marriages called forth such an overwhelming demonstration +of paternity, that the ground in Campania fell far short of the +quantity of fatherland that was required; and it was necessary to purchase +several thousands of acres, in order to widen the field for the +operations of Cæsar. Bibulus opposed the measure; but his opposition, +though for the moment busy, proved idle in the end; when, disgusted +with failure, he shut himself up in his house for the rest of the year; +and every one said that he had been completely shut up by his more +powerful colleague.</p> + +<p>Cæsar was now more desirous than ever of a near alliance with +Pompey; and, in order to draw the bands closer, the former gave his +daughter in marriage to the latter, though the gentleman was obliged to +put away his old wife, Mucia, to make room for the new; and the lady, +Julia, was under the necessity of breaking off an engagement with an +intended husband. In order to constitute a strong family party for +carrying on the government, Cæsar himself married Calpurnia, the +daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, who, by means of private influence, was +made consul for the ensuing year with A. Gabinus.</p> + +<p>It was customary for a retiring Consul to have a province assigned to +him for a single year; but Cæsar having worked all the principal public +departments with tools of his own, obtained, by a flagrant violation of the +Constitution, a prolonged lease of his own power. The rich provinces +of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyrium were assigned to him for five years; +and Transalpine Gaul was afterwards added by the Senate, because +they saw the people were so completely under his influence, that they +would either have given him all he asked, or he would have taken all +he wanted without asking it.</p> + +<p>Among the members of the aristocracy of this degenerate age of the +Roman republic was one Clodius, whose name, like himself, was a corruption +of Claudius, for he belonged to the family of the Claudii. +This disreputable profligate had obtained an infamous notoriety during +the festival of the <i>Bona Dea</i>, whose rites were celebrated on the first of +May; and being conducted exclusively by women, the ceremony was no +doubt one of a most confused and tedious character. Clodius having disguised +himself in a female dress, passed unnoticed amid the din of many +tongues, till female curiosity detected him in a flirtation with the wife +of Cæsar, whose house was the scene of the festival. Clodius was +brought to trial for the offence, and sent a retainer to Cicero, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +instructions to the orator to prove an <i>alibi</i>. Instead of following the +modern professional course of adopting any falsehood, however gross, +for the sake of a client, Cicero hurried into the opposite extreme, and, +indignantly throwing up his brief, not only rushed into the witness-box +to give evidence against the accused, but threw up his cause in an +explosive burst of eloquence. Notwithstanding this remarkable instance +of honesty at the bar, there was so much corruption on the bench, that +Clodius bribed the judge by throwing into the scales of justice a sum of +gold which turned the balance in his favour. Clodius threatened +revenge, and promised to stick to Cicero through life, for having cast +him off, and refused to stick to him at such a momentous crisis.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0296.png" width="450" height="288" alt="Cicero throws up his Brief, like a Gentleman." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Cicero throws up his Brief, like a Gentleman.</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br />Cæsar, who was the person most interested in the subject of the lawsuit, +allowed it to give him very little uneasiness; for having divorced +his wife, he continued on terms of friendship with Clodius. The latter +became a candidate for the tribuneship; but being disqualified by his +high birth, he got himself adopted into that for which nature had best +adapted him—a very low family. By a bargain with the Consuls he +obtained their support; for he promised that if they helped him to the +tribuneship, he would assist them in helping themselves to a rich +province at the close of their year of office. The disgraceful arrangement +was completed,—the plunderers paying each other at the cost of +the public welfare.</p> + +<p>Clodius immediately began to exercise his public authority for the +gratification of his private feelings; and got a law passed for the sole +purpose of destroying Cicero. The orator looked to the triumvirate +for protection; but Pompey went out of town; Crassus remembered an +old grudge; and Cæsar sided with his friend Clodius. Cicero, without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +waiting to take his trial, left the city, amid the lamentations of all the +good, who formed a mourning party, far more select than numerous. +After his departure, sentence of outlawry was passed upon him; his +house on the Palatine, and his two villas, were by the hand of demolition +brought to the ground, while the rest of his property was brought +to the hammer at a public auction.</p> + +<p>Clodius having been successful in the gratification of one of his +personal animosities, began to look about for other victims against +whom he could put in force the power with which "the people" had +entrusted him. Recollecting that he had once been in the hands of +pirates, and that Ptolemy, King of Cyprus, had declined to rescue him, +he passed a law that Ptolemy should be at once deposed; and he, in +order to kill two unfortunate birds with one stone, got rid of Cato, +by sending him to take possession of Cyprus as a Roman province. +Ptolemy, instead of meeting the matter with spirit, met it with a dose +of laudanum, and so far forgot himself as to seek in suicide forgetfulness +of his sorrows.</p> + +<p>Cicero employed his exile in lamenting his fate; and though by +profession a dealer in philosophy, he had no stock on hand for his own +use, when its consolation was required. He sent whining letters to his +wife; and his signature was so bedewed with tears, that he left a blot +upon his name, through his unmanly weakness.</p> + +<p>Clodius being no longer Consul, a portion of the incubus which +stifled the breath of freedom was removed, and the public voice ventured +so make itself heard in demanding the recall of Cicero. The orator +returned in triumph; and he showed his gratitude by supporting any +measure that was proposed by any of those who had been influential in +bringing him home again. His advocacy was demanded, and freely +given, in favour of many a disgraceful proceeding on the part of his +friends; and he undertook the defence of Gabinius, who had carried on +a system of extortion in Syria.</p> + +<p>Rome was now completely in the hands of an ambitious party, which, +by means of armed mercenaries, disposed of the lives, the liberties, and +even the opinions of the citizens. Pompey and Crassus, at the instigation +of Cæsar, put up for the Consulship a second time, when an opposition +candidate, L. Domitius, having come forward, his servant was cut +down by the soldiers before his face, as a hint to those who should +presume to hold an opinion adverse to the existing authority. The +candidate having seen the skull of his domestic split, feared an equally +decisive plumper for his own poll, and retired into private life, leaving +the executive to be re-elected without any attempt at opposition. The +temporary powers of each member of the triumvirate were, by treachery +and violence, prolonged for five years; and Cato, who ventured on an +opinion that the step was not quite in accordance with the constitution +or the law, was unceremoniously thrown into prison. Right was in all +cases made completely subservient to might; and the competitors for +power kept armed ruffians in their pay, whose collisions with each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +other were often of the most desperate character. In one of these +encounters between the creatures of Clodius and the mercenaries of +Milo, the former was killed, which caused the latter to be put upon his +trial. Cicero was engaged to defend the accused; but Pompey, who +hated Milo, had taken care to surround the former with an armed +force, which so intimidated Cicero, that his tongue stuck to his mouth, +when he himself ought to have stuck to his client. The orator had not +a word to say for himself, or rather for Milo; and as not a sentence +was said in his favour, a sentence was pronounced against him. He +went into exile at Marseilles; and Cicero, with tardy zeal, wrote a +defence when the trial was over. He sent a copy of it to Milo, who +pronounced it excellent in its way, but a little too late; and he added, +in writing to Cicero, "If you had only delivered it in time, you would +have delivered me from the dilemma I was placed in."<br /><br /></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> +<h2><br /><br />CHAPTER THE THIRTIETH.</h2> + +<h3>OVERTHROW OF CRASSUS. DEFEAT OF POMPEY. DICTATORSHIP AND DEATH<br /> +OF CÆSAR. END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.<br /><br /></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0299.png" width="185" height="250" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<p><span style="margin-left:-0.5em" class="smcap">æsar's</span> proceedings in Gaul are sufficiently +familiar to enable us to treat them with +a sort of contempt, by omitting even the +heads of the oft-repeated tale from our +history. Though his arms were abroad, +his eye was at home, and he watched the +affairs of Rome with a jealous interest. +His confederates, Pompey and Crassus, +had quarrelled; and the former fell out +with Cæsar; so that there was a difference +between the triumvirate, though +they were all three alike in their unscrupulous +designs upon the commonwealth.</p> + +<p>Crassus was busy in his province of +Syria, laying his hands on every thing +of any value, until somebody laid hands upon him, notwithstanding +his worthlessness. His engagement with the Parthians was a short +passage in his life, which led to his death; for he had been induced by +treachery to plunge into the mess of the Mesopotamian deserts. There +he encountered an army which endeavoured to strike terror into the +Romans, by brayings, bellowings, the beating of drums, and every kind +of hollow artifice. The Parthians, who were skilful in the use of the +bow, sent forth such a shower of arrows, that fury darted into many an +eye, and on many a lip there was a quiver. Crassus began to faint, +and went into a sort of hysterics, highly incompatible with historic +dignity. The enemy, however, tried a feint of a different kind, and +pretended to run away; but when pursued, turned suddenly round, +galloped upon the Romans through a sand-hill, thus raising so much +dust, that the latter were obliged to lick it, as their mouths were full of +it. In this position they were assailed with arrows, which having been +shot at their feet, pinned many of them to the ground; and their +hands being skewered in the same manner to their breasts, they could +neither fly nor defend themselves.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The horses might still have +charged; but when the poor creatures arrived at the Parthian pikes, +they were obliged to pull up rather suddenly. The cavalry being cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +to pieces, Crassus and some of his footmen retired to a sand-hill for +safety; but they soon found the error of building their hopes on such a +foundation. Crassus himself hid his head in the sand, and would see +nobody; but ultimately he was induced to enter into a negotiation with +the Parthian general. In the course of the parley a little misunderstanding +arose, when some of the parties present began to push each +other about, first with their hands, then with their clenched fists, and +ultimately with their weapons. At length Octavius, who had accompanied +Crassus, drew his sword, and killed a groom, when somebody +else killed Octavius; and the assassination having once fairly—or +unfairly—set in, Crassus himself was soon disposed of. The King of +the Parthians caused the head of Crassus to be filled with gold, as in +his lifetime he had devoted all his faculties to the accumulation of +the metal.</p> + +<p>By the death of Crassus, the triumvirate was reduced to a duumvirate, +and jealousies arose between Pompey and Cæsar; but as the people +seemed to think that two heads at loggerheads were better than one +having everything its own way, the opposing tyrants were left by the +public to fight their own battles. The great prize for which they were +now contending was the army, which is too often exposed to the degradation +of being reckoned upon as the sure means of crushing everything +in the shape of law and liberty.</p> + +<p>Cæsar had certainly obtained the attachment of his soldiers; for he +had shared their dangers; but the vain upstart, Pompey, had no more +claim upon the army than he could establish by corrupting them. +Cæsar held them by their affections, but Pompey hoped to unite them +to him by those golden links which never fix themselves to the heart, +though effecting a sort of temporary hanging-on to the pocket. Cæsar +stood on the bank of the Rubicon, which divided his province of Gaul +from Italy, and, looking at the surface of the river, he was soon +absorbed in his own reflections. He knew it was against the law to +cross the stream with an army; but after looking at both sides, and +feeling his position to be that of sink or swim, he made a bold plunge, +with one of his legions after him. The Rubicon was now passed; and +Pompey, hearing of Cæsar's approach, was struck with such a panic +before he had received any real blow, that he had at once quitted the +city. So great was his haste, that he omitted even to follow his natural +bent, and went away without robbing the treasury. The tyrant is so +frequently associated in the same person with the coward, that the +ignoble retreat of Pompey was the natural sequel to his previous despotism; +for that which passes for boldness of action may be prompted +by the fears of the knave, instead of by the courage of the hero.</p> + +<p>Cæsar arrived at Rome, which had become freed from the presence of +one tyrant, to receive another; and the people certainly deserved all +they got, or rather all they lost; for they conferred upon the despot +many marks of popularity. When he wanted money, he burst open the +treasury-door like a thief; and when opposed in the name of the law, he +cut down everything in the shape of objection, like a <a name="butcher" id="butcher"></a>butcher.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 412px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0301.png" width="412" height="450" alt=""Quid times? Cæsarem vehis."" title="" /> +<span class="caption">"Quid times? Cæsarem vehis."</span> +</div> + +<p><br /><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>Cæsar next proceeded to Spain, but only to be recalled as Dictator, to +which office he had been illegally nominated by one of his creatures, +the Prætor, M. Lepidus. Having laid down the dictatorship in eleven +days, during which period he laid down the law on some very important +questions, including that of debtor and creditor, Cæsar abandoned his +legislative pursuits, and started in pursuit of Pompey. The latter had +proceeded to Greece, where the former suffered much inconvenience in +trying to manage the movements of his army. Only a portion of his +troops having got across the water, he became so impatient at the non-arrival +of the rest, that he went to see after them by going to sea +himself in disguise, on board a small fishing-boat. The winds were +extremely contrary, and were blowing the vessel back, with a force +threatening to dismast her, and to the utmost dismay of the master, +when Cæsar, who was sitting at the stern, put on a stern look, exclaiming, +"<i>Quid times? Cæsarem vehis.</i>" "What are you afraid +of? You carry Cæsar as a passenger." At this moment the vessel +gave a lurch, and the heels of Cæsar were suddenly brought to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +the level at which his head had the moment before been visible. +The mariner was about to ask for further explanation, and had got +"<i>Quid?</i>" in his mouth, when a wave completely washed him up, and +he remained in soak for the rest of the voyage. The vessel was driven +back, and Cæsar, who was wet through, as well as in despair, sat +wringing alternately his hands and his toga.</p> + +<p>At length, soon after his return to his camp, his army was brought +to him by Antony; but provisions were so scarce, that the soldiers had +to live upon bark, which proves that the unlucky "dogs of war" were +exposed to the most biting necessities. There, however, they continued, +without being subdued; and, indeed, the bark seems to have made +them more than usually snappish; for they threw some of it into the +hostile camp, and declared they would live upon grass; nor would they +lay down their swords while there was a single blade remaining.</p> + +<p>Cæsar encountered some slight reverses, and took up his quarters at +Pharsalia, where he might have been blocked in and starved out, had +not Pompey been taunted into attacking him. Cæsar was delighted at +that imprudence, the fruits of which were speedily shown; for Pompey's +army was utterly routed; and Pompey himself, retreating to his tent, +was literally sick at the disgusting result of his enterprise. "The +way in which my soldiers turned their backs," exclaimed Pompey to an +intimate friend, "has positively turned my stomach;" and he was only +sufficiently recovered on the following day to start <i>viâ</i> Lesbos for +Egypt. There ill-fortune still awaited him; for Ptolemy, the young +king, instead of receiving the outcast with hospitality, was advised to +put him to death, as a little compliment to Cæsar. Septimius, a Roman, +who had served under Pompey, was sent to meet him, with instructions +to stab him in the back; and the victim had no sooner felt the blow, +than, according to the custom of the period, he arranged the folds of his +robe across his face, so that although very disgracefully killed, he might +very gracefully expire. His wife, Cornelia, who witnessed the scene, +sailed away as fast as she could from the melancholy sight, leaving no +one but an old servant, named Philip, to perform not only the funeral, +but all the characters that the performance required. He was, in fact, +the undertaker of the whole of the sad ceremony, and attended as sole +mourner at the melancholy undertaking.</p> + +<p>On the arrival of Cæsar in Egypt, he was welcomed by having the +head of Pompey put into his hand; but the former turned away in +disgust, and at once dropped his old animosity.</p> + +<p>Being detained by contrary winds at Alexandria, Cæsar entered into +the disputes between Cleopatra and her elder brother Ptolemy; when +the young lady, relying on her powers of fascination, caused herself to +be brought, concealed in a mattress,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> into the presence of the Roman +general. Having emerged from under the bed, she pleaded her cause +so earnestly, that he went to war on her account with her brother, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +ultimately fell into the water; thus causing the drowning of himself +and all his enmity. Cleopatra reigned in Egypt; and Cæsar was so +enslaved by her charms, that he remained nine months on a visit; nor +would he have torn himself away, but for the intelligence that +Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, was endeavouring to recover his +father's lost possessions. Hurrying to Pontus, he looked out for the +enemy, drew his sword, struck one decisive blow, and in the memorable +words, "<i>Veni, vidi, vici,</i>" he set an example of the laconic style, which +no writer of military despatches has since followed.</p> + +<p>Disturbances had by this time broken out at Rome; and in order to +repair the evil, Cæsar was obliged to repair himself to the capital. So +much enthusiasm had been excited by the battle of Pharsalia—for the +people are always too ready to lick the hand which seems capable of +striking them—that Cæsar had been elected Dictator for one year, +Consul for five, and Tribune for his whole lifetime.</p> + +<p>The fact is, that Rome had become so thoroughly tired of the continual +contests for the chief power, which a republican form of +government necessarily invites, that the nation yearned for a permanent +head, and eagerly adopted the very first that offered. It was thought +better to be the slaves of one despotic adventurer, than the victims of +half-a-dozen; and even absolutism was preferred to the republican +system, which had kept the country so long exposed to laceration at the +hands of those who were trying to snatch it from each other, without +being able to govern it.</p> + +<p>After a short stay in Rome, during which he exhibited his power by +making various arbitrary changes in the Law and Constitution—for it is +the tendency of a republic to place a whole nation at the will of one man—Cæsar +proceeded to Africa, with the view of quelling there the party +opposed to him. He marched against Utica, which was governed by +Cato, who, when he ought to have been preparing to fight, was standing +upon ceremony, and politely insisting that Scipio ought to take the +command, as being the man of the highest rank present. Scipio, who +was not ambitious of the foremost place in the field, declared that +the pretended deference to his rank was rank nonsense, and that Cato +must assume his proper position. The Governor, however, persisted; +and Scipio went forth to fight; but he seems to have killed nobody +except himself, while Juba and the legate Petreius, two other brave +fellows on the same side, slew each other.</p> + +<p>Cato, trembling for the fate of Utica, called a meeting of the Senate, +which resolved unanimously to run away; and the Governor went home +to supper. On retiring to his chamber he called for his sword, which +was nowhere to be found; and he became so irritated, that he savagely +struck the domestic who returned without the missing weapon. At +length it turned out that "one of the young gentlemen had got it;" +for the sword was brought to Cato by his eldest son, and it was quietly +put away for the night under the old gentleman's pillow. Cato went to +bed, and fell asleep while reading one of Plato's dialogues. Waking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> +again at dawn, he rose, and having methodically finished the perusal of +the dialogue he had commenced over-night, he ran himself through the +body. His attendants rushed in, and sewed up the wound; but they +had no sooner turned their backs, than—if we are to believe the authorities, +which we confess we cannot at all times—he either undid +the numerous stitches in his side, or ran himself through the body +again; and, with a compliment in his mouth to the excellence of the +reasoning of Plato, expired.</p> + +<p>Cato was only eight-and-forty at the time of his death; and therefore, +though in the course of nature too young to die, he was quite old +enough to have known better than to kill himself. The graver historians +inform us, that "he died the death of a hero and a philosopher;" +but being unable to appreciate the heroism of running away from misfortune, +instead of meeting it, or the philosophy of refusing to endure +what one cannot cure, we must beg to be allowed to differ from the +serious writers, who generally hold up suicide as a subject for respect +and admiration. Cæsar was, of course, deeply affected on hearing of +Cato's decease; but such affectation was common in those days; and +there was nothing extraordinary in Cæsar's having gone into mourning +for the man whose death he had long been compassing.</p> + +<p>The victorious general now returned to Rome, where he might have +obtained as long a lease as he pleased of almost unlimited power. He +was named Dictator for ten years; and, instead of pursuing the ordinary +practice of tyranny, which abuses the greatest power to gratify the +pettiest spite, Cæsar not only made no proscriptions, but declared a +general amnesty. He celebrated four triumphs, and gave a succession +of banquets; for he knew that there is no more portentous grumbling +than that which proceeds from an empty stomach.</p> + +<p>Being entrusted with supreme power, he turned it, in many instances, +to good account; and introduced, among other wholesome regulations, the +very valuable reform of the Roman Calendar. This was an improvement, +not merely for the day, but for all time, and has handed down the name +of its author to every age, and every civilised country, in every almanack.</p> + +<p>In these and similar salutary occupations he was disturbed by an +insurrection in Spain, headed by the two sons of Pompey, Cneius and +Sextus, whom he encountered, on Saturday, the 17th of March, +<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> 45, on the field of Munda. The battle, though ultimately decisive, +was at first doubtful; for Cæsar's troops had commenced retreating, when +their want of spirit so dispirited him, that, as they ran away, he was +near making away with himself, by the mere force of sympathy. By a +last effort, however, he succeeded in stopping the fugitives, and asked +them if they were mad, to display such flightiness. His appeal was +successful; and, having first come to themselves, they fell upon the +enemy. Cneius made for the shore, and was getting into a ship, when +a rope caught his foot, and he remained tied by the leg in a most +perilous position. Having endeavoured for some time to effect his own +extrication from the cable, which proved utterly impracti-cable, he called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +to one of his companions, who endeavoured to cut the rope, and in +doing so, wounded Cneius. The unhappy sufferer attempted to fly, +but being pursued to within an inch of his life, he naturally had not a +foot to spare; and finding himself deprived of the use of one of his legs; +he was, of course, in a sad hobble. He had got on shore, and had just +placed his foot in a doctor's hands, when he was overtaken and killed +by the enemy. His brother Sextus made his escape; and his hopes of +rulership being at an end, he commenced the trade of a robber, which is +not a very different kind of business from that of government in the +days of military despotism.</p> + +<p>On Cæsar's return to Rome he was received with increased adulation, +though his victory had been over the Romans themselves; who, by +acquiescing in their own degradation, became fully deserving of all the +acts of tyranny they were made the victims of. Success, however, is +the idol to which the multitude will bow, let the object of adoration be +either good or evil; and it is only when the latter encounters the fall, +which, sooner or later, must be its inevitable fate, that the <i>Vox Dei</i> is +really echoed by the <i>Vox Populi</i>.</p> + +<p>We must, however, accept with caution the accounts of the rejoicings +that are described as attending the dictatorship of one who had so completely +subjugated his country, that murder or banishment, without trial, +had become the certain fate of every one who should venture to express +the smallest disapprobation of any of his measures. Nothing is easier +than for one who has a drawn sword ready for every hostile throat, to +style himself the "father of his country," and to exercise the ancient +privilege of paternity by taking the lives of such of his children as +might rebel against his parental authority. It was easy to decree a +thanksgiving of fifty days, and to obtain its outward observance, when +instant death at the hands of a mercenary might be the fate of any one +expressing a doubt as to having much to be grateful for. The statues of +the usurper were placed in all the temples; but this was no test of true +popularity; for if an armed band should break into our house, take +forcible possession of all its contents, rob us of all we possess, and spend +a portion of the proceeds in placing a bust of the head of the banditti in +our principal apartments, it would be no proof of his being a favourite +of ours. He decreed himself imperator, or Emperor, for life,—a proceeding +no less impudent than that of a burglar, who, having broken +into our premises, calls himself the landlord of the property. He +declared his own person sacred—a poor consolation for a tyrant who +knows that there is a curse which must eventually be brought terribly +down upon all injustice and iniquity. He seized upon half the +magistracies, as his own private property, to be given away by himself; +and he virtually seized upon the other half, by claiming the nomination +of the candidates. He was, in fact, supreme and sole master of the +Republic; and without any one of the conditions which are absolutely +essential to the permanency of power. His usurpation had neither +law, morality, justice, nor reason—nor even that hollowest of all +mockeries, expediency—to rest upon. The first utterance of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +public voice, when free to speak, must have overwhelmed him with one +shout of indignant execration; and the first movement of the popular +arm, when freed from its ignoble paralysis, must have hurled him from +power.</p> + +<p>Some supporters of the miserable and unprincipled fallacy, that the +end justifies the means, have pointed to some of Cæsar's salutary acts, +as an excuse for his usurpation; but that right can never result from +wrong, is shown in the fate which the Dictator soon met with. His +aim was evidently the monarchy; and his adherent, Antony, caused a +statue of Cæsar to be crowned; when two Tribunes seeing the diadem, +and perceiving that there was an intention of trying it on, ordered it to +be taken off again. The Dictator of the republic was so offended at +this outrage on the symbols of monarchy, that he was on the point of +putting the Tribunes to death, when it was suggested to him that +exile might do as well, and he accordingly sent them into banishment.</p> + +<p>It is one of the numerous penalties of iniquity, that its own +example may be followed in opposition to itself; and that he who uses +lawlessness and violence to attain his ends, may find them conducing to +his own, in a sense he had not expected. The sentiments which, in +contact with the open air of freedom, form the wholesome breath of +public opinion, can never be stifled and pent up, without generating the +foul and dangerous vapours of conspiracy. This noxious poison speedily +forms itself among an enslaved people, and an explosion eventually +takes place, which removes a load of oppression, and clears the political +atmosphere.</p> + +<p>A conspiracy had been for some time forming against Cæsar's life; +and a band of about sixty, headed by M. Brutus and C. Cassius, had +resolved on his downfall. The Dictator kept continually aiming at the +crown, which he might perhaps have worn in dignity and safety, had he +sought to gain it by honest means; for the nation had become so +heartily sick of the alternate farce and tragedy of a Republic, that the +necessity for some permanent authority based on law was on all hands +admitted. He had, however, tried to effect his object by the cunning +of a knave, the audacity of a thief, and the inhumanity of a butcher.</p> + +<p>When a sovereign is really wanted, much may be done for a candidate +who has circumstances, seconded by prudence, honour, and ability, on +his side; but that crown is not worth an hour's purchase which is +seized by force, fraud, and cruelty. The last trick of Cæsar, in trying +to turn his usurpation into a right, was a pretence that the Sibylline +books, having declared the Parthians could be conquered by none but a +king, it was necessary to make him one. The Senate was to meet to +consider the matter, on the 15th of March, in Pompey's Curia, where +now stands the Palazzo Massimi. The professional augurs had already +begun to prophesy, on the strength of those shadows which precede +coming events; and Cæsar was so puffed up with self-conceit, and the +people had been so long his abject slaves, that he had almost learned +to believe the world would never throw off the atom that had got to the +top of it. His wife had, it is said, an unfavourable dream, on the day +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +previous to the meeting; but Cæsar smiled at her warnings, and told +her that her night-mare proceeded from some ridiculous mare's nest. +Cæsar walked down to the house of assembly, chatting arm-in-arm with +the Consul, Decimus Brutus. Seeing in the crowd an augur, who had +told him to beware of the Ides of March, Cæsar observed, smiling, +"Well, here they are; and here am I;" to which, "Wait till they are +gone, and then where are you?" was the only reply of the soothsayer.</p> + +<p>The secret of the conspiracy, which had been hitherto well kept, now +began to ooze out in all directions; and nearly everybody that Cæsar +met thrust a paper into his hand, or dropped a whisper into his ear; +but he would read and listen to nothing.</p> + +<p>The Senators rose on his entrance; and when he took his seat the +conspirators got round about him, until one of them, Metellus +Cimber, came rather intrusively to close quarters, with a petition. +Cæsar gave him a slight push, as a hint to him to keep his distance; +and Cimber, as if to catch himself, took hold of the Dictator's toga, +which was the signal agreed upon. Casca instantly stabbed him in the +neck, when Cassius followed up the blow with a poke in the ribs; and +Brutus had raised his hand with a dagger in it, when Cæsar exclaiming, +"<i>Et tu, Brute!</i>"—And you!—you, Brute!—staggered to the foot of +Pompey's statue, that he might form a <i>tableau</i> as he expired.</p> + +<p>The republic was now virtually, if not nominally, at an end, though +a faint struggle was still made by the murderers of Cæsar, who ran +through the streets, proclaiming that they had killed a king, but +obtained no praise for the achievement. Antony, on the other hand, +created an immense sensation, by exhibiting the identical toga in +which Cæsar had fallen, and thrusting his ten fingers through twice as +many large holes, which he declared had been made by the assassins' +daggers. Not satisfied with making the most of Cæsar's wardrobe, +Antony appropriated the money of the deceased; and while the widow +was wrapped in grief, with her face buried in her hands, her late +husband's friend was carrying off all he could lay his hands upon. +Antony had been at once grasping and prodigal, giving away with one +hand what he had snatched with the other; and buying at a liberal +price what he had no means of paying for.</p> + +<p>His rival in the contest for the supreme power was Octavius, the +son of a daughter of Cæsar's sister, and who, with no other qualification +than that of nephew to his uncle, had the impudence to claim absolute +dominion over a great but broken-spirited nation. This individual was +without character or courage; and though afraid to be left in the dark, +he was still more afraid of the light; for he felt that his own actions +would not bear looking at. His cowardice had the usual effect upon +him, for it made him cruel; and though there was nothing but his +name to make him a favourite with the army, he had betrayed the +soldiers into the disgrace of turning their arms on their fellow-citizens. +By a constant use of the name of his uncle, he succeeded in cozening a +people who sought only permanence in their institutions; and Antony +being ultimately subdued, more by his own feebleness as a voluptuary, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +than by the strength of his opponent, an empire fell into the hands of +Octavius. He was invested with the title of Imperator for life; and +he retained his position till his death—a circumstance to be attributed +to the conviction that had been brought home to the popular mind, that +the constant changing of the head of a State is a source of constant +danger to the peace and happiness of the whole community.<br /><br /></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"> +<img src="images/i_p0308.png" width="392" height="475" alt="The End of Julius Cæsar." title="" /> +<span class="caption">The End of Julius Cæsar.</span> +<br /><br /></div> + +<div class="footnotes">FOOTNOTES: + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Those who doubt the accuracy of this description, may consult Plutarch's "Life +of Crassus."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> This story of the mattress, though gravely told, is somewhat doubtful, and is hardly +worth the straw involved in it.</p></div> +</div> +<p><br /><br /></p> + + +<p class="center"><span style="font-size:small">LONDON: BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS</span></p> + +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> + + + +<p><br /><span class="smcap">No. 11, Bouverie Street, Fleet Street, E.C.</span><br /> +<i>November, 1860.</i><br /> +</p> + + +<h3>WORKS PUBLISHED BY</h3> + +<h4>BRADBURY AND EVANS.</h4> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>"ONCE A WEEK."</h4> + +<p class ="blockquot">⁂ THE SILVER CORD, a new Serial Story by <span class="smcap">Shirley Brooks</span>, with Illustrations by +<span class="smcap">John Tenniel</span>, is now in course of publication. A number of "Once-A-Week" +is published every Saturday, price 3<i>d.</i>; also in Monthly Parts and Volumes. +Vols. I. and II. are completed. Vol. III. will be published in December.</p> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Volume, post 8vo</i>,</p> + +<p class="center"><b>HEALTH,<br /> + +HUSBANDRY, AND HANDICRAFT.</b><br /><br /> + +BY HARRIET MARTINEAU.</p> + +<p class="center"> +[<i>In the Press.</i>] +</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p class="center"><i>In Three Vols., post 8vo, price 1l. 11s. 6d.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>EVAN HARRINGTON;</b><br /><br /> + +BY GEORGE MEREDITH.</p> + +<p class="center"> +[<i>In the Press.</i>] +</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Volume, with Coloured Illustrations and numerous Wood-cuts, from original<br /> +Japanese Pictures.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>JAPANESE FRAGMENTS,</b><br /><br /> + +BY CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, C.B.</p> + +<p class="center"> +[<i>In the Press.</i>] +</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Vol., price 10s. 6d.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>THE TIN BOX.<br /> + +A STORY OF THE LAST CENTURY.</b><br /><br /> + +FROM THE ESCRITOIRE OF THE LATE SAMUEL SCOBEL, CLERK.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"This is a story written in a course of old-fashioned letters, in which the style of the period +is extremely well imitated; the contemporary events are touched on just as they would naturally +be in the course of a real correspondence. The story is interesting; and there is a tone of good +feeling and gentle piety which has a charm that grows on the reader as he proceeds."—<i>Athenæum</i>.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2x" id="Page_2x">[2]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>THE NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH SEA-WEEDS.</h4> + +<p class="center">Containing Seventy Coloured Nature-Prints, with Engraved Magnified Dissections of the<br /> +whole species described in the Volume.<br /><br /> + +The Descriptions by WILLIAM G. JOHNSTONE and ALEXANDER CROALL.</p> + +<p class="center">The <span class="smcap">Nature-Printed British Sea-weeds</span> forms Four Handsome Volumes, in royal octavo,<br /> +consisting of 210 plates, with the necessary letter-press.</p> + +<p class="center">The price of each volume is 2<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>THE NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH FERNS.</h4> + +<p class="center">The Descriptions by THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S.</p> + +<p class="center">The Work contains 122 Plates, and 500 pages of Letter-press, and is completed in Two Volumes,<br /> +royal 8vo, uniform with the <span class="smcap">Nature-Printed British Sea-Weeds</span>.</p> + +<p class="center">The price of each volume is 2<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In Two Volumes, fcap. 8vo, price 12s.</i></p> + +<h4>SELECTIONS FROM THE PLAYS OF +SHAKSPEARE.</h4> + +<p class="center">As arranged for representation at the Princess's Theatre, and especially adapted for Schools,<br /> +Private Families, and Young People.<br /></p> + +<h5>BY CHARLES KEAN, F.S.A.</h5> + +<p class="center"> +MACBETH.<br /> +KING HENRY VIII.<br /> +THE WINTER'S TALE.<br /> +MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM.<br /> +KING RICHARD II.<br /> +THE TEMPEST.<br /> +KING LEAR.<br /> +THE MERCHANT OF VENICE.<br /> +KING JOHN.<br /> +MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING.<br /> +HAMLET.<br /> +KING HENRY IV.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center">Either Play may be had separately, price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>A LITTLE TOUR IN IRELAND.</h4> + +<p class="center">BEING</p> + +<p class="center"><b>A VISIT TO DUBLIN, GALWAY, CONNAMARA, ATHLONE, LIMERICK, KILLARNEY,<br /> +GLENGARRIFF, CORK, ETC. ETC. ETC.</b></p> + +<h5><span class="smcap">By</span> AN OXONIAN.</h5> + +<p class="center">With a Coloured Frontispiece, and Numerous Illustrations on Wood by <span class="smcap">John Leech</span>.<br /><br /> + +Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>MR. BRIGGS AND HIS DOINGS (FISHING).</h4> + +<h4>A SERIES OF TWELVE COLOURED PLATES.</h4> + +<p class="center">Enlarged from Mr. <span class="smcap">John Leech's</span> original Drawings from "Punch."</p> + +<p class="center">CONTENTS:</p> +<table> +<tr> +<td align="right">Plate I.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs contemplates a Day's Fishing.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">II.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs Manages his Punt himself.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">III.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs Tries for a Perch.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">IV.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs Catches a Jack.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">V.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs Catches an Eel</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">VI. and VII.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs goes out Fly-Fishing.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="right">VIII.—XII.—</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mr. Briggs goes Salmon-Fishing.</span><br /> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center">Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; or, separately, 1<i>s.</i> each.</p> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3x" id="Page_3x">[3]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Price 2s. 6d., fcap. 8vo, with Eight Illustrations, by</i> <span class="smcap">Captain May</span>,</p> + +<p class="center"><b>THE CAREER, LAST VOYAGE, AND DISCOVERY OF THE FATE OF<br /> +SIR JOHN FRANKLIN.</b></p> + +<p class="center">BY CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, C.B.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h5>BOOK FOR EXAMINATION CANDIDATES.</h5> + +<p class="center"><i>This day is published, price 3s. 6d,</i></p> + +<h4>THE ROMAN REPUBLIC;</h4> + +<p class="center">Being a Review of some of the salient points in its History, designed for the use of Examination<br /> +Candidates.</p> + +<h4>BY HORACE MOULE,</h4> + +<p class="center">Author of "Christian Oratory in the First Five Centuries," being the Hulsean Prize Essay<br /> +for 1858.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>THE WORKS OF WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR.</h4> + +<p class="center">Including the Imaginary Conversations, with a New and Original Series; Pericles and<br /> +Aspasia; Examination of Shakspeare; Pentameron of Boccaccio and Petrarca;<br /> +Hellenics; Tragedies; and Poems.<br /><br /> + +With many large Additions throughout, and the Author's last Corrections.<br /><br /> +In two Volumes, medium 8vo, price 32<i>s.</i> cloth.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Also, by the same Author,</i></p> + +<h4>IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS OF GREEKS AND ROMANS.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>10s. 6d. cloth.</i></p> + +<h4>ANTONY AND OCTAVIUS: + +SCENES FOR THE STUDY.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d.</i></p> + +<h4>LAST FRUIT OFF AN OLD TREE.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>10s. 6d. cloth.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Vol., fcap. 8vo, price 5s.,</i> <span class="smcap">The</span></p> + +<h4>AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN ITALIAN REBEL.</h4> + +<h5>BY G. RICCIARDI.</h5> + +<p class="center">TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"The autobiography before us is possessed of a charming reality."—<i>Literary Gazette.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>A DESCRIPTIVE DICTIONARY OF THE +INDIAN ISLANDS, &C.</h4> + +<p class="center">BY JOHN CRAWFURD, F.R.S.<br /><br /> + +Demy 8vo, with Map, price 16s.<br /><br /> + +"It will take its place at once among standard works."—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4x" id="Page_4x">[4]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>WORKS BY MR. CHARLES DICKENS.</h3> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Vol., 8vo, with Illustrations by H. K. Browne, price 21s. each,</i></p> + +<table> +<tr> + <td align="right">I.</td> + <td align="left">DOMBEY AND SON.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right">II.</td> + <td align="left">DAVID COPPERFIELD.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right">III.</td> + <td align="left">LITTLE DORRIT.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right">IV.</td> + <td align="left">BLEAK HOUSE.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdr">V.</td> + <td align="left">OLIVER TWIST.<br /> + Illustrated by G. Cruikshank. 8vo, 11<i>s.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VI.</td> + <td align="left">HARD TIMES.<br /> + In crown 8vo, cloth. Price 5<i>s.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr">VII.</td> + <td align="left">A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND.<br /> + Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, neatly bound in cloth,<br />complete in 3 vols.; or 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.<br /></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>CHEAP EDITION OF THE WORKS OF MR. CHARLES DICKENS.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>In One Volume, with an Engraved Frontispiece, price 5s. each,</i><br /><br /> + + +DOMBEY AND SON.<br /><br /> + +BLEAK HOUSE.<br /><br /> + +DAVID COPPERFIELD.<br /></p> + + +<p class="center">⁂ <i>The above editions are uniform in size and price with the<br />Cheap Edition of Mr. Dickens's former +Works, published by Messrs. Chapman & Hall.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>CHRISTMAS STORIES OF CHARLES DICKENS.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Handsomely bound in cloth, with gilt edges, price 5s. each.</i><br /><br /> + +A CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE. Being +a Ghost Story for Christmas.<br /><br /> + +THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH, A Fairy +Tale of Home.<br /><br /> + +THE CHIMES.—A Goblin Story of some Bells +that rang an Old Year Out and a New Year +In.<br /><br /> + +THE BATTLE OF LIFE. A Love Story.<br /><br /> + +THE HAUNTED MAN AND THE GHOST'S BARGAIN.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>BOOKS FOR MR. DICKENS'S READINGS.</h4> + +<table> +<tr> + <td> </td><td><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">A CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE</td><td align="left">1 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH</td><td align="left">1 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left">THE CHIMES</td><td align="left">1 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left"> +THE STORY OF LITTLE DOMBEY</td><td align="left">1 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE POOR TRAVELLER;<br />BOOTS AT + THE HOLLY-TREE INN; <br /><span class="smcap">AND</span> + MRS. GAMP</td> + <td class="tdl">1 0<br /></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + + +<h4>COMPLETE LIBRARY EDITION OF THE WORKS OF +MR. CHARLES DICKENS.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>Published by Messrs. Chapman & Hall and Bradbury & Evans, post 8vo, price 6s. each, with Vignettes.</i></p> + +<table> +<tr> + <td> </td><td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">VOLS.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">THE PICKWICK PAPERS</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">NICHOLAS NICKLEBY</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">BARNABY RUDGE, HARD TIMES</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, AND REPRINTED PIECES</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">SKETCHES BY BOZ</td><td class="tdc">1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">OLIVER TWIST</td><td class="tdc">1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">DOMBEY AND SON</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">DAVID COPPERFIELD</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">PICTURES FROM ITALY, AND AMERICAN NOTES</td><td class="tdc">1</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">BLEAK HOUSE</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">LITTLE DORRIT</td><td class="tdc">2</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">CHRISTMAS BOOKS</td><td class="tdc">1</td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5x" id="Page_5x">[5]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>WORKS OF DOUGLAS JERROLD.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>In Eight Volumes, crown 8vo, price 4s. each,</i></p> + +<h4>THE COLLECTED EDITION</h4> + +<p class="center">OF</p> + +<h3>THE WRITINGS OF DOUGLAS JERROLD.</h3> + +<table> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 1.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">St. Giles and St. James.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 2.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Men of Character.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> +<span class="smcap">Contents:</span>—Job Pippins: the Man who +"couldn't help it"—Jack Runnymede:<br /> +the Man of "many thanks "—Adam Buff: +the Man "without a Shirt"—Matthew<br /> +Clear: the Man "who saw his way"—John +Applejohn: the Man who "meant<br /> +well"—Barnaby Palms: the Man "who +felt his way"—Christopher Snob: the<br /> +Man who was "born to be hanged"—Creso +Quattrino: the Man "who died rich."</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 3.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures—The +Story of a Feather—The<br /> +Sick Giant and the Doctor Dwarf.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 4.—</span></td> + <td><span class="smcap">Cakes and Ale.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Contents:</span>—The Lesson of Life—Perditus +Mutton, who bought a Caul—The Mayor<br /> +of Hole-cum-Corner—The Romance of a +Key-hole—Mr. Peppercorn "at home"—The<br /> +Preacher Parrot—The Lives of +Smith, Brown, Jones, and Robinson—Shakespeare<br /> +at "Bankside"—The Wine +Cellar, a "Morality"—Kind Cousin Tom—The<br /> +Manager's Pig—The Tapestry Weaver +of Beauvais—The Genteel Pigeons—Shakespeare<br /> +in China—The Order of Poverty—A +Gossip at Reculvers—The Old Man at<br /> +the Gate—The Epitaph of Sir Hugh Evans.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 5.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Punch's Letters to his Son, +and Complete Letter Writer—Sketches<br /> +of the English.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 6.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Man made of Money.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 7.—</span></td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Comedies:</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Contents:</span>— +Bubbles of the Day—Time Works +Wonders—The Catspaw—<br />The Prisoner of +War—Retired from Business—St. Cupid; +or Dorothy's Fortune.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> + ⁂ <i>These are also sold separately, price 1s. each.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vol. 8.</span>—</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Comedies and Dramas:</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Contents:</span>—The Rent Day—Nell Gwynne—The +Housekeeper—The Wedding Gown—<br />The +School-Fellows—Doves in a Cage—The +Painter of Ghent—Black-eyed Susan.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>THE FOLLOWING ARE PUBLISHED SEPARATELY:—</h4> + +<table> +<tr> + <td> </td><td><i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Caudle Lectures</span></td> + <td class="tdl">1 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Story of a Feather</span></td> + <td class="tdl">2 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Punch's Letters to his Son</span></td> + <td> 1 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Lesson of Life—the Lives of <br /> + Brown, Jones, and Robinson</span> </td> + <td class="tdl">1 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sketches of the English</span></td> + <td class="tdl">1 6</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>Price 21s., or separately, 6s. each,</i></p> + +<h4>FOUR PORTRAITS OF DOUGLAS JERROLD.</h4> + +<h5>PHOTOGRAPHED BY HIS FRIEND, DR. DIAMOND.</h5> + +<p class="center">Three of them were taken within a fortnight of his death, <br />the fourth from the marble bust executed +by <span class="smcap">E. H. Bailey</span>, R.A., F.R.S.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6x" id="Page_6x">[6]</a></span></p> + + +<h2><br />VALUABLE WORKS OF REFERENCE.</h2> + +<h3>CONDUCTED BY CHARLES KNIGHT.</h3> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In Six Volumes, price 3l., or bound in 3 Vols., half morocco, 3l. 12s.,</i></p> + +<h4>THE CYCLOPÆDIA OF BIOGRAPHY.</h4> + +<p class="blockquot"> +This Cyclopædia of Biography may, without presumption, be stated to be the best +Biographical Dictionary extant; unequalled in any language for the universality of its +range, its fullness, accuracy, and completeness. It possesses the new and important +feature of giving notices of living persons, English and foreign, of contemporary celebrity. +No work of a similar nature approaches the English Cyclopædia of Biography in cheapness.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In Four Volumes, price 2l. 2s., or bound in 2 Vols., half-morocco, 2l. 10s.,</i></p> + +<h4>THE CYCLOPÆDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.</h4> + +<p class="blockquot">The fullness and accuracy of its information renders the Cyclopædia of Geography a +necessary manual for every library and newsroom; not presenting a dry catalogue of +names and places, but furnishing ample and interesting details of the History, Statistics, +and physical features of every country in the world, according to the most recent +discoveries and investigations.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>In Four Volumes, price 2l. 2s., or bound in 2 Vols., half-morocco, 2l. 10s.,</i></p> + +<h4>THE CYCLOPÆDIA OF NATURAL HISTORY.</h4> + +<p class="blockquot">This Cyclopædia, embracing the most interesting details of Natural History, presented +in the most attractive form of scientific explanation, and illustrated with many hundreds +of beautiful wood-engravings, will furnish a most desirable addition to every library. To +the Medical Student the work is indispensable.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>THE CYCLOPÆDIA OF ARTS AND SCIENCES</h4> + +<p class="blockquot">Is now in course of publication, in Monthly Parts, price 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.—This Cyclopædia +will be completed in Eight Volumes. Of these, Vols. I., II., III., IV., and V. are published, +price 12<i>s.</i> each: Vol. VI. will be published in December: Vols. VII. and VIII. +in 1861.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="blockquot">These Works, perhaps forming the most valuable and comprehensive Works of Reference +in the language, published as a whole under the title of "<span class="smcap">The English Cyclopædia</span>," +are founded upon the valuable Copyright of the <span class="smcap">Penny Cyclopædia</span>, which has always +remained in the hands of <span class="smcap">Mr. Knight</span>. The elaborate revisions, with the large additions, +of the present work, have involved a new outlay for literary labour of not less than Seven +Thousand Pounds, making the cost of literary production alone not far short of Fifty +Thousand Pounds.</p> + +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7x" id="Page_7x">[7]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>NATURE-PRINTED +BRITISH FERNS AND SEA-WEEDS.</h3> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>This day is published price 21. 2s. (completing the Work in 2 Vols., price 41. 4s.) Vol. II. of the</i></p> + +<h4>OCTAVO NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH FERNS.</h4> + +<p class="center">Being Figures and Descriptions of the Species and Varieties of Ferns found in the United Kingdom.</p> + +<h5>BY THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S.</h5> + +<p class="center">The Work contains 122 Plates and 500 pages of Letter-press.<br />Royal 8vo, uniform with the +"Nature-Printed British Sea-Weeds."<br /><br /> + +⁂ Either Volume may be had separately.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>This day is published, price 21. 2s. (completing the work in 4 Vols., price 81. 8s.)<br /><br />Vol. IV. of the</i></p> + +<h4>NATURE-PRINTED BRITISH SEA-WEEDS.</h4> + +<p class="center">A History accompanied by Figures and Dissections of the Algæ of the British Isles.</p> + +<h5>BY W. JOHNSTONE AND ALEXANDER CROALL.</h5> + +<p class="center">CONTENTS:</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;">VOLS. I & II</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;"><b>RHODOSPERMEÆ.</b>—RED SEA-WEEDS.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Vol. I.—Series I. Desmiospermeæ.</span> 90 Species. +70 Plates.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Vol. II.—Series II. Gongylospermeæ.</span> +88 Species. 63 Plates. With Dissections of all +the Species.</span><br /><br /></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;">VOL. III</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;"><b>MELANOSPERMEÆ.</b>—OLIVE SEA-WEEDS.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Series III.</span> 95 Species. 52 Plates. With +Dissections of all the Species.</span><br /><br /></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;">VOL. IV.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 8em;"><b>CHLOROSPERMEÆ.</b>—GREEN SEA-WEEDS.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Series IV.</span> 102 Species. 25 Plates. With +Dissections of all the Species.</span><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="blockquot">Synoptical Tables of the Orders, Genera, and +Species. General View of the Structure and +uses of the Sea-Weed Family. Sketch of their +Classification and Distribution. Instructions +for the Cultivation of the Algæ, their preservation +in the Herbarium, and their preparation as +objects for the Microscope.</p> + +<p class="center">⁂ Either Volume may be had separately, price 2<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h5>NOTICES OF THE PRESS.</h5> + +<p class="blockquot">"This volume is well qualified to receive +popular approval, but it has, beyond this, other +recommendations. It is a first-class book, and +it is a first-class scientific book as regards its +execution.... As a scientific book, the +authors have well done their part too; for they +have given us a clear, correct, and comprehensive +scientific account of the plants they have +treated on, adding such popular information as +the subject admitted of; and they have given +us, in addition, well-executed magnified dissections +of the parts essential for scientific study."—<i>Illustrated +London News.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"For this kind of work Nature-Printing is +exactly adapted. Every delicate and inimitable +ramification is most attractively and accurately +represented. The fifty-six plates in this volume +can scarcely be surpassed, and have not, as far +as we know, been equalled.... We have +found them pleasing, and still pleasing during +several inspections. The volume is handsomely +got up, and will make a very attractive drawing-room +table-book at home or at the sea-side."—<i>Athenæeum.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"The process by which it is produced is that +delightful one which has been a labour of love +to Mr. Henry Bradbury in bringing to perfection, +and which was first applied to the +Ferns. To speak of the accuracy of the plates +is of course a misnomer. They are of the nature +of photographs; and the only possible drawback +to the work is, that its extreme beauty will +banish to the drawing-room table, as a mere +example of pretty drawing, what, as a scientific +manual, has not been equalled.—<i>Saturday +Review.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"Mr. Henry Bradbury's 'Nature-Printed +British Sea-Weeds' is now completed by the +appearance of the fourth volume. The authors +have added sketches of the history of British +Sea-Weeds, of their geographical distribution, of +their structure, and of their uses. There are +also chapters on arranging Algæ for the Herbarium, +on the families and genera, on the species, +and on the bibliography of the subject, the +whole concluding with a glossary of scientific +terms, and a complete Index. The whole work +now forms four volumes unsurpassed for beauty +even in the rich field of Natural History."—<i>Gardeners' +Chronicle.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8x" id="Page_8x">[8]</a></span></p> + + +<h2>ILLUSTRATED WORKS.</h2> + +<p class="center"><b>I.</b></p> + +<h4>PICTURES OF LIFE AND CHARACTER.</h4><p class="center">From the Collection +of Mr. Punch. By JOHN LEECH.<br />In Three handsome Folio Volumes, price 12<i>s.</i> each.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="center"><b>II.</b></p> + +<h4>YOUNG TROUBLESOME; <span class="smcap">Or</span>, MASTER JACKY'S HOLIDAYS.</h4> +<p class="center">By JOHN LEECH. A Series of Plates; price 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> plain; 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> coloured.</p> + +<p class="center"><b>III.</b></p> + +<h4>THE FOREIGN TOUR OF MESSRS. BROWN, JONES, +AND ROBINSON.</h4><p class="center">What they saw and did in Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.<br /> +By RICHARD DOYLE. A handsome 4to volume, cloth extra, price 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>IV.</b></p> + +<h4>MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE ENGLISH.</h4><p class="center">By +RICHARD DOYLE.<br />With Extracts by PERCIVAL LEIGH from "<span class="smcap">Pips' Diary</span>."<br /> +Elegantly bound in half morocco, price 15<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>V.</b></p> + +<h4>THE COMIC HISTORY OF ENGLAND.</h4><p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Gilbert A. +A'beckett</span>.<br />With Coloured Engravings and Woodcuts. By JOHN LEECH.<br />Handsomely +bound in two vols., price 21<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><b>VI.</b></p> + +<h4>THE COMIC HISTORY OF ROME.</h4><p class="center">By <span class="smcap">G. A. A'Beckett</span>.<br /> +With Coloured Engravings and Woodcuts. By JOHN LEECH.<br />Handsomely bound in +cloth, price 11<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h2>SPORTING WORKS.</h2> + +<h3>WITH COLOURED ENGRAVINGS, AND NUMEROUS WOODCUTS,</h3> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By</span> JOHN LEECH.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><b>I.</b></p> + +<h4>MR. SPONGE'S SPORTING TOUR.</h4><p class="center">By the Author of +"Handley Cross," &c.<br />With coloured Engravings, &c. By JOHN LEECH.<br />One vol. +8vo, price 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><br /><b>II.</b></p> + +<h4>HANDLEY CROSS; <span class="smcap">Or</span>, MR. JORROCKS'S HUNT.</h4><p class="center">With +coloured Engravings, &c. By JOHN LEECH.<br />8vo, price 18<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><br /><b>III.</b></p> + +<h4>ASK MAMMA; <span class="smcap">Or</span>, THE RICHEST COMMONER IN +ENGLAND.</h4><p class="center">By the Author of "Sponge's Tour," "Handley Cross," &c.<br />Illustrated with +Thirteen Coloured Engravings and numerous Woodcuts by JOHN LEECH.<br />8vo, price 14<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><br /><b>IV.</b></p> + +<h4>PLAIN, OR RINGLETS?</h4><p class="center">By the Author of "Handley Cross," +&c.<br />With coloured Engravings, &c. by JOHN LEECH.<br />One Vol., 8vo, price 14<i>s.</i> cloth.</p> + +<p class="center"><br /><b>V.</b></p> + +<h4>MR. BRIGGS AND HIS DOINGS. (FISHING.)</h4><p class="center">A Series +of Twelve Coloured Plates, Enlarged from the Original Drawings. By JOHN LEECH.<br /> +Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; or each plate separately, 1<i>s.</i><br /></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9x" id="Page_9x">[9]</a></span></p> + + +<h2>WORKS BY W. M. THACKERAY.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h3>THE VIRGINIANS.</h3> + +<h5>ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR.</h5> + +<p class="center">Two Volumes, 8vo, cloth, 26<i>s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>THE NEWCOMES.</h4> + +<h5>Illustrated by <span class="smcap">Richard Doyle</span>.</h5><p class="center">Two vols. 8vo, +cloth, 26<i>s.</i><br /></p> + +<p class ="center">⁂ Also, <i>a Cheap and Popular Edition, without<br /> +Illustrations, uniform with the Miscellanies, in<br /> +crown 8vo, 7s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>VANITY FAIR.</h4> + +<h5>Illustrated by the Author. One vol. 8vo, cloth, +21<i>s.</i></h5> + +<p class="center">⁂ Also, <i>a Cheap and Popular Edition, without<br /> +Illustrations, uniform with the Miscellanies, in<br /> +crown 8vo, 6s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>PENDENNIS.</h4> + +<h5>Illustrated by the Author. Two vols. 8vo, cloth, +26<i>s.</i></h5> + +<p class="center">⁂ Also, <i>a Cheap and Popular Edition, without<br /> +Illustrations, uniform with the Miscellanies, in<br /> +crown 8vo, 7s.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>HISTORY OF +SAMUEL TITMARSH.</h4> + +<h5>Illustrated by the Author. One vol. small 8vo, +cloth, 4<i>s.</i></h5> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h4>A COLLECTED EDITION OF +MR. THACKERAY'S EARLY WRITINGS.</h4> + +<p class="center">Complete in Four Vols., crown 8vo, price 6<i>s.</i> each,<br /> +uniform with the Cheap Editions of +"Vanity Fair" and "Pendennis."</p> + +<h4>MISCELLANIES IN PROSE AND VERSE.</h4> + +<p class="center"><i>The contents of each Volume of the "Miscellanies" are also published in separate Parts, at various +prices, as follows:</i>—</p> + +<table> +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><b>VOL I.</b></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="tdr"> <i>s.</i> <i>d.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ballads</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 6 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Snob Papers</span></td> + <td class="tdr">2 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Tremendous Adventures of Major Gahagan</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Fatal Boots:—Cox's Diary</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><b>VOL II.</b></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Yellowplush Memoirs:—Jeames's Diary</span></td> + <td class="tdr">2 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sketches and Travels in London</span></td> + <td class="tdr">2 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Novels by Eminent Hands:—Character Sketches</span> </td> + <td class="tdr">1 6 </td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><b>VOL III.</b></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Memoirs of Barry Lyndon</span></td> + <td class="tdr">3 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Legend of the Rhine:—Rebecca and Rowena</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 6 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Little Dinner at Timmins's:—The Bedford Row Conspiracy</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 0 </td> +</tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><b>VOL IV.</b></td><td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Fitzboodle Papers:—Men's Wives</span></td> + <td class="tdr">2 6 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Shabby Genteel Story</span></td> + <td class="tdr">1 6 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The History of Samuel Titmarsh and the Great Hoggarty Diamond</span> </td> + <td class="tdr">1 6 </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10x" id="Page_10x">[10]</a></span></p> + + +<h2>WORKS ON GARDENING AND BOTANY.</h2> + +<h4><br />I.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM</b>;<br />or, <span class="smcap">The Structure, Classification, +and Uses of Plants</span>.<br />By <span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br />Illustrated upon the Natural System.<br />In +One Volume, 8vo, cloth, price 36<i>s.</i>, with upwards of 500 Illustrations.</p> + +<h4><br />II.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>THE ELEMENTS OF BOTANY</b>,<br />Structural and Physiological. +With a Glossary of Technical Terms.<br />By <span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br />In One Volume, 8vo, cloth, with +numerous Illustrations, price 12<i>s.</i></p> + +<h4><br />III.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>MEDICAL AND [OE]CONOMICAL BOTANY.</b><br />By <span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br /> +With numerous Illustrations. A New Edition, in One Volume, 8vo, cloth, price 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<h4><br />IV.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>SCHOOL BOTANY;</b><br />or, <span class="smcap">The Rudiments of Botanical Science</span>.<br /> +By <span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br />In One Volume, 8vo, half-bound, with 400 Illustrations, price 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<h4><br />V.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY;</b><br />or, <span class="smcap">The Art of Describing Plants +Correctly</span>,<br />in Scientific Language, for Self-Instruction and the Use of Schools.<br />By +<span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br />Second Edition. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<h4><br />VI.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>PAXTON'S FLOWER GARDEN.</b><br />Edited by <span class="smcap">Sir Joseph Paxton</span> +and <span class="smcap">Dr. Lindley</span>.<br />Complete in Three Volumes, price 33<i>s.</i> each, elegantly bound in cloth.<br /> +This work appeared in Monthly Parts, which are still on sale, price 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> + +<h4><br />VII.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>PAXTON'S BOTANICAL DICTIONARY;</b><br /> Comprising the Names, +History, and Culture of all Plants known in Britain,<br />together with a full Explanation of +Technical Terms.<br />Crown 8vo, price 16<i>s.</i> cloth extra.</p> + +<h4><br />VIII.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>THE LADIES' COMPANION TO THE FLOWER GARDEN.</b><br /> +Being an Alphabetical Arrangement of all the Ornamental Plants grown in Gardens and +Shrubberies.<br />With full directions for their Culture.<br />By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Loudon</span>.<br />The Sixth Edition, +cloth gilt, price 7<i>s.</i></p> + +<h4><br />IX.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>PRACTICAL HINTS ON PLANTING ORNAMENTAL TREES.</b><br /> +With particular reference to Coniferæ.<br />In which all the Hardy Species are popularly described.<br /> +By Messrs. <span class="smcap">Standish</span> and <span class="smcap">Noble</span>.<br />Price 5<i>s.</i> in cloth.</p> + +<h4><br />X.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>HOW TO LAY OUT A GARDEN.</b><br />Intended as a General Guide +in Choosing, Forming, or Improving an Estate<br />(from a Quarter of an Acre to a Hundred +Acres in extent).<br />By <span class="smcap">Edward Kemp</span>.<br />Price 12<i>s.</i> Illustrated with numerous Plans, +Sections, and Sketches of Gardens and General Objects.</p> + +<h4><br />XI.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>THE HANDBOOK OF GARDENING.</b><br />By <span class="smcap">Edward Kemp</span>,<br /> +For the use of Persons who possess a small Garden.<br />The Eleventh Edition, enlarged and +improved. Price 2<i>s.</i> in cloth.</p> + +<h4><br />XII.</h4> + +<p class="center"><b>MY KITCHEN GARDEN; MY COWS; and HALF AN ACRE +OF PASTURE.</b><br />By a <span class="smcap">Country Parson</span>.<br />Price 6<i>d.</i> +</p> +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11x" id="Page_11x">[11]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2>MISCELLANEOUS WORKS.</h2> + +<p class="blockquot"><b>CIVILIZED AMERICA.</b> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Colley Grattan</span>, late Her +Britannic Majesty's Consul for the State of Massachusetts; Honorary Member of the American +Institute, the New York and Boston Historical Societies, &c. &c.; Author of "A History +of the Netherlands," "Highways and Byways," &c. &c. Second Edition. In Two Vols., +Demy 8vo, with a Coloured Map, price 28<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot">"The chief importance of Mr. Grattan's work at this moment consists, however, in its +explanation of the North-Eastern Boundary dispute, and of the questionable proceedings of +our American cousins in the course of its discussion."—<i>The Times</i>, Dec. 29.</p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>SIR PETER PAUL RUBENS.</b> Original Unpublished Papers +illustrating his Life as an Artist and a Diplomatist. Preserved in Her Majesty's State Paper +Office. With an Appendix. Collected and Edited by W. NOEL SAINSBURY (of Her +Majesty's State Paper Office.) In One large 8vo Volume, bound in cloth, price 16<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE LIFE AND TIMES OE OLIVER GOLDSMITH.</b> By +<span class="smcap">John Forster</span>, Barrister-at-Law, Author of "Lives of Statesmen of the Commonwealth." +Crown 8vo, price 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>, with Forty Woodcuts.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"This is real Biography."—<i>Quarterly Review</i>, Oct. 1854.</p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE EGYPTIANS IN THE TIME OE THE PHARAOHS.</b> +By <span class="smcap">Sir Gardner Wilkinson</span>, D.C.L., F.R.S. To which is added, an INTRODUCTION TO +THE STUDY OF EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. By <span class="smcap">Samuel Birch</span>. Crown 8vo, with +numerous Illustrations, price 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> cloth.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"A delightful book to go to Sydenham with."—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE COMIC BLACKSTONE.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. A. áBeckett</span>, Author of +the "Comic History of England," &c. With an Illustration by <span class="smcap">George Cruikshank</span>. New +Edition, fcap. 8vo, price 2<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE QUIZZIOLOGY OE THE BRITISH DRAMA.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. A. +áBeckett</span>, Author of the "Comic History of England," &c. With Illustrations by +<span class="smcap">G. Cruikshank</span>. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. Price 2<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>SCRIPTURAL CHURCH TEACHING.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">H. Moule</span>. +12mo., cloth. Price 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>BARRACK SERMONS.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">H. Moule</span>. Fcap. 8vo. Price +2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>A SHORT INQUIRY INTO THE HISTORY OE AGRICULTURE,</b> +in Ancient, Mediæval, and Modern Times. By <span class="smcap">Chandos Wren Hoskyns</span>. Cloth. +Price 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>STORY OE "NELL GWYNNE," AND THE SAYINGS OE +CHARLES THE SECOND.</b> Related and Collected by <span class="smcap">Peter Cunningham</span>, F.S.A. One +Vol. Crown 8vo, with Plates. Price 6<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>WHAT SHALL WE HAVE FOR DINNER?</b> Satisfactorily +answered by numerous Bills of Fare for from Two to Eighteen Persons. By <span class="smcap">Lady +Clutterbuck</span>. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>HANDBOOKS OF COOKERY;—THE TOILETTE;—GARDENING.</b> +Price 2<i>s.</i> each.</p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE SHIPMASTER'S GUIDE.</b> Containing ample Directions for +making the Returns, and complying with the Provisions of the <span class="smcap">Merchant Shipping Act</span>, +17 & 18 Vict., c. 104, and the <span class="smcap">Merchant Shipping Act's Repeal</span>, 17 & 18 Vict., c. 120; +with <span class="smcap">Copies of the Acts</span>. Also, the Regulations to be observed when Engaging and Discharging +the Crews of <span class="smcap">Foreign-Going</span> and <span class="smcap">Home-trade Ships</span>. By the <span class="smcap">Registrar-General +of Seamen</span>. Price 1<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="blockquot"><br /><b>THE GREAT EASTERN'S LOG;</b> containing Her First Transatlantic +Voyage, and all Particulars of Her American Visit. By an <span class="smcap">Executive Officer</span>. +Price 1<i>s.</i><br /><br /></p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12x" id="Page_12x">[12]</a></span></p> + +<h3><br />CHARLES KNIGHT'S</h3> + +<h2>POPULAR HISTORY OF ENGLAND.</h2> + +<p class="blockquot"><span class="smcap">The</span> Publishers of this Work have to announce a change in its mode of +issue. The necessity for this change rests upon the following representation +of the Author, which appears to the Publishers as conclusive as +they trust it will be satisfactory to the Public.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"I have been occupied," says Mr. Knight, "during nearly five years, in writing the +Popular History of England, for Monthly Publication. With three exceptions it has +appeared regularly during that period; and has now reached to Fifty-three Numbers, +bringing up the narrative to 1793. I now find it impossible,—in the first place, with a +proper regard to my own health, and, secondly, with an anxious desire to complete my +book in a way to justify the favour with which it has been received,—to proceed with a +<i>Monthly</i> Publication. The pressure of a periodical issue, with so short an interval +between each publication, has become incompatible, according to my view, with a due +regard to the research and thought which are necessary to deal with the vast accumulation +of materials for history since the period of the French Revolution. The difficulty which +now presses upon my responsibility for accuracy and impartiality has not been felt by me +in the earlier stages of my undertaking, when the field of investigation was more limited. +It has now become so onerous as to demand a decisive change.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"I propose, therefore, that it should be announced that the publication in Monthly +Numbers will be discontinued, and therefore that a Number will not appear on the 1st of +October.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"That the quantity required to complete Vol. VII. will be published as a Part, or +Section in the month of January, 1861, simultaneously with the publication of the Volume.</p> + +<p class="blockquot">"That Volume VIII., completing the work, will be published in the course of 1861; +and, for the convenience of purchasers, will be divided into two Parts, or Sections."</p> + +<p class="blockquot">In making this announcement the Publishers have only to add, that on +the appearance of each of the Parts, or Sections, the Work will also be on +sale in the usual form of Shilling Numbers.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p class="blockquot">☞ <i>The Six Volumes of the</i> <span class="smcap">Popular History of England</span>, <i>which are +now completed, bring down the narrative from the Invasion of Cæsar to +the close of the American War. The first Four Volumes, forming the +First Division of the Work, carry down the history to the Revolution of +1688, and are published with a copious Index. The Second Division, +commencing with Volume V., will come down to that period of the +reign of her present Majesty which has become a constitutional epoch in +the important change of the commercial policy of the country. The price +of each Volume is 9s.</i></p> + + +<h5><br />BRADBURY & EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET, FLEET STREET, E.C.<br /><br /></h5> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + + +<h3><br /><br />Transcriber's Notes</h3> + +<p>Numerous errors in punctuation (mostly missing periods) have been +silently corrected. Otherwise, the somewhat eccentric use of punctuation +has been left untouched.</p> + +<p>The following typographical errors have been corrected:</p> + +<p>"Publiliu" (p. xi) — corrected to "Publilius";<br /> +"educa-" (p.6) — corrected to "education";<br /> +"isin" (p. 38) — corrected to "nisi";<br /> +"vain for his recal" (p. 43) — corrected to "vain for his recall";<br /> +"it it is said" (p. 94) — corrected to "it is said";<br /> +"Romans to continuue (p. 117) — corrected to "Romans to continue";<br /> +"Hasbrubal" (p. 190) — corrected to "Hasdrubal";<br /> +"to day" (p. 241) — corrected to "to-day";<br /> +"Sertorious" (p. 277) — corrected to "Sertorius";<br /> +"ttifled" (p. 297) — corrected to "stifled".</p> + +<p>There are many examples of words with two spellings: one with a hyphen and one without; this seems often to be deliberate (and often for humorous purpose) and they have therefore been left unchanged (e.g. dis-gusted and disgusted; Ro-man and Roman).</p> + +<p>There is no consistency in the use of the æ ligature. For example, Both Æmilius and Aemilius, Præneste and Praeneste are found. These inconsistencies have been left unaltered.</p> + +<p>Similarly the spelling Maximùs, which appears in a footnote on p. 16, has been left unaltered, although the spelling elsewhere is Maximus.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Comic History of Rome, by +Gilbert Abbott À Becket + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMIC HISTORY OF ROME *** + +***** This file should be named 37657-h.htm or 37657-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/6/5/37657/ + +Produced by Margo Romberg, crana and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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