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diff --git a/37586-h/37586-h.htm b/37586-h/37586-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ae0f5e --- /dev/null +++ b/37586-h/37586-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3241 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Women’s Bathing and Swimming Costume in the United States, by Claudia B. Kidwell. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + .blockquot {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .caption {font-size: .8em; text-align: center; margin: auto 1em;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: top; font-size: .7em; text-decoration: none;} + .footnote {margin-left: 8%; margin-right: 8%; font-size: .8em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 86%; text-align: right; font-size: .8em;} + .fsize80 {font-size: .8em;} + .fsize150 {font-size: 1.5em;} + h1,h2 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + h3 {text-align: left; clear: right; font-size: 1em;} + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + hr.c25 {width: 25%;} + .left {text-align: left;} + .lettsymb {font-family: "Arial","Sans-serif";} + .nowrap {white-space: nowrap;} + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; color: gray;} + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; text-indent: -2em;} + .right {text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + sub {font-size: .6em; vertical-align: -20%;} + sup {font-size: .6em; vertical-align: 25%;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 1em; border-collapse: collapse;} + td.padr3 {padding-right: 1.5em;} + .tnbox {border: solid 2px; background: #999966; margin: 1em 20%; padding: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Women's Bathing and Swimming Costume in the +United States, by Claudia B. Kidwell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Women's Bathing and Swimming Costume in the United States + +Author: Claudia B. Kidwell + +Release Date: October 1, 2011 [EBook #37586] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN'S BATHING AND SWIMMING *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Harry Lamé and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tnbox"> +<p class="center">Please see <a href="#TN">Transcriber's Notes</a> at the end of this document.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/coverf.jpg" alt="Front Cover" width="400" height="513" /></div> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<div style="margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;"> +<p class="right" style="line-height: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">United States National Museum Bulletin 250<br /> +Contributions from<br /> +The Museum of History and Technology<br /> +Paper 64</span></p> + +<p class="right fsize150" style="margin-top: 2em;">WOMEN’S BATHING AND SWIMMING COSTUME +IN THE UNITED STATES</p> + +<p class="right" style="margin-bottom: 2em;"><i>Claudia B. Kidwell</i></p> + +<table class="right" style="margin-right: 0;" summary="ToC"> + +<tr> +<td class="right padr3">INTRODUCTION</td> +<td class="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="right padr3">CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT</td> +<td class="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="right padr3">BATHING COSTUME</td> +<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="right padr3">SWIMMING COSTUME</td> +<td class="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="right padr3">CONCLUSIONS</td> +<td class="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<p class="right" style="line-height: 1em; margin-top: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution Press<br /> +City of Washington</span><br /> +1968</p> + +<p class="left fsize80">For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office<br /> +Washington, D.C. 20402—Price 50 cents (paper cover)</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig1" id="Fig1"></a> +<img src="images/illo01.jpg" alt="Bathing costumes c. 1884" width="400" height="505" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 1.—<span class="smcap">Bathing costume</span>, from <i>The Delineator</i>, July 1884. +(Smithsonian photo 58466.)</p></div> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<p class="right"><i>Claudia B. Kidwell</i></p> + +<h1><i>Women’s Bathing and Swimming Costume +in the United States</i></h1> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>The evolution of the modern swim suit from an unflattering, +restrictive bathing dress into an attractive, functional costume is +traced from colonial times to the present. This evolution in style +reflects not only the increasing involvement of women in aquatic +activities but also the changing motivations for feminine participation. +The nature of the style changes in aquatic dress +were influenced by the fashions of the period, while functional +improvements were limited by prevailing standards of modesty. +This mutation of the bathing dress to the swim suit demonstrates +the changing attitudes and status of women in the United States, +from the traditional image of the subordinate “weaker sex” to +an equal and active member of the society.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>: <i>Claudia B. Kidwell is assistant curator +of American costume, department of civil history, in the Smithsonian +Institution’s Museum of History and Technology.</i></p></div> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></p> +<h2>Introduction</h2> + +<p>Women’s bathing dress holds a unique place in +the history of American costume. This specialized +garb predates the age of sports costume which +arrived during the last half of the 19th century. +Although bathing dress shares this distinction with +riding costume, the aquatic garb was merely utilitarian +in the late 18th century while riding costume had +a fashionable role. From its modest status, bathing +gowns and later bathing dresses became more important +until their successor, the swimming suit, +achieved a permanent place among the outfits worn +by 20th century women. The social significance of +this accomplishment was best expressed by Foster +Rhea Dulles, author of <i>America Learns to Play</i>, in 1940, +when he wrote:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The modern bathing-suit ... symbolized the new status +of women even more than the short skirts and bobbed +hair of the jazz age or the athleticism of the devotees of +tennis and golf. It was the final proof of their successful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +assertion of the right to enjoy whatever recreation they +chose, costumed according to the demands of the sport +rather than the tabus of an outworn prudery, and to +enjoy it in free and natural association with men.<a name="FNanchor_1" +id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p></div> + +<p>Since the prescribed limitations of women’s role in +any given period are determined and affected by +many social factors, the evolution of the bathing +gown to the swimming suit may not only be dependent +upon the changes in the American woman’s way of +life, but also may reflect certain technological and +sociological factors that are not readily identifiable. +The purpose of this paper is to describe the changes +in women’s bathing dress and wherever pertinent +to present the factors affecting these styles.<a name="FNanchor_2" +id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> + +<p>Anyone who attempts to research the topic of swimming +and related subjects will be confronted with a +history of varying reactions. Ralph Thomas, in 1904, +described his experiences through the years that he +spent compiling a book on swimming:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>When asked what I was doing, I have felt the greatest +reluctance to say a work on the literature of swimming. +People who were writing novels or some other thing of +little practical utility always looked at me with a smile of +pity on my mentioning swimming. Though I am bound +to say that, when I gave them some idea of the work, the +pity changed somewhat but then they would say “Why +don’t you give us a new edition of your Handbook of +Fictitious Names?” As if the knowledge of the real name +of an author was of any importance in comparison with +the discussion of a subject that more or less concerns every +human being.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p></div> + +<p>Such reactions toward research about swimming +probably discouraged many serious efforts of writing +about the subject. Its scant coverage and even omission +in histories of recreation or sports may be explained +by the fact that swimming cannot be categorized +as simply physical exercise, skill, recreation, or +competitive sport. In trying to determine the extent to +which women swam in times past it is frustrating to +observe the historians’ masculine bias in researching +and reporting social history.</p> + +<p>A study of women’s bathing dress meets with similar +problems, and while a discussion of bathing dress can +evoke considerable interest, its nature is usually considered +more superficial than serious. Descriptions of, +and even brief references to, bathing apparel for women +are very scarce before the third quarter of the +19th century. Before this time only decorative costume +items were considered worthy of description and bathing +costume was not in this category. It is only within +comparatively recent times that costume historians +have conceded sufficient importance to bathing dress +to include meaningful descriptions in their research.</p> + +<p>Participation in water activities was widespread in +the ancient world although the earliest origins of this +activity are unknown. For example, in Greece and, +later, in Rome, swimming was valued as a pleasurable +exercise and superb physical training for warriors. +The more sedentary citizens turned to the baths which +became the gathering point for professional men, +philosophers, and students. Thus bathing and swimming, +combined originally to fulfill the functions of +cleansing and exercise purely for physical well being, +developed the secondary functions of recreation and +social intercourse.</p> + +<p>With the rise of the Christian church and its +spreading anti-pagan attitudes, many of the sumptuous +baths were destroyed. Christian asceticism also +may have contributed to the decline of bathing for +cleansing. In addition there was a secular belief that +outdoor bathing helped to spread the fearful epidemics +that periodically swept the continent. Although +there is isolated evidence that swimming was valued +as a physical skill,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a +href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> swimming and bathing all but +disappeared during the Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>In 1531, long after the Middle Ages, Sir Thomas +Elyot wrote of swimming that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There is an exercise, whyche is right profitable in extreme +danger of warres, but ... it hathe not ben of longe tyme +muche used, specially amoge noble men, perchaunce some +reders whl lyttell esteeme it.<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p></div> + +<p>This early English writer gave no instructions, but expounded +on the value of swimming as a skill that +could be useful in time of war.</p> + +<p>It herewith becomes necessary to differentiate +between bathing and swimming with their attendant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +goals, for it was the goals of each activity which influenced +the associated customs and costume designs. +For this discussion we shall define bathing as the act +of immersing all or part of the body in water for +cleansing, therapeutic, recreational, or religious +purposes, and swimming as the self-propulsion of the +body through water. When we refer to swimming it is +necessary to distinguish whether it was considered +a useful skill, a therapeutic exercise, a recreation, or a +competitive sport. Thus it is important to note that +while bathing for all purposes and swimming as a +physical exercise, recreation, and sport died out +during the Middle Ages, the latter continued to be +valued as a skill, particularly for warriors. This +function of swimming survived to form the link +between the ancients and the 17th century.</p> + +<p>According to Ralph Thomas, the first book on +swimming was written by Nicolas Winmann, a professor +of languages at Ingolstadt in Bavaria, and +printed in 1528. The first book published in England +on swimming was written in Latin by Everard Digby +and printed in 1587. As Thomas has stated, Digby’s +book</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>... is entitled to a far more important place than the +first of the world, because, whereas Winmann had never +(up to 1866) been translated or copied or even quoted by +any one, Digby has been three times translated; twice +into English and once into French and through this latter +became and probably still is the best known treatise on +the subject.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p></div> + +<p>This French version was first published in 1696 with +its purported author being Monsieur Melchisédesh +Thévenot. In his introduction Thévenot indicates +that he has made use of Digby’s book in his own +treatise and that he knows of Winmann’s publication. +The English translation of Thévenot’s version became +the standard instruction book for English-speaking +peoples. Typically, his reasons in favor of men swimming +were based on its being a useful skill (i.e., to +keep from being drowned in a shipwreck, to escape +capture when being pursued by enemies, and to attack +an enemy posted on the opposite side of a river).<a name="FNanchor_7" +id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> + +<p>In the 18th and 19th centuries numerous other +publications on swimming appeared—too numerous +to deal with in this paper. Nevertheless, the refinement +of the art of swimming was not related to the number +of instruction books. Few of these books actually +offered new insights in comparison with those that +were outright plagiarisms or filled with misinformation. +In the meantime, bathing was reintroduced and +as this activity became more widespread swimming +was regarded as more than a useful skill, but only for +men.</p> + +<p>There is little evidence of women bathing or swimming +prior to the 17th century; these activities seem +to have been exclusively for men. Nevertheless, +Thomas refers to Winmann as writing, in 1538, that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>at Zurich in his day (thus implying that he was an elderly +man and that the custom had ceased) the young men and +maidens bathed together around the statue of “Saint +Nicolai.” Even in those days his pupil asks “were not the +girls ashamed of being naked?” “No, as they wore +bathing drawers—sometimes a marriage was brought +about.” If any young man failed to bring up stones from +the bottom, when he dived, he had to suffer the penalty +of wearing drawers like the girls.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p></div> + +<p>Thomas goes on to say that the only evidence he had +found of women swimming in England in early days +was in a ballad entitled “The Swimming Lady” and +dating from about 1670. Despite these isolated references +it was not until the 19th century that women +were encouraged to swim.</p> + +<p>After its decline in the Middle Ages, bathing +achieved new popularity as a medicinal treatment +for both men and women. In England this revival +occurred in the 17th century when certain medical +men held that bathing in fresh water had healing +properties. The resultant spas, which were developed +at freshwater springs to effect such “cures,” expanded +rapidly as the number of their devotees increased. +By the mid-18th century, rival practitioners claimed +even greater health-giving properties for sea water +both as a drink and for bathing. An economic benefit +resulted when, tiny, poverty-stricken fishing hamlets +became famous through the patronage of the wealthy +in search of health as well as pleasure.</p> + +<p>When the early colonists left England in the first +half of the 17th century, the beliefs and practices they +had acquired in their original homes were brought to +the new world. Thus, it is important to note that +during this period in Europe, swimming was a skill +practiced by few, primarily soldiers and sailors. It +was not until the second half of the century that +bathing for therapeutic purposes was becoming +popular in the old world.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>The earliest reference to women’s bathing costume +has been quoted previously in Winmann’s amazing +description of mixed bathing at Zurich. He referred +to women, wearing only drawers, bathing with men +as a custom no longer practiced when he wrote his +book in 1538.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest illustrations of bathing costume +I have located is part of a painted fan leaf, about +1675, that was reproduced in volume 9 of Maurice +Leloir’s <i>Histoire du Costume de l’Antiquité</i> in 1914. In +one corner of this painting, which depicts a variety +of activities going on in the Seine and on the river +banks at Paris, women are shown immersing themselves +in water within a covered wooden frame. They +are wearing loose, light-colored gowns and long +headdresses. An English source of the late 17th century +described a very similar costume.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The ladye goes into the bath with garments made of +yellow canvas, which is stiff and made large with great +sleeves like a parson’s gown. The water fills it up so that +it’s borne off that your shape is not seen, it does not cling +close as other lining.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p></div> + +<p>In the course of my contacts with other costume +historians I have encountered the belief that women +did not wear any bathing costume before the mid-19th +century. Supporting this theory I have seen a reproduction +of a print, about 1812, showing women +bathing nude in the ocean at Margate, England, but +the evidence already presented indicates clearly that +costume was worn earlier. Also certain English secondary +sources refer to a nondescript chemise-type of +bathing dress that was worn during the first quarter +of the 19th century. Because little study has been given +European bathing costume, it is not possible to conjecture +under what circumstances costume was or was +not used. We do know, however, that when bathing +became popular in the new world bathing gowns +were worn by some women in the old.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<h2>Cultural Environment</h2> + +<p>As many European cultural traits were transmitted +to the new world via England, so was the +introduction of water activities. Nevertheless it +required a number of years for such cultural refinements +as bathing to take root in the new environment. +The early colonists brought with them a limited +knowledge of swimming, but they did not have the +leisure to cultivate this skill. In New England the +Puritan religious and social beliefs were as restrictive +as the lack of leisure time. In this harsh climate, +self-indulgence in swimming and bathing did not +fulfill the requirements of being righteous and useful. +Thus the growing popularity of bathing among the +wealthy in Europe during the 17th and early 18th +centuries had little initial impact in the new world.</p> + +<p>Although swimming as a skill predated the introduction +of bathing to the new world, I will first +discuss bathing since the customs and facilities established +for it reveal the development of swimming +in America, first for men and then for women.</p> + +<h3>BATHING</h3> + +<p>One of the earliest sources showing an appreciation +of mineral waters for bathing in the new world is +a 1748 reference in George Washington’s diary to +the “fam’d Warm Springs.”<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a +href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> At that time only +open ground surrounded the springs which were +located within a dense forest.</p> + +<p>Another entry for July 31, 1769, records his departure +with Mrs. Washington for these springs (now +known as Berkeley Springs, West Virginia) where +they stayed more than a month. They were accompanied +by her daughter, Patsy Custis, who was +probably taken in hope of curing a form of epilepsy +with which she was afflicted. In the latter part of the +18th century hundreds of visitors annually flocked +to these springs. Although the accommodations were +primitive, we early note that the avowed therapeutic +aims for visiting these waters were very quickly +combined with a growing social life on dry land.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Rude log huts, board and canvas tents, and even covered +wagons, served as lodging rooms, while every party +brought its own substantial provisions of flour, meat and +bacon, depending for lighter articles of diet on the “Hill +folk,” or the success of their own foragers. A large hollow +scooped in the sand, surrounded by a screen of pine brush, +was the only bathing-house; and this was used alternately +by ladies and gentlemen. The time set apart for the ladies +was announced by a blast on a long tin horn, at which +signal all of the opposite sex retired to a prescribed +distance, ... Here day and night passed in a round of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +eating and drinking, bathing, fiddling, dancing, and +reveling. Gaming was carried to a great excess and +horse-racing was a daily amusement.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p></div> + +<p>The more permanent bath houses found at the +increasing number of springs in the early 19th +century were really only shanties built where the +water bubbled up. Nevertheless, as civilization moved +in upon these resorts, the current taboos and mores +were soon imposed. These gave rise to customs, +facilities, and inventions peculiar to the pastime. +The more permanent facilities carefully separated +men from women. Frequently the women’s bath +was located a considerable distance from the men’s +and surrounded by a high fence. Female attendants +were at hand to wait upon the ladies, and private +rooms were prepared for their use both before and +after bathing.</p> + +<p>In the early 19th century the fame of Berkeley +Springs was eclipsed temporarily by the growing +popularity of other springs, such as Saratoga in the +north and White Sulphur Springs in the south. The +newest facilities, however, and the completion of +the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, restored Berkeley +to its former prosperity in the early 1850s.</p> + +<p>The bath houses at Berkeley Springs in the 1850s +are an example of the facilities that were considered +convenient, extensive, and elegant during this period. +The gentlemen’s bath house contained fourteen +dressing rooms and ten large bathing rooms. In +addition to the plunge baths, which were twelve +feet long, five feet wide, and four and a half feet deep, +the men had a swimming bath that was sixty feet +long, twenty feet wide, and five feet deep. The +ladies’ and men’s bath houses were located on +opposite sides of the grove. As if this were not reassuring +enough, we are told that the building for +the weaker sex was surrounded by several acres of +trees. Thus protected, feminine bathers could choose +either one of the nine private baths or the plunge +bath, which was thirty feet long by sixteen feet +wide and four and a half feet deep, as well as use +a shower or artificial warm baths.<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>The differences between the two bath houses show +that women were not as active in the water as the +men. Judging from the kind of facilities that were +provided at Berkeley Springs, the ladies did less +“plunging” than the men and no swimming.</p> + +<p>Although accepted in England, bathing in <b>salt</b> +water did not become popular in the new world +until some time after bathing at springs was established.</p> + +<p>In 1794 a Mr. Bailey announced that he planned +to institute “bathing machines and several species of +entertainment” at his resort on Long Island.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a +href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> “A +machine of peculiar construction for bathing in the +open sea” was advertised a few years later by a hotel +proprietor at Nahant, Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" +class="fnanchor">[14]</a> There is some +question as to what the term “bathing machine” +describes. Existing records show that W. Merritt of +New York City received a patent dated February 1, +1814, for a “bathing machine.” Unfortunately neither +a description nor a drawing can be found today. +European patents from the first half of the 19th +century reveal that a bathing machine could be a +contraption in which an individual bathed in privacy. +This is what the above quotations seem to be describing. +In general usage, however, “bathing machine” +could also have been a device in which an individual +removed his clothing to prepare for bathing; this +type will be described later.</p> + +<p>By the early 19th century floating baths were +established in every city of any importance including +Boston, Salem, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, +Washington, Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah. +One bath located at the foot of Jay Street in New +York City was described as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The building is an octagon of seventy feet in diameter, +with a plank floor supported by logs so as to sink the +center bath four feet below the surface of the water, but +in the private baths the water may be reduced to three or +even two feet so as to be perfectly safe for children. It is +placed in the current so always to be supplied with ocean +and pure water and rises and falls with the tide.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a +href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p></div> + +<p>As was true at the springs, men and women were +segregated; but in the floating baths they were only +separated by being in different compartments rather +than in different bath houses.</p> + +<p>Although there were a number of these baths there +were not enough to cover all of the inviting river banks +and sea shores. There are many instances of men enjoying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +the water of undeveloped shores and there is +some evidence of women venturing into the bays and +rivers (<a href="#Fig2">fig. 2</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig2" id="Fig2"></a> +<img src="images/illo14.jpg" alt="Painting of Bathing Party, 1810" width="500" height="326" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 2.—“<span class="smcap">Bathing Party</span>, 1810,” painting by William P. Chappel.<br /> +(<i>Courtesy of Museum of the City of New York.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>Nevertheless, few women ventured into the open +ocean during the early 19th century. They were +generally afraid to brave the force of the ocean waves +with only a female companion, since prevailing +attitudes regarding the proper behavior of a lady +prevented them from being accompanied by a man. +When a few ignored this dictate, their bold actions +gave rise to “ill-founded stories of want of delicacy on +the part of the females.”<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a +href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> An unbiased traveler, +who gave an account of this mixed bathing in 1833, +stated that parties always went into the water completely +dressed and for that reason he could see no +great violation of modesty. Mixed bathing at the +seashore (<a href="#Fig3">fig. 3</a>) was gaining acceptance, however, +when it was reported only thirteen years later that +“... ladies and gentlemen bathe in company, as is +the fashion all along the Atlantic Coast....”<a name="FNanchor_17" +id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Fig3" id="Fig3"></a> +<img src="images/illo18.png" alt="Bathing at Cape May, 1849" width="450" height="526" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 3.—“<span class="smcap">Scene at Cape May</span>,” <i>Godey’s Lady’s +Book</i>, August 1849. (<i>Courtesy of The New York Public +Library.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>In place of the dressing rooms available in the floating +baths, special facilities were frequently provided. +The bathing machine—in this case a device in which +one changed clothes—was used where there was a +gentle slope down to the water. This species of bathing +machine was a small wooden cabin set on very +high wheels with steps leading down from a door in +the front. The bather entered and, while he was +changing, the machine was pulled into the sea by a +horse. When water was well above the axles the horse +was uncoupled and taken ashore. The bather was +then free to enter the sea by descending the steps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +pointed away from the shore (<a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>). Machines of the +18th and early 19th century were frequently equipped +with an awning which shielded the bather from +public view as she or he descended the steps to enter +the water. These awnings were left off the bathing +machines during the last half of the 19th century. +Such machines were used to a great extent in Europe +during the 18th and 19th centuries. In the United +States, however, they were used only to a limited +extent during the first half of the 19th century. By 1870 +they had practically disappeared—being replaced by +the stationary, sentry-box type of individual structure +and the large communal bath house.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig4" id="Fig4"></a> +<img src="images/illo19.png" alt="Bathing at Newport, 1858" width="500" height="339" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 4.—“<span class="smcap">The Bathe at Newport</span>,” by +Winslow Homer, <i>Harper’s Weekly Newspaper</i>, September 1858.<br /> +(Smithsonian photo 59665.)</p></div> + +<p>“Sentry-boxes” were used before the 1870s at +beaches where the terrain did not encourage the use +of the bathing machines. At Long Branch, New +Jersey, and at one of the beaches at Newport, Rhode +Island, lines of these stationary structures were available +to the bather for changing, one half designated +for women and the other half for men. Hours varied +but it was the practice to run up colored flags to +signal bathing times for the ladies and then the gentlemen. +A male correspondent wrote from Newport +in 1857:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>If you are social and wish to bathe promiscuously, you +put on a dress and go in with the ladies, if you want to +cultivate the “fine and froggy art of swimming,” unencumbered +by attire, you wait until the twelve o’clock +red-flag is run up—when the ladies retire.<a name="FNanchor_18" +id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p></div> + +<p>From its early beginnings, in the late 18th and +early 19th century, the summer excursion to the resorts +and spas grew in popularity. In 1848, a writer of a +Philadelphia fashion report explained that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Very few ladies of fashion are now in town, most of them +being birds of passage during the last of July and all of +August. Most Americans seem to have adopted the +fashion of visiting watering-places through the summer.<a name="FNanchor_19" +id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p></div> + +<p>As the summer excursion became a social event, +the recreational possibilities of bathing overshadowed +its earlier therapeutic function. Bathing became +part of an increasingly elaborate schedule of activities +where each event—bathing, dining, concerts, balls, +promenades, carriage rides—had its appointed time, +place, and proper costume.</p> + +<p>In addition to stiff ocean breezes, seaside resorts +had an extra appeal that beguiled visitors away +from the spas—namely mixed bathing. For during +the bathing hour at the seashore all the stiffness +and etiquette of select society was abandoned to +pleasure.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Again and again I try it. Deliriusm! I forget even Miss +<span class="nowrap">——,</span> and dive headforemost into the billows. I rush +to meet them. I jump on their backs. I ride on their +combs, or I let them roll over me.... I am in the +thickest of the bathers, and amid the roar of waves, am +driven wild with excitement by the shouts of laughter; +burst of noisy merriment, and little jolly female shrieks of +fun. All are wild with excitement, ducking, diving, +splashing, floating, rollicking.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p></div> + +<p>Thus bathing was transformed from a medicinal +treatment to a pleasurable pursuit.</p> + +<p>Excursionists had to be hardy individuals, firm +in their resolve to complete their trip. Although<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +many railroad lines had been completed by the +1850s, transportation problems were by no means +solved. For example, a New York tourist who planned +to enjoy a summer at Lake George had to travel by +boat from New York City to Albany and Troy, +then by railroad to Morean Corner, and, finally, +by stage to the lake. After listing the difficulties +endured by excursionists, a particularly embittered +correspondent commented in 1856, “... we envy +these happy people in nothing but the power to +be idle.”<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> + +<p>By the 1870s, travel facilities were rapidly being +improved and many new summer resorts were +established which appealed to a larger segment of +the population.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Comparatively few can stay long at one time at the springs +or seaside resorts, and hence the peculiar value of arrangements +like those for enabling multitudes to take frequent +short pleasant excursions down the New York Bay and +along the Atlantic coast, as well as up the Hudson, and +through Long Island Sound.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p></div> + +<p>Beaches that catered to a large cross-section of the +population provided a wide variety of informal +activities that replaced the established functions +found at the more select bathing resorts. For example, +the illustration of Coney Island in 1878 (<a href="#Fig5">fig. 5</a>) +shows a puppet show; pony rides for children; a +hurdy gurdy; vendors of walking sticks, sunglasses,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +and food; and guide ropes in the water for timid +bathers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig5" id="Fig5"></a> +<img src="images/illo22.png" alt="Beach Fun on Coney Island" width="500" height="335" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 5.—“<span class="smcap">Scenes and Incidents on Coney Island</span>,” +<i>Harper’s Weekly Newspaper</i>, August 1878.<br /> +(Smithsonian photo 59666.)</p></div> + +<p>In the 1890s foreign visitors were impressed by +American concern with finding opportunities to play; +early in the century they had remarked on the apparent +lack of interest in amusements. The term, “summer +resorts,” no longer referred to a relatively small +number of fashionable watering places. The <i>New +York Tribune</i> was running eight columns of summer +hotel advertisements aimed directly at the middle +class. The popular <i>Summer Tourist and Excursion Guide</i> +listed moderate-priced hotels and railroad excursions; +it was a far departure from the fashionable tour of the +1840s.</p> + +<p>Thus, as economic and technological factors +changed, bathing was transformed from a medicinal +treatment for the leisure class to a recreation enjoyed +by a large portion of the population.</p> + +<h3>SWIMMING</h3> + +<p>As has been stated earlier, swimming was being +practiced by men in Europe when the early colonists +were leaving their old homes. Nevertheless, the task +of establishing new homes left them little time to +practice the “art of swimming” or to teach it to +fellow colonists.</p> + +<p>Benjamin Franklin is no doubt the most famous +early proponent of swimming in the colonies. In his +autobiography written in the form of a letter to his +son in 1771, Franklin revealed his early interest in +swimming.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I had from a child been delighted with this exercise, had +studied and practiced Thévenot’s motions and position, +and added some of my own, aiming at the graceful and +easy, as well as the useful.<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>Benjamin Franklin used every opportunity to +encourage his friends to learn to swim,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>as I wish all men were taught to do in their youth; they +would, on many occurrences, be the safer for having that +skill, and on many more the happier, as freer from painful +apprehensions of danger, to say nothing of the enjoyment +in so delightful and wholesome an exercise.<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a +href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p></div> + +<p>Not only was Franklin in favor of being able to swim +but when requested he advised friends on methods +for how to teach oneself. His instructions, in his letter +of September 28, 1776 to Mr. Oliver Neale, were +published a number of times even as late as the 1830s.</p> + +<p>America’s first swimming school was established at +Boston in 1827 by Francis Liefer. Two expert swimmers, +John Quincy Adams and John James Audubon, +the ornithologist, visited the school and each expressed +delight at having found such an establishment.</p> + +<p>Numerous books instructing men how to swim were +brought into the United States in the early 19th +century and some were republished here, but the +first original work (i.e., not a plagiarism) by an +American was not published until 1846. In this book +the author, James Arlington Bennet, M.D., LL.D., +based his instructions upon his own personal observations +as an experienced swimmer. Dr. Bennet’s +publication requires special note not only due to the +basic value of the information but because of the +extraordinary title (i.e., <i>The Art of Swimming Exemplified +by Diagrams from Which Both Sexes May Learn +to Swim and Float on the Water; and Rules for All Kinds +of Bathing in the Preservation of Health and Cure of +Disease, with the Management of Diet from Infancy to Old +Age, and a Valuable Remedy Against Sea-sickness</i>). Thanks +to this explicit title we learn that Dr. Bennet was in +favor of women learning to swim. This energetic +aquatic activity had long been considered a masculine +skill and, despite such a significant publication, this +attitude continued until much later in the century.</p> + +<p>We have already noted in a previous discussion that +the Berkeley Springs bath houses of the 1850s provided +a swimming bath for men but no similar +facilities for women. Also at certain seaside resorts +of the same period, a special time was set for men to +practice the art of swimming without clothing, but +women had no similar opportunity. When the ladies +entered the water they were clothed from head to toe +because men were also present. The description of +women’s bathing costume, which will appear in a +later section, clearly shows that women could do +little more than try to maintain their footing. Undoubtedly +some “brazen” women did find the opportunity +to swim, but the general attitude was that +women should only immerse themselves in water.</p> + +<p>By the 1860s there was a widespread health +movement which gave additional momentum to the +belief that physical exercise was good for one’s +well-being. As a result, women were being encouraged +to emerge from their state of physical inactivity +imposed by social custom. Swimming had already +gained recognition as a healthful exercise for men, +but with this fresh approach it was even being +suggested that women should swim. A column that +appeared in 1866, entitled “Physical Exercise for +Females,” asserted that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Bathing, as it is practiced at our coast resorts, is, no doubt, +a delightful recreation; but if to it swimming could be +added, the delight would be increased, and the possible +use and advantage much extended.<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p></div> + +<p>In answer to the possible objection that the facilities +for teaching were not always available, the writer +maintained that in addition to the seashore there +were rivers, lakes, and ponds as well as the swimming +baths found in most large cities. He further asserted +that if the demand were great enough, certain days +could be appropriated exclusively to women as +was done in some of the London baths.</p> + +<p>The type of baths referred to in this case were not +built simply to supply a health-giving treatment or +for recreation as described earlier. As part of the +health movement mentioned above, there was a +growing concern in regards to personal cleansing; +it was realized that merely splashing water on the +face in the morning was not sufficient for good personal +hygiene. While facilities for washing the whole body +were being installed in wealthy homes, there was also +a growing concern for the masses of people who +could not afford such extravagance. Thus philanthropic +individuals encouraged the building of +public swimming baths in densely populated, low +income areas. It was hoped that, although the patrons +would be covered by bathing costume and would be +seeking refreshment and recreation, this unaccustomed +contact with water would improve their personal +hygiene.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>In 1870 a reporter for <i>Leslie’s</i>, who was describing +two elegant large bathhouses (the type described +above) in New York City, stated that Mondays, +Wednesdays, and Fridays were set apart for ladies +and Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays for gentlemen. +These baths became quite popular in the large +cities, particularly among people who could not +afford the time or money to make trips even to the +near seaside resorts. By the 1880s they were so popular +that bathing time was scheduled to allow many sets +of bathers to enjoy the water. Thus a number of +women who had probably never been completely +covered with water before had the opportunity to +learn to swim.</p> + +<p>While women were being encouraged to practice +swimming as a healthful exercise, this activity was +being recognized as a recreation and sport for men. +The increasing affluence during the last three decades +of the 19th century, which made possible the widespread +popularity of summer excursions, encouraged +swimming as an individual pastime as well as a +growing spectator sport. This was true not only for +swimming but for nearly every sport we enjoy today. +In 1871 a reporter wrote:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is not underrating the interest attached to yachting or +rowing matches, to say that swimming clubs and swimming +matches can be made to create wider and more +useful emulation among “the Million” who can never +participate in or benefit by those notable trials of skill +and muscle.<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p></div> + +<p>By the 1890s this growing interest in spectator and +individual sports evidenced several interesting results. +Separate sporting pages were established in the formats +of many newspapers. In addition to being a summer +pastime, “the art of swimming” became an intercollegiate +and Olympic sport, and was included on +the roster of events for the 1896 revival of the Olympic +Games held in Athens. Innovations in facilities and +techniques helped to alter the character of swimming. +The most notable of these were the development of +the indoor pool and the introductions of the crawl +stroke into the United States.</p> + +<p>It was in this time period that swimming for women +was becoming socially acceptable. In 1888, Goucher +College, a prominent girls’ school, built its own indoor +pool and the following year swimming was listed in +its catalog for the first time. Writers, in turn, no longer +felt it necessary to convince readers that women should +be more active in the water, but concentrated instead +on what a woman should know when she swims. This +changing attitude gained world-wide recognition in +1912 at Stockholm when the 100-meter swimming +event for women was included in the schedule.</p> + +<p>The period of prosperity following World War I +brought a marked increase in the appreciation of +recreation, resulting in an increase of swimming pools +and available beaches. Indoor pools, which made +swimming a year-round activity, were becoming even +more numerous than beaches. Swimming was now +established as a sport and a recreation for both men +and women. According to a 1924 magazine article in +the <i>Delineator</i>, seldom was a swimming meet held +anywhere in the country without events for women. +At Palm Beach, however, one of the few remaining +citadels of “high society,” an axiom of fashion dictated +that a lady or gentleman not go into the water before +11:45 in the morning; should one do so, one ran the +risk of being taken for a maid or valet. The masses, +however, swam for pleasure without regard to the +inhibitions of high fashion.</p> + +<p>This period was also marked by the advent of +swimming personalities of both sexes. Johnny Weissmuller +became a popular hero for his accomplishments +in competitive swimming from 1921 to 1929. +Even before the war Annette Kellerman, star of +vaudeville and movies, had become famous for her +fancy diving as well as her celebrated figure, which +she daringly exhibited in a form-fitting, one-piece +suit. In addition to writing an autobiography, she +authored articles and a swimming instruction book +for women. As an example of what exercise, including +swimming, could do for women, Annette Kellerman +also lent her name to a course of physical culture +for less “well-developed” ladies. Another product +of this new age of recreation was Gertrude Ederle, +who learned to swim at the Woman’s Swimming +Association of New York. She rose to sudden fame +in 1926 as the first woman to swim the English Channel.</p> + +<p>As previously stated, swimming was practiced +through the Middle Ages as a useful skill for men. +Gradually this activity became regarded as also +a healthful exercise and then as a recreation. Finally +by the late 19th century swimming also had achieved +the status of a competitive sport—but for men only. +It was not until the 1920s that social attitudes permitted +women the same full use of the water as men.</p> + +<p>The restrictive attitudes defining women’s proper +behavior in the water prior to the 1920s were one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +element of the mores defining women’s participation +in society. Thus as more liberal attitudes gained +acceptance and modified the original concept of +the “weaker sex,” women gradually achieved social +acceptance of their full participation in aquatic +activities.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<h2>Bathing Costume</h2> + +<p>Bathing became popular as a medicinal treatment +for both men and women of the new world in the last +half of the 18th century. It was the only aquatic +activity, however, that was considered proper for +women until over a hundred years later.</p> + +<p>Like so many other customs, changes in bathing +costume styles were initially introduced by way of +England. They were adapted or rejected according +to the special conditions of this continent. To give a +clearer picture of the costume worn in the colonies +and in the United States, descriptions of the English +dress will be included where pertinent. I have not, +however, found any evidence showing that bathing +nude was a practice for women in this country.</p> + +<h3>THE EARLY BATHING GOWN</h3> + +<p>It is disappointing but not surprising to discover +the lack of descriptions pertaining to early bathing +costume. This simple gown was utilitarian, not +decorative. Thus it deserved little attention in the +eyes of the contemporary bather.</p> + +<p>No doubt it is due to the importance of the original +owner that the following example has survived. In +the collection of family memorabilia at Mount +Vernon, there is a chemise-type bathing gown that +is said to have been worn by Martha Washington +(<a href="#Fig6">fig. 6</a>). According to a note attached to the gown +signed by Eliza Parke Custis, and addressed to +“Rosebud,” a pet name for her daughter, Martha +Washington probably wore this bathing gown at +Berkeley Springs as she accompanied her daughter, +Patsy, in her bath.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig6" id="Fig6"></a> +<img src="images/illo30.jpg" alt="Martha Washington's Bathing Gown" width="350" height="359" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 6.—<span class="smcap">Linen bathing gown</span> said to have been +worn by Martha Washington. (<i>Courtesy of The +Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>This blue and white checked linen gown has +several construction details similar to the chemise, a +woman’s undergarment, of the period. The sleeves +were gathered near the shoulder and were set in +with a gusset at the armpit. The skirt of the gown was +made wider at the bottom by the usual method of +adding four long triangular pieces—one to each side +of both the front and back. The sleeves, however, are +not as full as those one would expect to find on a +chemise of the period. Also a chemise would probably +have had a much wider neckline gathered by a +draw-string threaded through a band at the neck +edge. Instead, this bathing gown has a moderately +low neckline made wider by a slit down the front +which is closed by two linen tapes sewn to either +edge of the front. Although less fabric was used for +the bathing gown than was normally required to +make a chemise, it was probably not because of +functional considerations as one might like to think, +but because of the scarcity of fabric. Close examination +reveals that the triangular sections of fabric +used to add fullness to the skirt consist of several +pieces. In fact the two sections used in the back are +made from a different fabric, although it is still a +blue and white checked linen. Frugal use of scraps in +linings and hidden sections of decorative costume was +common practice in the 18th century. The piecing +of the bathing gown is further evidence of the fact +that it was a garment that had no ornamental purpose.</p> + +<p>Of particular interest are the lead disks which are +wrapped in linen and attached near the hem next +to the side seams by means of patches. No doubt +these weights were used to keep the gown in place +when the bather entered the water.</p> + +<p>The following account of bathing in Dover, England, +in 1782 suggests how the bathing gown might have +been used at Berkeley Springs:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>The +Ladies in a morning when they intend to bathe, put +on a long flannel gown under their other clothes, walk +down to the beach, undress themselves to the flannel, +then they walk in as deep as they please, and lay hold of +the guides’ hands, three or four together sometimes.</p> + +<p>Then they dip over head twenty times perhaps; then +they come onto the shore where there are women that +attend with towels, cloaks, chairs, etc. The flannel is +stripp’d off, wip’d dry, etc. Women hold cloaks round +them. They dress themselves and go home.<a name="FNanchor_27" +id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p></div> + +<p>The earliest illustration showing costume worn in +the United States for fresh water bathing is dated +1810 (see <a href="#Fig2">fig. 2</a>). Unfortunately the painting reveals +only that the bathing gowns were long and dark +colored in comparison with the white dresses of the +period.</p> + +<p>An 1848 article which described, in detail, the +fashionable dress called for by each activity at summer +resorts, concludes with the following tantalizing +paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We have no space for an extended description of suitable +bathing-dresses. They may be procured at any of our +town establishments for the purpose. Much depends upon +individual taste in their arrangement, for uncouth as they +often of necessity are, they can be improved by a little +tact.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p></div> + +<p>This is the only reference to American bathing costume +of the second quarter of the 19th century that the +author has found at this time. Nevertheless, an +English source describes what must have been a +transitional style between the chemise-type bathing +gown and the more fitted costume of the 1850s.</p> + +<p>The <i>Workwoman’s Guide</i>, published in London, +1840, included instructions for making both a bathing +gown and a bathing cap. Health and modesty were +the main considerations that influenced the choice +of color and type of material.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Bathing gowns are made of blue or white flannel, stuff, +calimanco, or blue linen. As it is especially desirable that +the water should have free access to the person, and yet +that the dress should not cling to, or weigh down the +bather, stuff or calimanco are preferred to most other +materials; the dark coloured gowns are the best for +several reasons, but chiefly because they do not show the +figure, and make the bather less conspicuous than she +would be in a white dress.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p></div> + +<p>The following details reveal that, in general, this +1840 bathing gown starts as an unshaped garment +similar to the gown attributed to Martha Washington +[brackets are mine].</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>As the width of the materials, of which a bathing gown +is made, varies, it is impossible to say of how many +breadths it should consist. The width at the bottom, when +the gown is doubled, should be about 15 nails [1 nail = 2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> +in.]: fold it like a pinafore, slope 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> nails for the +shoulders, cut or open slits of 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> nails long for the armholes, +set in plain sleeves 4<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> nails long, 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> nails wide, +and make a slit in front 5 nails long.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" +class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p></div> + +<p>The instructions for finishing this gown, however, +show that the sleeves were worn close around the +wrists and that the fullness of the skirt was secured +at the waist by a belt.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>In making up, delicacy is the great object to be attended +to. Hem the gown at the bottom, gather it into a band +at the top, and run in strings; hem the opening and the +bottom of the sleeves and put in strings. A broad band +should be sewed in about half a yard from the top, to +button round the waist.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p></div> + +<p>By the addition of the above details this type of +bathing gown more closely approximates the style +of the long-skirted blouse of the 1850s to be described +later.</p> + +<p>In regard to the bathing cap we are told that,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>These are made of oil-silk, and are worn, when bathing, +by ladies who have long hair.... It is advisable, however, +for those who have not long hair, to bathe in plain +linen caps, so as to admit the water without the sand or +grit, and thus the bather, unless prohibited on account +of health, enjoys all the benefit of the shock without +injuring the hair.<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p></div> + +<p>The “Scene at Cape May” (<a href="#Fig3">fig. 3</a>) shows women +wearing long-skirted, long-sleeved, belted gowns as +well as head coverings similar to the type described +in <i>The Workwoman’s Guide</i>.</p> + +<p>Thus during the period when bathing became +popular as a medicinal treatment, women wore loose, +open gowns perhaps patterned after a common undergarment, +the chemise. Although this chemise-type +bathing costume must have been very comfortable +when dry, its fullness was restrictive when wet. The +bather could only immerse herself in water which was +all that was necessary for the treatment. As the +recreational possibilities of bathing began to overshadow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +its health-giving properties, women’s bathing +dresses also became more fitted, following the general +silhouette of women’s fashions.</p> + +<h3>BIFURCATED BATHING DRESS</h3> + +<p>During the first half of the 19th century in England +and the United States, a more tolerant attitude toward +feminine exercise led women to abandon the fiction +that they were not bipedal while bathing. This +acknowledgment, however, was not fostered solely +by the need for a more functional bathing dress. It +was first evidenced by a few daring European women +who wore lace-edged pantaloons trimmed with several +rows of tucking under their daytime dresses. The +shorter, untrimmed, knee-length drawers which +quickly replaced the pantaloons, became an unseen +but essential item in the fashionable English lady’s +toilette of the 1840s. These drawers, or a plainer +version of the longer pantaloons, were adapted not +only to the female riding habit but the bathing dress +as well. An 1828 English source reported that “Many +ladies when riding wear silk drawers similar to what +is worn when bathing.”<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" +class="fnanchor">[33]</a> With the increased interest +in physical exercise for women, ankle-length, open +pantaloons also were being worn in the 1840s with a +long overdress as an early form of gymnasium suit. +This evidence of the early use of drawers suggests that, +like English ladies, women in the United States were +probably wearing a type of drawers beneath their +nondescript bathing gowns during the second quarter +of the 19th century. There is some slight support of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +this theory in the following stanza of a poem that +appeared in 1845:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">But go to the beach ere the morning be ended<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And look at the bathers—oh what an array<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The ladies in trowsers, the <i>gemmen</i> in <i>blowses</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0">E’en red flannel shirts are the “go” at Cape May.<a name="FNanchor_34" +id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a><br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The rather crude but delightful sketch of seabathing +at Coney Island in 1856 (<a href="#Fig7">fig. 7</a>) shows the +ladies wearing very full, ankle-length, trousers with +a sack top extending loosely only a few inches below +the waist. This type of bathing costume, which was +primarily a bifurcated garment instead of a skirted +one, became the prevailing fashion as reported in +English women’s magazines of the 1860s.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig7" id="Fig7"></a> +<img src="images/illo33.jpg" alt="Men Looking at Ladies Bathing" width="500" height="322" /> +<p class="caption smcap"><b>scene at coney island—sea bathing illustrated.</b></p> +<p class="caption">Figure 7.—<span class="smcap">Sea bathing at Coney Island</span>, from <i>Frank +Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper</i>, September 1856.<br /> +(Smithsonian photo 58437.)</p></div> + +<p>In contrast to the originally European skirtless +costume, the Philadelphia publication, <i>Peterson’s +Magazine</i>, stated that bathing dress should consist +of a pair of drawers and a long-skirted dress. The +recommended drawers were full and confined at +the ankle by a band that was finished with a ruffle. +These drawers were attached to a “body” and +fastened so that, even if the skirt washed up, the +individual could not possibly be exposed. The dress +was made by pleating or gathering the desired +length of material onto a deep yoke with a separate +belt securing the fullness at the waist. The bottom +of the hem was about three inches above the ankle +and was considered rather short. Loose shirt sleeves +were drawn around the wrist by a band which was +finished with a deep ruffle as a protection against +the sun. According to this article many women wore +a small talma or cape which hid the figure to some +extent. It was recommended that the drawers, dress, +and talma be made of the same woolen material.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Bathing-dresses, although generally very unbecoming can +be made to look very prettily with a little taste. If the +dress is of a plain color, such as grey, blue or brown, a +trimming around the talma, collar, yoke, ruffles etc ..., +of crimson, green or scarlet, is a great addition.<a name="FNanchor_35" +id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p></div> + +<p>To complete a bathing toilette the following items +were considered necessary: a pair of large lisle thread +gloves, an oil cap to protect the hair from the water, +a straw hat to shield the face from the sun, and gum +overshoes for tender feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig8" id="Fig8"></a> +<img src="images/illo37.jpg" alt="Bathing dress" width="250" height="537" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 8.—<span class="smcap">Bathing dress</span>, c. 1855. (<i>Courtesy of Philadelphia +Museum of Art.</i> Photograph by A. J. Wyatt, +staff photographer.)</p></div> + +<p>The red, tan, and blue-green checked bathing dress +shown in <a href="#Fig8">figure 8</a> is jauntily trimmed with crimson +braid edging the collar, belt, and wrist and ankle +bands. This costume is a variation of the style described +previously. The drawers, unlike those described<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +in <i>Peterson’s Magazine</i>, are sewn to a linen band +with linen suspenders attached. The unfitted, unshaped +skirt (8 ft. 8 in. in circumference) is pulled in +at the waist by a belt attached to the center back. A +similar technique for forming a waistline is described +in <i>The Workwoman’s Guide</i> of 1840.</p> + +<p>Women’s magazines in the United States from the +third quarter of the 19th century show illustrations of +bathing costume, but in many instances these publications +used European fashion plates. <i>Harper’s Bazar</i>, +(spelled thus until 1929) particularly in its early years, +used fashion plates and pattern supplements from its +German predecessor <i>Der Bazar</i>. Thus, in one issue +one can find a fashion plate showing the predominantly +bifurcated European bathing suit and, in a column on +New York fashions, a separate description of long-skirted +bathing dresses with trousers. During the same +period <i>Peterson’s Magazine</i> had illustrations previously +used in the London publication, <i>Queen’s Magazine</i>.</p> + +<p>American women seem to have accepted the majority +of styles shown in European fashion plates, +except for the skirtless bathing suits. The writer of an +1868 column on New York fashions sought to convince +his readers to try the more daring European style +although he grudgingly admitted that the “Bathing +suits made with trousers and blouse waist without +skirt are objected to by many ladies as masculine and +fast....”<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" +class="fnanchor">[36]</a> This style was in fact, very similar to +the costume worn by men when they bathed with the +ladies. A year later, the writer of the same fashion +column had given up the campaign to dress all women +in the skirtless suits and admitted that these imports +“... are worn by expert swimmers, who do not +wish to be encumbered with bulky clothing.”<a name="FNanchor_37" +id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Such +practical bathing dress was thus limited to a very +small number of progressive women.</p> + +<p>The majority, consisting of those who were strictly +bathers, wore the ankle-length drawers beneath a +long dress as described or illustrated in the majority +of sources that originated in the United States. Why +was the European bathing suit not fully adopted by +American women? Differences between the bathing +customs of the two continents undoubtedly encouraged +the development of different dress. While men and +women in the United States bathed together freely +at the seashore during the latter half of the 19th +century, this practice was not widely accepted in +England until the early 1900s. In the presence of men, +American women probably felt compelled to retain +their more concealing dress and drawers.</p> + +<p>In England swimming seems to have been more +popular among women than it was in the United +States. While encouraging its readers to swim, during +the late 1860s, <i>Queen’s Magazine</i> used forceful language +of a kind that was not found in American publications +until the late 19th century. If swimming was more +acceptable as a feminine exercise in England it is +understandable why English women were more +receptive to a functional, skirtless bathing suit—especially +since it was worn only in the presence of +other women.</p> + +<p>In 1858, Winslow Homer, who was later to become +a well-known American painter, was welcomed +into the society at Newport until it became apparent +that he wanted to sketch the bathers for a weekly +newspaper (see <a href="#Fig4">fig. 4</a>). So great were the ensuing +objections that he was permitted to complete his +sketches “... provided he depicted the bathers +only in the water and only above the waistline and +without divulging the identity of the bathers.”<a name="FNanchor_38" +id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>As can be seen in <a href="#Fig4">figure 4</a>, these sketches serve more +as a testament of Homer’s fancy than as an accurate +historical statement on style. The two feminine +legs exposed in the water from just below the knee +to the toe and the feminine head coverings appear +to be anachronisms. According to several other +illustrations of the period, these women were undoubtedly +wearing long drawers. The young artist +at 22, however, has been described as having an eye +for feminine beauty and a sense of fashion. He seems +to have exploited to the full the decorative possibilities +of hoop skirts blown by the breeze or agitated by some +pretty accident to discreetly reveal a trim ankle. +A drama of breeze versus long skirt appears with the +small feminine figure in the left background of this +print. The force of the waves and the motion of the +frolicking bathers gave the artist opportunity to show +two more pretty accidents. The only head covering +he showed for feminine bathers was a ruffled cap that +framed the face. Other sources show Newport bathers +wearing the less attractive wide-brimmed straw hat +(<a href="#Fig9">fig. 9</a>). The straw headgear worn over these caps +seems more likely since Newport’s fashionable belles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +would surely have sacrificed appearances and worn a +straw hat to avoid an unfashionable sunburn and tan.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig9" id="Fig9"></a> +<img src="images/illo40.jpg" alt="Straw Bathing Hat" width="350" height="309" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 9.—<span class="smcap">Bathing hat</span> of natural color and purple +straw, c. 1880. (Smithsonian photo P-65409.)</p></div> + +<p>Nevertheless, Homer’s sketch reflects characteristics +seen in certain surviving examples from the 1860s—namely +that the top was becoming more fitted, being +attached completely to a belt with the fuller skirt +pleated or gathered to the bottom edge of the belt. +In the Design Laboratory Collection of the Brooklyn +Museum there is an 1860 black poplin specimen that +may be a bathing dress. This example is trimmed +at the shoulder seam with epaulets, an example of the +extent to which fashion was finally playing a part in +bathing costume.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p>The dresses described above appear peculiar not +only to 20th century eyes, but they also seem to have +amused mid-19th century correspondents. One writer +in 1857 declared that,</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We don’t think a man could identify his own wife when +she comes out of the bathing-house. A plump figure enters, +surrounded with a multitude of rustly flounces and +scarcely able to squeeze an enormous hoop through the +door. She is absent a few minutes, and presto change! +out comes a tall lank apparition, wrapped in the scanty +folds of something that looks more like a superannuated +night-gown than anything else, and a battered straw-chapeau +knocked down over the eyes, and stalks down +towards the beach with the air and gait of a Tartar +chieftain!<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> +[<a href="#Fig10">fig. 10</a>.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig10" id="Fig10"></a> +<img src="images/illo42.png" alt="Young Lady Before Bathing" width="300" height="383" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 10.—“<span class="smcap">How she went in</span>,” from <i>Harper’s Bazar</i>, +August 1870. (Smithsonian photo 61585A.)</p></div> + +<p>Another writer felt that he</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>... must say—even in the columns of <i>Frank Leslie’s +Illustrated</i>—that they don’t look very picturesque or pretty +when <i>a la Naiade</i>.... Rather limp, sacks tied in the +middle, eel-bottles, hydropathic coalheavers and “longshoremen,” +and preternaturally dilapidated Bloomers, +would appear to be the ideals aimed at.<a name="FNanchor_41" +id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> +[<a href="#Fig11">fig. 11</a>.]</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig11" id="Fig11"></a> +<img src="images/illo43.png" alt="Very Wet Young Lady After Bathing" width="300" height="395" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 11.—“<span class="smcap">How she came out</span>,” from <i>Harper’s +Bazar</i>, August 1870. (Smithsonian photo 61585B.)</p></div> + +<p>This use of the term “Bloomers,” referring to long full +drawers or trousers, is a reminder of how similar the +1855 bathing gown with drawers (see <a href="#Fig8">fig. 8</a>) was +to the reform dress introduced in 1848 and worn by +Amelia Bloomer, the feminist, in 1852.</p> + +<p>Despite the evident use of a new waistline treatment, +the most popular bathing costume of the +1870s, according to <i>Harper’s Bazar</i>, continued to +feature the yoke blouse that reached at least to the +knee. This combination of blouse and skirt was held +in position at the waist by a belt. The high neck was +finished with a sailor collar or a standing pleated +frill, while the long sleeves and full Turkish trousers, +buttoned on the side of the ankle, concealed the +limbs. In 1873 a column on New York fashions +reported an effort to popularize short-sleeved, low-throated +suits then in favor at European bathing +places and which had been illustrated in the <i>Bazar</i>. +Nevertheless, the writer hedged this report by adding +that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is thought best, however, to provide an extra pair of +long sleeves that may be buttoned on or basted in the +short puffs that are sewn in the arm holes. Sometimes a +small cape fastening closely about the throat is also +added.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p></div> + +<p>Nevertheless, sketches of bathing scenes from the +seventies indicate that some American women wore +even shorter sleeves and trousers than those prescribed +by the fashion magazines.</p> + +<p>Linen and wool fabrics were both suggested in the +1840s, but by the 1870s flannel was most frequently +used for bathing dresses, with serge also being recommended. +Navy blue, and to a lesser extent, white, +gray, scarlet, and brown were popular colors in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +checks as well as solid colors trimmed with white, +red, gray, or blue worsted braid.</p> + +<p>Bathing mantles or cloaks were worn to conceal +the moist figure when crossing the beach. These +garments were made of Turkish toweling with wide +sleeves and hoods, and were so long as “to barely +escape” the ground.</p> + +<p>In 1873 one good bathing cap was described as an +oiled silk bag-crown cap large enough to hold the hair +loosely. The frill around the edge was bound with +colored braid. Many ladies preferred, however, to +let their hair hang loose and under a wide-brimmed +hat of coarse straw tied down on the sides to protect +their skin from the sun (<a href="#Fig9">fig. 9</a>).</p> + +<p>Bathing shoes or slippers were generally worn when +the shore was rough and uneven. In 1871 manila +sandals were worn, but the most functional bathing +shoes are said to have been high buskins of thick +unbleached cotton duck with cork soles. They were +secured with checked worsted braid. Two years later +there were bathing shoes of white duck or sail canvas +with manila soles. Slippers for walking in the sand +were “mules” or merely toes and soles made of +flannel, braided to match the cloak, and sewn to +cork soles.</p> + +<p>Throughout this period the social aspect of bathing +predominated over the therapeutic goals and women +were making a greater effort to transform their bathing +garments into attractive and functional outfits. +Motivated by the presence of men at the seashore and +by the competition with other women for masculine +attention, ladies were more concerned with the style +of their bathing dresses and appropriate trimmings. +Thus bathing costume joined the ranks of other +fashions described in women’s magazines.</p> + +<p>Now that women were frolicking in the water +rather than simply being dunked several times, +their costume became somewhat more functional. +Long trousers gave them greater freedom in the water +although the skirts which continued to be worn,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +tended to negate this improvement. Even as early as +the 1870s there were efforts to shorten sleeves and +eliminate high necklines. This trend to make bathing +dress more practical increased in momentum toward +the end of the century.</p> + +<h3>PRINCESS STYLE BATHING DRESS</h3> + +<p>Although attitudes toward sports were more enlightened +by the 1880s, many women continued to +wear the old bathing dress with its belted blouse +extending to a long skirt and a pair of trousers. As an +alternate to this garb, the “princess style” was developed +with the blouse and trousers cut in one piece or +else sewn permanently to the same belt. A separate +skirt extending below the knee was buttoned at the +waist to conceal the figure. This new style in bathing +costume was probably derived from an innovation in +women’s underwear. During the late 1870s a new +style of undergarment, the “combination” of chemise +and drawers, had come into use. Petticoats could be +fastened to buttons sewn around the waist of the +combination. This streamlining of undergarments +helped the lady of fashion to maintain a desirably +svelte figure. Apparently the advantages of this +streamlining were obvious, because it was not long +before women were quietly adapting this style to +bathing dresses. By the 1890s the skirt was often +omitted for swimming (<a href="#Fig12">fig. 12</a>), giving the more +active women more freedom in the water. Following +popular dress styles, the top of the bathing costume +was bloused over the belt. The sailor collar, either +large or small, was a great favorite, but a straight +standing collar with rows of white braid was also worn.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig12" id="Fig12"></a> +<img src="images/illo44.png" alt="Display of Fashionable Bathing Costumes" width="500" height="326" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 12.—<span class="smcap">Bathing costumes</span> from a supplement to <i>The +Tailor’s Review</i>, July 1895.<br /> +(<i>Courtesy of Library of Congress.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>The “princess style” was not the only innovation +available in bathing dress. <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> reported in +1881 that imported French bathing suits<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a +href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> for ladies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +were made without sleeves, since any covering on the +arm interfered with the freedom desirable for swimming. +Nevertheless, according to other contemporary +fashion descriptions, American bathing suits retained +their long sleeves until the early 1880s when the +foreign fashion of short sleeves came to the United +States. In 1885 it was reported that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The sleeves may be the merest ‘caps’ four or five inches +deep under the arm, curved narrow toward the top, and +lapped there or they may be half-long and straight, +reaching to the elbows, or else they may be the regular +coat sleeves covering the arms to the wrist. With the short +sleeves it is customary to add the sleeves cut from a gauze +vest to give the arm some protection from the sun.<a name="FNanchor_44" +id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p></div> + +<p>Sleeves were pushed up in 1890 and puffed high about +the shoulders by means of elastic tape in the hem. By +1893 fashion reports acknowledged that sleeve length +was a matter of individual choice.</p> + +<p>Despite this neat resolution of the diminishing +sleeve, contemporary sketches of bathing scenes +indicate that some women in the United States were +wearing the shorter sleeves even earlier.</p> + +<p>Short full trousers, reaching just below the knee, +accompanied by knee-length skirts—sometimes worn +even shorter—succeeded the long Turkish trousers +and ankle-length skirt. As the trousers diminished in +length, long stockings or bathing shoes with long +stocking tops became a necessary part of the bathing +costume to cover the lower limbs, particularly in +mixed bathing (see <a href="#Fig1">fig. 1</a>). The stockings, which were +cotton or wool, plain or fancy, and of any color or +combination of colors in keeping with the costume, +were worn with a variety of bathing shoes, sandals, or +slippers when bathing off a rocky shore. Foot coverings +were usually made of white canvas; the slippers +were held on by a spiral arrangement of braid or +ribbon about the ankles, while the laced shoes were +often made with heavy cork soles. A gaiter shoe or +combination shoe and stocking was made of waterproof +cloth, laced up the sides, and reached to about +the knees. Low rubber shoes were also worn.</p> + +<p>Bathing caps of waxed linen or oiled silk were used +to protect the hair. They had whale bone in the brim +and could be adjusted by drawstrings in the back. +Blue, white, or ecru rubber hats were also used. These +caps had large full crowns—which held in all the +hair—and wired brims. A wide-brimmed rough straw +hat, tied on with a strip of trimming braid or with +ribbon, was sometimes worn as protection against +the sun (<a href="#Fig9">fig. 9</a>).</p> + +<p>Bathing mantles like those of the 1870s were still +being worn by the late 19th century and these were +frequently trimmed with colored braid. Cotton tapes +sewn in parallel rows, mohair braid, or strips of +flannel were still being used to make the bathing +dress more attractive.</p> + +<p>Navy blue and white, as well as ecru, maroon, gray, +and olive were popular colors for the bathing dress. +In 1890 the writer of a fashion column thought it +pertinent to add that “... black bathing suits are +worn as a matter of choice, not merely by those +dressing in mourning.”<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a +href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> Apparently the wearing of +black no longer had this exclusive significance when +bathing, but prior to 1890 it did.</p> + +<p>As women became more active in the water and +were learning to swim they began to accept more +practical changes in bathing costume. Not only the +style, as described previously, but also the fabric was +considered for its functional characteristics. Flannel +was still widely used but was being replaced by serge +which was not as heavy when wet. Another indication +of this trend was that stockinet, a knitted material, +was gaining in popularity at the end of the century.</p> + +<p>The “princess style” of the early 1890s combined +the drawers and bodice in one garment: the separate +skirt fell just short of the ends of the drawers which +covered the knees. By the mid-1890s, however, the +drawers which were now called knickerbockers, were +shortened so as to be completely covered by the knee-length +skirt. These knickerbockers were either attached +to the waist in the popular “princess style” or they +were fastened to the waist by a series of flat bone +buttons.</p> + +<p>During this same period, the mid-1890s, knitted, +cotton tights were sometimes worn in place of +knickerbockers. Bathing tights differed from the +knickerbockers in that they were hemmed rather +than gathered on an elastic band at the lower edge +and that they were not attached to the waist. When +tights were used they were completely concealed +by a one-piece, knee-length bathing dress. The use +of the more streamlined bathing tights was another +step toward more functional bathing costume. +Despite these improvements, most women continued +to wear stockings, usually black, when they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +bathed or swam in public. The dictates of fashion +and standards of modesty continued to conflict with +practical considerations.</p> + +<p>As with street dress, corsets seem to have been an +important though unseen bathing article necessary +for maintaining smart posture. In 1896 it was reported +that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Unless a woman is very slender, bathing corsets should be +worn. If they are not laced tightly they are a help instead +of a hindrance to swimming, and some support is needed +for a figure that is accustomed to wearing stays.<a name="FNanchor_46" +id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p></div> + +<p>While describing the bathing dresses available in +1910 an article noted: “Some of these are made up +with ... princess forms that are boned so as to do +away with the bathing corset.”<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>The bodice of the bathing costume continued to +be bloused, but by 1905 it was modified to be merely +loose. An article appearing in 1896 noted that bathing +suits should be cut high in the neck, not tight around +the throat, but close enough to prevent burning by +the sun. The sailor collar continued to be used during +the late 1890s but became less fashionable shortly +after the turn of the century. Nevertheless there had +to be some white around the neck for the bathing +dress to be considered smart. The puffed sleeves, +which had become popular in the late 1890s were +modified in breadth and length to allow free use of +the muscles in swimming (<a href="#Fig13">fig. 13</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig13" id="Fig13"></a> +<img src="images/illo49.jpg" alt="Black Mohair Bathing Dress" width="300" height="516" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 13.—<span class="smcap">Bathing dress of black “mohair,”</span> +c. 1900. (Smithsonian photo 60383.)</p></div> + +<p>In 1897 fashion magazines were suggesting that +skirts of bathing dresses looked best when the front +breadth was shaped narrower toward the belt, +while by 1902 the skirts were fitted over the hips in +order to delineate the figure. In 1905 pleated skirts +again became fashionable, although flared skirts +were still acceptable.</p> + +<p>Dark blue and black were the popular colors, +although white, red, gray, and green were also used. +Flannel was no longer recommended for bathing +dress; serge and “mohair”—a fabric with a cotton +warp and a mohair or alpaca weft—were widely +used. The impractical bathing dress of silk fabric +was worn by those who could afford this extravagance; +thus, the conspicuous consumption of the “leisure +class” was even found at the beaches.</p> + +<p>Bathing hats were still being worn but it was +considered more fashionable to wear a rubber or +oil silk cap covered with a bright silk turban when +there was a surf. For the bather who seldom ventured +very far into the water the most fashionable practice +was to have no covering at all.</p> + +<p>Throughout the 19th century bathing costume +followed an impelling course toward becoming more +functional. As the popularity of recreational bathing +and then swimming for women increased, the number +of yards of fabric required to make a bathing dress +decreased. Nevertheless, by the 1900s, many women +knew how to swim, but the majority were still bathers. +Thus bathing suits continued in use through the +first quarter of the 20th century.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></p> +<h2>Swimming Costume</h2> + +<p>Bathing costume did not evolve gracefully into the +swim suit, nor was there an abrupt replacement of +one garment for the other. Instead, a garb designed +for swimming emerged in the 19th century as tentatively +and as poorly received as had the suggestion +that women should be active in the water. The growing +popularity of swimming and the changing status +of women eventually made it possible for the swimming +suit to replace the bathing suit in the 1920s. By +the 1930s, however, this trend was accelerated by a +growing advertising and ready-to-wear clothing +industry. Thus a history of the swimming costume +tends to divide itself into two sections: early swimming +suits and the influence of the swim suit industry.</p> + +<h3>EARLY SWIMMING SUITS</h3> + +<p>The earliest reference to swimming costume I have +found was in 1869. At this date swimming in the +United States was considered a masculine skill, +exercise, and recreation; only men were provided +with a real opportunity to swim at popular watering +places. As described previously, <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> +reported that American women in general rejected +the European bathing suit made with long trousers +and a skirtless waist. Nevertheless, this costume was +“... worn by expert swimmers, who do not wish to +be encumbered with bulky clothing.”<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>In the 1870s the rare descriptions of this more +functional garment—called “swimming suit” even +at this early date—were limited to a sentence or two +buried within long columns of fine print describing +popular bathing apparel. One mentions a “... +single knitted worsted garment, fitting the figure, with +waist and trousers in one.”<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a +href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Another was made without +sleeves as “one garment, the blouse and trousers +being cut all in one, like the sleeping garments worn +by small children.”<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a +href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> These more practical bifurcated +garments probably derived from the European suit +of the 1860s that had been rejected by the majority of +American women. For example, an English source +reported that in 1866 the following garment was +worn: “... Swimming Costume, a body and +trousers cut in one, secures perfect liberty of action +and does not expose the figure.”<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>The descriptions of American swimming suits, +however brief, offered evidence that the pastime was +growing in popularity with women. Generally +speaking, 19th century women’s magazines were mere +disseminators of fine and decorous ideas and practices +for well-mannered ladies; their editors were not +innovators. With such an editorial policy it is understandable +that these magazines would not, as a rule, +publicize trends of popular origin until they were +fairly well established. The skirtless swimming suit of +the 1870s was no doubt more common in the United +States than its meager description in <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> +would seem to indicate.</p> + +<p>As long as feminine swimming was not generally +accepted, however, efforts to develop practical swimming +suits remained isolated owing to the lack of +communication between manufacturer and consumer +and to traditional attitudes. Feminine interest in +swimming and physical activities threatened belief +in the “weaker-sex” that contributed to maintaining +the traditional masculine and feminine roles; efforts +to develop functional swimming dress also attacked +established standards of feminine modesty. These +challenges to the status quo were met with the weapon +of the complacent majority—silence. Consequently, +from the third quarter of the 19th century, when we +find the first reference to a specialized garment for +swimming in the United States, writings on swimming +costume appeared infrequently until the 1920s.</p> + +<p>In 1886 two “ladies’ bathing jerseys” and two bathing +suits of the traditional type appeared in the <i>First +Illustrated Catalogue of Knitted Bathing Suits</i> of J. J. +Pfister Company in San Francisco. The captions +over the illustrations leave no question that the +briefer bathing jerseys were intended for swimming +while the others were for bathing. These jerseys—form-fitting +tunics that were mid-thigh in length—were +made with high necks and cap sleeves. Underneath +this garment women wore trunks that extended +to the knee and stockings; there was also the alternate +choice of tights, a combination of trunks and stockings. +To complete the outfit the feminine reader was +encouraged to buy a knitted skull cap.</p> + +<p>Apparently these bathing jerseys were successful; +three, instead of two, jerseys appeared in the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +catalog in 1890. It is obvious from this later catalog, +however, that there was a greater demand for bathing +dresses since twelve designs of the skirted costume +were featured as opposed to the two dresses in the +first issue.</p> + +<p>Even by the early 20th century it is difficult to find +specific references to a swimming suit in women’s +magazines; only occasionally does a concern with +swimming obtrude into the traditional descriptions of +bathing dress. In <i>The Woman’s Book of Sports</i>, however, +J. Parmly Paret was specific about the requirements +for a suitable swimming costume in 1901.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is particularly important that nothing tight should be +worn while swimming, no matter how fashionable a dress +may be for bathing. The exercise requires the greatest +freedom, and a swimming costume should never include +corsets, tight sleeves, or a skirt below the knees. The +freedom of the shoulders is the most important of all, but +anything tight around the body interferes with the +breathing and the muscles of the back, while a long skirt—even +one a few inches below the knees—binds the legs +constantly in making their strokes.<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p></div> + +<p>Although this costume (<a href="#Fig14">fig. 14</a>) more closely resembles +the traditional bathing dress than the jersey described +previously, this discussion illustrates the growing +dichotomy between bathing dress and swimming dress +and between fashionable styles and functional styles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig14" id="Fig14"></a> +<img src="images/illo53.jpg" alt="Sailor-Style Swimming Suit with Black Stockings" width="175" height="536" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 14.—<span class="smcap">The recommended costume for swimming</span> +from J. Parmly Paret, <i>The Woman’s Book of +Sports</i>, 1901. (Smithsonian photo 58436.)</p></div> + +<p>Photographs of East coast beach scenes in 1903 show +a few women wearing costumes different from the +black or navy blue bathing dress worn by the majority. +These independent spirits seem to be wearing close-fitting +knitted trunks that cover the knees or, when +with stockings, come within an inch or two above the +knee. Above these trunks they appear to be wearing +knitted one-piece tunics or belted blouses that cover +the hips. This costume, sleeveless or short-sleeved, +and with a simplified neckline, must have been the +functional suit of its day.</p> + +<p>An important impetus was given to the development +of the swimming suit with the entrance of women into +swimming as a competitive sport. On September 5, +1909, Adeline Trapp wore a one-piece knitted swimming +suit when she became the first woman to swim +across the East River in New York, through the +treacherous waters of Hell Gate. Both the swimming +suit and the swim were part of a campaign devised by +Wilbert Longfellow—of the U.S. Volunteer Life +Saving Corps—to encourage women to learn to swim.</p> + +<p>Adeline Trapp was a summer employee of the Life +Saving Corps in 1909. Mr. Longfellow saw in the +20-year-old Brooklyn school teacher a respectable +young woman who could be a source of publicity. +He ordered her to get a one-piece swimming suit +for the swim. As early as 1899 in England, a woman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +participating in competitions organized by the Amateur +Swimming Association could have worn a one-piece, +skirtless, knitted costume with a shaped sleeve +at least three inches long, a slightly scooped neck, +and legs that extended to within three inches of the +knee. Mr. Longfellow may have had this English +suit in mind. He might have known of similar suits +in the United States or he might have simply wanted +to free Adeline of yards of fabric to make her more +competitive with male swimmers. Nevertheless, +Adeline Trapp did not know that the English suits +existed, nor did she know where she could find one. +She spent many hours going from one American +manufacturer to another trying on men’s knitted +suits. She found that they were all cut too low at the +neck and armholes and did not cover enough of the +legs to preclude criticism. At this point a friend who +worked for a stocking manufacturer offered to get +her a suitable costume from England. This costume, +a knitted, gray cotton suit—whether originally for a +man or woman in England is not known—was the +one Adeline wore when she swam Hell Gate.</p> + +<p>Although more than thirty men attempted the +swim, the fact that a woman accomplished the feat +made newspaper headlines. Following this event, +Miss Trapp received a terse letter from the Brooklyn +School Board stating that they thought it improper +for an educator of Brooklyn children to appear in +public so scantily dressed in a one-piece swimming +costume. For her future swims Adeline Trapp was +careful to have someone carry a blanket to throw +over her as she emerged from the water.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>In 1910, Annette Kellerman arrived in the United +States from Australia by way of England. For her +fancy diving exhibitions she wore sleeveless one-piece +knitted swimming tights that covered her from +neck to toe—a costume she had probably adopted +in England.</p> + +<p>The decade from 1910 to 1920 was a crucial period +in the history of bathing and swimming costume. +Popular attitudes were changing in favor of the woman +who swam but, as frequently occurs in social reforms, +there was a cultural lag between public opinion and +the policies of institutions. The Red Cross, which +began its excellent water safety program in 1914, +taught women to swim but did not admit women as +Life Saving Corps members until 1920. Symbolic of +the conflict between old and new attitudes were the +relative roles of bathing and swimming costume during +this period. As Annette Kellerman described them:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There are two kinds ... those that are adapted for use +in water, and those that are unfit for use except on dry +land. If you are going to swim, wear a water bathingsuit. +But if you are merely going to play on the beach, and +pose for the camera fiends, you may safely wear the dry +land variety.... I am certain that there isn’t a single +reason under the sun why everybody should not wear +lightweight suits. Anyone who persuades you to wear the +heavy skirty kind is endangering your life.<a name="FNanchor_54" +id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p></div> + +<p>Chic women’s magazines, however, were still reluctant +to admit in their fashion pages that a more utilitarian +costume existed. The June 1, 1917 issue of +<i>Vogue</i> reported that there were two kinds of bathing +suits: a loose straight suit and those on surplice lines, +“... which hold their place by virtue of being so very +becoming.”<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<p>The most popular of these, the surplice, was not a +novelty of the season but a continuation of 19th century +bathing suit styles. Fashion illustrations show +that the hemline of the skirt was approaching the +middle of the knee, with the bloomers remaining +hidden. There was also a revival of the style that permitted +the bloomers to show several inches below the +skirt. In this case the bloomers reached the knee and +the skirt was several inches shorter. Both versions were +shown with short sleeves or cap sleeves, or sleeveless; +“<span class="lettsymb">V</span>” necklines with collars and square necklines were +widely used. The more fashionable creations were +made of silk taffeta or “surf satin,” while the majority +were made of “mohair,” wool jersey, worsted, or +closely woven cotton. Black and navy blue were unquestionably +the favorite colors.</p> + +<p>The loose straight suit, which evidently gained its +inspiration from the chemise frock of the period, had +no waistline and hung straight from the shoulders +(<a href="#Fig15">fig. 15</a>); a belt or sash was frequently looped below +the natural waistline on the hips. The chemise-type of +bathing suit differed from the surplice only in having +no fitted waist and requiring less fabric.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"><a name="Fig15" id="Fig15"></a> +<img src="images/illo57.jpg" alt="Black Silk Bathing Dress" width="225" height="488" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 15.—<span class="smcap">Black silk bathing dress</span>, 1923.<br /> +(Smithsonian photo P-65412.)</p></div> + +<p>In the June 15, 1917 issue, <i>Vogue</i> modified its +position of two weeks earlier to acknowledge that +there was a third style of costume worn in the water. +Again, the descriptions of the surplice and chemise-type +bathing suits were accompanied by numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +illustrations. No drawings, however, were published +to show the knitted jersey suit that was described as +“... usually sleeveless, quite short and fairly +straight ...” and “... intended for the woman +who swims expertly.”<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>As late as the early 1920s, the fashion pages of +<i>Harper’s Bazar</i> and <i>Vogue</i> were concentrated on the +bathing suits, aiming at readers involved in the +social life of the seaside resorts—lounging about the +beach with occasional splashing in the water. The +growing numbers of women who wanted swimming +suits, however, had only to turn to the advertising +sections of these same magazines to find that even in +1915 such shops as Bonwit Teller & Co. and +B. Altman & Co. were advertising knitted swimming +suits.</p> + +<p>In June 1916, <i>Delineator</i> solved the dilemma of +bathing versus swimming costume in an intriguing +article written to sell a pattern for a bathing costume. +In description and presentation of illustrations, the +article emphasized a costume with “all the features +essential to a practical swimming-suit.”<a name="FNanchor_57" +id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The blouse +and bloomers were attached at the waist in this +garment which had a square neckline and no skirt +or sleeves. Made up in wool jersey, this would have +been a practical swimming costume for the period. +But this was not the only style available from this +one pattern. The following variations were included: +a sailor collar on a “<span class="lettsymb">V</span>” neckline; a high-standing +collar, long sleeves; and a detachable skirt with the +fullness either pleated or gathered into a waistband, +to be worn long to the knees or just short enough to +show several inches of the bloomer. In this way +<i>Delineator</i> succeeded in satisfying nearly every degree +of conservatism—an amazing accomplishment.</p> + +<p>The spring edition of <i>Sears, Roebuck and Co. Catalog</i> +for 1916 offered a one-piece, or “California-style,” +knitted worsted bathing suit with the underpiece +sewn to a skirt. This costume was less elaborate than +the other dresses shown, although it was still knee +length. The 1918 spring catalog showed two one-piece +knitted outfits suitable for swimming in striking +contrast to the surplice bathing dresses that were +also offered. By 1920 all of the bathing costumes +illustrated in the <i>Sears, Roebuck and Co. Catalog</i> were +of the more abbreviated and functional type.</p> + +<p>In 1918 Annette Kellerman recommended that +serious swimmers wear close-fitting swimming tights +or the two-piece suits commonly worn by men. Being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +quick to admit that this costume would not be tolerated +at all beaches, she told dedicated swimmers to</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>... get one-piece tights anyway and wear over the tights +the lightest garment you can get. It should be a loose +sleeveless garment hung from the shoulders. Never have +a tight waist band. It is a hindrance. Also on beaches +where stockings are enforced your one-piece undergarment +should have feet, so that the separate stocking +and its attendant garter is abolished.<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p></div> + +<p>Knitted swimming suits found in advertisements of +the period were either one-piece or two-piece; the +trunks were attached or separate, but they always +extended a few inches below the brief skirt. Although +this costume could be considered sleeveless, in some +examples the suit was built up under the arm—a concession +to the demands of modesty (<a href="#Fig16">fig. 16</a>). The +scooped or “<span class="lettsymb">V</span>” neckline with no collar was relatively +high; in order to put on or remove the suit it was unbuttoned +at one shoulder.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig16" id="Fig16"></a> +<img src="images/illo59.jpg" alt="Knitted Woolen Swimming Suit" width="350" height="460" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 16.—<span class="smcap">One-piece swimming suit of knitted +wool</span>, c. 1918. (Smithsonian photo P-65413.)</p></div> + +<p>It was this type of swimming costume which evolved +into the garment that dominated the fashion pages of +the mid-1920s.</p> + +<p>Changes in costume brought about by the acceptance +of swimming also affected leg covering. By 1920 +fashion pages showed stockings that reached only to +the calf and many advertisements for the abbreviated +knitted bathing suits presented the lower leg covered +with only the high laced bathing shoe (<a href="#Fig17">fig. 17</a>) or, in a +few cases, bare. Bathing slippers were black satin or +black or white canvas held on the feet by ribbon criss-crossed +up the leg to tie at mid-calf. Shoes were of +satin or canvas, laced in the front to mid-calf.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Fig17" id="Fig17"></a> +<img src="images/illo62.jpg" alt="Bathing Shoes" width="350" height="224" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 17.—<span class="smcap">Bathing shoes</span>, 1910. (Smithsonian photo +P-65417.)</p></div> + +<p>There was a wide variety of colorful rubber caps; +some were gathered on a band or with a ruffle while +others were closely fitted with brims. Also popular +was a close-fitting rubber cap with a colorful scarf tied +around it; swimmers did without the scarf.</p> + +<p>Despite the distinction between the two types of +bathing apparel, the beach cloak continued to be used +by both the serious swimmer and those who stayed +safely in the shallows. Some bathing wraps had large +collars and were only mid-calf in length. Colorful +beach hats, beach parasols, bags, and blankets were +used, particularly by the bather who seldom got wet.</p> + +<p>The acceptance of swimming as a feminine activity +provided an impetus for the use of the knitted swimming +suit; but standards of modesty had to change +before this suit could gain wide acceptance. Bathing +dresses of the 19th century had been designed to +cover, conceal, and obscure not only the torso but the +limbs as well. The swimming suit that was gaining +acceptance in the early 1920s not only revealed the +arms and a good part of the legs, but actually dared to +follow the lines of the torso. Contemporary descriptions, +that seem amusingly cautious today, included +such statements as “... all Annette Kellerman Bathing +Attire is distinguished by an incomparable, daring +beauty of fit that always remains refined.”<a name="FNanchor_59" +id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Even +less cautious was a statement that these bathing suits +were “famous ... for their perfect fit and exquisite, +plastic beauty of line.”<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>The growing numbers of women who wore the +new styles of bathing dress were a cause of concern to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +self-appointed guardians of decency. In 1917 the +convention of the American Association of Park +Superintendents at New Orleans adopted a series +of bathing regulations for city beaches which dealt +with the problems of the changing bathing suit. In +general these regulations specified that “... No all-white +or flesh-colored suits are permitted or suits that +expose the chest lower than a line drawn on a level +with the arm pits.”<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a +href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> In regard to ladies’ bathing +suits these men agreed that</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Blouse and bloomer suits may be worn with or without +stockings, provided the blouse has quarter-arm sleeves or +close-fitting arm holes, and provided the bloomers are +full and not shorter than four inches above the knee.<a name="FNanchor_62" +id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p></div> + +<p>Regulations for knitted suits were similar, with the +added caution that the skirt hem could be no more +than two inches above the lower edge of the trunks. +As late as 1923 these regulations were in effect at +public beaches in Cleveland and Chicago.</p> + +<p>By 1923 a permanent change was occurring in the +design of beach apparel. The chemise-style bathing +dress of black taffeta or satin still appeared in the +fashion magazines (<a href="#Fig15">fig. 15</a>), but by 1929 it had disappeared. +The result of the struggle between the fancy +bathing suit and the plain knitted suit became obvious +even in the popular magazines of the period. In the +opening paragraphs of a short story, Shirley, the villainess, +donned a smart bathing suit of puffy black +taffeta, with a patent-leather belt and a scarlet scarf, +and baked in the shadow of a big umbrella. Margaret, +the heroine, in a plain knitted suit and black cap was +intent only upon diving, plunging, and splashing for +her own enjoyment. In another story a young lady, +who came out of the sea wearing a “... bathing suit +so scanty it seemed a mere gesture flung carelessly to +the proprieties ...” described herself as a modern +young woman.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p>In the early twenties advertisements capitalized on +the functional characteristics of swimming suits. A +1923 advertisement declared:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>No! No! Not a bathing suit! No! The Wil Wite is a +swimming suit. The difference is great—very great. A +bathing suit is something in which to “Sun” oneself and +wear on the beach. A swimming suit is a garment made +expressly for those who swim. It is free from frills and +furbelows. It follows the form with the same sincerity +that a neat silk stocking clings to a trim ankle. It fits when +dry or wet ... it is a real swimming suit.<a name="FNanchor_64" +id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p></div> + +<p>The knitted swimming suit which achieved dominance +over the bathing suit in the 1920s was similar to +its earlier version except that both the armhole and +the neckline were lower. This made it possible to put +on the suit without unbuttoning one of the straps at +the shoulder—a feature that was omitted in this newer +style. Sometimes a sash was looped loosely around the +waist; a geometrically shaped monogram provided a +smart decoration. The affluent swimmer could distinguish +herself from the masses by wearing silk jersey. +During the last half of this decade women coquettishly +adopted a man’s swimming suit, consisting of a +striped sleeveless jersey shirt with dark colored trunks +and a white belt.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the last stand for the bathing dress was the +appearance of the “dressmaker suit” toward the end +of the 1920s and on into the early 1930s. The neck and +shoulder line copied those of currently fashionable +evening dresses, with a parallel treatment of the skirt, +which was shortened to end just below the hips. This +suit was worn by women reluctant to brave the revealingly +unadorned but popular swimming suit.</p> + +<p>A depilatory advertisement took advantage of the +increasing “stockingless vogue” and explained that +“Women who love swimming for the sake of the sport, +find stockings a great hindrance to their enjoyment.”<a name="FNanchor_65" +id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65</a>]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +By the end of the twenties, the stocking for bathing and +swimming had become an article of the past.</p> + +<p>Although women were accepted in athletics and +had achieved a generally wider role in public life, +white, untanned skin was still the ideal in the 1920s. +Thus sunproof creams, beach coats, and beach umbrellas +were still important.</p> + +<p>According to the well-known “trickle-down” +theory of fashion, styles of dress first become fashionable +among the socially elite and wealthy and are +then, in time, emulated by those at lower socio-economic +levels. The knitted swimming suit, however, +entered the fashion pages by a different route. It had +its insignificant start with the skirtless bifurcated +garments of the late 1860s. Going against popular +opinion, some women did swim. They violated prevalent +standards of modesty by continuing to wear a +functional suit. Gradually the demand grew. A plain, +utilitarian garment was needed; pressure increased. +Thus, by the 1920s the swimming suit prevailed, +complimenting the image of the newly emancipated +“modern woman.”</p> + +<h3>SWIM SUIT INDUSTRY</h3> + +<p>Along with the increased popularity of swimming +and the appearance of the knitted swimming suit we +note the rapid development of the ready-to-wear +swim suit industry. During the last half of the 19th +century women frequently made their own bathing +dresses with the aid of paper pattern supplements +that appeared in women’s magazines of the period. +Dressmakers also may have used these patterns to +outfit their clients for their summer excursions. On the +other hand, ladies in the large cities could purchase +bathing dresses at furnishing stores or rent them at +the large public beaches. A small advertisement in +<i>Harper’s Bazar</i>, August 9, 1873, announced that in +addition to gauze undershirts, linen drawers, collars +and cuffs, Union Adams & Co. of New York had +bathing dresses for sale. The notice is noteworthy +when one considers that the ready-to-wear clothing +industry and the field of advertising were in their +infancy.</p> + +<p>With the increased popularity of the knitted suit, +knitting mills included men’s and women’s swimming +apparel in their more prosaic lines of underwear and +sweaters. Many companies advertised the new product, +steadily increasing their range until the inevitable +occurred. In 1921 a national advertising campaign +for swimming suits was initiated by Jantzen, a +hitherto obscure knitting mill whose production had +been limited to sweaters, woolen hosiery, and jackets +for Chinese workmen. Capitalizing on the growing +interest in swimming, Jantzen prominently advertised +swimming suits instead of bathing dresses. The +retail stores selling these suits advertised locally, +but national advertising became the domain of the +manufacturers, educating the public to associate +certain positive qualities with their names.</p> + +<p>To the delight of the swim suit industry, swimming +was more than a passing vogue. In 1934, a National +Recreation Association study on the use of leisure +time found that among ninety-four free-time activities +swimming was second only to movies in popularity.<a name="FNanchor_66" +id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> +Although the number of swimmers was increasing, +competition caused the swim suit industry to take +a new approach. Manufacturers attempted to increase +the volume of sales through advertising by emphasizing +style. In 1927 one company advertised a national +appeal to woman’s vanity by declaring that beach +<i>uniforms</i> were out and that beach <i>styles</i> were in.</p> + +<p>It was a general characteristic of the 1930s that +swimming suits covered less of the bather. The +attached trunks of the swimming suit no longer +extended down the leg but it survived unseen beneath +the vestigial remains of a skirt.</p> + +<p>The diminishing coverage of the swim suit was also +related to a changing attitude toward sun exposure. +For years women had protected their delicate skin +to prevent any unladylike, healthy appearance. The +barrier against a lady having a tan deteriorated as +women became accepted into athletic activities. +By 1930, women eagerly sought a sun tan. Not +only were there lotions to help the neophyte sun-worshiper +acquire a rich even tan, but creams were +available for the impatient who wished an instant +tan. In line with this trend, swim suit manufacturers +and sellers promoted and sold low sun-back or +California styles, halter necks, and cut-out sections +that exposed various portions of the midriff. The +favorite suit, however, was the form-fitting maillot +of wool jersey with no skirt.</p> + +<p>In the early 1930s, the textile trade journals +applauded the increasing stress on styling as a means +of encouraging the consumer to buy a new suit +rather than to use “last year’s.” Stylishness was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +introduced into knitted suits through the use of a +greater range of solid colors. Parti-colored suits, +with stripes and slashes of a second or even a third +color, were also featured (<a href="#Fig18">fig. 18</a>). Knitting mills +were pressed to introduce novelty effects such as +mesh, waffle motifs, and lace patterns in knitted +fabrics.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig18" id="Fig18"></a> +<img src="images/illo65.jpg" alt="Ten Woolen Knitted Swimming Suits" width="500" height="285" /> +<p class="caption">Figure 18. <span class="smcap">One-piece swimming suits of knitted wool</span>, 1930. +(<i>Courtesy of Cole of California.</i>)</p></div> + +<p>The insistent emphasis on novelty encouraged the +development of such items as all-rubber swimming +suits with embossed surfaces simulating knitted textiles. +Although this innovation was not successful, +because the suits were clammy and easily torn, rubber +did find a definite use in swimming suits with the +introduction of Lastex—a yarn made with a core of +rubber wrapped by a fine thread of another fiber. +The following advertisement for swimming suits made +with Lastex best explains why this important innovation +is still valued by the industry today:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There’s no wrinkle, no bag, no sag, even under the most +ruthless sun! No other human device can even approximate +that utter freedom, that perfection of fit, at rest or +in motion, that airy but strictly legal sense of wearing +nothing at all. There is no substitute for this elastic yarn, +which imparts lasting elasticity to any fabric.<a name="FNanchor_67" +id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p></div> + +<p>Having exhausted the novelty effects of knitted +swim suits, women in the late 1930s began to respond +eagerly to the wide range of decorative possibilities +found in woven fabrics. Cotton and the relatively new +man-made fibers such as Celanese acetate and Dupont +rayon were used in fabrics such as ginghams, chambrays, +piques, and featherweight elastic satins. To the +pleasure of the fashion editors, who claimed to be +anxious for some relief from the nudity of the maillot, +suits of woven fabrics were made with flared skirts. +These had knitted linings of cotton, acetate, or wool +which satisfied any taste as to warmth or coolness on +the beach. The belief was prevalent that a wool +swimming suit was needed for warmth. In the 1940s +the two-piece, bare-midriff suit with tight shorts or +flared skirt was a popular and logical development +from the earlier suits with cut-out sections around the +midriff. The more extreme French bikini, however, +was not adopted by American women when it was +first introduced in the 1940s.</p> + +<p>By the end of the forties the one-piece swimming suit +staged a comeback with a slight variation: the new +suits were structurally sculptured to mold, control, +and stay put while swimming or sunning. They were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +the product of ingenious engineering, inside and out. +The use of shirring and skillful cutting and handling of +fabric focused attention on the bust line, while the +frequent use of Lastex tended to streamline the hips +like a girdle. Inside, the careful use of wire and plastic +boning permitted many of these suits to assume a +shape of their own and even to be worn without +straps.</p> + +<p>A short-lived revival of the covered-up look appeared +in the fashion pages in 1954 but, unlike the +suits with covered arms and neck of the previous +century, these suits drew attention to the parts of +the body that were covered. The fate of this unsuccessful +novelty is a good illustration of the fact +that, ultimately, the buyer has the final word in the +volatile field of feminine fashion. The swim suit +manufacturers apparently misinterpreted the American +woman’s readiness to discard the more revealing +two-piece suit in favor of an altered form of the +maillot. Always ready with novelties to make last +year’s suit obsolete, the manufacturers tried to encourage +women into a more extreme covered-up +look. Despite the power of national advertising women +were unwilling to go back in time. The female beach-goer +and sun-worshiper opposed a suit that might +interfere with the tanning process.</p> + +<p>By 1960, the production of swim suits had become +a big business with mass distribution and mass markets. +Expanded world-wide transportation facilities +and increased leisure and affluence in the United +States created a demand for midwinter vacation +clothing for use in warmer climates, and the manufacturing +of swim suits became a year-round undertaking, +producing 14,728 million knitted and woven +suits in women’s, misses, and junior sizes in 1960.<a name="FNanchor_68" +id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<h2>Conclusions</h2> + +<p>The earliest bathing dress for women in the United +States may have been an old smock or shift, followed +by a bathing gown based on the shift or chemise. +Although women’s bathing and swimming costume +achieved an identity of its own during the 19th +century, the evolution of this garb followed certain +innovations in women’s underclothing, namely, +drawers in the first half of the 19th century, the +“combination” of the late 1870s, and the brassiere +and panties of the 1930s. The greatest number of +minor style changes, however, were direct reflections +of fashions in street dress. The rising hemline and, +at times, the discarding of a skirt during periods +when women wore long dresses for other activities +can be attributed to changes caused by the functional +requirements of bathing and swimming; the +shortening of sleeves and trousers in the last quarter +of the 19th century were also functional improvements. +The benefits of the shorter trousers, however, +were minimized when modesty required women to +cover their exposed legs with stockings.</p> + +<p>Swimming suits have been considered a 20th +century innovation; in fact one corporation is under +the impression that a member of their staff was +responsible for the first use of the term “swimming +suit” early in the century. The findings presented +in this paper show that some women were wearing +“swimming suits” that were distinctly different +from bathing dresses as early as the 1870s and that both +co-existed for some 50 years. Bathing dresses disappeared +in the 1920s with the widespread acceptance +of its functional counterpart; “bathing suit” no +longer referred to a special type of costume but became +interchangeable with the term “swimming suit.”</p> + +<p>The insistent trend toward more functional costume +reached its ultimate conclusion with the refinements +of the knitted swimming suit in the 1930s. Subsequent +changes have not improved upon the functional +design of this classic suit. In many instances these +variations have been merely to satisfy the feminine +desire for distinctive apparel and the industry’s +need for perishable fashions. Female competitive +swimmers have continued to wear the simple knitted +suit—now of nylon rather than wool.</p> + +<p>The changes since the 1930s have shown a trend +toward diminution in the coverage of the swimming +suit. One cannot be certain what this means for the +future, but it is unlikely that either the swim suit +industry or standards of modesty of the near future +will permit a total elimination of swimming costume. +We can be assured, however, that so long as women +swim, they will not repeat history by swathing themselves +with yards of fabric.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Foster Rhea Dulles</span>, <i>America Learns to Play, 1607-1940</i> +(New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1940), p. 363.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> +The author is indebted to Mrs. Anne W. Murray, formerly +Curator in Charge of American Costume, Smithsonian Institution, +for the interest she has shown throughout the research +and writing of this paper. The difficulties of this work would +have been greatly compounded without the benefit of her +experience and encouragement.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Ralph Thomas</span>, <i>Swimming</i> (London: Sampson Low, +Marsten & Company Limited, 1904), p. 15.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Joseph Strutt</span>, <i>The Sports and Pastimes of the People of +England</i> (London: Chatto and Windus, 1876), pp. 151-152.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Sir Thomas Elyot</span>, <i>The Boke Named the Governour</i> (London, +1557), vol. 1, pp. 54-55.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>, op. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_3">footnote 3</a>), p. 172.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Melchisédesh Thévenot</span>, <i>The Art of Swimming</i> (London: +John Lever, 1789), pp. 4-5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Thomas</span>, op. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_3">footnote 3</a>), p. 161.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Celia Fiennes</span>, <i>Through England on Horseback</i>, as quoted in <span class="smcap">Iris Brooke</span> and +<span class="smcap">James Laver</span>, <i>English Costume from the Fourteenth through the Nineteenth Century</i> (New York: The Macmillan +Company, 1937), p. 252.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">George Washington</span>, <i>The Writings of George Washington</i>, +John C. Fitzpatrick, ed. (Washington: United States Congress, +1931), vol. 1, p. 8.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">John J. Moorman</span>, <i>The Virginia Springs</i> (Richmond: J. W. +Randolph, 1854), pp. 259-260.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Ibid., p. 264.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Henry Wansay</span>, <i>An Excursion to the United States</i> (Salisbury: +J. Easton, 1798), p. 211, as quoted in <span class="smcap">Dulles</span>, <i>America Learns +to Play</i>, p. 152.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Fred Allan Wilson</span>, <i>Some Annals of Nahant</i> (Boston: Old +Corner Book Store, 1928), p. 77, as quoted in +<span class="smcap">Dulles</span>, <i>America Learns to Play</i>, p. 152.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> +<i>New York Evening Post</i> (June 4, 1813).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">James Stuart</span>, <i>Three Years in North America</i> (Edinburgh: +Robert Cadwell, 1833), vol. 1, p. 441.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> +J. W. and N. <span class="smcap">Orr</span>, <i>Orr’s Book of Swimming</i> (New York: +Burns and Baner, 1846) as quoted in <span class="smcap">Thomas</span>, op. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_3">footnote +3</a>), p. 270.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +“Life at Watering-Places—Our Newport Correspondent,” +<i>Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper</i> (August 29, 1857), vol. +4, no. 91, p. 197.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> +“Chit-Chat upon Philadelphia Fashions for August,” +<i>Godey’s Lady’s Book</i> (August 1848), vol. 37, p. 119.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> +“My First Day at Cape May,” <i>Peterson’s Magazine</i> (August +1856), vol. 30, no. 2, p. 91.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> +<i>Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper</i> (July 26, 1856), vol. 2, +no. 33, p. 102.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> +“Summer Recreation,” <i>Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper</i> +(June 18, 1870), vol. 30, no. 768, p. 210.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Jared Sparks</span>, <i>The Works of Benjamin Franklin</i> (Boston: +Tappan and Whittemore, 1844), vol. I, pp. 63-64.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">J. Frost</span>, <i>The Art of Swimming</i> (New York: P. W. Gallaudet, +1818), p. 57.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> +<i>Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper</i> (August 25, 1866), +vol. 22, no. 569, p. 355.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 29, 1871), vol. 32, no. 826, p. 322.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> +<i>Diary of John Crosier</i>, 1782, as quoted in +<span class="smcap">C. Willett</span> and +<span class="smcap">Phillis Cunnington</span>, <i>Handbook of English Costume in the Eighteenth +Century</i> (London: Faber and Faber, 1957), p. 404.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_19">footnote 19</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">A Lady</span>, <i>The Workwoman’s Guide</i> (London: Simpkin, +Marshall, and Co., 1840), p. 61.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_29">footnote 29</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_29">footnote 29</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Ibid., p. 68.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> +As quoted in <span class="smcap">C. Willett</span> and +<span class="smcap">Phillis Cunnington</span>, <i>The +History of Underclothes</i> (London: Faber and Faber, 1951), p. 130.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> +“Cape May,” <i>Godey’s Lady’s Book</i> (December 1845), vol. +31, p. 268.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> +“Fashions for August, Bathing Dresses,” <i>Peterson’s Magazine</i> +(August 1856), vol. 30, p. 145.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> +“New York Fashions,” <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (August 8, 1868), vol. +1, no. 41, p. 643.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 10, 1869), vol. 2, no. 28, p. 435.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">B. Brooke</span>, “Bathing-dress with Hat and Gloves,” <i>Hobbies</i> +(August 1958), vol. 63, p. 90.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> +Photograph and pattern appears in Blanch Payne, <i>History +of Costume</i> (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 518, +583-584.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> +“An Excursion to Long Branch,” <i>Frank Leslie’s Illustrated +Newspaper</i> (August 22, 1857), vol. 4, no. 90, p. 182.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_18">footnote 18</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> +“New York Fashions,” <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (July 19, 1873), +vol. 6, no. 29, p. 451.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> +The term “bathing suit” as opposed to “bathing dress” +came into use in the last quarter of the 19th century when the +bifurcated bathing garment with a shorter skirt was widely +accepted. The two terms, however, continued to be used interchangeably, +with “bathing dress” appearing less frequently.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> +“New York Fashions,” <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (July 4, 1885), +vol. 18, no. 27, p. 427.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 5, 1890), vol. 23, no. 27, p. 523.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> +Ibid. (June 13, 1896), vol. 29, no. 24, p. 503.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 1910), vol. 43, no. 7, p. 552.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> +“New York Fashions,” <i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (July 10, 1869), vol. +2, no. 28, p. 435.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 13, 1872), vol. 5, no. 28, p. 459.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> +Ibid. (July 25, 1874), vol. 7, no. 30, p. 475.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> As quoted in +<span class="smcap">C. Willett Cunnington</span>, <i>English Women’s +Clothing in the 19th Century</i> (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1958), +p. 225.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">J. Parmly Paret</span>, <i>The Woman’s Book of Sports</i> (New York: +D. Appleton & Co., 1901), p. 74.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> +Telephone interview with Adeline Trapp Mulhenberg, +May 1966.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Annette Kellerman</span>, <i>How to Swim</i> (New York: George H. +Doran Company, 1918), p. 47.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> +<i>Vogue</i> (June 1, 1917), vol. 49, no. 11, p. 85.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> +Ibid. (June 15, 1917), vol. 49, no. 12, p. 67.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> +“For the Modern Mermaid,” <i>Delineator</i> (June 1916), +vol. 38, no. 6, p. 52.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_54">footnote 54</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> +<i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (June 1920), vol. 55, no. 6, p. 138.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> +Ibid. (June 1921), 54th year, no. 2504, p. 101.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> +“Bathing Regulations for City Beaches,” <i>American City</i> +(May 1917), vol. 16, no. 5, p. 537.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> +Loc. cit. (<a href="#Footnote_61">footnote 61</a>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> +<span class="smcap">Jane Pride</span>, “Pick-up,” <i>Delineator</i> (May 1927), vol. 110, +no. 5, p. 15.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> +<i>Harper’s Bazar</i> (June 1923), 56th year, no. 2528, p. 5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> +<i>Delineator</i> (June 1923), vol. 102, no. 6, p. 95.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> +<i>The Leisure Hours of 5,000 People; a Report of a Study of +Leisure Time Activities and Desires</i> (New York, National Recreation +Assoc., 1934).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> +<i>Harper’s Bazaar</i> (June 1934), 68th year, no. 2660, p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> +Compiled from “Production of Selected Items of Knit +Outerwear and Swimwear; 1960-1961,” <i>Apparel Survey 1961</i> +(1962), series M23A(61)-2, p. 14.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<p class="right fsize80" style="margin: 3em 10% 3em auto;">U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1969</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/coverr.jpg" alt="Rear Cover" width="400" height="517" /></div> + +<hr class="c25" /> + +<div class="tnbox"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a> + +<h2 style="font-size: 1em;">Transcriber's notes:</h2> + +<p>The original language has been maintained, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation, except as mentioned below.</p> + +<p>Changes made to the original text: <i>chemise type</i> changed to <i>chemise-type</i> as elsewhere; page 17: closing square bracket +deleted after <i>what an array</i>; page 65: quote mark inserted before footnote anchor <i>[65]</i>.</p> + +<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of the document; illustrations have been moved to +where they fit best in the text.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Women's Bathing and Swimming Costume +in the United States, by Claudia B. 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