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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 7 + "Geoponici" to "Germany" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 24, 2011 [EBook #37523] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Geoponici to Germany (part)</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg1" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GEOPONICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GÉRARD, ÉTIENNE MAURICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GEORGE, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GEORGE I.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GÉRARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GEORGE II.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GERARD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GEORGE III.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GÉRARDMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GEORGE IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GERASA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GEORGE V.</a> (of Great Britain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GÉRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LÉON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GEORGE V.</a> (of Hanover)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GEORGE I.</a> (of the Hellenes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GERBERON, GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GEORGE</a> (of Saxony)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GERBERT, MARTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GEORGE OF LAODICEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GERBIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GEORGE OF TREBIZOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GERENUK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GEORGE THE MONK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GERGOVIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GEORGE, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GERHARD, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GEORGE PISIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GERHARDT, CHARLES FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GEORGE, LAKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GERHARDT, PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GÉRICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRÉ THÉODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GEORGETOWN</a> (British Guiana)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GERIZIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GEORGETOWN</a> (Washington, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GERLACHE, ÉTIENNE CONSTANTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GEORGETOWN</a> (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GEORGETOWN</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GEORGETOWN</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GERMAN CATHOLICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GEORGIA</a> (U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GERMAN EAST AFRICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GEORGIA</a> (Transcaucasia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH AMERICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GEORGIAN BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GEORGSWALDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GERMANICUS CAESAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GEPHYREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GERMANIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GERMAN LANGUAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GERALDTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GERMAN LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GÉRANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GERANIACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GERMAN SILVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GERANIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GERARD</a> (archbishop of York)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GERMANTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GERARD</a> (Tum, Tunc, Tenque or Thom)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GERMANY</a> (part)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GERARD OF CREMONA</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GEOPONICI,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or <i>Scriptores rei rusticae</i>, the Greek and Roman +writers on husbandry and agriculture. On the whole the Greeks +paid less attention than the Romans to the scientific study of +these subjects, which in classical times they regarded as a branch +of economics. Thus Xenophon’s <i>Oeconomicus</i> (see also <i>Memorabilia</i>, +ii. 4) contains a eulogy of agriculture and its beneficial +ethical effects, and much information is to be found in the writings +of Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus. About the same time +as Xenophon, the philosopher Democritus of Abdera wrote a +treatise <span class="grk" title="Peri Geôrgias">Περὶ Γεωργἰας</span>, frequently quoted and much used by +the later compilers of <i>Geoponica</i> (agricultural treatises). Greater +attention was given to the subject in the Alexandrian period; +a long list of names is given by Varro and Columella, amongst +them Hiero II. and Attalus III. Philometor. Later, Cassius +Dionysius of Utica translated and abridged the great work of +the Carthaginian Mago, which was still further condensed by +Diophanes of Nicaea in Bithynia for the use of King Deïotarus. +From these and similar works Cassianus Bassus (<i>q.v.</i>) compiled +his <i>Geoponica</i>. Mention may also be made of a little work +<span class="grk" title="Peri Geôrgikôn">Περὶ Γεωργικῶν</span> by Michael Psellus (printed in Boissonade, +<i>Anecdota Graeca</i>, i.).</p> + +<p>The Romans, aware of the necessity of maintaining a numerous +and thriving order of agriculturists, from very early times +endeavoured to instil into their countrymen both a theoretical +and a practical knowledge of the subject. The occupation of +the farmer was regarded as next in importance to that of the +soldier, and distinguished Romans did not disdain to practise +it. In furtherance of this object, the great work of Mago was +translated into Latin by order of the senate, and the elder Cato +wrote his <i>De agri cultura</i> (extant in a very corrupt state), a +simple record in homely language of the rules observed by the old +Roman landed proprietors rather than a theoretical treatise. +He was followed by the two Sasernae (father and son) and Gnaeus +Tremellius Scrofa, whose works are lost. The learned Marcus +Terentius Varro of Reate, when eighty years of age, composed +his <i>Rerum rusticarum, libri tres</i>, dealing with agriculture, the +rearing of cattle, and the breeding of fishes. He was the first to +systematize what had been written on the subject, and supplemented +the labours of others by practical experience gained +during his travels. In the Augustan age Julius Hyginus wrote +on farming and bee-keeping, Sabinus Tiro on horticulture, and +during the early empire Julius Graecinus and Julius Atticus on +the culture of vines, and Cornelius Celsus (best known for his +<i>De medicina</i>) on farming. The chief work of the kind, however, +is that of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (<i>q.v.</i>). About the +middle of the 2nd century the two Quintilii, natives of Troja, +wrote on the subject in Greek. It is remarkable that Columella’s +work exercised less influence in Rome and Italy than in southern +Gaul and Spain, where agriculture became one of the principal +subjects of instruction in the superior educational establishments +that were springing up in those countries. One result of this was +the preparation of manuals of a popular kind for use in the schools. +In the 3rd century Gargilius Martialis of Mauretania compiled +a <i>Geoponica</i> in which medical botany and the veterinary art +were included. The <i>De re rustica</i> of Palladius (4th century), in +fourteen books, which is almost entirely borrowed from Columella, +is greatly inferior in style and knowledge of the subject. It is a +kind of farmer’s calendar, in which the different rural occupations +are arranged in order of the months. The fourteenth book +(on forestry) is written in elegiacs (85 distichs). The whole of +Palladius and considerable fragments of Martialis are extant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of the <i>Scriptores rei rusticae</i> is by J.G. Schneider +(1794-1797), and the whole subject is exhaustively treated by +A. Magerstedt, <i>Bilder aus der römischen Landwirtschaft</i> (1858-1863); +see also Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, 54; +C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The latinized form of a non-existent <span class="grk" title="Geôponikoi">Γεωπονικοί</span>, used for +convenience.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE, SAINT<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (d. 303), the patron saint of England, Aragon +and Portugal. According to the legend given by Metaphrastes +the Byzantine hagiologist, and substantially repeated in the +Roman <i>Acta sanctorum</i> and in the Spanish breviary, he was born +in Cappadocia of noble Christian parents, from whom he received +a careful religious training. Other accounts place his birth at +Lydda, but preserve his Cappadocian parentage. Having embraced +the profession of a soldier, he rapidly rose under Diocletian +to high military rank. In Persian Armenia he organized +and energized the Christian community at Urmi (Urumiah), +and even visited Britain on an imperial expedition. When +Diocletian had begun to manifest a pronounced hostility towards +Christianity, George sought a personal interview with him, in +which he made deliberate profession of his faith, and, earnestly +remonstrating against the persecution which had begun, resigned +his commission. He was immediately laid under arrest, and +after various tortures, finally put to death at Nicomedia (his body +being afterwards taken to Lydda) on the 23rd of April 303. His +festival is observed on that anniversary by the entire Roman +Catholic Church as a semi-duplex, and by the Spanish Catholics +as a duplex of the first class with an octave. The day is also +celebrated as a principal feast in the Orthodox Eastern Church, +where the saint is distinguished by the titles <span class="grk" title="megalomartyr">μεγαλόμαρτυρ</span> and +<span class="grk" title="tropaiophoros">τροπαιοφόρος</span>.</p> + +<p>The historical basis of the tradition is particularly unsound, +there being two claimants to the name and honour. Eusebius, +<i>Hist. eccl.</i> viii. 5, writes: “Immediately on the promulgation +of the edict (of Diocletian) a certain man of no mean origin, but +highly esteemed for his temporal dignities, as soon as the decree +was published against the churches in Nicomedia, stimulated +by a divine zeal and excited by an ardent faith, took it as it was +openly placed and posted up for public inspection, and tore it +to shreds as a most profane and wicked act. This, too, was +done when the two Caesars were in the city, the first of whom +was the eldest and chief of all and the other held fourth grade of +the imperial dignity after him. But this man, as the first that +was distinguished there in this manner, after enduring what +was likely to follow an act so daring, preserved his mind, calm +and serene, until the moment when his spirit fled.” Rivalling +this anonymous martyr, who is often supposed to have +been St George, is an earlier martyr briefly mentioned in the +<i>Chronicon Pascale</i>: “In the year 225 of the Ascension of our +Lord a persecution of the Christians took place, and many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +suffered martyrdom, among whom also the Holy George was +martyred.”</p> + +<p>Two Syrian church inscriptions bearing the name, one at Ezr’a +and the other at Shaka, found by Burckhardt and Porter, and +discussed by J. Hogg in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Literary +Society</i>, may with some probability be assigned to the middle +of the 4th century. Calvin impugned the saint’s existence +altogether, and Edward Reynolds (1599-1676), bishop of Norwich, +like Edward Gibbon a century later, made him one with George +of Laodicea, called “the Cappadocian,” the Arian bishop of +Alexandria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George of Laodicea</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Modern criticism, while rejecting this identification, is not +unwilling to accept the main fact that an officer named Georgios, +of high rank in the army, suffered martyrdom probably under +Diocletian. In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is +mentioned in a list of those “whose names are justly reverenced +among men, but whose acts are known only to God,” a statement +which implies that legends had already grown up around his +name. The caution of Gelasius was not long preserved; Gregory +of Tours, for example, asserts that the saint’s relics actually +existed in the French village of Le Maine, where many miracles +were wrought by means of them; and Bede, while still explaining +that the <i>Gesta Georgii</i> are reckoned apocryphal, commits himself +to the statement that the martyr was beheaded under Dacian, +king of Persia, whose wife Alexandra, however, adhered to the +Christian faith. The great fame of George, who is reverenced +alike by Eastern and Western Christendom and by Mahommedans, +is due to many causes. He was martyred on the eve +of the triumph of Christianity, his shrine was reared near the +scene of a great Greek legend (Perseus and Andromeda), and +his relics when removed from Lydda, where many pilgrims had +visited them, to Zorava in the Hauran served to impress his fame +not only on the Syrian population, but on their Moslem conquerors, +and again on the Crusaders, who in grateful memory +of the saint’s intervention on their behalf at Antioch built a new +cathedral at Lydda to take the place of the church destroyed +by the Saracens. This cathedral was in turn destroyed by +Saladin.</p> + +<p>The connexion of St George with a dragon, familiar since the +<i>Golden Legend</i> of Jacobus de Voragine, can be traced to the +close of the 6th century. At Arsuf or Joppa—neither of them +far from Lydda—Perseus had slain the sea-monster that +threatened the virgin Andromeda, and George, like many another +Christian saint, entered into the inheritance of veneration previously +enjoyed by a pagan hero.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The exploit thus attaches +itself to the very common Aryan myth of the sun-god as the +conqueror of the powers of darkness.</p> + +<p>The popularity of St George in England has never reached +the height attained by St Andrew in Scotland, St David in Wales +or St Patrick in Ireland. The council of Oxford in 1222 ordered +that his feast should be kept as a national festival; but it was +not until the time of Edward III. that he was made patron of +the kingdom. The republics of Genoa and Venice were also +under his protection.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Heylin, <i>The History of ... S. George of Cappadocia</i> (1631); +S. Baring-Gould, Curious <i>Myths of the Middle Ages</i>; Fr. Görres, +“Der Ritter St Georg in der Geschichte, Legende und Kunst” (<i>Zeitschrift +für wissenschaftliche Theologie</i>, xxx., 1887, Heft i.); E.A.W. +Budge, <i>The Martyrdom and Miracles of St George of Cappadocia</i>: +the Coptic texts edited with an English translation (1888); Bolland, +<i>Acta Sancti</i>, iii. 101; E.O. Gordon, <i>Saint George</i> (1907); M.H. +Bulley, <i>St George for Merrie England</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> G.A. Smith (<i>Hist. Geog. of Holy Land</i>, p. 164) points out another +coincidence. “The Mahommedans who usually identify St George +with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one +about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is Dajjal, and they +have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. +The notion sprang from an ancient bas-relief of George and the +Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a +very common confusion between <i>n</i> and <i>l</i>, from Dagon, whose name +two neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of +Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon.” It is a curious process +by which the monster that symbolized heathenism conquered by +Christianity has been evolved out of the first great rival of the God of +Israel.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE I.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> [George Louis] (1660-1727), king of Great Britain +and Ireland, born in 1660, was heir through his father Ernest +Augustus to the hereditary lay bishopric of Osnabrück, and to +the duchy of Calenberg, which formed one portion of the Hanoverian +possessions of the house of Brunswick, whilst he secured +the reversion of the other portion, the duchy of Celle or Zell, +by his marriage (1682) with the heiress, his cousin Sophia +Dorothea. The marriage was not a happy one. The morals +of German courts in the end of the 17th century took their tone +from the splendid profligacy of Versailles. It became the +fashion for a prince to amuse himself with a mistress or more +frequently with many mistresses simultaneously, and he was +often content that the mistresses whom he favoured should be +neither beautiful nor witty. George Louis followed the usual +course. Count Königsmark—a handsome adventurer—seized +the opportunity of paying court to the deserted wife. Conjugal +infidelity was held at Hanover to be a privilege of the male sex. +Count Königsmark was assassinated. Sophia Dorothea was +divorced in 1694, and remained in seclusion till her death in +1726. When George IV., her descendant in the fourth generation, +attempted in England to call his wife to account for sins of +which he was himself notoriously guilty, free-spoken public +opinion reprobated the offence in no measured terms. But in +the Germany of the 17th century all free-spoken public opinion +had been crushed out by the misery of the Thirty Years’ War, +and it was understood that princes were to arrange their domestic +life according to their own pleasure.</p> + +<p>The prince’s father did much to raise the dignity of his family. +By sending help to the emperor when he was struggling against +the French and the Turks, he obtained the grant of a ninth +electorate in 1692. His marriage with Sophia, the youngest +daughter of Elizabeth the daughter of James I. of England, +was not one which at first seemed likely to confer any prospect +of advancement to his family. But though there were many +persons whose birth gave them better claims than she had to the +English crown, she found herself, upon the death of the duke of +Gloucester, the next Protestant heir after Anne. The Act of +Settlement in 1701 secured the inheritance to herself and her +descendants. Being old and unambitious she rather permitted +herself to be burthened with the honour than thrust herself +forward to meet it. Her son George took a deeper interest in +the matter. In his youth he had fought with determined courage +in the wars of William III. Succeeding to the electorate on his +father’s death in 1698, he had sent a welcome reinforcement +of Hanoverians to fight under Marlborough at Blenheim. With +prudent persistence he attached himself closely to the Whigs +and to Marlborough, refusing Tory offers of an independent +command, and receiving in return for his fidelity a guarantee by +the Dutch of his succession to England in the Barrier treaty of +1709. In 1714 when Anne was growing old, and Bolingbroke +and the more reckless Tories were coquetting with the son of +James II., the Whigs invited George’s eldest son, who was duke +of Cambridge, to visit England in order to be on the spot in case +of need. Neither the elector nor his mother approved of a step +which was likely to alienate the queen, and which was specially +distasteful to himself, as he was on very bad terms with his son. +Yet they did not set themselves against the strong wish of the +party to which they looked for support, and it is possible that +troubles would have arisen from any attempt to carry out the +plan, if the deaths, first of the electress (May 28) and then of the +queen (August 1, 1714), had not laid open George’s way to the +succession without further effort of his own.</p> + +<p>In some respects the position of the new king was not unlike +that of William III. a quarter of a century before. Both +sovereigns were foreigners, with little knowledge of English +politics and little interest in English legislation. Both sovereigns +arrived at a time when party spirit had been running high, and when +the task before the ruler was to still the waves of contention. +In spite of the difference between an intellectually great man +and an intellectually small one, in spite too of the difference +between the king who began by choosing his ministers from +both parties and the king who persisted in choosing his ministers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +from only one, the work of pacification was accomplished by +George even more thoroughly than by William.</p> + +<p>George I. was fortunate in arriving in England when a great +military struggle had come to an end. He had therefore no +reason to call upon the nation to make great sacrifices. All +that he wanted was to secure for himself and his family a high +position which he hardly knew how to occupy, to fill the pockets +of his German attendants and his German mistresses, to get +away as often as possible from the uncongenial islanders whose +language he was unable to speak, and to use the strength of +England to obtain petty advantages for his German principality. +In order to do this he attached himself entirely to the Whig +party, though he refused to place himself at the disposal of its +leaders. He gave his confidence, not to Somers and Wharton +and Marlborough, but to Stanhope and Townshend, the statesmen +of the second rank. At first he seemed to be playing a +dangerous game. The Tories, whom he rejected, were numerically +superior to their adversaries, and were strong in the support +of the country gentlemen and the country clergy. The strength +of the Whigs lay in the towns and in the higher aristocracy. +Below both parties lay the mass of the nation, which cared +nothing for politics except in special seasons of excitement, +and which asked only to be let alone. In 1715 a Jacobite insurrection +in the north, supported by the appearance of the +Pretender, the son of James II., in Scotland, was suppressed, +and its suppression not only gave to the government a character +of stability, but displayed its adversaries in an unfavourable +light as the disturbers of the peace.</p> + +<p>Even this advantage, however, would have been thrown +away if the Whigs in power had continued to be animated by +violent party spirit. What really happened was that the Tory +leaders were excluded from office, but that the principles and +prejudices of the Tories were admitted to their full weight in the +policy of the government. The natural result followed. The +leaders to whom no regard was paid continued in opposition. +The rank and file, who would personally have gained nothing +by a party victory, were conciliated into quiescence.</p> + +<p>This mingling of two policies was conspicuous both in the +foreign and the domestic actions of the reign. In the days of +Queen Anne the Whig party had advocated the continuance +of war with a view to the complete humiliation of the king of +France, whom they feared as the protector of the Pretender, +and in whose family connexion with the king of Spain they saw +a danger for England. The Tory party, on the other hand, had +been the authors of the peace of Utrecht, and held that France +was sufficiently depressed. A fortunate concurrence of circumstances +enabled George’s ministers, by an alliance with the +regent of France, the duke of Orleans, to pursue at the same time +the Whig policy of separating France from Spain and from the +cause of the Pretender, and the Tory policy of the maintenance +of a good understanding with their neighbour across the Channel. +The same eclecticism was discernible in the proceedings of the +home government. The Whigs were conciliated by the repeal +of the Schism Act and the Occasional Conformity Act, whilst +the Tories were conciliated by the maintenance of the Test Act +in all its vigour. The satisfaction of the masses was increased +by the general well-being of the nation.</p> + +<p>Very little of all that was thus accomplished was directly +owing to George I. The policy of the reign is the policy of his +ministers. Stanhope and Townshend from 1714 to 1717 were +mainly occupied with the defence of the Hanoverian settlement. +After the dismissal of the latter in 1717, Stanhope in conjunction +with Sunderland took up a more decided Whig policy. The +Occasional Conformity Act and the Schism Act were repealed +in 1719. But the wish of the liberal Whigs to modify if not to +repeal the Test Act remained unsatisfied. In the following +year the bursting of the South Sea bubble, and the subsequent +deaths of Stanhope in 1721 and of Sunderland in 1722, cleared +the way for the accession to power of Sir Robert Walpole, to +whom and not to the king was due the conciliatory policy which +quieted Tory opposition by abstaining from pushing Whig +principles to their legitimate consequences.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless something of the honour due to Walpole must +be reckoned to the king’s credit. It is evident that at his accession +his decisions were by no means unimportant. The royal +authority was still able within certain limits to make its own +terms. This support was so necessary to the Whigs that they +made no resistance when he threw aside their leaders on his +arrival in England. When by his personal intervention he +dismissed Townshend and appointed Sunderland, he had no +such social and parliamentary combination to fear as that which +almost mastered his great-grandson in his struggle for power. +If such a combination arose before the end of his reign it was +owing more to his omitting to fulfil the duties of his station than +from the necessity of the case. As he could talk no English, +and his ministers could talk no German, he absented himself +from the meetings of the cabinet, and his frequent absences +from England and his want of interest in English politics +strengthened the cabinet in its tendency to assert an independent +position. Walpole at last by his skill in the management of +parliament rose as a subject into the almost royal position denoted +by the name of prime minister. In connexion with Walpole +the force of wealth and station established the Whig aristocracy +in a point of vantage from which it was afterwards difficult +to dislodge them. Yet, though George had allowed the power +which had been exercised by William and Anne to slip through +his hands, it was understood to the last that if he chose to exert +himself he might cease to be a mere cipher in the conduct of +affairs. As late as 1727 Bolingbroke gained over one of the king’s +mistresses, the duchess of Kendal; and though her support of +the fallen Jacobite took no effect, Walpole was not without fear +that her reiterated entreaties would lead to his dismissal. The +king’s death in a carriage on his way to Hanover, in the night +between 10th and 11th June in the same year, put an end to +these apprehensions.</p> + +<p>His only children were his successor George II. and Sophia +Dorothea (1687-1757), who married in 1706 Frederick William, +crown prince (afterwards king) of Prussia. She was the mother +of Frederick the Great.</p> +<div class="author">(S. R. G.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the standard English histories. A recent popular work is +L. Melville’s <i>The First George in Hanover and England</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE II.<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> [George Augustus] (1683-1760), king of Great +Britain and Ireland, the only son of George I., was born in 1683. +In 1705 he married Wilhelmina Caroline of Anspach. In 1706 +he was created earl of Cambridge. In 1708 he fought bravely +at Oudenarde. At his father’s accession to the English throne +he was thirty-one years of age. He was already on bad terms +with his father. The position of an heir-apparent is in no case an +easy one to fill with dignity, and the ill-treatment of the prince’s +mother by his father was not likely to strengthen in him a +reverence for paternal authority. It was most unwillingly that, +on his first journey to Hanover in 1716, George I. appointed the +prince of Wales guardian of the realm during his absence. In +1717 the existing ill-feeling ripened into an open breach. At +the baptism of one of his children, the prince selected one godfather +whilst the king persisted in selecting another. The young +man spoke angrily, was ordered into arrest, and was subsequently +commanded to leave St James’s and to be excluded from all +court ceremonies. The prince took up his residence at Leicester +House, and did everything in his power to support the opposition +against his father’s ministers.</p> + +<p>When therefore George I. died in 1727, it was generally supposed +that Walpole would be at once dismissed. The first direction +of the new king was that Sir Spencer Compton would draw up +the speech in which he was to announce to the privy council his +accession. Compton, not knowing how to set about his task, +applied to Walpole for aid. Queen Caroline took advantage +of this evidence of incapacity, advocated Walpole’s cause with +her husband and procured his continuance in office. This +curious scene was indicative of the course likely to be taken by +the new sovereign. His own mind was incapable of rising above +the merest details of business. He made war in the spirit of a +drill-sergeant, and he economized his income with the minute +regularity of a clerk. A blunder of a master of the ceremonies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +in marshalling the attendants on a levee put him out of temper. +He took the greatest pleasure in counting his money piece by +piece, and he never forgot a date. He was above all things +methodical and regular. “He seems,” said one who knew him +well, “to think his having done a thing to-day an unanswerable +reason for his doing it to-morrow.”</p> + +<p>Most men so utterly immersed in details would be very +impracticable to deal with. They would obstinately refuse to +listen to a wisdom and prudence which meant nothing in their +ears, and which brought home to them a sense of their own +inferiority. It was the happy peculiarity of George II. that he +was exempt from this failing. He seemed to have an instinctive +understanding that such and such persons were either wiser or +even stronger than himself, and when he had once discovered that, +he gave way with scarcely a struggle. Thus it was that, though +in his domestic relations he was as loose a liver as his father had +been, he allowed himself to be guided by the wise but unobtrusive +counsels of his wife until her death in 1737, and that when once +he had recognized Walpole’s superiority he allowed himself to +be guided by the political sagacity of the great minister. It is +difficult to exaggerate the importance of such a temper upon the +development of the constitution. The apathy of the nation in +all but the most exciting political questions, fostered by the +calculated conservatism of Walpole, had thrown power into the +hands of the great landowners. They maintained their authority +by supporting a minister who was ready to make use of corruption, +wherever corruption was likely to be useful, and who could +veil over the baseness of the means which he employed by his +talents in debate and in finance. To shake off a combination +so strong would not have been easy. George II. submitted to +it without a struggle.</p> + +<p>So strong indeed had the Whig aristocracy grown that it +began to lose its cohesion. Walpole was determined to monopolize +power, and he dismissed from office all who ventured to oppose +him. An opposition formidable in talents was gradually formed. +In its composite ranks were to be found Tories and discontented +Whigs, discarded official hacks who were hungry for the emoluments +of office, and youthful purists who fancied that if Walpole +were removed, bribes and pensions would cease to be attractive +to a corrupt generation. Behind them was Bolingbroke, excluded +from parliament but suggesting every party move. In 1737 the +opposition acquired the support of Frederick, prince of Wales. +The young man, weak and headstrong, rebelled against the +strict discipline exacted by his father. His marriage in 1736 +to Augusta of Saxony brought on an open quarrel. In 1737, +just as the princess of Wales was about to give birth to her first +child, she was hurried away by her husband from Hampton +Court to St James’s Palace at the imminent risk of her life, +simply in order that the prince might show his spite to his father +who had provided all necessary attendance at the former place. +George ordered his son to quit St James’s, and to absent himself +from court. Frederick in disgrace gave the support of his name, +and he had nothing else to give, to the opposition. Later in the +year 1737, on the 20th of November, Queen Caroline died. In +1742 Walpole, weighed down by the unpopularity both of his +reluctance to engage in a war with Spain and of his supposed +remissness in conducting the operations of that war, was driven +from office. His successors formed a composite ministry in which +Walpole’s old colleagues and Walpole’s old opponents were alike +to be found.</p> + +<p>The years which followed settled conclusively, at least for this +reign, the constitutional question of the power of appointing +ministers. The war between Spain and England had broken +out in 1739. In 1741 the death of the emperor Charles VI. +brought on the war of the Austrian succession. The position of +George II. as a Hanoverian prince drew him to the side of Maria +Theresa through jealousy of the rising Prussian monarchy. +Jealousy of France led England in the same direction, and in +1741 a subsidy of £300,000 was voted to Maria Theresa. The +king himself went to Germany and attempted to carry on the +war according to his own notions. Those notions led him to +regard the safety of Hanover as of far more importance than +the wishes of England. Finding that a French army was about +to march upon his German states, he concluded with France a +treaty of neutrality for a year without consulting a single English +minister. In England the news was received with feelings of +disgust. The expenditure of English money and troops was to +be thrown uselessly away as soon as it appeared that Hanover +was in the slightest danger. In 1742 Walpole was no longer in +office. Lord Wilmington, the nominal head of the ministry, was +a mere cipher. The ablest and most energetic of his colleagues, +Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), attached himself specially +to the king, and sought to maintain himself in power by his +special favour and by brilliant achievements in diplomacy.</p> + +<p>In part at least by Carteret’s mediation the peace of Breslau +was signed, by which Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick +(July 28, 1742). Thus relieved on her northern frontier, she +struck out vigorously towards the west. Bavaria was overrun +by her troops. In the beginning of 1743 one French army was +driven across the Rhine. On June 27th another French army +was defeated by George II. in person at Dettingen. Victory +brought elation to Maria Theresa. Her war of defence was +turned into a war of vengeance. Bavaria was to be annexed. +The French frontier was to be driven back. George II. and +Carteret after some hesitation placed themselves on her side. +Of the public opinion of the political classes in England they +took no thought. Hanoverian troops were indeed to be employed +in the war, but they were to be taken into British pay. Collisions +between British and Hanoverian officers were frequent. A +storm arose against the preference shown to Hanoverian +interests. After a brief struggle Carteret, having become +Lord Granville by his mother’s death, was driven from office +in November 1744.</p> + +<p>Henry Pelham, who had become prime minister in the preceding +year, thus saw himself established in power. By the acceptance +of this ministry, the king acknowledged that the function of +choosing a ministry and directing a policy had passed from his +hands. In 1745 indeed he recalled Granville, but a few days +were sufficient to convince him of the futility of his attempt, and +the effort to exclude Pitt at a later time proved equally fruitless.</p> + +<p>Important as were the events of the remainder of the reign, +therefore, they can hardly be grouped round the name of George +II. The resistance to the invasion of the Young Pretender in +1745, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, the great war ministry +of Pitt at the close of the reign, did not receive their impulse from +him. He had indeed done his best to exclude Pitt from office. +He disliked him on account of his opposition in former years to +the sacrifices demanded by the Hanoverian connexion. When +in 1756 Pitt became secretary of state in the Devonshire administration, +the king bore the yoke with difficulty. Early in the next +year he complained of Pitt’s long speeches as being above his +comprehension, and on April 5, 1757, he dismissed him, only +to take him back shortly after, when Pitt, coalescing with +Newcastle, became master of the situation. Before Pitt’s dismissal +George II. had for once an opportunity of placing himself +on the popular side, though, as was the case of his grandson during +the American war, it was when the popular side happened to be +in the wrong. In the true spirit of a martinet, he wished to see +Admiral Byng executed. Pitt urged the wish of the House of +Commons to have him pardoned. “Sir,” replied the king, “you +have taught me to look for the sense of my subjects in another +place than in the House of Commons.” When George II. died +in 1760, he left behind him a settled understanding that the +monarchy was one of the least of the forces by which the policy +of the country was directed. To this end he had contributed +much by his disregard of English opinion in 1743; but it may +fairly be added that, but for his readiness to give way to irresistible +adversaries, the struggle might have been far more bitter and +severe than it was.</p> + +<p>Of the connexion between Hanover and England in this reign +two memorials remain more pleasant to contemplate than the +records of parliamentary and ministerial intrigues. With the +support of George II., amidst the derision of the English fashionable +world, the Hanoverian Handel produced in England those +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +masterpieces which have given delight to millions, whilst the +foundation of the university of Göttingen by the same king +opened a door through which English political ideas afterwards +penetrated into Germany.</p> + +<p>George II. had three sons,—Frederick Louis (1707-1751); +George William (1717-1718); and William Augustus, duke of +Cumberland (1721-1765); and five daughters, Anne (1709-1759), +married to William, prince of Orange, 1734; Amelia Sophia +Eleonora (1711-1786); Elizabeth Caroline (1713-1757); Mary +(1723-1772), married to Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, +1740; Louisa (1724-1751), married to Frederick V., king of +Denmark, 1743.</p> +<div class="author">(S. R. G.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lord Hervey, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George II.</i>, ed. by J. W, +Croker (3 vols., London, 1884); Horace Walpole, <i>Mem. of the Reign +of George II.</i>, with notes by Lord Holland (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE III.<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> [George William Frederick] (1738-1820), king +of Great Britain and Ireland, son of Frederick, prince of Wales, +and grandson of George II., whom he succeeded in 1760, was born +on the 4th of June 1738. After his father’s death in 1751 he had +been educated in seclusion from the fashionable world under +the care of his mother and of her favourite counsellor the earl +of Bute. He had been taught to revere the maxims of Bolingbroke’s +“Patriot King,” and to believe that it was his appointed +task in life to break the power of the Whig houses resting upon +extensive property and the influence of patronage and corruption. +That power had already been gravely shaken. The Whigs +from their incompetency were obliged when the Seven Years’ +War broke out to leave its management in the hands of William +Pitt. The nation learned to applaud the great war minister +who succeeded where others had failed, and whose immaculate +purity put to shame the ruck of barterers of votes for places and +pensions.</p> + +<p>In some sort the work of the new king was the continuation +of the work of Pitt. But his methods were very different. He +did not appeal to any widely spread feeling or prejudice; nor +did he disdain the use of the arts which had maintained his +opponents in power. The patronage of the crown was to be +really as well as nominally his own; and he calculated, not +without reason, that men would feel more flattered in accepting +a place from a king than from a minister. The new Toryism of +which he was the founder was no recurrence to the Toryism of +the days of Charles II. or even of Anne. The question of the +amount of toleration to be accorded to Dissenters had been +entirely laid aside. The point at issue was whether the crown +should be replaced in the position which George I. might have +occupied at the beginning of his reign, selecting the ministers +and influencing the deliberations of the cabinet. For this struggle +George III. possessed no inconsiderable advantages. With an +inflexible tenacity of purpose, he was always ready to give way +when resistance was really hopeless. As the first English-born +sovereign of his house, speaking from his birth the language of +his subjects, he found a way to the hearts of many who never +regarded his predecessors as other than foreign intruders. +The contrast, too, between the pure domestic life which he led +with his wife Charlotte, whom he married in 1761, and the +habits of three generations of his house, told in his favour with +the vast majority of his subjects. Even his marriage had been +a sacrifice to duty. Soon after his accession he had fallen in love +with Lady Sarah Lennox, and had been observed to ride morning +by morning along the Kensington Road, from which the object +of his affections was to be seen from the lawn of Holland House +making hay, or engaged in some other ostensible employment. +Before the year was over Lady Sarah appeared as one of the +queen’s bridesmaids, and she was herself married to Sir Charles +Bunbury in 1762.</p> + +<p>At first everything seemed easy to him. Pitt had come to +be regarded by his own colleagues as a minister who would pursue +war at any price, and in getting rid of Pitt in 1761 and in carrying +on the negotiations which led to the peace of Paris in 1762, the +king was able to gather round him many persons who would not +be willing to acquiesce in any permanent change in the system +of government. With the signature of the peace his real difficulties +began. The Whig houses, indeed, were divided amongst +themselves by personal rivalries. But they were none of them +inclined to let power and the advantages of power slip from their +hands without a struggle. For some years a contest of influence +was carried on without dignity and without any worthy aim. +The king was not strong enough to impose upon parliament a +ministry of his own choice. But he gathered round himself a +body of dependants known as the king’s friends, who were secure +of his favour, and who voted one way or the other according +to his wishes. Under these circumstances no ministry could +possibly be stable; and yet every ministry was strong enough +to impose some conditions on the king. Lord Bute, the king’s +first choice, resigned from a sense of his own incompetency in +1763. George Grenville was in office till 1765; the marquis of +Rockingham till 1766; Pitt, becoming earl of Chatham, till +illness compelled him to retire from the conduct of affairs in +1767, when he was succeeded by the duke of Grafton. But a +struggle of interests could gain no real strength for any government, +and the only chance the king had of effecting a permanent +change in the balance of power lay in the possibility of his +associating himself with some phase of strong national feeling, +as Pitt had associated himself with the war feeling caused by +the dissatisfaction spread by the weakness and ineptitude of his +predecessors.</p> + +<p>Such a chance was offered by the question of the right to tax +America. The notion that England was justified in throwing +on America part of the expenses caused in the late war was +popular in the country, and no one adopted it more pertinaciously +then George III. At the bottom the position which he assumed +was as contrary to the principles of parliamentary government +as the encroachments of Charles I. had been. But it was veiled in +the eyes of Englishmen by the prominence given to the power +of the British parliament rather than to the power of the British +king. In fact the theory of parliamentary government, like most +theories after their truth has long been universally acknowledged, +had become a superstition. Parliaments were held to be properly +vested with authority, not because they adequately represented +the national will, but simply because they were parliaments. +There were thousands of people in England to whom it never +occurred that there was any good reason why a British parliament +should be allowed to levy a duty on tea in the London docks +and should not be allowed to levy a duty on tea at the wharves +of Boston. Undoubtedly George III. derived great strength +from his honest participation in this mistake. Contending under +parliamentary forms, he did not wound the susceptibilities of +members of parliament, and when at last in 1770 he appointed +Lord North—a minister of his own selection—prime minister, +the object of his ambition was achieved with the concurrence of a +large body of politicians who had nothing in common with the +servile band of the king’s friends.</p> + +<p>As long as the struggle with America was carried on with any +hope of success they gained that kind of support which is always +forthcoming to a government which shares in the errors and +prejudices of its subjects. The expulsion of Wilkes from the +House of Commons in 1769, and the refusal of the House to accept +him as a member after his re-election, raised a grave constitutional +question in which the king was wholly in the wrong; and Wilkes +was popular in London and Middlesex. But his case roused +no national indignation, and when in 1774 those sharp measures +were taken with Boston which led to the commencement of the +American rebellion in 1775, the opposition to the course taken +by the king made little way either in parliament or in the country. +Burke might point out the folly and inexpedience of the proceedings +of the government. Chatham might point out that the true +spirit of English government was to be representative, and that +that spirit was being violated at home and abroad. George III., +who thought that the first duty of the Americans was to obey +himself, had on his side the mass of unreflecting Englishmen who +thought that the first duty of all colonists was to be useful and +submissive to the mother-country. The natural dislike of every +country engaged in war to see itself defeated was on his side, +and when the news of Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga arrived +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +in 1777, subscriptions of money to raise new regiments poured +freely in.</p> + +<p>In March 1778 the French ambassador in London announced +that a treaty of friendship and commerce had been concluded +between France and the new United States of America. Lord +North was anxious to resign power into stronger hands, and +begged the king to receive Chatham as his prime minister. +The king would not hear of it. He would have nothing to say to +“that perfidious man” unless he would humble himself to enter +the ministry as North’s subordinate. Chatham naturally refused +to do anything of the kind, and his death in the course of the year +relieved the king of the danger of being again overruled by too +overbearing a minister. England was now at war with France, +and in 1779 she was also at war with Spain.</p> + +<p>George III. was still able to control the disposition of office. +He could not control the course of events. His very ministers +gave up the struggle as hopeless long before he would acknowledge +the true state of the case. Before the end of 1779, two of the +leading members of the cabinet, Lords Gower and Weymouth, +resigned rather than bear the responsibility of so ruinous an +enterprise as the attempt to overpower America and France +together. Lord North retained office, but he acknowledged to +the king that his own opinion was precisely the same as that +of his late colleagues.</p> + +<p>The year 1780 saw an agitation rising in the country for +economical reform, an agitation very closely though indirectly +connected with the war policy of the king. The public meetings +held in the country on this subject have no unimportant place +in the development of the constitution. Since the presentation +of the Kentish petition in the reign of William III. there had +been from time to time upheavings of popular feeling against +the doings of the legislature, which kept up the tradition that +parliament existed in order to represent the nation. But these +upheavings had all been so associated with ignorance and violence +as to make it very difficult for men of sense to look with displeasure +upon the existing emancipation of the House of Commons +from popular control. The Sacheverell riots, the violent attacks +upon the Excise Bill, the no less violent advocacy of the Spanish +War, the declamations of the supporters of Wilkes at a more +recent time, and even in this very year the Gordon riots, were +not likely to make thoughtful men anxious to place real power +in the hands of the classes from whom such exhibitions of folly +proceeded. But the movement for economical reform was of +a very different kind. It was carried on soberly in manner, and +with a definite practical object. It asked for no more than the +king ought to have been willing to concede. It attacked useless +expenditure upon sinecures and unnecessary offices in the +household, the only use of which was to spread abroad corruption +amongst the upper classes. George III. could not bear to be +interfered with at all, or to surrender any element of power +which had served him in his long struggle with the Whigs. He +held out for more than another year. The news of the capitulation +of Yorktown reached London on the 25th of November +1781. On the 20th of March 1782 Lord North resigned.</p> + +<p>George III. accepted the consequences of defeat. He called +the marquis of Rockingham to office at the head of a ministry +composed of pure Whigs and of the disciples of the late earl of +Chatham, and he authorized the new ministry to open negotiations +for peace. Their hands were greatly strengthened by +Rodney’s victory over the French fleet, and the failure of the +combined French and Spanish attack upon Gibraltar; and +before the end of 1782 a provisional treaty was signed with +America, preliminaries of peace with France and Spain being +signed early in the following year. On the 3rd of September 1783 +the definitive treaties with the three countries were simultaneously +concluded. “Sir,” said the king to John Adams, the first +minister of the United States of America accredited to him, +“I wish you to believe, and that it may be understood in America, +that I have done nothing in the late contest but what I thought +myself indispensably bound to do by the duty which I owed to +my people. I will be very frank with you. I was the last to +consent to the separation: but the separation having been made +and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, +that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United +States as an independent power.”</p> + +<p>Long before the signature of the treaties Rockingham died +(July 1, 1782). The king chose Lord Shelburne, the head of +the Chatham section of the government, to be prime minister. +Fox and the followers of Rockingham refused to serve except +under the duke of Portland, a minister of their own selection, +and resigned office. The old constitutional struggle of the reign +was now to be fought out once more. Fox, too weak to obtain +a majority alone, coalesced with Lord North, and defeated +Shelburne in the House of Commons on the 27th of February +1783. On the 2nd of April the coalition took office, with Portland +as nominal prime minister, and Fox and North the secretaries +of state as its real heads.</p> + +<p>This attempt to impose upon him a ministry which he disliked +made the king very angry. But the new cabinet had a large +majority in the House of Commons, and the only chance of +resisting it lay in an appeal to the country against the House of +Commons. Such an appeal was not likely to be responded to +unless the ministers discredited themselves with the nation. +<span class="correction" title="amended from Goerge">George</span> III. therefore waited his time. Though a coalition +between men bitterly opposed to one another in all political +principles and drawn together by nothing but love of office was +in itself discreditable, it needed some more positive cause of +dissatisfaction to arouse the constituencies, which were by no +means so ready to interfere in political disputes at that time as +they are now. Such dissatisfaction was given by the India Bill, +drawn up by Burke. As soon as it had passed through the Commons +the king hastened to procure its rejection in the House of +Lords by his personal intervention with the peers. He authorized +Lord Temple to declare in his name that he would count any +peer who voted for the bill as his enemy. On the 17th of +December 1783 the bill was thrown out. The next day ministers +were dismissed. William Pitt became prime minister. After +some weeks’ struggle with a constantly decreasing majority in +the Commons, the king dissolved parliament on the 25th of +March 1784. The country rallied round the crown and the +young minister, and Pitt was firmly established in office.</p> + +<p>There can be no reasonable doubt<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> that Pitt not only took +advantage of the king’s intervention in the Lords, but was +cognizant of the intrigue before it was actually carried out. It +was upon him, too, that the weight of reconciling the country +to an administration formed under such circumstances lay. +The general result, so far as George III. was concerned, was +that to all outward appearance he had won the great battle of +his life. It was he who was to appoint the prime minister, not +any clique resting on a parliamentary support. But the circumstances +under which the victory was won were such as to place +the constitution in a position very different from that in which +it would have been if the victory had been gained earlier in the +reign. Intrigue there was indeed in 1783 and 1784 as there had +been twenty years before. Parliamentary support was conciliated +by Pitt by the grant of royal favours as it had been in +the days of Bute. The actual blow was struck by a most questionable +message to individual peers. But the main result of the +whole political situation was that George III. had gone a long +way towards disentangling the reality of parliamentary government +from its accidents. His ministry finally stood because +it had appealed to the constituencies against their representatives. +Since then it has properly become a constitutional axiom that +no such appeal should be made by the crown itself. But it +may reasonably be doubted whether any one but the king +was at that time capable of making the appeal. Lord Shelburne, +the leader of the ministry expelled by the coalition, was unpopular +in the country, and the younger Pitt had not had time to make +his great abilities known beyond a limited circle. The real +question for the constitutional historian to settle is not whether +under ordinary circumstances a king is the proper person to +place himself really as well as nominally at the head of the +government; but whether under the special circumstances +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +which existed in 1783 it was not better that the king should +call upon the people to support him, than that government +should be left in the hands of men who rested their power on +close boroughs and the dispensation of patronage, without +looking beyond the walls of the House of Commons for support.</p> + +<p>That the king gained credit far beyond his own deserts by the +glories of Pitt’s ministry is beyond a doubt. Nor can there be +any reasonable doubt that his own example of domestic propriety +did much to strengthen the position of his minister. It is true +that that life was insufferably dull. No gleams of literary or +artistic taste lightened it up. The dependants of the court +became inured to dull routine unchequered by loving sympathy. +The sons of the household were driven by the sheer weariness of +such an existence into the coarsest profligacy. But all this was +not visible from a distance. The tide of moral and religious +improvement which had set in in England since the days of +Wesley brought popularity to a king who was faithful to his +wife, in the same way that the tide of manufacturing industry +and scientific progress brought popularity to the minister who +in some measure translated into practice the principles of the +<i>Wealth of Nations</i>.</p> + +<p>Nor were there wanting subjects of importance beyond the +circle of politics in which George III. showed a lively interest. +The voyages of discovery which made known so large a part of +the islands and coasts of the Pacific Ocean received from him +a warm support. In the early days of the Royal Academy, +its finances were strengthened by liberal grants from the privy +purse. His favourite pursuit, however, was farming. When +Arthur Young was issuing his <i>Annals of Agriculture</i>, he was +supplied with information by the king, under the assumed name +of Mr Ralph Robinson, relating to a farm at Petersham.</p> + +<p>The life of the king was suddenly clouded over. Early in his +reign, in 1765, he had been out of health, and—though the fact +was studiously concealed at the time—symptoms of mental +aberration were even then to be perceived. In October 1788 he +was again out of health, and in the beginning of the following +month his insanity was beyond a doubt. Whilst Pitt and Fox +were contending in the House of Commons over the terms on +which the regency should be committed to the prince of Wales, +the king was a helpless victim to the ignorance of physicians and +the brutalities of his servants. At last Dr Willis, who had made +himself a name by prescribing gentleness instead of rigour in +the treatment of the insane, was called in. Under his more +humane management the king rapidly recovered. Before the +end of February 1789 he was able to write to Pitt thanking him +for his warm support of his interests during his illness. On the +23rd of April he went in person to St Paul’s to return thanks +for his recovery.</p> + +<p>The popular enthusiasm which burst forth around St Paul’s +was but a foretaste of a popularity far more universal. The +French Revolution frightened the great Whig landowners till +they made their peace with the king. Those who thought that +the true basis of government was aristocratical were now of one +mind with those who thought that the true basis of government +was monarchical; and these two classes were joined by a far +larger multitude which had no political ideas whatever, but which +had a moral horror of the guillotine. As Elizabeth had once +been the symbol of resistance to Spain, George was now the +symbol of resistance to France. He was not, however, more +than the symbol. He allowed Pitt to levy taxes and incur debt, +to launch armies to defeat, and to prosecute the English imitators +of French revolutionary courses. At last, however, after the +Union with Ireland was accomplished, he learned that Pitt was +planning a scheme to relieve the Catholics from the disabilities +under which they laboured. The plan was revealed to him by +the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, a selfish and intriguing +politician who had served all parties in turn, and who sought to +forward his own interests by falling in with the king’s prejudices. +George III. at once took up the position from which he never +swerved. He declared that to grant concessions to the Catholics +involved a breach of his coronation oath. No one has ever +doubted that the king was absolutely convinced of the serious +nature of the objection. Nor can there be any doubt that he +had the English people behind him. Both in his peace ministry +and in his war ministry Pitt had taken his stand on royal favour +and on popular support. Both failed him alike now, and he +resigned office at once. The shock to the king’s mind was so +great that it brought on a fresh attack of insanity. This time, +however, the recovery was rapid. On the 14th of March 1801 +Pitt’s resignation was formally accepted, and the late speaker, +Mr Addington, was installed in office as prime minister.</p> + +<p>The king was well pleased with the change. He was never +capable of appreciating high merit in any one; and he was +unable to perceive that the question on which Pitt had resigned +was more than an improper question, with which he ought never +to have meddled. “Tell him,” he said, in directing his physician +to inform Pitt of his restoration to health, “I am now quite well, +quite recovered from my illness; but what has he not to answer +for, who has been the cause of my having been ill at all?” +Addington was a minister after his own mind. Thoroughly +honest and respectable, with about the same share of abilities +as was possessed by the king himself, he was certainly not likely +to startle the world by any flights of genius. But for one circumstance +Addington’s ministry would have lasted long. So strong +was the reaction against the Revolution that the bulk of the nation +was almost as suspicious of genius as the king himself. Not only +was there no outcry for legislative reforms, but the very idea of +reform was unpopular. The country gentlemen were predominant +in parliament, and the country gentlemen as a body looked upon +Addington with respect and affection. Such a minister was therefore +admirably suited to preside over affairs at home in the existing +state of opinion. But those who were content with inaction at +home would not be content with inaction abroad. In time of +peace Addington would have been popular for a season. In +time of war even his warmest admirers could not say that he +was the man to direct armies in the most terrible struggle which +had ever been conducted by an English government.</p> + +<p>For the moment this difficulty was not felt. On the 1st of +October 1801, preliminaries of peace were signed between +England and France, to be converted into the definitive peace +of Amiens on the 27th of March 1802. The ruler of France was +now Napoleon Bonaparte, and few persons in England believed +that he had any real purpose of bringing his aggressive violence +to an end. “Do you know what I call this peace?” said the +king; “an experimental peace, for it is nothing else. But it +was unavoidable.”</p> + +<p>The king was right. On the 18th of May 1803 the declaration +of war was laid before parliament. The war was accepted by +all classes as inevitable, and the French preparations for an +invasion of England roused the whole nation to a glow of +enthusiasm only equalled by that felt when the Armada +threatened its shores. On the 26th of October the king reviewed +the London volunteers in Hyde Park. He found himself the +centre of a great national movement with which he heartily +sympathized, and which heartily sympathized with him.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of February 1804 the king’s mind was again +affected. When he recovered, he found himself in the midst +of a ministerial crisis. Public feeling allowed but one opinion +to prevail in the country—that Pitt, not Addington, was the +proper man to conduct the administration in time of war. Pitt +was anxious to form an administration on a broad basis, including +Fox and all prominent leaders of both parties. The king would +not hear of the admission of Fox. His dislike of him was personal +as well as political, as he knew that Fox had had a great share +in drawing the prince of Wales into a life of profligacy. Pitt +accepted the king’s terms, and formed an administration in +which he was the only man of real ability. Eminent men, such +as Lord Grenville, refused to join a ministry from which the king +had excluded a great statesman on purely personal grounds.</p> + +<p>The whole question was reopened on Pitt’s death on the 23rd of +January 1806. This time the king gave way. The ministry of +All the Talents, as it was called, included Fox amongst its +members. At first the king was observed to appear depressed +at the necessity of surrender. But Fox’s charm of manner soon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +gained upon him. “Mr Fox,” said the king, “I little thought +that you and I should ever meet again in this place; but I have +no desire to look back upon old grievances, and you may rest +assured I never shall remind you of them.” On the 13th of +September Fox died, and it was not long before the king and the +ministry were openly in collision. The ministry proposed a +measure enabling all subjects of the crown to serve in the army +and navy in spite of religious disqualifications. The king objected +even to so slight a modification of the laws against the Catholics +and Dissenters, and the ministers consented to drop the bill. +The king asked more than this. He demanded a written and +positive engagement that this ministry would never, under any +circumstances, propose to him “any measure of concession to +the Catholics, or even connected with the question.” The +ministers very properly refused to bind themselves for the future. +They were consequently turned out of office, and a new ministry +was formed with the duke of Portland as first lord of the treasury +and Mr Perceval as its real leader. The spirit of the new ministry +was distinct hostility to the Catholic claims. On the 27th of April +1807 a dissolution of parliament was announced, and a majority +in favour of the king’s ministry was returned in the elections +which speedily followed.</p> + +<p>The elections of 1807, like the elections of 1784, gave the +king the mastery of the situation. In other respects they were +the counterpart of one another. In 1784 the country declared, +though perhaps without any clear conception of what it was +doing, for a wise and progressive policy. In 1807 it declared +for an unwise and retrogressive policy, with a very clear understanding +of what it meant. It is in his reliance upon the prejudices +and ignorance of the country that the constitutional significance +of the reign of George III. appears. Every strong government +derives its power from its representative character. At a time +when the House of Commons was less really representative than +at any other, a king was on the throne who represented the +country in its good and bad qualities alike, in its hatred of +revolutionary violence, its moral sturdiness, its contempt of +foreigners, and its defiance of all ideas which were in any way +strange. Therefore it was that his success was not permanently +injurious to the working of the constitution as the success of +Charles I. would have been. If he were followed by a king +less English than himself, the strength of representative +power would pass into other hands than those which held +the sceptre.</p> + +<p>The overthrow of the ministry of All the Talents was the last +political act of constitutional importance in which George III. +took part. The substitution of Perceval for Portland as the +nominal head of the ministry in 1809 was not an event of any +real significance, and in 1811 the reign practically came to an end. +The king’s reason finally broke down after the death of the +princess Amelia, his favourite child; and the prince of Wales +(see GEORGE IV.) became prince regent. The remaining nine +years of George III.’s life were passed in insanity and blindness, +and he died on the 29th of January 1820.</p> + +<p>His wife, Charlotte Sophia (1744-1818), was a daughter of +Charles Louis of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1816), and was married +to the king in London on the 8th of September 1761. After a +peaceful and happy married life the queen died at Kew on the +17th of November 1818.</p> + +<p>George III. had nine sons. After his successor came Frederick, +duke of York and Albany (1763-1827); William Henry, duke +of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. (1765-1837); Edward +Augustus, duke of Kent (1767-1825), father of Queen Victoria; +Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, afterwards king of +Hanover (1771-1851); Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex +(1773-1843); Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850); +Octavius (1779-1783); Alfred (1780-1782). He had +also six daughters—Charlotte Augusta (1766-1828), married in +1797 to Frederick, afterwards king of Württemberg; Augusta +Sophia (1768-1840); Elizabeth (1770-1840), married Frederick, +landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 1818; Mary (1776-1857), married +to William Frederick, duke of Gloucester, 1816; Sophia (1777-1848); +Amelia (1783-1810).</p> +<div class="author">(S. R. G.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The numerous contemporary memoirs and diaries are full of the +best material for a picture of George III.’s reign, apart from the +standard histories. Thackeray’s <i>Four Georges</i> must not be trusted +so far as historical judgment is concerned; Jesse’s <i>Memoirs of the +Life and Reign of George III.</i> (2nd ed., 1867) is chiefly concerned with +personalities. See also Beckles Willson, <i>George III., as Man, +Monarch and Statesman</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Lord Fitzmaurice’s <i>Life of Shelburne</i>, iii. 393.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE IV.<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> [George Augustus Frederick] (1762-1830), king +of Great Britain and Ireland, eldest son of George III., was born +at St James’s Palace, London, on the 12th of August 1762. He +was naturally gifted, was well taught in the classics, learnt to +speak French, Italian and German fluently, and had considerable +taste for music and the arts; and in person he was remarkably +handsome. His tutor, Bishop Richard Hurd, said of him when +fifteen years old that he would be “either the most polished +gentleman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe—possibly +both”; and the latter prediction was only too fully +justified. Reaction from the strict and parsimonious style of +his parents’ domestic life, which was quite out of touch with the +gaiety and extravagance of London “society,” had its natural +effect in plunging the young prince of Wales, flattered and +courted as he was, into a whirl of pleasure-seeking. At the outset +his disposition was brilliant and generous, but it was essentially +unstable, and he started even before he came of age on a career of +dissipation which in later years became wholly profligate. He +had an early amour with the actress Mary (“Perdita”) Robinson, +and in the choice of his friends he opposed and annoyed the king, +with whom he soon became (and always remained) on the worst +of terms, by associating himself with Fox and Sheridan and the +Whig party. When in 1783 he came of age, a compromise +between the coalition ministry and the king secured him an +income of £50,000 from the Civil List, and £60,000 was voted +by parliament to pay his debts and start his separate establishment +at Carlton House. There, under the auspices of C.J. Fox +and Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire, he posed as a patron of +Whig politics and a leader in all the licence and luxury of gay +society—the “First gentleman in Europe,” as his flatterers +described him as years went on. And at this early age he fell +seriously in love with the famous Mrs Fitzherbert.</p> + +<p>His long connexion with this lady may most conveniently +be summarized here. It was indeed for some time the one redeeming +and restraining factor in his life, though her devotion +and self-sacrificing conduct were in marked contrast with his +unscrupulousness and selfishness. Mary Anne (or as she always +called herself, Maria) Fitzherbert (1756-1837) was the daughter +of Walter Smythe, the second son of Sir John Smythe, Bart., +of Acton Burnell Park, Shropshire, and came of an old Roman +Catholic family. Educated at a French convent, she married +first in 1775 Edward Weld, who died within the year, and +secondly in 1778 Thomas Fitzherbert, who died in 1781, leaving +his widow with a comfortable fortune. A couple of years later +she became a prominent figure in London society, and her beauty +and charm at once attracted the young prince, who wooed her +with all the ardour of a violent passion. She herself was distracted +between her desire to return his love, her refusal to contemplate +becoming his mistress, and her knowledge that state reasons +made a regular marriage impossible. The Act of Settlement +(1689) entailed his forfeiture of the succession if he married a +Roman Catholic, apart from the fact that the Royal Marriage +Act of 1772 made any marriage illegal without the king’s consent, +which was out of the question. But after trying for a while +to escape his attentions, her scruples were overcome. In Mrs +Fitzherbert’s eyes the state law was, after all, not everything. +To a Roman Catholic, and equally to any member of the Christian +church, a formal marriage ceremony would be ecclesiastically +and sacramentally binding; and after a period of passionate +importunacy on his part they were secretly married by the Rev. +R. Burt, a clergyman of the Church of England, on the 15th +of December 1785.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> There is no doubt as to Mrs Fitzherbert’s +belief, supported by ecclesiastical considerations, in her correct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +and binding, though admittedly illegal, relationship to the prince +as his canonical wife; and though that relationship was not, and +for political reasons could not be, publicly admitted, it was in +fact treated by their intimates on the footing of a morganatic +marriage. The position nevertheless was inevitably a false one; +Mrs Fitzherbert had promised not to publish the evidence of the +marriage (which, according to a strict interpretation of the Act +of Settlement might have barred succession to the crown), and +the rumours which soon got about led the prince to allow it to be +disavowed by his political friends. He lived in the most extravagant +way, became heavily involved in debt, and as the king +would not assist him, shut up Carlton House, and went to live +with Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton. In 1787 a proposal was +brought before the House of Commons by Alderman Newnham +for a grant in relief of his embarrassments. It was on this +occasion that Fox publicly declared in the House of Commons, +as on the prince’s own authority, in answer to allusions to the +marriage, that the story was a malicious falsehood. A little +later Sheridan, in deference to Mrs Fitzherbert’s pressure and +to the prince’s own compunction, made a speech guardedly +modifying Fox’s statement; but though in private the denial was +understood, it effected its object, the House voting a grant of +£221,000 to the prince and the king adding £10,000 to his income; +and Mrs Fitzherbert, who at first thought of severing her +connexion with the prince, forgave him. Their union—there was +no child of the marriage—was brutally broken off in June 1794 +by the prince, when further pressure of debts (and the influence of +a new Egeria in Lady Jersey) made him contemplate his official +marriage with princess Caroline; in 1800, however, it was +renewed, after urgent pleading on the prince’s part, and after +Mrs Fitzherbert had obtained a formal decision from the pope +pronouncing her to be his wife, and sanctioning her taking him +back; her influence over him continued till shortly before the +prince became regent, when his relations with Lady Hertford +brought about a final separation. For the best years of his life +he had at least had in Mrs Fitzherbert the nearest approach to +a real wife, and this was fully recognized by the royal family.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +But his dissolute nature was entirely selfish, and his various +liaisons ended in the dominance of Lady Conyngham, the “Lady +Steward” of his household, from 1821 till his death.</p> + +<p>Notorious as the prince of Wales had become by 1788, it +was in that year that his father’s first attack of insanity made +his position in the state one of peculiar importance. Fox maintained +and Pitt denied that the prince of Wales, as the heir-apparent, +had a right to assume the regency independently +of any parliamentary vote. Pitt, with the support of both +Houses, proposed to confer upon him the regency with certain +restrictions. The recovery of the king in February 1789 put an +end, however, to the prince’s hopes. In 1794 the prince consented +to a marriage with a German Protestant princess, because +his father would not pay his debts on any other terms, and his +cousin, Princess Caroline of Brunswick, was brought over from +Germany and married to him in 1795. Her behaviour was +light and flippant, and he was brutal and unloving. The ill-assorted +pair soon parted, and soon after the birth of their +only child, the princess Charlotte, they were formally separated. +With great unwillingness the House of Commons voted fresh +sums of money to pay the prince’s debts.</p> + +<p>In 1811 he at last became prince regent in consequence of his +father’s definite insanity. No one doubted at that time that it +was in his power to change the ministry at his pleasure. He had +always lived in close connexion with the Whig opposition, and +he now empowered Lord Grenville to form a ministry. There +soon arose differences of opinion between them on the answer +to be returned to the address of the Houses, and the prince +regent then informed the prime minister, Mr Perceval, that he +should continue the existing ministry in office. The ground +alleged by him for this desertion of his friends was the fear lest +his father’s recovery might be rendered impossible if he should +come to hear of the advent of the opposition to power. Lord +Wellesley’s resignation in February 1812 made the reconstruction +of the ministry inevitable. As there was no longer any hope of +the king’s recovery, the former objection to a Whig administration +no longer existed. Instead of taking the course of inviting +the Whigs to take office, he asked them to join the existing +administration. The Whig leaders, however, refused to join, +on the ground that the question of the Catholic disabilities was +too important to be shelved, and that their difference of opinion +with Mr Perceval was too glaring to be ignored. The prince +regent was excessively angry, and continued Perceval in office +till that minister’s assassination on the 11th of May, when he +was succeeded by Lord Liverpool, after a negotiation in which +the proposition of entering the cabinet was again made to the +Whigs and rejected by them. In the military glories of the +following years the prince regent had no share. When the +allied sovereigns visited England in 1814, he played the part of +host to perfection. So great was his unpopularity at home that +hisses were heard in the streets as he accompanied his guests +into the city. The disgust which his profligate and luxurious +life caused amongst a people suffering from almost universal +distress after the conclusion of the war rapidly increased. In +1817 the windows of the prince regent’s carriage were broken +as he was on his way to open parliament.</p> + +<p>The death of George III. on the 29th of January 1820, gave to +his son the title of king without in any way altering the position +which he had now held for nine years. Indirectly, however, +this change brought out a manifestation of popular feeling such +as his father had never been subjected to even in the early days +of his reign, when mobs were burning jack-boots and petticoats. +The relations between the new king and his wife unavoidably +became the subject of public discussion. In 1806 a charge +against the princess of having given birth to an illegitimate +child had been conclusively disproved, and the old king had +consequently refused to withdraw her daughter, the princess +Charlotte, from her custody. When in the regency the prince +was able to interfere, and prohibited his wife from seeing her +daughter more than once a fortnight. On this, in 1813, the +princess addressed to her husband a letter setting forth her +complaints, and receiving no answer published it in the <i>Morning +Chronicle</i>. The prince regent then referred the letter, together +with all papers relating to the inquiry of 1806, to a body of +twenty-three privy councillors for an opinion whether it was fit +that the restrictions on the intercourse between the princess +Charlotte and her mother should continue in force. All except +two answered as the regent wished them to answer. But if the +official leaning was towards the husband, the leaning of the general +public was towards the wife of a man whose own life had not been +such as to justify him in complaining of her whom he had thrust +from him without a charge of any kind. Addresses of sympathy +were sent up to the princess from the city of London and +other public bodies. The discord again broke out in 1814 in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +consequence of the exclusion of the princess from court during the +visit of the allied sovereigns. In August in that year she left +England, and after a little time took up her abode in Italy. The +accession of George IV. brought matters to a crisis. He ordered +that no prayer for his wife as queen should be admitted into the +Prayer Book. She at once challenged the accusation which was +implied in this omission by returning to England. On the 7th of +June she arrived in London. Before she left the continent she +had been informed that proceedings would be taken against her +for adultery if she landed in England. Two years before, in 1818, +commissioners had been sent to Milan to investigate charges +against her, and their report, laid before the cabinet in 1819, +was made the basis of the prosecution. On the day on which +she arrived in London a message was laid before both Houses +recommending the criminating evidence to parliament. A +secret committee in the House of Lords after considering this +evidence brought in a report on which the prime minister founded +a Bill of Pains and Penalties to divorce the queen and to deprive +her of her royal title. The bill passed the three readings with +diminished majorities, and when on the third reading it obtained +only a majority of nine, it was abandoned by the Government. +The king’s unpopularity, great as it had been before, was now +greater than ever. Public opinion, without troubling itself +to ask whether the queen was guilty or not, was roused to +indignation by the spectacle of such a charge being brought by a +husband who had thrust away his wife to fight the battle of life +alone, without protection or support, and who, whilst surrounding +her with spies to detect, perhaps to invent, her acts of infidelity, +was himself notorious for his adulterous life. In the following +year (1821) she attempted to force her way into Westminster +Abbey to take her place at the coronation. On this occasion +the popular support failed her; and her death in August relieved +the king from further annoyance.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the death of the queen, the king set out for +Ireland. He remained there but a short time, and his effusive +declaration that rank, station, honours were nothing compared +with the exalted happiness of living in the hearts of his Irish +subjects gained him a momentary popularity which was beyond +his attainment in a country where he was better known. His +reception in Dublin encouraged him to attempt a visit to Edinburgh +in the following year (August 1822). Since Charles II. +had come to play the sorry part of a covenanting king in 1650 +no sovereign of the country had set foot on Scottish soil. Sir +Walter Scott took the leading part in organizing his reception. +The enthusiasm with which he was received equalled, if it did +not surpass, the enthusiasm with which he had been received in +Dublin. But the qualities which enabled him to fix the fleeting +sympathies of the moment were not such as would enable him +to exercise the influence in the government which had been +indubitably possessed by his father. He returned from Edinburgh +to face the question of the appointment of a secretary of +state which had been raised by the death of Lord Londonderry +(Castlereagh). It was upon the question of the appointment of +ministers that the battle between the Whigs and the king had +been fought in the reign of George III. George IV. had neither +the firmness nor the moral weight to hold the reins which his +father had grasped. He disliked Canning for having taken his +wife’s side very much as his father had disliked Fox for taking +his own. But Lord Liverpool insisted on Canning’s admission +to office, and the king gave way. Tacitly and without a struggle +the constitutional victory of the last reign was surrendered. +But it was not surrendered to the same foe as that from which +it had been won. The coalition ministry in 1784 rested on the +great landowners and the proprietors of rotten boroughs. Lord +Liverpool’s ministry had hitherto not been very enlightened, +and it supported itself to a great extent upon a narrow constituency. +But it did appeal to public opinion in a way that the +coalition did not, and what it wanted itself in popular support +would be supplied by its successors. What one king had gained +from a clique another gave up to the nation. Once more, on +Lord Liverpool’s death in 1827, the same question was tried +with the same result. The king not only disliked Canning +personally, but he was opposed to Canning’s policy. Yet after +some hesitation he accepted Canning as prime minister; and +when, after Canning’s death and the short ministry of Lord +Goderich, the king in 1828 authorized the duke of Wellington to +form a ministry, he was content to lay down the principle that the +members of it were not expected to be unanimous on the Catholic +question. When in 1829 the Wellington ministry unexpectedly +proposed to introduce a Bill to remove the disabilities of the +Catholics, he feebly strove against the proposal and quickly +withdrew his opposition. The worn-out debauchee had neither +the merit of acquiescing in the change nor the courage to +resist it.</p> + +<p>George IV. died on the 26th of June 1830, and was succeeded +by his brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV. His only +child by Queen Caroline, the princess Charlotte Augusta, was +married in 1816 to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of +the Belgians, and died in childbirth on the 6th of November +1817.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>George IV. was a bad king, and his reign did much to disgust the +country with the Georgian type of monarchy; but libertine and +profligate as he became, the abuse which has been lavished on his +personal character has hardly taken into sufficient consideration +the loose morals of contemporary society, the political position of +the Whig party, and his own ebullient temperament. Thackeray, +in his <i>Four Georges</i>, is frequently unfair in this respect. The just +condemnation of the moralist and satirist requires some qualification +in the light of the picture of the period handed down in the memoirs +and diaries of the time, such as Greville’s, Croker’s, Creevey’s, Lord +Holland’s, Lord Malmesbury’s, &c. Among later works see <i>The +First Gentleman of Europe</i>, by Lewis Melville (1906), a book for the +general reader.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. R. G.; H. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For a discussion of the ecclesiastical validity of the marriage +see W.H. Wilkins, <i>Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV.</i> (1905), chs. vi. +and vii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Mrs Fitzherbert herself, after her final separation from the prince, +with an annuity of £6000 a year, lived an honoured and more or less +retired life mainly at Brighton, a town which owed its rapid development +in fashionable popularity and material wealth to its selection +by the prince and herself as a residence from the earliest years of +their union; and there she died, seven years after the death of +George IV., in 1837. William IV. on his accession offered to create +her a duchess, but she declined; she accepted, however, his permission +to put her servants in royal livery. William IV. in fact did +all he could, short of a public acknowledgment (which the duke of +Wellington opposed on state grounds), to recognize her position +as his brother’s widow. Charles Greville, writing of her after her +death, says in his <i>Diary</i>, “She was not a clever woman, but of a very +noble spirit, disinterested, generous, honest and affectionate.” +The actual existence of a marriage tie and the documentary evidence +of her rights were not definitely established for many years; but in +1905 a sealed packet, deposited at Coutts’s bank in 1833, was at +length opened by royal permission, and the marriage certificate +and other conclusive proofs therein contained were published in +Mr W.H. Wilkins’s <i>Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV</i>. In 1796 the +prince had made a remarkable will in Mrs Fitzherbert’s favour, +which he gave her in 1799, and it is included among these documents +(now in the private archives at Windsor). In this he speaks of her +emphatically throughout as “my wife.” It also contained directions +that at his death a locket with her miniature, which he always wore, +should be interred with him; and Mrs Fitzherbert was privately +assured, on the duke of Wellington’s authority, that when the king +was buried at Windsor the miniature was on his breast.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE V.<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> [<span class="sc">George Frederick Ernest Albert</span>], king of +Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond +the Seas, emperor of India (1865-  ), second son of King +Edward VII., was born at Marlborough House, London, on the +3rd of June 1865. When four years old, he and his elder brother, +Prince Albert Victor, two years his senior, were placed under +the tutorship of John Neale Dalton, then curate of Sandringham. +In 1877 the two princes became naval cadets on the +“Britannia” at Spithead, where they passed through the +ordinary curriculum, and in 1879 they joined H.M.S. “Bacchante” +under the command of Captain Lord Charles Scott, +making a voyage to the West Indies, in the course of which +they were rated midshipmen. After a month at home in 1880 +they returned to the ship to make another prolonged cruise in +H.M.S. “Bacchante,” in the course of which they visited South +America, South Africa, Australia, the Fiji Islands, Japan, Ceylon, +Egypt, Palestine and Greece. A narrative of this voyage, +<i>The Cruise of H.M.S. “Bacchante</i>,” compiled from the letters, +diaries and notebooks of the princes, was published in 1886. +At the close of this tour in 1882 the brothers separated. Prince +George, who remained in the naval service, was appointed to +H.M.S. “Canada,” commanded by Captain Durrant, on the +North American and West Indian station, and was promoted +sub-lieutenant. On his return home he passed through the +Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the gunnery and torpedo +schools, being promoted lieutenant in 1885. A year later he +was appointed to H.M.S. “Thunderer” of the Mediterranean +squadron, and was subsequently transferred to H.M.S. “Dreadnaught” +and H.M.S. “Alexandra.” In 1889 he joined the +flagship of the Channel squadron, H.M.S. “Northumberland,” +and in that year was in command of torpedo boat No. 79 for +the naval manœuvres. In 1890 he was put in command of +the gunboat H.M.S. “Thrush” for service on the North American +and West Indian station. After his promotion as commander +in 1891 he commissioned H.M.S. “Melampus,” the command +of which he relinquished on the death of his brother, Albert +Victor, the duke of Clarence, in January 1892, since his duties +as eventual heir to the crown precluded him from devoting +himself exclusively to the navy. He was promoted captain +in 1893, rear-admiral in 1901, and vice-admiral in 1903. He +was created duke of York, earl of Inverness, and Baron Killarney +in 1892, and on the 6th of July 1893 he married Princess Victoria +Mary (b. 26th May 1867), daughter of Francis, duke of Teck, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +and Princess Mary Adelaide, duchess of Teck, daughter of +Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge. Their eldest son, +Prince Edward Albert, was born at White Lodge, Richmond, +on the 23rd of June 1894; Prince Albert Frederick George was +born at Sandringham on the 14th of December 1895; Princess +Victoria Alexandra on the 25th of April 1897; Prince Henry +William Frederick Albert on the 31st of March 1900; Prince +George Edward Alexander Edmund on the 20th of December +1902; and Prince John Charles Francis on the 12th of July 1905. +The duke and duchess of York visited Ireland in 1899, and +it had been arranged before the death of Queen Victoria that +they should make a tour in the colonies. On the accession of +King Edward VII. (1901) this plan was confirmed. They sailed +in the “Ophir” on the 16th of March 1901, travelling by the +ordinary route, and landed at Melbourne in May, when they +opened the first parliament of the Commonwealth. They then +proceeded to New Zealand, returning by way of South Africa +and Canada. An official account of the tour was published by +Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace as <i>The Web of Empire</i> (1902). In +November 1901 the duke was created prince of Wales. On the +death of Edward VII. (May 6, 1910) he succeeded to the Crown +as George V., his consort taking the style of Queen Mary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE V.<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, king of Hanover (1819-1878), was the only son +of Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover and duke of Cumberland, +and consequently a grandson of the English king George III. +Born in Berlin on the 27th of May 1819, his youth was passed +in England and in Berlin until 1837, when his father became +king of Hanover and he took up his residence in that country. +He lost the sight of one eye during a childish illness, and the +other by an accident in 1833. Being thus totally blind there +were doubts whether he was qualified to succeed to the government +of Hanover; but his father decided that he should do so, +as the law of the dissolved empire only excluded princes who +were born blind. This decision was a fatal one to the dynasty. +Both from his father and from his maternal uncle, Charles +Frederick, prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1785-1837), one of +the most influential men at the Prussian court, George had learned +to take a very high and autocratic view of royal authority. His +blindness prevented him from acquiring the shrewdness and +knowledge of the world which had assisted his father, and he +easily fell into the hands of unwise, and perhaps dishonest and +disloyal, advisers. A man of deep religious feeling, he formed +a fantastic conception of the place assigned to the house of Guelph +in the divine economy, and had ideas of founding a great Guelph +state in Europe. It is, therefore, not surprising that from the +time of his accession in November 1851 he was constantly +engaged in disputes with his <i>Landtag</i> or parliament, and was +consequently in a weak and perilous position when the crisis +in the affairs of Germany came in 1866. Having supported +Austria in the diet of the German confederation in June 1866, +he refused, contrary to the wishes of his parliament, to assent +to the Prussian demand that Hanover should observe an unarmed +neutrality during the war. As a result his country and his +capital were at once occupied by the Prussians, to whom his +army surrendered on the 29th of June 1866, and in the following +September Hanover was formally annexed by Prussia. From +his retreat at Hietzing near Vienna, George appealed in vain +to the powers of Europe; and supported by a large number of +his subjects, an agitation was carried on which for a time caused +some embarrassment to Prussia. All these efforts, however, +to bring about a restoration were unavailing, and the king passed +the remainder of his life at Gmünden in Austria, or in France, +refusing to the last to be reconciled with the Prussian government. +Whilst visiting Paris for medical advice he died in that city on +the 12th of June 1878, and was buried in St George’s chapel, +Windsor. In February 1843 he had married Marie, daughter +of Joseph, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, by whom he left a son and +two daughters. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland +(b. 1845), continued to maintain the claim of his house to the +kingdom of Hanover.</p> + +<p>By the capitulation of 1866 the king was allowed to retain +his personal property, which included money and securities +equal to nearly £1,500,000, which had been sent to England +before the Prussian invasion of Hanover. The crown jewels +had also been secretly conveyed to England. His valuable +plate, which had been hidden at Herrenhausen, was restored +to him in 1867; his palace at Herrenhausen, near Hanover, +was reserved as his property; and in 1867 the Prussian government +agreed to compensate him for the loss of his landed estates, +but owing to his continued hostility the payment of the interest +on this sum was suspended in the following year (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hanover</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. Klopp, <i>König Georg V.</i> (Hanover, 1878); O. Theodor, +<i>Erinnerungen an Georg V.</i> (Bremerhaven, 1878); and O. Meding, +<i>Memoiren zur Zeitgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1881-1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE I.<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, king of the Hellenes (1845-  ), second son of +King Christian IX. of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on +the 24th of December 1845. After the expulsion of King Otho +in 1862, the Greek nation, by a plebiscite, elected the British +prince, Alfred, duke of Edinburgh (subsequently duke of Coburg), +to the vacant throne, and on his refusal the national assembly +requested Great Britain to nominate a candidate. The choice +of the British government fell on Prince Christian William +Ferdinand Adolphus George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, +whose election as king of the Hellenes, with the +title George I., was recognized by the powers (6th of June 1863). +The sister of the new sovereign, Princess Alexandra, had a few +months before (10th March) married the prince of Wales, afterwards +King Edward VII., and his father succeeded to the crown +of Denmark in the following November. Another sister, Princess +Dagmar, subsequently married the grand duke Alexander +Alexandrovitch, afterwards Emperor Alexander III. of Russia. +On his accession, King George signed an act resigning his right +of succession to the Danish throne in favour of his younger +brother Prince Waldemar. He was received with much enthusiasm +by the Greeks. Adopting the motto, “My strength is the love +of my people,” he ruled in strict accordance with constitutional +principles, though not hesitating to make the fullest use of the +royal prerogative when the intervention of the crown seemed to +be required by circumstances. For the events of his reign see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> + +<p>King George married, on the 27th of October 1867, the grand +duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia, who became distinguished +in Greece for her activity on behalf of charitable objects. Their +children were Prince Constantine, duke of Sparta (b. 1868), who +married in 1889 Princess Sophia of Prussia, daughter of the +emperor Frederick, and granddaughter of Queen Victoria; +Prince George (b. 1869), from November 1898 to October 1906 +high commissioner of the powers in Crete; Prince Nicholas +(b. 1872), who married in 1902 the grand duchess Helen-Vladimirovna +of Russia; Prince Andrew (b. 1882), who married in +1903 Princess Alice of Battenberg; Prince Christopher (b. 1888); +and a daughter, Princess Marie (b. 1876), who married in 1900 +the grand duke George Michailovich of Russia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> king of Saxony (1832-1904), the youngest son of +King John of Saxony (d. 1873) and Queen Amelia, was born at +Dresden on the 8th of August 1832. From an early age he +received a careful scientific and military training, and in 1846 +entered the active army as a lieutenant of artillery. In 1849-1850 +he was a student at the university of Bonn, but soon returned +to military life, for which he had a predilection. In the Austro-Prussian +War of 1866 he commanded a Saxon cavalry brigade, +and in the early part of the war of 1870-71 a division, but +later succeeded to the supreme command of the XII. (Saxon) +army corps in the room of his brother, the crown prince Albert +(afterwards king) of Saxony. His name is inseparably associated +with this campaign, during which he showed undoubted military +ability and an intrepidity which communicated itself to all +ranks under his command, notably at the battles of St Privat +and Beaumont, in which he greatly distinguished himself. On +his brother succeeding to the throne he became commander-in-chief +of the Saxon army, and was in 1888 made a Prussian +field marshal by the emperor William I. He married in 1859 +the infanta Maria, sister of King Louis of Portugal, and King +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +Albert’s marriage being childless, succeeded on his death in 1902 +to the throne of Saxony. He died on the 15th of October 1904, +at Pillnitz.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE OF LAODICEA<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in Syria, often called “the Cappadocian,” +from 356 to 361 Arian archbishop of Alexandria, was +born about the beginning of the 4th century. According to +Ammianus (xxii. 11), he was a native of Epiphania, in Cilicia. +Gregory Nazianzen tells us that his father was a fuller, and that +he himself soon became notorious as a parasite of so mean a +type that he would “sell himself for a cake.” After many +wanderings, in the course of which he seems to have amassed +a considerable fortune, first as an army-contractor and then as +a receiver of taxes, he ultimately reached Alexandria. It is not +known how or when he obtained ecclesiastical orders; but, +after Athanasius had been banished in 356, George was promoted +by the influence of the then prevalent Arian faction to the +vacant see. His theological attitude was that known as semi-Arian +or Homoiousian, and his associates were Eustathius of +Sebaste and Basil of Ancyra. At George’s instigation the +second Sirmian formula (promulgated by the third council of +Sirmium 357), which was conciliatory towards strict Arianism, +was opposed at the council of Ancyra in 358 (Harnack, <i>Hist. +of Dogma</i>, iv. 76). His persecutions and oppressions of the +orthodox ultimately raised a rebellion which compelled him to +flee for his life; but his authority was restored, although with +difficulty, by a military demonstration. Untaught by experience, +he resumed his course of selfish tyranny over Christians and +heathen alike, and raised the irritation of the populace to such +a pitch that when, on the accession of Julian, his downfall was +proclaimed and he was committed to prison, they dragged him +thence and killed him, finally casting his body into the sea +(24th of December 361). With much that was sordid and +brutal in his character George combined a highly cultivated +literary taste, and in the course of his chequered career he had +found the means of collecting a splendid library, which Julian +ordered to be conveyed to Antioch for his own use. An anonymous +work against the Manicheans discovered by Lagarde in +1859 in a MS. of Titus of Bostra has been attributed to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original sources for the facts of the life of George of Laodicea +are Ammianus, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius and Athanasius. +His character has been drawn with graphic fidelity by Gibbon in +the 23rd chapter of the <i>Decline and Fall</i>; but the theory, accepted +by Gibbon, which identifies him with the patron saint of England is +now rejected (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">George, Saint</a></span>). See C.S. Hulst, <i>St George of +Cappadocia in Legend and History</i> (1910).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE OF TREBIZOND<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1395-1484), Greek philosopher +and scholar, one of the pioneers of the revival of letters in the +Western world, was born in the island of Crete, and derived +his surname Trapezuntios from the fact that his ancestors were +from Trebizond. At what period he came to Italy is not certain; +according to some accounts he was summoned to Venice about +1430 to act as amanuensis to Francesco Barbaro, who appears +to have already made his acquaintance; according to others he +did not visit Italy till the time of the council of Florence (1438-1439). +He learned Latin from Vittorino da Feltre, and made +such rapid progress that in three years he was able to teach +Latin literature and rhetoric. His reputation as a teacher and +a translator of Aristotle was very great, and he was selected as +secretary by Pope Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. The +needless bitterness of his attacks upon Plato (in the <i>Comparatio +Aristotelis et Platonis</i>), which drew forth a powerful response +from Bessarion (<i>q.v.</i>), and the manifestly hurried and inaccurate +character of his translations of Plato, Aristotle and other classical +authors, combined to ruin his fame as a scholar, and to endanger +his position as a teacher of philosophy. The indignation against +him on account of his first-named work was so great that he +would probably have been compelled to leave Italy had not +Alphonso V. given him protection at the court of Naples. He +subsequently returned to Rome, where he died in great poverty +on the 12th of August 1484. He had long outlived his +reputation, and towards the end of his life his intellect failed him. +From all accounts he was a man of very disagreeable character, +conceited and quarrelsome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums</i> (1893), +and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>. +For a complete list of his numerous works, consisting of +translations from Greek into Latin (Plato, Aristotle and the Fathers) +and original essays in Greek (chiefly theological) and Latin (grammatical +and rhetorical), see Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (ed. +Harles), xii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE THE MONK<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Georgios Monachos</span>], called Hamartolos +(Greek for “sinner”), Byzantine chronicler, lived during +the reign of Michael III. (842-867). He wrote a <i>Chronicle</i> of +events, in four books, from the creation of the world to the death +of the emperor Theophilus (842), whose widow Theodora restored +the worship of images in the same year. It is the only original +contemporary authority for the years 813-842, and therefore +so far indispensable; the early parts of the work are merely a +compilation. In the introduction the author disclaims all pretensions +to literary style, and declares that his only object was +to relate such things as were “useful and necessary” with a +strict adherence to truth. Far too much attention, however, +is devoted to religious matters; the iconoclasts are fiercely +attacked, and the whole is interlarded with theological discussions +and quotations from the fathers. The work was very popular, +and translations of it served as models for Slavonic writers. +The MSS. give a continuation down to 948, the author of which +is indicated simply as “the logothete,” by whom probably +Symeon Metaphrastes (second half of the 10th century) is meant. +In this religious questions are relegated to the background, +more attention is devoted to political history, and the language +is more popular. Still further continuations of little value go +down to 1143. The large circulation of the work and its subsequent +reissues, with alterations and interpolations, make it +very difficult to arrive at the original text.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>: E. de Muralt (St Petersburg, 1859); J.P. Migne, +<i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, cx.; C. de Boor (in Teubner series, 1904-  ). +See F. Hirsch, <i>Byzantinische Studien</i> (1876); C. de Boor in <i>Historische +Untersuchungen</i> (in honour of Arnold Schäfer, Bonn, 1882); +C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Georgios Synkellos</span>], of +Constantinople, Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived +at the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +He was the <i>syncellus</i> (cell-mate, the confidential <span class="correction" title="amended from campanion">companion</span> +assigned to the patriarchs, sometimes little more than a spy; +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syncellus</a></span>) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, patriarch +of Constantinople (784-806), after whose death he retired to a +convent, and wrote his <i>Chronicle</i> of events from Adam to Diocletian +(285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubtless +intended to bring down to his own times, was continued after +his death by his friend Theophanes Confessor. The <i>Chronicle</i>, +which, as its title implies, is rather a chronological table (with +notes) than a history, is written with special reference to pre-Christian +times and the introduction of Christianity, and exhibits +the author as a staunch upholder of orthodoxy. But in spite of +its religious bias and dry and uninteresting character, the fragments +of ancient writers and apocryphal books preserved in it +render it specially valuable. For instance, considerable portions +of the original text of the <i>Chronicle</i> of Eusebius have been +restored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were +Annianus of Alexandria (5th century) and Panodorus, an +Egyptian monk, who wrote about the year 400 and drew largely +from Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius Africanus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps, by J. Goar (1652); in Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum +hist. Byz.</i>, by W. Dindorf (1829). See also H. Gelzer, <i>Sextus Julius +Africanus</i>, ii. 1 (1885); C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen +Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE, HENRY<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1839-1897), American author and political +economist, was born in Philadelphia, Penn., on the 2nd of September +1839. He settled in California in 1858; removed to +New York, 1880; was first a printer, then an editor, but finally +devoted all his life to economic and social questions. In 1871 +he published <i>Our Land Policy</i>, which, as further developed in +1879 under the title of <i>Progress and Poverty</i>, speedily attracted +the widest attention both in America and in Europe. In 1886 +he published <i>Protection or Free Trade</i>. Henry George had no +political ambition, but in 1886 he received an independent +nomination as mayor of New York City, and became so popular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +that it required a coalition of the two strongest political parties +to prevent his election. He received 68,000 votes, against +90,000 for the coalition candidate. His death on the 29th of +October 1897 was followed by one of the greatest demonstrations +of popular feeling and general respect that ever attended the +funeral of any strictly private citizen in American history. +The fundamental doctrine of Henry George, the equal right of +all men to the use of the earth, did not originate with him; but +his clear statement of a method by which it could be enforced, +without increasing state machinery, and indeed with a great +simplification of government, gave it a new form. This method +he named the <i>Single Tax</i>. His doctrine may be condensed as +follows: The land of every country belongs of right to all the +people of that country. This right cannot be alienated by one +generation, so as to affect the title of the next, any more than +men can sell their yet unborn children for slaves. Private +ownership of land has no more foundation in morality or reason +than private ownership of air or sunlight. But the private +occupancy and use of land are right and indispensable. Any +attempt to divide land into equal shares is impossible and undesirable. +Land should be, and practically is now, divided for +private use in parcels among those who will pay the highest price +for the use of each parcel. This price is now paid to some persons +annually, and it is called <i>rent</i>. By applying the rent of land, +exclusive of all improvements, to the equal benefit of the whole +community, absolute justice would be done to all. As rent is +always more than sufficient to defray all necessary expenses of +government, those expenses should be met by a tax upon rent +alone, to be brought about by the gradual abolition of all other +taxes. Landlords should be left in undisturbed possession and +nominal ownership of the land, with a sufficient margin over the +tax to induce them to collect their rents and pay the tax. They +would thus be transformed into mere land agents. Obviously +this would involve absolute free trade, since all taxes on imports, +manufactures, successions, documents, personal property, buildings +or improvements would disappear. Nothing made by man +would be taxed at all. The right of private property in all things +made by man would thus be absolute, for the owner of such +things could not be divested of his property, without full compensation, +even under the pretence of taxation. The idea of +concentrating all taxes upon ground-rent has found followers +in Great Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand. +In practical politics this doctrine is confined to the “Single Tax, +Limited,” which proposes to defray only the needful public +expenses from ground-rent, leaving the surplus, whatever it +may be, in the undisturbed possession of landowners.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal books by Henry George are: <i>Progress and Poverty</i> +(1879), <i>The Irish Land Question</i> (1881), <i>Social Problems</i> (1884), +<i>Protection or Free Trade</i> (1886), <i>The Condition of Labor</i> (1891), +<i>A Perplexed Philosopher</i> (1892), <i>Political Economy</i> (1898). His son, +Henry George (b. 1862), has written a <i>Life</i> (1900). For the Single +Tax theory see Shearman’s <i>Natural Taxation</i> (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. G. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE PISIDA<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Georgios Pisides</span>], Byzantine poet, born in +Pisidia, flourished during the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Nothing is known +of him except that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper +of the records) of the church of St Sophia. His earliest work, +in three cantos (<span class="grk" title="akroaseis">ἀκροάσεις</span>), on the campaign of the emperor +Heraclius against the Persians, seems to be the work of an eyewitness. +This was followed by the <i>Avarica</i>, an account of a +futile attack on Constantinople by the Avars (626), said to have +been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary; and by the <i>Heraclias</i>, +a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius both at home and +abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. George +Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, <i>Hexaëmeron</i> or +<i>Cosmourgia</i>, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the +vanity of life, after the manner of <i>Ecclesiastes</i>; a controversial +composition against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems +upon the resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred +crucifix stolen by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the +iambic. As a versifier Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a +chronicler of contemporary events he is exceedingly useful; +and later Byzantine writers enthusiastically compared him with, +and even preferred him to Euripides. Recent criticism, however, +characterizes his compositions as artificial and almost uniformly +dull.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Complete works in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, xcii.; see also +<i>De Georgii Pisidae apud Theophanem aliosque historicos reliquiis</i>. +(1900), by S.L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poems for +the first time from a Paris MS. in <i>Wiener Studien</i>, xiii., xiv. (1891-1892); +C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> +(1897); C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE, LAKE,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a lake in the E. part of New York, U.S.A., +among the S.E. foothills of the Adirondack Mountains. It +extends from N.N.E. to S.S.W. about 34 m., and varies in width +from 2 to 4 m. It has a maximum depth of about 400 ft., and is +323 ft. above the sea and 227 ft. above Lake Champlain, into +which it has an outlet to the northward through a narrow channel +and over falls and rapids. The lake is fed chiefly by mountain +brooks and submerged springs; its bed is for the most part +covered with a clean sand; its clear water is coloured with +beautiful tints of blue and green; and its surface is studded with +about 220 islands and islets, all except nineteen of which belong +to the state and constitute a part of its forest reserve. Near the +head of the lake is Prospect Mountain, rising 1736 ft. above the +sea, while several miles farther down the shores is Black Mountain, +2661 ft. in height. Lake George has become a favourite summer +resort. Lake steamers ply between the village of Lake George +(formerly Caldwell) at the southern end of the lake and Baldwin, +whence there is rail connexion with Lake Champlain steamers.</p> + +<p>Lake George was formed during the Glacial period by glacial +drift which clogged a pre-existing valley. According to Prof. J.F. +Kemp the valley occupied by Lake George was a low pass before +the Glacial period; a dam of glacial drift at the southern end +and of lacustrine clays at the northern end formed the lake which +has submerged the pass, leaving higher parts as islands. Before +the advent of the white man the lake was a part of the war-path +over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made their way +northward to attack the Algonquins and the Hurons, and during +the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy +in America, waterways being still the chief means of communication, +it was of great strategic importance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champlain</a></span>, <i>Lake</i>). +Father Isaac Jogues, René Goupil and Guillaume Couture +seem to have been the first white men to see the lake (on the 9th +of August 1642) as they were being taken by their Iroquois +captors from the St Lawrence to the towns of the Mohawks, +and in 1646 Father Jogues, having undertaken a half-religious, +half-political mission to the Mohawks, was again at the lake, +to which, in allusion to his having reached it on the eve of Corpus +Christi, he gave the name Lac Saint Sacrement. This name +it bore until the summer of 1755, when General William Johnson +renamed it Lake George in honour of King George II.</p> + +<p>General Johnson was at this time in command of a force of +colonists and Indians sent against the French at Crown Point on +Lake Champlain. The expedition, however, had proceeded +no farther than to the head of Lake George when Johnson was +informed that a force of French and Indians under Baron Ludwig +August Dieskau was pushing on from Crown Point to Fort +Lyman (later Fort Edward), 14 m. to the S. of their encampment. +Accordingly, on the morning of the 8th of September a detachment +of 1000 colonials under Colonel Ephraim Williams (1715-1755) +and 200 Indians under Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, was +sent to aid Fort Lyman, but when about 3 m. S. of the lake this +detachment fell into an ambuscade prepared for it by Dieskau +and both Williams and Hendrick were killed. The survivors +were pursued to their camp, and then followed on the same day +the main battle of Lake George, in which 1000 colonials fighting +at first behind a hastily prepared barricade defeated about 1400 +French and Indians. Both commanders were wounded; Dieskau +was captured; the French lost about 300; and the colonials +nearly the same (including those who fell earlier in the day). +Johnson now built on the lake shore, near the battlefield, a fort +of gravel and logs and called it Fort William Henry (the site was +occupied by the Fort William Henry Hotel till it was burned +in 1909). In the meantime the French entrenched themselves +at Ticonderoga at the foot of the lake. In March 1757 +Fort William Henry successfully withstood an attack of 1600 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +men sent out by the marquis de Vaudreuil, governor of Canada, +but on the 9th of August of the same year its garrison, after +being reduced to desperate straits, surrendered to the marquis de +Montcalm. By the terms of surrender the garrison was to be +allowed to march out with the honours of war and was to be +escorted to Fort Edward, but the guard provided by Montcalm +was inadequate to protect them from his Indian allies and on the +day following the surrender many were massacred or taken +prisoners. The fort was razed to the ground. In 1758 General +James Abercrombie proceeded by way of Lake George against +Fort Ticonderoga, and in 1759 Baron Jeffrey Amherst, while on +his way to co-operate with General James Wolfe against Quebec, +built near the site of Fort William Henry one bastion of a fort +since known as Fort George, the ruins of which still remain.</p> + +<p>A monument commemorative of the battle of Lake George +was unveiled on the 8th of September 1903, on the site of the +battle, and within the state reservation of 35 acres known as +Fort George Battle Park. Horicon is a name that was given +to the lake by James Fenimore Cooper. The Indian name of +the lake was Andia-ta-roc-te.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francis Parkman, <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i> (Boston, 1884); and +E.E. Seelye, <i>Lake George in History</i> (Lake George, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> an American industrial +institution, situated near the small village of Freeville, in Tompkins +county, New York, U.S.A., 9 m. E.N.E. of Ithaca, at the +junction of the Sayre-Auburn and the Elmira-Cortland branches +of the Lehigh Valley railway. The George Junior Republic +forms a miniature state whose economic, civic and social conditions, +as nearly as possible, reproduce those of the United States, +and whose citizenship is vested in young people, especially those +who are neglected or wayward, who are thus taught self-reliance, +self-control and morality. The founder, William Reuben George +(b. 1866), was a native of West Dryden, a village near Freeville, +who as a business man in New York City became interested in +the Fresh Air Fund charity supervised by the New York <i>Tribune</i>, +took charge of summer outings for city children (1890-1894), +and, becoming convinced that such charities tended to promote +pauperism and crime among the older of their protégés, devised +first (1894) the plan of requiring payment by the children in +labour for all they received during these summer jaunts, then +(1895) self-government for a summer colony near Freeville, +and finally a permanent colony, in which the children stay for +several years. The Republic was founded on the 10th of July +1895; the only check on the powers of executive, representative +and judicial branches of the government lies in the veto of the +superintendent. “Nothing without labour” is the motto of +the community, so strictly carried out that a girl or boy in the +Republic who has not money<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to pay for a night’s lodging must +sleep in jail and work the next day for the use of the cell. The +legislative body, originally a House of Representatives and a +Senate, in 1899 became more like the New England town meeting. +The respect for the law that follows its enactment by the citizens +themselves is remarkable in a class so largely of criminal tendencies; +and it is particularly noticeable that positions on the +police force are eagerly coveted. Fifteen is the age of majority; +suffrage is universal, children under fifteen must be in charge of a +citizen guardian. The average age of citizens was seventeen in +1908. The proportion of girls to boys was originally small, but +gradually increased; in 1908 there were about 70 girls and 90 boys. +The tendency is to admit only those aged at least sixteen and +physically well equipped. In the Republic’s earlier years the +citizens lived in boarding-houses of different grades, but later in +family groups in cottages (there were in 1910 twelve cottages) +under the care of “house-mothers.” The labour of the place is +divided into sewing, laundry work, cooking and domestic service +for the girls, and furniture making, carpentry, farm work, baking +bread and wafers (the business of an Auburn biscuit factory was +bought in 1903), plumbing and printing for the boys. Masonry and +shoe and harness making were tried for a few years. There is +an efficient preparatory and high school, from which students +enter directly leading colleges. The religious influence is strong, +wholesome and unsectarian; students in Auburn Theological +Seminary have assisted in the religious work; Roman Catholic +and Hebrew services are also held; and attendance at church +services is compulsory only on convicts and prisoners.</p> + +<p>There are “Woman’s Aid” societies in New York City, +Ithaca, Syracuse, Buffalo, Boston and elsewhere, to promote +the work of the Republic. A “republic” for younger boys, +begun at Freeville, was established in Litchfield, Connecticut; +and a National Junior Republic near Annapolis Junction, +Maryland, and a Carter Junior Republic at Readington, near +Easton, Pennsylvania, are modelled on the George Junior +Republic. In 1908-1910 new “states” were established at +Chino, California, Grove City, Pennsylvania, and Flemington +Junction, New Jersey. In February 1908 the National Association +of Junior Republics was formed with Mr George (its founder) +as its director, its aims being to establish at least one “republic” +in each state of the Union, and in other countries similar institutions +for youth and miniature governments modelled on that of +the country in which each “state” is established, and to establish +colonies for younger children, to be sent at the age of fifteen +to the Junior Republic. At the time of its formation the National +Association included the “states” at Freeville, N.Y., Litchfield, +Conn., and Annapolis Junction, Md.; others joined the federation +later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William R. George, <i>The Junior Republic: its History and +Ideals</i> (New York, 1910); <i>The Junior Republic Citizen</i> (Freeville, +1895 sqq.), written and printed by “citizens”; <i>Nothing Without +Labor, George Junior Republic</i> (7th ed., Freeville, 1909), a manual; +J.R. Commons, “The Junior Republic,” in <i>The American Journal +of Sociology</i> (1898); D.F. Lincoln, “The George Junior Republic,” +in <i>The Coming Age</i> (1900); and Lyman Abbott, “A Republic +within a Republic,” in the <i>Outlook</i> for February 15, 1908.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The “government” issued its own currency in tin and later +in aluminium, and “American” money could not be passed within +the 48 acres of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the +Republic’s coinage out of use and “American” coin was made legal +tender.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGETOWN,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the capital of British Guiana (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guiana</a></span>), +and the seat of the colonial government, situated on the left +bank of the Demerara river at its mouth, in 6° 29′ 24″ N. and +58° 11′ 30″ W. It was known during the Dutch occupation +as Stabroek, and was established as the seat of government +of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with +Berbice forming the three counties of British Guiana) in 1784, +its name being changed to Georgetown in 1812. It is one of +the finest towns in this part of the world, the streets being wide +and straight, intersecting each other at right angles, several +having double roadways with lily-covered canals in the centre, +the grass banks on either side carrying rows of handsome shade +trees. In Main Street, the finest street in Georgetown, the canal +has been filled in to form a broad walk, an obvious precedent +for the treatment of the other canals, which (however beautiful) +are useless and merely act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes. +The principal residences, standing in their own gardens surrounded +by foliage and flowers, are scattered over the town, as are also +the slums, almost the worst of which abut on the best residential +quarters. Water Street, the business centre, runs parallel to +the river for about 2½ m. and contains the stores of the wholesale +and retail merchants, their wharves running out into the river +to allow steamers to come alongside. Most of the houses and +public buildings are constructed of wood, the former generally +raised on brick pillars some 4 ft. to 10 ft. from the ground, the +bright colouring of the wooden walls, jalousies and roofs adding +to the beauty of the best streets. The large structure known +as the Public Buildings in the centre of the city, containing +the offices of the executive government and the hall of the +court of policy, was erected between 1829 and 1834. It is a +handsome, <span class="f150" style="font-family: 'verdana';">E</span>-shaped, brick-plastered building of considerable +size, with deep porticos and marble-paved galleries carried on +cast-iron columns. The law courts, built in the ’eighties, have +a ground floor of concrete and iron, the upper storey being of +hardwood. Among other public buildings are the town hall, +the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several handsome +churches, the local banks and insurance offices, and the almshouse. +The public hospital consists of several large blocks. The Royal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +Agricultural and Commercial Society has a large reading-room +and lending library. The assembly rooms, above and owned +by the Georgetown club, has a good stage and is admirably +adapted to dramatic and musical entertainments. A museum +(free), belonging to the Royal Agricultural and Commercial +Society, is chiefly devoted to the fauna of British Guiana, but +also contains an instructive collection of local economic, mineralogical +and botanical exhibits, a miscellaneous collection of +foreign birds and mammals, and an interesting series of views +of the colony. The botanical gardens to the east of the city +are of considerable extent and admirably laid out. The nurseries +cover a large area and are devoted chiefly to the raising of plants +of economic importance which can be purchased at nominal +rates. The collections of ferns and orchids are very fine. In the +gardens are also located the fields of the board of agriculture, +where experimental work in the growth of sugar-cane, rice, +cotton and all tropical plants of economic importance is carried +on. Other popular resorts are the sea wall and the promenade +gardens in the centre of the city.</p> + +<p>The local government of Georgetown is vested in a mayor and +town council elected under a very restricted franchise. The +city is divided into fourteen wards each with one representative. +A councillor must possess, either personally or through his wife, +premises within the city of the appraised value of at least $1500. +A voter must either own house property of the appraised value +of $250 or occupy premises of an annual rental of $240. There +are indeed only 297 municipal voters in a population of nearly +50,000. The revenue, just over £50,000 annually, is mainly +derived from a direct rate on house property. The colonial +government pays rates on its property and also gives a grant-in-aid +towards the upkeep of the streets. The expenditure is +principally on sanitation, fire brigade, streets, water-supply, +street lighting and drainage. Street lighting is carried out under +contract by the Demerara Electric Company, which has a +monopoly of private lighting and works an excellent tram service. +Water for public and domestic purposes is taken from the conservancy +of the east coast and is delivered by pumping throughout +the city, but drinking-water is collected in tanks attached to +the dwellings from the rain falling on the roofs. The fire brigade +is a branch of the police force, half the cost being borne by the +rates and half by the general revenue. There is an excellent +service of telephones, a branch of the post office, and halfpenny +postage within the city boundaries. There are in Georgetown +two well-equipped foundries, a dry dock, and factories for the +manufacture of rice, cigars, soap, boots, chocolate, candles, +aerated waters and ice. Georgetown is connected by rail and +ferry with New Amsterdam, by ferry and rail with the west +coast of Demerara, and by steamer with all the country districts +along the coast and up the navigable reaches of the principal +rivers.</p> +<div class="author">(A. G. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGETOWN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> formerly a city of the District of Columbia, +U.S.A., and now part (sometimes called West Washington) +of the city of Washington, U.S.A., at the confluence of the +Potomac river and Rock Creek, and on the Chesapeake and Ohio +Canal, about 2½ m. W.N.W. of the National Capitol. Pop. +(1890) 14,046; (1900) 14,549. The streets are old-fashioned, +narrow and well shaded. On the “Heights” are many fine +residences with beautiful gardens; the Monastery and Academy +(for girls) of Visitation, founded in 1799 by Leonard Neale, +second archbishop of Baltimore; and the college and the +astronomical observatory (1842) of Georgetown University. +The university was founded as a Roman Catholic Academy in +1789, was opened in 1791, transferred to the Society of Jesus +in 1805, authorized in 1815 by Congress to confer college or +university degrees, and by the Holy See in 1833 to confer degrees +in philosophy and theology, incorporated as Georgetown College +by Act of Congress in 1844, and began graduate work about +1856. The college library includes the historical collection of +James Gilmary Shea. A school of medicine was opened in 1851, +a dental school in 1901 and a school of law in 1870. In 1909-1910 +the university had an enrolment of 859 students. Rising +in terraces from Rock Creek is Oak Hill Cemetery, a beautiful +burying-ground containing the graves of John Howard Payne, +the author of “Home, Sweet Home,” Edwin McMasters Stanton +and Joseph Henry. On the bank of the Potomac is a brick house +which was for several years the home of Francis Scott Key, author +of “The Star-Spangled Banner”; on Analostan Island in the +river was a home of James Murray Mason; Georgetown Heights +was the home of the popular novelist, Mrs Emma Dorothy +Eliza Nevitte Southworth (1819-1899). Before the advent of +railways Georgetown had an important commerce by way of the +Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, by which considerable coal as well +as some grain is still brought hither, and of which Georgetown +is now a terminus; the canal formerly crossed the Potomac +at this point on an aqueduct bridge (1446 ft. long), but in 1887 +the crossing was abandoned and the old bridge was purchased +by the United States government, which in 1889 constructed +a new steel bridge upon the old masonry piers. Chief among the +manufactories are several large flour mills—Georgetown flour +was long noted for its excellence. There is a very large fish-market +here. Georgetown was settled late in the 17th century, +was laid out as a town in 1751, chartered as a city in 1789, +merged in the District of Columbia in 1871, and annexed +to the city of Washington in 1878. In the early days of +Washington it was a social centre of some importance, where +many members of Congress as well as some cabinet officers +and representatives of foreign countries lived and the President +gave state dinners; and here were the studio, for two years, of +Gilbert Stuart, and “Kalorama,” the residence of Joel Barlow.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGETOWN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Scott county, +Kentucky, U.S.A., about 11 miles N. of Lexington. Pop. +(1900) 3823 (1677 negroes); (1910) 4533. Georgetown is served +by the Cincinnati Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the +Frankfort & Cincinnati, and the Southern railways, and is +connected with Lexington by an electric line. It is the seat +of Georgetown College (Baptist, co-educational), chartered in +1829 as the successor of Rittenhouse Academy, which was founded +in 1798. Georgetown is situated in the Blue Grass region of +Kentucky, and the surrounding country is devoted to agriculture +and stock-raising. One of the largest independent oil refineries +in the country (that of the Indian Refining Co.) is in Georgetown, +and among manufactures are bricks, flour, ice, bagging and hemp. +The remarkable “Royal Spring,” which rises near the centre +of the city, furnishes about 200,000 gallons of water an hour +for the city’s water supply, and for power for the street railway +and for various industries. The first settlement was made in +1775, and was named McClellan’s, that name being changed to +Lebanon a few years afterwards. In 1790 the place was incorporated +as a town under its present name (adopted in honour +of George Washington), and Georgetown was chartered as a city +of the fourth class in 1894. Bacon College, which developed into +Kentucky (now Transylvania) University (see Lexington, Ky.), +was established here by the Disciples of Christ in 1836, but in +1839 was removed to Harrodsburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGETOWN,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a city, a port of entry and the county-seat +of Georgetown county, South Carolina, U.S.A., at the head of +Winyah Bay, and at the mouth of the Pedee river, about 15 m. +from the Atlantic Ocean, and about 55 m. N.E. of Charleston. +Pop. (1890) 2895; (1900) 4138 (2718 negroes); (1910) 5530. +Georgetown is served by the Georgetown & Western railway, +has steamship communication with Charleston, Wilmington, +New York City and other Atlantic ports, and, by the Pedee +river and its tributaries (about 1000 m. of navigable streams), +has trade connexions with a large area of South Carolina and part +of North Carolina. The principal public buildings are the post +office and custom house. Among the city’s manufactures are +lumber, foundry and machine-shop products, naval stores and +oars; and there are shad and sturgeon fisheries. The growing +of cotton and truck-gardening are important industries in the +neighbouring region, and there is considerable trade in such +products. The first settlement here was made about 1700; +and the town was laid out a short time before 1734. The Winyah +Indigo Society grew out of a social club organized about 1740, +and was founded in 1757 by a group of planters interested in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +raising indigo; It long conducted a school (discontinued during +the Civil War) which eventually became part of the city’s public +school system. In 1780 Georgetown was occupied by a body +of Loyalist troops, with whom the American troops had several +skirmishes, but on the 10th of August 1781 General Francis +Marion forced the evacuation of the town and took possession +of it. A few days later, an American named Manson, who had +joined the British forces, attacked the town from an armed +vessel, and burned about forty houses, the small body of militia +being unable to make an effective resistance. General Lafayette +first landed on American soil at Georgetown on the 24th of April +1777. Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1805, and was +chartered as a city in 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGETOWN,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Williamson +county, Texas, U.S.A., on the San Gabriel river, about 25 m. N. +by E. of Austin. Pop. (1890) 2447; (1900) 2790 (608 negroes); +(1910) 3096. The city is served by the International +& Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. +Georgetown is the seat of the Southwestern University +(Methodist Episcopal, South, co-educational), formed in 1873 +(chartered 1875) by the combination of Ruterville College +(Methodist Episcopal, at Ruterville, Texas, chartered in 1840, +and closed in 1850), McKenzie College (at Clarksville, Texas, +founded in 1841 and closed in 1872), Wesleyan College at San +Augustine (chartered in 1844, burned a few years later, and not +rebuilt), and Soule University at Chapel Hill (chartered in 1856, +but closed in 1870). The university includes a fitting school +at Georgetown, and a medical department at Dallas, Texas; +in 1909 it had an enrolment of 1037 students. The principal +manufactures of Georgetown are cotton and cotton-seed oil, +and planing-mill products. In Page Park are mineral springs, +whose waters have medicinal qualities similar to the famous +Karlsbad waters. The first settlement was made here in 1848; +and Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1866, and was +chartered as a city in 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGIA,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a southern state of the United States of America, +one of the thirteen original states, situated between 30° 31′ 39″ +and 35° N., and between 81° and 85° 53′ 38″ W. It is bounded +N. by Tennessee and North Carolina, E. by South Carolina and +the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Florida, and W. by Alabama. The +total area of the state is 59,265 sq. m., of which 540 sq. m. are +water surface.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The surface of Georgia is divided into five physiographic zones. +From the sea coast, which is skirted by fertile, semi-tropical islands, +a plain of 35,000 sq. m., known as South Georgia, extends northward +to the “fall-line” passing from Augusta, through Milledgeville +and Macon, to Columbus. This is a part of the great Atlantic +Coastal Plain. For 20 m. from the coast its elevation is 10 ft., +then it rises abruptly 70 ft. higher, and 20 m. farther N. another +elevation begins, which reaches 575 ft. at Milledgeville, the average +elevation of the entire region being 250 ft. North of the line mentioned, +and collectively known as North Georgia, are the four other +regions, each with well-defined characteristics. The largest and +southernmost, a broad belt extending from the “fall-line” to a +line passing through Clarkesville, Habersham county, Cartersville, +Bartow county and Buchanan, Haralson county (approximately), +is known as the Piedmont Belt or Plateau, being a region of faint +relief eroded on highly complicated crystalline rocks. The Blue +Ridge escarpment, a striking topographic feature in Virginia and +the Carolinas, extends into Georgia along the north-eastern border +of this belt, but is less strongly developed here than elsewhere, +dying out entirely towards the south-west. North of the Piedmont +Belt lie the Appalachian Mountains Region and the Great Valley +Region, the former to the east, the latter to the west of a dividing +line from Cartersville northward. The former region consists of +detached mountain masses of crystalline rocks, not yet eroded +down to the level of the Piedmont Belt. In Towns county, in the +Appalachian Region, is the highest point in the state, Brasstown Bald, +also called Enota Mountain (4768 ft.). The Great Valley Region +consists of folded sedimentary rocks, extensive erosion having +removed the soft layers to form valleys, leaving the hard layers +as ridges, both layers running in a N.E.-S.W. direction. In the +extreme north-west corner of the state is a small part of the Cumberland +Plateau, represented by Lookout and Sand Mts.</p> + +<p>On the Blue Ridge escarpment near the N.E. corner of the state +is a water-parting separating the waters which find their way +respectively N.W. to the Tennessee river, S.W. to the Gulf of Mexico +and S.E. to the Atlantic Ocean; indeed, according to B.M. and +M.R. Hall (<i>Water Resources of Georgia</i>, p. 2), “there are three +springs in north-east Georgia within a stone’s throw of each other +that send out their waters to Savannah, Ga., to Apalachicola, Fla., +and to New Orleans, La.” The water-parting between the waters +flowing into the Atlantic and those flowing into the Gulf extends +from this point first S.E. for a few miles, then turns S.W. to Atlanta, +and from there extends S.S.E. to the Florida line. West of where +the escarpment dies out, the Great Valley Region and a considerable +portion of the Appalachian Mountains Region are drained by the +Coosa, the Tallapoosa and their tributaries, into Mobile Bay, but +the Cumberland Plateau, like that part of the Appalachian Mountains +Region which lies directly N. of the Blue Ridge escarpment, +constitutes a part of the Tennessee Basin. The principal rivers +of the state are the Chattahoochee and the Flint, which unite in +the S.W. corner to form the Apalachicola; the Ocmulgee (whose +western tributary, the Towaliga, falls 96 ft. in less than a quarter +of a mile), and the Oconee, which unite in the S.E. to form the +Altamaha; and the Savannah, which forms the boundary between +Georgia and South Carolina. All of these rise in the upper part of the +Piedmont Plateau, through which they pursue a rapid course over +rocky beds, and are navigable only south of the “fall-line,” at +which and north of which they furnish an abundance of water-power. +The upper Savannah river first flows S.W., then turns abruptly +S.E., while the Chattahoochee river rises near this point and continues +S.W. This is because the upper Savannah<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was formerly +part of the Chattahoochee, but was captured and turned S.E. by +headward growth of the Savannah. As a result of the capture +there is a deep gorge along the upper Savannah, especially along the +branch called the Tallulah river; and the upper Tallulah, in a series +of cascades, 2<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. long, falls 525 ft. from the former higher level +down to the main bed of the upper Savannah, at Tallulah Falls, a +summer resort.</p> + +<p>The fauna and flora have no distinctive features. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United +States</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Soils.</i>—The climate of Georgia, though temperate, +differs considerably in different parts of the state. All the nine +climate belts in the United States, except that of southern +Florida, are represented within its borders. The lowest mean +annual temperature, 40° F. and below, is that of some of the +mountain tops of northern Georgia; from the mountain-sides +to the Piedmont Plateau this mean temperature varies from +45° to 60°; on the Piedmont Plateau from 60° to 65°; and on the +Coastal Plain from 60° to 70°. The July isotherm of 80° crosses +the state a little N. of Augusta and Macon, touching the W. +boundary at West Point, Troup county. The mean July temperature +for the whole state is 81.8°; for the part S. of the 80° +isotherm the average temperature for July is between 80° and +85°. The average rainfall for the state is 49.3 in.; the maximum +is 71.7 in., at Rabun Gap in the extreme N.E. part of the state; +the minimum is 39.4 at Swainsboro, Emanuel county, a little S.E. +of the centre of the state.</p> + +<p>Georgia is also notable for the variety of its soils. In the +Cumberland Plateau and Great Valley Regions are a red or brown +loam, rich in decomposed limestone and calcareous shales, and +sandy or gravelly loams. In the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian +Mountains Regions the surface soil is generally sandy, but +in considerable areas the subsoil is a red clay derived largely +from the decomposition of hornblende. By far the greatest +variety of soils is found in the Coastal Plain Region. Here the +Central Cotton Belt, extending from the “fall-line” as far S. +as a line bisecting Early county in the W. and passing through +Baker, Worth, Dooly, Dodge, Laurens, Johnson, Jefferson +and Burke counties, has three distinct kinds of soil; a sand, +forming what is known as the sand-hill region; red clay derived +from silicious rock in the red hills; and grey, sandy soils with +a subsoil of yellow loam. South of the Cotton Belt is the Lime +Sink Region, which includes Miller, Baker, Mitchell, Colquitt +and Worth counties, the northern portions of Decatur, Grady, +Thomas, Brooks and Lowndes, the eastern parts of Dooly and +Lee, and the eastern portions of Berrien, Irwin, Wilcox, Dodge, +and some parts of Burke, Screven and Bulloch. The soft limestone +underlying this region is covered, in the uplands, with +grey, sandy soils, which have a subsoil of loam; in the lowlands +the surface soils are loams, the subsoils clays. Adjoining this +region are the pine barrens, which extend S. to a line passing +through the northern portions of Pierce, Wayne, Liberty, Bryan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +and Effingham counties. Here the prevailing soils are grey and +sandy with a subsoil of loam, but they are less fertile than those +of the Lime Sink or Cotton Belts. The coast counties of the S.E. +and generally those on the Florida frontier are not suitable for +cultivation, on account of the numerous marshes and swamps, +Okefinokee Swamp being 45 m. long and approximately 30 m. +wide; but the southern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas and +Brooks counties are sufficiently elevated for agriculture, and the +islands off the coast are exceedingly productive.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—The mineral resources of Georgia are as varied as its +climate and soils, a total of thirty-nine different mineral products +being found within its borders. The most important is stone: in +1905 the value of the granite quarried in the state was $971,207 +(Georgia ranking fifth in the United States), of the marble $774,550 +(Georgia ranking third in the United States, Vermont and New York +being first and second); in 1908 the granite was valued at $970,832 +(Georgia ranking fifth in the United States), and the marble at +$916,281 (Georgia ranking second in the United States, Vermont being +first). Generally more than one-fourth of the granite is used for paving; +curb, building and monument stone are next in importance in +the order named. Stone Mountain (1686 ft.) in De Kalb county near +Atlanta is a remarkable mass of light-coloured muscovite granite, +having a circumference at its base of 7 m. Stone Mountain granite +was first quarried about 1850; it is extensively used as building +material in Georgia and other southern states. A laminated granite, +otherwise like the Stone Mountain granite, is found in De Kalb, +Rockdale and Gwinnett counties, and is used for curbing and building. +Biotite granites, which take a good polish and are used for +monuments and for decoration, are quarried in Oglethorpe and +Elbert counties. Georgia marble was first quarried on a large scale +in Pickens county in 1884; the pure white marble of this county +had been worked for tombstones near Tate, the centre of the marble +belt, in 1840; after its commercial exploitation it was used in the +capitol buildings of Georgia, Rhode Island, Mississippi and Minnesota, +in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and in St +Luke’s Hospital, New York City. It is sometimes used for the +entire building, and sometimes only for decoration. Other colours +than the snowy white are found in the main marble belt of the +state, which runs from Canton, Cherokee county, 60 m. generally +N. to the northern boundary of the state. Other deposits, less well +known, are the dark brown and light grey marbles of Whitfield +county, which resemble the stone quarried in eastern Tennessee. +Limestone and slate are quarried at Rock Mart, Polk county, and +there are cement quarries at Cement, near Kingston, Bartow county. +Iron deposits occur in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, where are +the more important brown ores, and (red ores) in Walker and +Chattooga counties. The quantity of iron ore mined in Georgia +declined from 1890 to 1900; it was 200,842 long tons in 1905 and +321,060 long tons in 1908, when 319,812 tons were brown haematite +and 1248 tons were red haematite. Before the discovery of gold +in California the Georgia “placers” were very profitable, the earliest +mining being in 1829 by placer miners from the fields of Burke +county, North Carolina, who began work in what is now White +county, and went thence to Habersham and Lumpkin counties. +Dahlonega and Auraria, the latter named by John C. Calhoun, who +owned a mine there, were the centres of this early gold mining. +Work was summarily stopped by Federal troops enforcing the +governor’s proclamation in 1831, because of the disorder in the +mining region; but it was soon renewed and a mint was established +at Dahlonega in 1838. After the discovery of gold in California, +mining in Georgia was not renewed on anything but the smallest +scale until the early ’eighties. In 1908 the gold product was valued +at $56,207 (it was $96,910 in 1905) and the silver product at +$106. Up to 1909 the gold product of Georgia (see State Geol. +Survey <i>Bulletin 19</i>) was about $17,500,000. Extensive clay deposits +occur in all parts of the state, and are remarkable for their comparative +freedom from impurities and for their high fusion point; +the most valuable are sedimentary, and form a belt several miles +wide across the middle of the state from Augusta to Columbus. +In 1908 the clay products of the state were valued at $1,928,611. +More asbestos has been found in Georgia than in any other state of +the Union; it occurs in the amphibole form throughout the N. part +of the state, and most of the country’s domestic supply comes from +the Sall Mountain mine in White county. Manganese ores, found +in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, were formerly important; +in 1896 4096 long tons were mined, in 1905 only 150 tons, and in +1908 none. Bauxite was found in Georgia first of the United States, +near Rome, in 1887; the output, principally from Floyd, Bartow +and Polk counties, was the entire product of the United States until +1891, and in 1902 was more than half the country’s product, but in +1908, even when combined with the Alabama output, was less than +the amount mined in Arkansas. Coal is not extensively found, but +the mine on Sand Mountain, in Walker county, was one of the first +opened S. of the Ohio river; in 1908 the value of the coal mined in the +state was $364,279 (264,822 short tons), the value of coke at the ovens +was $137,524 (39,422 short tons), and the value of ammonium sulphate, +coal tar, illuminating gas and gas coke was more than $800,000. +Copper was mined in Fannin and Cherokee counties before the Civil +War. In 1906 the copper mined was valued at $5057. Corundum +was discovered on Laurel Creek in Rabun county in 1871, and was +worked there and at Trackrock, Union county, especially between +1880 and 1893, but in later years low prices closed most of the mines. +The limestone formations furnished most of the lime for domestic +use. Sandstone, ochre, slate, soapstone, graphite are also mined, +and lead, zinc, barytes, gypsum and even diamonds have been +discovered but not exploited.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The principal occupation in Georgia is agriculture, +which in 1900 engaged seven-tenths of the land surface of the +state and the labour of three-fifths of the population, ten years +old and over, who are employed in profitable occupations. The +products are so diversified that, with the exception of some +tropical fruits of California and Florida, almost everything +cultivated in the United States can be produced. The chief +staple is cotton, of which a valuable hybrid called the Floradora, +a cross of long and short staple, has been singularly successful. +Cotton is raised in all counties of the state except Rabun, Towns +and Fannin in the extreme north, and about one-third of the +total cultivated land of the state was devoted to it in 1900-1907. +In 1899-1904 the crop exceeded that of the other cotton-producing +states except Texas, and in 1899, 1900 and 1903 Mississippi, +averaging 1,467,121 commercial bales per annum; the crop +in 1904 was 1,991,719 bales, and in 1907-1908 the crop was +1,815,834 bales, second only to the crop of Texas. The cause of +this extensive cultivation of cotton is not a high average yield +per acre, but the fact that before 1860 “Cotton was King,” +and that the market value of the staple when the Civil War +closed was so high that farmers began to cultivate it to the exclusion +of the cereals, whose production, Indian corn excepted, +showed a decline during each decade from 1879 to 1899. But +in the ’nineties the price of the cotton fell below the cost of production, +owing to the enormous supply, and this was accompanied +by economic depression. These conditions have caused some +diversification of crops, and successful experiments in cattle-raising, +movements encouraged by the Department of Agriculture +and the leading newspapers.</p> + +<p>The principal cereals cultivated are Indian corn (product, +53,750,000 bushels in 1908) and wheat; the cultivation of the +latter, formerly remunerative, declined on account of the competition +of the Western States, but revived after 1899, largely +owing to the efforts of the Georgia Wheat Growers’ Association +(organized in 1897), and in 1908 the yield was 2,208,000 bushels. +The sugar-cane crop declined in value after 1890, and each +year more of it was made into syrup. In 1908 the tobacco crop +was 2,705,625 ℔, and the average farm price was 35 cents, +being nearly as high as that of the Florida crop; Sumatra leaf +for wrappers is grown successfully. The acreage and product of +tobacco and peanuts increased from 1890 to 1900 respectively +188% and 319.2%, and 92.6% and 129.9%, and in the production +of sweet potatoes Georgia was in 1899 surpassed only +by North Carolina. Alfalfa and grasses grow well. Truck +farming and the cultivation of orchard and small fruits have +long been remunerative occupations; the acreage devoted to +peaches doubled between 1890 and 1900. Pecan nuts are an +increasingly important crop.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Agriculture in Georgia was in a state of transition at the beginning +of the 20th century. Owing to the abundance of land and to negro +slavery, exploitative methods of cultivation were employed before +the Civil War, and such methods, by which lands after being worked +to exhaustion are deserted for new fields, had not yet been altogether +abandoned. One reason for this was that, according to the census +of 1900, 36.9% of the farms were operated by negroes, of whom +86% were tenants who desired to secure the greatest possible product +without regard to the care of the soil. Consequently there were +large tracts of untilled “waste” land; but these rapidly responded +to fertilization and rotation of crops, often yielding 800 to 1200 ℔ +of cotton per acre, and Georgia in 1899 used more fertilizers than any +other state in the Union. Another feature of agriculture in Georgia +was the great increase in the number of farms, the average size of +plantations having declined from 440 acres in 1860 to 117.5 in 1900, +or almost 75%, while the area in cultivation increased only 15.6% +between 1850 and 1900. The tenantry system was also undergoing a +change—the share system which developed in the years succeeding +the Civil War being replaced by a system of cash rental.</p> +</div> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:1087px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img752.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img752a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Manufactures.</i>—Although excelled by Alabama in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +manufacture of mineral products, and by North Carolina and +South Carolina in the number and output of cotton mills, in 1900 +and in 1905 Georgia surpassed each of those states in the total +value of factory products, which was, however, less than the value +of the factory products of Louisiana and Virginia among the +southern states. The chief features of this industrial activity +are its early beginning and steady, constant development. As +far back as 1850 there were 1522 manufacturing establishments +(35 of which were cotton mills) in the state, whose total product +was valued at $7,082,075. Despite the Civil War, there was +some advance during each succeeding decade, the most prosperous +relatively being that from 1880 to 1890. In 1900 the number of +establishments was 7504, an increase of 75.1% over the number +in 1890; the capital invested was $89,789,656, an increase of +57.7%, and the value of products ($106,654,527) was 54.8% +more than in 1890. Of the 7504 establishments in 1900, 3015 +were conducted under the “factory system,” and had a capital +of $79,303,316 and products valued at $94,532,368. In 1905 +there were 3219 factories, with a capital of $135,211,551 (an +increase of 70.5% over 1900), and a gross product valued at +$151,040,455 (59.8% greater than the value of the factory +product in 1900).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important manufacturing industries are those that +depend upon cotton for raw material, with a gross product in 1900 +valued at $26,521,757. In that year<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> there were 67 mills engaged +in the manufacture of cotton goods, with a capital of $24,158,159, +and they yielded a gross product valued at $18,457,645; the increase +between 1900 and 1905 was actually much larger (and proportionately +very much larger) than between 1890 and 1900; the number +of factories in 1905 was 103 (an increase of 53.7% over 1900); +their capital was $42,349,618 (75.3% more than in 1900); and their +gross product was valued at $35,174,248 (an increase of 90.6% since +1900). The rank of Georgia among the cotton manufacturing +states was seventh in 1900 and fourth in 1905. Cotton-seed oil and +cake factories increased in number from 17 to 43 from 1890 to 1900, +and to 112 in 1905, and the value of their product increased from +$1,670,196 to $8,064,112, or 382.8% in 1890-1900, and to $13,539,899 +in 1905, or an increase of 67.9% over 1900, and in 1900 and in 1905 +the state ranked second (to Texas) in this industry in the United +States. This growth in cotton manufactures is due to various +causes, among them being the proximity of raw material, convenient +water-power, municipal exemption from taxation and the cheapness +of labour. The relation between employer and employee is in the +main far more personal and kindly than in the mills of the Northern +States.</p> + +<p>The forests of Georgia, next to the fields, furnish the largest +amount of raw material for manufactures. The yellow pines of the +southern part of the state, which have a stand of approximately +13,778,000 ft., yielded in 1900 rosin and turpentine valued at +$8,110,468 (more than the product of any other state in the Union) +and in 1905 valued at $7,705,643 (second only to the product of +Florida). From the same source was derived most of the lumber +product valued<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in 1900 at $13,341,160 (more than double what it +was in 1890) and in 1905 at $16,716,594. The other important +woods are cypress, oak and poplar.</p> + +<p>Fourth in value in 1905 (first, cotton goods; second, lumber and +timber; third, cotton-seed oil and cake) were fertilizers, the value of +which increased from $3,367,353 in 1900 to $9,461,415 in 1905, when +the state ranked first of the United States in this industry; in 1900 +it had ranked sixth.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Means of transportation for these products +are furnished by the rivers, which are generally navigable as far +north as the “fall line” passing through Augusta, Milledgeville, +Macon and Columbus; by ocean steamship lines which have piers +at St Mary’s, Brunswick, Darien and Savannah; and by railways +whose mileage in January 1909 was 6,871.8 m. The most important +of the railways are the Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Atlantic +Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia and the Georgia +Southern & Florida. In 1878 a state railway commission was established +which has mandatory power for the settlement of all traffic +problems and makes annual reports.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180; +in 1890 1,837,353, an increase of 19.1%; in 1900 2,216,331, a further +increase of 20.6%<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; in 1910, 2,609,121. Of the 1900 population, +53.3% were whites and 46.7% were negroes,<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> the centre of the +black population being a little south of the “fall line.” Here the +negroes increased, from 1890 to 1900, faster than the whites in +eighteen counties, but in northern Georgia, where the whites +are in the majority, the negro population declined in twelve +counties. Also the percentage of negro illiteracy is higher +in northern Georgia than in other parts of the state, the percentage +of negro male illiterates of voting age being 38.3% in +Atlanta in 1900, and in Savannah only 30.7%. The population +of Georgia has a very slight foreign-born element (.6% in 1900) +and a small percentage (1.7% in 1900) of people of foreign +parentage. The urban population (<i>i.e.</i> the population in places +of 2500 inhabitants and over) was 15.6% of the total in 1900, +and the number of incorporated cities, towns and villages was +372. Of these only forty had a population exceeding 2000, and +thirteen exceeding 5000. The largest city in 1900 was Atlanta, +the capital since 1868 (Louisville, Jefferson county, was the +capital in 1795-1804, and Milledgeville in 1804-1868), with +89,872 inhabitants. Savannah ranked second with 54,244, +and Augusta third with 39,441. In 1900 the other cities in the +state with a population of more than 5000 were: Macon (23,272), +Columbus (17,614), Athens (10,245), Brunswick (9081), Americus +(7674), Rome (7291), Griffin (6857), Waycross (5919), Valdosta +(5613), and Thomasville (5322).</p> + +<p>The total membership of the churches in 1906 was about +1,029,037, of whom 596,319 were Baptists, 349,079 were Methodists, +24,040 were Presbyterians, 19,273 were Roman Catholics, +12,703 were Disciples of Christ, 9790 were Protestant +Episcopalians, and 5581 were Congregationalists.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The present constitution, which was adopted +in 1877,<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> provides for a system of government similar in general +to that of the other states (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>). The executive +officials are elected for a term of two years, and the judges of +the Supreme Court and of the court of appeals for six years, +while those of the superior court and of the ordinaries and the +justices of the peace are chosen every four years. Before 1909 +all male citizens of the United States at least twenty-one years +of age (except those mentioned below), who had lived in the state +for one year immediately preceding an election and in the county +six months, and had paid their taxes, were entitled to vote. +From the suffrage and the holding of office are excluded idiots +and insane persons and all those who have been convicted of +treason, embezzlement, malfeasance in office, bribery or larceny, +or any crime involving moral turpitude and punishable under +the laws of the state by imprisonment in the penitentiary—this +last disqualification, however, is removable by a pardon for +the offence. Before 1909 there was no constitutional discrimination +aimed against the exercise of the suffrage by the negro, +but in fact the negro vote had in various ways been greatly +reduced. By a constitutional amendment adopted by a large +majority at a special election in October 1908, new requirements +for suffrage, designed primarily to exclude negroes, especially +illiterate negroes, were imposed (supplementary to the requirements +mentioned above concerning age, residence and the +payment of taxes), the amendment coming into effect on the +1st of January 1909: in brief this amendment requires that +the voter shall have served in land or naval forces of the United +States or of the Confederate States or of the state of Georgia +in time of war, or be lawfully descended from some one who did +so serve; or that he be a person of good character who proves +to the satisfaction of the registrars of elections that he understands +the duties and obligations of a citizen; or that he read +correctly in English and (unless physically disabled) write any +paragraph of the Federal or state constitution; or that he own +40 acres of land or property valued at $500 and assessed for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +taxation. After the 1st of January 1915 no one may qualify +as a voter under the first or second of these clauses (the “grandfather” +and “understanding” clauses); but those who shall +have registered under their requirements before the 1st of +January 1915 thus become voters for life.</p> + +<p>The governor, who receives a salary of $5000, must be at least +thirty years old, must at the time of his election have been a +citizen of the United States for fifteen years and of the state for +six years, and “shall not be eligible to re-election after the +expiration of a second term, for the period of four years.” In +case of his “death, removal or disability,” the duties of his +office devolve in the first instance upon the president of the +Senate, and in the second upon the speaker of the House of +Representatives. The governor’s power of veto extends to +separate items in appropriation bills, but in every case his veto +may be <span class="correction" title="amended from overriden">overridden</span> by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. An +amendment to the constitution may be proposed by a two-thirds +vote of the legislature, and comes into effect on receiving +a majority of the popular vote. Members of the Senate must +be at least twenty-five years old, must be citizens of the United +States, and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens +of the state for four years, and of the senatorial district for one +year; representatives must be at least twenty-one years old, +and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens of the +state for two years. By law, in Georgia, lobbying is a felony.</p> + +<p>Habitual intoxication, wilful desertion for three years, cruel +treatment, and conviction for an offence the commission of +which involved moral turpitude and for which the offender +has been sentenced to imprisonment for at least two years, are +recognized as causes for divorce. All petitions for divorce +must be approved by two successive juries, and a woman holds +in her own name all property acquired before and after marriage. +Marriage between the members of the white and negro races +is prohibited by law.</p> + +<p>As the result of the general campaign against child labour, an +act was passed in 1906 providing that no child under 10 shall +be employed or allowed to labour in or about any factory, under +any circumstances; after the 1st of January 1907 no child +under 12 shall be so employed, unless an orphan with no +other means of support, or unless a widowed mother or disabled +or aged father is dependent on the child’s labour, in which case +a certificate to the facts, holding good for one year only, is +required; after the 1st of January 1908 no child under 14 +shall be employed in a factory between the hours of 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and +6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>; after the same date no child under 14 shall be employed +in any factory without a certificate of school attendance +for 12 weeks (of which 6 weeks must be consecutive) of +the preceding year; no child shall be employed without the +filing of an affidavit as to age. Making a false affidavit as to +age or as to other facts required by the act, and the violation +of the act by any agent or representative of a factory or by any +parent or guardian of a child are misdemeanours.</p> + +<p>In 1907 a state law was passed prohibiting after the 1st of +January 1908 the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors; +nine-tenths of the counties of the state, under local option laws, +were already “dry” at the passage of this bill. The law permits +druggists to keep for sale no other form of alcoholic drink than +pure alcohol; physicians prescribing alcohol must fill out a +blank, specifying the patient’s ailment, and certifying that +alcohol is necessary; the prescription must be filled the day +it is dated, must be served directly to the physician or to the +patient, must not call for more than a pint, and may not be +refilled.<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>The state supports four benevolent institutions: a lunatic +asylum for the whites and a similar institution for the negroes, +both at Milledgeville, an institute for the deaf and dumb at +Cave Spring, and an academy for the blind at Macon. There are +also a number of private charitable institutions, the oldest being +the Bethesda orphan asylum, near Savannah, founded by George +Whitefield in 1739. The Methodist, Baptist, Roman Catholic +and Protestant Episcopal Churches, and the Hebrews of the state +also support homes for orphans. A penitentiary was established +in 1817 at Milledgeville. In 1866 the lease system was introduced, +by which the convicts were leased for a term of years to private +individuals. In 1897 this was supplanted by the contract +system, by which a prison commission accepted contracts for +convict labour, but the prisoners were cared for by state officials. +But the contract system for convicts and the peonage system +(under which immigrants were held in practical slavery while +they “worked out” advances made for passage-money, &c.) +were still sources of much injustice. State laws made liable +to prosecution for misdemeanour any contract labourer who, +having received advances, failed for any but good cause to +fulfil the contract; or any contract labourer who made a second +contract without giving notice to his second employer of a prior +and unfulfilled contract; or any employer of a labourer who had +not completed the term of a prior contract. In September 1908, +after an investigation which showed that many wardens had +been in the pay of convict lessees and that terrible cruelty had +been practised in convict camps, an extra session of the legislature +practically put an end to the convict lease or contract system; +the act then passed provided that after the 31st of March 1909, +the date of expiration of leases in force, no convicts may be +leased for more than twelve months and none may be leased +at all unless there are enough convicts to supply all demands +for convict labour on roads made by counties, each county to +receive its <i>pro rata</i> share on a population basis, and to satisfy +all demands made by municipalities which thus secure labour +for $100 per annum (per man) paid into the state treasury, +and all demands made by the state prison farm and factory +established by this law.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Georgia’s system of public instruction was not +instituted until 1870, but as early as 1817 the legislature provided +a fund for the education in the private schools of the state of +children of indigent parents. The constitution of 1868 authorized +“a thorough system of general education, to be for ever free +to all children of the State,” and in 1870 the first public school +law was enacted. Education, however, has never been made +compulsory. The constitution, as amended in 1905, provides +that elections on the question of local school taxes for counties +or for school districts may be called upon a petition signed by +one-fourth of the qualified voters of the county, or district, in +question; under this provision several counties and a large +number of school districts are supplementing the general fund. +But the principal source of the annual school revenue is a state +tax; the fund derived from this tax, however, is not large +enough. In 1908 the common school fund approximated +$3,786,830, of which amount the state paid $2,163,200 and +about $1,010,680 was raised by local taxation. In 1908 69% +of the school population (79% of whites; 58% of negroes) +were enrolled in the schools; in 1902 it was estimated that the +negroes, 52.3% of whom (10 years of age and over) were illiterates +(<i>i.e.</i> could not write or could neither read nor write) in 1900 +(81.6% of them were illiterate in 1880), received the benefit +of only about a fifth of the school fund. Of the total population, +10 years of age and over, 30.5% were illiterates in 1900—49.9% +were illiterates in 1880—and as regards the whites of native +birth alone, Georgia ranked ninth in illiteracy, in 1900, among +the states and territories of the Union. Of the illiterates about +four-fifths were negroes in 1900. In addition to the public +schools, the state also supports the University of Georgia; and +in 1906 $235,000 was expended for the support of higher education. +In 1906-1907 eleven agricultural and mechanical arts +colleges were established, one in each congressional district of +the state. Of the colleges of the university, Franklin was the +first state college chartered in America (1785); the Medical +College of Georgia, at Augusta, was opened in 1829; the State +College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts was established at +Athens in 1872; the North Georgia Agricultural College, at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +Dahlonega, was opened in 1873; the Georgia School of Technology, +at Atlanta, in 1888; the Georgia Normal and Industrial +College (for women), in Milledgeville, in 1899; the Georgia +State Normal School, at Athens, in 1895; the Georgia State +Industrial College for Coloured Youth, near Savannah, in 1890; +the School of Pharmacy, at Athens, in 1903; and the School +of Forestry, and the Georgia State College of Agriculture, at +Athens, in 1906. Affiliated with the university, but not receiving +state funds, are three preparatory schools, the South Georgia +Military and Agricultural College at Thomasville, the Middle +Georgia Military and Agricultural College at Milledgeville, +and the West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College at +Hamilton. Among the institutions generally grouped as denominational +are—Baptist: Mercer University, at Macon (Penfield, +1837; Macon, 1871), Shorter College (1877) at Rome, Spelman +Seminary (1881) in Atlanta for negro women and girls, and +Bessie Tift College, formerly Monroe College (1849) for women, +at Forsyth; Methodist Episcopal: Emory College (1836), at +Oxford, and Wesleyan Female College (1836) at Macon, both +largely endowed by George Ingraham Seney (1837-1893), and +the latter one of the earliest colleges for women in the country; +Methodist Episcopal Church, South: Young Harris College +(1855) at Young Harris, Andrew Female College (1854) at +Cuthbert, and Dalton Female College (1872) at Dalton; Presbyterian: +Agnes Scott College at Decatur; and African Methodist +Episcopal: Morris Brown College (1885) at Atlanta. A famous +school for negroes is the non-sectarian Atlanta University +(incorporated in 1867, opened in 1869), which has trained many +negroes for teaching and other professions. Non-sectarian +colleges for women are: Lucy Cobb Institute (1858) at Athens, +Cox College (1843) at College Park, near Atlanta, and Brenau +College Conservatory (1878) at Gainesville.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The assessed value of taxable property in 1910 was +about $735,000,000. A general property tax, which furnishes about +four-fifths of the public revenue, worked so inequitably that a +Board of Equalization was appointed in 1901. By the Constitution +the tax rate is limited to $5 on the thousand, and, as the rate of +taxation has increased faster than the taxable property, the state +has been forced to contract several temporary loans since 1901, +none of which has exceeded $200,000, the limit for each year set by +the Constitution. On the 1st of January 1910 the bonded debt +was $6,944,000, mainly incurred by the extravagance of the Reconstruction +administration (see <i>History</i>, below). Each year +$100,000 of this debt is paid off, and there are annual appropriations +for the payment of interest (about $303,260 in 1910). The state +owns the Western & Atlantic railway (137 m. long) from Chattanooga, +Tennessee, to Atlanta, which has valuable terminal facilities in both +cities, and which in 1910 was estimated to be worth $8,400,240 +(more than the amount of the bonded debt); this railway the state +built in 1841-1850, and in 1890 leased for 29 years, at an annual +rental of $420,012, to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis railway.</p> + +<p>Banking in Georgia is in a prosperous condition. The largest +class of depositors are the farmers, who more and more look to the +banks for credit, instead of to the merchants and cotton speculators. +Hence the number of banks in agricultural districts is increasing. +The state treasurer is the bank examiner, and to him all banks must +make a quarterly statement and submit their books for examination +twice a year. The legal rate of interest is 7%, but by contract +it may be 8%.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Georgia derives its name from King George II. of +Great Britain. It was the last to be established of the English +colonies in America. Its formation was due to a desire of the +British government to protect South Carolina from invasion +by the Spaniards from Florida and by the French from Louisiana, +as well as to the desire of James Edward Oglethorpe (<i>q.v.</i>) to +found a refuge for the persecuted Protestant sects and the +unfortunate but worthy indigent classes of Europe. A charter +was granted in 1732 to “the Trustees for establishing the colony +of Georgia in America,” and parliament gave £10,000 to the +enterprise. The first settlement was made at Savannah in 1733 +under the personal supervision of Oglethorpe. The early colonists +were German Lutherans (Salzburgers), Piedmontese, Scottish +Highlanders, Swiss, Portuguese Jews and Englishmen; but +the main tide of immigration, from Virginia and the Carolinas, +did not set in until 1752. As a bulwark against the Spanish, +the colony was successful, but as an economic experiment it +was a failure. The trustees desired that there should be grown +in the colony wine grapes, hemp, silk and medical plants (barilla, +kali, cubeb, caper, madder, &c.) for which England was dependent +upon foreign countries; they required the settlers to plant +mulberry trees, and forbade the sale of rum, the chief commercial +staple of the colonies. They also forbade the introduction of +negro slaves. Land was leased by military tenure, and until +1739 grants were made only in male tail and alienations were +forbidden. The industries planned for the colony did not thrive, +and as sufficient labour could not be obtained, the importation +of slaves was permitted under certain conditions in 1749. About +the same time the House of Commons directed the trustees +to remove the prohibition on the sale of rum. In 1753 the +charter of the trustees expired and Georgia became a royal +province.</p> + +<p>Under the new regime the colony was so prosperous that +Sir James Wright (1716-1785), the last of the royal governors, +declared Georgia to be “the most flourishing colony on the +continent.” The people were led to revolt against the mother +country through sympathy with the other colonies rather than +through any grievance of their own. The centre of revolutionary +ideas was St John’s Parish, settled by New Englanders (chiefly +from Dorchester, Massachusetts). The Loyalist sentiment was +so strong that only five of the twelve parishes sent representatives +to the First Provincial Congress, which met on the +18th of January 1775, and its delegates to the Continental +Congress therefore did not claim seats in that assembly. But +six months later all the parishes sent representatives to another +Provincial Congress which met on the 4th of July 1775. Soon +afterward the royal government collapsed and the administration +of the colony was assumed by a council of safety.</p> + +<p>The war that followed was really a severe civil conflict, the +Loyalist and Revolutionary parties being almost equal in +numbers. In 1778 the British seized Savannah, which they +held until 1782, meanwhile reviving the British civil administration, +and in 1779 they captured Augusta and Sunbury; but +after 1780 the Revolutionary forces were generally successful. +Civil affairs also fell into confusion. In 1777 a state constitution +was adopted, but two factions soon appeared in the government, +led by the governor and the executive council respectively, and +harmony was not secured until 1781.</p> + +<p>Georgia’s policy in the formation of the United States government +was strongly national. In the constitutional convention +of 1787 its delegates almost invariably gave their support to +measures designed to strengthen the central government. +Georgia was the fourth state to ratify (January 2, 1788), and one +of the three that ratified unanimously, the Federal Constitution. +But a series of conflicts between the Federal government and the +state government caused a decline of this national sentiment +and the growth of States Rights theories.</p> + +<p>First of these was the friction involved in the case, before the +Supreme Court of the United States, of <i>Chisolm</i> v. <i>Georgia</i>, by +which the plaintiff, one Alexander Chisolm, a citizen of South +Carolina, secured judgment in 1793 against the state of Georgia +(see 2 Dallas Reports 419). In protest, the Georgia House of +Representatives, holding that the United States Supreme Court +had no constitutional power to try suits against a sovereign state, +resolved that any Federal marshal who should attempt to execute +the court’s decision would be “guilty of felony, and shall suffer +death, without benefit of clergy, by being hanged.” No effort +was made to execute the decision, and in 1798 the Eleventh +Amendment to the Federal Constitution was adopted, taking +from Federal courts all jurisdiction over any suit brought +“against one of the United States by citizens of another state, +or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.”</p> + +<p>The position of Congress and of the Supreme Court with +reference to Georgia’s policy in the Yazoo Frauds also aroused +distrust of the Federal government. In 1795 the legislature +granted for $500,000 the territory extending from the Alabama +and Coosa rivers to the Mississippi river and between 35° and +31° N. lat. (almost all of the present state of Mississippi and more +than half of the present state of Alabama) to four land companies, +but in the following year a new legislature rescinded the contracts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +on the ground that they had been fraudulently and corruptly +made, as was probably the case, and the rescindment was embodied +in the Constitution of 1798., In the meantime the United +States Senate had appointed a committee to inquire into Georgia’s +claim to the land in question, and as this committee pronounced +that claim invalid, Congress in 1800 established a Territorial +government over the region. The legislature of Georgia remonstrated +but expressed a willingness to cede the land to the United +States, and in 1802 the cession was ratified, it being stipulated +among other things that the United States should pay to the +state $1,250,000, and should extinguish “at their own expense, +for the use of Georgia, as soon as the same can be peaceably +obtained on reasonable terms,” the Indian title to all lands +within the state of Georgia. Eight years later the Supreme +Court of the United States decided in the case of <i>Fletcher</i> v. <i>Peck</i> +(6 Cranch 87) that such a rescindment as that in the new state +constitution was illegal, on the ground that a state cannot +pass a law impairing the obligation of contracts; and at an +expense of more than four millions of dollars the Federal government +ultimately extinguished all claims to the lands.</p> + +<p>This decision greatly irritated the political leaders of Georgia, +and the question of extinguishing the Indian titles, on which +there had long been a disagreement, caused further and even more +serious friction between the Federal and state authorities. The +National government, until the administration of President +Jackson, regarded the Indian tribes as sovereign nations with +whom it alone had the power to treat, while Georgia held that the +tribes were dependent communities with no other right to the +soil than that of tenants at will. In 1785 Georgia made treaties +with the Creeks by which those Indians ceded to the state their +lands S. and W. of the Altamaha river and E. of the Oconee +river, but after a remonstrance of one of their half-breed chiefs +Congress decided that the cessions were invalid, and the National +government negotiated, in 1790, a new treaty which ceded only +the lands E. of the Oconee. The state appealed to the National +government to endeavour to secure further cessions, but none +had been made when, in 1802, the United States assumed its +obligation to extinguish all Indian titles within the state. Several +cessions were made between 1802 and 1824, but the state in +the latter year remonstrated in vigorous terms against the +dilatory manner in which the National government was discharging +its obligation, and the effect of this was that in 1825 a treaty +was negotiated at Indian Springs by which nearly all the Lower +Creeks agreed to exchange their remaining lands in Georgia +for equal territory beyond the Mississippi. But President +J.Q. Adams, learning that this treaty was not approved by the +entire Creek nation, authorized a new one, signed at Washington +in 1826, by which the treaty of 1825 was abrogated and the +Creeks kept certain lands W. of the Chattahoochee. The Georgia +government, under the leadership of Governor George M. Troup +(1780-1856), had proceeded to execute the first treaty, and the +legislature declared the second treaty illegal and unconstitutional. +In reply to a communication of President Adams early in 1827 +that the United States would take strong measures to enforce its +policy, Governor Troup declared that he felt it his duty to resist +to the utmost any military attack which the government of the +United States should think proper to make, and ordered the +military companies to prepare to resist “any hostile invasion +of the territory of this state.” But the strain produced by these +conditions was relieved by information that new negotiations +had been begun for the cession of all Creek lands in Georgia. +These negotiations were completed late in the year.</p> + +<p>There was similar conflict in the relation of the United States +and Georgia with the Cherokees. In 1785 the Cherokees of +Georgia placed themselves under the protection of the Federal +government, and in 1823 their chiefs, who were mostly half-breeds, +declared: “It is the fixed and unalterable determination of this +nation never again to cede one foot more of land,” and that they +could not “recognize the sovereignty of any state within the +limits of their territory”; in 1827 they framed a constitution +and organized a representative government. President Monroe +and President J.Q. Adams treated the Cherokees with the +courtesy due to a sovereign nation, and held that the United States +had done all that was required to meet the obligation assumed +in 1802. The Georgia legislature, however, contended that the +United States had not acted in good faith, declared that all +land within the boundaries of the state belonged to Georgia, +and in 1828 extended the jurisdiction of Georgia law to the +Cherokee lands. Then President Jackson, holding that Georgia +was in the right on the Indian question, informed the Cherokees +that their only alternative to submission to Georgia was emigration. +Thereupon the chiefs resorted to the United States +Supreme Court, which in 1832 declared that the Cherokees +formed a distinct community “in which the laws of Georgia +have no force,” and annulled the decision of a Georgia court +that had extended its jurisdiction into the Cherokee country +(<i>Worcester</i> v. <i>Georgia</i>). But the governor of Georgia declared +that the decision was an attempt at usurpation which would +meet with determined resistance, and President Jackson refused +to enforce the decree. The President did, however, work for +the removal of the Indians, which was effected in 1838.</p> + +<p>On account of these conflicts a majority of Georgians adopted +the principles of the Democratic-Republican party, and early +in the 19th century the people were virtually unanimous in +their political ideas. Local partisanship centred in two factions: +one, led by George M. Troup, which represented the interests +of the aristocratic and slave-holding communities; the other, +formed by John Clarke (1766-1832) and his brother Elijah, +found support among the non-slave-holders and the frontiersmen. +The cleavage of these factions was at first purely personal; +but by 1832 it had become one of principle. Then the Troup +faction under the name of States Rights party, endorsed the +nullification policy of South Carolina, while the Clarke faction, +calling itself a Union party, opposed South Carolina’s conduct, +but on the grounds of expediency rather than of principle. +On account, however, of its opposition to President Jackson’s +attitude toward nullification, the States Rights party affiliated +with the new Whig party, which represented the national +feeling in the South, while the Union party was merged into +the Democratic party, which emphasized the sovereignty of +the states.</p> + +<p>The activity of Georgia in the slavery controversy was important. +As early as 1835 the legislature adopted a resolution +which asserted the legality of slavery in the Territories, a principle +adopted by Congress in the Kansas Bill in 1854, and in 1847 +ex-Governor Wilson Lumpkin (1783-1870) advocated the +organization of the Southern states to resist the aggression of +the North. Popular opinion at first opposed the Compromise +of 1850, and some politicians demanded immediate secession from +the Union; and the legislature had approved the Alabama +Platform of 1848. But Congressmen Robert Toombs, Alexander +H. Stephens, Whigs, and Howell Cobb, a Democrat, upon their +return from Washington, contended that the Compromise was +a great victory for the South, and in a campaign on this issue +secured the election of such delegates to the state convention +(at Milledgeville) of 1850 that that body adopted on the 10th +of December, by a vote of 237 to 19, a series of conciliatory +resolutions, since known as the “Georgia Platform,” which +declared in substance: (1) that, although the state did not +wholly approve of the Compromise, it would “abide by it as a +permanent adjustment of this sectional controversy,” to preserve +the Union, as the thirteen original colonies had found compromise +necessary for its formation; (2) that the state “will and ought +to resist, even (as a last resort) to the disruption of every tie +that binds her to the Union,” any attempt to prohibit slavery +in the Territories or a refusal to admit a slave state. The adoption +of this platform was accompanied by a party reorganization, +those who approved it organizing the Constitutional Union party, +and those who disapproved, mostly Democrats, organizing the +Southern Rights party; the approval in other states of the +Georgia Platform in preference to the Alabama Platform (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alabama</a></span>) caused a reaction in the South against secession. +The reaction was followed for a short interval by a return to +approximately the former party alignment, but in 1854 the rank +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +and file of the Whigs joined the American or Know-Nothing party +while most of the Whig leaders went over to the Democrats. +The Know-Nothing party was nearly destroyed by its crushing +defeat in 1856 and in the next year the Democrats by a large +majority elected for governor Joseph Emerson Brown (1821-1894) +who by three successive re-elections was continued in +that office until the close of the Civil War. Although Governor +Brown represented the poorer class of white citizens he had +taken a course in law at Yale College, had practised law, and at +the time of his election was judge of a superior court; although +he had never held slaves he believed that the abolition of +slavery would soon result in the ruin of the South, and he was +a man of strong convictions. The Kansas question and the +attitude of the North toward the decision in the Dred Scott +case were arousing the South when he was inaugurated the first +time, and in his inaugural address he clearly indicated that he +would favour secession in the event of any further encroachment +on the part of the North. In July 1859 Senator Alfred Iverson +(1798-1874) declared that in the event of the election of a Free-Soil +resident in 1860 he would favour the establishment of an +independent confederacy; later in the same year Governor +Brown expressed himself to a similar effect and urged the improvement +of the military service. On the 7th of November following +the election of President Lincoln the governor, in a special +message to the legislature, recommended the calling of a convention +to decide the question of secession, and Alexander H. +Stephens was about the only prominent political leader who +contended that Lincoln’s election was insufficient ground for +such action. On the 17th of November the legislature passed +an act directing the governor to order an election of delegates +on the 2nd of January 1861 and their meeting in a convention +on the 16th. On the 19th this body passed an ordinance of +secession by a vote of 208 to 89. Already the first regiment of +Georgia Volunteers, under Colonel Alexander Lawton (1818-1896) +had seized Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the Savannah +river and now Governor Brown proceeded to Augusta and seized +the Federal arsenal there. Toward the close of the same year, +however, Federal warships blockaded Georgia’s ports, and early +in 1862 Federal forces captured Tybee Island, Fort Pulaski, +St Mary’s, Brunswick and St Simon Island. Georgia had +responded freely to the call for volunteers, but when the Confederate +Congress had passed, in April 1862, the Conscript Law +which required all white men (except those legally exempted +from service) between the ages of 18 and 35 to enter +the Confederate service, Governor Brown, in a correspondence +with President Davis which was continued for several months, +offered serious objections, his leading contentions being that +the measure was unnecessary as to Georgia, unconstitutional, +subversive of the state’s sovereignty, and therefore “at war +with the principles for the support of which Georgia entered +into this revolution.”</p> + +<p>In 1863 north-west Georgia was involved in the Chattanooga +campaign. In the following spring Georgia was invaded from +Tennessee by a Federal army under General William T. Sherman; +the resistance of General Joseph E. Johnston and General J.B. +Hood proved ineffectual; and on the 1st of September Atlanta +was taken. Then Sherman began his famous “march to the sea,” +from Atlanta to Savannah, which revealed the weakness of the +Confederacy. In the spring of 1865, General J.H. Wilson with +a body of cavalry entered the state from Alabama, seized +Columbus and West Point on the 16th of April, and on the 10th +of May captured Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, +at Irwinville in Irwin county.</p> + +<p>In accord with President Andrew Johnson’s plan for reorganizing +the Southern States, a provisional governor, James Johnson, +was appointed on the 17th of June 1865, and a state convention +reformed the constitution to meet the new conditions, rescinding +the ordinance of secession, abolishing slavery and formally +repudiating the state debt incurred in the prosecution of the war. +A governor and legislature were elected in November 1865, the +legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment on the 9th of +December and five days later the governor-elect was inaugurated. +But both the convention and legislature incurred the suspicion +and ill-will of Congress; the convention had congratulated the +president on his policy, memorialized him on behalf of Jefferson +Davis, and provided pensions for disabled Confederate soldiers +and the widows of those who had lost their lives during the war, +while the legislature passed apprenticeship, labour and vagrancy +laws to protect and regulate the negroes, and rejected the +Fourteenth Amendment. Although the civil rights were conferred +upon the freedmen, Congress would not tolerate the +political incapacity and social inferiority which the legislature +had assigned to them, and therefore Georgia was placed under +military government, as part of the third military district, by the +Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Under the auspices +of the military authorities registration of electors for a new state +convention was begun and 95,168 negroes and 96,333 whites +were registered. The acceptance of the proposition to call the +convention and the election of many conscientious and intelligent +delegates were largely due to the influence of ex-Governor +Brown, who was strongly convinced that the wisest course for +the South was to accept quickly what Congress had offered. +The convention met in Atlanta on the 9th of December 1867 +and by March 1868 had revised the constitution to meet the +requirements of the Reconstruction Acts. The constitution +was duly adopted by popular vote, and elections were held for +the choice of a governor and legislature. Rufus Brown Bullock +(b. 1834), Republican, was chosen governor, the Senate had a +majority of Republicans, but in the House of Representatives +a tie vote was cast for the election of a speaker. On the 21st of +July the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, and a section of +the state constitution (which denied the power of state courts +to entertain against any resident of the state suits founded on +contracts existing on the 15th of June 1865) was repealed by the +legislature in pursuance of the congressional “Omnibus Bill” +of the 25th of June 1868, and as evidence of the restoration of +Georgia to the Union the congressmen were seated on the 25th +of July in that year.</p> + +<p>But in September of the same year the Democrats in the +state legislature, being assisted by some of the white +Republicans, expelled the 27 negro members and seated their +defeated white contestants, relying upon the legal theory that +the right to hold office belonged only to those citizens designated +by statute, the common law or custom. In retaliation the 41st +Congress excluded the state’s representatives on a technicality, +and, on the theory that the government of Georgia was a provisional +organization, passed an act requiring the ratification of +the Fifteenth Amendment before the admission of Georgia’s +senators and representatives. The war department now concluded +that the state was still subject to military authority, and +placed General A.H. Terry in command. With his aid, and that +of Congressional requirements that all members of the legislature +must take the Test Oath and none be excluded on account of +colour, a Republican majority was secured for both houses, +and the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified. Georgia was now +finally admitted to the Union by Act of Congress, on the 15th of +July 1870.</p> + +<p>The Reconstruction period in Georgia is remarkable for its +comparative moderation. Although there was great political +excitement, there was not as much extravagance in public +administration as there was in other Southern States, the +state debt increasing approximately from $6,600,000 to +$16,000,000. The explanation lies in the fact that there were +comparatively few “carpet-baggers” or adventurers in the +state, and that a large number of conservative citizens, under the +leadership of ex-Governor Brown, supported the Reconstruction +policy of Congress and joined the Republican party.</p> + +<p>The election of 1871 gave the Democrats a majority in the +legislature; Governor Bullock, fearing impeachment, resigned, +and at a special election James M. Smith was chosen to fill the +unexpired term. After that the control of the Democrats was +complete. In 1891 the Populist party was organized, but it +never succeeded in securing a majority of the votes in the +state.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">List of Governors</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">I. <i>Administration of the Trustees.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">James Edward Oglethorpe<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1732-1743</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Stephens<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1743-1751</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry Parker<a href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1751-1753</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Patrick Graham<a href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1753-1754</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">II. <i>Royal Administration.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">John Reynolds</td> <td class="tcc">1754-1757</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry Ellis</td> <td class="tcc">1757-1760</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sir James Wright</td> <td class="tcc">1760-1782</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">III. <i>Provincial Administration.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">William Ewen<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1775</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Archibald Bulloch<a name="fa11f" id="fa11f" href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1776</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Button Gwinnett<a href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1777</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jonathan Bryan<a href="#ft11f"><span class="sp">11</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1777</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">IV. <i>Georgia as a State.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">John A. Treutlen<a name="fa12f" id="fa12f" href="#ft12f"><span class="sp">12</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1777-1778</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Houston</td> <td class="tcc">1778-1779</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Wereat<a name="fa13f" id="fa13f" href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1779</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Walton</td> <td class="tcc">1779-1780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Richard Hawley</td> <td class="tcc">1780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Stephen Heard<a href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1780-1781</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Myrick Davies<a href="#ft13f"><span class="sp">13</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1781</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nathan Brownson</td> <td class="tcc">1781-1782</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Martin</td> <td class="tcc">1782-1783</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lyman Hall</td> <td class="tcc">1783-1785</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Samuel Elbert</td> <td class="tcc">1785-1786</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Edward Telfair</td> <td class="tcc">1786-1787</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Matthews</td> <td class="tcc">1787-1788</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Handley</td> <td class="tcc">1788-1789</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Walton</td> <td class="tcc">1789-1790</td> <td class="tcl">Democratic-Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Edward Telfair</td> <td class="tcc">1790-1793</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Matthews</td> <td class="tcc">1793-1796</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jared Irwin</td> <td class="tcc">1796-1798</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James Jackson</td> <td class="tcc">1798-1801</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David Emanuel</td> <td class="tcc">1801</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Josiah Tattnall</td> <td class="tcc">1801-1802</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Milledge</td> <td class="tcc">1802-1806</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jared Irwin</td> <td class="tcc">1806-1809</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David B. Mitchell</td> <td class="tcc">1809-1813</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peter Early</td> <td class="tcc">1813-1815</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">David B. Mitchell</td> <td class="tcc">1815-1817</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Rabun<a name="fa14f" id="fa14f" href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1817-1819</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Matthew Talbot<a href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1819</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Clarke</td> <td class="tcc">1819-1823</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George M. Troup</td> <td class="tcc">1823-1827</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John Forsyth</td> <td class="tcc">1827-1829</td> <td class="tcl">    ”      ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George R. Gilmer</td> <td class="tcc">1829-1831</td> <td class="tcl">National Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wilson Lumpkin</td> <td class="tcc">1831-1835</td> <td class="tcl">Democratic-Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">William Schley</td> <td class="tcc">1835-1837</td> <td class="tcl">Union</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George Gilmer</td> <td class="tcc">1837-1839</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles J. McDonald</td> <td class="tcc">1839-1843</td> <td class="tcl">Union</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George W. Crawford</td> <td class="tcc">1843-1847</td> <td class="tcl">Whig</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">George W.B. Towns</td> <td class="tcc">1847-1851</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Howell Cobb</td> <td class="tcc">1851-1853</td> <td class="tcl">Constitutional Union</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Herschell V. Johnson</td> <td class="tcc">1853-1856</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph E. Brown</td> <td class="tcc">1857-1865</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James Johnson<a name="fa15f" id="fa15f" href="#ft15f"><span class="sp">15</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1865</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Charles J. Jenkins</td> <td class="tcc">1865-1868</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Thomas H. Ruger</td> <td class="tcc">1868</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rufus B. Bullock</td> <td class="tcc">1868-1871</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Benjamin Conley<a href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1871-1872</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James M. Smith</td> <td class="tcc">1872-1876</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alfred H. Colquitt</td> <td class="tcc">1876-1882</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alexander H. Stephens</td> <td class="tcc">1882-1883</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">James S. Boynton<a href="#ft14f"><span class="sp">14</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry D. McDaniel</td> <td class="tcc">1883-1886</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John B. Gordon</td> <td class="tcc">1886-1890</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">W.J. Northen</td> <td class="tcc">1890-1894</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">W.Y. Atkinson</td> <td class="tcc">1894-1898</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A.D. Candler</td> <td class="tcc">1898-1902</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph M. Terrell</td> <td class="tcc">1902-1907</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hoke Smith</td> <td class="tcc">1907-1909</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Joseph M. Brown</td> <td class="tcc">1909-1911</td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hoke Smith</td> <td class="tcc">1911-   </td> <td class="tcl">    ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>A brief bibliography, chiefly of historical materials, is given by +U.B. Phillips in his monograph “Georgia and State Rights,” in +vol. ii. of the <i>Annual Report of the American Historical Association +for 1901</i> (Washington, 1902). Valuable information concerning the +resources and products of the state is given in the publications of +the Department of Agriculture, which include weekly and monthly +<i>Bulletins</i>, biennial <i>Reports</i> and a volume entitled <i>Georgia, Historical +and Industrial</i> (Atlanta, 1901). The Reports of the United States +Census (especially the Twelfth Census for 1900 and the special census +of manufactures for 1905) should be consulted, and <i>Memoirs of +Georgia</i> (2 vols., Atlanta, Ga., 1895) contains chapters on industrial +conditions.</p> + +<p>The principal sources for public administration are the annual +reports of the state officers, philanthropic institutions, the prison +commission and the railroad commission, and the revised Code of +Georgia (Atlanta, 1896), adopted in 1895; see also L.F. Schmeckebier’s +“Taxation in Georgia” (<i>Johns Hopkins University Studies</i>, vol. +xviii.) and “Banking in Georgia” (<i>Banker’s Magazine</i>, vol. xlviii.). +Education and social conditions are treated in C.E. Jones’s <i>History +of Education in Georgia</i> (Washington, 1890), the Annual Reports of +the School Commissioner, and various magazine articles, such as +“Georgia Cracker in the Cotton Mill” (<i>Century Magazine</i>, vol. xix.) +and “A Plea for Light” (<i>South Atlantic Quarterly</i>, vol. iii.). The +view of slavery given in Frances A. Kemble’s <i>Journal of a Residence +on a Georgia Plantation in 1838-1839</i> (New York, 1863) should be compared +with R.Q. Mallard’s <i>Plantation Life before Emancipation</i> +(Richmond, Va., 1897), and with F.L. Olmsted’s <i>A Journey in the +Seaboard Slave States</i> (New York, 1856).</p> + +<p>The best book for the entire field of Georgia history is Lawton +B. Evans’s <i>A Student’s History of Georgia</i> (New York, 1898), a textbook +for schools. This should be supplemented by C.C. Jones’s +<i>Antiquities of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia Tribes</i> +(New York, 1873), for the aborigines; W.B. Stevens’s <i>History of +Georgia to 1798</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1847-1859) and C.C. Jones, jun., +History of Georgia (2 vols., Boston, 1883) for the Colonial and Revolutionary +periods; C.H. Haskins’s <i>The Yazoo Land Companies</i> +(Washington, 1891); the excellent monograph (mentioned above) +by U.B. Phillips for politics prior to 1860; Miss Annie H. Abel’s +monograph “The History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation +West of the Mississippi,” in vol. i. of the <i>Annual Report of the +American Historical Association for 1906</i> (Washington, 1908) for a +good account of the removal of the Indians from Georgia; the +judicious monograph by E.C. Woolley, <i>Reconstruction in Georgia</i> +(New York, 1901); and I.W. Avery’s <i>History of Georgia from 1850 +to 1881</i> (New York, 1881), which is marred by prejudice but contains +material of value. <i>The Confederate Records of the State of Georgia</i> were +published at Atlanta in 1909. See also: E.J. Harden’s <i>Life of George +M. Troup</i> (Savannah, 1840); R.M. Johnston and W.H. Browne, <i>Life +of Alexander H. Stephens (Philadelphia, 1878), and Louis Pendleton, +Life of Alexander H. Stephens</i> (Philadelphia, 1907); P.A. Stovall’s +<i>Robert Toombs</i> (New York, 1892); H. Fielder’s <i>Life, Times and +Speeches of Joseph E. Brown</i> (Springfield, Mass., 1883) and C.C. +Jones, jun., <i>Biographical Sketches of Delegates from Georgia to the +Continental Congress</i> (New York, 1891). There is much valuable +material, also, in the publications (beginning with 1840) of the +Georgia Historical Society (see the list in vol. ii. of the <i>Report of the +American Historical Association</i> for 1905).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to the usual nomenclature, the branch flowing S.W. +is called the Chattooga; this unites with the Tallulah to form the +Tugaloo, which in turn unites with the Kiowee to form the Savannah +proper.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The manufacturing statistics for 1900 which follow are not +those given in the Twelfth Census, but are taken from the <i>Census +of Manufactures</i>, 1905, the 1900 figures here given being only for +“establishments on a factory basis,” and thus being comparable +with those of 1905. In 1890 there were 53 mills with a capital of +$17,664,675 and a product valued at $12,035,629.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In these valuations for 1900 and for 1905 the rough lumber +dressed or remanufactured in planing mills enters twice into the value +of the product.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The population of the state was 82,548 in 1790, 162,686 in 1800, +252,433 in 1810, 340,989 in 1820, 516,823 in 1830, 691,392 in 1840, +906,185 in 1850, 1,057,286 in 1860, and 1,184,100 in 1870.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This negro percentage includes 211 Chinese, Japanese and +Indians.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The state has had four other constitutions—those of 1777, 1789, +1798 and 1868.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Owing to the custom which holds in Georgia of choosing state +senators in rotation from each of the counties making up a senatorial +district, it happened in 1907 that few cities were represented directly +by senators chosen from municipalities. It is believed that this fact +contributed to the passage of the prohibition law.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>De facto.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> President of the Colony.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> President of the Council of Safety.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11f" id="ft11f" href="#fa11f"><span class="fn">11</span></a> President of Georgia.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12f" id="ft12f" href="#fa12f"><span class="fn">12</span></a> First Governor under a State Constitution.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13f" id="ft13f" href="#fa13f"><span class="fn">13</span></a> President Executive Council and <i>de facto</i> Governor.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14f" id="ft14f" href="#fa14f"><span class="fn">14</span></a> President of Senate.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15f" id="ft15f" href="#fa15f"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Provisional.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGIA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a former kingdom of Transcaucasia, which existed +historically for more than 2000 years. Its earliest name was +Karthli or Karthveli; the Persians knew it as Gurjistan, the +Romans and Greeks as Iberia, though the latter placed Colchis +also in the west of Georgia. Vrastan is the Armenian name and +Gruzia the Russian. Georgia proper, which included Karthli +and Kakhetia, was bounded on the N. by Ossetia and Daghestan, +on the S. by the principalities of Erivan and Kars, and on the +W. by Guria and Imeretia; but the kingdom also included at +different times Guria, Mingrelia, Abkhasia, Imeretia and Daghestan, +and extended from the Caucasus range on the N. to the +Aras or Araxes on the S. It is now divided between the Russian +governments of Tiflis and Kutais, under which headings further +geographical particulars are given. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasia</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—According to traditional accounts, the Georgian +(Karthlian), Kakhetian, Lesghian, Mingrelian and other races of +Transcaucasia are the descendants of Thargamos, great-grandson +of Japheth, son of Noah, though Gen. x. 3 makes Togarmah to +be the son of Gomer, who was the son of Japheth. These various +races were subsequently known under the general name of +Thargamosides. Karthlos, the second son of Thargamos, is the +eponymous king of his race, their country being called Karthli +after him. Mtskhethos, son of Karthlos, founded the city of +Mtskhetha (the modern Mtskhet) and made it the capital of his +kingdom. We come, however, to firmer historic ground when +we read that Georgia was conquered by Alexander the Great, +or rather by one of his generals. The Macedonian yoke was +shaken off by Pharnavaz or Pharnabazus, a prince of the royal +race, who ruled from 302 to 237 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> All through its history +Georgia, being on the outskirts of Armenia and Persia, both of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +them more powerful neighbours than itself, was at times more +or less closely affected by their destinies. In this way it was +sometimes opposed to Rome, sometimes on terms of friendship +with Byzantium, according as these were successively friendly +or hostile to the Armenians and the Persians. In the end of the +2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the last Pharnavazian prince was dethroned +by his own subjects and the crown given to Arsaces, king of +Armenia, whose son Arshag, ascending the throne of Georgia +in 93 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, established there the Arsacid dynasty. This close +association with Armenia brought upon the country an invasion +(65 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by the Roman general Pompey, who was then at war +with Mithradates, king of Pontus and Armenia; but Pompey +did not establish his power permanently over Iberia. A hundred +and eighty years later the Emperor Trajan penetrated (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114) +into the heart of the country, and chastised the Georgians; yet +his conquest was only a little more permanent than Pompey’s. +During one of the internecine quarrels, which were not infrequent +in Georgia, the throne fell to Mirhan or Mirian (265-342), a son +of the Persian king, who had married a daughter of Asphagor, +the last sovereign of the Arsacid dynasty.</p> + +<p>With Mirian begins the Sassanian dynasty. He and his subjects +were converted to Christianity by a nun Nuno (Nino), who had +escaped from the religious persecutions of Tiridates, king of +Armenia. Mirian erected the first Christian church in Georgia on +the site now occupied by the cathedral of Mtskhet. In or about +the year 371 Georgia was overrun by the Persian king Shapur +or Sapor II., and in 379 a Persian general built the stronghold +of Tphilis (afterwards Tiflis) as a counterpoise to Mtskhet. The +Persian grasp upon Georgia was loosened by Tiridates, who +reigned from 393 to 405. One of Mirian’s successors, Vakhtang +(446-499), surnamed Gurgaslan or Gurgasal, the Wolf-Lion, +established a patriarchate at Mtskhet and made Tphilis his +capital. This sovereign, having conquered Mingrelia and +Abkhasia, and subdued the Ossetes, made himself master of a +large part of Armenia. Then, co-operating for once with the +king of Persia, he led an army into India; but towards the +end of his reign there was enmity between him and the Persians, +against whom he warred unsuccessfully. His son Dachi or +Darchil (499-514) upon ascending the throne transferred the +seat of government permanently from Mtskhet to Tphilis (Tiflis). +Again Persia stretched out her hand over Georgia, and proved a +formidable menace to the existence of the kingdom, until, owing +to the severe pressure of the Turks on the one side and of the +Byzantine Greeks on the other, she found it expedient to relax +her grasp. The Georgians, seizing the opportunity, appealed +(571) to the Byzantine emperor, Justin II. who gave them a king +in the person of Guaram, a prince of the Bagratid family of +Armenia, conferring upon him the title, not of king, but of viceroy. +Thus began the dynasty of the Bagratids, who ruled until 1803.</p> + +<p>This was not, however, the first time that Byzantine influence +had been effectively exercised in Georgia. As early as the +reign of Mirian, in the 3rd century, the organizers of the early +Georgian church had looked to Byzantium, the leading Christian +power in the East, for both instruction and guidance, and the +connexion thus begun had been strengthened as time went on. +From this period until the Arab (<i>i.e.</i> Mahommedan) invasions +began, the authority of Byzantium was supreme in Georgia. +Some seventy years after the Bagratids began to rule in Georgia +the all-conquering Arabs appeared on the frontiers of the country, +and for the next one hundred and eighty years they frequently +devastated the land, compelling its inhabitants again and again +to accept Islam at the sword’s point. But it was not until the +death of the Georgian king Ashod (787-826) that they completely +subdued the Caucasian state and imposed their will upon it. +Nevertheless they were too much occupied elsewhere or too +indifferent to its welfare to defend it against alien aggressors, +for in 842 Bogha, a Turkish chief, invaded the country, and early +in the 10th century the Persians again overran it. But a period +of relief from these hostile incursions was afforded by the reign +of Bagrat III. (980-1014). During his father’s lifetime he had +been made king of Abkhasia, his mother belonging to the royal +house of that land, and after ascending the Georgian throne he +made his power felt far beyond the frontiers of his hereditary +dominions, until his kingdom extended from the Black Sea +to the Caspian, while Armenia, Azerbaijan and Kirman all +paid him tribute. Not only did he encourage learning and +patronize the fine arts, but he built, in 1003, the cathedral at +Kutais, one of the finest examples extant of Georgian architecture. +During the reign of Bagrat IV. (1027-1072) the Seljuk Turks +more than once burst, after 1048, into the country from Asia +Minor, but they were on the whole successfully repulsed, although +they plundered Tiflis. During the reign of the next king, George +II., they again devastated Tiflis. But once more fortune changed +after the accession of David II. (1089-1125), surnamed the +Renovator, one of the greatest of Georgian kings. With the help +of the Kipchaks, a Mongol or Turkish race, from the steppe +lands to the north of the Caucasus, whom he admitted into his +country, David drove the Seljuks out of his domains and forced +them back over the Armenian mountains. Under George III. +(1156-1184), a grandson of David II., Armenia was in part +conquered, and Ani, one of its capitals, taken. George’s daughter +Thamar or Tamara, who succeeded him, reigned over the kingdom +as left by David II. and further extended her power over +Trebizond, Erzerum, Tovin (in Armenia) and Kars. These +successes were continued by her son George IV. (1212-1223), +who conquered Ganja (now Elisavetpol) and repulsed the attacks +of the Persians; but in the last years of his reign there appeared +(1220 and 1222) the people who were to prove the ruin of Georgia, +namely the Mongol hosts of Jenghiz Khan, led by his sons. +George IV. was succeeded by his sister Rusudan, whose capital +was twice captured by the Persians and her kingdom overrun +and fearfully devastated by the Mongols in 1236. Then, after a +period of wonderful recovery under George V. (1318-1346), +who conquered Imeretia and reunited it to his crown, Georgia +was again twice (1386 and 1393-1394) desolated by the Mongols +under Timur (Tamerlane), prince of Samarkand, who on the +second occasion laid waste the entire country with fire and +sword, and crushed it under his relentless heel until the year +1403. Alexander I. (1413-1442) freed his country from the last +of the Mongols, but at the end of his reign divided his territory +between his three sons, whom he made sovereigns of Imeretia, +Kakhetia and Karthli (Georgia) respectively. The first mentioned +remained a separate state until its annexation to Russia +in 1810; the other two were soon reunited.</p> + +<p>Political relations between Russia and Georgia began in the +end of the same century, namely in 1492, when the king of +Kakhetia sought the protection of Ivan III. during a war between +the Turks and the Persians. In the 17th century the two +states were brought into still closer relationship. In 1619, +when Georgia was harried by Shah Abbas of Persia, Theimuraz +(1629-1634), king of Georgia, appealed for help to Michael, +the first of the Romanov tsars of Russia, and his example was +followed later in the century by the rulers of other petty Thargamosid +or Caucasian states, namely Imeretia and Guria. In +1638 the prince of Mingrelia took the oath of allegiance to the +Russian tsar, and in 1650 the same step was taken by the prince +of Imeretia. Vakhtang VI. of Georgia put himself under the +protection of Peter the Great early in the 18th century. When +Persia fell into the grip of the Afghans early in the 18th century +the Turks seized the opportunity, and, ousting the Persians from +Georgia, captured Tiflis and compelled Vakhtang to abdicate. +But in 1735 they renounced all claim to supremacy over the +Caucasian states. This left Persia with the predominating +influence, for though Peter the Great extorted from Persia +(1722) her prosperous provinces beside the Caspian, he left +the mountaineers to their own dynastic quarrels. Heraclius II. +of Georgia declared himself the vassal of Russia in 1783, and when, +twelve years later, he was hard pressed by Agha Mahommed, +shah of Persia, who seized Tiflis and laid it in ruins, he appealed +to Russia for help. The appeal was again renewed by the next +king of Georgia, George XIII., in 1798, and in the following +year he renounced his crown in favour of the tsar, and in 1801 +Georgia was converted into a Russian province. The state of +Guria submitted to Russia in 1829.</p> +<div class="author">(J. T. Be.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span></p> + +<p><i>Ethnology.</i>—Of the three main groups into which the Caucasian +races are now usually divided, the Georgian is in every respect +the most important and interesting. It has accordingly largely +occupied the attention of Orientalists almost incessantly from +the days of Klaproth. Yet such are the difficulties connected +with the origin and mutual relations of the Caucasian peoples +that its affinities are still far from being clearly established. +Anton von Schiefner and P.V. Uslar, however, arrived at some +negative conclusions valuable as starting-points for further +research. In their papers, published in the <i>Memoirs</i> of the St +Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences and elsewhere (1859 +et seq.), they finally disposed of the views of Bopp and +Brosset (1836), who attempted on linguistic grounds to connect +the Georgians with the Indo-European family. They also clearly +show that Max Müller’s “Turanian” theory is untenable, +and they go a long way towards proving that the Georgian, +with all the other Caucasian languages except the Ossetian, +forms a distinct linguistic family absolutely independent of all +others. This had already been suspected by Klaproth, and +the same conclusion was arrived at by Fr. Müller and Zagarelli.</p> + +<p>Uslar’s “Caucasian Family” comprises the following three +great divisions:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Western Group. Typical races: Circassians and Abkhasians.</p> +<p>2. Eastern Group. Typical races: Chechens and Lesghians.</p> +<p>3. Southern Group. Typical race: Georgians.</p> +</div> + +<p>Here the term “family” must be taken in a far more elastic +sense than when applied, for instance, to the Indo-European, +Semitic or Eastern Polynesian divisions of mankind. Indeed +the three groups present at least as wide divergences as are found +to exist between the Semitic and Hamitic linguistic families. +Thus, while the Abkhasian of group 1 is still at the agglutinating, +the Lesghian of group 2 has fairly reached the inflecting stage, +and the Georgian seems still to waver between the two. In +consequence of these different stages of development, Uslar +hesitated finally to fix the position of Georgian in the family, +regarding it as possibly a connecting link between groups 1 and +2, but possibly also radically distinct from both.</p> + +<p>Including all its numerous ramifications, the Georgian or +southern group occupies the greater part of Transcaucasia, +reaching from about the neighbourhood of Batum on the Black +Sea eastwards to the Caspian, and merging southwards with the +Armenians of Aryan stock. It comprises altogether nine subdivisions, +as in the subjoined table:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>1. The <span class="sc">Georgians Proper</span>, who are the Iberians of the ancients +and the Grusians of the Russians, but who call themselves Karthlians, +and who in medieval times were masters of the Rion and Upper +Kura as far as its confluence with the Alazan.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><p>2. The <span class="sc">Imeretians</span>, west of the Suram mountains as far as the +river Tskheniz-Tskhali.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><p>3. The <span class="sc">Gurians</span>, between the Rion and Lazistan.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><p>4. The <span class="sc">Lazis</span> of Lazistan on the Black Sea.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><p>5. The <span class="sc">Svanetians, Shvans</span> or <span class="sc">Swanians</span>, on the Upper Ingur +and Tskheniz-Tskhali rivers.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"><p>6. The <span class="sc">Mingrelians</span>, between the rivers Tskheniz-Tskhali, Rion, +Ingur and the Black Sea.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>7. The <span class="sc">Tushes</span> or <span class="sc">Mosoks</span></p></td> + <td class="tclm cl" rowspan="3">about the headstreams of the Alazan and Yora rivers.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>8. The <span class="sc">Pshavs</span> or <span class="sc">Ph’chavy</span></p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>9. The <span class="sc">Khevsurs</span></p></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The representative branch of the race has always been the +Karthlians. It is now pretty well established that the Georgians +are the descendants of the aborigines of the Pambak highlands, +and that they found their way to their present homes from the +south-east some four or five thousand years ago, possibly under +pressure from the great waves of Aryan migration flowing from +the Iranian tableland westwards to Asia Minor and Europe. +The Georgians proper are limited on the east by the Alazan, on +the north by the Caucasus, on the west by the Meskes hills, +separating them from the Imeretians, and on the south by the +Kura river and Kara-dagh and Pambak mountains. Southwards, +however, no hard and fast ethnical line can be drawn, +for even immediately south of Tiflis, Georgians, Armenians and +Tatars are found intermingled confusedly together.</p> + +<p>The Georgian race, which represents the oldest elements of +civilization in the Caucasus, is distinguished by some excellent +mental qualities, and is especially noted for personal courage and +a passionate love of music. The people, however, are described +as fierce and cruel, and addicted to intemperance, though Max +von Thielmann (<i>Journey in the Caucasus</i>, &c., 1875) speaks of +them as “rather hard drinkers than drunkards.” Physically +they are a fine athletic race of pure Caucasian type; hence +during the Moslem ascendancy Georgia supplied, next to Circassia, +the largest number of female slaves for the Turkish +harems and of recruits for the Osmanli armies, more especially +for the select corps of the famous Mamelukes.</p> + +<p>The social organization rested on a highly aristocratic basis, +and the lowest classes were separated by several grades of +vassalage from the highest. But since their incorporation +with the Russian empire, these relations have become greatly +modified, and a more sharply defined middle class of merchants, +traders and artisans has been developed. The power of life +and death, formerly claimed and freely exercised by the nobles +over their serfs, has also been expressly abolished. The Georgians +are altogether at present in a fairly well-to-do condition, and +under Russian administration they have become industrious, +and have made considerable moral and material progress.</p> + +<p>Missionaries sent by Constantine the Great introduced Christianity +about the beginning of the 4th century. Since that time +the people have, notwithstanding severe pressure from surrounding +Mahommedan communities, remained faithful to the +principles of Christianity, and are still amongst the most devoted +adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church. Indeed it was their +attachment to the national religion that caused them to call in +the aid of the Christian Muscovites against the proselytizing +attempts of the Shiite Persians—a step which ultimately brought +about their political extinction.</p> + +<p>As already stated, the Karthli language is not only fundamentally +distinct from the Indo-European linguistic family, +but cannot be shown to possess any clearly ascertained affinities +with either of the two northern Caucasian groups. It resembles +them chiefly in its phonetic system, so that according to Rosen +(<i>Sprache der Lazen</i>) all the languages of central and western +Caucasus might be adequately rendered by the Georgian alphabet. +Though certainly not so harsh as the Avar, Lesghian and other +Daghestan languages, it is very far from being euphonious, and +the frequent recurrence of such sounds as <i>ts, ds, thz, kh, khh, gh</i> +(Arab. <span title="gh">غ</span>), <i>q</i> (Arab. <span title="q">ق</span>), for all of which there are distinct +characters, renders its articulation rather more energetic and +rugged than is agreeable to ears accustomed to the softer tones +of the Iranian and western Indo-European tongues. It presents +great facilities for composition, the laws of which are very +regular. Its peculiar morphology, standing midway between +agglutination and true inflexion, is well illustrated by its simple +declension common to noun, adjective and pronoun, and its +more intricate verbal conjugation, with its personal endings, +seven tenses and incorporation of pronominal subject and +object, all showing decided progress towards the inflecting +structure of the Indo-European and Semitic tongues.</p> + +<p>Georgian is written in a native alphabet obviously based on +the Armenian, and like it attributed to St Mesropius (Mesrop), +who flourished in the 5th century. Of this alphabet there +are two forms, differing so greatly in outline and even in the +number of the letters that they might almost be regarded as two +distinct alphabetic systems. The first and oldest, used exclusively +in the Bible and liturgical works, is the square or monumental +Khutsuri, <i>i.e.</i> “sacerdotal,” consisting of 38 letters, and approaching +the Armenian in appearance. The second is the Mkhedrūli +khēli, <i>i.e.</i> “soldier’s hand,” used in ordinary writing, and +consisting of 40 letters, neatly shaped and full of curves, hence +at first sight not unlike the modern Burmese form of the Pali.</p> + +<p>Of the Karthli language there are several varieties; and, besides +those comprised in the above table, mention should be made +of the Kakhetian current in the historic province of Kakhetia. +A distinction is sometimes drawn between the Karthlians proper +and the Kakhetians, but it rests on a purely political basis, +having originated with the partition in 1424 of the ancient Iberian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +estates into the three new kingdoms of Karthlinia, Kakhetia +and Imeretia. On the other hand, both the Laz of Lazistan +and the Svanetian present such serious structural and verbal +differences from the common type that they seem to stand +rather in the relation of sister tongues than of dialects to the +Georgian proper. All derive obviously from a common source, +but have been developed independently of each other. The +Tush or Mosok appears to be fundamentally a Kistinian or +Chechen idiom affected by Georgian influences.</p> + +<p>The Bible is said to have been translated into Georgian as +early as the 5th century. The extant version, however, dates +only from the 8th century, and is attributed to St Euthymius. +But even so, it is far the most ancient work known to exist in +the language. Next in importance is, perhaps, the curious +poem entitled <i>The Amours of Turiel and Nestan Darejan</i>, or <i>The +man clothed in the panther’s skin</i>, attributed to Rustevel, who +lived during the prosperous reign of Queen Thamar (11th +century). Other noteworthy compositions are the national epics +of the <i>Baramiani</i> and the <i>Rostomiani</i>, and the prose romances +of <i>Visramiani</i> and <i>Darejaniani</i>, the former by Sarg of Thmogvi, +the latter by Mosi of Khoni. Apart from these, the great bulk +of Georgian literature consists of ecclesiastical writings, hymns +sacred and profane, national codes and chronicles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The standard authority on the history is M.F. +Brosset’s translation of the Georgian chronicles under the title of +<i>Histoire de la Géorgie</i> (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1849-1858); but compare +also Khakanov, <i>Histoire de Géorgie</i> (Paris, 1900). See further +A. Leist, <i>Das georgische Volk</i> (Dresden, 1903); M. de Villeneuve, +<i>La Géorgie</i> (Paris, 1870); O. Wardrop, <i>The Kingdom of Georgia</i> +(London, 1888); and Langlois, <i>Numismatique géorgienne</i> (Paris, +1860). For the philology see Zagarelli, <i>Examen de la littérature +relative à la grammaire géorgienne</i> (1873); <i>Friedrich Müller, Grundriss +der Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1887), iii. 2; Leist, <i>Georgische Dichter</i> +(1887); Erskert, <i>Sprachen des kaukasischen Stammes</i> (1895). For +other points as to anthropology, Michel Smirnow’s paper in <i>Revue +d’anthropologie</i> (April 15, 1878); Chantre, <i>Recherches anthropologiques +dans le Caucase</i> (1885-1887); and Erckert, <i>Der Kaukasus und seine +Völker</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGIAN BAY,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the N.E. section of Lake Huron, separated +from it by Manitoulin Island and the peninsula comprising +the counties of Grey and Bruce, Ontario. It is about 100 m. +long and 50 m. wide, and is said to contain 30,000 islands. It +receives numerous rivers draining a large extent of country; of +these the chief are the French river draining Lake Nipissing, +the Maganatawan draining a number of small lakes, the Muskoka +draining the Muskoka chain of lakes (Muskoka, Rosseau, Joseph, +&c.) and the Severn draining Lake Simcoe. Into its southern +extremity, known as Nottawasaga Bay, flows the river of the +same name. The Trent valley canal connects Georgian Bay +with the Bay of Quinte and Lake Ontario, and a canal system +has long been projected to Montreal by way of the French and +Ottawa rivers and Lake Nipissing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEORGSWALDE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. N.E. +of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 8131, including Neu-Georgswalde, +Wiesenthal and Philippsdorf, which form together a single +commune. Georgswalde is one of the oldest industrial places +of Bohemia, and together with the neighbouring town of Rumburg +is the principal centre of the linen industry. The village +of Philippsdorf, now incorporated with Georgswalde, has become +since 1866 a famous place of pilgrimage, owing to the miracles +attributed to an image of the Virgin, placed now in a magnificent +new church (1885).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GEPHYREA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the name used for several groups of worm-like +animals with certain resemblances but of doubtful affinity. In +the article “Annelida” in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia, +W.C. McIntosh followed the accepted view in associating +in this group the <i>Echiuridae</i>, <i>Sipunculidae</i> and <i>Priapulidae</i>. +E. Ray Lankester, in the preface to the English translation of +C. Gegenbaur’s <i>Comparative Anatomy</i> (1878), added the <i>Phoronidae</i> +to these forms. Afterwards the same author (article +“Zoology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 9th ed.) recognized that the <i>Phoronidae</i> +had other affinities, and placed the other “gephyreans” in +association with the Polyzoa as the two classes of a phylum +<i>Podaxonia</i>. In the present state of knowledge the old group +<i>Gephyrea</i> is broken up into <i>Echiuroidea</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) or <i>Gephyrea +armata</i>, which are certainly Annelids; the <i>Sipunculoidea</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) or +<i>Gephyrea achaeta</i>, an independent group, certainly coelomate, +but of doubtful affinity; the <i>Priapuloidea</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), equally of +doubtful affinity; and the <i>Phoronidea</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), which are almost +certainly <i>Hemichordata</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Schleiz +(called also Reuss younger line), situated in a valley +on the banks of the White Elster, 45 m. S.S.W. of Leipzig on +the railway to Probstzella. Pop. (1885) 34,152; (1905) 47,455. +It has been mostly rebuilt since a great fire in 1780, and the streets +are in general wide and straight, and contain many handsome +houses. There are three Evangelical churches and one Roman +Catholic. Among other noteworthy buildings are the handsome +town-hall (1576, afterwards restored) and the theatre (1902). Its +educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial +and a weaving school. The castle of Osterstein, the residence +of the princes of Reuss, dates from the 9th century, but has been +almost entirely rebuilt in modern times. Gera is noted for its +industrial activity. Its industries include wool-weaving and +spinning, dyeing, iron-founding, the manufacture of cotton and +silk goods, machinery, sewing machines and machine oil, leather +and tobacco, and printing (books and maps) and flower gardening.</p> + +<p>Gera (in ancient chronicles <i>Geraha</i>) was raised to the rank of +a town in the 11th century, at which time it belonged to the +counts of Groitch. In the 12th century it came into the possession +of the lords of Reuss. It was stormed and sacked by the +Bohemians in 1450, was two-thirds burned down by the Swedes +in 1639 during the Thirty Years’ War, and suffered afterwards +from great conflagrations in 1686 and 1780, being in the latter +year almost completely destroyed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERALDTON,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a town in the district of Victoria, West Australia, +on Champion Bay, 306 m. by rail N.W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) +2593. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, an important +seaport carrying on a considerable trade with the surrounding +gold-fields and agricultural districts, the centre of a considerable +railway system and an increasingly popular seaside resort. +The harbour is safe and extensive, having a pier affording +accommodation for large steamers. The chief exports are gold, +copper, lead, wool and sandalwood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1772-1842), French +philosopher, was born at Lyons on the 29th of February 1772. +When the city was besieged in 1793 by the armies of the Republic, +de Gérando took up arms, was made prisoner and with difficulty +escaped with his life. He took refuge in Switzerland, whence he +afterwards fled to Naples. In 1796 the establishment of the +Directory allowed him to return to France. At the age of twenty-five +he enlisted as a private in a cavalry regiment. About this +time the Institute proposed as a subject for an essay this question,—“What +is the influence of symbols on the faculty of thought?” +De Gérando gained the prize, and heard of his success after the +battle of Zürich, in which he had distinguished himself. This +literary triumph was the first step in his upward career. In +1799 he was attached to the ministry of the interior by Lucien +Bonaparte; in 1804 he became general secretary under Champagny; +in 1805 he accompanied Napoleon into Italy; in 1808 +he was nominated master of requests; in 1811 he received the +title of councillor of state; and in the following year he was +appointed governor of Catalonia. On the overthrow of the +empire, de Gérando was allowed to retain this office; but having +been sent during the hundred days into the department of the +Moselle to organize the defence of that district, he was punished +at the second Restoration by a few months of neglect. He +was soon after, however, readmitted into the council of state, +where he distinguished himself by the prudence and conciliatory +tendency of his views. In 1819 he opened at the law-school of +Paris a class of public and administrative law, which in 1822 +was suppressed by government, but was reopened six years +later under the Martignac ministry. In 1837 he was made a +baron. He died at Paris on the 9th of November 1842.</p> + +<p>De Gérando’s best-known work is his <i>Histoire comparée des +systèmes de philosophie relativement aux principes des connaissances +humaines</i> (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.). The germ of this work +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +had already appeared in the author’s <i>Mémoire de la génération +des connaissances humaines</i> (Berlin, 1802), which was crowned +by the Academy of Berlin. In it de Gérando, after a rapid +review of ancient and modern speculations on the origin of our +ideas, singles out the theory of primary ideas, which he endeavours +to combat under all its forms. The latter half of the work, +devoted to the analysis of the intellectual faculties, is intended +to show how all human knowledge is the result of experience; +and reflection is assumed as the source of our ideas of substance, +of unity and of identity. It is divided into two parts, the first +of which is purely historical, and devoted to an exposition of +various philosophical systems; in the second, which comprises +fourteen chapters of the entire work, the distinctive characters +and value of these systems are compared and discussed. In +spite of the disadvantage that it is impossible to separate +advantageously the history and critical examination of any +doctrine in the arbitrary manner which de Gérando chose, the +work has great merits. In correctness of detail and comprehensiveness +of view it was greatly superior to every work of the same kind +that had hitherto appeared in France. During the Empire and +the first years of the Restoration, de Gérando found time to +prepare a second edition (Paris, 1822, 4 vols.), which is enriched +with so many additions that it may pass for an entirely new +work. The last chapter of the part published during the author’s +lifetime ends with the revival of letters and the philosophy +of the 15th century. The second part, carrying the work down +to the close of the 18th century, was published posthumously +by his son in 4 vols. (Paris, 1847). Twenty-three chapters of this +were left complete by the author in manuscript; the remaining +three were supplied from other sources, chiefly printed but +unpublished memoirs.</p> + +<p>His essay <i>Du perfectionnement moral et de l’éducation de soi-même</i> +was crowned by the French Academy in 1825. The fundamental +idea of this work is that human life is in reality only a great +education, of which perfection is the aim.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the works already mentioned, de Gérando left many +others, of which we may indicate the following:—<i>Considérations sur +diverses méthodes d’observation des peuples sauvages</i> (Paris, 1801); +<i>Éloge de Dumarsais,—discours qui a remporté le prix proposé par la +seconde classe de l’Institut National</i> (Paris, 1805); <i>Le Visiteur +de pauvre</i> (Paris, 1820); <i>Instituts du droit administratif</i> (4 vols., +Paris, 1830); <i>Cours normal des instituteurs primaires ou directions +relatives à l’éducation physique, morale, et intellectuelle dans les écoles +primaires</i> (Paris, 1832); <i>De l’éducation des sourds-muets</i> (2 vols., +Paris, 1832); <i>De la bienfaisance publique</i> (4 vols., 1838). A detailed +analysis of the <i>Histoire comparée des systèmes</i> will be found in the +<i>Fragments philosophiques</i> of M. Cousin. In connexion with his +psychological studies, it is interesting that in 1884 the French +Anthropological Society reproduced his instructions for the observation +of primitive peoples, and modern students of the beginnings +of speech in children and the cases of deaf-mutes have found useful +matter in his works. See also J.P. Damiron, <i>Essai sur la philosophie +en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERANIACEAE,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> in botany, a small but very widely distributed +natural order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Polypetalae, +containing about 360 species in 11 genera. It is represented +in Britain by two genera, <i>Geranium</i> (crane’s-bill) and +<i>Erodium</i> (stork’s-bill), to which belong nearly two-thirds of the +total number of species. The plants are mostly herbs, rarely +becoming shrubby, with generally simple glandular hairs on +the stem and leaves. The opposite or alternate leaves have a +pair of small stipules at the base of the stalk and a palminerved +blade. The flowers, which are generally arranged in a cymose +inflorescence, are hermaphrodite, hypogynous, and, except in +<i>Pelargonium</i>, regular. The parts are arranged in fives. There +are five free sepals, overlapping in the bud, and, alternating with +these, five free petals. In <i>Pelargonium</i> the flower is zygomorphic +with a spurred posterior sepal and the petals differing in size +or shape. In <i>Geranium</i> the stamens are obdiplostemonous, <i>i.e.</i> +an outer whorl of five opposite the petals alternates with an +inner whorl of five opposite the sepals; at the base of each of +the antisepalous stamens is a honey-gland. In <i>Erodium</i> the +members of the outer whorl are reduced to scale-like structures +(staminodes), and in <i>Pelargonium</i> from two to seven only are +fertile. There is no satisfactory explanation of this break in +the regular alternation of successive whorls; the outer whorl +of stamens arises in course of development before the inner, so +that there is no question of subsequent displacement. There +are five, or sometimes fewer, carpels, which unite to form an +ovary with as many chambers, in each of which are one or two, +rarely more, pendulous anatropous ovules, attached to the +central column in such a way that the micropyle points outwards +and the raphe is turned towards the placenta. The long beak-like +style divides at the top into a corresponding number of slender +stigmas.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:384px; height:599px" src="images/img762.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">Meadow Crane’s-bill, <i>Geranium pratense</i>. (After Curtis, +<i>Flora Londinensis</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1, Flower after removal of petals.</p> + +<p>2, Fruit after splitting. 1 and 2 +about natural size.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>3, Floral diagram, the dots +opposite the inner stamens +represent honey-glands.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The larger-flowered species of <i>Geranium</i> are markedly protandrous, +the outer stamens, inner stamens and stigmas becoming +functional in succession. For instance, in meadow crane’s-bill +<i>G. pratense</i>, each whorl of stamens ripens in turn, becoming +erect and shedding their pollen; as the anthers wither the filaments +bend outwards, and when all the anthers have diverged +the stigmas become mature and ready for pollination. By this +arrangement self-pollination is prevented and cross-pollination +ensured by the visits of bees which come for the honey secreted +by the glands at the base of the inner stamens.</p> + +<p>In species with smaller and less conspicuous flowers, such as +<i>G. molle</i>, the flowers of which are only <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> to ½ in. in diameter, +self-pollination is rendered possible, since the divisions of the +stigma begin to separate before the outer stamens have shed +all their pollen; the nearness of the stigmas to the dehiscing +anthers favours self-pollination.</p> + +<p>In the ripe fruit the carpels separate into five one-seeded +portions (<i>cocci</i>), which break away from the central column, +either rolling elastically outwards and upwards or becoming +spirally twisted. In most species of <i>Geranium</i> the cocci split +open on the inside and the seeds are shot out by the elastic +uptwisting (fig. 1); in <i>Erodium</i> and <i>Pelargonium</i> each coccus +remains closed, and the long twisted upper portion separates +from the central column, forming an awn, the distribution of +which is favoured by the presence of bristles or hairs. The +embryo generally fills the seed, and the cotyledons are rolled or +folded on each other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span></p> + +<p><i>Geranium</i> is the most widely distributed genus; it has 160 +species and is spread over all temperate regions with a few +species in the tropics. Three British species—<i>G. sylvaticum</i>, +<i>G. pratense</i> and <i>G. Robertianum</i> (herb-Robert)—reach the +arctic zone, while <i>G. patagonicum</i> and <i>G. magellanicum</i> are +found in the antarctic. <i>Erodium</i> contains 50 species (three are +British), most of which are confined to the Mediterranean +region and west Asia, though others occur in America, in South +Africa and West Australia. <i>Pelargonium</i>, with 175 species, has +its centre in South Africa; the well-known garden and greenhouse +“geraniums” are species of <i>Pelargonium</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geranium</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERANIUM,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the name of a genus of plants, which is taken by +botanists as the type of the natural order Geraniaceae. The +name, as a scientific appellation, has a much more restricted +application than when taken in its popular sense. Formerly +the genus <i>Geranium</i> was almost conterminous with the order +Geraniaceae. Then as now the geranium was very popular +as a garden plant, and the species included in the original genus +became widely known under that name, which has more or less +clung to them ever since, in spite of scientific changes which +have removed the large number of them to the genus <i>Pelargonium</i>. +This result has been probably brought about in some +degree by an error of the nurserymen, who seem in many cases +to have acted on the conclusion that the group commonly +known as <i>Scarlet Geraniums</i> were really geraniums and not +pelargoniums, and were in consequence inserted under the +former name in their trade catalogues. In fact it may be said +that, from a popular point of view, the pelargoniums of the +botanist are still better known as geraniums than are the +geraniums themselves, but the term “zonal Pelargonium” is +gradually making its way amongst the masses.</p> + +<p>The species of <i>Geranium</i> consist mostly of herbs, of annual or +perennial duration, dispersed throughout the temperate regions +of the world. They number about 160, and bear a considerable +family resemblance. The leaves are for the most part palmately-lobed, +and the flowers are regular, consisting of five sepals, five +imbricating petals, alternating with five glandules at their base, +ten stamens and a beaked ovary. Eleven species are natives +of the British Isles and are popularly known as crane’s-bill. +<i>G. Robertianum</i> is herb-Robert, a common plant in hedgebanks. +<i>G. sanguineum</i>, with flowers a deep rose colour, is often grown +in borders, as are also the double-flowered varieties of <i>G. pratense</i>. +Many others of exotic origin form handsome border plants in +our gardens of hardy perennials; amongst these <i>G. armenum</i>, +<i>G. Endressi</i>, <i>G. ibericum</i> and its variety <i>platypetalum</i> are conspicuous.</p> + +<p>From these regular-flowered herbs, with which they had +been mixed up by the earlier botanists, the French botanist +L’Heritier in 1787 separated those plants which have since +borne the name of <i>Pelargonium</i>, and which, though agreeing +with them in certain points of structure, differ in others which +are admitted to be of generic value. One obvious distinction of +<i>Pelargonium</i> is that the flowers are irregular, the two petals +which stand uppermost being different—larger, smaller or +differently marked—from the other three, which latter are +occasionally wanting. This difference of irregularity the modern +florist has done very much to annul, for the increased size given +to the flowers by high breeding has usually been accompanied +by the enlargement of the smaller petals, so that a very near +approach to regularity has been in some cases attained. Another +well-marked difference, however, remains in <i>Pelargonium</i>: the +back or dorsal sepal has a hollow spur, which spur is adnate, <i>i.e.</i> +joined for its whole length with the flower-stalk; while in +<i>Geranium</i> there is no spur. This peculiarity is best seen by +cutting clean through the flower-stalk just behind the flower, +when in <i>Pelargonium</i> there will be seen the hollow tube of the +spur, which in the case of <i>Geranium</i> will not be found, but the +stalk will appear as a solid mass. There are other characters +which support those already pointed out, such as the absence of +the glandules, and the declination of the stamens; but the +features already described offer the most ready and obvious +distinctions.</p> + +<p>To recapitulate, the geraniums properly so-called are regular-flowered +herbs with the flower-stalks solid, while many geraniums +falsely so-called in popular language are really pelargoniums, +and may be distinguished by their irregular flowers and hollow +flower-stalks. In a great majority of cases too, the pelargoniums +so commonly met with in greenhouses and summer parterres +are of shrubby or sub-shrubby habit.</p> + +<p>The various races of pelargoniums have sprung from the +intermixture of some of the species obtained from the Cape. +The older show-flowered varieties have been gradually acquired +through a long series of years. The fancy varieties, as well as +the French spotted varieties and the market type, have been +evolved from them. The zonal or bedding race, on the other +hand, has been more recently perfected; they are supposed +to have arisen from hybrids between <i>Pelargonium inquinans</i> +and <i>P. zonale</i>. In all the sections the varieties are of a highly +ornamental character, but for general cultivation the market +type is preferable for indoor purposes, while the zonals are +effective either in the greenhouse or flower garden. Some of the +Cape species are still in cultivation—the leaves of many of them +being beautifully subdivided, almost fern-like in character, +and some of them are deliciously scented; <i>P. quercifolium</i> +is the oak-leaf geranium. The ivy-leaf geranium, derived +from <i>P. peltatum</i>, has given rise to an important class of both +double- and single-flowered forms adapted especially for pot +culture, hanging baskets, window boxes and the greenhouse. +Of late years the ivy-leaf “geraniums” have been crossed with +the “zonals,” and a new race is being gradually evolved from +these two distinct groups.</p> + +<p>The best soil for pelargoniums is a mellow fibrous loam with +good well-rotted stable manure or leaf-mould in about the proportion +of one-fifth; when used it should not be sifted, but +pulled to pieces by the hand, and as much sand should be added +as will allow the water to pass freely through it. The large-flowered +and fancy kinds cannot bear so much water as most +soft-wooded plants, and the latter should have a rather lighter +soil.</p> + +<p>All the pelargoniums are readily increased by cuttings made +from the shoots when the plants are headed down after flowering, +or in the spring, when they will root freely in a temperature of +65° to 70°. They must not be kept too close, and must be very +moderately watered. When rooted they may be moved into +well-drained 3-in. pots, and when from 6 to 8 in. high, should +have the points pinched out in order to induce them to push +out several shoots nearer the base. These shoots are, when long +enough, to be trained in a horizontal direction; and when they +have made three joints they should have the points again pinched +out. These early-struck plants will be ready for shifting into +6-in. pots by the autumn, and should still be trained outwards. +The show varieties after flowering should be set out of doors in +a sunny spot to ripen their wood, and should only get water +enough to keep them from flagging. In the course of two or +three weeks they will be ready to cut back within two joints +of where these were last stopped, when they should be placed +in a frame or pit, and kept close and dry until they have broken. +When they have pushed an inch or so, turn them out of their +pots, shake off the old soil, trim the straggling roots, and repot +them firmly in smaller pots if practicable; keep them near the +light, and as the shoots grow continue to train them outwardly. +They require to be kept in a light house, and to be set well up +to the glass; the night temperature should range about 45°; +and air should be given on all mild days, but no cold currents +allowed, nor more water than is necessary to keep the soil from +getting parched. The young shoots should be topped about +the end of October, and when they have grown an inch or two +beyond this, they may be shifted into 7-in. pots for flowering. +The shoots must be kept tied out so as to be fully exposed to +the light. If required to flower early they should not be stopped +again; if not until June they may be stopped in February.</p> + +<p>The zonal varieties, which are almost continuous bloomers, +are of much value as decorative subjects; they seldom require +much pruning after the first stopping. For winter flowering, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +young plants should be raised from cuttings about March, and +grown on during the summer, but should not be allowed to +flower. When blossoms are required, they should be placed +close up to the glass in a light house with a temperature of 65°, +only just as much water being given as will keep them growing. +For bedding purposes the zonal varieties are best struck towards +the middle of August in the open air, taken up and potted or +planted in boxes as soon as struck, and preserved in frames or in +the greenhouse during winter.</p> + +<p>The fancy varieties root best early in spring from the half-ripened +shoots; they are slower growers, and rather more +delicate in constitution than the zonal varieties, and very impatient +of excess of water at the root.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERARD<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (d. 1108), archbishop of York under Henry I., began +his career as a chancery clerk in the service of William Rufus. +He was one of the two royal envoys who, in 1095, persuaded +Urban II. to send a legate and Anselm’s pallium to England. +Although the legate disappointed the king’s expectations, +Gerard was rewarded for his services with the see of Hereford +(1096). On the death of Rufus he at once declared for Henry I., +by whom he was nominated to the see of York. He made difficulties +when required to give Anselm the usual profession of +obedience; and it was perhaps to assert the importance of his +see that he took the king’s side on the question of investitures. +He pleaded Henry’s cause at Rome with great ability, and claimed +that he had obtained a promise, on the pope’s part, to condone +the existing practice of lay investiture. But this statement +was contradicted by Paschal, and Gerard incurred the suspicion +of perjury. About 1103 he wrote or inspired a series of tracts +which defended the king’s prerogative and attacked the oecumenical +pretensions of the papacy with great freedom of language. +He changed sides in 1105, becoming a stanch friend and supporter +of Anselm. Gerard was a man of considerable learning +and ability; but the chroniclers accuse him of being lax in his +morals, an astrologer and a worshipper of the devil.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Tractatus Eboracenses</i> edited by H. Bochmer in <i>Libelli de +lite Sacerdotii et Imperii</i>, vol. iii. (in the <i>Monumenta hist. Germaniae</i>, +quarto series), and the same author’s <i>Kirche und Staat in England +und in der Normandie</i> (Leipzig, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERARD<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1040-1120), variously surnamed <span class="sc">Tum</span>, <span class="sc">Tunc</span>, +<span class="sc">Tenque</span> or <span class="sc">Thom</span>, founder of the order of the knights of St John +of Jerusalem (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Amalfi about the year 1040. +According to other accounts Martigues in Provence was his +birthplace, while one authority even names the Château d’Avesnes +in Hainaut. Either as a soldier or a merchant, he found his way +to Jerusalem, where a hospice had for some time existed for the +convenience of those who wished to visit the holy places. Of +this institution Gerard became guardian or provost at a date not +later than 1100; and here he organized that religious order of +St John which received papal recognition from Paschal II. in +1113, by a bull which was renewed and confirmed by Calixtus II. +shortly before the death of Gerard in 1120.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERARD OF CREMONA<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1114-1187), the medieval translator +of Ptolemy’s Astronomy, was born at Cremona, Lombardy, +in or about 1114. Dissatisfied with the meagre philosophies +of his Italian teachers, he went to Toledo to study in Spanish +Moslem schools, then so famous as depositories and interpreters +of ancient wisdom; and, having thus acquired a knowledge of +the Arabic language, he appears to have devoted the remainder +of his life to the business of making Latin translations from its +literature. The date of his return to his native town is uncertain, +but he is known to have died there in 1187. His most celebrated +work is the Latin version by which alone Ptolemy’s <i>Almagest</i> +was known to Europe until the discovery of the original <span class="grk" title="Megalê +Suntaxis">Μεγάλη Σύνταξις</span>. In addition to this, he translated various other +treatises, to the number, it is said, of sixty-six; among these +were the <i>Tables</i> of “Arzakhel,” or Al Zarkala of Toledo, Al +Farabi <i>On the Sciences</i> (<i>De scientiis</i>), Euclid’s <i>Geometry</i>, Al +Farghani’s <i>Elements of Astronomy</i>, and treatises on algebra, +arithmetic and astrology. In the last-named latitudes are +reckoned from Cremona and Toledo. Some of the works, however, +with which he has been credited (including the <i>Theoria</i> +or <i>Theorica planetarum</i>, and the versions of Avicenna’s <i>Canon +of Medicine</i>—the basis of the numerous subsequent Latin +editions of that well-known work—and of the <i>Almansorius</i> of +Abu Bakr Razi) are probably due to a later Gerard, of the 13th +century, also called Cremonensis but more precisely de Sabloneta +(Sabbionetta). This writer undertook the task of interpreting +to the Latin world some of the best work of Arabic physicians, +and his translation of Avicenna is said to have been made by +order of the emperor Frederic II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pipini, “Cronica,” in Muratori, <i>Script. rer. Ital.</i> vol. ix.; +Nicol. Antonio, <i>Bibliotheca Hispana vetus</i>, vol. ii.; Tiraboschi, +<i>Storia della letteratura Italiana</i>, vols. iii. (333) and iv.; Arisi, +<i>Cremona literata</i>; Jourdain, Recherches sur ... <i>l’origine des +traductions latines d’Aristote</i>; Chasles, <i>Aperçu historique des méthodes +en géométrie</i>, and in <i>Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</i>, vol. +xiii. p. 506; J.T. Reinaud, <i>Géographie d’Aboulféda</i>, introduction, +vol. i. pp. ccxlvi.-ccxlviii.; Boncompagni, <i>Della vita e delle opere di +Gherardo Cremonese e di Gherardo da Sabbionetta</i> (Rome, 1851). Much +of the work of both the Gerards remains in manuscript, as in Paris, +National Library, MSS. Lat. 7400, 7421; MSS. Suppl. Lat. 49; Rome, +Vatican library, 4083, and Ottobon, 1826; Oxford, Bodleian library, +Digby, 47, 61. The Vatican MS. 2392 is stated to contain a eulogy +of “Gerard of Cremona” and a list of “his” translations, apparently +confusing the two scholars. The former’s most valuable work was +in astronomy; the latter’s in medicine.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRARD, ÉTIENNE MAURICE,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1773-1852), French +general, was born at Damvilliers (Meuse), on the 4th of April +1773. He joined a battalion of volunteers in 1791, and served +in the campaigns of 1792-1793 under Generals Dumouriez and +Jourdan. In 1795 he accompanied Bernadotte as aide-de-camp. +In 1799 he was promoted <i>chef d’escadron</i>, and in 1800 colonel. +He distinguished himself at the battles of Austerlitz and Jena, +and was made general of brigade in November 1806, and for his +conduct in the battle of Wagram he was created a baron. In +the Spanish campaign of 1810 and 1811 he gained special distinction +at the battle of Fuentes d’Onor; and in the expedition +to Russia he was present at Smolensk and Valutina, and displayed +such bravery and ability in the battle of Borodino that he was +made general of division. He won further distinction in the +disastrous retreat from Moscow. In the campaign of 1813, in +command of a division, he took part in the battles of Lützen and +Bautzen and the operations of Marshal Macdonald, and at the +battle of Leipzig (in which he commanded the XI. corps) he was +dangerously wounded. After the battle of Bautzen he was +created by Napoleon a count of the empire. In the campaign +of France of 1814, and especially at La Rothière and Montereau, +he won still greater distinction. After the first restoration he +was named by Louis XVIII. grand cross of the Legion of Honour +and chevalier of St Louis. In the Hundred Days Napoleon made +Gérard a peer of France and placed him in command of the IV. +corps of the Army of the North. In this capacity Gérard took +a brilliant part in the battle of Ligny (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>), +and on the morning of the 18th of June he was foremost in advising +Marshal Grouchy to march to the sound of the guns. Gérard +retired to Brussels after the fall of Napoleon, and did not return +to France till 1817. He sat as a member of the chamber of +deputies in 1822-1824, and was re-elected in 1827. He took part +in the revolution of 1830, after which he was appointed minister +of war and named a marshal of France. On account of his +health he resigned the office of war minister in the October +following, but in 1831 he took the command of the northern army, +and was successful in thirteen days in driving the army of Holland +out of Belgium. In 1832 he commanded the besieging army in +the famous scientific siege of the citadel of Antwerp. He was +again chosen war minister in July 1834, but resigned in the +October following. In 1836 he was named grand chancellor of +the Legion of Honour in succession to Marshal Mortier, and in +1838 commander of the National Guards of the Seine, an office +which he held till 1842. He became a senator under the empire +in 1852, and died on the 17th of April in the same year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1770-1837), French painter, +was born on the 4th of May 1770, at Rome, where his father +occupied a post in the house of the French ambassador. At the +age of twelve Gérard obtained admission into the Pension du +Roi at Paris. From the Pension he passed to the studio of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +Pajou (sculptor), which he left at the end of two years for that +of the painter Brenet, whom he quitted almost immediately to +place himself under David. In 1789 he competed for the Prix +de Rome, which was carried off by his comrade Girodet. In the +following year (1790) he again presented himself, but the death +of his father prevented the completion of his work, and obliged +him to accompany his mother to Rome. In 1791 he returned to +Paris; but his poverty was so great that he was forced to forgo +his studies in favour of employment which should bring in +immediate profit. David at once availed himself of his help, +and one of that master’s most celebrated pictures—Le Pelletier +de St Fargeau—may owe much to the hand of Gérard. This +painting was executed early in 1793, the year in which Gérard, +at the request of David, was named a member of the revolutionary +tribunal, from the fatal decisions of which he, however, +invariably absented himself. In 1794 he obtained the first prize +in a competition, the subject of which was “The Tenth of August,” +and, further stimulated by the successes of his rival and friend +Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1794, Gérard (nobly aided +by Isabey the miniaturist) produced in 1795 his famous “Bélisaire.” +In 1796 a portrait of his generous friend (in the Louvre) +obtained undisputed success, and the money received from +Isabey for these two works enabled Gérard to execute in 1797 +his “Psyché et l’Amour.” At last, in 1799, his portrait of +Madame Bonaparte established his position as one of the first +portrait-painters of the day. In 1808 as many as eight, in 1810 +no less than fourteen portraits by him, were exhibited at the +Salon, and these figures afford only an indication of the enormous +numbers which he executed yearly; all the leading figures of +the empire and of the restoration, all the most celebrated men +and women of Europe, sat to Gérard. This extraordinary +vogue was due partly to the charm of his manner and conversation, +for his <i>salon</i> was as much frequented as his studio; Madame +de Staël, Canning, Talleyrand, the duke of Wellington, have all +borne witness to the attraction of his society. Rich and famous, +Gérard was stung by remorse for earlier ambitions abandoned; +at intervals he had indeed striven to prove his strength with +Girodet and other rivals, and his “Bataille d’Austerlitz” (1810) +showed a breadth of invention and style which are even more +conspicuous in “L’Entrée d’Henri IV” (Versailles)—the work +with which in 1817 he did homage to the Bourbons. After this +date Gérard declined, watching with impotent grief the progress +of the Romantic school. Loaded with honours—baron of the +empire, member of the Institute, officer of the legion of honour, +first painter to the king—he worked on sad and discouraged; +the revolution of 1830 added to his disquiet; and on the 11th of +January 1837, after three days of fever, he died. By his portraits +Gérard is best remembered; the colour of his paintings has +suffered, but his drawings show in uninjured delicacy the purity +of his line; and those of women are specially remarkable for a +virginal simplicity and frankness of expression.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>M. Ch. Lenormant published in 1846 <i>Essai de biographie et de +critique sur François Gérard</i>, a second edition of which appeared +in 1847; and M. Delécluze devoted several pages to the same subject +in his work <i>Louis David, son école et son temps</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1803-1847), French +caricaturist, generally known by the pseudonym of Grandville—the +professional name of his grandparents, who were actors—was +born at Nancy on the 13th of September 1803. He received +his first instruction in drawing from his father, a miniature +painter, and at the age of twenty-one came to Paris, where he +soon afterwards published a collection of lithographs entitled +<i>Les Tribulations de la petite propriété</i>. He followed this by Les +Plaisirs de toutâge and <i>La Sibylle des salons</i>; but the work +which first established his fame was <i>Métamorphoses du jour</i>, +published in 1828, a series of seventy scenes in which individuals +with the bodies of men and faces of animals are made to play a +human comedy. These drawings are remarkable for the extraordinary +skill with which human characteristics are represented +in animal features. The success of this work led to his being +engaged as artistic contributor to various periodicals, such as <i>La +Silhouette</i>, <i>L’Artiste</i>, <i>La Caricature</i>, <i>Le Charivari</i>; and his political +caricatures, which were characterized by marvellous fertility of +satirical humour, soon came to enjoy a general popularity. +Besides supplying illustrations for various standard works, +such as the songs of Béranger, the fables of La Fontaine, <i>Don +Quixote</i>, <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i>, <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, he also continued +the issue of various lithographic collections, among which may +be mentioned <i>La Vie privée et publique des animaux</i>, <i>Les Cent +Proverbes</i>, <i>L’Autre Monde</i> and <i>Les Fleurs animées</i>. Though +the designs of Gérard are occasionally unnatural and absurd, +they usually display keen analysis of character and marvellous +inventive ingenuity, and his humour is always tempered and +refined by delicacy of sentiment and a vein of sober thoughtfulness. +He died of mental disease on the 17th of March 1847.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A short notice of Gérard, under the name of Grandville, is contained +in Théophile Gautier’s <i>Portraits contemporains</i>. See also +Charles Blanc, <i>Grandville</i> (Paris, 1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERARD, JOHN<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1545-1612), English herbalist and surgeon, +was born towards the end of 1545 at Nantwich in Cheshire. He +was educated at Wisterson, or Willaston, 2 m. from Nantwich, +and eventually, after spending some time in travelling, took up +his abode in London, where he exercised his profession. For +more than twenty years he also acted as superintendent of the +gardens in London and at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, of William +Cecil, Lord Burghley. In 1596 he published a catalogue of +plants cultivated in his own garden in Holborn, London, 1039 in +number, inclusive of varieties of the same species. Their English +as well as their Latin names are given in a revised edition of the +catalogue issued in 1599. In 1597 appeared Gerard’s well-known +<i>Herball</i>, described by him in its preface as “the first fruits of +these mine own labours,” but more truly an adaptation of the +<i>Stirpium historiae pemptades</i> of Rembert Dodoens (1518-1585), +published in 1583, or rather of a translation of the whole or part +of the same by Dr Priest, with M. Lobel’s arrangement. Of the +numerous illustrations of the <i>Herball</i> sixteen appear to be +original, the remainder are mostly impressions from the wood +blocks employed by Jacob Theodorus Tabernaemontanus in +his <i>Icones stirpium</i>, published at Frankfort in 1590. A second +edition of the <i>Herball</i>, with considerable improvements and +additions, was brought out by Thomas Johnson in 1633, and +reprinted in 1636. Gerard was elected a member of the court of +assistants of the barber-surgeons in 1595, by which company +he was appointed an examiner in 1598, junior warden in 1605, +and master in 1608. He died in February 1612, and was buried +at St Andrews, Holborn.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Johnson’s preface to his edition of the <i>Herball</i>; and <i>A Catalogue +of Plants cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard in the years +1596-1599, edited with Notes, References to Gerard’s Herball, the +Addition of modern Names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin +Daydon Jackson, F.L.S.</i>, privately printed (London, 1876, 4to).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRARDMER,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France, in the department +of Vosges, 33 m. E.S.E. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) +of the town, 3993; of the commune, 10,041. Gérardmer is +beautifully situated at a height of 2200 ft. at the eastern end +of the small Lake of Gérardmer (285 acres in extent) among +forest-clad mountains. It is the chief summer-resort of the +French Vosges and is a centre for excursions, among which may +be mentioned those to the Höhneck (4481 ft.), the second +highest summit in the Vosges, the Schlucht, the mountain pass +from France to Germany, and, nearer the town, the picturesque +defile of Granges, watered by the Vologne, which at one point +forms the cascade known as the Saut des Cuves. The town +itself, in which the chief object of interest is the huge lime-tree +in the market-place, carries on cloth-weaving, bleaching, wood-sawing +and the manufacture of wooden goods; there is trade +in the cheeses (<i>géromés</i>) manufactured in the neighbourhood. +Gérardmer is said to owe its name to Gerard of Alsace, 1st duke +of Lorraine, who in the 11th century built a tower on the bank +of the lake or <i>mer</i>, near which, in 1285, a new town was founded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERASA<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (mod. <i>Gerash</i> or <i>Jerash</i>), a city of Palestine, and a +member of the league known as the Decapolis (<i>q.v.</i>), situated amid +the mountains of Gilead, about 1757 ft. above the sea, 20 m. +from the Jordan and 21 m. N. of Philadelphia. Of its origin +nothing is known; it has been suggested that it represents +the biblical Ramoth Gilead. From Josephus we learn that it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span> +was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (<i>c.</i> 83 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), rebuilt by the +Romans (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the +massacre at Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated +by Annius, the general of Vespasian; but, in spite of these +disasters, it was still in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Christian +era one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities of Palestine. +It was a centre of Greek civilization, devoted especially to the +worship of Artemis, and producing famous teachers, of whom +Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and Plato. +As late as 1121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by +a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of +the following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of +it as deserted and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered +about 1806, and since then frequently visited and described, +still attest the splendour of the Roman city. They are distributed +along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook which flows south +through the Wadi-ed-Dēr to join the Zerka or Jabbok; but all +the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the +right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced +and indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than +2 m., and the main street was less than half a mile in length; +but remains of buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the +south gate, show that the town had outgrown the limit of its +fortifications. The most striking feature of the ruins is the profusion +of columns, no fewer than 230 being even now in position; +the main street is a continuous colonnade, a large part of which +is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a forum of similar +formation. Among the public buildings still recognizable are a +theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a naumachia +(circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the +largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing +a portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of +the city is probably due to earthquake; and the absence of +Moslem erections or restorations seems to show that the disaster +took place before the Mahommedan period.</p> + +<p>The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose +houses have been built with materials from the earlier buildings, +and there has been much destruction of the interesting ruins. +“The country of the Gerasenes” (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels; +other readings, Gadarenes, Gergesenes) must be looked for in +another quarter—on the E. coast of the Sea of Galilee, probably +in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa (C.W. Wilson in +<i>Recovery of Jerusalem</i>, p. 369).</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LÉON<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1860-  ), French +journalist and politician, was born at Bonnétable in the department +of Sarthe, of a peasant family. He began life as a working +upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris (1880), where his peasant +and socialist songs soon won him fame in the Montmartre quarter. +Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on <i>La Bataille</i>, +and he became a regular contributor to the advanced journals, +especially to <i>La Petite République</i>, of which he became editor-in-chief +in 1897. In 1893 he founded <i>Le Chambard</i>, and was imprisoned +for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon +the president, Casimir-Périer. In January 1895 he was elected +to the chamber as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement +of Paris. He was defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris, +but was re-elected in 1902 and in 1906 by the colony of +Guadeloupe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1746-1819), German musician, +author of a famous dictionary of musicians, was born at Sondershausen +in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen on +the 29th of September 1746. His father, Henry Nicolas Gerber +(1702-1775), a pupil of J.S. Bach, was an organist and composer +of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at +an early age had made great progress in his musical studies. +In 1765 he went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music, +which had gained additional strength from his acquaintanceship +with J.A. Hiller, soon came to occupy almost his sole attention. +On his return to Sondershausen he was appointed music teacher +to the children of the prince, and in 1775 he succeeded his father +as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his time to +the study of the literature and history of music, and with this +view he made himself master of several modern languages. His +<i>Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler</i> appeared in +1790 and 1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what +was virtually an improved and corrected edition of this work +was published in 1810 under the title <i>Neues historisch-biographisches +Lexikon der Tonkünstler</i>, followed by other three +volumes in 1812, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also contributed a +number of papers to musical periodicals, and published several +minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the +30th of June 1819.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERBERON, GABRIEL<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1628-1711), French Jansenist monk, +was born on the 12th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the department +of Sarthe. At the age of twenty he took the vows of the +Benedictine order at the abbey of Ste Melaine, Rennes, and afterwards +taught rhetoric and philosophy in several monasteries. +His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however, caused his +superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the order, +and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St +Germain-des-Prés at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the +doctrine of the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form +of an apology for Rupert, abbot of Deutz (<i>Apologia pro Ruperto +abbate Tuitensi</i>, Paris, 1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels, +under the name of “Sieur Flore de Ste Foi” his <i>Miroir de la +piété chrétienne</i>, an enlarged edition of which appeared at Liége +in the following year. This was condemned by certain archbishops +and theologians as the repetition of the five condemned +propositions of Jansen, and Gerberon defended it, under the +name of “Abbé Valentin” in <i>Le Miroir sans tache</i> (Paris, 1680). +He had by this time aroused against him the full fury of the +Jesuits, and at their instigation a royal provost was sent to +Corbie to arrest him. He had, however, just time to escape, +and fled to the Low Countries, where he lived in various towns. +He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to Holland, where he +wrote another controversial work against the Protestants: +<i>Défense de l’Église Romain contre la calomnie des Protestants</i> +(Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the +Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe he returned +to Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism +(<i>Histoire générale du Jansénisme</i>), a dry work, by which, however, +he is best remembered. He adhered firmly to the Augustinian +doctrine of Predestination, and on the 30th of May 1703 he was +arrested at Brussels at the instance of the archbishop of Malines, +and ordered to subscribe the condemnation of the five sentences +of Jansen. On his refusal, he was handed over to his superiors +and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and afterwards at +Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon +him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and +spirit, he consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de +Noailles claimed as a recantation. Upon this he was released +in 1710. The first use he made of his freedom was to write a +work (which, however, his friends prudently prevented him from +publishing), <i>Le Vaine Triomphe du cardinal de Noailles</i>, containing +a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory recantation. He died +at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 1711.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERBERT, MARTIN<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1720-1793), German theologian, +historian and writer on music, belonged to the noble family of +Gerbert von Hornau, and was born at Horb on the Neckar, +Württemberg, on the 12th (or 11th or 13th) of August 1720. +He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau in +Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the +Black Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was +ordained priest, and immediately afterwards appointed professor, +first of philosophy and later of theology. Between 1754 and +1764 he published a series of theological treatises, their main +tendency being to modify the rigid scholastic system by an +appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from 1759 to 1762 +he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a view +to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic +libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien, +and proved himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince. +His examination of archives during his travels had awakened +in him a taste for historical research, and under his rule St +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span> +Blasien became a notable centre of the methodical study of +history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote his <i>Monumenta +domus Austriacae</i>, of which the first two volumes were +edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a +<i>Codex epistolaris Rudolphi I., Romani regis</i> (1772) and <i>De +Rudolpho Suevico comite de Rhinfelden, duce et rege, deque ejus +familia</i> (1785). It was, however, in sacramental theology, +liturgiology, and notably ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was +mainly interested. In 1774 he published two volumes <i>De cantu +et musica sacra</i>; in 1777, <i>Monumenta veteris liturgiae Alemannicae</i>; +and in 1784, in three volumes, <i>Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica +sacra</i>, a collection of the principal writers on church music from +the 3rd century till the invention of printing. The materials +for this work he had gathered during his travels, and although +it contains many textual errors, its publication has been of great +importance for the history of music, by preserving writings +which might either have perished or remained unknown. His +interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer +Gluck, who became his intimate friend.</p> + +<p>As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests +of the house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed +to Joseph II.’s church policy. In the Febronian controversy +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>) he had early taken a mediating attitude, +and it was largely due to his influence that Bishop Hontheim +had been induced to retract his extreme views.</p> + +<p>In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church, +was burnt to the ground, and the splendid new church which +rose on the ruins of the old (1783) remained until its destruction +by fire in 1874, at once a monument of Gerbert’s taste in architecture +and of his Habsburg sympathies. It was at his request +that it was made the mausoleum of all the Austrian princes +buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly transferred +to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he published +his <i>Historia Nigrae Silvae, ordinis S. Benedicti coloniae</i> (3 vols., +St Blasien, 1783).</p> + +<p>Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and +Protestants alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Joseph Bader, <i>Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine +Gelehrtenakademie</i> (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874), which contains +a chronological list of Gerbert’s works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERBIL,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gerbille</span>, the name of a group of small, elegant, +large-eyed, jumping rodents typified by the North African +<i>Gerbillus aegyptiacus</i> (or <i>gerbillus</i>), and forming a special subfamily, +<i>Gerbillinae</i>, of the rat tribe or <i>Muridae</i>. They are found +over the desert districts of both Asia and Africa, and are classed +in the genera <i>Gerbillus</i> (or <i>Tatera</i>), <i>Pachyuromys</i>, <i>Meriones</i>, +<i>Psammomys</i> and <i>Rhombomys</i>, with further divisions into subgenera. +They have elongated hind-limbs and long hairy tails; +and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas, from which +they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have transverse +plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates +diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half +in the third. The upper incisor teeth are generally marked by +grooves. Gerbils are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where +they dwell in burrows furnished with numerous exits, and containing +large grass-lined chambers. The Indian <i>G. indicus</i> +produces at least a dozen young at a birth. All are more or less +completely nocturnal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERENUK,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the Somali name of a long-necked aberrant gazelle, +commonly known as Waller’s gazelle (<i>Lithocranius walleri</i>), +and ranging from Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck +and limbs, coupled with peculiarities in the structure of the skull, +entitle the gerenuk, which is a large species, to represent a genus. +The horns of the bucks are heavy, and have a peculiar forward +curvature at the tips; the colour of the coat is red-fawn, with +a broad brown band down the back. Gerenuk are browsing +ruminants, and, in Somaliland, are found in small family-parties, +and feed more by browsing on the branches and leaves of trees and +shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by +standing on their hind-legs with the fore-feet resting against the +trunk of the tree on which they are feeding. Their usual pace is +an awkward trot, not unlike that of a camel; and they seldom +break into a gallop. The Somali form has been separated as +<i>L. sclateri</i>, but is not more than a local race. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERGOVIA<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (mod. <i>Gergovie</i>), in ancient geography, the chief +town of the Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvergne, about +8 m. from the Puy de Dôme, France. Julius Caesar attacked +it in 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but was beaten off; some walls and earthworks +seem still to survive from this period. Later, when Gaul had been +subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish inhabitants +resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of +Augustonemĕtum (mod. <i>Clermont-Ferrand</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1795-1867), +German archaeologist, was born at Posen on the 29th of +November 1795, and was educated at Breslau and Berlin. The +reputation he acquired by his <i>Lectiones Apollonianae</i> (1816) +led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the +gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on +account of weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where +he remained for fifteen years. He contributed to Platner’s +<i>Beschreibung der Stadt Rom</i>, then under the direction of Bunsen, +and was one of the principal originators and during his residence +in Italy director of the <i>Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica</i>, +founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to Germany in 1837 he was +appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and in +1844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a professor +in the university. He died at Berlin on the 12th of May 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in +the <i>Annali</i> of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the +Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman +and other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums, +Gerhard was the author of the following works: <i>Antike Bildwerke</i> +(Stuttgart, 1827-1844); <i>Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder</i> (1839-1858); +<i>Etruskische Spiegel</i> (1839-1865); <i>Hyperboreisch-röm. Studien</i> (vol. i., +1833; vol. ii., 1852); <i>Prodromus mytholog. Kunsterklärung</i> (Stuttgart +and Tübingen, 1828); and <i>Griech. Mythologie</i> (1854-1855). His +<i>Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften</i> were +published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERHARD, JOHANN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1582-1637), Lutheran divine, was born +in Quedlinburg on the 17th of October 1582. In his fifteenth +year, during a dangerous illness, he came under the personal +influence of Johann Arndt, author of <i>Das wahre Christenthum</i>, +and resolved to study for the church. He entered the university +of Wittenberg in 1599, and first studied philosophy. He also +attended lectures in theology, but, a relative having persuaded +him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two years. +In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, +and in the following year received a new impulse from J.W. +Winckelmann (1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1627) +at Marburg. Having graduated and begun to give lectures at +Jena in 1605, he in 1606 accepted the invitation of John Casimir, +duke of Coburg, to the superintendency of Heldburg and mastership +of the gymnasium; soon afterwards he became general +superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged +in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616, +when he became theological professor at Jena, where the remainder +of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and +Johann Himmel, he formed the “Trias Johannea.” Though +still comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be +regarded as the greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany; +in the numerous “disputations” of the period he was always +protagonist, while on all public and domestic questions touching +on religion or morals his advice was widely sought. It is recorded +that during the course of his lifetime he had received repeated +calls to almost every university in Germany (<i>e.g.</i> Giessen, Altdorf, +Helmstädt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to Upsala in Sweden. +He died in Jena on the 20th of August 1637.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dogmatic +and practical theology. To the first category belong the +<i>Commentarius in harmoniam historiae evangelicae de passione Christi</i> +(1617), the <i>Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistolam</i> (1641), and +also his commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy +(1658). Of a controversial character are the <i>Confessio Catholica</i> +(1633-1637), an extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical +and catholic character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession +from the writings of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the +<i>Loci communes theologici</i> (1610-1622), his principal contribution +to science, in which Lutheranism is expounded “nervose, solide, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +et copiose,” in fact with a fulness of learning, a force of logic and +a minuteness of detail that had never before been approached. +<i>The Meditationes sacrae</i> (1606), a work expressly devoted to the +uses of Christian edification, has been frequently reprinted in Latin +and has been translated into most of the European languages, +including Greek. The English translation by R. Winterton (1631) +has passed through at least nineteen editions. There is also an +edition by W. Papillon in English blank verse (1801). His life, +<i>Vita Joh. Gerhardi</i>, was published by E.R. Fischer in 1723, and by +C.J. Böttcher, <i>Das Leben Dr Johann Gerhards</i>, in 1858. See also +W. Gass, <i>Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik</i> (1854-1867), and +the article in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERHARDT, CHARLES FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1816-1856), French +chemist, was born at Strassburg on the 21st of August 1816. +After attending the gymnasium at Strassburg and the polytechnic +at Karlsruhe, he was sent to the school of commerce at Leipzig, +where he studied chemistry under Otto Erdmann. Returning +home in 1834 he entered his father’s white lead factory, but soon +found that business was not to his liking, and after a sharp +disagreement with his father enlisted in a cavalry regiment. +In a few months military life became equally distasteful, and he +purchased his discharge with the assistance of Liebig, with whom, +after a short interval at Dresden, he went to study at Giessen +in 1836. But his stay at Giessen was also short, and in 1837 +he re-entered the factory. Again, however, he quarrelled with +his father, and in 1838 went to Paris with introductions from +Liebig. There he attended Jean Baptiste Dumas’ lectures and +worked with Auguste Cahours (1813-1891) on essential oils, +especially cumin, in Michel Eugéne Chevreul’s laboratory, while +he earned a precarious living by teaching and making translations +of some of Liebig’s writings. In 1841, by the influence of Dumas, +he was charged with the duties of the chair of chemistry at the +Montpellier faculty of sciences, becoming titular professor in +1844. In 1842 he annoyed his friends in Paris by the matter and +manner of a paper on the classification of organic compounds, +and in 1845 he and his opinions were the subject of an attack +by Liebig, unjustifiable in its personalities but not altogether +surprising in view of his wayward disregard of his patron’s +advice. The two were reconciled in 1850, but his faculty for +disagreeing with his friends did not make it easier for him to +get another appointment after resigning the chair at Montpellier +in 1851, especially as he was unwilling to go into the provinces. +He obtained leave of absence from Montpellier in 1848 and from +that year till 1855 resided in Paris. During that period he +established an “École de chimie pratique” of which he had +great hopes; but these were disappointed, and in 1855, after +refusing the offer of a chair of chemistry at the new Zürich +Polytechnic in 1854, he accepted the professorships of chemistry +at the Faculty of Sciences and the École Polytechnique at +Strassburg, where he died on the 19th of August in the following +year. Although Gerhardt did some noteworthy experimental +work—for instance, his preparation of acid anhydrides in 1852—his +contributions to chemistry consist not so much in the discovery +of new facts as in the introduction of new ideas that +vitalized and organized an inert accumulation of old facts. +In particular, with his fellow-worker Auguste Laurent (1807-1853), +he did much to reform the methods of chemical formulation +by insisting on the distinction between atoms, molecules +and equivalents; and in his unitary system, directly opposed +to the dualistic doctrines of Berzelius, he combined Dumas’ +substitution theory with the old radicle theory and greatly +extended the notion of types of structure. His chief works were +<i>Précis de chimie organique</i> (1844-1845), and <i>Traité de chimie +organique</i> (1853-1856).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Charles Gerhardt, sa vie, son œuvre, sa correspondance</i>, by +his son, Charles Gerhardt, and E. Grimaux (Paris, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERHARDT, PAUL<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1606-1676), German hymn-writer, +was born of a good middle-class family at Gräfenhainichen, a +small town on the railway between Halle and Wittenberg, in +1606 or 1607—some authorities, indeed, give the date March 12, +1607, but neither the year nor the day is accurately known. +His education appears to have been retarded by the troubles +of the period, the Thirty Years’ War having begun about the +time he reached his twelfth year. After completing his studies +for the church he is known to have lived for some years at +Berlin as tutor in the family of an advocate named Berthold, +whose daughter he subsequently married, on receiving his first +ecclesiastical appointment at Mittelwald (a small town in the +neighbourhood of Berlin) in 1651. In 1657 he accepted an +invitation as “diaconus” to the Nicolaikirche of Berlin; but, +in consequence of his uncompromising Lutheranism in refusing +to accept the elector Frederick William’s “syncretistic” edict +of 1664, he was deprived in 1666. Though absolved from +submission and restored to office early in the following year, on +the petition of the citizens, his conscience did not allow him to +retain a post which, as it appeared to him, could only be held on +condition of at least a tacit repudiation of the Formula Concordiae, +and for upwards of a year he lived in Berlin without fixed employment. +In 1668 he was appointed archdeacon of Lübben in the +duchy of Saxe-Merseburg, where, after a somewhat sombre +ministry of eight years, he died on the 7th of June 1676. Gerhardt +is the greatest hymn-writer of Germany, if not indeed of Europe. +Many of his best-known hymns were originally published in +various church hymn-books, as for example in that for Brandenburg, +which appeared in 1658; others first saw the light in +Johann Crüger’s <i>Geistliche Kirchenmelodien</i> (1649) and <i>Praxis +pietatis melica</i> (1656). The first complete set of them is the +<i>Geistliche Andachten</i>, published in 1666-1667 by Ebeling, music +director in Berlin. No hymn by Gerhardt of a later date than +1667 is known to exist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The life of Gerhardt has been written by Roth (1829), by Langbecker +(1841), by Schultz (1842), by Wildenhahn (1845) and by +Bachmann (1863); also by Kraft in Ersch u. Gruber’s <i>Allg. Encycl.</i> +(1855). The best modern edition of the hymns, published by +Wackernagel in 1843, has often been reprinted. There is an English +translation by Kelly (<i>Paul Gerhardt’s Spiritual Songs</i>, 1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÉRICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRÉ THÉODORE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1791-1824), +French painter, the leader of the French realistic school, was +born at Rouen in 1791. In 1808 he entered the studio of Charles +Vernet, from which, in 1810, he passed to that of Guérin, whom +he drove to despair by his passion for Rubens, and by the unorthodox +manner in which he persisted in interpreting nature. +At the Salon of 1812 Géricault attracted attention by his “Officier +de Chasseurs à Cheval” (Louvre), a work in which he personified +the cavalry in its hour of triumph, and turned to account the +solid training received from Guérin in rendering a picturesque +point of view which was in itself a protest against the cherished +convictions of the pseudo-classical school. Two years later +(1814) he re-exhibited this work accompanied with the reverse +picture “Cuirassier blessé” (Louvre), and in both subjects +called attention to the interest of contemporary aspects of life, +treated neglected types of living form, and exhibited that +mastery of and delight in the horse which was a feature of his +character. Disconcerted by the tempest of contradictory +opinion which arose over these two pictures, Géricault gave way +to his enthusiasm for horses and soldiers, and enrolled himself +in the <i>mousquetaires</i>. During the Hundred Days he followed +the king to Bethune, but, on his regiment being disbanded, +eagerly returned to his profession, left France for Italy in 1816, +and at Rome nobly illustrated his favourite animal by his great +painting “Course des Chevaux Libres.” Returning to Paris, +Géricault exhibited at the Salon of 1819 the “Radeau de la +Méduse” (Louvre), a subject which not only enabled him to +prove his zealous and scientific study of the human form, but +contained those elements of the heroic and pathetic, as existing +in situations of modern life, to which he had appealed in his +earliest productions. Easily depressed or elated, Géricault +took to heart the hostility which this work excited, and passed +nearly two years in London, where the “Radeau” was exhibited +with success, and where he executed many series of admirable +lithographs now rare. At the close of 1822 he was again in Paris, +and produced a great quantity of projects for vast compositions, +models in wax, and a horse <i>écorché</i>, as preliminary to the production +of an equestrian statue. His health was now completely +undermined by various kinds of excess, and on the 26th of +January 1824 he died, at the age of thirty-three.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Géricault’s biography, accompanied by a <i>catalogue raisonné</i> of +his works, was published by M.C. Clément in 1868.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERIZIM,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a mountain in the hill-country of Samaria, 2849 ft. +above the sea-level, and enclosing, with its companion Ebal, +the valley in which lies the town of Nāblus (Shechem). It is the +holy place of the community of the Samaritans, who hold that +it was the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac—a tradition accepted +by Dean Stanley but no other western writers of importance. +Here, on the formal entrance of the Israelites into the possession +of the Promised Land, were pronounced the blessings connected +with a faithful observance of the law (Josh. viii. 33, 34; cf. +Deut. xi. 29, 30, xxvii. 12-26), the six tribes, Simeon, Levi, +Judah, Issachar, Joseph and Benjamin, standing here for the +purpose while the remaining tribes stood on Ebal to accept +the curses attached to specific violations thereof. Gerizim was +probably chosen as the mount of blessing as being on the right +hand, the fortunate side, of a spectator facing east. The counter-suggestion +of Eusebius and Jerome that the Ebal and Gerizim +associated with this solemnity were not the Shechem mountains +at all, but two small hills near Jericho, is no longer considered +important. From this mountain Jotham spoke his parable to +the elders of Shechem (Judg. ix. 7). Manasseh, the son of the +Jewish high-priest in the days of Nehemiah, married the daughter +of Sanballat and, about 432 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, erected on this mountain a +temple for the Samaritans; it was destroyed by Hyrcanus about +300 years afterwards. Its site is a small level plateau a little +under the summit of the mountain. Close to this is the place +where the Passover is still annually celebrated in exact accordance +with the rites prescribed in the Pentateuch. On the summit of +the mountain, which commands a view embracing the greater +part of Palestine, are a small Moslem shrine and the ruins of a +castle probably dating from Justinian’s time. There was an +octagonal Byzantine church here, but the foundations alone +remain. Josephus describes it as the highest of the mountains of +Samaria, but Ebal and Tell Azur are both higher.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERLACHE, ÉTIENNE CONSTANTIN,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron de</span> (1785-1871), +Belgian politician and historian, was born at Biourge, +Luxemburg, on the 24th of December 1785. He studied law +in Paris and practised there for some time, but settled at Liege +after the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands. +As member of the states-general he was an energetic member +of the opposition, and, though he repudiated an ultramontane +policy, he supported the alliance of the extreme Catholics with +the Liberal party, which paved the way for the revolution of +1830. On the outbreak of disturbance in August 1830 he still, +however, thought the Orange-Nassau dynasty and the union +with the Dutch states essential; but his views changed, and, +after holding various offices in the provisional government, he +became president of congress, and brought forward the motion +inviting Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become king of the Belgians. +In 1832 he was president of the chamber of representatives, and +for thirty-five years he presided over the court of appeal. He +presided over the Catholic congresses held at Malines between +1863 and 1867. That his early Liberal views underwent some +modification is plain from the Conservative principles enunciated +in his <i>Essai sur le mouvement des partis en Belgique</i> (Brussels, +1852). As an historian his work was strongly coloured by his +anti-Dutch prejudices and his Catholic predilections. His +<i>Histoire des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu’en 1830</i> (Brussels, 2 +vols., 1839), which reached a fourth edition in 1875, was a piece +of special pleading against the Dutch domination. The most +important of his other works were his <i>Histoire de Liége</i> (Brussels, +1843) and his <i>Études sur Salluste et sur quelques-uns des principaux +historiens de l’antiquité</i> (Brussels, 1847).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his works (6 vols., Brussels, 1874-1875) +contains a biography by M. Thonissen.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1736-<i>c.</i> 1801), French +revolutionist and mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Entering +the Carthusian order early in life, he became prior of Laval-Dieu +in Perche, and afterwards of Pont-Sainte-Marie at Moulins. +Elected deputy to the states-general in 1789, Gerle became very +popular, and though he had no seat in the assembly until after +the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy <i>suppléant</i>, he is represented +in David’s classic painting as taking part in it. In 1792 +he was chosen elector of Paris. In the revolutionary turmoil +Gerle developed a strong vein of mysticism, mingled with ideas +of reform, and in June 1790 the prophetic powers of Suzanne +Labrousse (1747-1821), a visionary who had predicted the +Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice +of the Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritualistic +doctor and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a +cabinetmaker, his mystical tendencies were strengthened. The +insane fancies of Catherine Théot, a convent servant turned +prophetess, who proclaimed herself the Virgin, the “Mother of +God” and the “new Eve,” were eminently attractive to Gerle; +in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at the +meetings of the Théotists he officiated with the aged prophetess +as co-president. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts +were short-lived. The Théotists’ cult of Robespierre was a +weapon in the hands of his opponents; and shortly after the +festival of the Supreme Being, Vadier made a report to the +Convention calling for the prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and +others as fanatics and conspirators. They were arrested, thrown +into prison and, in the confusion of Robespierre’s fall, apparently +forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but Gerle, released by the +Directory, became one of the editors of the <i>Messager du soir</i>, and +was afterwards in the office of Pierre Bénézech (1775-1802), +minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic vows +in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of +his life, Christine Raffet, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The +date of his death is uncertain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">German Brethren</span>, a +sect of American Baptists which originated in Germany, and +whose members are popularly known in the United States as +“Dunkers,” “Dunkards” or “Tunkers,” corruptions of the +German verb <i>tunken</i>, “to dip,” in recognition of the sect’s +continued adherence to the practice of trine immersion. The +sect was the outcome of one of the many Pietistic movements +of the 17th century, and was founded in 1708 by Andrew Mack +of Swartzenau, Germany, and seven of his followers, upon the +general issue that both the Lutheran and Reformed churches +were taking liberties with the literal teachings of the Scriptures. +The new sect was scarcely organized in Germany when its members +were compelled by persecution to take refuge in Holland, whence +they emigrated to Pennsylvania, in small companies, between +1719 and 1729. The first congregation in America was organized +on Christmas Day 1723 by Peter Becker at Germantown, +Pennsylvania, and here in 1743 Christopher Sauer, one of the +sect’s first pastors, and a printer by trade, printed the first +Bible (a few copies of which are still in existence) published in a +European language in America. From Pennsylvania the sect +spread chiefly westward, and, after various vicissitudes, caused +by defections and divisions due to doctrinal differences, in 1908 +were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, +Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and North +Dakota.</p> + +<p>There is much uncertainty about the early theological history +of the sect, but it is probable that Mack and his followers were +influenced by both the Greek Catholics and the Waldensians. +P.H. Bashor in his historical sketch, read before the World’s Fair +Congress of the Brethren Church (1894), says: “From the history +of extended labour by Greek missionaries, from the active propaganda +of doctrine by scattered Waldensian refugees, through +parts of Germany and Bavaria, from the credence that may +generally be given to local tradition, and from the strong similarity +between the three churches in general features of circumstantial +service, the conclusion, without additional evidence, is +both reasonable and natural that the founders of the new church +received their teaching, their faith and much of their church +idea from intimate acquaintance with the established usages of +both societies, and from their amplification and enforcement +by missionaries and pastors.... In doctrine the church has +been from the first contentious for believers’ baptism, holding +that nowhere in the New Testament can be found any authority +even by inference, precept or example for the baptism of infants. +On questions of fundamental doctrine they held to the belief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe—the Divine +Godhead—the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit—the tri-personality.” +Hence their practice of triple immersion, which +provides that the candidate shall kneel in the water and be +immersed, face first, three times—in the name of the Father, +the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From this practice the sect +received the less commonly used nickname “Dompelaers,” +meaning “tumblers.”) They accept implicitly and literally the +New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters, +holding it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus +Christ and, by inspiration, through the Apostles. They also +believe in the inspiration of the Old Testament. In their celebration +of the communion service they aim exactly to imitate +the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in the evening, +and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by all +communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of +the washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the +three last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separately. +They pray over their sick and, when so requested, +anoint them with oil. They are rigid non-resistants, and will +not bear arms or study the art of war; they refuse to take oaths, +and discountenance going to law over issues that can possibly +be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest was at first +forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon. They +“testify” against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco, +and advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect +opposed voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but +these restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly +the earlier prejudice against higher education, and the maintenance +of institutions for that purpose, has given place to greater +liberality along those lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slave-holding +by its members.</p> + +<p>The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops (or +ministers), elders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and +deaconesses—chiefly aged women who are permitted at times +to take leading parts in church services. The bishops are chosen +from the teachers; they are itinerant, conduct marriage and +funeral services, and are present at communions, at ordinations, +when deacons are chosen or elected, and at trials for the excommunication +of members. The elders are the first or oldest +teachers of congregations, for which there is no regular bishop. +They have charge of the meetings of such congregations, and +participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which +they preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the +offices of the deacons. The teachers, who are chosen by vote, +may also exhort or preach, when their services are needed for +such purposes, and may, at the request of a bishop, perform +marriage or baptismal ceremonies. The deacons have general +oversight of the material affairs of the congregation, and are +especially charged with the care of poor widows and their children. +In the discharge of these duties they are expected to visit each +family in the congregation at least once a year. The government +of the church is chiefly according to the congregational +principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men; +but annual meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and +other delegates from the several congregations are held, and at +these sessions the larger questions involving church polity are +considered and decided by a committee of five bishops.</p> + +<p>An early secession from the general body of Dunkers was that +of the Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was +that the seventh day was the true Sabbath. Their founder +was Johann Conrad Beissel (1690-1768), a native of Eberbach +and one of the first emigrants, who, after living as a hermit for +several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, +founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a hermit in a cave +(formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimelech) on the +Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a +semi-monastic community (the “Order of the Solitary”) with a +convent (the “Sister House”) and a monastery (the “Brother +House”) at Ephrata, in what is now Lancaster county, about +55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia. Among the industries of +the men were printing (in both English and German), book-binding, +tanning, quarrying, and the operation of a saw mill, +a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the women did embroidery, +quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known +as Fracturschrift.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The monastic feature was gradually abandoned, +and in 1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh +Day Baptists, its affairs being placed in the hands of a board +of trustees. More important in the history of the modern +church was the secession, in the decade between 1880 and 1890, +of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday Schools and +the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and India, +and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the +radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and +to the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher +education was long forbidden and is consistently opposed by +the Old Order. The same element in the Brethren opposed a +census, but according to Howard Miller’s census of 1880 (<i>Record +of the Faithful</i>) the number of Dunkers was 59,749 in that +year; by the United States census of 1890 it was then 73,795; +the figures for 1904 are given by Henry King Carroll in his +“Statistics of the Churches” in the <i>Christian Advocate</i> (Jan. +5, 1905): Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95,000; +Old Order, 4000; Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh +Day, 194; total, 114,194. In 1909 the German Baptist Brethren +had an estimated membership of approximately 100,000, and the +Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or Conservatives, support +schools at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris, Illinois; +Lordsburg, California; McPherson, Kansas; Bridgewater, +Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; North Manchester, +Indiana; Plattsburg, Missouri; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; +Union Bridge, Maryland; and Fruitdale, Alabama. They +have a publishing house at Elgin, Illinois, and maintain missions +in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India and China. The +Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a publishing +house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary +work in Canada, South America and Persia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Lamech and Agrippa, <i>Chronicon Ephratense</i>, in +German (Ephrata, Penn., 1786) and in English (Lancaster, 1889); +G.N. Falkenstein, “The German Baptist Brethren, or Dunkers,” +part 8 of “Pennsylvania: The German Influence in its Settlement +and Development,” in vol. x. of the <i>Pennsylvania German Society, +Proceedings and Addresses</i> (Lancaster, Penn., 1900); Julius Friedrich +Sachse, <i>The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1742-1800: A +Critical and Legendary History of the Ephrata Cloister and the Dunkers</i> +(Philadelphia, 1900); and John Lewis Gillin, <i>The Dunkers: A +Sociological Interpretation</i> (New York, 1906), a doctor’s dissertation, +with full bibliography.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Beissel (known in the community as “Friedsam”) was their +leader until his death; he published several collections of hymns. +The stone over his grave bears the inscription: “Here rests an outgrowth +of the love of God, ‘Friedsam,’ a Solitary Brother, afterwards +a leader of the Solitary and the Congregation of Grace in and +around Ephrata ... Fell asleep July 6, 1768, in the 52nd year of +his spiritual life, but the 72nd year and fourth month of his natural +life.” The borough of Ephrata was separated from the township +in 1891. Pop. (1900) of the borough, 2451; of the township, 2390. +The “Brother House” and the “Sister House” are still standing +(though in a dilapidated condition). In 1777, after the battle of +Brandywine, many wounded American soldiers were nursed here by +the Sisters, and about 200 are buried here.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN CATHOLICS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>Deutschkatholiken</i>), the name assumed +in Germany towards the close of 1844 by certain dissentients +from the Church of Rome. The most prominent leader of the +German Catholic movement was Johann Ronge, a priest who +in the <i>Sächsische Vaterlandsblätter</i> for the 15th of October 1844 +made a vigorous attack upon Wilhelm Arnoldi, bishop of Trier +since 1842, for having ordered (for the first time since 1810) the +exposition of the “holy coat of Trier,” alleged to be the seamless +robe of Christ, an event which drew countless pilgrims to the +cathedral. Ronge, who had formerly been chaplain at Grottkau, +was then a schoolmaster at Laurahütte near the Polish border. +The article made a great sensation, and led to Ronge’s excommunication +by the chapter of Breslau in December 1844. The +ex-priest received a large amount of public sympathy, and a +dissenting congregation was almost immediately formed at +Breslau with a very simple creed, in which the chief articles +were belief in God the Father, creator and ruler of the universe; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> +in Jesus Christ the Saviour, who delivers from the bondage of sin +by his life, doctrine and death; in the operation of the Holy +Ghost; in a holy, universal, Christian church; in forgiveness +of sins and the life everlasting. The Bible was made the sole rule, +and all external authority was barred. Within a few weeks +similar communities were formed at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, +Offenbach, Worms, Wiesbaden and elsewhere; and at a +“council” convened at Leipzig at Easter 1845, twenty-seven +congregations were represented by delegates, of whom only two +or at most three were in clerical orders.</p> + +<p>Even before the beginning of the agitation led by Ronge, +another movement fundamentally distinct, though in some +respects similar, had been originated at Schneidemühl, Posen, +under the guidance of Johann Czerski (1813-1893), also a priest, +who had come into collision with the church authorities on the +then much discussed question of +mixed marriages, and also on that +of the celibacy of the clergy. The +result had been his suspension from +office in March 1844; his public +withdrawal, along with twenty-four +adherents, from the Roman communion +in August; his excommunication; +and the formation, in +October, of a “Christian Catholic” +congregation which, while rejecting +clerical celibacy, the use of Latin +in public worship, and the doctrines +of purgatory and transubstantiation, +retained the Nicene theology +and the doctrine of the seven sacraments. +Czerski had been at some of +the sittings of the “German Catholic” +council of Leipzig; but when a +formula somewhat similar to that +of Breslau had been adopted, he +refused his signature because the +divinity of Christ had been ignored, +and he and his congregation continued +to retain by preference the +name of “Christian Catholics,” +which they had originally assumed. +Of the German Catholic congregations +which had been represented at +Leipzig some manifested a preference +for the fuller and more positive creed +of Schneidemühl, but a great majority +continued to accept the comparatively +rationalistic position of the +Breslau school. The number of these +rapidly increased, and the congregations +scattered over Germany numbered +nearly 200. External and internal +checks, however, soon limited +this advance. In Austria, and ultimately +also in Bavaria, the use of the +name German Catholics was officially prohibited, that of “Dissidents” +being substituted, while in Prussia, Baden and Saxony +the adherents of the new creed were laid under various disabilities, +being suspected both of undermining religion and of encouraging +the revolutionary tendencies of the age. Ronge himself was a +foremost figure in the troubles of 1848; after the dissolution of +the Frankfort parliament he lived for some time in London, +returning in 1861 to Germany. He died at Vienna on the 26th of +October 1887. In 1859 some of the German Catholics entered +into corporate union with the “Free Congregations,” an association +of free-thinking communities that had since 1844 been +gradually withdrawing from the orthodox Protestant Church, +when the united body took the title of “The Religious Society +of Free Congregations.” Before that time many of the congregations +which were formed in 1844 and the years immediately +following had been dissolved, including that of Schneidemühl +itself, which ceased to exist in 1857. There are now only about +2000 strict German Catholics, all in Saxony. The movement +has been superseded by the Old Catholic (<i>q.v.</i>) organization.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.G. Gervinus, <i>Die Mission des Deutschkatholicismus</i> (1846); +F. Kampe, <i>Das Wesen des Deutschkatholicismus</i> (1860); Findel, +<i>Der Deutschkatholicismus in Sachsen</i> (1895); Carl Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck’s +<i>Realencyk. für prot. Theol.</i> iv. 583.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN EAST AFRICA,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a country occupying the east-central +portion of the African continent. The colony extends +at its greatest length north to south from 1° to 11° S., and west +to east from 30° to 40° E. It is bounded E. by the Indian Ocean +(the coast-line extending from 4° 20′ to 10° 40′ S.), N.E. and N. +by British East Africa and Uganda, W. by Belgian Congo, S.W. +by British Central Africa and S. by Portuguese East Africa.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:741px; height:790px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img771.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Area and Boundaries.</i>—On the north the boundary line runs N.W. +from the mouth of the Umba river to Lake Jipe and Mount Kilimanjaro +including both in the protectorate, and thence to Victoria +Nyanza, crossing it at 1° S., which parallel it follows till it reaches +30° E. In the west the frontier is as follows: From the point of +intersection of 1° S. and 30° E., a line running S. and S.W. to the +north-west end of Lake Kivu, thence across that lake near its +western shore, and along the river Rusizi, which issues from it, to the +spot where the Rusizi enters the north end of Lake Tanganyika; +along the middle line of Tanganyika to near its southern end, when +it is deflected eastward to the point where the river Kalambo enters +the lake (thus leaving the southern end of Tanganyika to Great +Britain). From this point the frontier runs S.E. across the plateau +between Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa, in its southern section following +the course of the river Songwe. Thence it goes down the middle +of Nyasa as far as 11° 30′ S. The southern frontier goes direct +from the last-named point eastward to the Rovuma river, which +separates German and Portuguese territory. A little before the +Indian Ocean is reached the frontier is deflected south so as to leave +the mouth of the Rovuma in German East Africa. These boundaries +include an area of about 364,000 sq. m. (nearly double the size of +Germany), with a population estimated in 1910 at 8,000,000. Of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +these above 10,000 were Arabs, Indians, Syrians and Goanese, and +3000 Europeans (over 2000 being Germans). The island of Mafia +(see below) is included in the protectorate.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast of German East Africa (often +spoken of as the Swahili coast, after the inhabitants of the seaboard) +is chiefly composed of coral, is little indented, and is generally low, +partly sandy, partly rich alluvial soil covered with dense bush or +mangroves. Where the Arabs have established settlements the +coco-palm and mango tree introduced by them give variety to the +vegetation. The coast plain is from 10 to 30 m. wide and 620 m. +long; it is bordered on the west by the precipitous eastern side of +the interior plateau of Central Africa. This plateau, considerably +tilted from its horizontal position, attains its highest elevation north +of Lake Nyasa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livingstone Mountains</a></span>), where several peaks +rise over 7000 ft., one to 9600, while its mean altitude is about +3000 to 4000 ft. From this region the country slopes towards the +north-west, and is not distinguished by any considerable mountain +ranges. A deep narrow gorge, the so-called “eastern rift-valley,” +traverses the middle of the plateau in a meridional direction. In +the northern part of the country it spreads into several side valleys, +from one of which rises the extinct volcano Kilimanjaro (<i>q.v.</i>), the +highest mountain in Africa (19,321 ft.). Its glaciers send down a +thousand rills which combine to form the Pangani river. About +40 m. west of Kilimanjaro is Mount Meru (14,955 ft.), another +volcanic peak, with a double crater. The greater steepness of its +sides makes Meru in some aspects a more striking object than its taller +neighbour. South-east of Mount Kilimanjaro are the Pare Mountains +and Usambara highlands, separated from the coast by a comparatively +narrow strip of plain. To the south of the Usambara +hills, and on the eastern edge of the plateau, are the mountainous +regions of Nguru (otherwise Unguru), Useguha and Usagara. As +already indicated, the southern half of Victoria Nyanza and the +eastern shores, in whole or in part, of Lakes Kivu, Tanganyika and +Nyasa, are in German territory. (The lakes are separately described.) +Several smaller lakes occur in parts of the eastern rift-valley. +Lake Rukwa (<i>q.v.</i>) north-west of Nyasa is presumably +only the remnant of a much larger lake. Its extent varies with +the rainfall of each year. North-west of Kilimanjaro is a sheet of +water known as the Natron Lake from the mineral alkali it contains. +In the northern part of the colony the Victoria Nyanza is the dominant +physical feature. The western frontier coincides with part of the +eastern wall of another depression, the Central African or Albertine +rift-valley, in which lie Tanganyika, Kivu and other lakes. Along +the north-west frontier north of Kivu are volcanic peaks (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mfumbiro</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The country is well watered, but with the exception of the Rufiji +the rivers, save for a few miles from their mouths, are unnavigable. +The largest streams are the Rovuma and Rufiji (<i>q.v.</i>), both rising +in the central plateau and flowing to the Indian Ocean. Next in +importance is the Pangani river, which, as stated above, has its head +springs on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. Flowing in a south-easterly +direction it reaches the sea after a course of some 250 m. The +Wami and Kingani, smaller streams, have their origin in the mountainous +region fringing the central plateau, and reach the ocean +opposite the island of Zanzibar. Of inland river systems there are +four—one draining to Victoria Nyanza, another to Tanganyika, +a third to Nyasa and a fourth to Rukwa. Into Victoria Nyanza +are emptied, on the east, the waters of the Mori and many smaller +streams; on the west, the Kagera (<i>q.v.</i>), besides smaller rivers. +Into Tanganyika flows the Malagarasi, a considerable river with +many affluents, draining the west-central part of the plateau. The +Kalambo river, a comparatively small stream near the southern +end of Tanganyika, flows in a south-westerly direction. Not far +from its mouth there is a magnificent fall, a large volume of water +falling 600 ft. sheer over a rocky ledge of horse-shoe shape. Of +the streams entering Nyasa the Songwe has been mentioned. The +Ruhuhu, which enters Nyasa in 10° 30′ S., and its tributaries +drain a considerable area west of 36° E. The chief feeders of Lake +Rukwa are the Saisi and the Rupa-Songwe.</p> + +<p>Mafia Island lies off the coast immediately north of 8° N. It +has an area of 200 sq. m. The island is low and fertile, and extensively +planted with coco-nut palms. It is continued southwards +by an extensive reef, on which stands the chief village, Chobe, the +residence of a few Arabs and Banyan traders. Chobe stands on a +shallow creek almost inaccessible to shipping.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The narrow foot-plateau of British East Africa broadens +out to the south of Bagamoyo to a width of over 100 m. This is +covered to a considerable extent by rocks of recent and late Tertiary +ages. Older Tertiary rocks form the bluffs of Lindi. Cretaceous +marls and limestones appear at intervals, extending in places to the +edge of the upper plateau, and are extensively developed on the +Makonde plateau. They are underlain by Jurassic rocks, from +beneath which sandstones and shales yielding <i>Glossopteris browniana</i> +var. <i>indica</i>, and therefore of Lower Karroo age, appear in the south +but are overlapped on the north by Jurassic strata. The central +plateau consists almost entirely of metamorphic rocks with extensive +tracts of granite in Unyamwezi. In the vicinity of Lakes Nyasa +and Tanganyika, sandstones and shales of Lower Karroo age and +yielding seams of coal are considered to owe their position and +preservation to being let down by rift faults into hollows of the +crystalline rocks. In Karagwe certain quartzites, slates and +schistose sandstones resemble the ancient gold-bearing rocks of +South Africa.</p> + +<p>The volcanic plateau of British East Africa extends over the +boundary in the region of Kilimanjaro. Of the sister peaks, Kibo +and Mawenzi, the latter is far the oldest and has been greatly denuded, +while Kibo retains its crateriform shape intact. The rift-valley +faults continue down the depression, marked by numerous volcanoes, +in the region of the Natron Lake and Lake Manyara; while the +steep walls of the deep depression of Tanganyika and Nyasa represent +the western rift system at its maximum development.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of saurians of gigantic size have been found; one +thigh bone measures 6 ft. 10 in., the same bone in the <i>Diplodocus +Carnegii</i> measuring only 4 ft. 11 in.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The warm currents setting landwards from the Indian +Ocean bring both moisture and heat, so that the Swahili coast has +a higher temperature and heavier rainfall than the Atlantic seaboard +under the same parallels of latitude. The mean temperature on the +west and east coasts of Africa is 72° and 80° Fahr. respectively, the +average rainfall in Angola 36 in., in Dar-es-Salaam 60 in. On the +Swahili coast the south-east monsoon begins in April and the north-east +monsoon in November. In the interior April brings south-east +winds, which continue until about the beginning of October. During +the rest of the year changing winds prevail. These winds are charged +with moisture, which they part with on ascending the precipitous +side of the plateau. Rain comes with the south-east monsoon, and +on the northern part of the coast the rainy season is divided into +two parts, the great and the little Masika: the former falls in the +months of September, October, November; the latter in February +and March. In the interior the climate has a more continental +character, and is subject to considerable changes of temperature; +the rainy season sets in a little earlier the farther west and north the +region, and is well marked, the rain beginning in November and +ending in April; the rest of the year is dry. On the highest parts +of the plateau the climate is almost European, the nights being +sometimes exceedingly cold. Kilimanjaro has a climate of its own; +the west and south sides of the mountain receive the greatest rainfall, +while the east and north sides are dry nearly all the year. Malarial +diseases are rather frequent, more so on the coast than farther +inland. The Kilimanjaro region is said to enjoy immunity. Smallpox +is frequent on the coast, but is diminishing before vaccination; +other epidemic diseases are extremely rare.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The character of the vegetation varies with +and depends on moisture, temperature and soil. On the low littoral +zone the coast produced a rich tropical bush, in which the mangrove +is very prominent. Coco-palms and mango trees have been planted +in great numbers, and also many varieties of bananas. The bush +is grouped in copses on meadows, which produce a coarse tall grass. +The river banks are lined with belts of dense forest, in which +useful timber occurs. The <i>Hyphaene</i> palm is frequent, as +well as various kinds of gum-producing mimosas. The slopes of +the plateau which face the rain-bringing monsoon are in some +places covered with primeval forest, in which timber is plentiful. +The silk-cotton tree (<i>Bombax ceiba</i>), miomba, tamarisk, copal tree +(<i>Hymenaea courbaril</i>) are frequent, besides sycamores, banyan trees +(<i>Ficus indica</i>) and the deleb palm (<i>Borassus aethiopum</i>). It is +here we find the <i>Landolphia florida</i>, which yields the best rubber. +The plateau is partly grass land without bush and forest, partly +steppe covered with mimosa bush, which sometimes is almost +impenetrable. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru exhibit on a +vertical scale the various forms of vegetation which characterize +East Africa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kilimanjaro</a></span>).</p> + +<p>East Africa is rich in all kinds of antelope, and the elephant, +rhinoceros and hippopotamus are still plentiful in parts. Characteristic +are the giraffe, the chimpanzee and the ostrich. Buffaloes and +zebras occur in two or three varieties. Lions and leopards are +found throughout the country. Crocodiles are numerous in all the +larger rivers. Snakes, many venomous, abound. Of birds there are +comparatively few on the steppe, but by rivers, lakes and swamps +they are found in thousands. Locusts occasion much damage, and +ants of various kinds are often a plague. The tsetse fly (<i>Glossina +morsitans</i>) infests several districts; the sand-flea has been imported +from the west coast. Land and water turtles are numerous.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—On the coast and at the chief settlements inland +are Arab and Indian immigrants, who are merchants and agriculturists. +The Swahili (<i>q.v.</i>) are a mixed Bantu and Semitic race +inhabiting the seaboard. The inhabitants of the interior may be +divided into two classes, those namely of Bantu and those of +Hamitic stock. What may be called the indigenous population +consists of the older Bantu races. These tribes have been subject +to the intrusion from the south of more recent Bantu folk, such as +the Yao, belonging to the Ama-Zulu branch of the race, while +from the north there has been an immigration of Hamito-Negroid +peoples. Of these the Masai and Wakuafi are found in the region +between Victoria Nyanza and Kilimanjaro. The Masai (<i>q.v.</i>) +and allied tribes are nomads and cattle raisers. They are warlike, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span> +and live in square mud-plastered houses called <i>tembe</i> which can be +easily fortified and defended. The Bantu tribes are in general +peaceful agriculturists, though the Bantus of recent immigration +retain the warlike instincts of the Zulus. The most important +group of the Bantus is the Wanyamwezi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Unyamwezi</a></span>), divided +into many tribes. They are spread over the central plains, and +have for neighbours on the south-east, between Nyasa and the +Rufiji, the warlike Wahehe. The Wangoni (Angoni), a branch +of the Ama-Zulu, are widely spread over the central and Nyasa +regions. Other well-known tribes are the Wasambara, who have +given their name to the highlands between Kilimanjaro and the +coast, and the Warundi, inhabiting the district between Tanganyika +and the Kagera. In Karagwe, a region adjoining the south-west +shores of Victoria Nyanza, the Bahima are the ruling caste. +Formerly Karagwe under its Bahima kings was a powerful state. +Many different dialects are spoken by the Bantu tribes, Swahili +being the most widely known (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bantu Languages</a></span>). Their +religion is the worship of spirits, ancestral and otherwise, accompanied +by a vague and undefined belief in a Supreme Being, +generally regarded as indifferent to the doings of the people.</p> + +<p>The task of civilizing the natives is undertaken in various +ways by the numerous Protestant and Roman Catholic missions +established in the colony, and by the government. The slave +trade has been abolished, and though domestic slavery is allowed, +all children of slaves born after the 31st of December 1905 are +free. For certain public works the Germans enforce a system of +compulsory labour. Efforts are made by instruction in government +and mission schools to spread a knowledge of the German +language among the natives, in order to fit them for subordinate +posts in administrative offices, such as the customs. Native +chiefs in the interior are permitted to help in the administration +of justice. The Mission du Sacré Cœur in Bagamoyo, the oldest +mission in the colony, has trained many young negroes to be +useful mechanics. The number of native Christians is small. +The Moslems have vigorous and successful missions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Chief Towns</i>.—The seaports of the colony are Tanga (pop. about +6000), Bagamoyo 5000 (with surrounding district some 18,000), +Dar-es-Salaam 24,000, Kilwa 5000, (these have separate notices), +Pangani, Sadani, Lindi and Mikindani. Pangani (pop. about 3500) +is situated at the mouth of the river of the same name; it serves a +district rich in tropical products, and does a thriving trade with +Zanzibar and Pemba. Sadani is a smaller port midway between +Pangani and Bagamoyo. Lindi (10° 0′ S., 39° 40′ E.) is 80 m. north +of Cape Delgado. Lindi (Swahili for The Deep Below) Bay runs +inland 6 m. and is 3 m. across, affording deep anchorage. Hills to +the west of the bay rise over 1000 ft. The town (pop. about 4000) +is picturesquely situated on the north side of the bay. The Arab +<i>boma</i>, constructed in 1800, has been rebuilt by the Germans, who +have retained the fine sculptured gateway. Formerly a rendezvous +for slave caravans Lindi now has a more legitimate trade in white +ivory. Mikindani is the most southern port in the colony. Owing +to the prevalence of malaria there, few Europeans live at the town, +and trade is almost entirely in the hands of Banyans.</p> + +<p>Inland the principal settlements are Korogwe, Mrogoro, Kilossa, +Mpapua and Tabora. Korogwe is in the Usambara hills, on the +north bank of the Pangani river, and is reached by railway from +Tanga. Mrogoro is some 140 m. due west of Dar-es-Salaam, and is +the first important station on the road to Tanganyika. Kilossa and +Mpapua are farther inland on the same caravan route. Tabora (pop. +about 37,000), the chief town of the Wanyamwezi tribes, occupies an +important position on the central plateau, being the meeting-place +of the trade routes from Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza and the +coast. In the railway development of the colony Tabora is destined +to become the central junction of lines going north, south, east and +west.</p> + +<p>On Victoria Nyanza there are various settlements. Mwanza, on +the southern shore, is the lake terminus of the route from Bagamoyo: +Bukoba is on the western shore, and Schirati on the eastern shore; +both situated a little south of the British frontier. On the German +coast of Tanganyika are Ujiji (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. about 14,000, occupying a +central position; Usumbura, at the northern end of the lake where +is a fort built by the Germans; and Bismarckburg, near the southern +end. On the shores of the lake between Ujiji and Bismarckburg are +four stations of the Algerian “White Fathers,” all possessing +churches, schools and other stone buildings. Langenburg is a +settlement on the north-east side of Lake Nyasa. The government +station, called New Langenburg, occupies a higher and more healthy +site north-west of the lake. Wiedhafen is on the east side of Nyasa +at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and is the terminus of the caravan +route from Kilwa.</p> + +<p><i>Productions</i>.—The chief wealth of the country is derived from +agriculture and the produce of the forests. From the forests are +obtained rubber, copal, bark, various kinds of fibre, and timber +(teak, mahogany, &c.). The cultivated products include coffee, the +coco-nut palm, tobacco, sugar-cane, cotton, vanilla, sorghum, earth-nuts, +sesame, maize, rice, beans, peas, bananas (in large quantities), +yams, manioc and hemp. Animal products are ivory, hides, tortoise-shell +and pearls. On the plateaus large numbers of cattle, goats and +sheep are reared. The natives have many small smithies. Gold, +coal, iron, graphite, copper and salt have been found. Garnets are +plentiful in the Lindi district, and agates, topaz, moonstone and +other precious stones are found in the colony. The chief gold and +iron deposits are near Victoria Nyanza. In the Mwanza district +are conglomerate reefs of great extent. Mining began in 1905, +Mica is mined near Mrogoro. The chief exports are sisal fibre, +rubber, hides and skins, wax, ivory, copra, coffee, ground-nuts and +cotton. The imports are chiefly articles of food, textiles, and metals +and hardware. More than half the entire trade, both export and +import, is with Zanzibar. Germany takes about 30% of the trade. +In the ten years 1896-1905 the value of the external trade increased +from about £600,000 to over £1,100,000. In 1907 the imports were +valued at £1,190,000, the exports at £625,000.</p> + +<p>Numerous companies are engaged in developing the resources of +the country by trading, planting and mining. The most important +is the <i>Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft</i>, founded in 1885, which +has trading stations in each seaport, and flourishing plantations in +various parts of the country. It is the owner of vast tracts of land. +From 1890 to 1903 this company was in possession of extensive +mining, railway, banking and coining rights, but in the last-named +year, by agreement with the German government, it became a land +company purely. The company has a right to a fifth part of the +land within a zone of 10 m. on either side of any railway built in the +colony previously to 1935. In addition to the companies a comparatively +large number of private individuals have laid out plantations, +Usambara and Pare having become favourite districts for +agricultural enterprise. In the delta of the Rufiji and in the Kilwa +district cotton-growing was begun in 1901. The plantations are all +worked by native labour. The government possesses large forest +reserves.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—Good roads for foot traffic have been made +from the seaports to the trading stations on Lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika +and Victoria. Caravans from Dar-es-Salaam to Tanganyika +take 60 days to do the journey. The lack of more rapid means of +communication hindered the development of the colony and led to +economic crises (1898-1902), which were intensified, and in part +created, by the building of a railway in the adjacent British protectorate +from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, the British line securing +the trade with the lake. At that time the only railway in the country +was a line from Tanga to the Usambara highlands. This railway +passes through Korogwe (52 m. from Tanga) and is continued via +Mombo to Wilhelmstal, a farther distance of 56 m. The building +of a trunk line from Dar-es-Salaam to Mrogoro (140 m.), and ultimately +to Ujiji by way of Tabora, was begun in 1905. Another +proposed line would run from Kilwa to Wiedhafen on Lake Nyasa. +This railway would give the quickest means of access to British +Central Africa and the southern part of Belgian Congo. On each +of the three lakes is a government steamer. British steamers on +Victoria Nyanza maintain communication between the German +stations and the take terminus of the Uganda railway. The German +East Africa Line of Hamburg runs a fleet of first-class steamers to +East Africa, which touch at Tanga, Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar. +There is a submarine cable from Dar-es-Salaam to Zanzibar, and an +overland line connecting all the coast stations.</p> + +<p><i>Administration, Revenue, &c</i>.—For administrative purposes the +country is divided into districts (<i>Bezirksämter</i>), and stations (<i>Stationsbezirke</i>). +Each station has a chief, who is subordinate to the official +of his district, these in their turn being under the governor, who +resides in Dar-es-Salaam. The governor is commander of the +colonial force, which consists of natives under white officers. District +councils are constituted, on which the European merchants and +planters are represented. Revenue is raised by taxes on imports +and exports, on licences for the sale of land and spirituous liquors, +and for wood-cutting, by harbour and other dues, and a hut tax on +natives. The deficiency between revenue and expenditure is met +by a subsidy from the imperial government. In no case during the +first twenty-one years’ existence of the colony had the local revenue +reached 60% of the local expenditure, which in normal years amounted +to about £500,000. In 1909, however, only the expenditure necessary +for military purposes (£183,500) was received by way of subsidy.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Until nearly the middle of the 19th century only the +coast lands of the territory now forming German East Africa +were known either to Europeans or to the Arabs. When at the +beginning of the 16th century the Portuguese obtained possession +of the towns along the East African coast, they had been, for +periods extending in some cases fully five hundred years, under +Arab dominion. After the final withdrawal of the Portuguese in +the early years of the 18th century, the coast towns north of +Cape Delgado fell under the sway of the Muscat Arabs, passing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span> +from them to the sultan of Zanzibar. From about 1830, or a +little earlier, the Zanzibar Arabs began to penetrate inland, +and by 1850 had established themselves at Ujiji on the eastern +shore of Lake Tanganyika. The Arabs also made their way +south to Nyasa. This extension of Arab influence was accompanied +by vague claims on the part of the sultan of Zanzibar +to include all these newly opened countries in his empire. How +far from the coast the real authority of the sultan extended was +never demonstrated. Zanzibar at this time was in semi-dependence +on India, and British influence was strong at the +court of Bargash, who succeeded to the sultanate in 1870. +Bargash in 1877 offered to Sir (then Mr) William Mackinnon a +lease of all his mainland territory. The offer, made in the year +in which H.M. Stanley’s discovery of the course of the Congo +initiated the movement for the partition of the continent, was +declined. British influence was, however, still so powerful +in Zanzibar that the agents of the German Colonization Society, +who in 1884 sought to secure for their country territory on the +east coast, deemed it prudent to act secretly, so that both Great +Britain and Zanzibar might be confronted with accomplished +facts. Making their way inland, three young Germans, Karl +Peters, Joachim Count Pfeil and Dr Jühlke, concluded a +“treaty” in November 1884 with a chieftain in Usambara who +was declared to be independent of Zanzibar. Other treaties +followed, and on the 17th of February 1885, the German emperor +granted a charter of protection to the Colonization Society. +The German acquisitions were resented by Zanzibar, but were +acquiesced in by the British government (the second Gladstone +administration). The sultan was forced to acknowledge their +validity, and to grant a German company a lease of his mainland +territories south of the mouth of the Umba river, a British +company formed by Mackinnon taking a lease of the territories +north of that point. The story of the negotiations between +Great Britain, Germany and France which led to this result is +told elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, section 5). By the agreement of the +1st of July 1890, between the British and German governments, +and by agreements concluded between Germany and Portugal in +1886 and 1894, and Germany and the Congo Free State in 1884 +and later dates, the German sphere of influence attained its +present area. On the 28th of October 1890 the sultan of Zanzibar +ceded absolutely to Germany the mainland territories already +leased to a German company, receiving as compensation £200,000.</p> + +<p>While these negotiations were going on, various German +companies had set to work to exploit the country, and on the +16th of August 1888 the German East African Company, the +lessee of the Zanzibar mainland strip, took over the administration +from the Arabs. This was followed, five days later, by a +revolt of all the coast Arabs against German rule—the Germans, +raw hands at the task of managing Orientals, having aroused +intense hostility by their brusque treatment of the dispossessed +rulers. The company being unable to quell the revolt, Captain +Hermann Wissmann—subsequently Major Hermann von Wissmann +(1853-1905)—was sent out by Prince Bismarck as imperial +commissioner. Wissmann, with 1000 soldiers, chiefly Sudanese +officered by Germans, and a German naval contingent, succeeded +by the end of 1889 in crushing the power of the Arabs. Wissmann +remained in the country until 1891 as commissioner, and later +(1895-1896) was for eighteen months governor of the colony—as +the German sphere had been constituted by proclamation +(1st of January 1897). Towards the native population Wissmann’s +attitude was conciliatory, and under his rule the development +of the resources of the country was pushed on. Equal +success did not attend the efforts of other administrators; in +1891-1892 Karl Peters had great trouble with the tribes in +the Kilimanjaro district and resorted to very harsh methods, +such as the execution of women, to maintain his authority. +In 1896 Peters was condemned by a disciplinary court for a +misuse of official power, and lost his commission. After 1891, +in which year the Wahehe tribe ambushed and almost completely +annihilated a German military force of 350 men under Baron +von Zelewski, there were for many years no serious risings +against German authority, which by the end of 1898 had been +established over almost the whole of the hinterland. The +development of the country was, however, slow, due in part to +the disinclination of the Reichstag to vote supplies sufficient for +the building of railways to the fertile lake regions. Count von +Götzen (governor 1901-1906) adopted the policy of maintaining +the authority of native rulers as far as possible, but as over the +greater part of the colony the natives have no political organizations +of any size, the chief burden of government rests on the +German authorities. In August 1905 serious disturbances +broke out among the Bantu tribes in the colony. The revolt +was due largely to resentment against the restrictions enforced +by the Germans in their efforts at civilization, including compulsory +work on European plantations in certain districts. +Moreover, it is stated that the Herero in rebellion in German +South-west Africa sent word to the east coast natives to follow +their example, an instance of the growing solidarity of the black +races of Africa. Though the revolt spread over a very large +area, the chief centre of disturbance was the region between +Nyasa and the coast at Kilwa and Lindi. Besides a number of +settlers a Roman Catholic bishop and a party of four missionaries +and nuns were murdered in the Kilwa hinterland, while nearer +Nyasa the warlike Wangoni held possession of the country. +The Germans raised levies of Masai and Sudanese, and brought +natives from New Guinea to help in suppressing the rising, +besides sending naval and military contingents from Germany. +In general, the natives, when encountered, were easily dispersed, +but it was not until March 1906 that the coast regions were +again quiet. In July following the Wangoni were beaten in a +decisive engagement. It was officially stated that the death-roll +for the whole war was not below 120,000 men, women and +children. In 1907 a visit was paid to the colony by Herr B. +Dernburg, the colonial secretary. As a result of this visit more +humane methods in the treatment of the natives were introduced, +and measures taken to develop more fully the economic resources +of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—S. Passarge and others, <i>Das deutsche Kolonialreich</i>, +Erster Band (Leipzig, 1909); P. Reichard, <i>Deutsch Ostafrika, +das Land und seine Bewohner</i> (Leipzig, 1892); F. Stuhlmann, <i>Mit +Emin Pasha im Herzen von Afrika</i> (Berlin, 1894); Brix Foerster, +<i>Deutsch-Ostafrika; Geographie und Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1890); Oscar +Baumann, In <i>Deutsch-Ostafrika während des Aufstands</i> (Vienna, 1890), +<i>Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete</i> (Berlin, 1891), and <i>Durch +Massailand zur Nilquelle</i> (Berlin, 1894). For special studies see P. +Samassa, <i>Die Besiedelung Deutsch-Ostafrikas</i> (Leipzig, 1909); A. +Engler, <i>Die Pflanzenwelt Ost-Afrikas und der Nachbargebiete</i> (Berlin, +1895-1896) and other works by the same author; Stromer von +Reichenbach, <i>Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika</i> +(Munich and Leipzig, 1896); W. Bornhardt, <i>Deutsch-Ostafrika</i> +(Berlin, 1898); F. Fullerborn, <i>Beiträge zur physischen Anthropologie +der Nord-Nyassaländer</i> (Berlin, 1902), a fine series of pictures of +native types, and <i>Das Deutsche Nyassa- und Ruwuma-gebiet, Land +und Leute</i> (Berlin, 1906); K. Weule, <i>Native Life in East Africa</i> +(London, 1909); Hans Meyer, <i>Der Kilimandjaro</i> (Berlin, 1900) and +<i>Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika</i> (Leipzig, 1902); J. Strandes, +<i>Die Portugiesenzeit von Deutsch- u. Englisch-Ostafrika</i> (Berlin, 1899), +a valuable monograph on the Portuguese period. See also British +Official Reports on East Africa (specially No. 4221 ann. ser.), the +German White Books and annual reports, the <i>Mitteilungen aus den +deutschen Schutzgebiete</i>, and the <i>Deutsches Kolonialblatt</i>, published +fortnightly at Berlin since 1890. The <i>Deutscher Kolonial-Atlas</i> has +maps on the 1:1,000,000 scale.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH AMERICA,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> +a Protestant church dating from October 1840, and known, +in its early years, as the German Evangelical Association of the +West. It was formed by six German ministers who had been +ordained in Prussia and were engaged in missionary and pioneer +work in Missouri and Illinois. The original organization was +strengthened in 1858 by amalgamation with the German Evangelical +Church Association of Ohio, and later by the inclusion of +the German United Evangelical Synod of the East (1860), the +Evangelical Synod of the North-West (1872) and the United +Evangelical Synod of the East (1872). The church bases its +position on the Bible as interpreted by the symbols of the +Lutheran and Reformed churches so far as they are in agreement, +points of difference being left to “that liberty of conscience +which, as a component part of the basis of man’s ultimate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span> +responsibility to God himself, is the inalienable privilege of +every believer.” The church, which has (1909) 985 ministers +and some 238,000 communicant members, is divided into seventeen +districts, with officers responsible to the General Synod, +which meets every four years. There are boards for home +and foreign missions, the latter operating chiefly in the Central +Provinces of India. The literature of the church is mainly in +German, though English is rapidly gaining ground.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> Of those Germanic laws of +the early middle ages which are known as <i>leges barbarorum</i>, +we here deal with the principal examples other than Frankish, +viz. (1) <i>Leges Wisigothorum</i>, (2) <i>Lex Burgundionum</i>, (3) <i>Pactus +Alamannorum</i> and <i>Lex Alamannorum</i>, (4) <i>Lex Bajuvariorum</i>, +(5) <i>Lex Saxonum</i>, (6) <i>Lex Frisionum</i>, (7) <i>Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, +hoc est, Thuringorum</i>, and (8) <i>Leges Langobardorum</i>. +All these laws may in general be described as codes of procedure +and tariffs of compositions. They present somewhat similar +features with the Salic law, but often differ from it in the date of +compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature of +the crimes, the number, rank, duties and titles of the officers, +&c. For the Salic law and other Frankish laws, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salic Law</a></span>, +and for the edict of Theodoric I., which was applicable to the +Ostrogoths and Romans, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the whole body of the Germanic laws see P. Canciani, <i>Barbarorum +leges antiquae</i> (Venice, 1781-1789); F. Walter, <i>Corpus +juris germanici antiqui</i> (Berlin, 1824); <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica, Leges</i>. For further information on the codes in general, +see H.M. Zöpfl, <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i> (4th ed., Heidelberg, +1871-1876); J.E.O. Stobbe, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen</i> +(Brunswick, 1860-1864); Paul Viollet, <i>Histoire du droit civil français</i> +(2nd ed., Paris, 1893); H. Brunner, <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i> +(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906).</p> +</div> + +<p>1. <i>Leges Wisigothorum</i>.—Karl Zeumer’s edition of these laws +in the 4to series of the <i>Mon. Germ. Hist.</i> throws new light on all +questions relating to their date and composition. It is now +certain that the earliest written code of the Visigoths dates back +to King Euric (466-485). Besides his own constitutions, Euric +included in this collection constitutions of his predecessors, +Theodoric I. (419-451), Thorismund (451-453), and Theodoric II. +(453-466), and he arranged the whole in a logical order. Of +this code fragments of chapters cclxxvi. to cccxxxvi.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> have been +discovered in a palimpsest MS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale +at Paris (Latin coll., No. 12161), a fact which proves that the +code ran over a large area. Euric’s code was used for all cases +between Goths, and between them and Romans; in cases +between Romans, Roman law was used. At the instance of +Euric’s son, Alaric II., an examination was made of the Roman +laws in use among Romans in his dominions, and the resulting +compilation was approved in 506 at an assembly at Aire, in +Gascony, and is known as the Breviary of Alaric, and sometimes +as the <i>Liber Aniani</i>, from the fact that the authentic copies +bear the signature of the <i>referendarius</i> Anian.</p> + +<p>Euric’s code remained in force among the Visigoths of Spain +until the reign of Leovigild (568-586), who made a new one, +improving upon that of his predecessor. This work is lost, and +we have no direct knowledge of any fragment of it. In the 3rd +codification, however, many provisions have been taken from +the 2nd, and these are designated by the word “<i>antiqua</i>”; by +means of these “<i>antiqua</i>” we are enabled in a certain measure +to reconstruct the work of Leovigild.</p> + +<p>After the reign of Leovigild the legislation of the Visigoths +underwent a transformation. The new laws made by the kings +were declared to be applicable to all the subjects in the kingdom, +of whatever race—in other words, they became territorial; +and this principle of territoriality was gradually extended to +the ancient code. Moreover, the conversion of Reccared I. +(586-601) to orthodoxy effaced the religious differences among +his subjects, and all subjects, <i>qua</i> Christians, had to submit to +the canons of the councils, which were made obligatory by the +kings. After this change had been accepted, Recceswinth (649-672) +made a new code, which was applicable to Visigoths and +Romans alike. This code, known as the <i>Liber judiciorum</i>, is +divided into 12 books, which are subdivided into <i>tituli</i> and +chapters (<i>aerae</i>). It comprises 324 constitutions taken from +Leovigild’s collection, a few of the laws of Reccared and Sisebut, +99 laws of Chindaswinth (642-653), and 87 of Recceswinth. +A recension of this code of Recceswinth was made in 681 by +King Erwig (680-687), and is known as the <i>Lex Wisigothorum +renovata</i>; and, finally, some additamenta were made by Egica +(687-702). In Zeumer’s edition of the <i>Leges Wisigothorum</i> the +versions of Recceswinth and Erwig, where they differ from each +other, are shown in parallel columns, and the laws later than +Erwig are denoted by the sign “<i>nov</i>.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information see the preface to Zeumer’s edition; +H. Brunner, <i>Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906); +Ureña y Smenyaud, <i>La Legislacion Gotico-hispana</i> (Madrid, 1905).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Lex Burgundionum</i>.—This code was compiled by King +Gundobald (474-516), very probably after his defeat by Clovis +in 500. Some additamenta were subsequently introduced either +by Gundobald himself or by his son Sigismund. This law bears +the title of <i>Liber Constitutionum</i>, which shows that it emanated +from the king; it is also known as the <i>Lex Gundobada</i> or <i>Lex +Gombata</i>. It was used for cases between Burgundians, but was +also applicable to cases between Burgundians and Romans. +For cases between Romans, however, Gundobald compiled the +<i>Lex Romana Burgundionum</i>, called sometimes, through a misreading +of the MSS., the <i>Liber Papiani</i> or simply <i>Papianus</i>. +The barbarian law of the Burgundians shows strong traces of +Roman influence. It recognizes the will and attaches great +importance to written deeds, but on the other hand sanctions +the judicial duel and the <i>cojuratores</i> (sworn witnesses). The +vehement protest made in the 9th century by Agobard, bishop +of Lyons, against the <i>Lex Gundobada</i> shows that it was still in +use at that period. So late as the 10th and even the 11th +centuries we find the law of the Burgundians invoked as personal +law in Cluny charters, but doubtless these passages refer to +accretions of local customs rather than to actual paragraphs +of the ancient code.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The text of the <i>Lex Burgundionum</i> has been published by F. +Bluhme in the <i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i>, <i>Leges</i>, iii. 525; by Karl Binding +in the <i>Fontes rerum Bernensium</i> (vol. i., 1880); by J.E. Valentin +Smith (Paris, 1889 seq.); and by von Salis (1892) in the 4to series +of the <i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i> Cf. R. Dareste, “La Loi Gombette,” in the +<i>Journal des savants</i> (July 1891).</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <i>Pactus Alamannorum</i> and <i>Lex Alamannorum</i>.—Of the +laws of the Alamanni, who dwelt between the Rhine and the +Lech, and spread over Alsace and what is now Switzerland to +the south of Lake Constance, we possess two different texts. +The earlier text, of which five short fragments have come down +to us, is known as the <i>Pactus Alamannorum</i>, and from the persistent +recurrence of the expression “et sic convenit” was most +probably drawn up by an official commission. The reference to +affranchisement <i>in ecclesia</i> shows that it was composed at a period +subsequent to the conversion of the Alamanni to Christianity. +There is no doubt that the text dates back to the reign of +Dagobert I., <i>i.e.</i> to the first half of the 7th century. The later +text, known as the <i>Lex Alamannorum</i>, dates from a period when +Alamannia was independent under national dukes, but recognized +the theoretical suzerainty of the Frankish kings. There seems +no reason to doubt the St Gall MS., which states that the law +had its origin in an agreement between the great Alamannic +lords and Duke Landfrid, who ruled the duchy from 709 to 730.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The two texts have been published by J. Merkel in the <i>Mon. +Germ. hist.</i>, <i>Leges</i>, iii., and by Karl Lehmann in the 4to series of +the same collection.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. <i>Lex Bajuvariorum</i>.—We possess an important law of the +Bavarians, whose duchy was situated in the region east of the +Lech, and was an outpost of Germany against the Huns, known +later as Avars. Parts of this law have been taken directly from +the Visigothic law of Euric and from the law of the Alamanni. +The Bavarian law, therefore, is later than that of the Alamanni. +It dates unquestionably from a period when the Frankish +authority was very strong in Bavaria, when the dukes were +vassals of the Frankish kings. Immediately after the revolt of +Bavaria in 743 the Bavarian duke Odilo was forced to submit +to Pippin and Carloman, the sons of Charles Martel, and to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +recognize the Frankish suzerainty. About the same period, too, +the church of Bavaria was organized by St Boniface, and the +country divided into several bishoprics; and we find frequent +references to these bishops (in the plural) in the law of the +Bavarians. On the other hand, we know that the law is anterior +to the reign of Duke Tassilo III. (749-788). The date of compilation +must, therefore, be placed between 743 and 749.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is an edition of the <i>Lex Bajuvariorum</i> by J. Merkel in the +<i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i>, <i>Leges</i>, iii. 183, and another was undertaken by +E. von Schwind for the 4to series of the same collection. Cf. von +Schwind’s article in the <i>Neues Archiv</i>, vol. xxxi.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. <i>Lex Saxonum</i>.—Germany comprised two other duchies, +Saxony and Frisia, of each of which we possess a text of law. +The <i>Lex Saxonum</i> has come down to us in two MSS. and two old +editions (those of B.J. Herold and du Tillet), and the text has +been edited by Karl von Richthofen in the <i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i>, +<i>Leges</i>, v. The law contains ancient customary enactments of +Saxony, and, in the form in which it has reached us, is later than +the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. It is preceded by two +capitularies of Charlemagne for Saxony—the <i>Capitulatio de +partibus Saxoniae</i> (A. Boretius i. 68), which dates undoubtedly +from 782, and is characterized by great severity, death being the +penalty for every offence against the Christian religion; and the +<i>Capitulare Saxonicum</i> (A. Boretius i. 71), of the 28th of October +797, in which Charlemagne shows less brutality and pronounces +simple compositions for misdeeds which formerly entailed death. +The <i>Lex Saxonum</i> apparently dates from 803, since it contains +provisions which are in the <i>Capitulare legi Ribuariae additum</i> +of that year. The law established the ancient customs, at the +same time eliminating anything that was contrary to the spirit +of Christianity; it proclaimed the peace of the churches, whose +possessions it guaranteed and whose right of asylum it recognized.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Lex Frisionum</i>.—This consists of a medley of documents +of the most heterogeneous character. Some of its enactments +are purely pagan—thus one paragraph allows the mother to kill +her new-born child, and another prescribes the immolation to +the gods of the defiler of their temple; others are purely Christian, +such as those which prohibit incestuous marriages and working +on Sunday. The law abounds in contradictions and repetitions, +and the compositions are calculated in different moneys. From +this it would appear that the documents were merely materials +collected from various sources and possibly with a view to the +compilation of a homogeneous law. These materials were apparently +brought together at the beginning of the 9th century, at a +time of intense legislative activity at the court of Charlemagne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are no MSS. of the document extant; our knowledge of it +is based upon B.J. Herold’s edition (<i>Originum ac Germanicarum +antiquitatum libri</i>, Basel, 1557), which has been reproduced by +Karl von Richthofen in the <i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i>, <i>Leges</i>, iii. 631.</p> +</div> + +<p>7. <i>Lex Angliorum el Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringorum</i>.—In +early times there dwelt in Thuringia, south of the river Unstrut, +the Angli, who gave their name to the <i>pagus Engili</i>, and to the +east, between the Saale and the Elster, the Warni (Werini, or +Varini), whose name is seen in Werenofeld. In the 9th century, +however, this region (then called Werenofeld) was occupied by +the Sorabi, and the Warni and Angli either coalesced with the +Thuringi or sought an asylum in the north of Germany. A +collection of laws has come down to us bearing the name of +these two peoples, the <i>Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, +Thuringorum</i>. This text is a collection of local customs arranged +in the same order as the law of the Ripuarians. Parts of it are +based on the <i>Capitulare legi Ribuariae additum</i> of 803, and it +seems to have been drawn up in the same conditions and circumstances +as the law of the Saxons. There is an edition of this code +by Karl von Richthofen in the <i>Mon. Germ. hist.</i>, <i>Leges</i>, v. 103. +The old opinion that the law originated in south Holland is +entirely without foundation.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Leges Langobardorum</i>.—We possess a fair amount of +information on the origin of the last barbarian code, the laws +of the Lombards. The first part, consisting of 388 chapters, +is known as the <i>Edictus Langobardorum</i>, and was promulgated +by King Rothar at a diet held at Pavia on the 22nd of November +643. This work, composed at one time and arranged on a +systematic plan, is very remarkable. The compilers knew Roman +law, but drew upon it only for their method of presentation and +for their terminology; and the document presents Germanic law +in its purity. Rothar’s edict was augmented by his successors; +Grimoald (668) added nine chapters; Liutprand (713-735), +fifteen volumes, containing a great number of ecclesiastical +enactments; Ratchis (746), eight chapters; and Aistulf (755), +thirteen chapters. After the union of the Lombards to the +Frankish kingdom, the capitularies made for the entire kingdom +were applicable to Italy. There were also special capitularies +for Italy, called <i>Capitula Italica</i>, some of which were appended +to the edict of Rothar.</p> + +<p>At an early date compilations were formed in Italy for the use +of legal practitioners and jurists. Eberhard, duke and margrave +of Rhaetia and Friuli, arranged the contents of the edict with its +successive additamenta into a <i>Concordia de singulis causis</i> +(829-832). In the 10th century a collection was made of the +capitularies in use in Italy, and this was known as the <i>Capitulare +Langobardorum</i>. Then appeared, under the influence of the +school of law at Pavia, the <i>Liber legis Langobardorum</i>, also +called <i>Liber Papiensis</i> (beginning of 11th century), and the +<i>Lombarda</i> (end of 11th century) in two forms—that given in a +Monte Cassino MS. and known as the <i>Lombarda Casinensis</i>, and +the <i>Lombarda Vulgata</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are editions of the <i>Edictus</i>, the <i>Concordia</i>, and the <i>Liber +Papiensis</i> by F. Bluhme and A. Boretius in the <i>Mon. Germ. hist., +Leges</i>, iv. Bluhme also gives the rubrics of the <i>Lombardae</i>, which +were published by F. Lindenberg in his <i>Codex legum antiquarum</i> in +1613. For further information on the laws of the Lombards see +J. Merkel, <i>Geschichte des Langobardenrechts</i> (1850); A. Boretius, +<i>Die Kapitularien im Langobardenreich</i> (1864); and C. Kier, <i>Edictus +Rotari</i> (Copenhagen, 1898). Cf. R. Dareste in the <i>Nouvelle Revue +historique de droit français et étranger</i> (1900, p. 143).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The lacunae in these fragments have been filled in by the aid of +the law of the Bavarians, where the chief provisions are reproduced.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMANICUS CAESAR<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 19), a Roman general +and provincial governor in the reign of Tiberius. The name +Germanicus, the only one by which he is known in history, he +inherited from his father, Nero Claudius Drusus, the famous +general, brother of Tiberius and stepson of Augustus. His mother +was the younger Antonia, daughter of Marcus Antonius and +niece of Augustus, and he married Agrippina, the granddaughter +of the same emperor. It was natural, therefore, that he should +be regarded as a candidate for the purple. Augustus, it would +seem, long hesitated whether he should name him as his successor, +and as a compromise required his uncle Tiberius to adopt him, +though Tiberius had a son of his own. Of his early years and +education little is known. That he possessed considerable +literary abilities, and that these were carefully trained, we gather, +both from the speeches which Tacitus puts into his mouth, and +from the reputation he left as an orator, as attested by Suetonius +and Ovid, and from the extant fragments of his works.</p> + +<p>At the age of twenty he served his apprenticeship as a soldier +under Tiberius, and was rewarded with the triumphal insignia +for his services in crushing the revolt in Dalmatia and Pannonia. +In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 11 he accompanied Tiberius in his campaign on the Rhine, +undertaken, in consequence of the defeat of Varus, with the +object of securing the German frontier. In 12 he was made +consul, and increased his popularity by appearing as an advocate +in the courts of justice, and by the celebration of brilliant games. +Soon afterwards he was appointed by Augustus to the important +command of the eight legions on the Rhine. The news of the +emperor’s death (14) found Germanicus at Lugdunum (Lyons), +where he was superintending the census of Gaul. Close upon this +came the report that a mutiny had broken out among his legions +on the lower Rhine. Germanicus hurried back to the camp, +which was now in open insurrection. The tumult was with +difficulty quelled, partly by well-timed concessions, for which +the authority of the emperor was forged, but chiefly owing to +his personal popularity. Some of the insurgents actually +proposed that he should put himself at their head and secure +the empire for himself, but their offer was rejected with indignation. +In order to calm the excitement Germanicus determined +at once on an active campaign. Crossing the Rhine, he attacked +and routed the Marsi, and laid waste the valley of the Ems. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +In the following year he marched against Arminius, the conqueror +of Varus, and performed the last rites over the remains of the +Roman soldiers that still lay there unburied, erecting a barrow +to mark the spot. Arminius, however, favoured by the marshy +ground, was able to hold his own, and it required another +campaign before he was finally defeated. A masterly combined +movement by land and water enabled Germanicus to concentrate +his forces against the main body of the Germans encamped on +the Weser, and to crush them in two obstinately contested battles. +A monument erected on the field proclaimed that the army of +Tiberius had conquered every tribe between the Rhine and the +Elbe. Great, however, as the success of the Roman arms had +been, it was not such as to justify this boastful inscription; we +read of renewed attacks from the barbarians, and plans of a +fourth campaign for the next summer.</p> + +<p>But the success of Germanicus had already stirred the jealousy +and fears of Tiberius, and he was reluctantly compelled to return +to Rome. On the 26th of May 17 he celebrated a triumph. +The enthusiasm with which he was welcomed, not only by the +populace, but by the emperor’s own praetorians, was so great +that the earliest pretext was seized to remove him from the capital. +He was sent to the East with extraordinary powers to settle a +disputed succession in Parthia and Armenia. At the same time +Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, one of the most violent and ambitious +of the old nobility, was sent as governor of Syria to watch his +movements. Germanicus proceeded by easy stages to his +province, halting on his way in Dalmatia, and visiting the battlefield +of Actium, Athens, Ilium, and other places of historic interest. +At Rhodes he met his coadjutor Piso, who was seeking everywhere +to thwart and malign him. When at last he reached his destination, +he found little difficulty in effecting the settlement of the +disturbed provinces, notwithstanding Piso’s violent and persistent +opposition. At Artaxata Zeno, the popular candidate for the +throne, was crowned king of Armenia. To the provinces of +Cappadocia and Commagene Roman governors were assigned; +Parthia was conciliated by the banishment of the dethroned +king Vonones.</p> + +<p>After wintering in Syria Germanicus started for a tour in +Egypt. The chief motive for his journey was love of travel and +antiquarian study, and it seems never to have occurred to him, +till he was warned by Tiberius, that he was thereby transgressing +an unwritten law which forbade any Roman of rank to set foot +in Egypt without express permission. On his return to Syria +he found that all his arrangements had been upset by Piso. +Violent recriminations followed, the result of which, it would +seem, was a promise on the part of Piso to quit the province. +But at this juncture Germanicus was suddenly attacked at +Epidaphne near Antioch by a violent illness, which he himself +and his friends attributed to poison administered by Plancina, +the wife of Piso, at the instigation of Tiberius. Whether these +suspicions were true is open to question; it seems more probable +that his death was due to natural causes. His ashes were brought +to Rome in the following year (20) by his wife Agrippina, and +deposited in the grave of Augustus. He had nine children, +six of whom, three sons and three daughters, survived him, +amongst them the future emperor Gaius and the notorious +Agrippina, the mother of Nero. The news of his death cast a +gloom over the whole empire. Nor was Germanicus unworthy +of this passionate devotion. He had wiped out a great national +disgrace; he had quelled the most formidable foe of Rome. +His private life had been stainless, and he possessed a singularly +attractive personality. Yet there were elements of weakness +in his character which his short life only half revealed: an +impetuosity which made him twice threaten to take his own +life; a superstitious vein which impelled him to consult oracles +and shrink from bad omens; an amiable dilettantism which led +him to travel in Egypt while his enemy was plotting his ruin; +a want of nerve and resolution which prevented him from coming +to an open rupture with Piso till it was too late.</p> + +<p>He possessed considerable literary abilities; his speeches and +Greek comedies were highly spoken of by his contemporaries. +But the only specimen of his work that has come down to us is +the translation in Latin hexameters (generally attributed to +him, although some consider Domitian the author), together with +scholia, of the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus, which is superior to those +of Cicero and Avienus (best edition by A. Breysig, 1867; 1899, +without the scholia). A few extant Greek and Latin epigrams +also bear the name Germanicus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to monographs by A. Zingerle (Trent, 1867) and +A. Breysig (Erfurt, 1892), there are treatises on the German campaigns +by E. von Wietersheim (1850), P. Höfer (1884), F. Knoke +(1887, 1889), W. Fricke (1889), A. Taramelli (1891), Dahm (1902).</p> + +<p>See Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, i.-iv. (ed. Furneaux); Suetonius, <i>Augustus, +Tiberius</i>; J.C. Tarver, <i>Tiberius</i> (1902); Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans +under the Empire</i>, chs. 42, 43; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen +Kaiserzeit</i>, i. 1 (1883), pp. 227, 258, 261-266, 270-276; M. Schanz, +<i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1901), and Teuffel-Schwabe, +<i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. tr., 1900), 275.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMANIUM<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (symbol Ge, atomic weight 72.5); one of the +metallic elements included in the same natural family as carbon, +silicon, tin and lead. It was discovered in 1886 by C. Winkler +in argyrodite, a mineral found at Freiberg in Saxony. On examination +of the metal and its salts it was shown to be identical +with the hypothetical element <i>ekasilicon</i>, whose properties +had been predicted by D. Mendeléeff many years previously. +The element is of extremely rare occurrence, being met with +only in argyrodite and, to a very small extent, in euxenite. It +may be obtained from argyrodite by heating the mineral in a +current of hydrogen; or by heating the dioxide to redness with +carbon. It forms grey coloured octahedra of specific gravity +5.496 at 20° C., melting at 900° C.; it burns at a red heat, is +insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but dissolves in <i>aqua regia</i>, and +is also soluble in molten alkalis. Two oxides of germanium +are known, the <i>dioxide</i>, GeO<span class="su">2</span>, being obtained by roasting the +sulphide and treatment with nitric acid. It is a white powder, +very slightly soluble in water, and possesses acid properties. +By heating with a small quantity of magnesium it is converted +into <i>germanious oxide</i>, GeO. By heating the metal with chlorine, +<i>germanic chloride</i>, GeCl<span class="su">4</span>, is obtained as a colourless fuming +liquid boiling at 86-87° C., it is decomposed by water forming +a hydrated germanium dioxide. <i>Germanium dichloride</i>, GeCl<span class="su">2</span>, +and <i>germanium chloroform</i>, GeHCl<span class="su">3</span>, have also been described.</p> + +<p>Germanium compounds on fusion with alkaline carbonates +and sulphur form salts known as <i>thiogermanates</i>. If excess of +a mineral acid be added to a solution of an alkaline thiogermanate +a white precipitate of <i>germanium disulphide</i>, GeS<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained. +It can also be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through +a solution of the dioxide in hydrochloric acid. It is appreciably +soluble in water, and also in solutions of the caustic alkalis and +alkaline sulphides. By heating the disulphide in a current of +hydrogen, <i>germanious sulphide</i>, GeS, is formed. It sublimes in +thin plates of a dark colour and metallic lustre, and is soluble +in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Alkyl compounds of germanium +such as <i>germanium tetra-ethyl</i>, Ge(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">4</span>, a liquid boiling +at 160° C., have been obtained. The germanium salts are +most readily recognized by the white precipitate of the disulphide, +formed in acid solutions, on passing sulphuretted hydrogen. +The atomic weight of the element was determined by C. Winkler +by analysis of the pure chloride GeCl<span class="su">4</span>, the value obtained being +72.32, whilst Lecoq de Boisbaudran (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1886, 103, +452), by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of +the element, deduced the value 72.3.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN LANGUAGE.<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> Together with English and Frisian, +the German language forms part of the West Germanic group +of languages. To this group belongs also Langobardian, a +dialect which died out in the 9th or 10th century, while Burgundian, +traces of which are not met with later than the 5th century, +is usually classed with the East Germanic group. Both these +tongues were at an early stage crushed out by Romance dialects, +a fate which also overtook the idiom of the Western Franks, +who, in the so-called <i>Strassburg Oaths</i><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of 842, use the +Romance tongue, and are addressed in that tongue by Louis +the German.</p> + +<p>Leaving English and Frisian aside, we understand by <i>Deutsche</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +<i>Sprache</i> the language of those West Germanic tribes, who, +at their earliest appearance in history, spoke a Germanic tongue, +and still speak it at the present day. The chief of these tribes +are: the Saxons, the Franks (but with the restriction noted +above), the Chatti (Hessians), Thuringians, Alemannians and +Bavarians. This definition naturally includes the languages +spoken in the Low Countries, Flemish and Dutch, which are +offsprings of the Low Franconian dialect, mixed with Frisian +and Saxon elements; but, as the literary development of these +languages has been in its later stages entirely independent of +that of the German language, they are excluded from the present +survey.</p> + +<p>The German language, which is spoken by about seventy-one +millions, and consequently occupies in this respect the third +place among European languages, borders, in the west and south, +on Romance languages (French, Italian), and also to some +extent on Slavonic. On Italian and Slovenian territory there +are several German-speaking “islands,” notably the Sette and +Tredici Communi, east and north-east of the Lake of Garda, +and the “Gottschee Ländchen” to the south of Laibach. The +former of these is, however, on the point of dying out. Neighbours +on the east, where the boundary line runs by no means as straight +as on the west or south, are the Magyars and again Slavonic +races. Here, too, there are numerous “islands” on Hungarian +and Slavonic territory. Danes and Frisians join hands with +the Germans in the north.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>In the west and south the German language has, compared +with its status in earlier periods, undoubtedly lost ground, +having been encroached upon by Romance tongues. This is +the case in French Flanders, in Alsace and Lorraine, at any +rate before the war of 1870, in the valleys south of Monte Rosa +and in southern Tirol; in Styria and Carinthia the encroachment +is less marked, but quite perceptible. On the east, on the other +hand, German steadily spread from the days of Charles the +Great down to recent times, when it has again lost considerable +ground in Bohemia, Moravia and Livonia. At the time of +Charles the Great the eastern frontier extended very little beyond +the lower Elbe, following this river beyond Magdeburg, whence +it passed over to the Saale, the Bohemian forest and the river +Enns (cf. the map in F. Dahn, <i>Urgeschichte der germanischen +und romanischen Völker</i>, vol. iii.). Partly as a result of victories +gained by the Germans over the Avars and Slavs, partly owing to +peaceful colonization, the eastern boundary was pushed forward +in subsequent centuries; Bohemia was in this way won for the +German tongue by German colonists in the 13th century, Silesia +even a little earlier; in Livonia German gained the upper hand +during the 13th century, while about the same time the country +of the Prussians was conquered and colonized by the knights +of the Teutonic order. The dialect which these colonists and +knights introduced bore the Middle German character; and this, +in various modifications, combined with Low German and even +Dutch elements, formed the German spoken in these newly-won +territories. In the north (Schleswig), where at the time of +Charles the Great the river Eider formed the linguistic boundary, +German has gained and is still gaining on Danish.</p> + +<p>Before considering the development of the language spoken +within these boundaries, a word of explanation is perhaps +necessary with regard to the word <i>deutsch</i>. As applied to the +language, <i>deutsch</i> first appears in the Latin form <i>theotiscus</i>, +<i>lingua theotisca</i>, <i>teutisca</i>, in certain Latin writings of the 8th and +9th centuries, whereas the original Old High German word +<i>thiudisc</i>, <i>tiutisc</i> (from <i>thiot</i>, <i>diot</i>, “people,” and the suffix <i>-isc</i>) +signified only “appertaining to the people,” “in the manner +of the people.” Cf. also Gothic <i>þiudisko</i> as a translation of <span class="grk" title="ethnikôs">ἐθνικῶς</span> +(Gal. ii. 14). It, therefore, seems probable that if the application +of the word to the language (<i>lingua theotisca</i>) was not exactly +an invention of Latin authors of German nationality, its use +in this sense was at least encouraged by them in order to +distinguish their own vernacular (<i>lingua vulgaris</i>) from Latin as +well as from the <i>lingua romana</i>.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>In the 8th and 9th centuries German or “Deutsch” first +appears as a written language in the dialects of Old High German +and Old Low German. Of an “Urdeutsch” or primitive +German, <i>i.e.</i> the common language from which these sharply +distinguished dialects of the earliest historical period must have +developed, we have no record; we can only infer its character—and +it was itself certainly not free from dialectic variations—by +a study of the above-named and other Germanic dialects. +It is usual to divide the history of the German language from +this earliest period, when it appears only in the form of proper +names and isolated words as glosses to a Latin text, down to +the present day, into three great sections: (1) Old High German +(<i>Althochdeutsch</i>) and Old Low German (Old Saxon; <i>Altniederdeutsch</i>, +<i>Altsächsisch</i>); (2) Middle High German (<i>Mittelhochdeutsch</i>) +and Middle Low German (Mittelniederdeutsch); and +(3) Modern High German and Modern Low German (<i>Neuhochdeutsch</i> +and <i>Neuniederdeutsch</i>). It is more difficult to determine +the duration of the different periods, for it is obvious that the +transition from one stage of a language to another takes place +slowly and gradually.</p> + +<p>The first or Old High German period is commonly regarded +as extending to about the year 1100. The principal characteristic +of the change from Old High German to Middle High German +is the weakening of the unaccented vowels in final syllables +(cf. O.H.G. <i>tagā</i>, <i>gesti</i>, <i>geban</i>, <i>gābum</i> and M.H.G. <i>tage</i>, <i>geste</i>, +<i>geben</i>, <i>gāben</i>). But it must be remembered that this process +began tentatively as early as the 10th century in Low German, +and also that long, unaccented vowels are preserved in the +Alemannic dialect as late as the 14th century and even later. +Opinion is more at variance with regard to the division between +the second and third periods. Some would date Modern High +German from the time of Luther, that is to say, from about +1500. But it must be noted that certain characteristics attributed +to the Modern German vowel system, such as lengthening of +Middle High German short vowels, the change from Middle +High German <i>ī</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i>iu</i> to Modern High German <i>ei</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>eu</i> (<i>öu</i>), +of Middle High German <i>ie</i>, <i>uo</i>, <i>üe</i> to Modern High German +<i>ī</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i><span class="ov">ü</span></i>, made their appearance long before 1500. Taking this +fact into consideration, others distinguish a period of classical +Middle High German extending to about 1250, and a period +of transition (sometimes called <i>Frühneuhochdeutsch</i>, or Early +Modern High German) from 1250 to 1650. The principal +characteristics of Modern High German would then consist in +a greater stability of the grammatical and syntactical rules, due +to the efforts of earlier grammarians, such as Schottelius, +Gottsched and others, and the substitution of a single vowel +sound for the varying vowels of the singular and plural of the +preterite of strong verbs (cf. Middle High German <i>schreib</i>, +<i>schriben</i>, and Modern High German <i>schrieb</i>, <i>schrieben</i>, &c.). +The much debated question of the origins of Modern High German +has been recently reopened by O. Behaghel (<i>Geschichte der +deutschen Sprache, l.c.</i> 661), who hopes that a more satisfactory +solution may be arrived at by the study of certain syntactical +peculiarities to be seen in the dialects of more recent +periods.</p> + +<p>As the middle ages did not produce a German <i>Schriftsprache</i> +or literary language in the modern sense of the word, which—as +is undoubtedly the case in Modern German—might have +influenced the spoken language (<i>Umgangssprache</i>), the history +of the language in its earlier stages is a history of different +dialects. These dialects will, therefore, claim our attention at +some length.</p> + +<p>It may be assumed that the languages of the different West +Germanic tribes enumerated above were, before the appearance +of the tribes in history, distinguished by many dialectic variations; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span> +this was certainly the case immediately after the Migrations, +when the various races began to settle down. But these differences, +consisting presumably in matters of phonology and +vocabulary, were nowhere so pronounced as to exclude a mutual +understanding of individuals belonging to different tribes. +One might compare the case of the Poles and Czechs of the +present day. During the 6th century, however, a phonological +process set in, which ultimately resulted in the separation of +Germany into two great linguistic divisions, south and north, +or, as the languages are called, High and Low German. This +fundamental change, which is known as the second or High +German Soundshifting (<i>Lautverschiebung</i>), spread northward +from the mountainous districts in the south, and, whatever its +cause may have been,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> left behind it clear and easily recognizable +effects on the Germanic voiced stop <i>d</i>, which became changed +to <i>t</i>, and more especially on the voiceless stops <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> and <i>k</i>. +Dialects which have shifted initial <i>t</i> and <i>tt</i> in the middle of a +word to the affricate <i>tz</i> (written <i>z</i>, <i>tz</i>) and <i>p</i> and <i>k</i> in corresponding +positions to the affricates <i>pf</i> and <i>k</i>χ (written <i>ch</i>), further, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> and +<i>k</i> in the middle of words between vowels, to the double spirant +<i>zz</i> (now written <i>ss</i>, <i>sz</i>), <i>ff</i>, <i>hh</i> (written <i>ch</i>), are called High German; +those in which these changes have not taken place form the +Low German group, this group agreeing in this respect with +English and Frisian.</p> + +<p>Of these sound changes, that of <i>t</i> to <i>tz</i> and <i>zz</i> (<i>ss</i>) is the most +universal, extending over the whole region in which shifting +occurs; that of <i>k</i> to <i>k</i>χ (<i>ch</i>), the most restricted, being only found +in Old Bavarian, and in the Swiss pronunciation, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>chind</i>. +The remaining dialects occupy positions between the two +extremes of complete shifting and the absence of shifting. Some +Franconian dialects, for instance, leave <i>p</i> unchanged under +certain conditions, and in one dialect at least, Middle Franconian, +<i>t</i> has remained after vowels in certain pronominal forms (<i>dat</i>, +<i>wat</i>, <i>allet</i>, &c.). On this ground a subdivision has been made in +the High German dialects into (<i>a</i>) an Upper German (<i>Oberdeutsch</i>) +and (<i>b</i>) a Middle German (<i>Mitteldeutsch</i>) group; and this subdivision +practically holds good for all periods of the language, +although in Old High German times the Middle German group +is only represented, as far as the written language is concerned, +by Franconian dialects.</p> + +<p>As the scientific study of the German language advanced +there arose a keen revival of interest—and that not merely on the +part of scholars—in the dialects which were so long held in contempt +as a mere corruption of the <i>Schriftsprache</i>.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> We are still in +the midst of a movement which, under the guidance of scholars, +has, during the last three decades, bestowed great care on many +of the existing dialects; phonological questions have received +most attention, but problems of syntax have also not been +neglected. Monumental works like Wenker’s <i>Sprachatlas des +deutschen Reiches</i> and dialect dictionaries are either in course +of publication or preparing;<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> while the difficult questions +concerned with defining the boundaries of the various dialects +and explaining the reasons for them form the subject of many +monographs.<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>Beginning in the north we shall now pass briefly in review the +dialects spoken throughout the German-speaking area.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">A. The Low German Dialects</p> + +<p>The Low German dialects, as we have seen, stand nearest to the +English and Frisian languages, owing to the total absence of the +consonantal shifting which characterizes High German, as well as +to other peculiarities of sounds and inflections, <i>e.g.</i> the loss of the +nasals <i>m</i> and <i>n</i> before the spirants <i>f</i>, <i>s</i> and <i>p</i>. Cf. Old Saxon <i>fif</i> (five), +<i>us</i> (us), <i>kup</i> (cf. uncouth). The boundary-line between Low and +High German, the so-called <i>Benrather Linie</i>, may roughly be +indicated by the following place-names, on the understanding, +however, that the Ripuarian dialect (see below) is to be classed +with High German: Montjoie (French border-town), Eupen, +Aachen, Benrath, Düsseldorf, north of Siegen, Cassel, Heiligenstadt, +Harzgerode, to the Elbe south of Magdeburg; this river forms the +boundary as far as Wittenberg, whence the line passes to Lübben on +the Spree, Fürstenwald on the Oder and Birnbaum near the river +Warthe. Beyond this point the Low Germans have Slavs as their +neighbours. Compared with the conditions in the 13th century, +it appears that Low German has lost ground; down to the 14th +and 15th centuries several towns, such as Mansfeld, Eisleben, +Merseburg, Halle, Dessau and Wittenberg, spoke Low German.</p> + +<p>Low German falls into two divisions, a western division, namely, +Low Franconian, the parent, as we have already said, of Flemish and +Dutch, and an eastern division, Low Saxon (<i>Plattdeutsch</i>, or, as it +is often simply called, Low German). The chief characteristic of +the division is to be sought in the ending of the first and third person +plural of the present indicative of verbs, this being in the former case +<i>-en</i>, in the latter <i>-et</i>. Inasmuch as the south-eastern part of Low +Franconian—inclusive of Gelderland and Cleves—shifts final <i>k</i> to +<i>ch</i> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>ich</i>, <i>mich</i>, <i>auch</i>, <i>-lich</i>), it must obviously be separated from +the rest, and in this respect be grouped with High German. Low +Saxon is usually divided into Westphalian (to the west of the Weser) +and Low Saxon proper, between Weser and Elbe. The south-eastern +part of the latter has the verbal ending <i>-en</i> and further shows +the peculiarity that the personal pronoun has the same form in the +dative and accusative (<i>mik</i>, <i>dick</i>), whereas the remainder, as well +as the Westphalian, has <i>mi</i>, <i>di</i> in the dative, and <i>mi</i>, <i>di</i> or <i>mik</i>, <i>dik</i> +in the accusative. To these Low German dialects must also be +added those spoken east of the Elbe on what was originally Slavonic +territory; they have the ending <i>-en</i> in the first and third person plural +of verbs.<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">B. The High German Dialects</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Middle German Group.</i>—This group, which comprises the +dialects of the Middle Rhine, of Hesse, Thuringia, Upper Saxony +(Meissen), Silesia and East Prussia to the east of the lower Vistula +between Bischofswerder, Marienburg, Elbing, Wormditt and +Wartenberg—a district originally colonized from Silesia—may be +most conveniently divided into an East and a West Middle German +group. A common characteristic of all these dialects is the diminutive +suffix <i>-chen</i>, as compared with the Low German form <i>-ken</i> and +the Upper German <i>-lein</i> (O.H.G. <i>līn</i>). East Middle German consists +of Silesian, Upper Saxon and Thuringian,<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> together with the linguistic +colony in East Prussia. While these dialects have shifted +initial Germanic <i>p</i> to <i>ph</i>, or even to <i>f</i> (<i>fert</i> = <i>Pferd</i>), the West Middle +German dialects (roughly speaking to the west of the watershed of +Werra and Fulda) have retained it. If, following a convincing +article in the <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i> (37, 288 ff.) by F. +Wrede, we class East and South Franconian—both together may +be called High Franconian—with the Upper German dialects, there +only remain in the West Middle German group:<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> (<i>a</i>) Middle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span> +Franconian and (<i>b</i>) Rhenish Franconian. The former of these,<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> which +with its <i>dat</i>, <i>wat</i>, <i>allet</i>, &c. (cf. above) and its retention of the voiced +spirant <i>b</i> (written <i>v</i>) represents a kind of transition dialect to Low +German, is itself divided into (α) Ripuarian or Low Rhenish with +Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) as centres, and (β) Moselle +Franconian<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> with Trier (Treves) as principal town. The latter is +distinguished by the fact that in the Middle High German period +it shifts Germanic <i>-rp-</i> and <i>-rd-</i>, which are retained in (<i>a</i>), to <i>-rf-</i> and +<i>-rt-</i> (cf. <i>werfen</i>, <i>hirtin</i> with <i>werpen</i>, <i>hirdin</i>).<a name="fa13i" id="fa13i" href="#ft13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> The Rhenish Franconian +dialect is spoken in the Rhenish palatinate, in the northern part of +Baden (Heidelberg), Hesse<a name="fa14i" id="fa14i" href="#ft14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> and Nassau, and in the German-speaking +part of Lorraine. A line drawn from Falkenberg at the +French frontier to Siegen on the Lahn, touching the Rhine near +Boppard, roughly indicates the division between Middle and Rhenish +Franconian.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Upper German Group.</i>—The Upper German dialects, +which played the most important part in the literature of the early +periods, may be divided into (<i>a</i>) a Bavarian-Austrian group and (<i>b</i>) +a High Franconian-Alemannic group. Of all the German dialects +the Bavarian-Austrian has carried the soundshifting to its furthest +extreme; here only do we find the labial voiced stop <i>b</i> written <i>p</i> +in the middle of a word, viz. old Bavarian <i>kāpamēs</i>, old Alemannic +<i>kābamēs</i> (“we gave”); here too, in the 12th century, we find the +first traces of that broadening of <i>ī</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i>iu</i> (<i>ü</i>) to <i>ei</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>eu</i>, a change +which, even at the present day, is still foreign to the greater part of +the Alemannic dialects. Only in Bavarian do we still find the old +pronominal dual forms <i>es</i> and <i>enk</i> (for <i>ihr</i> and <i>euch</i>). Finally, +Bavarian forms diminutives in <i>-el</i> and <i>-erl</i> (<i>Mädel</i>, <i>Mäderl</i>), while +the Franconian-Alemannic forms are <i>-la</i> and <i>-le</i> (<i>Mädle</i>). On the +other hand, the pronunciation of <i>-s</i> as <i>-sch</i>, especially <i>-st</i> as <i>-scht</i> +(cf. <i>Last</i>, <i>Haspel</i>, pronounced <i>Lascht</i>, <i>Haschpel</i>), may be mentioned +as characteristic of the Alemannic, just as the <i>fortis</i> pronunciation +of initial <i>t</i> is characteristic of High Franconian, while +the other Franconian and Upper German dialects employ the +<i>lenis</i>.</p> + +<p>The Alemannic dialect which, roughly speaking, is separated +from Bavarian by the Lech and borders on Italian territory in the +south and on French in the west, is subdivided into: (<i>a</i>) Swabian, +the dialect of the kingdom of Württemberg and the north-western +part of Tirol (cf. H. Fischer, <i>Geographie der schwäbischen Mundart</i>, +1895); (<i>b</i>) High Alemannic (Swiss), including the German dialects +of Switzerland, of the southern part of the Black Forest (the Basel-Breisgau +dialect), and that of Vorarlberg; (<i>c</i>) Low Alemannic, +comprising the dialects of Alsace and part of Baden (to the north +of the Feldberg and south of Rastatt), also, at the present day, the +town of Basel. Only Swabian has taken part in the change of <i>i</i> to +<i>ei</i>, &c., mentioned above, while initial Germanic <i>k</i> has been shifted +to <i>ch</i> (χ) only in High Alemannic (cf. <i>chalt</i>, <i>chind</i>, <i>chorn</i>, for <i>kalt</i>, +<i>kind</i>, <i>korn</i>). The pronunciation of <i>ū</i> as <i><span class="ov">ü</span></i>, <i>ü</i> (<i>Hüs</i> for <i>Haus</i>) is +peculiar to Alsatian.</p> + +<p>The High Franconian dialects, that is to say, east and south (or +south-Rhenish) Franconian, which are separated broadly speaking +by the river Neckar, comprise the language spoken in a part of +Baden, the dialects of the Main valley from Würzburg upwards to +Bamberg, the dialect of Nuremberg and probably of the Vogtland +(Plauen) and Egerland. During the older historical period the +principal difference between East and South Franconian consisted +in the fact that initial Germanic <i>d</i> was retained in the latter dialect, +while East Franconian shifted it to <i>t</i>. Both, like Bavarian and +Alemannic, shift initial German <i>p</i> to the affricate <i>pf</i>.</p> + +<p>Finally, the Bavarian-Austrian dialect is spoken throughout the +greater part of the kingdom of Bavaria (<i>i.e.</i> east of the Lech and a +fine drawn from the point where the Lech joins the Danube to the +sources of the rivers Elster and Mulde, this being the East Franconian +border-line), in Austria, western Bohemia, and in the German +linguistic “islands” embedded in Hungary, in Gottschee and the +Sette and Tredici Communi (cf. above).<a name="fa15i" id="fa15i" href="#ft15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Old High German Period</p> + +<p>The language spoken during the Old High German period, that +is to say, down to about the year 1050, is remarkable for the fulness +and richness of its vowel-sounds in word-stems as well as in inflections. +Cf. <i>elilenti</i>, <i>Elend</i>; <i>luginari</i>, <i>Lügner</i>; <i>karkari</i>, <i>Kerker</i>; <i>menniskono</i> +<i>slahta</i>, <i>Menschengeschlecht</i>; <i>herzono</i>, <i>Herzen</i> (gen. pl.); <i>furisto</i>, +<i>vorderste</i>; <i>hartost</i>, (<i>am</i>) <i>härtesten</i>; <i>sibunzug</i>, <i>siebzig</i>; <i>ziohemes</i>, (<i>wir</i>) +<i>ziehen</i>; <i>salbota</i>, (<i>er</i>) <i>salbte</i>; <i>gaworahtos</i>, (<i>du</i>) <i>wirktest</i>, &c. Of the +consonantal changes which took place during this period that of +the spirant th (preserved only in English) to d (<i>werthan</i>, <i>werdan</i>; +<i>theob</i>, <i>deob</i>) deserves mention. It spread from Upper Germany, +where it is noticeable as early as the 8th century to Middle and +finally, in the 11th and 12th centuries, to Low Germany. Further, +the initial <i>h</i> in <i>hl</i>, <i>hn</i>, <i>hr</i>, <i>hw</i> (cf. <i>hwer</i>, <i>wer</i>; <i>hreini</i>, <i>rein</i>; <i>hlahhan</i>, +<i>lachen</i>) and <i>w</i> in <i>wr</i> (<i>wrecceo</i>, <i>Recke</i>) disappeared, this change also +starting in Upper Germany and spreading slowly north. The most +important vowel-change is the so-called mutation (<i>Umlaut</i>),<a name="fa16i" id="fa16i" href="#ft16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a> that +is to say, the qualitative change of a vowel (except <i>i</i>) in a stem-syllable, +owing to the influence of an <i>i</i> or <i>j</i> in the following syllable. +This process commenced in the north where it seems to have been +already fully developed in Low German as early as the 8th century. +It is to be found, it may be noted, in Anglo-Saxon, as early as the +6th century. It gradually worked its way southwards to Middle +and Upper Germany where, however, certain consonants seem to +have protected the stem syllable from the influence of <i>i</i> in a following +syllable. Cf., for instance, Modern High German <i>drucken</i> and +<i>drücken</i>; <i>glauben</i>, <i>kaufen</i>, <i>Haupt</i>, words which in Middle German +dialects show mutation. Orthographically, however, this process +is, during the first period, only to be seen in the change of <i>ă</i> to <i>e</i>; +from the 10th century onwards there are, it is true, some traces +of other changes, and vowels like <i><span class="ov">ŭ</span></i>, <i>ō</i>, <i>ou</i> must have already been +affected, otherwise we could not account for the mutation of these +vowels at a period when the cause of it, the <i>i</i> or <i>j</i>, no longer existed. A +no less important change, for it helped to differentiate High from Low +German, was that of Germanic <i>ē</i><span class="su">2</span> (a closed <i>ē</i>-sound) and ō diphthongs +in Old High German, while they were retained in Old Low +German. Cf. O.H.G. <i>hēr</i>, <i>hear</i>, <i>hiar</i>, O.L.G. <i>hēr</i>; O.H.G. <i>fuoz</i>, O.L.G. +<i>fōt</i>. The final result was that in the 10th century ie (older forms, <i>ia</i>, +<i>ea</i>) and <i>uo</i> (older <i>ua</i>, <i>oa</i> in Alemannic, <i>ua</i> in South Franconian) had +asserted themselves throughout all the High German dialects. Again +while in Old High German the older diphthongs <i>ai</i> and <i>au</i> were preserved +as <i>ei</i> and <i>ou</i>, unless they happened to stand at the end of a word +or were followed by certain consonants (<i>h</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>r</i> in the one case, and +<i>h</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>z</i>, <i>s</i> in the other; cf. <i>zēh</i> from <i>zīhan</i>, <i>zōh</i> from <i>ziohan</i>, +<i>verlôs</i>, &c.), the Old Low German shows throughout the monophthongs +<i>ē</i> (in Middle Low German a closed sound) and <i>ō</i> (cf. O.L.G. <i>stēn</i>, +<i>ōga</i>). These monophthongs are also to be heard in Rhenish Franconian, +the greater part of East Franconian and the Upper Saxon +and Silesian dialects of modern times (cf. <i>Stein</i>: <i>Steen</i> or <i>Stan</i>; +<i>laufen</i>: <i>lofen</i> or <i>lopen</i>).</p> + +<p>Of the dialects enumerated above, Bavarian and Alemannic, +High and Rhenish Franconian as well as Old Saxon are more or +less represented in the literature of the first period. But this literature, +the chief monuments of which are Otfrid’s <i>Evangelienbuch</i> +(in South Franconian), the Old Saxon <i>Heliand</i> (a life of Christ in +alliterative verse), the translation of Tatian’s <i>Gospel Harmony</i> +(East Franconian) and that of a theological tract by Bishop Isidore +of Seville and of parts of the Bible (Rhenish Franconian), is almost +exclusively theological and didactic in character. One is consequently +inclined to attach more value to the scanty remains of the <i>Hildebrandslied</i> +and some interesting and ancient charms. The didactic +spirit again pervades the translations and commentaries of Notker +of St Gall in the early part of the 11th century, as well as a paraphrase +of the <i>Song of Songs</i> by an abbot Williram of Ebersberg a +little later. Latin, however, reigned supreme throughout this +period, it being the language of the charters, the lawbooks (there is +nothing in Germany to compare with the laws of the Anglo-Saxons), +of science, medicine, and even poetry. It is thus needless to say that +there was no recognized literary language (<i>Schriftsprache</i>) during +this period, nor even any attempt to form one; at most, we might +speak of schools in the large monasteries, such as Reichenau, St +Gall, Fulda, which contributed to the spread and acceptance of +certain orthographical rules.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Middle High German Period</p> + +<p>The following are the chief changes in sounds and forms which +mark the development of the language in the Middle High German +period. The orthography of the MSS. reveals a much more extensive +employment of mutation (<i>Umlaut</i>) than was the case in the first +period; we find, for instance, as the mutation of <i>o</i>, <i>ö</i>, of <i>ō</i>, <i>œ</i>, <i>of ū</i>, <i>iu</i> +(<i>ü</i>), of <i>uo</i>, <i>üe</i>, of <i>ou</i>, <i>öu</i>, and <i>eu</i> (cf. <i>höler</i>, <i>bœse</i>, <i>hiuser</i>, <i>güete</i>, <i>böume</i>), +although many scribes, and more especially those of Middle and +Low German districts, have no special signs for the mutation of +<i>ŭ</i>, <i>ū</i>, and <i>o</i>. Of special interest is the so-called “later (or weaker) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +mutation” (<i>jüngerer oder schwächerer Umlaut</i>) of <i>ă</i> to a very open <i>e</i> +sound, which is often written <i>ä</i>. Cf. <i>mähte</i> (O.H.G. <i>mahti</i>), <i>mägede</i> +(O.H.G. <i>magadi</i>). The earlier mutation of this sound produced an +<i>e</i>(<i>é</i>), a closed sound (<i>i.e.</i> nearer <i>i</i>). Cf. <i>geste</i> (O.H.G. <i>gesti</i>).</p> + +<p>The various Old High German vowels in unstressed syllables were +either weakened to an indifferent <i>e</i> sound (<i>geben</i>, O.H.G. <i>geban</i>; +<i>bote</i>, O.H.G. <i>boto</i>; <i>sige</i>, O.H.G. <i>sigu</i>) or disappeared altogether. +The latter phenomenon is to be observed after <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, and partly +after <i>n</i> and <i>m</i> (cf. <i>ar</i>(<i>e</i>), O.H.G. <i>aro</i>; <i>zal</i>, O.H.G. <i>zala</i>; <i>wundern</i>, +O.H.G. <i>wuntarōn</i>, &c.); but it by no means took place everywhere +in the same degree and at the same time. It has been already +noted that the Alemannic dialect (as well as the archaic poets of +the German national epic) retained at least the long unstressed vowels +until as late as the 14th century (<i>gemarterōt</i>, <i>gekriuzegōt</i>, &c., and +Low and Middle German preserved the weakened <i>e</i> sound in many +cases where Upper German dropped it. In this period the beginnings +are also to be seen in Low and Middle German (Heinrich von Veldeke +shows the first traces of it) of a process which became of great +importance for the formation of the Modern German literary language. +This is the lengthening of originally short vowels in open +syllables,<a name="fa17i" id="fa17i" href="#ft17i"><span class="sp">17</span></a> for example, in Modern High German <i>Tāges</i>, <i>Wēges</i>, <i>lōbe</i> +(Middle High German <i>tăges</i>, <i>wĕges</i>, <i>lŏbe</i>). In Austria, on the other +hand, there began as far back as the first half of the 12th century +another movement of equal importance for Modern High German, +namely, the conversion of the long vowels, <i>ī</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i><span class="ov">ü</span></i>, into <i>ei</i> (<i>ou</i>), <i>au</i>, +<i>eu</i> (<i>äu</i>).<a name="fa18i" id="fa18i" href="#ft18i"><span class="sp">18</span></a> It is, therefore, in MSS. written in the south-east that we +find forms like <i>zeit</i>, <i>lauter</i> (<i>löter</i>), <i>heute</i>, &c., for the first time. With +the exception of Low German and Alemannic—Swabian, however, +follows in this respect the majority—all the German dialects participated +in this change between the 14th and 16th centuries, +although not all to the same degree. The change was perhaps +assisted by the influence of the literary language which had recognized +the new sounds. In England the same process has led to the +modern pronunciation of <i>time</i>, <i>house</i>, &c., and in Holland to that of +<i>tijd</i>, <i>huis</i>, &c. F. Wrede (<i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i> xxxix. +257 ff.) has suggested that the explanation of the change is to be +sought in the apocope and syncope of the final <i>e</i>, and the greater +stress which was in consequence put on the stem-syllable. The +tendency to a change in the opposite direction, namely, the narrowing +of diphthongs to monophthongs, is to be noticed in Middle German +dialects, <i>i.e.</i> in dialects which resisted the apocope of the final <i>e</i>, +where <i>ie</i>, <i>uo</i>, <i>üe</i> become <i>ī</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i><span class="ov">ü</span></i>; thus we have for <i>Brief</i>, <i>brīf</i>, for +<i>huon</i>, <i>hūn</i>, for <i>brüeder</i>, <i>brüder</i>, and this too was taken over into the +Modern High German literary language.<a name="fa19i" id="fa19i" href="#ft19i"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<p>No consonantal change was so widespread during this period as +that of initial <i>s</i> to <i>sch</i> before <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>p</i> and <i>t</i>. Cf. <i>slingen</i>, <i>schlingen</i>; +<i>swer</i> (<i>e</i>) <i>n</i>, <i>schwören</i>, &c. The forms <i>scht</i>- and <i>schp</i>- are often to be +met with in Alemannic MSS., but they were discarded again, although +modern German recognizes the pronunciation <i>schp</i>, <i>scht</i>.<a name="fa20i" id="fa20i" href="#ft20i"><span class="sp">20</span></a> +With regard to changes affecting the inflections of verbs and nouns, +it must suffice here to point out that the weakening or disappearance +of vowels in unstressed syllables necessarily affected the characteristic +endings of the older language; groups of verbs and substantives +which in Old High German were distinct now become confused. +This is best seen in the case of the weak verbs, where the three +Old High German classes (cf. <i>nerien</i>, <i>salbōn</i>, <i>dagēn</i>) were fused into +one. Similarly in the declensions we find an increasing tendency of +certain forms to influence substantives belonging to other classes; +there is, for instance, an increase in the number of neuter nouns +taking <i>-er</i> (<i>-ir</i>) in the plural, and of those which show mutation in +the plural on the model of the <i>i-</i> stems (O.H.G. <i>gast</i>, pl. <i>gesti</i>; cf. +forms like <i>ban</i>, <i>benne</i>; <i>hals</i>, <i>helse</i>; <i>wald</i>, <i>welde</i>). Of changes in +syntax the gradual decay in the use of the genitive case dependent +on a noun or governed by a verb (cf. constructions like <i>eine brünne +rotes goldes</i>, or <i>des todes wünschen</i>) towards the end of the period, +and also the disappearance of the Old High German sequence of +tenses ought at least to be mentioned.</p> + +<p>In the Middle High German period, the first classical period of +German poetry, the German language made great advances as a +vehicle of literary expression; its power of expression was increased +and it acquired a beauty of style hitherto unknown. This was the +period of the <i>Minnesang</i> and the great popular and court epics, of +Walther von der Vogelweide, Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von +Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strassburg; it was a period when +literature enjoyed the fostering care of the courts and the nobility. +At the same time German prose celebrated its first triumphs in the +sermons of Berthold von Regensburg, and in the mystic writings +and sermons of Meister Eckhart, Tauler and others. History (Eike +von Repkow’s <i>Weltchronik</i>) and law (<i>Sachsenspiegel</i>, <i>Schwabenspiegel</i>) +no longer despised the vernacular, and from about the middle of +the 13th century German becomes, in an ever-increasing percentage, +the language of deeds and charters.</p> + +<p>It has been a much debated question how far Germany in Middle +High German times possessed or aspired to possess a <i>Schriftsprache</i> +or literary language.<a name="fa21i" id="fa21i" href="#ft21i"><span class="sp">21</span></a> About the year 1200 there was undoubtedly +a marked tendency towards a unification of the literary language +on the part of the more careful poets like Walther von der Vogelweide, +Hartmann von Aue and Gottfried von Strassburg; they avoid, +more particularly in their rhymes, dialectic peculiarities, such as the +Bavarian dual forms <i>es</i> and <i>enk</i>, or the long vowels in unstressed +syllables, retained in Alemannic, and they do not make use of +archaic words or forms. We have thus a right to speak, if not of a +Middle High German literary language in the widest sense of the +word, at least of a Middle High German <i>Dichtersprache</i> or poetic +language, on an Alemannic-Franconian basis. Whether, or in how +far, this may have affected the ordinary speech of the nobility or +courts, is a matter of conjecture; but it had an undeniable influence +on Middle and Low German poets, who endeavoured at least to use +High German forms in their rhymes. Attempts were also made in +Low German districts, though at a later stage of this period, to unify +the dialects and raise them to the level of an accepted literary language. +It will be shown later why these attempts were unsuccessful. +Unfortunately, however, the efforts of the High German poets to +form a uniform language were also shortlived; by the end of the 13th +century the <i>Dichtersprache</i> had disappeared, and the dialects again +reigned supreme.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Modern High German</p> + +<p>Although the Middle High German period had thus not succeeded +in effecting any permanent advance in the direction of a uniform +literary language, the desire for a certain degree of uniformity was +never again entirely lost. At the close of the 13th century literature +had passed from the hands of the nobility to those of the middle +classes of the towns; the number of writers who used the German +tongue rapidly increased; later the invention of printing, the increased +efficiency of the schools, and above all the religious movement +of the Reformation, contributed to awakening the desire of being +understood by those who stood outside the dialectic community of +the individual. A single authoritative form of writing and spelling +was felt on all sides to be particularly necessary. This was found in +the language used officially by the various chanceries (<i>Kanzleien</i>), +and more especially the imperial chancery. Since the days of +Charles IV. (1347-1378) the latter had striven after a certain uniform +language in the documents it issued, and by the time of Maximilian I. +(1493-1519) all its official documents were characterized by pretty +much the same phonology, forms and vocabulary, in whatever part +of Germany they originated. And under Maximilian’s successor, +Charles V., the conditions remained pretty much the same. The +fact that the seat of the imperial chancery had for a long time been +in Prague, led to a mingling of Upper and Middle German sounds and +inflections; but when the crown came with Frederick III. (1440-1493) +to the Habsburgs, the Upper German elements were considerably +increased. The chancery of the Saxon electorate, whose +territory was exclusively Middle German, had to some extent, +under the influence of the imperial chancery, allowed Upper German +characteristics to influence its official language. This is clearly +marked in the second half of the 15th century, and about the year +1500 there was no essential difference between the languages of the +two chanceries. Thuringia, Silesia and Brandenburg soon followed +suit, and even Low German could not ultimately resist the accepted +High German notation (<i>ö, ṏ, ü, ṻ, ů, ie</i>, &c.). We have here very +favourable conditions for the creation of a uniform literary language, +and, as has already been said, the tendency to follow these authorities +is clearly marked.</p> + +<p>In the midst of this development arose the imposing figure of +Luther, who, although by no means the originator of a common High +German speech, helped very materially to establish it. He deliberately +chose (cf. the often quoted passage in his <i>Tischreden</i>, ch. 69) +the language of the Saxon chancery as the vehicle of his Bible +translation and subsequently of his own writings. The differences +between Luther’s usage and that of the chancery, in phonology and +inflection, are small; still he shows, in his writings subsequent to +1524, a somewhat more pronounced tendency towards Middle +German. But it is noteworthy that he, like the chancery, retained +the old vowel-change in the singular and plural of the preterite of the +strong verbs (<i>i.e.</i> <i>steig, stigen; starb, sturben</i>), although before +Luther’s time the uniformity of the modern preterite had already +begun to show itself here and there. The adoption of the language +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +of the chancery gave rise to the mixed character of sounds and +forms which is still a feature of the literary language of Germany. +Thus the use of the monophthongs <i>ī</i>, <i>ü</i>, and <i><span class="ov">ü</span></i>, instead of the old +diphthongs <i>ie</i>, <i>uo</i> and <i>üe</i>, comes from Middle Germany; the forms +of the words and the gender of the nouns follow Middle rather than +Upper German usage, whereas, on the other hand, the consonantal +system (<i>p</i> to <i>pf</i>; <i>d</i> to <i>t</i>) betrays in its main features its Upper +German (Bavarian-Austrian) origin.</p> + +<p>The language of Luther no doubt shows greater originality in its +style and vocabulary (cf. its influence on Goethe and the writers of +the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>), for in this respect the chancery could obviously +afford him but scanty help. His vocabulary is drawn to a great +extent from his own native Middle German dialect, and the fact +that, since the 14th century, Middle German literature (cf. for instance, +the writings of the German mystics, at the time of and +subsequent to Eckhart) had exercised a strong influence over Upper +Germany, stood him in good stead. Luther is, therefore, strictly +speaking, not the father of the modern German literary language, +but he forms the most important link in a chain of development +which began long before him, and did not reach its final stage until +long after him. To infer that Luther’s language made any rapid +conquest of Germany would not be correct. It was, of course, +immediately acceptable to the eastern part of the Middle German +district (Thuringia and Silesia), and it did not find any great difficulty +in penetrating into Low Germany, at least into the towns and districts +lying to the east of the Saale and Elbe (Magdeburg, Hamburg). +One may say that about the middle of the 16th century Luther’s +High German was the language of the chanceries, about 1600 the +language of the pulpit (the last Bible in Low German was printed at +Goslar in 1621) and the printing presses. Thus the aspirations of +Low Germany to have a literary language of its own were at an early +stage crushed. Protestant Switzerland, on the other hand, resisted +the “uncommon new German” until well into the 17th century. +It was also natural that the Catholic Lower Rhine (Cologne) and +Catholic South Germany held out against it, for to adopt the language +of the reformer would have seemed tantamount to offering a helping +hand to Protestant ideas. At the same time, geographical and +political conditions, as well as the pronounced character of the Upper +German dialects, formed an important obstacle to a speedy unification. +South German grammarians of the 16th century, such as +Laurentius Albertus, raise a warning voice against those who, +although far distant from the proper use of words and the true +pronunciation, venture to teach <i>nos puriores Germanos</i>, namely, the +Upper Germans.</p> + +<p>In 1593 J. Helber, a Swiss schoolmaster and notary, spoke of three +separate dialects as being in use by the printing presses:<a name="fa22i" id="fa22i" href="#ft22i"><span class="sp">22</span></a> (1) +<i>Mitteldeutsch</i> (the language of the printers in Leipzig, Erfurt, Nuremberg, +Würzburg, Frankfort, Mainz, Spires, Strassburg and Cologne; +at the last mentioned place in the event of their attempting to +print <i>Ober-Teutsch</i>); (2) <i>Donauisch</i> (the printers’ language in South +Germany, but limited to Bavaria and Swabia proper—here more +particularly the Augsburg idiom, which was considered to be particularly +<i>zierlich</i>);<a name="fa23i" id="fa23i" href="#ft23i"><span class="sp">23</span></a> (3) <i>Höchst Reinisch</i>, which corresponds to Swiss +German. Thus in the 16th century Germany was still far from real +unity in its language; but to judge from the number and the +geographical position of the towns which printed in <i>Mitteldeutsch</i> +it is pretty clear which idiom would ultimately predominate. During +the 17th century men like M. Opitz (<i>Buch von der deutschen Poeterey</i>) +and J.G. Schottelius (<i>Teutsche Sprachkunst</i>, 1641, and <i>Von der +teutschen Sprachkunst</i>, 1663), together with linguistic societies +like the <i>Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft</i> and the Nuremberg <i>Pegnitzorden</i>, +did a great deal to purify the German language from foreign (especially +French) elements; they insisted on the claims of the vernacular +to a place beside and even above Latin (in 1687 Christian Thomasius +held for the first time lectures in the German language at the university +of Leipzig), and they established a firm grammatical basis +for Luther’s common language, which especially in the hymnals +had become modernized and more uniform. About the middle of +the 17th century the disparity between the vowels of the singular +and plural of the preterite of the strong verbs practically ceases; +under East Middle German influence the final <i>e</i> is restored to words +like <i>Knabe</i>, <i>Jude</i>, <i>Pfaffe</i>, which in South German had been <i>Knab</i>, &c.; +the mixed declension (<i>Ehre</i>, <i>Ehren</i>; <i>Schmerz</i>, <i>Schmerzen</i>) was +established, and the plural in -<i>er</i> was extended to some masculine +nouns (<i>Wald</i>, <i>Wälder</i>);<a name="fa24i" id="fa24i" href="#ft24i"><span class="sp">24</span></a> the use of the mutated sound has now +become the rule as a plural sign (Väter, Bäume). How difficult, +even in the first half of the 18th century, it was for a Swiss to write +the literary language which Luther had established is to be seen +from the often quoted words of Haller (1708-1777): “I am a Swiss, +the German language is strange to me, and its choice of words was +almost unknown to me.” The Catholic south clung firmly to its own +literary language, based on the idiom of the imperial chancery, +which was still an influential force in the 17th century or on local +dialects. This is apparent in the writings of Abraham a Sancta +Clara,<a name="fa25i" id="fa25i" href="#ft25i"><span class="sp">25</span></a> who died in 1709, or in the attacks of the Benedictine monk, +Augustin Dornblüth, on the <i>Meissner Schriftsprache</i> in 1755.</p> + +<p>In the 18th century, to which these names have introduced us, +the grammatical writings of J.C. Gottsched (<i>Deutsche Sprachkunst</i>, +1748) and J.C. Adelung (<i>Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der +hochdeutschen Mundart</i>, 1774-1786) exercised a decisive and far-reaching +influence. Gottsched took as his basis the spoken language +(<i>Umgangssprache</i>) of the educated classes of Upper Saxony (Meissen), +which at this time approximated as nearly as possible to the literary +language. His <i>Grammar</i> did enormous services to the cause of +unification, ultimately winning over the resisting south; but he +carried his purism to pedantic lengths, he would tolerate no archaic +or dialectical words, no unusual forms or constructions, and consequently +made the language unsuited for poetry. Meanwhile an +interest in Old German literature was being awakened by Bodmer; +Herder set forth better ideas on the nature of language, and insisted +on the value of native idioms; and the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> led by +Goethe encouraged all individualistic tendencies. All this gave rise +to a movement counter to Gottsched’s absolutism, which resulted +in the revival of many obsolete German words and forms, these being +drawn partly from Luther’s Bible translation (cf. V. Hehn, “Goethe +und die Sprache der Bibel,” in the <i>Goethe-Jahrbuch</i>, viii. p. 187 ff.), +partly from the older language and partly from the vocabulary +peculiar to different social ranks and trades.<a name="fa26i" id="fa26i" href="#ft26i"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The latter is still +a source of linguistic innovations. German literary style underwent +a similar rejuvenation, for we are on the threshold of the second +classical period of German literature. It had strengthened Gottsched’s +hand as a linguistic reformer that the earlier leaders of +German literature, such as Gellert, Klopstock and Lessing, were +Middle Germans; now Wieland’s influence, which was particularly +strong in South Germany, helped materially towards the establishment +of one accepted literary language throughout all German-speaking +countries; and the movement reaches its culmination with +Goethe and Schiller. At the same time this unification did not +imply the creation of an unalterable standard; for, just as the language +of Opitz and Schottelius differed from that of Luther, so—although +naturally in a lesser degree—the literary language of our +day differs from that of the classic writers of the 18th century. +Local peculiarities are still to be met with, as is to be seen in the +modern German literature that emanates from Switzerland or +Austria.</p> + +<p>But this unity, imperfect as it is, is limited to the literary language. +The differences are much more sharply accentuated in the <i>Umgangssprache</i>,<a name="fa27i" id="fa27i" href="#ft27i"><span class="sp">27</span></a> +whereby we understand the language as it is spoken by +educated people throughout Germany; this is not only the case +with regard to pronunciation, although it is naturally most noticeable +here, but also with regard to the choice of words and the construction +of sentences. Compared with the times of Goethe and Schiller a +certain advance towards unification has undoubtedly been made, +but the differences between north and south are still very great. +This is particularly noticeable in the pronunciation of <i>r</i>—either the +uvular <i>r</i> or the <i>r</i> produced by the tip of the tongue; of the voiced +and voiceless stops, <i>b</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>g</i> and <i>k</i>; of the <i>s</i> sounds; of the +diphthongs; of the long vowels <i>ē</i> and <i>ōē</i>, &c. (cf. W. Vietor, <i>German +Pronunciation</i>, 2nd ed., 1890). The question as to whether a unified +pronunciation (<i>Einheitaussprache</i>) is desirable or even possible has +occupied the attention of academies, scholars and the educated +public during recent years, and in 1898 a commission made up of +scholars and theatre directors drew up a scheme of pronunciation +for use in the royal theatres of Prussia.<a name="fa28i" id="fa28i" href="#ft28i"><span class="sp">28</span></a> This scheme has since been +recommended to all German theatres by the German <i>Bühnenverein</i>. +Desirable as such a uniform pronunciation is for the national theatre, +it is a much debated question how far it should be adopted in the +ordinary speech of everyday life. Some scholars, such as W. Braune, +declared themselves strongly in favour of its adoption;<a name="fa29i" id="fa29i" href="#ft29i"><span class="sp">29</span></a> Braune’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +argument being that the system of modern pronunciation is based +on the spelling, not on the sounds produced in speaking. The +latter, he holds, is only responsible for the pronunciation of <i>-chs-</i> as +<i>-ks-</i> in <i>wachsen</i>, <i>Ochse</i>, &c., or for that of <i>sp-</i> and <i>st-</i> in <i>spielen</i>, <i>stehen</i>, +&c. Other scholars, again, such as K. Luick and O. Brenner, warn +against any such attempts to create a living language on an artificial +basis;<a name="fa30i" id="fa30i" href="#ft30i"><span class="sp">30</span></a> the <i>Bühnendeutsch</i> or “stage-German” they regard as +little more than an abstract ideal. Thus the decision must be left +to time.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>General Literature</i>: J. Grimm, <i>Geschichte der +deutschen Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1848; 4th ed., 1880); W. Scherer, <i>Zur +Geschichte der deutschen Sprache</i> (Berlin, 1868; 2nd ed., 1878); +E. Förstemann, <i>Geschichte des deutschen Sprachstammes</i> (Nordhausen, +1874-1875); O. Behaghel, <i>Die deutsche Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1886; +2nd ed., 1902); the same, “Geschichte der deutschen Sprache,” in +Paul’s <i>Grundriss der germanischen Philologie</i> (2nd ed.), i. pp. 650 ff.; +O. Weise, <i>Unsere deutsche Sprache, ihr Werden und ihr Wesen</i> (Leipzig, +1898); K. von Raumer, <i>Geschichte der germanischen Philologie</i> +(Munich, 1870); J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> (4 vols., vols. i.-iii. +in new edition, 1870-1890); Dieter, <i>Laut- und Formenlehre der +altgermanischen Dialekte</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1898-1900); F. Kauffmann, +<i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> (2nd ed., 1895); W. Wilmanns, <i>Deutsche +Grammatik</i>, so far, vols, i., ii. and iii., 1 (Strassburg, 1893-1906, vol. i., +2nd ed., 1897); O. Brenner, <i>Grundzüge der geschichtlichen Grammatik +der deutschen Sprache</i> (Munich, 1896); H. Lichtenberger, <i>Histoire +de la langue allemande</i> (Paris, 1895).</p> + +<p><i>Old and Middle High German Period</i>: W. Braune, <i>Althochdeutsche +Grammatik</i> (2nd ed., Halle, 1891); the same, <i>Abriss der althochdeutschen +Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., 1900); F. Holthausen, <i>Altsächsisches +Elementarbuch</i> (Heidelberg, 1899); W. Schlüter, <i>Untersuchungen zur +Geschichte der altsächsichen Sprache</i>, i. (Göttingen, 1892); O. Schade, +<i>Altdeutsches Wörterbuch</i> (2nd ed., Halle, 1872-1882); G.E. Graff, +<i>Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz</i> (6 vols., Berlin, 1834-1842) (Index by +Massmann, 1846); E. Steinmeyer and E. Sievers, <i>Althochdeutsche +Glossen</i> (4 vols., Berlin, 1879-1898); J.A. Schmeller, <i>Glossarium +Saxonicum</i> (Munich, 1840); K. Weinhold, <i>Mittelhochdeutsche +Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., Paderborn, 1892); H. Paul, <i>Mittelhochdeutsche +Grammatik</i> (5th ed., Halle, 1900); V. Michels, <i>Mittelhochdeutsches +Elementarbuch</i> (Heidelberg, 1900); O. Brenner, <i>Mittelhochdeutsche +Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., Munich, 1894); K. Zwierzina, “Mittelhochdeutsche +Studien,” in <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i>, vols. xliv. +and xlv.; A. Lübben, <i>Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik</i> (Leipzig, +1882); W. Müller and F. Zarncke, <i>Mittelhochdeutsches Wörterbuch</i> +(4 vols., Leipzig, 1854-1866); M. Lexer, <i>Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch</i> +(3 vols., 1872-1878); the same, <i>Mittelhochdeutsches +Taschenwörterbuch</i> (8th ed., 1906); K. Schiller and A. Lübben, +<i>Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch</i> (6 vols., Bremen, 1875-1881); +A. Lübben, <i>Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch</i> (Norden, 1888); +F. Seiler, <i>Die Entwicklung der deutsch. Kultur im Spiegel des deutschen +Lehnworts</i> (Halle, i., 1895, 2nd ed., 1905, ii., 1900).</p> + +<p><i>Modern High German Period</i>: E. Wülcker, “Die Entstehung der +kursächsischen Kanzleisprache” (in the <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für +kursächsische Geschichte</i>, ix. p. 349); the same, “Luthers Stellung +zur kursächsischen Kanzleisprache” (in <i>Germania</i>, xxviii. pp. 191 ff.); +P. Pietsch, <i>Martin Luther und die hochdeutsche Schriftsprache</i> (Breslau, +1883); K. Burdach, <i>Die Einigung der neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache</i>, +(1883); E. Opitz, <i>Die Sprache Luthers</i> (Halle, 1869); J. Luther, <i>Die +Sprache Luthers in der Septemberbibel</i> (Halle, 1887); F. Kluge, <i>Von +Luther bis Lessing</i> (Strassburg, 1888) (cf. E. Schröder’s review in the +<i>Göttinger gelehrte Anzeiger</i>, 1888, 249); H. Rückert, <i>Geschichte der +neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> +(1875): J. Kehrein, <i>Grammatik der deutschen Sprache des 15. bis 17. +Jahrhunderts</i> (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1863); K. von Bahder, <i>Grundlagen +des neuhochdeutschen Lautsystems</i> (Strassburg, 1890); R. Meyer, +<i>Einführung in das ältere Neuhochdeutsche</i> (Leipzig, 1894); W. Scheel, +<i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der neuhochdeutschen Gemeinsprache in Köln</i> +(Marburg, 1892); R. Brandstetter, <i>Die Rezeption der neuhochdeutschen +Schriftsprache in Stadt und Landschaft Luzern</i> (1892); +K. Burdach, “Zur Geschichte der neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache” +(<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Philologie</i>, 1894); the same, “Die Sprache +des jungen Goethe” (<i>Verhandlungen der Dessauer Philologenversammlung</i>, +1884, p. 164 ff.); F. Kasch, <i>Die Sprache des jungen +Schiller</i> (Dissertation, 1900); F. Kluge, “Über die Entstehung +unserer Schriftsprache” (Beihefte zur <i>Zeitschrift des allgemeinen +Sprachvereins</i>, Heft 6, 1894); A. Waag, <i>Bedeutungsentwickelung +unseres Wortschatzes</i> (Lahr, 1901).</p> + +<p>Mention must also be made of the work of the German commission +of the Royal Prussian Academy, which in 1904 drew up plans for +making an inventory of all German literary MSS. dating from before +the year 1600 and for the publication of Middle High German and +early Modern High German texts. This undertaking, which has +made considerable progress, provides rich material for the study of +the somewhat neglected period between the 14th and 16th centuries; +at the same time it provides a basis on which a monumental history +of Modern High German may be built up, as well as for a <i>Thesaurus +linguae germanicae</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Pr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> K. Müllenhoff and W. Scherer, <i>Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und +Prosa</i>, 3rd ed., by E. Steinmeyer, 1892, No. lxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For a detailed description of the boundary line cf. O. Behaghel’s +article in Paul’s <i>Grundriss</i>, 2nd ed., pp. 652-657, where there is also +a map, and a very full bibliography relative to the changes in the +boundary.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. J. Grimm, <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>, 3rd ed., i. p. 13; F. Kluge, +<i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch</i>, 6th ed., pp. 75 ff.; K. Luick, “Zur +Geschichte des Wortes ‘deutsch,’” in <i>Anzeiger für deutsches Altertum</i>, +xv., pp. 135, 248; H. Fischer, “Theotiscus, Deutsch,” in Paul and +Braune’s <i>Beiträge</i>, xviii. p. 203; H. Paul, <i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i> +(1897), p. 93.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Cf. P. Kretschmer, <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen +Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1896), who holds the mingling of Celtic and +Germanic elements in southern and south-western Germany responsible +for the change. It might also be mentioned here that +H. Meyer (<i>Zeitschrift f. deut. Altertum</i>, xlv. pp. 101 ff.) endeavours to +explain the first soundshifting by the change of abode of the Germanic +tribes from the lowlands to the highlands of the Carpathian +Mountains.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Of writers who have made extensive use of dialects, it must +suffice to mention here the names of J.H. Voss, Hebel, Klaus Groth, +Fritz Reuter, Usteri, G.D. Arnold, Holtei, Castelli, J.G. Seidl and +Anzengruber, and in our own days G. Hauptmann.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Cf. F. Staub and L. Tobler, <i>Schweizerisches Idiotikon</i> (1881 ff.); +E. Martin and F. Lienhart, <i>Wörterbuch der elsässischen Mundarten</i> +(Strassburg, 1899 ff.); H. Fischer, <i>Schwäbisches Wörterbuch</i> +(Tübingen, 1901 ff.). Earlier works, which are already completed, +are J.A. Schmeller, <i>Bayrisches Wörterbuch</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Munich, +1872-1877); J.B. Schöpf, <i>Tiroler Idiotikon</i> (Innsbruck, 1886); +M. Lexer, <i>Kärntisches Wörterbuch</i> (1862); H. Gradl, <i>Egerländer +Wörterbuch</i>, i. (Eger, 1883); A.F.C. Vilmar, <i>Idiotikon von Kurhessen</i> +(Marburg, 1883) (with supplements by H. von Pfister); +W. Crecelius, <i>Oberhessisches Wörterbuch</i> (Darmstadt, 1890-1898). +Professor J. Franck is responsible for a <i>Rheinisches Wörterbuch</i> for +the Prussian Academy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Cf. the article “Mundarten” by R. Loewe in R. Bethge, <i>Ergebnisse +und Fortschritte der germanistischen Wissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, +1902), pp. 75-88; and F. Mentz, <i>Bibliographie der deutschen Mundartforschung</i> +(Leipzig, 1892). Of periodicals may be mentioned +Deutsche Mundarten, by J.W. Nagl (Vienna, 1896 ff.); <i>Zeitschrift +für hochdeutsche Mundarten</i>, by O. Heilig and Ph. Lenz (Heidelberg, +1900 ff.), continued as <i>Zeitschrift f. deutsche Mundarten</i>, Verlag des +Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins. Owing to its importance as a +model for subsequent monographs J. Kinteler’s <i>Die Kerenzer Mundart +des Kantons Glarus</i> (Leipzig, 1876) should not be passed unnoticed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Cf. especially H. Tümpel, “Die Mundarten des alten niedersächsischen +Gebietes zwischen 1300 und 1500” (Paul und Braune’s +Beiträge, vii. pp. 1-104); <i>Niederdeutsche Studien</i>, by the same writer +(Bielefeld, 1898); Bahnke, “Über Sprach- und Gaugrenzen zwischen +Elbe und Weser” (<i>Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche Sprachforschung</i>, +vii. p. 77).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Upper Saxon and Thuringian are sometimes taken as a separate +group.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Cf. W. Braune, “Zur Kenntnis des Fränkischen” (<i>Beiträge</i>, i. +pp. 1-56); O. Böhme, <i>Zur Kenntnis des Oberfränkischen im 13., 14. +und 15. Jahrh.</i> (Dissertation) (Leipzig, 1893), where a good account +of the differences between the Rhenish Franconian and South +Franconian dialects will be found.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Cf. C. Nörrenberg, “Lautverschiebungsstufe des Mittelfränkischen” +(<i>Beiträge</i>, ix. 371 ff.); R. Heinzel, <i>Geschichte der niederfränkischen +Geschäftssprache</i> (Paderborn, 1874).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> This is also the dialect of the so-called Siebenbürger Sachsen.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13i" id="ft13i" href="#fa13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Cf. E. Sievers, <i>Oxforder Benediktinerregel</i> (Halle, 1887), +p. xvi.; J. Meier, Jolande (1887), pp. vii. ff.; O. Böhme, l.c. +p. 60.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14i" id="ft14i" href="#fa14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Lower Hesse (the northern and eastern parts) goes, however, +in many respects its own way.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15i" id="ft15i" href="#fa15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> On the High German dialects cf. K. Weinhold, <i>Alemannische +Grammatik</i> (Berlin, 1863); F. Kauffmann, <i>Geschichte der schwäbischen +Mundart</i> (Strassburg, 1870); E. Haendcke, <i>Die mundartlichen +Elemente in den elsässischen Urkunden</i> (Strassburg, 1894); K. +Weinhold, <i>Bairische Grammatik</i> (1867); J.A. Schmeller, <i>Die Mundarten +Baierns</i> (Munich, 1821); J.N. Schwäbl, <i>Die altbairischen +Mundarten</i> (München, 1903); O. Brenner, <i>Mundarten und Schriftsprache +in Bayern</i> (Bamberg, 1890); J. Schatz, <i>Die Mundart von +Imst</i> (Strassburg, 1897); J.W. Nagl, <i>Der Vocalismus der bairisch-österreichischen +Mundarten</i> (1890-1891); W. Gradl, <i>Die Mundarten +Westböhmens</i> (Munich, 1896); P. Lessiak, “Die Mundart von Pernegg +in Kärnten” (Paul and Braune, <i>Beiträge</i>, vol. xxviii.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16i" id="ft16i" href="#fa16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Cf., for a hypothesis of two <i>Umlautsperioden</i> during the Old High +German time, F. Kauffmann, <i>Geschichte der schwäbischen Mundart</i> +(Strassburg, 1890), S. 152.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17i" id="ft17i" href="#fa17i"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Cf. W. Wilmanns, <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>, i. (2nd edition) pp. +300-304.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18i" id="ft18i" href="#fa18i"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Wilmanns, l.c. pp. 273-280. It might be mentioned that, +in Modern High German, these new diphthongs are neither in spelling +nor in educated pronunciation distinguished from the older ones.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19i" id="ft19i" href="#fa19i"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Cf. Wilmanns, pp. 280-284.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20i" id="ft20i" href="#fa20i"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Ibid. pp. 129-132.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21i" id="ft21i" href="#fa21i"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Cf. K. Lachmann, <i>Kleinere Schriften</i>, i. p. 161 ff.; Müllenhoff +and Scherer’s <i>Denkmäler</i> (3rd ed.), i. p. xxvii.; H. Paul, <i>Gab es eine +mhd. Schriftsprache?</i> (Halle, 1873); O. Behaghel, <i>Zur Frage nach +einer mhd. Schriftsprache</i> (Basel, 1886) (Cf. Paul and Braune’s +<i>Beiträge</i>, xiii. p. 464 ff.); A. Socin, <i>Schriftsprache und Dialekte</i> +(Heilbronn, 1888); H. Fischer, <i>Zur Geschichte des Mittelhochdeutschen</i> +(Tübingen, 1889); O. Behaghel, <i>Schriftsprache und Mundart</i> +(Giessen, 1896); K. Zwierzina, <i>Beobachtungen zum Reimgebrauch +Hartmanns und Wolframs</i> (Haile, 1898); S. Singer, <i>Die mhd. Schriftsprache</i> +(1900); C. Kraus, <i>Heinrich von Veldeke und die mhd. +Dichtersprache</i> (Halle, 1899); G. Roethe, <i>Die Reimvorreden des +Sachsenspiegels</i> (Berlin, 1899); H. Tümpel, <i>Niederdeutsche Studien</i> +(1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft22i" id="ft22i" href="#fa22i"><span class="fn">22</span></a> For literature bearing on the complicated question of the +<i>Druckersprachen</i>, readers are referred to the article “Neuhochdeutsche +Schriftsprache,” by W. Scheel, in Bethge’s <i>Ergebnisse ... der +germanistischen Wissenschaft</i> (1902), pp. 47, 50 f. Cf. also K. von +Bahder, <i>Grundlagen des nhd. Lautsystems</i> (1890), pp. 15 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23i" id="ft23i" href="#fa23i"><span class="fn">23</span></a> A German <i>Priamel</i> mentions as an essential quality in a beautiful +woman: “die red dort her von Swaben.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft24i" id="ft24i" href="#fa24i"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Cf. for a detailed discussion of the noun declension, K. Boiunga, +<i>Die Entwicklung der mhd. Substantivflexion</i> (Leipzig, 1890); and, +more particularly for the masculine and neuter nouns, two articles +by H. Molz, “Die Substantivflexion seit mhd. Zeit,” in Paul and +Braune’s <i>Beiträge</i>, xxvii. p. 209 ff. and xxxi. 277 ff. For the changes +in the gender of nouns, A. Polzin, <i>Geschlechtswandel der Substantiva +im Deutschen</i> (Hildesheim, 1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft25i" id="ft25i" href="#fa25i"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Cf. C. Blanckenburg, <i>Studien über die Sprache Abrahams a S. +Clara</i> (Halle, 1897); H. Strigl, “Einiges über die Sprache des P. +Abraham a Sancta Clara” (<i>Zeitschr. f. deutsche Wortforschung</i>, viii. +206 ff.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft26i" id="ft26i" href="#fa26i"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Cf. F. Kluge, <i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch</i> (6th ed.), pp. 508 ff. +One can speak of: <i>Studenten-, Soldaten-, Weidmanns-, Bergmanns-, +Drucker-, Juristen-, und Zigeunersprache, und Rotwelsch</i>. Cf. +F. Kluge, <i>Die deutsche Studentensprache</i> (Strassburg, 1894); <i>Rotwelsch</i> +i. (Strassburg, 1901); R. Bethge, <i>Ergebnisse</i>, &c., p. 55 f.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27i" id="ft27i" href="#fa27i"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Cf. H. Wunderlich, <i>Unsere Umgangssprache</i> (Weimar, 1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft28i" id="ft28i" href="#fa28i"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Cf. Th. Siebs, <i>Deutsche Bühnenaussprache</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1901), +and the same writer’s <i>Grundzüge der Bühnensprache</i> (1900).</p> + +<p><a name="ft29i" id="ft29i" href="#fa29i"><span class="fn">29</span></a> W. Braune, <i>Über die Einigung der deutschen Aussprache</i> (Halle, +1905); and the review by O. Brenner, in the <i>Zeitschrift des allgemeinen +deutschen Sprachvereins</i>, Beihefte iv. 27, pp. 228-232.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30i" id="ft30i" href="#fa30i"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Cf. K. Luick, <i>Deutsche Lautlehre mit besonderer Berücksichtigung +der Sprechweise Wiens und der österreichischen Alpenländer</i> (1904); +O. Brenner, “Zur Aussprache des Hochdeutschen” l.c., pp. 218-228.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN LITERATURE.<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> Compared with other literatures, +that of the German-speaking peoples presents a strangely broken +and interrupted course; it falls into more or less isolated groups, +separated from each other by periods which in intellectual +darkness and ineptitude are virtually without a parallel in other +European lands. The explanation of this irregularity of development +is to be sought less in the chequered political history of +the German people—although this was often reason enough—than +in the strongly marked, one might almost say, provocative +character of the national mind as expressed in literature. The +Germans were not able, like their partially latinized English +cousins—or even their Scandinavian neighbours—to adapt +themselves to the various waves of literary influence which +emanated from Italy and France and spread with irresistible +power over all Europe; their literary history has been rather a +struggle for independent expression, a constant warring against +outside forces, even when the latter—like the influence of English +literature in the 18th century and of Scandinavian at the close +of the 19th—were hailed as friendly and not hostile. It is a +peculiarity of German literature that in those ages when, owing +to its own poverty and impotence, it was reduced to borrowing +its ideas and its poetic forms from other lands, it sank to the +most servile imitation; while the first sign of returning health +has invariably been the repudiation of foreign influence and the +assertion of the right of genius to untrammelled expression. +Thus Germany’s periods of literary efflorescence rarely coincide +with those of other nations, and great European movements, +like the Renaissance, passed over her without producing a single +great poet.</p> + +<p>This chequered course, however, renders the grouping of German +literature and the task of the historian the easier. The first +and simplest classification is that afforded by the various stages +of linguistic development. In accordance with the three divisions +in the history of the High German language, there is an Old High +German, a Middle High German and a New High German or +Modern High German literary epoch. It is obvious, however, +that the last of these divisions covers too enormous a period of +literary history to be regarded as analogous to the first two. +The present survey is consequently divided into six main +sections:</p> + +<p>I. The Old High German Period, including the literature of +the Old Saxon dialect, from the earliest times to the middle of +the 11th century.</p> + +<p>II. The Middle High German Period, from the middle of the +11th to the middle of the 14th century.</p> + +<p>III. The Transition Period, from the middle of the 14th century +to the Reformation in the 16th century.</p> + +<p>IV. The Period of Renaissance and Pseudo-classicism, from +the end of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th.</p> + +<p>V. The Classical Period of Modern German literature, from +the middle of the 18th century to Goethe’s death in 1832.</p> + +<p>VI. The Period from Goethe’s death to the present day.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. The Old High German Period (<i>c.</i> 750-1050)</p> + +<p>Of all the Germanic races, the tribes with which we have more +particularly to deal here were the latest to attain intellectual +maturity. The Goths had, centuries earlier, under their famous +bishop Ulfilas or Wulfila, possessed the Bible in their vernacular, +the northern races could point to their <i>Edda</i>, the Germanic +tribes in England to a rich and virile Old English poetry, before +a written German literature of any consequence existed at all. +At the same time, these continental tribes, in the epoch that lay +between the Migrations of the 5th century and the age of Charles +the Great, were not without poetic literature of a kind, but it +was not committed to writing, or, at least, no record of such a +poetry has come down to us. Its existence is vouched for by +indirect historical evidence, and by the fact that the sagas, out +of which the German national epic was welded at a later date, +originated in the great upheaval of the 5th century. When the +vernacular literature began to emerge from an unwritten state +in the 8th century, it proved to be merely a weak reflection of +the ecclesiastical writings of the monasteries; and this, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +very few exceptions, Old High German literature remained. +Translations of the liturgy, of Tatian’s <i>Gospel Harmony</i> (<i>c.</i> 835), +of fragments of sermons, form a large proportion of it. Occasionally, +as in the so-called <i>Monsee Fragments</i>, and at the end of the +period, in the prose of Notker Labeo (d. 1022), this ecclesiastical +literature attains a surprising maturity of style and expression. +But it had no vitality of its own; it virtually sprang into +<span class="correction" title="amended from existance">existence</span> at the command of Charlemagne, whose policy with +regard to the use of the vernacular in place of Latin was liberal +and far-seeing; and it docilely obeyed the tastes of the rulers +that followed, becoming severely orthodox under Louis the Pious, +and consenting to immediate extinction when the Saxon emperors +withdrew their favour from it. Apart from a few shorter poetic +fragments of interest, such as the <i>Merseburg Charms</i> (<i>Zaubersprüche</i>), +an undoubted relic of pre-Christian times, the <i>Wessobrunn +Prayer</i> (<i>c.</i> 780), the <i>Muspilli</i>, an imaginative description +of the Day of Judgment, and the <i>Ludwigslied</i> (881), which may +be regarded as the starting point for the German historical +ballad, the only High German poem of importance in this early +period was the <i>Gospel Book</i> (<i>Liber evangeliorum</i>) of Otfrid of +Weissenburg (<i>c.</i> 800-870). Even this work is more interesting +as the earliest attempt to supersede alliteration in German +poetry by rhyme, than for such poetic life as the monk of Weissenburg +was able to instil into his narrative. In fact, for the only +genuine poetry of this epoch we have to look, not to the High +German but to the Low German races. They alone seemed +able to give literary expression to the memories handed down +in oral tradition from the 5th century; to Saxon tradition we +owe the earliest extant fragment of a national saga, the <i>Lay +of Hildebrand</i> (<i>Hildebrandslied</i>, <i>c.</i> 800), and a Saxon poet was the +author of a vigorous alliterative version of the Gospel story, the +<i>Heliand</i> (<i>c.</i> 830), and also of part of the Old Testament (<i>Genesis</i>). +This alliterative epic—for epic it may be called—is the one +poem of this age in which the Christian tradition has been adapted +to German poetic needs. Of the existence of a lyric poetry we +only know by hearsay; and the drama had nowhere in Europe +yet emerged from its earliest purely liturgic condition. Such +as it was, the vernacular literature of the Old High German +period enjoyed but a brief existence, and in the 10th and 11th +centuries darkness again closed over it. The dominant “German” +literature in these centuries is in Latin; but that literature is +not without national interest, for it shows in what direction the +German mind was moving. The <i>Lay of Walter</i> (<i>Waltharilied</i>, +<i>c.</i> 930), written in elegant hexameters by Ekkehard of St Gall, +the moralizing dramas of Hrosvitha (Roswitha) of Gandersheim, +the <i>Ecbasis captivi</i> (<i>c.</i> 940), earliest of all the Beast epics, and +the romantic adventures of <i>Ruodlieb</i> (<i>c.</i> 1030), form a literature +which, Latin although it is, foreshadows the future developments +of German poetry.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. The Middle High German Period (1050-1350)</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Early Middle High German Poetry.</i>—The beginnings of +Middle High German literature were hardly less tentative than +those of the preceding period. The Saxon emperors, with their +Latin and even Byzantine tastes, had made it extremely +difficult to take up the thread where Notker let it drop. Williram +of Ebersberg, the commentator of the <i>Song of Songs</i> (<i>c.</i> 1063), +did certainly profit by Notker’s example, but he stands alone. +The Church had no helping hand to offer poetry, as in the more +liberal epoch of the great Charles; for, at the middle of the 11th +century, when the linguistic change from Old to Middle High +German was taking place, a movement of religious asceticism, +originating in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, spread across +Europe, and before long all the German peoples fell under its +influence. For a century there was no room for any literature +that did not place itself unreservedly at the service of the Church, +a service which meant the complete abnegation of the brighter +side of life. Repellent in their asceticism are, for instance, +poems like <i>Memento mori</i> (<i>c.</i> 1050), <i>Vom Glauben</i>, a verse commentary +on the creed by a monk Hartmann (<i>c.</i> 1120), and a poem +on “the remembrance of death” (<i>Von des todes gehugede</i>) by +Heinreich von Melk (<i>c.</i> 1150); only rarely, as in a few narrative +Poems on Old Testament subjects, are the poets of this time able +to forget for a time their lugubrious faith. In the <i>Ezzolied</i> +(<i>c.</i> 1060), a spirited lay by a monk of Bamberg on the life, miracles +and death of Christ, and in the <i>Annolied</i> (<i>c.</i> 1080), a poem in +praise of the archbishop Anno of Cologne, we find, however, +some traces of a higher poetic imagination.</p> + +<p>The transition from this rigid ecclesiastic spirit to a freer, +more imaginative literature is to be seen in the lyric poetry +inspired by the Virgin, in the legends of the saints which bulk +so largely in the poetry of the 12th century, and in the general +trend towards mysticism. Andreas, Pilatus, Aegidius, Albanius +are the heroes of monkish romances of that age, and the stories +of Sylvester and Crescentia form the most attractive parts of +the <i>Kaiserchronik</i> (<i>c.</i> 1130-1150), a long, confused chronicle of +the world which contains many elements common to later Middle +High German poetry. The national sagas, of which the poet +of the <i>Kaiserchronik</i> had not been oblivious, soon began to assert +themselves in the popular literature. The wandering <i>Spielleute</i>, +the lineal descendants of the jesters and minstrels of the dark +ages, who were now rapidly becoming a factor of importance in +literature, were here the innovators; to them we owe the romance +of <i>König Rother</i> (<i>c.</i> 1160), and the kindred stories of <i>Orendel</i>, +<i>Oswald</i> and <i>Salomon und Markolf</i> (<i>Salman und Morolf</i>). All +these poems bear witness to a new element, which in these years +kindled the German imagination and helped to counteract the +austerity of the religious faith—the Crusades. With what +alacrity the Germans revelled in the wonderland of the East +is to be seen especially in the <i>Alexanderlied</i> (<i>c.</i> 1130), and in +<i>Herzog Ernst</i> (<i>c.</i> 1180), romances which point out the way to +another important development of German medieval literature, +the Court epic. The latter type of romance was the immediate +product of the social conditions created by chivalry and, like +chivalry itself, was determined and influenced by its French +origin; so also was the version of the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> (<i>Rolandslied</i>, +c. 1135), which we owe to another priest, Konrad of Regensburg, +who, with considerable probability, has been identified +with the author of the <i>Kaiserchronik</i>.</p> + +<p>The Court epic was, however, more immediately ushered in +by Eilhart von Oberge, a native of the neighbourhood of Hildesheim +who, in his <i>Tristant</i> (<i>c.</i> 1170), chose that Arthurian type +of romance which from now on was especially cultivated by the +poets of the Court epic; and of equally early origin is a knightly +romance of <i>Floris und Blancheflur</i>, another of the favourite love +stories of the middle ages. In these years, too, the Beast epic, +which had been represented by the Latin <i>Ecbasis captivi</i>, was +reintroduced into Germany by an Alsatian monk, Heinrich der +Glichezære, who based his <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> (<i>c.</i> 1180) on the French +<i>Roman de Renart</i>. Lastly, we have to consider the beginning +of the <i>Minnesang</i>, or lyric, which in the last decades of the +12th century burst out with extraordinary vigour in Austria +and South Germany. The origins are obscure, and it is still +debatable how much in the German Minnesang is indigenous +and national, how much due to French and Provençal influence; +for even in its earliest phases the Minnesang reveals correspondences +with the contemporary lyric of the south of France. The +freshness and originality of the early South German singers, +such as Kürenberg, Dietmar von Eist, the Burggraf of Rietenburg +and Meinloh von Sevelingen, are not, however, to be +questioned; in spite of foreign influence, their verses make the +impression of having been a spontaneous expression of German +lyric feeling in the 12th century. The <i>Spruchdichtung</i>, a form +of poetry which in this period is represented by at least two +poets who call themselves Herger and “Der Spervogel,” was +less dependent on foreign models; the pointed and satirical +strophes of these poets were the forerunners of a vast literature +which did not reach its highest development until after literature +had passed from the hands of the noble-born knight to those of +the burgher of the towns.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>The Flourishing of Middle High German Poetry.</i>—Such +was the preparation for the extraordinarily brilliant, although +brief epoch of German medieval poetry, which corresponded +to the reigns of the Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +Barbarossa, Henry VI. and Frederick II. These rulers, by their +ambitious political aspirations and achievements, filled the +German peoples with a sense of “world-mission,” as the leading +political power in medieval Europe. Docile pupils of French +chivalry, the Germans had no sooner learned their lesson than +they found themselves in the position of being able to dictate +to the world of chivalry. In the same way, the German poets, +who, in the 12th century, had been little better than clumsy +translators of French romances, were able, at the beginning +of the 13th, to substitute for French <i>chansons de geste</i> epics +based on national sagas, to put a completely German imprint +on the French Arthurian romance, and to sing German songs +before which even the lyric of Provence paled. National epic, +Court epic and Minnesang—these three types of medieval +German literature, to which may be added as a subordinate +group didactic poetry, comprise virtually all that has come +down to us in the Middle High German tongue. A Middle High +German prose hardly existed, and the drama, such as it was, +was still essentially Latin.</p> + +<p>The first place among the National or Popular epics belongs +to the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, which received its present form in Austria +about the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Combining, +as it does, elements from various cycles of sagas—the lower +Rhenish legend of Siegfried, the Burgundian saga of Gunther +and Hagen, the Gothic saga of Dietrich and Etzel—it stands out +as the most representative epic of German medieval life. And +in literary power, dramatic intensity and singleness of purpose +its eminence is no less unique. The vestiges of gradual growth—of +irreconcilable elements imperfectly welded together—may +not have been entirely effaced, but they in no way lessen the +impression of unity which the poem leaves behind it; whoever +the welder of the sagas may have been, he was clearly a poet +of lofty imagination and high epic gifts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>). +Less imposing as a whole, but in parts no less powerful in its +appeal to the modern mind, is the second of the German national +epics, <i>Gudrun</i>, which was written early in the 13th century. +This poem, as it has come down to us, is the work of an Austrian, +but the subject belongs to a cycle of sagas which have their +home on the shores of the North Sea. It seems almost a freak +of chance that Siegfried, the hero of the Rhineland, should occupy +so prominent a position in the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, whereas Dietrich +von Bern (<i>i.e.</i> of Verona), the name under which Theodoric the +Great had been looked up to for centuries by the German people +as their national hero, should have left the stamp of his personality +on no single epic of the intrinsic worth of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>. +He appears, however, more or less in the background of a number +of romances—<i>Die Rabenschlacht</i>, <i>Dietrichs Flucht</i>, <i>Alpharts Tod</i>, +<i>Biterolf und Dietlieb</i>, <i>Laurin</i>, &c.—which make up what is +usually called the <i>Heldenbuch</i>. It is tempting, indeed, to see +in this very unequal collection the basis for what, under more +favourable circumstances, might have developed into an epic +even more completely representative of the German nation +than the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>.</p> + +<p>While the influence of the romance of chivalry is to be traced +on all these popular epics, something of the manlier, more +primitive ideals that animated German national poetry passed +over to the second great group of German medieval poetry, +the Court epic. The poet who, following Eilhart von Oberge’s +tentative beginnings, established the Court epic in Germany +was Heinrich von Veldeke, a native of the district of the lower +Rhine; his <i>Eneit</i>, written between 1173 and 1186, is based on +a French original. Other poets of the time, such as Herbort +von Fritzlar, the author of a <i>Liet von Troye</i>, followed Heinrich’s +example, and selected French models for German poems on +antique themes; while Albrecht von Halberstadt translated +about the year 1210 the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid into German +verse. With the three masters of the Court epic, Hartmann +von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strassburg—all +of them contemporaries—the Arthurian cycle became +the recognized theme of this type of romance, and the accepted +embodiment of the ideals of the knightly classes. Hartmann +was a Swabian, Wolfram a Bavarian, Gottfried presumably a +native of Strassburg. Hartmann, who in his <i>Erec</i> and <i>Iwein</i>, +<i>Gregorius</i> and <i>Der arme Heinrich</i> combined a tendency towards +religious asceticism with a desire to imbue the worldly life of +the knight with a moral and religious spirit, provided the Court +epic of the age with its best models; he had, of all the medieval +court poets, the most delicate sense for the formal beauty of +poetry, for language, verse and style. Wolfram and Gottfried, +on the other hand, represent two extremes of poetic temperament. +Wolfram’s <i>Parzival</i> is filled with mysticism and obscure +spiritual significance; its flashes of humour irradiate, although +they can hardly be said to illumine, the gloom; its hero is, +unconsciously, a symbol and allegory of much which to the +poet himself must have been mysterious and inexplicable; in +other words, <i>Parzival</i>—and Wolfram’s other writings, <i>Willehalm</i> +and <i>Titurel</i>, point in the same direction—is an instinctive or, +to use Schiller’s word, a “naïve” work of genius. Gottfried, +again, is hardly less gifted and original, but he is a poet of a +wholly different type. His <i>Tristan</i> is even more lucid than +Hartmann’s <i>Iwein</i>, his art is more objective; his delight in +it is that of the conscious artist who sees his work growing +under his hands. Gottfried’s poem, in other words, is free +from the obtrusion of those subjective elements which are in +so high a degree characteristic of <i>Parzival</i>; in spite of the tragic +character of the story, <i>Tristan</i> is radiant and serene, and yet uncontaminated +by that tone of frivolity which the Renaissance +introduced into love stories of this kind.</p> + +<p><i>Parzival</i> and <i>Tristan</i> are the two poles of the German Court +epic, and the subsequent development of that epic stands under +the influence of the three poets, Hartmann, Wolfram and +Gottfried; according as the poets of the 13th century tend to +imitate one or other of these, they fall into three classes. To +the followers and imitators of Hartmann belong Ulrich von +Zatzikhoven, the author of a <i>Lanzelet</i> (<i>c.</i> 1195); Wirnt von +Gravenberg, a Bavarian, whose <i>Wigalois</i> (<i>c.</i> 1205) shows considerable +imaginative power; the versatile Spielmann, known as +“Der Stricker”; and Heinrich von dem Türlin, author of an +unwieldy epic, <i>Die Krone</i> (“the crown of all adventures,” c. 1220). +The fascination of Wolfram’s mysticism is to be seen in <i>Der +jüngere Titurel</i> of a Bavarian poet, Albrecht von Scharfenberg +(<i>c.</i> 1270), and in the still later <i>Lohengrin</i> of an unknown poet; +whereas Gottfried von Strassburg dominates the <i>Flore und +Blanscheflur</i> of Konrad Fleck (<i>c.</i> 1220) and the voluminous +romances of the two chief poets of the later 13th century, Rudolf +von Ems, who died in 1254, and Konrad von Würzburg, who lived +till 1287. Of these, Konrad alone carried on worthily the traditions +of the great age, and even his art, which excels within the +narrow limits of romances like <i>Die Herzemoere</i> and <i>Engelhard</i>, +becomes diffuse and wearisome on the unlimited canvas of +<i>Der Trojanerkrieg</i> and <i>Partonopier und Meliur</i>.</p> + +<p>The most conspicuous changes which came over the narrative +poetry of the 13th century were, on the one hand, a steady encroachment +of realism on the matter and treatment of the epic, +and, on the other, a leaning to didacticism. The substitution +of the “history” of the chronicle for the confessedly imaginative +stories of the earlier poets is to be seen in the work of Rudolf von +Ems, and of a number of minor chroniclers like Ulrich von +Eschenbach, Berthold von Holle and Jans Enikel; while for the +growth of realism we may look to the <i>Pfaffe Amis</i>, a collection +of comic anecdotes by “Der Stricker,” the admirable peasant +romance <i>Meier Helmbrecht</i>, written between 1236 and 1250 by +Wernher der Gartenaere in Bavaria, and to the adventures of +Ulrich von Lichtenstein, as described in his <i>Frauendienst</i> (1255) +and <i>Frauenbuch</i> (1257).</p> + +<p>More than any single poet of the Court epic, more even than +the poet of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, Walther von der Vogelweide +summed up in himself all that was best in the group of poetic +literature with which he was associated—the Minnesang. The +early Austrian singers already mentioned, poets like Heinrich +von Veldeke, who in his lyrics, as in his epic, introduced the French +conception of <i>Minne</i>, or like the manly Friedrich von Hausen, +and the Swiss imitator of Provençal measures, Rudolf von +Fenis appear only in the light of forerunners. Even more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +original poets, like Heinrich von Morungen and Walther’s own +master, Reinmar von Hagenau, the author of harmonious but +monotonously elegiac verses, or among immediate contemporaries, +Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von Eschenbach, whose few +lyric strophes are as deeply stamped with his individuality as his +epics—seem only tributary to the full rich stream of Walther’s +genius. There was not a form of the German Minnesang which +Walther did not amplify and deepen; songs of courtly love +and lowly love, of religious faith and delight in nature, patriotic +songs and political <i>Sprüche</i>—in all he was a master. Of Walther’s +life we are somewhat better informed than in the case of his contemporaries: +he was born about 1170 and died about 1230; +his art he learned in Austria, whereupon he wandered through +South Germany, a welcome guest wherever he went, although +his vigorous championship of what he regarded as the national +cause in the political struggles of the day won him foes as well as +friends. For centuries he remained the accepted exemplar of +German lyric poetry; not merely the Minnesänger who followed +him, but also the Meistersinger of the 15th and 16th centuries +looked up to him as one of the founders and lawgivers of their art. +He was the most influential of all Germany’s lyric poets, and +in the breadth, originality and purity of his inspiration one of +her greatest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Walther von der Vogelweide</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The development of the German Minnesang after Walther’s +death and under his influence is easily summed up. Contemporaries +had been impressed by the dual character of Walther’s +lyric; they distinguished a higher courtly lyric, and a lower +more outspoken form of song, free from the constraint of social +or literary conventions. The later Minnesang emphasized this +dualism. Amongst Walther’s immediate contemporaries, high-born +poets, whose lives were passed at courts, naturally cultivated +the higher lyric; but the more gifted and original singers of the +time rejoiced in the freedom of Walther’s poetry of <i>niedere +Minne</i>. It was, in fact, in accordance with the spirit of the age +that the latter should have been Walther’s most valuable legacy +to his successors; and the greatest of these, Neidhart von +Reuental (<i>c.</i> 1180-<i>c.</i> 1250), certainly did not allow himself to +be hampered by aristocratic prejudices. Neidhart sought the +themes of his <i>höfische Dorfpoesie</i> in the village, and, as the mood +happened to dictate, depicted the peasant with humorous banter +or biting satire. The lyric poets of the later 13th century were +either, like Burkart von Hohenfels, Ulrich von Winterstetten +and Gottfried von Neifen, echoes of Walther von der Vogelweide +and of Neidhart, or their originality was confined to some +particular form of lyric poetry in which they excelled. Thus +the singer known as “Der Tannhäuser” distinguished himself as +an imitator of the French <i>pastourelle</i>; Reinmar von Zweter was +purely a <i>Spruchdichter</i>. More or less common to all is the consciousness +that their own ideas and surroundings were no longer +in harmony with the aristocratic world of chivalry, which the +poets of the previous generation had glorified. The solid +advantages, material prosperity and increasing comfort of life +in the German towns appealed to poets like Steinmar von +Klingenau more than the unworldly ideals of self-effacing +knighthood which Ulrich von Lichtenstein and Johann Hadlaub +of Zürich clung to so tenaciously and extolled so warmly. On the +whole, the Spruchdichter came best out of this ordeal of changing +fashions; and the increasing interest in the moral and didactic +applications of literature favoured the development of this +form of verse. The confusion of didactic purpose with the +lyric is common to all the later poetry, to that of the learned +Marner, of Boppe, Rumezland and Heinrich von Meissen, +who was known to later generations as “Frauenlob.” The +<i>Spruchdichtung</i>, in fact, was one of the connecting links between +the Minnesang of the 13th and the lyric and satiric poetry +of the 15th and 16th centuries.</p> + +<p>The disturbing and disintegrating element in the literature +of the 13th century was thus the substitution of a utilitarian +didacticism for the idealism of chivalry. In the early decades of +that century, poems like <i>Der Winsbeke</i>, by a Bavarian, and +<i>Der welsche Gast</i>, written in 1215-1216 by Thomasin von Zirclaere +(Zirclaria), a native of Friuli, still teach with uncompromising +idealism the duties and virtues of the knightly life. But in the +<i>Bescheidenheit</i> (<i>c.</i> 1215-1230) of a wandering singer, who called +himself Freidank, we find for the first time an active antagonism +to the unworldly code of chivalry and an unmistakable reflection +of the changing social order, brought about by the rise of what +we should now call the middle class. Freidank is the spokesman +of the <i>Bürger</i>, and in his terse, witty verses may be traced the +germs of German intellectual and literary development in the +coming centuries—even of the Reformation itself. From the +advent of Freidank onwards, the satiric and didactic poetry went +the way of the epic; what it gained in quantity it lost in quality +and concentration. The satires associated with the name of +Seifried Helbling, an Austrian who wrote in the last fifteen +years of the 13th century, and <i>Der Renner</i> by Hugo von Trimberg, +written at the very end of the century, may be taken as characteristic +of the later period, where terseness and incisive wit have +given place to diffuse moralizing and allegory.</p> + +<p>There is practically no Middle High German literature in +prose; such prose as has come down to us—the tracts of David +of Augsburg, the powerful sermons of Berthold von Regensburg +(d. 1272), Germany’s greatest medieval preacher, and several legal +codes, as the <i>Sachsenspiegel</i> and <i>Schwabenspiegel</i>—only prove +that the Germans of the 13th century had not yet realized the +possibilities of prose as a medium of literary expression.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. The Transition Period (1350-1600)</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.</i>—As is the case +with all transitional periods of literary history, this epoch of +German literature may be considered under two aspects: on +the one hand, we may follow in it the decadence and disintegration +of the literature of the Middle High German period; on +the other, we may study the beginnings of modern forms of +poetry and the preparation of that spiritual revolution, which +meant hardly less to the Germanic peoples than the Renaissance +to the Latin races—the Protestant Reformation.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the 14th century, knighthood with its +chivalric ideals was rapidly declining, and the conditions under +which medieval poetry had flourished were passing away. +The social change rendered the courtly epic of Arthur’s Round +Table in great measure incomprehensible to the younger generation, +and made it difficult for them to understand the spirit +that actuated the heroes of the national epic; the tastes to which +the lyrics of the great Minnesingers had appealed were vitiated +by the more practical demands of the rising middle classes. +But the stories of chivalry still appealed as stories to the people, +although the old way of telling them was no longer appreciated. +The feeling for beauty of form and expression was lost; the +craving for a moral purpose and didactic aim had to be satisfied +at the cost of artistic beauty; and sensational incident was +valued more highly than fine character-drawing or inspired +poetic thought. Signs of the decadence are to be seen in the +<i>Karlmeinet</i> of this period, stories from the youth of Charlemagne, +in a continuation of <i>Parzival</i> by two Alsatians, Claus Wisse +and Philipp Colin (<i>c.</i> 1335), in an <i>Apollonius von Tyrus</i> by +Heinrich von Neuenstadt (<i>c.</i> 1315), and a <i>Königstochter von +Frankreich</i> by Hans von Bühel (<i>c.</i> 1400). The story of Siegfried +was retold in a rough ballad, <i>Das Lied von hürnen Seyfried</i>, the +<i>Heldenbuch</i> was recast in <i>Knittelvers</i> or doggerel (1472), and even +the Arthurian epic was parodied. A no less marked symptom +of decadence is to be seen in a large body of allegorical poetry +analogous to the <i>Roman de la rose</i> in France; Heinzelein of +Constance, at the end of the 13th, and Hadamar von Laber and +Hermann von Sachsenheim, about the middle of the 15th century, +were representatives of this movement. As time went on, prose +versions of the old stories became more general, and out of these +developed the <i>Volksbücher</i>, such as <i>Loher und Maller</i>, <i>Die +Haimonskinder</i>, <i>Die schöne Magelone</i>, <i>Melusine</i>, which formed +the favourite reading of the German people for centuries. As +the last monuments of the decadent narrative literature of the +middle ages, we may regard the <i>Buch der Abenteuer</i> of Ulrich +Füetrer, written at the end of the 15th century, and <i>Der Weisskönig</i> +and <i>Teuerdank</i> by the emperor Maximilian I. (1459-1519) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +printed in the early years of the 16th. At the beginning of the +new epoch the Minnesang could still point to two masters able +to maintain the great traditions of the 13th century, Hugo von +Montfort (1357-1423) and Oswald von Wolkenstein (1367-1445); +but as the lyric passed into the hands of the middle-class poets +of the German towns, it was rapidly shorn of its essentially +lyric qualities; <i>die Minne</i> gave place to moral and religious +dogmatism, emphasis was laid on strict adherence to the rules +of composition, and the simple forms of the older lyric were +superseded by ingenious metrical distortions. Under the influence +of writers like Heinrich von Meissen (“Frauenlob,” <i>c.</i> 1250-1318) +and Heinrich von Mügeln in the 14th century, like Muskatblut +and Michael Beheim (1416-<i>c.</i> 1480) in the 15th, the Minnesang +thus passed over into the Meistergesang. In the later 15th and +in the 16th centuries all the south German towns possessed +flourishing Meistersinger schools in which the art of writing +verse was taught and practised according to complicated rules, +and it was the ambition of every gifted citizen to rise through +the various grades from <i>Schüler</i> to <i>Meister</i> and to distinguish +himself in the “singing contests” instituted by the schools.</p> + +<p>Such are the decadent aspects of the once rich literature of +the Middle High German period in the 14th and 15th centuries. +Turning now to the more positive side of the literary movement, +we have to note a revival of a popular lyric poetry—the Volkslied—which +made the futility and artificiality of the Meistergesang +more apparent. Never before or since has Germany been able +to point to such a rich harvest of popular poetry as is to be seen +in the Volkslieder of these two centuries. Every form of popular +poetry is to be found here—songs of love and war, hymns and +drinking-songs, songs of spring and winter, historical ballads, +as well as lyrics in which the old motives of the Minnesang +reappear stripped of all artificiality. More obvious ties with +the literature of the preceding age are to be seen in the development +of the <i>Schwank</i> or comic anecdote. Collections of such +stories, which range from the practical jokes of <i>Till Eulenspiegel</i> +(1515), and the coarse witticisms of the <i>Pfaffe vom Kalenberg</i> +(end of 14th century) and <i>Peter Leu</i> (1550), to the religious and +didactic anecdotes of J. Pauli’s <i>Schimpf und Ernst</i> (1522) or the +more literary <i>Rollwagenbüchlein</i> (1555) of Jörg Wickram and the +<i>Wendunmut</i> (1563 ff.) of H.W. Kirchhoff—these dominate in +large measure the literature of the 15th and 16th centuries; +they are the literary descendants of the medieval <i>Pfaffe Amis</i>, +<i>Markolf</i> and <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i>. An important development of +this type of popular literature is to be seen in the <i>Narrenschiff</i> of +Sebastian Brant (1457-1521), where the humorous anecdote +became a vehicle of the bitterest satire; Brant’s own contempt +for the vulgarity of the ignorant, and the deep, unsatisfied +craving of all strata of society for a wider intellectual horizon +and a more humane and dignified life, to which Brant gave +voice, make the <i>Narrenschiff</i>, which appeared in 1494, a landmark +on the way that led to the Reformation. Another form—the +Beast fable and Beast epic—which is but sparingly represented +in earlier times, appealed with peculiar force to the new generation. +At the very close of the Middle High German period, +Ulrich Boner had revived the Aesopic fable in his <i>Edelstein</i> +(1349), translations of Aesop in the following century added to +the popularity of the fable (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the century of the Reformation +it became, in the hands of Burkard Waldis (<i>Esopus</i>, +1548) and Erasmus Alberus (<i>Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit</i>, +1550), a favourite instrument of satire and polemic. A still +more attractive form of the Beast fable was the epic of <i>Reinke +de Vos</i>, which had been cultivated by Flemish poets in the 13th +and 14th centuries and has come down to us in a Low Saxon +translation, published at Lübeck in 1498. This, too, like Brant’s +poem, is a powerful satire on human folly, and is also, like the +<i>Narrenschiff</i>, a harbinger of the coming Reformation.</p> + +<p>A complete innovation was the drama (<i>q.v.</i>), which, as we have +seen, had practically no existence in Middle High German +times. As in all European literatures, it emerged slowly and +with difficulty from its original subservience to the church liturgy. +As time went on, the vernacular was substituted for the original +Latin, and with increasing demands for pageantry, the scene +of the play was removed to the churchyard or the market-place; +thus the opportunity arose in the 14th and 15th centuries for +developing the <i>Weihnachtsspiel</i>, <i>Osterspiel</i> and <i>Passionsspiel</i> on +secular lines. The enlargement of the scope of the religious +play to include legends of the saints implied a further step in +the direction of a complete separation of the drama from ecclesiastical +ceremony. The most interesting example of this encroachment +of the secular spirit is the <i>Spiel von Frau Jutten</i>—Jutta +being the notorious Pope Joan—by an Alsatian, Dietrich +Schernberg, in 1480. Meanwhile, in the 15th century, a beginning +had been made of a drama entirely independent of the church. +The mimic representations—originally allegorical in character—with +which the people amused themselves at the great festivals +of the year, and more especially in spring, were interspersed +with dialogue, and performed on an improvised stage. This +was the beginning of the <i>Fastnachtsspiel</i> or Shrovetide-play, +the subject of which was a comic anecdote similar to those of +the many collections of <i>Schwänke</i>. Amongst the earliest cultivators +of the <i>Fastnachtsspiel</i> were Hans Rosenplüt (fl. <i>c.</i> 1460) +and Hans Folz (fl. <i>c.</i> 1510), both of whom were associated with +Nuremberg.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>The Age of the Reformation.</i>—Promising as were these +literary beginnings of the 15th century, the real significance +of the period in Germany’s intellectual history is to be sought +outside literature, namely, in two forces which immediately +prepared the way for the Reformation—mysticism and humanism. +The former of these had been a more or less constant factor in +German religious thought throughout the middle ages, but +with Meister Eckhart (? 1260-1327), the most powerful and +original of all the German mystics, with Heinrich Seuse or Suso +(<i>c.</i> 1300-1366), and Johannes Tauler (<i>c.</i> 1300-1361), it became +a clearly defined mental attitude towards religion; it was an +essentially personal interpretation of Christianity, and, as such, +was naturally conducive to the individual freedom which +Protestantism ultimately realized. It is thus not to be wondered +at that we should owe the early translations of the Bible into +German—one was printed at Strassburg in 1466—to the mystics. +Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg (1445-1510), a pupil of the +humanists and a friend of Sebastian Brant, may be regarded +as a link between Eckhart and the earlier mysticists and Luther. +Humanism was transplanted to German soil with the foundation +of the university of Prague in 1348, and it made even greater +strides than mysticism. Its immediate influence, however, +was restricted to the educated classes; the pre-Reformation +humanists despised the vernacular and wrote and thought +only in Latin. Thus although neither Johann Reuchlin of +Pforzheim (1455-1522), nor even the patriotic Alsatian, Jakob +Wimpfeling (or Wimpheling) (1450-1528)—not to mention the +great Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536)—has +a place in the history of German literature, their battle for +liberalism in thought and scholarship against the narrow orthodoxy +of the Church cleared the way for a healthy national +literature among the German-speaking peoples. The incisive +wit and irony of humanistic satire—we need only instance the +<i>Epistolae obscurorum virorum</i> (1515-1517)—prevented the +German satirists of the Reformation age from sinking entirely +into that coarse brutality to which they were only too prone. +To the influence of the humanists we also owe many translations +from the Latin and Italian dating from the 15th century. +Prominent among the writers who contributed to the group +of literature were Niklas von Wyl, chancellor of Württemberg, +and his immediate contemporary Albrecht von Eyb (1420-1475).</p> + +<p>Martin Luther (1483-1546), Germany’s greatest man in this +age of intellectual new-birth, demands a larger share of attention +in a survey of literature than his religious and ecclesiastical +activity would in itself justify, if only because the literary activity +of the age cannot be regarded apart from him. From the +Volkslied and the popular <i>Schwank</i> to satire and drama, literature +turned exclusively round the Reformation which had been +inaugurated on the 31st of October 1517 by Luther’s publication +of the <i>Theses against Indulgences</i> in Wittenberg. In his three +tracts, <i>An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation</i>, <i>De captivitate</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +<i>Babylonica ecclesiae</i>, and <i>Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen</i> +(1520), Luther laid down his principles of reform, and in the +following year resolutely refused to recant his heresies in a +dramatic scene before the Council of Worms. Luther’s Bible +(1522-1534) had unique importance not merely for the religious +and intellectual welfare of the German people, but also for their +literature. It is in itself a literary monument, a German classic, +and the culmination and justification of that movement which +had supplanted the medieval knight by the burgher and swept +away Middle High German poetry. Luther, well aware that his +translation of the Bible must be the keystone to his work, gave +himself endless pains to produce a thoroughly German work—German +both in language and in spirit. It was important that the +dialect into which the Bible was translated should be comprehensible +over as wide an area as possible of the German-speaking +world, and for this reason he took all possible care in choosing +the vocabulary and forms of his <i>Gemeindeutsch</i>. The language +of the Saxon chancery thus became, thanks to Luther’s initiative, +the basis of the modern High German literary language. As a +hymn-writer (<i>Geistliche Lieder</i>, 1564), Luther was equally mindful +of the importance of adapting himself to the popular tradition; +and his hymns form the starting-point for a vast development +of German religious poetry which did not reach its highest point +until the following century.</p> + +<p>The most powerful and virile literature of this age was the +satire with which the losing side retaliated on the Protestant +leaders. Amongst Luther’s henchmen, Philipp Melanchthon +(1497-1560), the “praeceptor Germaniae,” and Ulrich von +Hutten (1488-1523) were powerful allies in the cause, but their +intellectual sympathies were with the Latin humanists; and +with the exception of some vigorous German prose and still +more vigorous German verse by Hutten, both wrote in Latin. +The satirical dramas of Niklas Manuel, a Swiss writer and the +polemical fables of Erasmus Alberus (<i>c.</i> 1500-1553), on the other +hand, were insignificant compared with the fierce assault on +Protestantism by the Alsatian monk, Thomas Murner (1475-1537). +The most unscrupulous of all German satirists, Murner +shrank from no extremes of scurrility, his attacks on Luther +reaching their culmination in the gross personalities of <i>Von dem +lutherischen Narren</i> (1522). It was not until the following +generation that the Protestant party could point to a satirist +who in genius and power was at all comparable to Murner, +namely, to Johann Fischart (<i>c.</i> 1550-<i>c.</i> 1591); but when Fischart’s +Rabelaisian humour is placed by the side of his predecessor’s +work, we see that, in spite of counter-reformations, the Protestant +cause stood in a very different position in Fischart’s day from that +which it had occupied fifty years before. Fischart took his stand +on the now firm union between humanism and Protestantism. +His chief work, the <i>Affentheuerlich Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung</i> +(1575), a Germanization of the first book of Rabelais’ +satire, is a witty and ingenious monstrosity, a satirical comment +on the life of the 16th century, not the virulent expression of +party strife. The day of a personal and brutal type of satire +was clearly over, and the writers of the later 16th century reverted +more and more to the finer methods of the humanists. The +satire of Bartholomaeus Ringwaldt (1530-1599) and of Georg +Rollenhagen (1542-1609), author of the <i>Froschmeuseler</i> (1595), +was more “literary” and less actual than even Fischart’s.</p> + +<p>On the whole, the form of literature which succeeded best in +emancipating itself from the trammels of religious controversy +in the 16th century was the drama. Protestantism proved +favourable to its intellectual and literary development, and the +humanists, who had always prided themselves on their imitations +of Latin comedy, introduced into it a sense for form and +proportion. The Latin school comedy in Germany was founded +by J. Wimpfeling with his <i>Stylpho</i> (1470) and by J. Reuchlin +with his witty adaptation of <i>Maître Patelin</i> in his <i>Henno</i> (1498). +In the 16th century the chief writers of Latin dramas were +Thomas Kirchmair or Naogeorgus (1511-1563), Caspar Brülow +(1585-1627), and Nikodemus Frischlin (1547-1590), who also +wrote dramas in the vernacular. The work of these men bears +testimony in its form and its choice of subjects to the close +relationship between Latin and German drama in the 16th century. +One of the earliest focusses for a German drama inspired by the +Reformation was Switzerland. In Basel, Pamphilus Gengenbach +produced moralizing <i>Fastnachtsspiele</i> in 1515-1516; Niklas +Manuel of Bern (1484-1530)—who has just been mentioned—employed +the same type of play as a vehicle of pungent satire +against the Mass and the sale of indulgences. But it was not +long before the German drama benefited by the humanistic +example: the <i>Parabell vam vorlorn Szohn</i> by Burkard Waldis +(1527), the many dramas on the subject of <i>Susanna</i>—notably +those of Sixt Birck (1532) and Paul Rebhun(1535)—and Frischlin’s +German plays are attempts to treat Biblical themes according +to classic methods. In another of the important literary centres +of the 16th century, however, in Nuremberg, the drama developed +on indigenous lines. Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the Nuremberg +cobbler and Meistersinger, the most productive writer of the age, +went his own way; a voracious reader and an unwearied storyteller, +he left behind him a vast literary legacy, embracing every +form of popular literature from <i>Spruch</i> and <i>Schwank</i> to complicated +<i>Meistergesang</i> and lengthy drama. He laid under +contribution the rich Renaissance literature with which the +humanistic translators had flooded Germany, and he became +himself an ardent champion of the “Wittembergisch Nachtigall” +Luther. But in the progressive movement of the German drama +he played an even smaller role than his Swiss and Saxon contemporaries; +for his tragedies and comedies are deficient in all +dramatic qualities; they are only stories in dialogue. In the +<i>Fastnachtsspiele</i>, where dramatic form is less essential than anecdotal +point and brevity, he is to be seen at his best. Rich +as the 16th century was in promise, the conditions for +the development of a national drama were unfavourable. At +the close of the century the influence of the English drama—brought +to Germany by English actors—introduced the +deficient dramatic and theatrical force into the humanistic +and “narrative” drama which has just been considered. This +is to be seen in the work of Jakob Ayrer (d. 1605) and Duke +Henry Julius of Brunswick (1564-1613). But unfortunately +these beginnings had hardly made themselves felt when the full +current of the Renaissance was diverted across Germany, bringing +in its train the Senecan tragedy. Then came the Thirty Years’ +War, which completely destroyed the social conditions indispensable +for the establishment of a theatre at once popular +and national.</p> + +<p>The novel was less successful than the drama in extricating +itself from satire and religious controversy. Fischart was +too dependent on foreign models and too erratic—at one time +adapting Rabelais, at another translating the old heroic romance +of <i>Amadis de Gaula</i>—to create a national form of German fiction +in the 16th century; the most important novelist was a much +less talented writer, the Alsatian Meistersinger and dramatist +Jörg Wickram (d. c. 1560), who has been already mentioned as +the author of a popular collection of anecdotes, the <i>Rollwagenbüchlein</i>. +His longer novels, <i>Der Knabenspiegel</i> (1554) and Der +Goldfaden (1557), are in form, and especially in the importance +they attach to psychological developments, the forerunners of +the movement to which we owe the best works of German +fiction in the 18th century. But Wickram stands alone. So +inconsiderable, in fact, is the fiction of the Reformation age in +Germany that we have to regard the old <i>Volksbücher</i> as its +equivalent; and it is significant that of all the prose writings +of this age, the book which affords the best insight into the +temper and spirit of the Reformation was just one of these +crude <i>Volksbücher</i>, namely, the famous story of the magician +<i>Doctor Johann Faust</i>, published at Frankfort in 1587.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">IV. The Renaissance (1600-1740)</p> + +<p>The 17th century in Germany presents a complete contrast +to its predecessor; the fact that it was the century of the Thirty +Years’ War, which devastated the country, crippled the prosperity +of the towns, and threw back by many generations the social +development of the people, explains much, but it can hardly be +held entirely responsible for the intellectual apathy, the slavery +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +to foreign customs and foreign ideas, which stunted the growth +of the nation. The freedom of Lutheranism degenerated into +a paralyzing Lutheran orthodoxy which was as hostile to the +“Freiheit eines Christenmenschen” as that Catholicism it had +superseded; the idealism of the humanists degenerated in the +same way into a dry, pedantic scholasticism which held the German +mind in fetters until, at the very close of the century, Leibnitz +set it free. Most disheartening of all, literature which in the 16th +century had been so full of promise and had conformed with such +aptitude to the new ideas, was in all its higher manifestations +blighted by the dead hand of pseudo-classicism. The unkempt +literature of the Reformation age admittedly stood in need of +<span class="correction" title="amended from guidauce">guidance</span> and discipline, but the 17th century made the fatal +mistake of trying to impose the laws and rules of Romance +literatures on a people of a purely Germanic stock.</p> + +<p>There were, however, some branches of German poetry which +escaped this foreign influence. The church hymn, continuing +the great Lutheran traditions, rose in the 17th century to extraordinary +richness both in quality and quantity. Paul Gerhardt +(1607-1676), the greatest German hymn-writer, was only one +of many Lutheran pastors who in this age contributed to the +German hymnal. On the Catholic side, Angelus Silesius, or +Johann Scheffler (1624-1677) showed what a wealth of poetry +lay in the mystic speculations of Jakob Boehme, the gifted +shoemaker of Görlitz (1575-1624), and author of the famous +<i>Aurora, oder Morgenröte im Aufgang</i> (1612); while Friedrich +von Spee (1591-1635), another leading Catholic poet of the +century, cultivated the pastoral allegory of the Renaissance. +The revival of mysticism associated with Boehme gradually +spread through the whole religious life of the 17th century, +Protestant as well as Catholic, and in the more specifically +Protestant form of pietism, it became, at the close of the period, +a force of moment in the literary revival. Besides the hymn, +the Volkslied, which amidst the struggles and confusion of the +great war bore witness to a steadily growing sense of patriotism, +lay outside the domain of the literary theorists and dictators, +and developed in its own way. But all else—if we except certain +forms of fiction, which towards the end of the 17th century rose +into prominence—stood completely under the sway of the Latin +Renaissance.</p> + +<p>The first focus of the movement was Heidelberg, which had +been a centre of humanistic learning in the sixteenth century. +Here, under the leadership of J.W. Zincgref (1591-1635), a +number of scholarly writers carried into practice that interest +in the vernacular which had been shown a little earlier by the +German translator of Marot, Paul Schede or Melissus, librarian +in Heidelberg. The most important forerunner of Opitz was +G.R. Weckherlin (1584-1653), a native of Württemberg who had +spent the best part of his life in England; his <i>Oden und Gesänge</i> +(1618-1619) ushered in the era of Renaissance poetry in Germany +with a promise that was but indifferently fulfilled by his successors. +Of these the greatest, or at least the most influential, was Martin +Opitz (1597-1639). He was a native of Silesia and, as a student in +Heidelberg, came into touch with Zincgref’s circle; subsequently, +in the course of a visit to Holland, a more definite trend was given +to his ideas by the example of the Dutch poet and scholar, +Daniel Heinsius. As a poet, Opitz experimented with every form +of recognized Renaissance poetry from ode and epic to pastoral +romance and Senecan drama; but his poetry is for the most part +devoid of inspiration; and his extraordinary fame among his +contemporaries would be hard to understand, were it not that in +his <i>Buch von der deutschen Poeterey</i> (1624) he gave the German +Renaissance its theoretical textbook. In this tract, in which +Opitz virtually reproduced in German the accepted dogmas of +Renaissance theorists like Scaliger and Ronsard, he not merely +justified his own mechanical verse-making, but also gave Germany +a law-book which regulated her literature for a hundred years.</p> + +<p>The work of Opitz as a reformer was furthered by another +institution of Latin origin, namely, literary societies modelled +on the <i>Accademia della Crusca</i> in Florence. These societies, +of which the chief were the <i>Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft</i> or +<i>Palmenorden</i> (founded 1617), the <i>Elbschwanenorden</i> in Hamburg +and the <i>Gekrönter Blumenorden an der Pegnitz or Gesellschaft +der Pegnitzschäfer</i> in Nuremberg, were the centres of literary +activity during the unsettled years of the war. Although they +produced much that was trivial—such as the extraordinary +<i>Nürnberger Trichter</i> (1647-1653) by G.P. Harsdörffer (1607-1658), +a treatise which professed to turn out a fully equipped +German poet in the space of six hours—these societies also +did German letters an invaluable service by their attention to +the language, one of their chief objects having been to purify +the German language from foreign and un-German ingredients. +J.G. Schottelius (1612-1676), for instance, wrote his epoch-making +grammatical works with the avowed purpose of furthering +the objects of the <i>Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft</i>. Meanwhile the +poetic centre of gravity in Germany had shifted from Heidelberg +to the extreme north-east, to Königsberg, where a group of +academic poets gave practical expression to the Opitzian theory. +Chief among them was Simon Dach (1605-1659), a gentle, elegiac +writer on whom the laws of the <i>Buch von der deutschen Poeterey</i> +did not lie too heavily. He, like his more manly and vigorous +contemporary Paul Fleming (1609-1640), showed, one might say, +that it was possible to write good and sincere poetry notwithstanding +Opitz’s mechanical rules.</p> + +<p>In the previous century the most advanced form of literature +had been satire, and under the new conditions the satiric vein +still proved most productive; but it was no longer the full-blooded +satire of the Reformation, or even the rich and luxuriant +satiric fancy of Fischart, which found expression in the 17th +century. Satire pure and simple was virtually only cultivated +by two Low German poets, J. Lauremberg (1590-1658) and +J. Rachel (1618-1669), of whom at least the latter was accepted +by the Opitzian school; but the satiric spirit rose to higher +things in the powerful and scathing sermons of J.B. Schupp +(1610-1661), an outspoken Hamburg preacher, and in the scurrilous +wit of the Viennese monk Abraham a Sancta Clara (1644-1709), +who had inherited some of his predecessor Murner’s +intellectual gifts. Best of all are the epigrams of the most gifted +of all the Silesian group of writers, Friedrich von Logau (1604-1655). +Logau’s three thousand epigrams (<i>Deutsche Sinngedichte</i>, +1654) afford a key to the intellectual temper of the 17th century; +they are the epitome of their age. Here are to be seen reflected +the vices of the time, its aping of French customs and its contempt +for what was national and German; Logau held up to +ridicule the vain bloodshed of the war in the interest of Christianity, +and, although he praised Opitz, he was far from prostrating +himself at the dictator’s feet. Logau is an epigrammatist +of the first rank, and perhaps the most remarkable product of +the Renaissance movement in Germany.</p> + +<p>Opitz found difficulty in providing Germany with a drama +according to the classic canon. He had not himself ventured +beyond translations of Sophocles and Seneca, and Johann Rist +(1607-1667) in Hamburg, one of the few contemporary dramatists, +had written plays more in the manner of Duke Heinrich Julius of +Brunswick than of Opitz. It was not until after the latter’s +death that the chief dramatist of the Renaissance movement +came forward in the person of Andreas Gryphius (1616-1664). +Like Opitz, Gryphius also was a Silesian, and a poet of no mean +ability, as is to be seen from his lyric poetry; but his tragedies, +modelled on the stiff Senecan pattern, suffered from the lack of +a theatre, and from his ignorance of the existence of a more highly +developed drama in France, not to speak of England. As it was, +he was content with Dutch models. In the field of comedy, +where he was less hampered by theories of dramatic propriety, +he allowed himself to benefit by the freedom of the Dutch farce +and the comic effects of the English actors in Germany; in his +<i>Horribilicribrifax</i> and <i>Herr Peter Squentz</i>—the latter an adaptation +of the comic scenes of the <i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>—Gryphius +has produced the best German plays of the 17th century.</p> + +<p>The German novel of the 17th century was, as has been +already indicated, less hampered by Renaissance laws than other +forms of literature, and although it was none the less at the +mercy of foreign influence, that influence was more varied +and manifold in its character. <i>Don Quixote</i> had been partly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span> +translated early in the 17th century, the picaresque romance +had found its way to Germany at a still earlier date; while H.M. +Moscherosch (1601-1669) in his <i>Gesichte Philanders von Sittewald</i> +(1642-1643) made the <i>Sueños</i> of Quevedo the basis for vivid +pictures of the life of the time, interspersed with satire. The +best German novel of the 17th century, <i>Der abenteurliche Simplicissimus</i> +(1669) by H.J. Christoffel von Grimmelshausen (<i>c.</i> 1625-1676), +is a picaresque novel, but one that owed little more than its +form to the Spaniards. It is in great measure the autobiography +of its author, and describes with uncompromising realism the +social disintegration and the horrors of the Thirty Years’ War. +But this remarkable book stands alone; Grimmelshausen’s +other writings are but further contributions to the same theme, +and he left no disciples worthy of carrying on the tradition he +had created. Christian Weise (1642-1708), rector of the Zittau +gymnasium, wrote a few satirical novels, but his realism and satire +are too obviously didactic. He is seen to better advantage in his +dramas, of which he wrote more than fifty for performance by +his scholars.</p> + +<p>The real successor of <i>Simplicissimus</i> in Germany was the +English <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, a novel which, on its appearance, was +immediately translated into German (1721); it called forth an +extraordinary flood of imitations, the so-called “Robinsonaden,” +the vogue of which is even still kept alive by <i>Der schweizerische +Robinson</i> of J.R. Wyss (1812 ff.). With the exception of J.G. +Schnabel’s <i>Insel Felsenburg</i> (1731-1743), the literary value of +these imitations is slight. They represented, however, a healthier +and more natural development of fiction than the “galant” +romances which were introduced in the train of the Renaissance +movement, and cultivated by writers like Philipp von Zesen +(1619-1689), Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick (1633-1714), +A.H. Buchholtz (1607-1671), H.A. von Ziegler (1653-1697)—author +of the famous <i>Asiatische Banise</i> (1688)—and D.C. von +Lohenstein (1635-1683), whose <i>Arminius</i> (1689-1690) is on the +whole the most promising novel of this group. The last mentioned +writer and Christian Hofmann von Hofmannswaldau +(1617-1679) are sometimes regarded as the leaders of a “second +Silesian school,” as opposed to the first school of Opitz. As the +cultivators of the bombastic and Euphuistic style of the Italians +Guarini and Marini, and of the Spanish writer Gongora, Lohenstein +and Hofmannswaldau touched the lowest point to which +German poetry ever sank.</p> + +<p>But this aberration of taste was happily of short duration. +Although socially the recovery of the German people from the +desolation of the war was slow and laborious, the intellectual +life of Germany was rapidly recuperating under the influence +of foreign thinkers. Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694), Christian +Thomasius (1655-1728), Christian von Wolff (1679-1754) and, +above all, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), the first +of the great German philosophers, laid the foundations of that +system of rationalism which dominated Germany for the better +part of the 18th century; while German religious life was +strengthened and enriched by a revival of pietism, under mystic +thinkers like Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), a revival +which also left its traces on religious poetry. Such hopeful signs +of convalescence could not but be accompanied by an improvement +in literary taste, and this is seen in the first instance in a +substitution for the bombast and conceits of Lohehstein and +Hofmannswaldau, of poetry on the stricter and soberer lines +laid down by Boileau. The so-called “court poets” who +opposed the second Silesian school, men like Rudolf von Canitz +(1654-1699), Johann von Besser (1654-1729) and Benjamin +Neukirch (1665-1729), were not inspired, but they had at least +a certain “correctness” of taste; and from their midst sprang +one gifted lyric genius, Johann Christian Günther (1695-1723), +who wrote love-songs such as had not been heard in Germany +since the days of the Minnesang. The methods of Hofmannswaldau +had obtained considerable vogue in Hamburg, where +the Italian opera kept the decadent Renaissance poetry alive. +Here, however, the incisive wit of Christian Wernigke’s (1661-1725) +epigrams was an effective antidote, and Barthold Heinrich +Brockes (1680-1747), a native of Hamburg, who had been deeply +impressed by the appreciation of nature in English poetry, gave +the artificialities of the Silesians their death-blow. But the +influence of English literature was not merely destructive in +these years; in the translations and imitations of the English +<i>Spectator</i>, <i>Tatler</i> and <i>Guardian</i>—the so-called <i>moralische Wochenschriften</i>—it +helped to regenerate literary taste, and to implant +healthy moral ideas in the German middle classes.</p> + +<p>The chief representative of the literary movement inaugurated +by the Silesian “court poets” was Johann Christoph Gottsched +(1700-1766), who between 1724 and 1740 succeeded in establishing +in Leipzig, the metropolis of German taste, literary reforms +modelled on the principles of French 17th-century classicism. +He reformed and purified the stage according to French ideas, +and provided it with a repertory of French origin; in his +<i>Kritische Dichtkunst</i> (1730) he laid down the principles according +to which good literature was to be produced and judged. As +Opitz had reformed German letters with the help of Ronsard, +so now Gottsched took his standpoint on the principles of +Boileau as interpreted by contemporary French critics and +theorists. With Gottsched, whose services in purifying the +German language have stood the test of time better than his +literary or dramatic reforms, the period of German Renaissance +literature reaches its culmination and at the same time its close. +The movement of the age advanced too rapidly for the Leipzig +dictator; in 1740 a new epoch opened in German poetry and he +was soon left hopelessly behind.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">V. The Classical Period of Modern German Literature +(1740-1832)</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>From the Swiss Controversy to the</i> “<i>Sturm und Drang.</i>”—Between +Opitz and Gottsched German literature passed successively +through the various stages characteristic of all Renaissance +literatures—from that represented by Trissino and the French +Pléiade, by way of the aberrations of Marini and the <i>estilo culto</i>, +to the <i>art poétique</i> of Boileau. And precisely as in France, the +next advance was achieved in a battle between the “ancients” +and the “moderns,” the German “ancients” being represented +by Gottsched, the “moderns” by the Swiss literary reformers, +J.J. Bodmer (1698-1783) and J.J. Breitinger (1701-1776). +The latter in his <i>Kritische Dichtkunst</i> (1739) maintained doctrines +which were in opposition to Gottsched’s standpoint in his +treatise of the same name, and Bodmer supported his friend’s +initiative; a pamphlet war ensued between Leipzig and Zürich, +with which in 1740-1741 the classical period of modern German +literature may be said to open. The Swiss, men of little originality, +found their theories in the writings of Italian and English +critics; and from these they learned how literature might be +freed from the fetters of pseudo-classicism. Basing their arguments +on Milton’s <i>Paradise Lost</i>, which Bodmer had translated +into prose (1732), they demanded room for the play of genius +and inspiration; they insisted that the imagination should not +be hindered in its attempts to rise above the world of reason and +common sense. Their victory was due, not to the skill with +which they presented their arguments, but to the fact that +literature itself was in need of greater freedom. It was in fact +a triumph, not of personalities or of leaders, but of ideas. The +effects of the controversy are to be seen in a group of Leipzig +writers of Gottsched’s own school, the <i>Bremer Beiträger</i> as they +were called after their literary organ. These men—C.F. Gellert +(1715-1769), the author of graceful fables and tales in verse, +G.W. Rabener (1714-1771), the mild satirist of Saxon provinciality, +the dramatist J. Elias Schlegel (1719-1749), who in more +ways than one was Lessing’s forerunner, and a number of minor +writers—did not set themselves up in active opposition to their +master, but they tacitly adopted many of the principles which +the Swiss had advocated. And in the <i>Bremer Beiträge</i> there +appeared in 1748 the first instalment of an epic by F.G. Klopstock +(1724-1803), <i>Der Messias</i>, which was the best illustration of +that lawlessness against which Gottsched had protested. More +effectively than Bodmer’s dry and uninspired theorizing, Klopstock’s +<i>Messias</i>, and in a still higher degree, his <i>Odes</i>, laid the +foundations of modern German literature in the 18th century. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +His immediate followers, it is true, did not help to advance +matters; Bodmer and J.K. Lavater (1741-1801), whose +“physiognomic” investigations interested Goethe at a later +date, wrote dreary and now long forgotten epics on religious +themes. Klopstock’s rhapsodic dramas, together with Macpherson’s +<i>Ossian</i>, which in the ’sixties awakened a widespread +enthusiasm throughout Germany, were responsible for the +so-called “bardic” movement; but the noisy rhapsodies of +the leaders of this movement, the “bards” H.W. von Gerstenberg +(1737-1823), K.F. Kretschmann (1738-1809) and Michael +Denis (1729-1800), had little of the poetic inspiration of Klopstock’s +<i>Odes</i>.</p> + +<p>The indirect influence of Klopstock as the first inspired poet +of modern Germany and as the realization of Bodmer’s theories +can, however, hardly be over-estimated. Under Frederick the +Great, who, as the docile pupil of French culture, had little +sympathy for unregulated displays of feeling, neither Klopstock +nor his imitators were in favour in Berlin, but at the university +of Halle considerable interest was taken in the movement +inaugurated by Bodmer. Here, before Klopstock’s name was +known at all, two young poets, J.I. Pyra (1715-1744) and S.G. +Lange (1711-1781), wrote <i>Freundschaftliche Lieder</i> (1737), which +were direct forerunners of Klopstock’s rhymeless lyric poetry; +and although the later Prussian poets, J.W.L. Gleim (1719-1803), +J.P. Uz (1720-1796) and J.N. Götz (1721-1781), who +were associated with Halle, and K.W. Ramler (1725-1798) in +Berlin, cultivated mainly the Anacreontic and the Horatian +ode—artificial forms, which kept strictly within the classic +canon—yet Friedrich von Hagedorn (1708-1754) in Hamburg +showed to what perfection even the Anacreontic and the lighter +<i>vers de société</i> could be brought. The Swiss physiologist Albrecht +von Haller (1708-1777) was the first German poet to give +expression to the beauty and sublimity of Alpine scenery (<i>Die +Alpen</i>, 1734), and a Prussian officer, Ewald Christian von Kleist +(1715-1759), author of <i>Der Frühling</i> (1749), wrote the most +inspired nature-poetry of this period. Klopstock’s supreme +importance lay, however, in the fact that he was a forerunner of +the movement of <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. But before turning to that +movement we must consider two writers who, strictly speaking, +also belong to the age under consideration—Lessing and Wieland.</p> + +<p>As Klopstock had been the first of modern Germany’s inspired +poets, so Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was the first +critic who brought credit to the German name throughout +Europe. He was the most liberal-minded exponent of 18th-century +rationalism. Like his predecessor Gottsched, whom he +vanquished more effectually than Bodmer had done, he had +unwavering faith in the classic canon, but “classic” meant +for him, as for his contemporary, J.J. Winckelmann (1717-1768), +Greek art and literature, and not the products of French pseudo-classicism, +which it had been Gottsched’s object to foist on +Germany. He went, indeed, still further, and asserted that +Shakespeare, with all his irregularities, was a more faithful +observer of the spirit of Aristotle’s laws, and consequently a +greater poet, than were the French classic writers. He looked +to England and not to France for the regeneration of the German +theatre, and his own dramas were pioneer-work in this direction. +<i>Miss Sara Sampson</i> (1755) is a <i>bürgerliche Tragödie</i> on the lines +of Lillo’s <i>Merchant of London, Minna von Barnhelm</i> (1767), a +comedy in the spirit of Farquhar; in <i>Emilia Galotti</i> (1772), +again with English models in view, he remoulded the “tragedy +of common life” in a form acceptable to the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>; +and finally in <i>Nathan der Weise</i> (1779) he won acceptance for +iambic blank verse as the medium of the higher drama. His +two most promising disciples—J.F. von Cronegk (1731-1758), +and J.W. von Brawe (1738-1758)—unfortunately died young, +and C.F. Weisse (1726-1804) was not gifted enough to advance +the drama in its literary aspects. Lessing’s name is associated +with Winckelmann’s in <i>Laokoon</i> (1766), a treatise in which he +set about defining the boundaries between painting, sculpture +and poetry, and with those of the Jewish philosopher, Moses +Mendelssohn (1729-1786) and the Berlin bookseller C.F. Nicolai +(1733-1811) in the famous <i>Literaturbriefe</i>. Here Lessing identified +himself with the best critical principles of the rationalistic movement—principles +which, in the later years of his life, he employed +in a fierce onslaught on Lutheran orthodoxy and intolerance.</p> + +<p>To the widening and deepening of the German imagination +C.M. Wieland (1733-1813) also contributed, but in a different +way. Although no enemy of pseudo-classicism, he broke with +the stiff dogmatism of Gottsched and his friends, and tempered +the pietism of Klopstock by introducing the Germans to the +lighter poetry of the south of Europe. With the exception of his +fairy epic <i>Oberon</i> (1780), Wieland’s work has fallen into neglect; +he did, however, excellent service to the development of German +prose fiction with his psychological novel, <i>Agathon</i> (1766-1767), +which may be regarded as a forerunner of Goethe’s <i>Wilhelm +Meister</i>, and with his humorous satire <i>Die Abderiten</i> (1774). +Wieland had a considerable following, both among poets and +prose writers; he was particularly looked up to in Austria, +towards the end of the 18th century, where the literary movement +advanced more slowly than in the north. Here Aloys Blumauer +(1755-1789) and J.B. von Alxinger (1755-1797) wrote their +travesties and epics under his influence. In Saxony, M.A. von +Thümmel (1738-1817) showed his adherence to Wieland’s +school in his comic epic in prose, <i>Wilhelmine</i> (1764), and in the +general tone of his prose writings; on the other hand, K.A. +Kortum (1745-1824), author of the most popular comic epic of +the time, <i>Die Jobsiade</i> (1784), was but little influenced by Wieland. +The German novel owed much to the example of <i>Agathon</i>, +but the groundwork and form were borrowed from English +models; Gellert had begun by imitating Richardson in his +<i>Schwedische Gräfin</i> (1747-1748), and he was followed by J.T. +Hermes (1738-1821), by Wieland’s friend Sophie von Laroche +(1730-1807), by A. von Knigge (1752-1796) and J.K.A. Musäus +(1735-1787), the last mentioned being, however, best known +as the author of a collection of <i>Volksmärchen</i> (1782-1786). +Meanwhile a rationalism, less materialistic and strict than that +of Wolff, was spreading rapidly through educated middle-class +society in Germany. Men like Knigge, Moses Mendelssohn, +J.G. Zimmermann (1728-1795), T.G. von Hippel (1741-1796), +Christian Garve (1742-1798), J.J. Engel (1741-1802), as well +as the educational theorists J.B. Basedow (1723-1790) and +J.H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), wrote books and essays on “popular +philosophy” which were as eagerly read as the <i>moralische +Wochenschriften</i> of the preceding epoch; and with this group +of writers must also be associated the most brilliant of German +18th-century satirists, G.C. Lichtenberg (1742-1799).</p> + +<p>Such was the <i>milieu</i> from which sprang the most advanced +pioneer of the classical epoch of modern German literature, +J.G. Herder (1744-1803). The transition from the popular +philosophers of the <i>Aufklärung</i> to Herder was due in the first +instance to the influence of Rousseau; and in Germany itself +that transition is represented by men like Thomas Abbt (1738-1766) +and J.G. Hamann (1730-1788). The revolutionary +nature of Herder’s thought lay in that writer’s antipathy to +hard and fast systems, to laws imposed upon genius; he grasped, +as no thinker before him, the idea of historical evolution. By +regarding the human race as the product of a slow evolution from +primitive conditions, he revolutionized the methods and standpoint +of historical science and awakened an interest—for which, +of course, Rousseau had prepared the way—in the early history +of mankind. He himself collected and published the <i>Volkslieder</i> +of all nations (1778-1779), and drew attention to those elements +in German life and art which were, in the best and most precious +sense, national—elements which his predecessors had despised +as inconsistent with classic formulae and systems. Herder is +thus not merely the forerunner, but the actual founder of the +literary movement known as <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. New ground +was broken in a similar way by a group of poets, who show the +results of Klopstock’s influence on the new literary movement: +the Göttingen “Bund” or “Hain,” a number of young students +who met together in 1772, and for several years published their +poetry in the <i>Göttinger Musenalmanach</i>. With the exception +of the two brothers, Ch. zu Stolberg (1748-1821) and F.L. zu +Stolberg (1750-1819), who occupied a somewhat peculiar position +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +in the “Bund,” the members of this coterie were drawn from +the peasant class of the lower <i>bourgeoisie</i>; J.H. Voss (1751-1826), +the leader of the “Bund,” was a typical North German +peasant, and his idyll, <i>Luise</i> (1784), gives a realistic picture of +German provincial life. L.H.C. Hölty (1748-1776) and J.M. +Miller (1750-1814), again, excelled in simple lyrics in the tone +of the <i>Volkslied</i>. Closely associated with the Göttingen group +were M. Claudius (1740-1815), the <i>Wandsbecker Bote</i>—as he was +called after the journal he edited—an even more unassuming +and homely representative of the German peasant in literature +than Voss, and G.A. Bürger (1748-1794) who contributed to +the <i>Göttinger Musenalmanach</i> ballads, such as the famous Lenore +(1774), of the very first rank. These ballads were the best products +of the Göttingen school, and, together with Goethe’s Strassburg +and Frankfort songs, represent the highest point touched by +the lyric and ballad poetry of the period.</p> + +<p>But the Göttingen “Bund” stood somewhat aside from the +main movement of literary development in Germany; it was +only a phase of <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, and quieter, less turbulent +than that on which Goethe had set the stamp of his personality. +Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) had, as a student in +Leipzig (1765-1768), written lyrics in the Anacreontic vein and +dramas in alexandrines. But in Strassburg, where he went +to continue his studies in 1770-1771, he made the personal +acquaintance of Herder, who won his interest for the new literary +movement. Herder imbued him with his own ideas of the +importance of primitive history and Gothic architecture and +inspired him with a pride in German nationality; Herder +convinced him that there was more genuine poetry in a simple +Volkslied than in all the ingenuity of the German imitators +of Horace or Anacreon; above all, he awakened his enthusiasm +for Shakespeare. The pamphlet <i>Von deutscher Art und Kunst</i> +(1773), to which, besides Goethe and Herder, the historian +Justus Möser (1720-1794) also contributed, may be regarded +as the manifesto of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. The effect on Goethe +of the new ideas was instantaneous; they seemed at once to +set his genius free, and from 1771 to 1775 he was extraordinarily +fertile in poetic ideas and creations. His <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i> +(1771-1773), the first drama of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i>, was followed +within a year by the first novel of the movement, <i>Werthers +Leiden</i> (1774); he dashed off <i>Clavigo</i> and <i>Stella</i> in a few weeks +in 1774 and 1775, and wrote a large number of <i>Singspiele</i>, +dramatic satires and fragments—including <i>Faust</i> in its earliest +form (the so-called <i>Urfaust</i>)—not to mention love-songs which +at last fulfilled the promise of Klopstock. Goethe’s lyrics were +no less epoch-making than his first drama and novel, for they +put an end to the artificiality which for centuries had fettered +German lyric expression. In all forms of literature he set the +fashion to his time; the Shakespearian restlessness of <i>Götz von +Berlichingen</i> found enthusiastic imitators in J.M.R. Lenz +(1751-1792), whose <i>Anmerkungen übers Theater</i> (1774) formulated +theoretically the laws, or defiance of laws, of the new drama, in +F.M. von Klinger (1752-1831), J.A. Leisewitz (1752-1806), H.L. +Wagner (1747-1779) and Friedrich Müller, better known as +Maler Müller (1749-1825): The dramatic literature of the <i>Sturm +und Drang</i> was its most characteristic product—indeed, the +very name of the movement was borrowed from a play by +Klinger; it was inspired, as <i>Götz von Berlichingen</i> had been, by the +desire to present upon the stage figures of Shakespearian grandeur +impelled and tortured by gigantic passions, all considerations of +plot, construction and form being regarded as subordinate to +the development of character. The fiction of the <i>Sturm und +Drang</i>, again, was in its earlier stages dominated by <i>Werthers +Leiden</i>, as may be seen in the novels of F.H. Jacobi (1743-1819) +and J.M. Miller, who has been already mentioned. Later, in the +hands of J.J.W. Heinse (1749-1803), author of <i>Ardinghello</i> +(1787), Klinger, K. Ph. Moritz (1757-1793), whose <i>Anton Reiser</i> +(1785) clearly foreshadows <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, it reflected not +merely the sentimentalism, but also the philosophic and artistic +ideas of the period.</p> + +<p>With the production of <i>Die Räuber</i> (1781) by Johann Friedrich +Schiller (1759-1805), the drama of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> entered +upon a new development. Although hardly less turbulent in +spirit than the work of Klinger and Leisewitz, Schiller’s tragedy +was more skilfully adapted to the exigencies of the theatre; his +succeeding dramas, <i>Fiesco</i> and <i>Kabale und Liebe</i>, were also +admirable stage-plays, and in <i>Don Carlos</i> (1787) he abandoned +prose for the iambic blank verse which Lessing had made acceptable +in <i>Nathan der Weise</i>. The “practical” character of the +new drama is also to be seen in the work of Schiller’s contemporary, +O. von Gemmingen (1755-1836), the imitator of Diderot, +in the excellent domestic dramas of the actors F.L. Schröder +(1744-1816) and A.W. Iffland (1759-1814), and even in the +popular medieval plays, the so-called <i>Ritterdramen</i> of which +<i>Götz von Berlichingen</i> was the model. Germany owes to the +<i>Sturm und Drang</i> her national theatre; permanent theatres +were established in these years at Hamburg, Mannheim, Gotha, +and even at Vienna, which, as may be seen from the dramas of +C.H. von Ayrenhoff (1733-1819), had hardly then advanced +beyond Gottsched’s ideal of a national literature. The Hofburgtheater +of Vienna, the greatest of all the German stages, was +virtually founded in 1776.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>German Classical Literature.</i>—The energy of the <i>Sturm +und Drang</i>, which was essentially iconoclastic in its methods, +soon exhausted itself. For Goethe this phase in his development +came to an end with his departure for Weimar in 1775, while, +after writing <i>Don Carlos</i> (1787), Schiller turned from poetry +to the study of history and philosophy. These subjects occupied +his attention almost exclusively for several years, and not until +the very close of the century did he, under the stimulus of Goethe’s +friendship, return to the drama. The first ten years of Goethe’s +life in Weimar were comparatively unproductive; he had left +the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> behind him; its developments, for which +he himself had been primarily responsible, were distasteful to +him; and he had not yet formed a new creed. Under the +influence of the Weimar court, where classic or even pseudo-classic +tastes prevailed, he was gradually finding his way to a +form of literary art which should reconcile the humanistic ideals +of the 18th century with the poetic models of ancient Greece. +But he did not arrive at clearness in his ideas until after his +sojourn in Italy (1786-1788), an episode of the first importance +for his mental development. Italy was, in the first instance, a +revelation to Goethe of the antique; he had gone to Italy to +find realized what Winckelmann had taught, and here he conceived +that ideal of a classic literature, which for the next twenty +years dominated German literature and made Weimar its +metropolis. In Italy he gave <i>Iphigenie auf Tauris</i> (1787) its +final form, he completed <i>Egmont</i> (1788)—like the exactly contemporary +<i>Don Carlos</i> of Schiller, a kind of bridge from <i>Sturm +und Drang</i> to classicism—and all but finished <i>Torquato Tasso</i> +(1790). <i>Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre</i> (1795-1796) bears testimony +to the clear and decisive views which he had acquired on all +questions of art and of the practical conduct of life.</p> + +<p>Long before <i>Wilhelm Meister</i> appeared, however, German +thought and literature had arrived at that stability and self-confidence +which are the most essential elements in a great +literary period. In the year of Lessing’s death, 1781, Immanuel +Kant (1724-1804), the great philosopher, had published his +<i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>, and this, together with the two later +treatises, <i>Kritik der praktischen Vernunft</i> (1788) and <i>Kritik der +Urteilskraft</i> (1790), placed the Germans in the front rank of +thinking nations. Under the influence of Kant, Schiller turned +from the study of history to that of philosophy and more especially +aesthetics. His philosophic lyrics, his treatises on <i>Anmut +und Würde</i>, on the <i>Ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen</i> (1795), +and <i>Über naive und sentimentalische Dichtung</i> (1795) show, on +the philosophic and the critical side, the movement of the century +from the irresponsible subjectivity of <i>Sturm und Drang</i> to the +calm idealism of classic attainment. In the same way, German +historical writing had in these years, under the leadership of +men like Justus Möser, Thomas Abbt, I. Iselin, F.C. Schlosser, +Schiller himself and, greatest of all, Johannes von Müller (1752-1809), +advanced from disconnected, unsystematic chronicling +to a clearly thought-out philosophic and scientific method. J.G.A. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +Forster (1754-1794), who had accompanied Cook round the +world, and Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), gave Germany +models of clear and lucid descriptive writing. In practical +politics and economics, when once the unbalanced vagaries of +undiluted Rousseauism had fallen into discredit, Germany produced +much wise and temperate thinking which prevented the +spread of the French Revolution to Germany, and provided +a practical basis on which the social and political fabric could +be built up anew, after the Revolution had made the old régime +impossible in Europe. Men like Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) +and the philosopher J.G. Fichte (1762-1814) were, in +two widely different spheres, representative of this type of +intellectual eminence.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1794, that friendship between Goethe and +Schiller had begun, which lasted, unbroken, until the younger +poet’s death in 1805. These years mark the summit of Goethe +and Schiller’s classicism, and the great epoch of Weimar’s history +as a literary focus. Schiller’s treatises had provided a theoretical +basis; his new journal, <i>Die Horen</i>, might be called the literary +organ of the movement—although in this respect the subsequent +<i>Musenalmanach</i>, in which the two poets published their magnificent +ballad poetry, had more value. Goethe, as director of the +ducal theatre, could to a great extent control dramatic production +in Germany. Under his encouragement, Schiller turned from +philosophy to poetry and wrote the splendid series of classic +dramas beginning with the trilogy of <i>Wallenstein</i> and closing +with <i>Wilhelm Tell</i> and the fragment of <i>Demetrius</i>; while to +Goethe we owe, above all, the epic of <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>. +Less important were the latter’s severely classical plays <i>Die +natürliche Tochter</i> and <i>Pandora</i>; but it must not be forgotten +that it was chiefly owing to Schiller’s stimulus that in those +years Goethe brought the first part of <i>Faust</i> (1808) to a conclusion.</p> + +<p>Although acknowledged leaders of German letters, Goethe +and Schiller had considerable opposition to contend with. The +<i>Sturm und Drang</i> had by no means exhausted itself, and the +representatives of the once dominant rationalistic movement +were particularly arrogant and overbearing. The literature +associated with both <i>Sturm und Drang</i> and rationalism was at +this period palpably decadent; no comparison could be made +between the magnificent achievements of Goethe and Schiller, +or even of Herder and Wieland with the “family” dramas of +Iffland, still less with the extraordinarily popular plays of A. von +Kotzebue (1761-1819), or with those bustling medieval <i>Ritterdramen</i>, +which were especially cultivated in south Germany. +There is a wide gap between Moritz’s <i>Anton Reiser</i> or the philosophic +novels which Klinger wrote in his later years, and Goethe’s +<i>Meister</i>; nor can the once so fervently admired novels of Jean +Paul Richter (1763-1825) take a very high place. Neither the +fantastic humour nor the penetrating thoughts with which +Richter’s books are strewn make up for their lack of artistic form +and interest; they are essentially products of <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. +Lastly, in the province of lyric and epic poetry, it is impossible +to regard poets like the gentle F. von Matthisson (1761-1831), +or the less inspired G.L. Kosegarten (1758-1818) and C.A. +Tiedge (1752-1841), as worthily seconding the masterpieces +of Goethe and Schiller. Thus when we speak of the greatness +of Germany’s classical period, we think mainly of the work of +her two chief poets; the distance that separated them from +their immediate contemporaries was enormous. Moreover, at +the very close of the 18th century a new literary movement +arose in admitted opposition to the classicism of Weimar, and +to this movement, which first took definite form in the Romantic +school, the sympathies of the younger generation turned. Just +as in the previous generation the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> had been +obliged to make way for a return to classic and impersonal +principles of literary composition, so now the classicism of Goethe +and Schiller, which had produced masterpieces like <i>Wallenstein</i> +and <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>, had to yield to a revival of individualism +and subjectivity, which, in the form of Romanticism, profoundly +influenced the literature of the whole 19th century.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>The Romantic Movement.</i>—The first Romantic school, +however, was founded, not as a protest against the classicism of +Weimar, with which its leaders were in essential sympathy, +but against the shallow, utilitarian rationalism of Berlin. +Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853), a leading member of the school, +was in reality a belated <i>Stürmer und Dränger</i>, who in his early +years had chafed under the unimaginative tastes of the Prussian +capital, and sought for a positive faith to put in their place. +Friedrich Hölderlin (1770-1843), one of the most gifted poets of +this age, demonstrates no less clearly than Tieck the essential +affinity between <i>Sturm und Drang</i> and Romanticism; he, too, +forms a bridge from the one individualistic movement to the +other. The theoretic basis of Romanticism was, however, +established by the two brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich +Schlegel (1767-1845 and 1772-1829), who, accepting, in great +measure, Schiller’s aesthetic conclusions, adapted them to the +needs of their own more subjective attitude towards literature. +While Schiller, like Lessing before him, insisted on the critic’s +right to sit in judgment according to a definite code of principles, +these Romantic critics maintained that the first duty of criticism +was to understand and appreciate; the right of genius to follow +its natural bent was sacred. The <i>Herzensergiessungen eines +kunstliebenden Klosterbruders</i> by Tieck’s school-friend W.H. +Wackenroder (1773-1798) contained the Romantic art-theory, +while the hymns and fragmentary novels of Friedrich von +Hardenberg (known as Novalis, 1772-1801), and the dramas +and fairy tales of Tieck, were the characteristic products of +Romantic literature. The universal sympathies of the movement +were exemplified by the many admirable translations—greatest +of all, Schlegel’s <i>Shakespeare</i> (1797-1810)—which were produced +under its auspices. Romanticism was essentially conciliatory in +its tendencies, that is to say, it aimed at a reconciliation of poetry +with other provinces of social and intellectual life; the hard and +fast boundaries which the older critics had set up as to what +poetry might and might not do, were put aside, and the domain +of literature was regarded as co-extensive with life itself; painting +and music, philosophy and ethics, were all accepted as constituent +elements of or aids to Romantic poetry. Fichte, and to +a much greater extent, F.W.J. von Schelling (1775-1854) +were the exponents of the Romantic doctrine in philosophy, +while the theologian F.E.D. Schleiermacher (1768-1834) +demonstrated how vital the revival of individualism was for +religious thought.</p> + +<p>The Romantic school, whose chief members were the brothers +Schlegel, Tieck, Wackenroder and Novalis, was virtually founded +in 1798, when the Schlegels began to publish their journal the +<i>Athenaeum</i>; but the actual existence of the school was of very +short duration. Wackenroder and Novalis died young, and by +the year 1804 the other members were widely separated. Two +years later, however, another phase of Romanticism became +associated with the town of Heidelberg. The leaders of this +second or younger Romantic school were K. Brentano (1778-1842), +L.A. von Arnim (1781-1831) and J.J. von Görres (1776-1848), +their organ, corresponding to the <i>Athenaeum</i>, was the +<i>Zeitung für Einsiedler</i>, or <i>Tröst-Einsamkeit</i>, and their most +characteristic production the collection of <i>Volkslieder</i>, published +under the title <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i> (1805-1808). Compared +with the earlier school the Heidelberg writers were more practical +and realistic, more faithful to nature and the commonplace life +of everyday. They, too, were interested in the German past +and in the middle ages, but they put aside the idealizing glasses +of their predecessors and kept to historic truth; they wrote +historical novels, not stories of an imaginary medieval world +as Novalis had done, and when they collected <i>Volkslieder</i> and +<i>Volksbücher</i>, they refrained from decking out the simple tradition +with musical effects, or from heightening the poetic situation +by “Romantic irony.” Their immediate influence on German +intellectual life was consequently greater; they stimulated +and deepened the interest of the German people in their own +past; and we owe to them the foundations of the study of +German philology and medieval literature, both the brothers +Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm (1785-1863 and 1786-1859) having +been in touch with this circle in their early days. Again, the +Heidelberg poets strengthened the national and patriotic spirit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +of their people; they prepared the way for the rising against +Napoleon, which culminated in the year 1813, and produced +that outburst of patriotic song, associated with E.M. Arndt +(1769-1860), K. Th. Körner (1791-1813) and M. von Schenkendorf +(1783-1817).</p> + +<p>The subsequent history of Romanticism stands in close +relation to the Heidelberg school, and when, about 1809, the +latter broke up, and Arnim and Brentano settled in Berlin, +the Romantic movement followed two clearly marked lines of +development, one north German, the other associated with +Württemberg. The Prussian capital, hotbed of rationalism +as it was, had, from the first, been intimately associated with +Romanticism; the first school had virtually been founded +there, and north Germans, like Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811) +and Zacharias Werner (1768-1823)had done more for the development +of the Romantic drama than had the members of either +Romantic school. These men, and more especially Kleist, +Prussia’s greatest dramatic poet, showed how the capricious +Romantic ideas could be brought into harmony with the classic +tradition established by Schiller, how they could be rendered +serviceable to the national theatre. At the same time, Berlin +was not a favourable soil for the development of Romantic +ideas, and the circle of poets which gathered round Arnim and +Brentano there, either themselves demonstrated the decadence +of these ideas, or their work contained elements which in subsequent +years hastened the downfall of the movement. Friedrich +de la Motte Fouqué (1777-1843), for instance, shows how easy +it was for the medieval tastes of the Romanticists to degenerate +into mediocre novels and plays, hardly richer in genuine poetry +than were the productions of the later <i>Sturm und Drang</i>; and +E.T.A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), powerful genius though he +was, cultivated with preference in his stories, a morbid super-naturalism, +which was only a decadent form of the early Romantic +delight in the world of fairies and spirits. The lyric was less +sensitive to baleful influences, but even here the north German +Romantic circle could only point to one lyric poet of the first +rank, J. von Eichendorff (1788-1857); while in the poetry of +A. von Chamisso (1781-1838) the volatile Romantic spirituality +is too often wanting. Others again, like Friedrich Rückert +(1788-1866), sought the inspiration which Romanticism was no +longer able to give, in the East; still another group, of which +Wilhelm Müller (1794-1827) is the chief representative, followed +Byron’s example and awakened German sympathy for the +oppressed Greeks and Poles.</p> + +<p>Apart from Eichendorff, the vital lyric poetry of the third +and last phase of Romanticism must be looked for in the Swabian +school, which gathered round Uhland. Ludwig Uhland (1787-1862) +was himself a disciple of the Heidelberg poets, and, in his +lyrics and especially in his ballads, he succeeded in grafting the +lyricism of the Romantic school on to the traditions of German +ballad poetry which had been handed down from Bürger, Schiller +and Goethe. But, as was the case with so many other disciples +of the Heidelberg Romanticists, Uhland’s interest in the German +past was the serious interest of the scholar rather than the purely +poetic interest of the earlier Romantic poets. The merit of the +Swabian circle, the chief members of which were J. Kerner +(1786-1862), G. Schwab (1792-1850), W. Waiblinger (1804-1830), +W. Hauff (1802-1827) and, most gifted of all, E. Mörike (1804-1875) +was that these writers preserved the Romantic traditions +from the disintegrating influences to which their north German +contemporaries were exposed. They introduced few new notes +into lyric poetry, but they maintained the best traditions intact, +and when, a generation later, the anti-Romantic movement +of “Young Germany” had run its course, it was to Württemberg +Germany looked for a revival of the old Romantic ideas.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in the background of all these phases of Romantic +evolution, through which Germany passed between 1798 and +1832, stands the majestic and imposing figure of Goethe. +Personally he had in the early stages of the movement been +opposed to that reversion to subjectivity and lawlessness which +the first Romantic school seemed to him to represent; to the end +of his life he regarded himself as a “classic,” not a “romantic” +poet. But, on the other hand, he was too liberal-minded a +thinker and critic to be oblivious to the fruitful influence of the +new movement. Almost without exception he judged the young +poets of the new century fairly, and treated them sympathetically +and kindly; he was keenly alive to the new—and for the most +part “unclassical”—development of literature in England, +France and Italy; and his own published work, above all, the +first part of <i>Faust</i> (1808), <i>Die Wahlverwandtschaften</i> (1809), +<i>Dichtung und Wahrheit</i> (1811-1814, a final volume in 1833), +<i>Westöstlicher Divan</i> (1819), <i>Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre</i> +(1821-1829) and the second part of <i>Faust</i> (published in 1832 +after the poet’s death), stood in no antagonism to the Romantic +ideas of their time. One might rather say that Goethe was the +bond between the two fundamental literary movements of the +German classical age; that his work achieved that reconciliation +of “classic” and “romantic” which, rightly regarded, was the +supreme aim of the Romantic school itself.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">VI. German Literature since Goethe (1832-1906)</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Young Germany</i>.—With Goethe’s death a great age in +German poetry came to a close. Long before 1832 Romanticism +had, as we have seen, begun to lose ground, and the July revolution +of 1830, the effects of which were almost as keenly felt in +Germany as in France, gave the movement its death-blow. +Meanwhile the march of ideas in Germany itself had not been +favourable to Romanticism. Schelling had given place to G. +W.F. Hegel (1770-1831), now the dominant force in German +philosophy, and the Hegelian metaphysics proved as unfruitful +an influence on literature as that of Fichte and Schelling had been +fruitful. The transference of Romantic ideas to the domain +of practical religion and politics had proved reactionary in its +effects; Romanticism became the cloak for a kind of Neo-catholicism, +and Romantic politics, as enunciated by men like +F. von Gentz (1764-1832) and Adam Müller (1779-1829), served +as an apology for the Metternich régime in Austria. Only at +the universities—in Göttingen, Heidelberg and Berlin—did +the movement continue, in the best sense, to be productive; +German philology, German historical science and German +jurisprudence benefited by Romantic ideas, long after Romantic +poetry had fallen into decay. The day of Romanticism was +clearly over; but a return to the classic and humanitarian spirit +of the 18th century was impossible. The social condition of +Europe had been profoundly altered by the French Revolution; +the rise of industrialism had created new economic problems, +the march of science had overturned old prejudices. And in a +still higher degree were the ideas which lay behind the social +upheaval of the July revolution incompatible with a reversion +in Germany to the conditions of Weimar classicism. There was, +moreover, no disguising the fact that Goethe himself did not +stand high with the younger generation of German writers +who came into power after his death.</p> + +<p>“Young Germany” did not form a school in the sense in which +the word was used by the early Romanticists; the bond of union +was rather the consequence of political persecution. In December +1835 the German “Bund” issued a decree suppressing the writings +of the “literary school” known as “Young Germany,” and +mentioned by name Heinrich Heine, Karl Gutzkow, Ludolf +Wienbarg, Theodor Mundt and Heinrich Laube. Of these men, +Heine (1797-1856) was by far the most famous. He had made +his reputation in 1826 and 1827 with <i>Die Harzreise</i> and <i>Das +Buch der Lieder</i>, both of which books show how deeply he was +immersed in the Romantic traditions. But Heine felt perhaps +more acutely than any other man of his time how the ground +was slipping away from beneath his feet; he repudiated the +Romantic movement and hailed the July revolution as the first +stage in the “liberation of humanity”; while ultimately he +sought in France the freedom and intellectual stimulus which +Germany withheld from him. Heine suffered from having been +born in an age of transition; he was unable to realize in a wholehearted +way all that was good in the new movement, which he +had embraced so warmly; his optimism was counteracted by +doubts as to whether, after all, life had not been better in that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +old Romantic Germany of his childhood for which, to the last, +he retained so warm an affection. Personal disappointments +and unhappiness added to the bitterness of Heine’s nature, +and the supremely gifted lyric poet and the hardly less gifted +satirist were overshadowed by the cynic from whose biting wit +nothing was safe.</p> + +<p>Heine’s contemporary and—although he was not mentioned +in the decree against the school—fellow-fighter, Ludwig Börne +(1786-1837), was a more characteristic representative of the +“Young German” point of view; for he was free from Romantic +prejudices. Börne gave vent to his enthusiasm for France in +eloquent <i>Briefe aus Paris</i> (1830-1833), which form a landmark +of importance in the development of German prose style. With +Karl Gutzkow (1811-1878), who was considerably younger +than either Heine or Börne, the more positive aspects of the +“Young German” movement begin to be apparent. He, too, +had become a man of letters under the influence of the July +revolution, and with an early novel, <i>Wally, die Zweiflerin</i> (1835), +which was then regarded as atheistic and immoral, he fought in +the battle for the new ideas. His best literary work, however, +was the comedies with which he enriched the German stage of +the ’forties, and novels like <i>Die Ritter vom Geiste</i> (1850-1851), +and <i>Der Zauberer von Rom</i> (1858-1861), which have to be considered +in connexion with the later development of German +fiction. Heinrich Laube (1806-1884), who, as the author of +lengthy social novels, and <i>Reisenovellen</i> in the style of Heine’s +<i>Reisebilder</i>, was one of the leaders of the new movement, is +now only remembered as Germany’s greatest theatre-director. +Laube’s connexion (1850-1867) with the Burgtheater of Vienna +forms one of the most brilliant periods in the history of the +modern stage. Heine and Börne, Gutzkow and Laube—these +were the leading spirits of “Young Germany”; in their train +followed a host of lesser men, who to the present generation are +hardly even names. In the domain of scholarship and learning +the “Young German” movement was associated with the +supremacy of Hegelianism, the leading spirits being D.F. Strauss +(1808-1874), author of the <i>Leben Jesu</i> (1835), the historians +G.G. Gervinus (1805-1871) and W. Menzel (1798-1873), and the +philosopher L.A. Feuerbach (1804-1872), who, although a +disciple of Hegel, ultimately helped to destroy the latter’s +influence.</p> + +<p>Outside the immediate circle of “Young Germany,” other +tentative efforts were made to provide a substitute for the +discredited literature of Romanticism. The historical novel, for +instance, which Romanticists like Arnim had cultivated, fell at +an early date under the influence of Sir Walter Scott; Wilhelm +Hauff, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848) and K. Spindler (1796-1855) +were the most prominent amidst the many imitators of +the Scottish novelist. The drama, again, which since Kleist +and Werner had been without definite principles, was, partly +under Austrian influence, finding its way back to a condition of +stability. In Germany proper, the men into whose hands it +fell were, on the one hand, undisciplined geniuses such as C.D. +Grabbe (1801-1836), or, on the other, poets with too little +theatrical blood in their veins like K.L. Immermann (1796-1840), +or with too much, like E. von Raupach (1784-1852), K. von +Holtei (1798-1880) and Adolf Müllner (1774-1829)—the last +named being the chief representative of the so-called <i>Schicksalstragödie</i>. +In those years the Germans were more seriously +interested in their opera, which, under C.M. Weber, H.A. +Marschner, A. Lortzing and O. Nicolai, remained faithful to the +Romantic spirit. In Austria, however, the drama followed +lines of its own; here, at the very beginning of the century, +H.J. von Collin (1771-1811) attempted in <i>Regulus</i> and other +works to substitute for the lifeless pseudo-classic tragedy of +Ayrenhoff the classic style of Schiller. His attempt is the more +interesting, as the long development that had taken place in +Germany between Gottsched and Schiller was virtually unrepresented +in Austrian literature. M. von Collin (1779-1824), +a younger brother of H.J. von Collin, did a similar service for +the Romantic drama. Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872), Austria’s +greatest poet, began in the school of Müllner with a “fate +drama,” but soon won an independent place for himself; more +successfully than any other dramatist of the century, he carried +out that task which Kleist had first seriously faced, the reconciliation +of the classicism of Goethe and Schiller with the Romantic +and modern spirit of the 19th century. It is from this point of +view that works like <i>Das goldene Vliess</i> (1820), <i>König Ottokars +Glück und Ende</i> (1825), <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i> (1834) and <i>Des +Meeres und der Liebe Wellen</i> (1831) must be regarded. As far +as the poetic drama was concerned, Grillparzer stood alone, +for E.F.J. von Münch-Bellinghausen (1806-1871), his most +promising contemporary, once so popular under the pseudonym +of Friedrich Halm, soon fell back into the trivial sentimentality +of the later Romanticists. In other forms of dramatic literature +Austria could point to many distinguished writers, notably the +comedy-writer, E. von Bauernfeld (1802-1890), while a host +of playwrights, chief of whom were F. Raimund (1790-1836) +and J. Nestroy (1801-1862), cultivated the popular Viennese +farce and fairy-play. Thus, in spite of Metternich’s censorship +of the drama, the Viennese theatre was, in the first half of the +19th century, in closer touch with literature than that of any +other German centre.</p> + +<p>The transitional character of the age is best illustrated by two +eminent writers whom outward circumstances rather than any +similarity of character and aim have classed together. These +were K.L. Immermann, who has been already mentioned, and +A. von Platen-Hallermund (1796-1835). Immermann’s dramas +were of little practical value to the theatre, but one at least, +<i>Merlin</i> (1832), is a dramatic poem of great beauty. In his novels, +however, <i>Die Epigonen</i> (1836) and <i>Münchhausen</i> (1838-1839), +Immermann was the spokesman of his time. He looked backwards +rather than forwards; he saw himself as the belated +follower of a great literary age rather than as the pioneer of a +new one. The bankruptcy of Romanticism and the poetically +arid era of “Young Germany” left him little confidence in the +future. Platen, on the other hand, went his own way; he, too, +was the antagonist both of Romanticism and “Young Germany,” +and with Immermann himself he came into sharp conflict. +But in his poetry he showed himself indifferent to the strife of +contending literary schools. He began as an imitator of the +German oriental poets—the only Romanticists with whom he +had any personal sympathy—and with his matchless <i>Sonette +aus Venedig</i> (1825) he stands out as a master in the art of verse-writing +and as the least subjective of all German lyric poets. +In the imitation of Romance metres he sought a refuge from the +extravagances and excesses of the Romantic decadence.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the political side of the “Young German” movement, +which the German Bund aimed at stamping out, gained +rapidly in importance under the influence of the unsettled +political conditions between the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. +The early ’forties were in German literature marked by an +extraordinary outburst of political poetry, which may be aptly +compared with the national and patriotic lyric evoked by the +year 1813. The principles which triumphed in France at the +revolution of 1848 were, to a great extent, fought out by the +German singers of 1841 and 1842. Begun by mediocre talents +like N. Becker (1809-1845) and R.E. Prutz (1816-1872), the +movement found a vigorous champion in Georg Herwegh (1817-1875), +who in his turn succeeded in winning Ferdinand Freiligrath +(1810-1876) for the revolutionary cause. Others joined in the +cry for freedom—F. Dingelstedt (1814-1881), A.H. Hoffmann +von Fallersleben (1798-1874), and a number of Austrians, who +had even more reason for rebellion and discontent than the +north Germans. But the best Austrian political poetry, the +<i>Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten</i>, 1831, by “Anastasius Grün” +(Graf A.A. von Auersperg, 1806-1876), belonged to a decade +earlier. The political lyric culminated in and ended with the +year 1848; the revolutionists of the ’forties were, if not appeased, +at least silenced by the revolution which in their eyes had +effected so little. If Freiligrath be excepted, the chief lyric +poets of this epoch stood aside from the revolutionary movement; +even E. Geibel (1815-1884), the representative poet of the +succeeding age, was only temporarily interested in the political +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +movement, and his best work is of a purely lyric character. +M. von Strachwitz’s (1822-1847) promising talent did not flourish +in the political atmosphere; Annette von Droste-Hülshoff +(1797-1848), and the Austrian, Nikolaus Lenau (1802-1850), +both stand far removed from the world of politics; they are +imbued with that pessimistic resignation which is, more or +less, characteristic of all German literature between 1850 and +1870.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Mid-Century Literature</i>.—When once the revolution of +1848 was over, a spirit of tranquillity came over German letters; +but it was due rather to the absence of confidence in the future +than to any hopefulness or real content. The literature of the +middle of the century was not wanting in achievement, but +there was nothing buoyant or youthful about it; most significant +of all, the generation between 1848 and 1880 was either oblivious +or indifferent to the good work and to the new and germinating +ideas which it produced. Hegel, who held the earlier half of the +19th century in his ban, was still all-powerful in the universities, +but his power was on the wane in literature and public life. +The so-called “Hegelian Left” had advanced so far as to have +become incompatible with the original Hegelianism; the new +social and economic theories did not fit into the scheme of +Hegelian collectivism; the interest in natural science—fostered +by the popular books of J. Moleschott (1822-1893), Karl Vogt +(1817-1895) and Ludwig Büchner (1824-1899)—created a +healthy antidote to the Hegelian metaphysics. In literature and +art, on which Hegel, as we have seen, had exerted so blighting +an influence, his place was taken by the chief exponent +of philosophic pessimism, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). +Schopenhauer’s antagonism to Hegelianism was of old standing, +for his chief work, <i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung</i>, had +appeared as far back as 1819; but the century was more than +half over before the movement of ideas had, as it were, caught +up with him, before pessimism became a dominant force in +intellectual life.</p> + +<p>The literature produced between 1850 and 1870 was preeminently +one of prose fiction. The beginnings which the +“Young German” school had made to a type of novel dealing +with social problems—the best example is Gutzkow’s <i>Ritter +vom Geiste</i>—developed rapidly in this succeeding epoch. +Friedrich Spielhagen (born 1829) followed immediately in +Gutzkow’s footsteps, and in a series of romances from <i>Problematische +Naturen</i> (1860) to <i>Sturmflut</i> (1876), discussed in a militant +spirit that recalls Laube and Gutzkow the social problems +which agitated German life in these decades. Gustav Freytag +(1816-1895), although an older man, freed himself more successfully +from the “Young German” tradition; his romance of +German commercialism, <i>Soll und Haben</i> (1855), is the masterpiece +of mid-century fiction of this class. Less successful was +Freytag’s subsequent attempt to transfer his method to the +<i>milieu</i> of German academic life in <i>Die verlorene Handschrift</i> +(1864). As was perhaps only natural in an age of social and +political interests, the historical novel occupies a subordinate +place. The influence of Scott, which in the earlier period had +been strong, produced only one writer, Wilhelm Häring (“Willibald +Alexis,” 1798-1871), who was more than a mere imitator +of the Scottish master. In the series of six novels, from <i>Der +Roland von Berlin</i> to <i>Dorothe</i>, which Alexis published between +1840 and 1856, he gave Germany, and more particularly Prussia, +a historical fiction which might not unworthily be compared +with the <i>Waverley Novels</i>. But Alexis had no successor, and the +historical novel soon made way for a type of fiction in which +the accurate reproduction of remote conditions was held of +more account than poetic inspiration or artistic power. Such +are the “antiquarian” novels of ancient Egyptian life by +Georg Ebers (1837-1898), and those from primitive German +history by Felix Dahn (born 1834). The vogue of historical +fiction was also transferred to some extent, as in English literature, +to novels of American life and adventure, of which the chief +German cultivators were K.A. Postl, who wrote under the +pseudonym of Charles Sealsfield (1793-1864) and Friedrich +Gerstäcker (1816-1872).</p> + +<p>Of greater importance was the fiction which owed its inspiration +to the Romantic traditions that survived the “Young +German” age. To this group belongs the novel of peasant and +provincial life, of which Immermann had given an excellent +example in <i>Der Oberhof</i>, a story included in the arabesque of +<i>Münchhausen</i>. A Swiss pastor, Albrecht Bitzius, better known +by his pseudonym “Jeremias Gotthelf” (1797-1854), was, +however, the real founder of this class of romance; and his +simple, unvarnished and naïvely didactic stories of the Swiss +peasant were followed not long afterwards by the more famous +<i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i> (1843-1854) of Berthold Auerbach +(1812-1882). Auerbach is not by any means so naïve +and realistic as Gotthelf, nor is his work free from tendencies +and ideas which recall “Young German” rationalism rather +than the unsophisticated life of the Black Forest; but the +<i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i> exerted a decisive influence; +they were the forerunners of a large body of peasant literature +which described with affectionate sympathy and with a liberal +admixture of dialect, south German village life. With this +group of writers may also be associated the German Bohemian, +A. Stifter (1805-1868), who has called up unforgettable pictures +and impressions of the life and scenery of his home.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the +revival of an interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the +credit of Fritz Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour +to the Plattdeutsch of the north, the dialects of which had +played a fitful, but by no means negligible rôle in the earlier +history of German letters. His Mecklenburg novels, especially +<i>Ut de Franzosentid</i> (1860), <i>Ut mine Festungstid</i> (1863) and <i>Ut +mine Stromtid</i> (1862-1864), are a faithful reflection of Mecklenburg +life and temperament, and hold their place beside the best +German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for Plattdeutsch +prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1819-1899), the author +of <i>Quickborn</i> (1852), did for its verse. We owe, however, the best +German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity +with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German, +Theodor Storm (1817-1888) is the author of a series of short +stories of delicate, lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac +Romanticism which harmonized so well with mid-century +pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller (1819-1890), on the +other hand, a native of Zürich, was a modern Romanticist of +a robuster type; his magnificent autobiographical novel, <i>Der +grüne Heinrich</i> (1854-1855), might be described as the last in +the great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with <i>Wilhelm +Meister</i>, and the short stories, <i>Die Leute von Seldwyla</i> (1856-1874) +and <i>Züricher Novellen</i> (1878) are masterpieces of the +first rank.</p> + +<p>In the dramatic literature of these decades, at least as it was +reflected in the repertories of the German theatres, there was +little promise. French influence was, in general, predominant; +French translations formed the mainstay of the theatre-directors, +while successful German playwrights, such as R. Benedix (1811-1873) +and Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-1868), have little claim +to consideration in a literary survey. Gustav Freytag’s +admirable comedy, <i>Die Journalisten</i> (1852), was one of the +rare exceptions. But the German drama of this epoch is not +to be judged solely by the theatres. At the middle of the century +Germany could point to two writers who, each in his way, contributed +very materially to the development of the modern +drama. These were Friedrich Hebbel (1813-1863) and Otto +Ludwig (1813-1865). Both of these men, as a later generation +discovered, were the pioneers of that dramatic literature which +at the close of the century accepted the canons of realism and +aimed at superseding outward effects by psychological conflicts +and problems of social life. Hebbel, especially, must be regarded +as the most original and revolutionary German dramatist of +the 19th century. Unlike his contemporary Grillparzer, whose +aim had been to reconcile the “classic” and the “romantic” +drama with the help of Spanish models, Hebbel laid the foundations +of a psychological and social drama, of which the most +modern interpreter has been Henrik Ibsen. Hebbel’s first +tragedy, <i>Judith</i>, appeared in 1840, his masterpieces, <i>Herodes</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +<i>und Marianne</i>, <i>Agnes Bernauer</i>, <i>Gyges und sein Ring</i>, and the +trilogy of <i>Die Nibelungen</i> between 1850 and 1862.</p> + +<p>In this period of somewhat confused literary striving, there +is, however, one body of writers who might be grouped together +as a school, although the designation must be regarded rather +as an outward accident of union than as implying conformity +of aims. This is the group which Maximilian II. of Bavaria +gathered round him in Munich between 1852 and 1860. A +leading spirit of the group was Emanuel Geibel, who, as we have +seen, set a model to the German lyric in this age; F. von Bodenstedt +(1819-1892), the popular author of <i>Mirza Schaffy</i>; and +J.V. von Scheffel (1826-1886), who, in his verse-romance, <i>Der +Trompeter von Säckingen</i> (1854), broke a lance for a type of +literature which had been cultivated somewhat earlier, but +with no very conspicuous success, by men like O. von Redwitz +(1823-1891) and G. Kinkel (1815-1882). The romance was, +in fact, one of the favourite vehicles of poetic expression of the +Munich school, its most successful exponents being J. Wolff +(b. 1834) and R. Baumbach (1840-1905); while others, +such as H. Lingg (1820-1905) and R. Hamerling (1830-1889) +devoted themselves to the more ambitious epic. The general +tone of the literary movement was pessimistic, the hopelessness +of the spiritual outlook being most deeply engrained in the +verse of H. Lorm (pseudonym for Heinrich Landesmann, 1821-1902) +and H. Leuthold (1827-1879). On the whole, the most +important member of the Munich group is Paul Heyse (b. 1830), +who, as a writer of “Novellen” or short stories, may be classed +with Storm and Keller. An essentially Latin genius, Heyse +excels in stories of Italian life, where his lightness of touch +and sense of form are shown to best advantage; but he has also +written several long novels. Of these, <i>Kinder der Welt</i> (1873) +and, in a lesser degree, <i>Im Paradiese</i> (1875), sum up the spirit +and tendency of their time, just as, in earlier decades, <i>Die Ritter +vom Geiste</i>, <i>Problematische Naturen</i> and <i>Soll und Haben</i> were +characteristic of the periods which produced them.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>German Literature after 1870.</i>—In the years immediately +following the Franco-German War, the prevailing conditions +were unfavourable to literary production in Germany, and the +re-establishment of the empire left comparatively little trace +on the national literature. All minds were for a time engrossed +by the <i>Kulturkampf</i>, by the financial difficulties—the so-called +<i>Gründertum</i>—due to unscrupulous speculation, and, finally, +by the rapid rise of social democracy as a political force. The +intellectual basis of the latter movement was laid by Ferdinand +Lassalle (1825-1864) and Karl Marx (1818-1883), author of +<i>Das Kapital</i> (vol. i, 1867). But even had such disturbing elements +been wanting, the general tone of German intellectual life at +that time was not buoyant enough to inspire a vigorous literary +revival. The influence of Hegel was still strong, and the “historical” +method, as enunciated in <i>Der alte und der neue Glaube</i> +(1872) by the Hegelian D.F. Strauss, was generally accepted +at the German universities. To many the compromise which +H. Lotze (1817-1881) had attempted to establish between +science and metaphysics, came as a relief from the Hegelian +tradition, but in literature and art the dominant force was still, +as before the war, the philosophy of Schopenhauer. In his +<i>Philosophie des Unbewussten</i> (1869), E. von Hartmann (1842-1906) +endeavoured to bring pessimism into harmony with idealism. +In lyric poetry, the dull monotony was broken by the +excitement of the war, and the singers of the revolution of 1848 +were among the first to welcome the triumph and unification +of Germany. At the same time, men of the older generation, +like Herwegh, Freiligrath and Geibel could ill conceal a certain +disappointment with the new régime; the united Germany +of 1871 was not what they had dreamed of in their youth, when +all hopes were set on the Frankfort parliament.</p> + +<p>The novel continued to be what it was before 1870, the most +vigorous form of German literature, but the novelists who were +popular in the early ’seventies were all older men. Laube, +Gutzkow and Auerbach were still writing; Fritz Reuter was +a universal favourite; while among the writers of short stories, +Storm, who, between 1877 and 1888, put the crown to his work +with his <i>Chroniknovellen</i>, and Paul Heyse were the acknowledged +masters. It was not until at least a decade later that the genius +of Gottfried Keller was generally recognized. The historical +novel seemed, in those days, beyond hope of revival. Gustav +Freytag, it is true, had made the attempt in <i>Die Ahnen</i> (1872-1881), +a number of independent historical romances linked +together to form an ambitious prose epic; but there was more of +the spirit of Ebers and Dahn in Freytag’s work than of the +spacious art of Scott, or of Scott’s disciple, Willibald Alexis.</p> + +<p>The drama of the ’seventies was in an even less hopeful condition +than during the preceding period. The classical iambic tragedy +was cultivated by the Munich school, by A. Wilbrandt (b. 1837), +A. Lindner (1831-1888), H. Kruse (1815-1902), by the Austrian +F. Nissel (1831-1893), and A. Fitger (b. 1840); but it was +characteristic of the time that Halm was popular, while Hebbel +and Grillparzer were neglected, it might even be said ignored. +The most gifted German dramatist belonging exclusively to +the decade between 1870 and 1880 was an Austrian, Ludwig +Anzengruber (1839-1889), whose <i>Pfarrer von Kirchfeld</i> (1870) +recalled the controversies of the <i>Kulturkampf</i>. This was Anzengruber’s +first drama, and it was followed by a series of powerful +plays dealing with the life of the Austrian peasant; Anzengruber +was, indeed, one of the ablest exponents of that village +life, which had attracted so many gifted writers since the days +of Gotthelf and Auerbach. But the really popular dramatists +of this epoch were either writers who, like Benedix in the older +generation, cultivated the <i>bourgeoise</i> comedy—A. L’Arronge +(b. 1838), G. von Moser (1825-1903), F. von Schönthan (b. 1849) +and O. Blumenthal (b. 1852)—or playwrights, of whom P. +Lindau (b. 1839) may be regarded as representative, who +imitated French models. The only sign of progress in the +dramatic history of this period was the marked improvement +of the German stage, an improvement due, on the one hand, to +the artistic reforms introduced by the duke of Meiningen in the +Court theatre at Meiningen, and, on the other hand, to the ideals +of a national theatre realized at Bayreuth by Richard Wagner +(1813-1883). The greatest composer of the later 19th century +is also one of Germany’s leading dramatists; and the first +performance of the trilogy <i>Der Ring der Nibelungen</i> at Bayreuth +in the summer of 1876 may be said to have inaugurated the +latest epoch in the history of the German drama.</p> + +<p>The last fifteen or twenty years of the 19th century were +distinguished in Germany by a remarkable literary activity. +Among the younger generation, which was growing up as citizens +of the united German empire, a more hopeful and optimistic +spirit prevailed. The influence of Schopenhauer was on the wane, +and at the universities Hegelianism had lost its former hold. +The sponsor of the new philosophic movement was Kant, the +master of 18th-century “enlightenment,” and under the influence +of the “neo-Kantian” movement, not merely German +school philosophy, but theology also, was imbued with a healthier +spirit. L. von Ranke (1795-1886) was still the dominant force +in German historical science, and between 1881 and 1888 nine +volumes appeared of his last great work, <i>Weltgeschichte</i>. Other +historians of the period were H. von Sybel (1817-1895) and H. +von Treitschke (1834-1896), the latter a vigorous and inspiring +spokesman of the new political conditions; while J. Burckhardt +(1818-1897), author of the masterly <i>Kultur der Renaissance in +Italien</i> (1860) and the friend of Nietzsche, exerted an influence +on German thought which was not confined to academic circles. +Literary criticism perhaps benefited most of all by the dethronement +of Hegel and the more objective attitude towards Schopenhauer; +it seemed as if in this epoch the Germans first formed +definite ideas—and ideas which were acceptable and accepted +outside Germany—as to the rank and merits of their great poets. +A marked change came over the nation’s attitude towards Goethe, +a poet to whom, as we have seen, neither the era of Hegel nor +that of Schopenhauer had been favourable; Schiller was regarded +with less national prejudice, and—most important of all—amends +were made by the new generation for the earlier neglect of +Kleist, Grillparzer, Hebbel and Keller.</p> + +<p>The thinker and poet who most completely embodies the spirit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +of this period—who dealt the Hegelian metaphysics its death-blow +as far as its wider influence was concerned—was Friedrich +Nietzsche (1844-1900). Nietzsche had begun as a disciple of +Schopenhauer and a friend of Wagner, and he ultimately became +the champion of an individualistic and optimistic philosophy +which formed the sharpest possible contrast to mid-century +pessimism. The individual, not the race, the <i>Herrenmensch</i>, +not the slave, self-assertion, not self-denying renunciation—these +are some of the ideas round which this new optimistic +ethics turns. Nietzsche looked forward to the human race +emerging from an effete culture, burdened and clogged by tradition, +and re-establishing itself on a basis that is in harmony +with man’s primitive instincts. Like Schopenhauer before him, +Nietzsche was a stylist of the first rank, and his literary masterpiece, +<i>Also sprach Zarathustra</i> (1883-1891), is to be regarded as +the most important imaginative work of its epoch.</p> + +<p>Nietzschean individualism was only one of many factors +which contributed to the new literary development. The +realistic movement, as it had manifested itself in France under +Flaubert, the Goncourts, Zola and Maupassant, in Russia under +Dostoievsky and Tolstoi, and in Norway under Ibsen and +Björnson, was, for a time, the dominant force in Germany, and +the younger generation of critics hailed it with undisguised +satisfaction; most characteristic and significant of all, the centre +of this revival was Berlin, which, since it had become the imperial +capital, was rapidly establishing its claim to be also the literary +metropolis. It was the best testimony to the vitality of the +movement that it rarely descended to slavish imitation of the +realistic masterpieces of other literatures; realism in Germany +was, in fact, only an episode of the ’eighties, a stimulating +influence rather than an accepted principle or dogma. And its +suggestive character is to be seen not merely in the writings of +the young <i>Stürmer und Dränger</i> of this time, but also in those +of the older generation who, in temperament, were naturally +more inclined to the ideals of a past age.</p> + +<p>Of the novelists of the latter class, A. Wilbrandt, who has +already been mentioned as a dramatist, has shown, since about +1890, a remarkable power of adapting himself, if not to the style +and artistic methods of the younger school, at least to the +ideas by which it was agitated; F. Spielhagen’s attitude towards +the realistic movement has been invariably sympathetic, while +a still older writer, Theodor Fontane (1819-1898), wrote between +1880 and 1898 a series of works in which the finer elements of +French realism were grafted on the German novel. To the older +school belong Wilhelm Jensen (b. 1837), and that fine humorist, +Wilhelm Raabe (b. 1831), with whom may be associated as other +humorists of this period, H. Seidel (1842-1906) and W. Busch +(1832-1908). Some of the most interesting examples of recent +German fiction come, however, from Austria and Switzerland. +The two most eminent Austrian authors, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach +(b. 1830), and Ferdinand, von Saar (1833-1906), +both excel as writers of Novellen or short stories—the latter +especially being an exponent of that pessimism which is Austria’s +peculiar heritage from the previous generation of her poets. +Austrians too, are Peter Rosegger (b. 1843), who has won +popularity with his novels of peasant life, K.E. Franzos (1848-1904) +and L. von Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895). German prose +fiction is, in Switzerland, represented by two writers of the first +rank: one of these, Gottfried Keller, has already been mentioned; +the other, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1825-1898), turned to +literature or, at least, made his reputation, comparatively late +in life. Although, like Keller, a writer of virile, original verse, +Meyer is best known as a novelist; he, too, was a master of the +short story. His themes are drawn by preference from the epoch +of the Renaissance, and his method is characterized by an +objectivity of standpoint and a purity of style exceptional in +German writers.</p> + +<p>The realistic novels of the period were written by H. Conradi +(1862-1890), Max Kretzer (b. 1854), M.G. Conrad (b. 1846), H. +Heiberg (b. 1840), K. Bleibtreu (b. 1859), K. Alberti (pseudonym +for Konrad Sittenfeld, b. 1862) and Hermann Sudermann +(b. 1857). A want of stability was, however, as has been already +indicated, characteristic of the realistic movement in Germany; +the idealistic trend of the German mind proved itself ill-adapted +to the uncompromising realism of the French school, and the +German realists, whether in fiction or in drama, ultimately +sought to escape from the logical consequences of their theories. +Even Sudermann, whose <i>Frau Sorge</i> (1887), <i>Der Katzensteg</i> +(1889), and the brilliant, if somewhat sensational romance, +<i>Es war</i> (1894), are among the best novels of this period, has +never been a consistent realist. It is consequently not surprising +to find that, before long, German fiction returned to psychological +and emotional problems, to the poetical or symbolical presentation +of life, which was more in harmony with the German temperament +than was the robuster realism of Flaubert or Zola. This +trend is noticeable in the work of Gustav Frenssen (b. 1863), +whose novel <i>Jörn Uhl</i> (1901) was extraordinarily popular; +it is also to be seen in the studies of child life and educational +problems which have proved so attractive to the younger +writers of the present day, such as Hermann Hesse (b. 1877), +Emil Strauss (b. 1866), Rudolf Huch (b. 1862) and Friedrich +Huch (b. 1873). One might say, indeed, that at the beginning +of the 20th century the traditional form of German fiction, the +<i>Bildungsroman</i>, had come into its ancient rights again. Mention +ought also to be made of J.J. David (1859-1907), E. von +Keyserling (b. 1858), W. Hegeler (b. 1870), G. von Ompteda +(b. 1863), J. Wassermann (b. 1873), Heinrich Mann (b. 1871) +and Thomas Mann (b. 1875). <i>Buddenbrooks</i> (1902) by the +last mentioned is one of the outstanding novels of the period. +Some of the best fiction of the most recent period is the work of +women, the most distinguished being Helene Böhlau (b. 1859), +Gabriele Reuter (b. 1859), Clara Viebig (C. Cohn-Viebig, +b. 1860) and Ricarda Huch (b. 1864). Whether the latest +movement in German poetry and fiction, which, under the catchword +<i>Heimatkunst</i>, has favoured the province rather than the +city, the dialect in preference to the language of the educated +classes, will prove a permanent gain, it is still too soon to say, +but the movement is at least a protest against the decadent +tendencies of naturalism.</p> + +<p>At no period of German letters were literature and the theatre +in closer touch than at the end of the 19th and the beginning of +the 20th centuries; more than at any previous time has the +theatre become the arena in which the literary battles of the day +are fought out. The general improvement in the artistic, +technical and economic conditions of the German stage have +already been indicated; but it was not until 1889 that the effects +of these improvements became apparent in dramatic literature. +Before that date, it is true, Ernst von Wildenbruch (1845-1909) +had attempted to revive the historical tragedy, but the purely +literary qualities of his work were handicapped by a too effusive +patriotism and a Schillerian pathos; nor did the talent of +Richard Voss (b. 1851) prove strong enough to effect any lasting +reform. In October 1889, however, Gerhart Hauptmann’s +play, <i>Vor Sonnenaufgang</i>, was produced on the then recently +founded <i>Freie Bühne</i> in Berlin; and a month later, <i>Die Ehre</i> +by Hermann Sudermann met with a more enthusiastic reception +in Berlin than had fallen to the lot of any German play for more +than a generation.</p> + +<p>Hauptmann (b. 1862), the most original of contemporary +German writers, stands, more or less, alone. His early plays, +the most powerful of which is <i>Die Weber</i> (1892), were written +under the influence either of an uncompromising realism, or of +that modified form of realism introduced from Scandinavia; +but in <i>Hanneles Himmelfahrt</i> (1893) he combined realism with +the poetic mysticism of a child’s dream, in <i>Florian Geyer</i> (1895) +he adapted the methods of realism to an historical subject, and +in the year 1896 he, to all appearance, abandoned realism to +write an allegorical dramatic poem, <i>Die versunkene Glocke</i>. +Hauptmann’s subsequent work has oscillated between the +extremes marked out by these works—from the frank naturalism +of <i>Fuhrmann Henschel</i> (1898) and <i>Rose Berndt</i> (1903), to the +fantastic mysticism of <i>Der arme Heinrich</i> (1902) and <i>Und Pippa +tanzt!</i> (1906).</p> + +<p>The dramatic talent of Hermann Sudermann has developed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +on more even lines; the success of <i>Die Ehre</i> was due in the first +instance to the ability which Sudermann had shown in adapting +the ideas of his time and the new methods of dramatic presentation +to the traditional German <i>bürgerliches Drama</i>. This is the +characteristic of the majority of the many plays which followed +of which <i>Heimat</i> (1893), <i>Das Glück im Winkel</i> (1896) and <i>Es lebe +das Leben!</i> (1902) may be mentioned as typical. With less +success Sudermann attempted in <i>Johannes</i> (1898) a tragedy on +lines suggested by Hebbel. A keen observer, a writer of brilliant +and suggestive ideas, Sudermann is, above all, the practical +playwright; but it is unfortunate that the theatrical element +in his work too often overshadows its literary qualities.</p> + +<p>Since 1889, the drama has occupied the foreground of interest +in Germany. The permanent repertory of the German theatre +has not, it is true, been much enriched, but it is at least to the +credit of contemporary German playwrights that they are unwilling +to rest content with their successes and are constantly +experimenting with new forms. Besides Hauptmann and +Sudermann, the most talented dramatists of the day are Max +Halbe (b. 1865), O.E. Hartleben (1864-1905), G. Hirschfeld +(b. 1873), E. Rosmer (pseudonym for Elsa Bernstein, b. 1866), +Ludwig Fulda (b. 1862), Max Dreyer (b. 1862), Otto Ernst +(pseudonym for O.E. Schmidt, b. 1862) and Frank Wedekind +(b. 1864). In Austria, notwithstanding the preponderant influence +of Berlin, the drama has retained its national characteristics, +and writers like Arthur Schnitzler (b. 1862), Hermann +Bahr (b. 1863), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874) and R. +Beer-Hofmann (b. 1866) have introduced symbolistic elements +and peculiarly Austrian problems, which are foreign to the +theatre of north Germany.</p> + +<p>The German lyric of recent years shows a remarkable variety +of new tones and pregnant poetic ideas; it has, as is natural, +been more influenced by the optimism of Nietzsche—himself a +lyric poet of considerable gifts—than has either novel or drama. +Detlev von Liliencron (1844-1909) was one of the first to break +with the traditions of the lyric as handed down from the +Romantic epoch and cultivated with such facility by the Munich +poets. An anthology of specifically modern lyrics, <i>Moderne +Dichtercharaktere</i> (1885) by W. Arent (b. 1864), may be regarded +as the manifesto of the movement in lyric poetry corresponding +to the period of realism in fiction and the drama. Representative +poets of this movement are Richard Dehmel (b. 1863), K. +Henckell (b. 1864), J.H. Mackay (b. 1864 at Greenock), G. +Falke (b. 1853), F. Avenarius (b. 1856), F. Evers (b. 1871), F. +Dörmann (b. 1870) and K. Busse (b. 1872). A later development +of the lyric—a return to mysticism and symbolism—is to be +seen in the poetry of Hofmannsthal, already mentioned as a +dramatist, and especially in Stefan George (b. 1868). Epic +poetry, although little in harmony with the spirit of a realistic +age, has not been altogether neglected. Heinrich Hart (1855-1906), +one of the leading critics of the most advanced school, +is also the author of an ambitious <i>Lied der Menschheit</i> (vols. 1-3, +1888-1896); more conservative, on the other hand, is <i>Robespierre</i> +(1894), an epic in the style of Hamerling by an Austrian, Marie +delle Grazie (b. 1864). Attention may also be drawn to the +popularity which, for a few years, the so-called <i>Überbrettl</i> or +cabaret enjoyed, a popularity which has left its mark on the +latest developments of the lyric. Associated with this movement +are O.J. Bierbaum (1865-1910), whose lyrics, collected in <i>Der +Irrgarten der Liebe</i> (1901), have been extraordinarily popular, +E. von Wolzogen (b. 1855) and the dramatist F. Wedekind, +who has been already mentioned.</p> + +<p>Whether or not the work that has been produced in such +rich measure since the year 1889—or however much of it—is to +be regarded as a permanent addition to the storehouse of German +national literature, there can be no question of the serious +artistic earnestness of the writers; the conditions for the production +of literature in the German empire in the early years of the +20th century were eminently healthy, and herein lies the best +promise for the future.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—(<i>a</i>) <i>General Histories</i>, <i>Anthologies</i>, &c.: A. +Koberstein, <i>Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur</i> +(1827; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 5 vols., 1872-1874; 6th ed., vol. i., +1884); G.G. Gervinus, <i>Geschichte der poetischen Nationalliteratur +der Deutschen</i> (5 vols., 1835-1842; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874); +A.F.C. Vilmar, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur</i> +(1848; 25th ed., 2 vols., 1900, with a continuation by A. Stern); +W. Wackernagel, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur</i> (1851-1855; +2nd ed. by E. Martin, 1879-1894); K. Goedeke, <i>Grundriss zur +Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i> (3 vols., 1857-1881; 2nd ed. by +E. Goetze and others, in 9 vols., 1884 ff.); W. Menzel, <i>Deutsche +Dichtung von der ältesten bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (1858-1859); H. +Kurz, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur mit ausgewählten Stücken</i> +(3 vols., 1857-1859; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1876-1882); O. Roquette, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung</i> (2 vols., 1862; 3rd ed., 1878-1879); +W. Scherer, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur</i> (1883; 10th ed., 1905). +English translation by Mrs F.C. Conybeare (2 vols., 1885; new ed., +1906); Kuno Francke, <i>German Literature as determined by Social +Forces</i> (1896; 6th ed., 1903); F. Vogt and M. Koch, <i>Geschichte der +deutschen Literatur</i> (1897; 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1903); J.G. Robertson, +<i>History of German Literature</i> (1902); A. Bartels, <i>Geschichte der +deutschen Literatur</i> (2 vols., 1901-1902), with the accompanying +bibliographical summary, <i>Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur</i> (1906). There are also histories of the literature of separate +countries and districts, such as J. Bächtold, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur in der Schweiz</i> (1887); R. Krauss, <i>Schwäbische Literaturgeschichte</i> +(2 vols., 1897-1899); J.W. Nagl and J. Zeidler, <i>Deutsch-Österreichische +Literaturgeschichte</i> (2 vols., 1899 ff.). The most +comprehensive collection of German literature in selections is +J. Kürschner, <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i> (222 vols., 1882-1898). +Of general anthologies mention may be made of W. Wackernagel, +<i>Deutsches Lesebuch</i> (4 vols., 1835-1872; new ed., 1882 ff.), and +F. Max Müller, <i>The German Classics from the Fourth to the Nineteenth +Century</i> (1858; ed. by F. Lichtenstein, 2 vols., 1886; new ed., +1906). For illustrations to the history of German literature, see +G. Könnecke, <i>Bilderatlas zur Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur</i> +(1887; 2nd ed., 1895).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Special Periods</i>: i. <i>Old High German and Middle High +German Periods</i>: R. Kögel and W. Bruckner, “Geschichte der +althochdeutschen Literatur,” and F. Vogt, “Geschichte der mittelhochdeutschen +Literatur,” in H. Paul’s <i>Grundriss der germanischen +Philologie</i> (2nd ed., vol. ii. pt. i., 1901); F. Khull, <i>Geschichte der +altdeutschen Dichtung</i> (1886); J. Kelle, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur</i>, i.-ii. (1892-1896); R. Kögel, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1894-1897); W. +Golther, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von den ersten Anfängen +bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters</i> (in Kürschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur, +vol. 163, pt. i., 1892); W. Scherer, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Dichtung im 11. und 12. Jahrhundert</i>, and by the same author, +<i>Geistliche Poeten der deutschen Kaiserzeit</i> (both works in <i>Quellen +und Forschungen</i>, 1874-1875); O. Lyon, <i>Minne- und Meistersang</i> +(1882). There are numerous series of editions of medieval +texts: K. Müllenhoff and W. Scherer, <i>Denkmäler deutscher Poesie +und Prosa aus den 8.-12. Jahrhundert</i> (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1892); +M. Heyne, <i>Bibliothek der ältesten deutschen Literaturdenkmäler</i> +(14 vols., begun 1858); F. Pfeiffer, <i>Deutsche Klassiker des Mittelalters</i> +(12 vols., begun 1865), with the supplementary <i>Deutsche +Dichtungen des Mittelalters</i>, edited by K. Bartsch (7 vols., 1872 ff.); +K. Goedeke, <i>Deutsche Dichtung im Mittelalter</i> (2nd ed., 1871); J. +Zacher, <i>Germanistische Handbibliothek</i> (9 vols., begun 1869); H. Paul, +<i>Altdeutsche Textbibliothek</i> (16 vols., begun 1882); <i>Deutsche Texte des +Mittelalters</i>, ed. by the Berlin Academy (1904 ff.). Convenient +editions of the Minnesang are K. Lachmann and M. Haupt, <i>Des +Minnesangs Frühling</i> (4th ed. by F. Vogt, 1888), and K. Bartsch, +<i>Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrh.</i> (4th ed. by W. Golther, +1903).</p> + +<p>ii. <i>From 1350-1700.</i>—L. Geiger, <i>Renaissance und Humanismus in +Italien und Deutschland</i> (1882; 2nd ed. 1899); K. Borinski, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters</i> +(in Kürschner’s <i>Deutsche Nationalliteratur</i>, vol. 163, ii., 1898); +H. Palm, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 16. +und 17. Jahrhunderts</i> (1877); C.H. Herford, <i>Studies in the +Literary Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century</i> +(1886); C. Lemcke, <i>Von Opitz bis Klopstock</i>, i. (1871; 2nd ed. +1882); M. von Waldberg, <i>Deutsche Renaissance-Lyrik</i> (1888), and +<i>Die galante Lyrik</i> (1885); F. Bobertag, <i>Geschichte des Romans in +Deutschland</i>, i. (to 1700) (1877-1884); K. Borinski, <i>Die Poetik der +Renaissance und die Anfänge der literarischen Kritik in Deutschland</i> +(1886). A vast quantity of the literature of these centuries has +been republished by the Stuttgarter literarischer Verein (founded +in 1839), whose publications now number considerably over two +hundred volumes; further, W. Braune, <i>Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke +des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts</i> (begun 1882); K. Goedeke and +J. Tittmann, <i>Deutsche Dichter des 16. Jahrhunderts</i> (18 vols., +1867 ff.), and <i>Deutsche Dichter des 17. Jahrhunderts</i> (15 vols., +1869 ff.). A valuable anthology is K. Goedeke’s <i>Elf Bücher deutscher +Dichtung von Sebastian Brant bis auf die Gegenwart</i> (2 vols., 1849). +Since 1890 the <i>Jahresberichte für neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte</i> +have provided an exhaustive survey of all publications dealing with +modern German literature. A useful practical bibliography for +English readers, covering this and the succeeding periods, is J.S. +Nollen, <i>A Chronology and Practical Bibliography of Modern German +Literature</i> (1903).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span></p> + +<p>iii. <i>The Eighteenth Century.</i>—J. Schmidt, <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Literatur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit</i> (4 vols., 1862-1867; 2nd +ed. 1886-1890); J. Hillebrand, <i>Die deutsche Nationalliteratur im +18. und 19. Jahrhundert</i> (3 vols., 1845-1846; 3rd ed. 1875); +H. Hettner, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert</i> +(4 vols., 1862-1870; 4th ed. by O. Harnack, 1893-1895); J.W. +Schäfer, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> +(1855-1860; 2nd ed. by F. Muncker, 1881); J.K. Mörikofer, <i>Die +schweizerische Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> (1861); J.W. +Löbell, <i>Entwickelung der deutschen Poesie von Klopstock bis zu +Goethes Tod</i> (3 vols., 1856-1865). There are also innumerable more +special treatises, such as A. Eloesser, <i>Das bürgerliche Drama</i> (1898); +O. Brahm, <i>Das deutsche Ritterdrama des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> (1880), +&c. Of collections of the literature of this and the following century, +reference need only be made to the <i>Bibliothek der deutschen Nationalliteratur +des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts</i>, published by Brockhaus +(44 vols., 1868-1891), and <i>Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und +19. Jahrhunderts</i>, edited first by B. Seuffert (1882-1894), and subsequently +by A. Sauer.</p> + +<p>iv. <i>The Nineteenth Century.</i>—Th. Ziegler, <i>Die geistigen und sozialen +Strömungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (1899; 2nd ed. 1901); +R. von Gottschall, <i>Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> +(1854; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1900-1902); R.M. Meyer, <i>Die +deutsche Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> (1899; 4th ed. 1910); +R.M. Meyer, <i>Grundriss der neueren deutschen Literaturgeschichte</i> +(1902); C. Busse, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im neunzehnten +Jahrhundert</i> (1901); R. Haym, <i>Die romantische Schule</i> (1870; 2nd +ed. 1906); G. Brandes, “Den romantiske Skole i Tyskland” (1873), +and “Det unge Tyskland” (1890), in <i>Hovedströmninger i det 19de +Aarhundredes Litteratur</i>, vols. ii. and vi. (German translations, 1887 +and 1891; several subsequent editions, Danish and German; +English translations, ii. 1903, and vi. 1905); R. Huch, <i>Die Blütezeit +der Romantik (2nd ed. 1901), and Ausbreitung und Verfall der +Romantik</i> (1902); F. Wehl, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (1886); J. +Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (1892); A. Bartels, <i>Die deutsche +Dichtung der Gegenwart</i> (7th ed., 1907); A. von Hanstein, <i>Das +jüngste Deutschland</i> (2nd ed., 1901); J.F. Coar, <i>Studies in German +Literature in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1903); Ch. Petzet, <i>Die Blütezeit +der deutschen politischen Lyrik</i> (1903); H. Mielke, <i>Der deutsche +Roman des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> (4th ed., 1900); S. Friedmann, <i>Das +deutsche Drama des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> (2 vols., 1900-1903); B. +Litzmann, <i>Das deutsche Drama in den literarischen Bewegungen der +Gegenwart</i> (4th ed., 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> The dramatic and +musical entertainment which for many years was known in +London by the title of “German Reed” was a form of theatrical +enterprise deserving of commemoration in connexion with those +who made it successful. Mr <span class="sc">Thomas German Reed</span> (born in +Bristol in 1817, died 1888) married in 1844 Miss <span class="sc">Priscilla +Horton</span> (1818-1895), and in 1855 they started their entertainment +at the “Gallery of Illustration,” in Waterloo Place, London. +From 1860 to 1877 they were assisted by <span class="sc">John Orlando Parry</span> +(1810-1879), an accomplished pianoforte player, mimic, parodist +and humorous singer; and the latter created a new type of +musical and dramatic monologue which became very popular. +His tradition was carried on after 1870 by <span class="sc">Mr Corney Grain</span> +(1844-1895), who, as a clever, refined, and yet highly humorous +society entertainer (originally a barrister), was one of the best-known +figures of his day. After the retirement of the elder +German Reeds, their son, <span class="sc">Alfred German Reed</span> (1846-1895), +himself a capital actor, carried on the business in partnership +with Corney Grain. The “German Reed Entertainment”—which +was always patronized by a large class of people, many of +whom objected on principle to going or taking their children +to a regular theatre or a music-hall—retained its vogue for +forty years at Waterloo Place and at the St George’s Hall, +Regent Street. But the death of Mr Corney Grain almost +simultaneously with Mr Alfred German Reed, in 1895, together +with the changed public attitude towards the regular theatre, +ended its career.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN SILVER<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nickel Silver</span>, an alloy of copper, +nickel and zinc, prepared either by melting the copper and nickel +together in a crucible, and adding piece by piece the previously +heated zinc, or by heating the finely divided metals under a layer +of charcoal. To destroy its crystalline structure and so render +it fit for working, it is heated to dull redness, and then allowed +to cool. German silver is harder than silver; it resembles that +metal in colour, but is of a greyer tinge. Exposed to the air it +tarnishes slightly yellow, and with vinegar affords a crust of +verdigris. At a bright red heat it melts, losing its zinc by oxidation +unless protected from the atmosphere. At a heat above dull +redness it becomes exceedingly brittle. German silver in various +modifications of composition is much used in the arts. Alloys, +of which about 50% is copper and the residue zinc and nickel +in about equal proportions take a fine polish, and are used as +imitation silver for knives and forks. With a somewhat higher +proportion of copper an alloy is formed suitable for rolling and +for wire. In Chinese <i>white silver</i> or <i>packfong</i> (paktong) the +amount of copper is smaller, about 40%, with about 32% of +nickel, 25 of zinc, and 2 or 3 of iron. German silver for casting +contains 2 or 3% of lead, which like iron increases the whiteness +of the alloy. German silver, having a high specific resistance +and a low temperature coefficient, has been used for electrical +resistance coils, and these qualities are possessed in a still greater +degree in <i>manganin</i>, which contains manganese in place of zinc, +its composition being 84% of copper, 12 of manganese and 4 of +nickel. The addition of a trace of tungsten to German silver, +as in <i>platinoid</i>, also largely increases the resistance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> This German possession +is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Angola, S. by the Cape +province, E. by Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, and is the only +German dependency in Africa suited to white colonization. It +has an area of about 322,450 sq. m., and a population of Bantu +Negroes and Hottentots estimated in 1903 at 200,000.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The +European inhabitants, in addition to the military, numbered +7110 in 1907, of whom the majority were German.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Area and Boundaries.</i>—The boundary separating the German +protectorate from the Portuguese possessions of Angola is the lower +Kunene, from its mouth in 17° 18′ S., 11° 40′ E. to the limit of +navigability from the sea, thence in a direct line, corresponding +roughly to the lat. of 17° 20′ S., to the river Okavango, which it +follows eastwards until the stream turns abruptly south (towards +Lake Ngami). From this point a strip of German territory 300 m. +long and about 50 m. broad, projects eastward until it reaches the +Zambezi a little above the Victoria Falls. On the south this narrow +strip of land (known as the Caprivi enclave) is separated from +southern Rhodesia by the Kwando or Chobe river. On the east the +frontier between British and German territory is in its northern half +the 21st degree of E. longitude, in its southern half the 20th degree. +This frontier is drawn through desert country. The southern frontier +is the Orange river from its mouth to the 20° E. The coast-line +between the Kunene and Orange rivers is not wholly German. Just +north of the tropic of Capricorn is the British enclave of Walfish Bay +(<i>q.v.</i>). The northern part of the protectorate is known as Ovampoland, +the central portion as Damara (or Herero) land; the southern +regions as Great Namaqualand. These names are derived from +those of the dominant native races inhabiting the country.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The coast-line is generally low and little +broken by bays or promontories. In its entire length of about +800 m. it has no good natural harbour, and its bays—Angra Pequena, +otherwise Lüderitz Bay, Sierra Bay, Sandwich Harbour—are in +danger of being filled with sand by the strong, cold, northerly coast +current. Swakopmund is an artificial harbour at the mouth of the +river Swakop. The small islands which stud the coast north and +south of Angra Pequena belong to Great Britain. The coast-line +is bordered by a belt of sand-dunes and desert, which, about 35 m. +wide in the south, narrows towards the north. This coast belt is +flanked by a mountain range, which attains its highest elevation in +Mount Omatako (8972 ft.), in about 21° 15′ S., 16° 40′ E. N. E. of +Omatako is the Omboroko range, otherwise known as the Waterberg. +South of Omboroko, occupying the centre of the country, the range +attains its highest average altitude. The following massifs with their +highest points may be distinguished: Gans (7664 ft.), Nu-uibeb +(7480 ft.), Onyati (7201 ft.), Awas (6988 ft.), Komas (5331 ft.) and +Ganab (4002 ft.). In the S.E. are the Karas mountains, which attain +an elevation of 6570 ft. The mountains for the main part form the +escarpment of the great Kalahari plateau, which, gently rising +from the interior towards the west, slopes again towards the south +and north from the point of its highest elevation. The Kalahari +plateau changes the undulating character it has in the west to a +perfect plain in the far east, where the watered and habitable +country merges into the sterile Kalahari desert. In the northern +half of the country the central plateau contains much rich grass-land, +while in the north-eastern region the Omaheke desert has all the +characteristics of the Kalahari.</p> + +<p>There are no rivers of importance wholly within German South-West +Africa. The Kunene (<i>q.v.</i>) has but a small portion of the +southern bank in the colony, and similarly only part of the northern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +bank of the Orange river (<i>q.v.</i>) is in German territory. Several +streams run south into the Orange; of those the chief is the Great +Fish river, which has a course of nearly 500 m. Both the Kunene +and the Orange carry water all the year round, but are not navigable. +Neither is the Great Fish river, which, however, is rarely dry. The +Okavango, which comes from the north and runs towards Ngami +(<i>q.v.</i>), is perennial, but like the Kunene and Orange, belongs only +partly to the hydrographic system of the country. From the inner +slopes of the coast chain many streams go N.E. to join the Okavango. +They cross the Omaheke waste and are usually dry. Ovampoland +has a hydrographic system connected with the Kunene, and, in +seasons of great flood, with that of Ngami. Before the Kunene +breaks through the outer edge of the plateau, it sends divergent +channels south-east to a large marsh or lake called Etosha, which +is cut by 17° E. and 19° S. Of these channels the Kwamatuo or +Okipoko, which is perennial, enters Etosha at its N.W. corner. The +lake when full extends about 80 m. W. to E. and 50 m. N. to S. +From its S.E. corner issues the Omuramba, which divides into two +branches, known respectively as the Omaheke and the Ovampo. +These streams have an easterly direction, their beds, often dry, +joining the Okavango. The other rivers of the protectorate have +as a rule plenty of water in their upper courses in the rainy season, +though some river beds are dry for years together. After a heavy +thunderstorm such a river bed will be suddenly filled with a turbid +current half a mile wide. The water is, however, before long +absorbed by the thirsty land. Only in exceptionally rainy years +do the streams which cross the sand belt carry water to the ocean. +But in the sand which fills the river beds water may be obtained +by digging. Of rivers running direct to the Atlantic the Little Fish +river enters the sea at Angra Pequena and the Kuisip in Walfish Bay. +The Swakop rises in the hills near the Waterberg, and north of it is +the Omaruru, which carries water for the greater part of the year. +Hot springs are numerous, and it is remarkable that those of Windhoek +flow more copiously during the dry than the rainy season. There +are also many cold springs, and wells which contain water all the year.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Gneiss and schist, with intrusive granites and porphyries, +overlain to a great extent by sand and lateritic deposits, occupy the +coast belt, coast mountains and the plateau of Damaraland. In the +Huib and Han-ami plateaus of Great Namaqualand the crystalline +rocks are overlain by sandstones, slates, quartzites and jasper rocks, +and these in turn by dolomites. They are probably equivalent to +the Transvaal and Pretoria series (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>). The +next oldest rocks are of recent geological date. The Kalahari Kalk, +which extends over large areas to the south-east of Ovampoland, +may be of Miocene age, but it has not yielded fossils. Extensive +tracts of alluvium occur in the basin of the Ovampo, while the dunes +and sand-tracts of the Kalahari occupy the eastern regions.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—On the coast the mean temperature is low, and there is +little rainfall. Moisture is supplied by dense fogs, which rise almost +daily. South-west winds prevail. Inland the climate is temperate +rather than tropical, with bracing, clear atmosphere. There are +considerable differences of temperature between day and night, and +two well-marked seasons, one cold and dry from May to September, +the other hot and rainy from October to April. In winter ice +frequently forms during the night on open water on the plateau, +but it never remains all day. The yearly rainfall is about 20 in. +in the Damara Hills; there is more rain in the north than in the +south, and in the east than in the west. In the greater part of the +colony the climate is favourable for European settlement.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The vegetation corresponds exactly with the +climate. In the dry littoral region are plants able to exist with the +minimum of moisture they derive from the daily fog—<i>Amarantaceae</i>, +<i>Sarcocaula</i>, <i>Aloe dichotoma</i>, <i>Aristida subacaulis</i> and the wonderful +<i>Welwitschia</i>. Farther inland are plants which spring up and disappear +with the rain, and others whose roots reach permanent +water. The former are chiefly grasses, the latter exist almost solely +in or near river-beds. Amongst the fine trees often seen here, the +ana tree (<i>Acacia albida</i>) is the most noteworthy, its seeds being +favourite fodder for all domestic animals. <i>Acacia giraffae</i>, <i>Ac. +horrida</i>, <i>Adansonia sterculia</i>, near the Kunene the <i>Hyphaene ventricosa</i>, +deserve special notice. The vegetation in the mountain valleys is +luxuriant, and towards the north is of a tropical character. The +palm zone extends a considerable distance south of the Kunene, +and here vegetation spreads over the sand-dunes of the coast plain, +which are covered with grasses.</p> + +<p>Large game, formerly abundant, especially pachyderms, is scarce. +Of antelopes the following species are plentiful in parts: springbok, +steenbok, kudu, rietbok, pallah; of monkeys, the <i>Cynocephalus +porcarius</i> is frequent. Various kinds of hyenas and jackals with +fine fur (<i>Canis mesomelas</i>), also <i>Felis caracal</i>, abound. The spring-hare +(<i>Pedestea caffer</i>) and rock-rabbit (<i>Hyrax capensis</i>) may often be +observed. Of birds there are 728 species. Crocodiles, turtles and +snakes are numerous.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—Among the natives of German South-West +Africa three classes may be distinguished. In the first class are +the Namaqua (Hottentots) and Bushmen. The Namaqua +probably came from the south, while the Bushmen may be +looked upon as an indigenous race. The Hottentots, the purest +existing types of that race, are divided into numerous tribes, +independent of one another, such as the Witbois, Swartzbois, +Bondelzwarts. The Bushmen are found scattered over the +eastern parts of the country (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hottentots</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bushmen</a></span>). +The second class consists of the mountain Damara (Hau-Khoin), +a race of doubtful affinities, probably of Bantu-Negro origin, +but speaking the Hottentot language. The third class belongs +to the Bantu-Negro stock, and came from the north-east, expelling +and enslaving the mountain Damara, and settling in +various parts of the country under different names. The most +prominent are the Herero, thorough nomads and cattle-breeders; +while the Ovampo (Ovambo or Ambo), in the northern part of +the protectorate, are agriculturists. The Herero (<i>q.v.</i>) are also +known by the Hottentot name Damara, and by this name their +country is generally called. The Bastaards, who live in Namaqualand, +are a small tribe originating from a mingling of Cape Boers +with Hottentots. They are Christians, and able to read and +write. The other natives are spirit-worshippers, save for the +comparatively few converts of the Protestant missions established +in the country. Of white races represented the chief are Germans +and Boers. In the S.E. Boer settlers form the bulk of the white +population. There are also numbers of British colonists in this +region—emigrants from the Cape. The immigration of Germans +is encouraged by subsidies and in other ways.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The chief port is Swakopmund, built on the northern +bank of the Swakop river (the southern bank belonging to the +British territory of Walfish Bay). The harbour is partially protected +by a breakwater. There are also settlements at Lüderitz Bay (white +pop. 1909, over 1000) and at Sandwich Harbour. Swakopmund is +connected by a narrow gauge railway with Windhoek, the administrative +capital of the colony, situated in a hilly district 180 m. +due east of the port, but 237 m. by the railway. Karibib is the only +place of consequence on the line. Otyimbingue is a government +station 70 m. W.N.W. of Windhoek, and Tsumeb a mining centre +240 m. N.N.E. of the same place. Olukonda is a government post +in Ovampoland. In the S.E. corner of the colony, 30 m. N. of the +Orange river, is the town of Warmbad. Keetmanshoop, 100 m. N. +of Warmbad and 180 m. E. of Lüderitz Bay, is the centre of a small +mining industry. Gibeon is a government station and missionary +settlement about midway between Keetmanshoop and Windhoek. +Besides these places there are numbers of small native towns at +which live a few white traders and missionaries. The missionaries +have given Biblical names to several of their stations, such as Bethany +and Beersheba in Namaqualand, and Rehoboth in Damaraland. +In the Caprivi enclave are a German residency and the site of the +town of Linyante, once the capital of the Makololo dynasty of +Barotseland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barotse</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Agriculture is followed by the natives in the northern +districts, but the chief industry is stock-raising. The scarcity of +water in the southern parts is not favourable for agricultural pursuits, +while the good grazing lands offer splendid pasturage for cattle, +which the Herero raise in numbers amounting to many hundred +thousands. Sheep and goats thrive well. Horses have been imported +from the Cape. Unfortunately the climate does not suit +them everywhere, and they are subject to a virulent distemper. +Cattle and sheep also suffer from the diseases which are common +in the Cape Colony. Camels have been imported, and are doing +well. Wheat, maize and sorghum are the chief crops raised, though +not enough is grown to meet even local requirements. Near the +coast the natives collect the kernels of the nara, a wild-growing +pumpkin which, in the words of an early traveller, C.J. Andersson, +“are eaten by oxen, mice, men, ostriches and lions.” About half +the European settlers are engaged in agriculture. They raise maize, +wheat, tobacco, fruit and vegetables. Cotton cultivation and viticulture +are carried on in some districts.</p> + +<p>Minerals, especially copper, are plentiful in the country. The +chief copper deposits are at Tsumeb, which is 4230 ft. above the sea, +in the Otavi district. Diamonds are found on and near the surface +of the soil in the Lüderitz Bay district, and diamonds have also been +found in the neighbourhood of Gibeon. A little pottery is made, +and the Hottentot women are clever in making fur cloths. In the +north the Ovampo do a little smith-work and grass-plaiting. The +external trade of the country was of slow growth. The exports, +previous to the opening up of the Otavi mines, consisted chiefly of +live stock—sent mainly to Cape Colony—guano, ivory, horns, hides +and ostrich feathers. The chief imports are food stuffs, textiles and +metals, and hardware. In 1903 the value of the exports was £168,560, +that of the imports £388,210. The war which followed (see below, +<i>History</i>) led to a great shrinking of exports, rendering the figures for +the period 1904-1907 useless for purposes of comparison. About +85% of the imports are from Germany.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The economic development of the country +is largely dependent on transport facilities. The railway from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +Swakopmund to Windhoek, mentioned above, was begun in 1897, and +was opened for traffic in July 1902. It cost nearly £700,000 to build. +Another narrow gauge railway, to serve the Otavi copper mines, +was begun in 1904 and completed in 1908. It starts from Swakopmund +and is 400 m. long, the terminus being at Grootfontein, 40 m. +S.E. of Tsumeb. The highest point on this line is 5213 ft. above the +sea. In 1906-1908 a railway, 180 m. long, was built from Lüderitz +Bay to Keetmanshoop. This line is of the standard South African +gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), that gauge being adopted in view of the eventual +linking up of the line with the British railway systems at Kimberley. +A branch from Seeheim on the Keetmanshoop line runs S.E. to +Kalkfontein.</p> + +<p>Besides railways, roads have been made between the chief centres +of population. Along these, in the desert districts, wells have been +dug. Across the Awas Mountains, separating Windhoek from the +central plateau, a wide road has been cut. In 1903 the colony was +placed in telegraphic communication with Europe and Cape Colony +by the laying of submarine cables having their terminus at Swakopmund. +There is a fairly complete inland telegraphic service.</p> + +<p>There is regular steamship communication between Hamburg +and Swakopmund, Walfish Bay and Lüderitz Bay. Regular communication +is also maintained between Cape Town and the ports +of the colony.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—At the head of the administration is an imperial +governor, responsible to the colonial office in Berlin, who is assisted +by a council consisting of chiefs of departments. The country is +divided into various administrative districts. In each of these there +is a <i>Bezirksamtmann</i>, with his staff of officials and police force. In +each district is a law court, to whose jurisdiction not alone the whites, +but also the Bastaards are subject. As in all German colonies, +there is a court of appeal at the residence of the governor. The +government maintains schools at the chief towns, but education is +principally in the hands of missionaries. The armed force consists +of regular troops from Germany and a militia formed of Bastaards. +The local revenue for some years before 1903 was about £130,000 +per annum, the expenditure about £400,000, the difference between +local receipts and expenditure being made good by imperial subsidies. +In 1908 local revenue had risen to £250,000, but the imperial authorities +incurred an expenditure of over £2,000,000, largely for military +purposes. On articles of export, such as feathers and hides, 5% <i>ad +valorem</i> duty has to be paid; on cattle and horses an export tax per +head. There is a 10% <i>ad valorem</i> duty on all imports, no difference +being made between German and foreign goods. The sale of +spirituous liquors is subject to a licence.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The coast of south-west Africa was discovered by +Bartholomew Diaz in 1487, whilst endeavouring to find his way +to the Indies. He anchored in a bay which by reason of its +smallness he named Angra Pequena. Portugal, however, took +no steps to acquire possession of this inhospitable region, which +remained almost unvisited by Europeans until the early years +of the 19th century. At this time the country was devastated +by a Hottentot chief known as Afrikander, who had fled thither +with a band of outlaws after murdering his master, a Boer +farmer by whom he had been ill-treated, in 1796. In 1805 some +missionaries (of German nationality) went into Namaqualand +in the service of the London Missionary Society, which society +subsequently transferred its missions in this region to the Rhenish +mission, which had had agents in the country since about 1840. +The chief station of the missionaries was at a Hottentot settlement +renamed Bethany (1820), a place 125 m. E. by Angra +Pequena. The missionaries had the satisfaction of stopping +Afrikander’s career of bloodshed. He became a convert, a great +friend of the mission, and took the name of Christian. The +proximity of Great Namaqualand to Cape Colony led to visits +from British and Dutch farmers and hunters, a few of whom +settled in the country, which thus became in some sense a +dependency of the Cape.</p> + +<p>In 1867 the islands along the coast north and south of Angra +Pequena, on which were valuable guano deposits, were annexed +to Great Britain. At this time a small trade between the natives +and the outside world was developed at Angra Pequena, the +merchants engaged in it being British and German. The political +influence of the Cape spread meantime northward to the land of +the Herero (Damara). The Herero had been subjugated by +Jonker Afrikander, a son of Christian Afrikander, who followed +the early footsteps of his sire and had renounced Christianity, +but in 1865 they had recovered their independence. The +Rhenish missionaries appealed (1868) to the British government +for protection, and asked for the annexation of the country. +This request, although supported by the Prussian government, +was refused. In 1876, however, a special commissioner (W. +Coates Palgrave) was sent by the Cape government “to the tribes +north of the Orange river.” The commissioner concluded treaties +with the Namaqua and Damara which fixed the limits of the +territories of the two races and placed the whole country now +forming German South-West Africa within the sphere of British +influence. In the central part of Damaraland an area of some +35,000 sq. m. was marked out as a British reservation. The +instrument by which this arrangement was made was known +as the treaty of Okahandya. Neither it nor the treaty relating +to Great Namaqualand was ratified by the British government, +but at the request of Sir Bartle Frere, then high commissioner +for South Africa, Walfish Bay (the best harbour along the coast) +was in 1878 annexed to Great Britain.</p> + +<p>In 1880 fighting between the Namaqua, who were led by +Jan Afrikander, son of Jonker and grandson of Christian +Afrikander, and the Damara broke out afresh, and was +not ended until the establishment of European rule. In +<span class="sidenote">German rule established.</span> +1883 F.A.E. Lüderitz (1834-1886), a Bremen merchant, +with the approval of Prince Bismarck, established a +trading station at Angra Pequena. This step led to the annexation +of the whole country to Germany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5) +with the exception of Walfish Bay and the islands actually +British territory. On the establishment of German rule Jonker +Afrikander’s old headquarters were made the seat of administration +and renamed Windhoek. The Hottentots, under a chieftain +named Hendrik Witboi, offered a determined opposition to the +Germans, but after a protracted war peace was concluded in 1894 +and Hendrik became the ally of the Germans. Thereafter, +notwithstanding various local risings, the country enjoyed a +measure of prosperity, although, largely owing to economic +conditions, its development was very slow.</p> + +<p>In October 1903 the Bondelzwarts, who occupy the district +immediately north of the Orange river, rose in revolt. This act +was the beginning of a struggle between the Germans +and the natives which lasted over four years, and cost +<span class="sidenote">Herero war.</span> +Germany the lives of some 5000 soldiers and settlers, +and entailed an expenditure of £15,000,000. Abuses committed +by white traders, the brutal methods of certain officials and the +occupation of tribal lands were among the causes of the war, +but impatience of white rule was believed to be the chief reason +for the revolt of the Herero, the most formidable of the opponents +of the Germans. The Herero had accepted the German protectorate +by treaty—without fully comprehending that to which +they had agreed. To crush the Bondelzwarts, an object attained +by January 1904, the governor, Colonel Theodor Leutwein, had +denuded Damaraland of troops, and advantage was taken of this +fact by the Herero to begin a long-planned and well-prepared +revolt. On the 12th of January 1904 most of the German +farmers in Damaraland were attacked, and settlers and their +families murdered and the farms devastated. Reinforcements +were sent from Germany, and in June General von Trotha +arrived and took command of the troops. On the 11th of August +von Trotha attacked the Herero in their stronghold, the Waterberg, +about 200 m. N. of Windhoek, and inflicted upon them +a severe defeat. The main body of the enemy escaped, however, +from the encircling columns of the Germans, and thereafter +the Herero, who were under the leadership of Samuel Maherero, +maintained a guerrilla warfare, rendering the whole countryside +unsafe. The Germans found pursuit almost hopeless, being +crippled by the lack of water and the absence of means of transport. +To add to their troubles a Herero bastard named Morenga, +with a following of Hottentots, had, in July, recommenced +hostilities in the south. On the 2nd of October 1904 von Trotha, +exasperated at his want of success in crushing the enemy, issued +a proclamation in which he said: “Within the German frontier +every Herero with or without a rifle, with or without cattle, +will be shot. I will not take over any more women and children. +But I will either drive them back to your people or have them +fired on.” In a later order von Trotha instructed his soldiers +not to fire into, but to fire over the heads of the women and +children, and Prince Bülow ordered the general to repeal the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +whole proclamation. Whenever they had the chance, however, +the Germans hunted down the Herero, and thousands perished +in the Omaheke desert, across which numbers succeeded in +passing to British territory near Ngami.</p> + +<p>On the day following the issue of von Trotha’s proclamation +to the Herero, <i>i.e.</i> on the 3rd of October 1904, Hendrik Witboi +sent a formal declaration of war to the Germans. Hendrik had +helped to suppress the Bondelzwarts rising, and had received a +German decoration for his services, and his hostility is said to +have been kindled by the supersession of Colonel Leutwein, for +whom he entertained a great admiration. The Witbois were +joined by other Hottentot tribes, and their first act was to +murder some sixty German settlers in the Gibeon district. Both +British and Boer farmers were spared—the Hottentots in this +matter following the example of the Herero. In November, +considerable reinforcements having come from Germany, the +Witbois were attacked, and Hendrik’s headquarters, Reitmont, +captured. Another defeat was inflicted on Hendrik in January +1905, but, lacking ammunition and water, the Germans could not +follow up their victory. As in Damaraland, the warfare in +Namaqualand now assumed a guerrilla character, and the Germans +found it almost impossible to meet their elusive enemy, while small +detachments were often surprised and sometimes annihilated. +In May 1905 von Trotha tried the effect on the Hottentots of +another of his proclamations. He invited them to surrender, +adding that in the contrary event all rebels would be exterminated. +A price was at the same time put on the heads of Hendrik Witboi +and other chiefs. This proclamation was unheeded by the +Hottentots, who were in fact continuing the war with rifles and +ammunition seized from the Germans, and replenishing their +stock with cattle taken from the same source. In the north, +however, Samuel Maherero had fled to British territory, +and the resistance of the Herero was beginning to collapse. +Concentration camps were established in which some thousands +of Herero women and children were cared for. Meanwhile, the +administration of von Trotha, who had assumed the governorship +as well as the command of the troops, was severely criticized by +the civilian population, and the non-success of the operations +against the Hottentots provoked strong military criticism. +In August 1905 Colonel (afterwards General) Leutwein, who +had returned to Germany, formally resigned the governorship +of the protectorate, and Herr von Lindequist, late German +consul-general at Cape Town, was nominated as his successor. +Von Trotha, who had publicly criticized Prince Bülow’s order +to repeal the Herero proclamation, was superseded. He had +in the summer of 1905 instituted a series of “drives” against +the Witbois, with no particular results. Hendrik always evaded +the columns and frequently attacked them in the rear.</p> + +<p>In November 1905 von Lindequist arrived at Windhoek. +The new governor issued a general amnesty to the Herero, and +set aside two large reserves for those who surrendered. His +conciliatory policy was in the end successful, and the Ovampo, +who threatened to give trouble, were kept in hand. The task +of pacifying Damaraland was continued throughout 1906, and +by the close of that year about 16,000 Herero had been established +in the reserves. Some 3000 had sought refuge in British territory, +while the number who had perished may be estimated at between +20,000 and 30,000.</p> + +<p>In Namaqualand von Lindequist found an enemy still unbroken. +On the 3rd of November, however, Hendrik Witboi died, aged +seventy-five, and his son and successor Samuel Isaac +Witboi shortly afterwards surrendered, and the +<span class="sidenote">The Hottentots subdued.</span> +hostility of the tribe ceased. Morenga now became +the chief of the rebel Hottentots, and “drives” against +him were organized. Early in May 1906 an encounter between +Morenga and a German column was fought close to the British +frontier of the Bechuanaland protectorate. Morenga fled, was +pursued across the frontier, and wounded, but escaped. On +the 16th of May he was found hiding by British patrols and +interned. Other Hottentot chiefs continued the conflict, greatly +aided by the immense difficulty the Germans had in transporting +supplies; to remedy which defect the building of a railway +from Lüderitz Bay to Kubub was begun early in 1906. A camel +transport corps was also organized, and Boer auxiliaries engaged. +Throughout the later half of 1906 the Hottentots maintained +the struggle, the Karas mountains forming a stronghold from +which their dislodgment was extremely difficult. Many of their +leaders and numbers of the tribesmen had a considerable strain +of white (chiefly Dutch) blood and were fairly educated men, +with a knowledge not only of native, but European ways; facts +which helped to make them formidable opponents. Gradually +the resistance of the Hottentots was overcome, and in December +1906 the Bondelzwarts again surrendered. Other tribes continued +the fight for months longer, but by March 1907 it was found +possible to reduce the troops in the protectorate to about 5000 +men. At the height of the campaign the Germans had 19,000 +men in the field.</p> + +<p>In August 1907 renewed alarm was created by the escape of +Morenga from British territory. The Cape government, regarding +the chief as a political refugee, had refused to extradite him and +he had been assigned a residence near Upington. This place he +left early in August and, eluding the frontier guards, re-entered +German territory. In September, however, he was again on +the British side of the border. Meantime a force of the Cape +Mounted Police under Major F.A.H. Eliott had been organized +to effect his arrest. Summoned to surrender, Morenga fled into +the Kalahari Desert. Eliott’s force of sixty men pursued him +through a waterless country, covering 80 m. in 24 hours. When +overtaken (September 21st), Morenga, with ten followers, was +holding a kopje and fired on the advancing troops. After a +sharp engagement the chief and five of his men were killed, the +British casualties being one killed and one wounded. The death +of Morenga removed a serious obstacle to the complete pacification +of the protectorate. Military operations continued, however, +during 1908. Herr von Lindequist, being recalled to Berlin to +become under-secretary in the colonial office, was succeeded as +governor (May 1907) by Herr von Schuckmann. In 1908 steps +were taken to establish German authority in the Caprivi enclave, +which up to that time had been neglected by the colonial +authorities.</p> + +<p>The discovery of diamonds in the Lüderitz Bay district in +July 1908 caused a rush of treasure-seekers. The diamonds +were found mostly on the surface in a sandy soil and +were of small size. The stones resemble Brazilian +<span class="sidenote">Discovery of diamonds.</span> +diamonds. By the end of the year the total yield was +over 39,000 carats. One of the difficulties encountered +in developing the field was the great scarcity of fresh water. +During 1909 various companies were formed to exploit the +diamondiferous area. The first considerable packet of diamonds +from the colony reached Germany in April 1909. The output for +the year was valued at over £1,000,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Karl Dove, <i>Deutsch-Südwestafrika</i> (Berlin, 1903); +W. Külz, <i>Deutsch-Südafrika</i> ... (Berlin, 1909); T. Leutwein, <i>Elf +Jahre Gouverneur in Deutsch-Südwestafrika</i> (Berlin, 1908), an +authoritative work, largely historical; P. Rohrbach, <i>Deutsche +Kolonialwirtschaft</i>, Band 1: <i>Südwestafrika</i> (Berlin, 1907), a comprehensive +economic study; I. Irle, <i>Die Herero, ein Beitrag zur Landes-, +Volks- und Missionskunde</i> (Gütersloh, 1906), a valuable summary of +information concerning Damaraland; Major K. Schwabe, <i>Im +deutschen Diamantenlande</i> (Berlin, 1909); T. Rehbock, <i>Deutsch-Südwestafrika, +seine wirtschaftliche Erschliessung unter besonderer +Berücksichtigung der Nutzbarmachung des Wassers</i> (Berlin, 1898); +C. von François, <i>Deutsch-Südwestafrika: Geschichte der Kolonisation +bis zum Ausbruch des Krieges mit Witbooi</i>, April 1893 (Berlin, 1899), a +history of the protectorate up to 1893; H. Schintz, <i>Deutsch-Südwestafrika, +Forschungsreisen durch die deutschen Schutzgebiete Gross-Nama +und Hereroland, nach dem Kunene, &c., 1884-1887</i> (Oldenburg, N.D. +[1891]); H. von François, <i>Nama und Damara</i> (Magdeburg, N.D. +[1896]). See also for Ethnology, “Die Eingeborenen Deutsch-Südwestafrikas +nach Geschichte, Charakter, Sitten, Gebräuchen +und Sprachen,” in <i>Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische +Sprachen</i> (Berlin and Stuttgart) for 1899 and 1900; and G.W. Stow, +<i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> (London, 1905); ch. xvii. contains +an account of the Afrikander family. For geology consult A. Schenk, +“Die geologische Entwicklung Südafrikas (mit Karte),” <i>Peterm. +Mitt.</i> (1888); Stromer von Reichenbach, <i>Die Geologie der deutschen +Schutzgebiete in Afrika</i> (Munich and Leipzig, 1896). Of early books +of travel the most valuable are: F. Galton, <i>Tropical South Africa</i> +(1853; new ed. 1889); Charles J. Andersson, <i>Lake Ngami</i> (1856), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span> +<i>The Okavango River</i> (1861) and <i>Notes of Travel</i> (1875). See also +Sir J.E. Alexander, <i>An Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of +Africa</i> (London, 1838). Reports on the German colonies are published +by the British foreign office. The <i>Kriegskarte von Deutsch-Südwestafrika</i> +(Berlin, 1904), in nine sheets on a scale of 1 : 800,000, +will be found useful.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As the result of wars with the natives, the population greatly +decreased. The number of adult (native) males in the colony at the +beginning of 1908 was officially estimated at 19,900, a figure indicating +a total population of little more than 100,000.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMANTOWN,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a residential district and former suburb, +now the Twenty-second Ward, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on Wissahickon Creek, in the N. part of the city. It is +served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading +railways. There are many old colonial houses and handsome +modern residences along Main Street (the old Germantown +Road or Avenue). Prominent among the historic houses is +Cliveden, or the “Chew House,” built about 1761 by Benjamin +Chew (1722-1810), who was chief-justice of Pennsylvania in +1774-1777 and was imprisoned as a Loyalist in 1777, and whose +home during the battle of Germantown (see below) was occupied +by British troops. The well-preserved Morris House (1772) was +the headquarters of General Howe at the close of the battle, +and in 1793, when Germantown, owing to the yellow fever in +Philadelphia, was the temporary capital of the United States, +it was occupied by President Washington. Three doors above +stood until 1904 the Ashmead House, used for a time by Count +Nicholas Lewis Zinzendorf and his daughters for their Moravian +school, which was removed to Bethlehem. In the same street, +opposite Indian Queen Lane, is the old Wister Mansion, built +as a country-seat in 1744 and occupied by British officers during +the War of Independence. In another old house (now Nos. +5275-5277), John Fanning Watson (1779-1860), the annalist of +Philadelphia, did most of his literary work. Just outside the +ward limits, in what has since become a part of Fairmont Park, +is the house in which David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, was +born; it stands on Monoshore Creek or Paper Mill Run, in what +was long called Roxborough (now the 21st ward of Philadelphia). +In this vicinity the first paper mill in America was erected in +1690 by a company of which William Rittenhouse, David’s +great-grandfather, was the leading member. The King of Prussia +Inn, built about 1740, and the Mermaid Hotel, as old or older, +are interesting survivals of the inns and taverns of old Germantown. +The Germantown Academy was built in 1760, and after +the battle of Germantown was used by the British as a hospital. +In Germantown are also a Friends’ (orthodox) school, a Friends’ +free library, and the Germantown branch of the Philadelphia +public library. The first school in Germantown was established +about 1701, and for the first eighteen years was under the mastership +of Francis Daniel Pastorius (1651-1719), the leader in founding +the town, who lived in a house that stood on the site of the present +First Methodist Episcopal church, High Street and Main Street. +He compiled a primer which was the first school book produced +in the state; with three others he drafted and signed in 1688 +what seems to have been the first public protest made in America +against slavery; and he is celebrated in Whittier’s <i>Pennsylvania +Pilgrim</i>. Later the same school passed to Christopher Dock +(d. 1771), who in 1770 published an essay on teaching (written +in 1750), which is said to have been the first book on pedagogy +published in America. The first Bible printed in America in +any European language was published in Germantown in 1743 +by Christopher Sauer (d. 1758), a preacher of the German +Baptist Brethren, who in 1739 established Germantown’s first +newspaper, <i>The High German Pennsylvania Historian, or Collection +of Important News from the Kingdom of Nature and of the +Church</i>. His grandsons are said to have cast about 1772 the +first American printing type. The Friends were the first sect to +erect a meeting-house of their own (about 1693). The Mennonites +built a log meeting-house in 1709, and their present stone church +was built in 1770. The town hall of Germantown was used as +a hospital during the last three years of the Civil War. In Market +Square a soldiers’ monument was erected in 1883. The Site and +Relic Society of Germantown maintains a museum of relics. +Many of the early settlers were linen weavers, and Germantown +still manufactures textiles, knit goods and yarns.</p> + +<p>Germantown was founded in October 1683 by thirteen families +from Crefeld, Germany, under the leadership of Francis Daniel +Pastorius. The township, as originally laid out, contained +four distinct villages known as Germantown, Cresheim, Sommerhousen +and Crefield. Cresheim was later known as Mount +Airy, and Sommerhousen and Crefield became known as Chestnut +Hill. The borough of Germantown was incorporated in 1689. +For many years it was a straggling village extending about 2 m. +along Main Street. Its growth was more rapid from the middle +of the 18th century. In 1789 a motion for the permanent +location of the national capital at Germantown was carried +in the Senate, and the same measure passed the House, amended +only with respect to the temporary government of the ceded +district; but the Senate killed the bill by voting to postpone +further consideration of it until the next session. Germantown +was annexed to Philadelphia in 1854.</p> + +<p><i>Battle of Germantown.</i>—This famous encounter in the American +War of Independence was fought on the 4th of October 1777. +After the battle of Brandywine (<i>q.v.</i>) and the occupation of +Philadelphia, the British force commanded by Sir W. Howe +encamped at Germantown, where Washington determined +to attack them. The Americans advanced by two roads, General +Sullivan leading the column on the right and General Greene +that on the left. Washington himself accompanied Sullivan, +with whom were Stirling (an officer who claimed to be earl of +that name) and Anthony Wayne. The right at first met with +success, driving the British advanced troops back on the main +body near the Chew House. Colonel Musgrave, of the 40th Foot, +threw a portion of his regiment into this house, and General +Agnew came up with his command. The Americans under +Stirling attempted to dislodge Musgrave, thus losing time and +alarming part of Sullivan’s advance who had pushed farther +forward in the fog. General Greene on the left was even less +fortunate. Meeting with unexpected opposition at the first +point of attack his troops were thrown into confusion and +compelled to retreat. One of his brigades extended itself to +the right wing, and by opening fire on the Chew House caused +Wayne to retreat, and presently both of the American columns +retired rapidly in the direction of their camp. The surprise +had failed, with the loss to Washington’s army of 673 men as +against 500 on the side of the British. The British General +Agnew and the American General Nash were both mortally +wounded. In December Washington went into winter quarters +at Valley Forge, 40 m. west of Philadelphia. The British wintered +in and around the city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N.H. Keyser, “Old Historic Germantown,” in the <i>Proceedings +and Addresses of the Pennsylvania-German Society</i> (Lancaster, +1906); S.W. Pennypacker, <i>The Settlement of Germantown, Pennsylvania, +and the Beginning of German Emigration to North America</i> +(Philadelphia, 1899), and S.F. Hotchkin, <i>Ancient and Modern +Germantown, Mount Airy and Chestnut Hill</i> (Philadelphia, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GERMANY<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Deutschland</i>), or, more properly, <span class="sc">The German +Empire</span> (<i>Deutsches Reich</i>), a country of central Europe. The +territories occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race +and language are commonly designated as German, and in this +sense may be taken to include, besides Germany proper (the +subject of the present article), the German-speaking sections of +Austria, Switzerland and Holland. But Germany, or the +German empire, as it is now understood, was formed in 1871 +by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederation +and the South German states, and by the acquisition, in the +peace of Frankfort (May 10, 1871), of Alsace-Lorraine, and +embraces all the countries of the former German Confederation, +with the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liechtenstein. +The sole addition to the empire proper since that +date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 1890, +but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the +Pacific (see below, <i>Colonies</i>).</p> + +<p>The German empire extends from 47° 16′ to 55° 53′ N., and +from 5° 52′ to 22° 52′ E. The eastern provinces project so far +that the extent of German territory is much greater from south-west +to north-east than in any other direction. Tilsit is 815 m. +from Metz, whereas Hadersleben, in Schleswig, is only 540 m. +from the Lake of Constance. The actual difference in time +between the eastern and western points is 1 hour and 8 minutes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span> +but the empire observes but one time—1 hour E. of Greenwich. +The empire is bounded on the S.E. and S. by Austria and Switzerland +(for 1659 m.), on the S.W. by France (242 m.), on the W. +by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland (together 558 m.). The +length of German coast on the North Sea or German Ocean is +293 m., and on the Baltic 927 m., the intervening land boundary +on the north of Schleswig being only 47 m. The eastern boundary +is with Russia 843 m. The total length of the frontiers is thus +4569 m. The area, including rivers and lakes but not the <i>haffs</i> +or lagoons on the Baltic coast, is 208,830 sq. m., and the population +(1905) 60,641,278. In respect of its area, the German +empire occupied in 1909 the third place among European +countries, and in point of population the second, coming in point +of area immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary, and +in population next to Russia.</p> + +<p><i>Political Divisions</i>.—The empire is composed of the following +twenty-six states and divisions: the kingdoms of Prussia, +Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg; the grand-duchies of +Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, +Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick, +Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Meiningen; the +principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss-Greiz, Reuss-Schleiz, +Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen +and Waldeck-Pyrmont; the free towns of +Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, and the imperial territory of +Alsace-Lorraine.</p> + +<p>Besides these political divisions there are certain parts of +Germany which, not conterminous with political boundaries, +retain appellations derived either from former tribal settlements +or from divisions of the old Holy Roman Empire. These are +Franconia (Franken), which embraces the districts of Bamberg, +Schweinfurt and Würzburg on the upper Main; Swabia (Schwaben), +in which is included Württemberg, parts of Bavaria and +Baden and Hohenzollern; the Palatinate (Pfalz), embracing +Bavaria west of the Rhine and the contiguous portion of Baden; +Rhineland, applied to Rhenish Prussia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt +and parts of Bavaria and Baden; Vogtland,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the mountainous +country lying in the south-west corner of the kingdom of Saxony; +Lusatia (Lausitz), the eastern portion of the kingdom of Saxony +and the adjacent portion of Prussia watered by the upper Spree; +Thuringia (Thüringen), the country lying south of the Harz +Mountains and including the Saxon duchies; East Friesland +(Ost Friesland), the country lying between the lower course of +the Weser and the Ems, and Westphalia (Westfalen), the fertile +plain lying north and west of the Harz Mountains and extending +to the North Sea and the Dutch frontier.</p> + +<p><i>Coast and Islands</i>.—The length of the coast-line is considerably +less than the third part of the whole frontier. The coasts are +shallow, and deficient in natural ports, except on the east of +Schleswig-Holstein, where wide bays encroach upon the land, +giving access to the largest vessels, so that the great naval +harbour could be constructed at Kiel. With the exception of +those on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein, all the important +trading ports of Germany are river ports, such as Emden, Bremen, +Hamburg, Lübeck, Stettin, Danzig, Königsberg, Memel. A +great difference, however, is to be remarked between the coasts +of the North Sea and those of the Baltic. On the former, where +the sea has broken up the ranges of dunes formed in bygone +times, and divided them into separate islands, the mainland +has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian Islands +are being gradually washed away by the waters. On the coast of +East Friesland there are now only seven of these islands, of +which Norderney is best known, while of the North Frisian +Islands, on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt is the most +considerable. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there +have been extensive inundations by the sea within the historic +period, the gulf of the Dollart having been so caused in the year +1276. Sands surround the whole coast of the North Sea to such +an extent that the entrance to the ports is not practicable +without the aid of pilots. Heligoland is a rocky island, but it +also has been considerably reduced by the sea. The tides rise +to the height of 12 or 13 ft. in the Jade Bay and at Bremerhaven, +and 6 or 7 ft. at Hamburg. The coast of the Baltic, on the other +hand, possesses few islands, the chief being Alsen and Fehmarn +off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein, and Rügen off Pomerania. +It has no extensive sands, though on the whole very flat. The +Baltic has no perceptible tides; and a great part of its coast-line +is in winter covered with ice, which also so blocks up the harbours +that navigation is interrupted for several months every year. +Its <i>haffs</i> fronting the mouths of the large rivers must be regarded +as lagoons or extensions of the river beds, not as bays. The +Pommersche or Oder Haff is separated from the sea by two +islands, so that the river flows out by three mouths, the middle +one (Swine) being the most considerable. The Frische Haff +is formed by the Nogat, a branch of the Vistula, and by the +Pregel, and communicates with the sea by means of the Pillauer +Tief. The Kurische Haff receives the Memel, called Niemen in +Russia, and has its outlet in the extreme north at Memel. Long +narrow alluvial strips called <i>Nehrungen</i>, lie between the last +two haffs and the Baltic. The Baltic coast is further marked +by large indentations, the Gulf of Lübeck, that of Pomerania, +east of Rügen, and the semicircular Bay of Danzig between +the promontories of Rixhöft and Brüsterort. The German +coasts are well provided with lighthouses.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Surface</i>.—In respect of physical structure Germany is divided into +two entirely distinct portions, which bear to one another a ratio +of about 3 to 4. The northern and larger part may be described as +a uniform plain. South and central Germany, on the other hand, +is very much diversified in scenery. It possesses large plateaus, +such as that of Bavaria, which stretches away from the foot of the +Alps, fertile low plains like that intersected by the Rhine, mountain +chains and isolated groups of mountains, comparatively low in +height, and so situated as not seriously to interfere with communication +either by road or by railway.</p> + +<p>Bavaria is the only division of the country that includes within it +any part of the Alps, the Austro-Bavarian frontier running along the +ridge of the Northern Tirolese or Bavarian Alps. The +loftiest peak of this group, the Zugspitze (57 m. S. of +<span class="sidenote">Mountains and plateaus.</span> +Munich), is 9738 ft. in height, being the highest summit +in the empire. The upper German plain sloping northwards +from the Bavarian Alps is watered by the Lech, the Isar and +the Inn, tributaries of the Danube, all three rising beyond the +limits of German territory. This plain is separated on the west +from the Swiss plain by the Lake of Constance (Bodensee, 1306 ft. +above sea-level), and on the east from the undulating grounds of +Austria by the Inn. The average height of the plain may be estimated +at about 1800 ft., the valley of the Danube on its north +border being from 1540 ft. (at Ulm) to 920 ft. (at Passau). The +plain is not very fertile. In the upper part of the plain, towards the +Alps, there are several lakes, the largest being the Ammersee, the +Würmsee or Starnberger See and the Chiemsee. Many portions of +the plain are covered by moors and swamps of large extent, called +<i>Moose</i>. The left or northern bank of the Danube from Regensburg +downwards presents a series of granitic rocks called the Bavarian +Forest (Bayrischer Wald), which must be regarded as a branch of the +Bohemian Forest (Böhmer Wald). The latter is a range of wooded +heights on the frontier of Bavaria and Bohemia, occupying the least +known and least frequented regions of Germany. The summits of +the Bayrischer Wald rise to the height of about 4000 ft., and those +of the Böhmer Wald to 4800 ft., Arber being 4872 ft. The valley of +the Danube above Regensburg is flanked by plateaus sloping gently +to the Danube, but precipitous towards the valley of the Neckar. +The centre of this elevated tract is the Rauhe Alb, so named on +account of the harshness of the climate. The plateau continuing +to the north-east and then to the north, under the name of the +Franconian Jura, is crossed by the valley of the winding Altmühl, +and extends to the Main. To the west extensive undulating grounds +or low plateaus occupy the area between the Main and the Neckar.</p> + +<p>The south-western corner of the empire contains a series of better +defined hill-ranges. Beginning with the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), +we find its southern heights decline to the valley of the Rhine, +above Basel, and to the Jura. The summits are rounded and covered +with wood, the highest being the Feldberg (10 m. S.E. of Freiburg, +4898 ft.). Northwards the Black Forest passes into the plateau of +the Neckarbergland (average height, 1000 ft.). The heights between +the lower Neckar and the Main form the Odenwald (about 1700 ft.); +and the Spessart, which is watered by the Main on three sides, is +nothing but a continuation of the Odenwald. West of this range of +hills lies the valley of the upper Rhine, extending about 180 m. +from south to north, and with a width of only 20 to 25 m. In the +upper parts the Rhine is rapid, and therefore navigable with difficulty; +this explains why the towns there are not along the banks of +the river, but some 5 to 10 m. off. But from Spires (Speyer) town +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span> +succeeds town as far down as Düsseldorf. The western boundary +of this valley is formed in the first instance by the Vosges, where +granite summits rise from under the surrounding red Triassic rocks +(Sulzer Belchen, 4669 ft.). To the south the range is not continuous +with the Swiss Jura, the valley of the Rhine being connected +here with the Rhone system by low ground known as the Gate of +Mülhausen. The crest of the Vosges is pretty high and unbroken, +the first convenient pass being near Zabern, which is followed by the +railway from Strassburg to Paris. On the northern side the Vosges +are connected with the Hardt sandstone plateau (Kalmit, 2241 ft.), +which rises abruptly from the plain of the Rhine. The mountains +south of Mainz, which are mostly covered by vineyards, are lower, +the Donnersberg, however, raising its head to 2254 ft. These hills +are bordered on the west by the high plain of Lorraine and the coal-fields +of Saarbrücken, the former being traversed by the river Mosel. +The larger part of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German part +possesses great mineral wealth in its rich layers of ironstone (siderite) +and in the coal-fields of the Saar. The tract of the Hunsrück, +Taunus and Eifel is an extended plateau, divided into separate +sections by the river valleys. Among these the Rhine valley from +Bingen to Bonn, and that of the Mosel from Trier to Coblenz, are +winding gorges excavated by the rivers. The Eifel presents a sterile, +thinly-peopled plateau, covered by extensive moors in several places. +It passes westwards imperceptibly into the Ardennes. The hills +on the right bank of the Rhine also are in part of a like barren +character, without wood; the Westerwald (about 2000 ft.), which +separates the valleys of the Sieg and Lahn, is particularly so. The +northern and southern limits of the Niederrheinische Gebirge present +a striking contrast to the central region. In the south the declivities +of the Taunus (2890 ft.) are marked by the occurrence of mineral +springs, as at Ems on the Lahn, Nauheim, Homburg, Soden, Wiesbaden, +&c., and by the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines. +To the north of this system, on the other hand, lies the great coal +basin of Westphalia, the largest in Germany. In the south of the +hilly duchy of Hesse rise the isolated mountain groups of the Vogelsberg +(2530 ft.) and the Rhön (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the +Fulda, which uniting farther north with the Werra forms the Weser. +To the east of Hesse lies Thuringia, a province consisting of the +far-stretching wooded ridge of the Thuringian Forest (Thüringerwald; +with three peaks upwards of 3000 ft. high), and an extensive +elevated plain to the north. Its rivers are the Saale and Unstrut. +The plateau is bounded on the north by the Harz, an isolated +group of mountains, rich in minerals, with its highest elevation in +the bare summit of the Brocken (3747 ft.). To the west of the Harz +a series of hilly tracts is comprised under the name of the Weser +Mountains, out of which above Minden the river Weser bursts by +the Porta Westphalica. A narrow ridge, the Teutoburger Wald +(1300 ft.), extends between the Weser and the Ems as far as the +neighbourhood of Osnabrück.</p> + +<p>To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of +the Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains, +occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of +Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows +southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger +eastward to the Elbe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe. +In the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with +the Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia. +The southern sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the +north it slopes gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected +by the deep valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no +means fertile, the Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various +branches of industry have taken root there in numerous small places. +Around Zwickau there are productive coal-fields, and mining for +metals is carried on near Freiberg. In the east a tableland of +sandstone, called Saxon Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines +into which it has been eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its +most notable features is the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes +from it. Numerous quarries, which supply the North German cities +with stone for buildings and monuments, have been opened along +the valley. The <span class="correction" title="amended from standstone">sandstone</span> range of the Elbe unites in the east +with the low Lusatian group, along the east of which runs the best +road from northern Germany to Bohemia. Then comes a range of +lesser hills clustering together to form the frontier between Silesia +and Bohemia. The most western group is the Isergebirge, and the +next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about 20 miles’ length, +with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the Schneekoppe (5266 +ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the southern declivities +of this range contain the sources of the Elbe. The hills north and +north-east of it are termed the Silesian Mountains. Here one of the +minor coal-fields gives employment to a population grouped round a +number of comparatively small centres. One of the main roads +into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the eastern base +of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the mountains are +grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse forces its +way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the east by the +Sudetic group, in which the Altvater rises to almost 4900 ft. The +eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently away +to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the international +traffic, like that through the Mülhausen Gate in Alsace. +Geographers style this the Moravian Gate.</p> + +<p>The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely +uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the +mountain ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 30 m. to the +north. To these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which +occupies a considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the +middle districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the +Fläming hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the +Lüneburger Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of +Hanover. A second tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the +Baltic, without, however, approaching its shores. This plateau +contains a considerable number of lakes, and is divided into three +portions by the Vistula and the Oder. The most eastward is the +so-called Prussian Seenplatte. Spirdingsee (430 ft. above sea-level +and 46 sq. m. in area) and Mauersee are the largest lakes; they +are situated in the centre of the plateau, and give rise to the Pregel. +Some peaks near the Russian frontier attain to 1000 ft. The +Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the Vistula and the Oder, extends +from S.W. to N.E., its greatest elevation being in the neighbourhood +of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.). The Seenplatte of Mecklenburg, +on the other hand, stretches from S.E. to N.W., and most of its +lakes, of which the Müritz is the largest, send their waters towards +the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which surround the bays of +the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be regarded as a continuation +of these Baltic elevations. The lowest parts, therefore, +of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, are the central +districts from about 52° to 53° N. lat., where the Vistula, Netze, +Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy lowlands (in +German called <i>Brüche</i>), which have been considerably reduced by +the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements due in +large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the S.E. +of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As +the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing +thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication. +West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the Havel lakes, +to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general +the soil of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the +cultivation nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labour. +Long stretches of ground are covered by moors, and there turf-cutting +forms the principal occupation of the inhabitants. The +greatest extent of moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the +plain, in Oldenburg and East Frisia. The plain contains, however, +a few districts of the utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the +central Elbe, and the marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and +the north coast of Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which, +within the last two centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from +the sea by means of immense dikes.</p> + +<p><i>Rivers.</i>—Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished: +those of the Memel, Pregel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser, +Ems, Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems +belong entirely, and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The +Danube has its sources on German soil; but only a fifth part of its +course is German. Its total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian +frontier at Passau, where the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant +from its sources. It is navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above +Passau; and its tributaries the Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmühl are also +navigable. The Rhine is the most important river of Germany, +although neither its sources nor its mouths are within the limits +of the empire. From the Lake of Constance to Basel (122 m.) the +Rhine forms the boundary between the German empire and Switzerland; +the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is situated on the +northern bank of the river. From Basel to below Emmerich the +Rhine belongs to the German empire—about 470 m. or four-sevenths +of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance as are also the +Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg, the Lahn, the Lippe, +the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the Saar and +Sauer. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and river +craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely +branching system of canals, as the Ems-Jade and Dortmund-Ems +canals. The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m., +above the point where they unite, form by their junction the Weser, +which has a course of 271 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the +Aller, the Leine from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Ocean-going +steamers, however, cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at +Bremerhaven. The Elbe, after a course of 250 m., enters German +territory near Bodenbach, 490 m. from its mouth. It is navigable +above this point through its tributary, the Moldau, to Prague. +Hamburg may be reached by vessels of 17 ft. draught. The navigable +tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale (below Naumburg), the +Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The Oder begins to be +navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m. from its mouth, +receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse and the Warthe. +Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the German empire, +within which it is a broad, navigable stream of considerable volume. +On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach Königsberg, and river barges +reach Insterburg; the Alle, its tributary, may also be navigated. +The Memel is navigable in its course of 113 m. from the Russian +frontier. Germany is thus a country abounding in natural waterways, +the total length of them being estimated at 7000 m. But it is +only the Rhine, in its middle course, that has at all times sufficient +volume of water to meet the requirements of a good navigable river.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span></p> + +<p><i>Lakes.</i>—The regions which abound in lakes have already been +pointed out. The Lake of Constance or Bodensee (204¾ sq. m.) is on +the frontier of the empire, portions of the northern banks belonging +severally to Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden. In the south the +largest lakes are the Chiemsee (33 sq. m.); the Ammersee and the +Würmsee. A good many smaller lakes are to be found in the +Bavarian Alps. The North German plain is dotted with upwards +of 500 lakes, covering an area of about 2500 sq. m. The largest of +these are the three Haffs—the Oder Haff covering 370 sq. m., the +Frische Haff, 332, and the Kurische Haff, 626. The lakes in the +Prussian and Pomeranian provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein, +and those of the Havel, have already been mentioned. In the west +the only lakes of importance are the Steinhuder Meer, 14 m. north-west +of Hanover, and the Dümmersee on the southern frontier of +Oldenburg.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Germany consists of a floor of folded Palaeozoic rocks +upon which rest unconformably the comparatively little disturbed +beds of the Mesozoic system, while in the North German plain a +covering of modern deposits conceals the whole of the older strata +from view, excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of +Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. The rocks which compose the ancient +floor are thrown into folds which run approximately from W.S.W. +to E.N.E. They are exposed on the one hand in the neighbourhood +of the Rhine and on the other hand in the Bohemian <i>massif</i>. With +the latter must be included the Frankenwald, the Thüringerwald, +and even the Harz. The oldest rocks, belonging to the Archaean +system, occur in the south, forming the Vosges and the Black Forest +in the west, and the greater part of the Bohemian <i>massif</i>, including +the Erzgebirge, in the east. They consist chiefly of gneiss and schist, +with granite and other eruptive rocks. Farther north, in the +Hunsrück, the Taunus, the Eifel and Westerwald, the Harz and the +Frankenwald, the ancient floor is composed mainly of Devonian +beds. Other Palaeozoic systems are, however, included in the folds. +The Cambrian, for example, is exposed at Leimitz near Hof in the +Frankenwald, and the important coal-field of the Saar lies on the +southern side of the Hunsrück, while Ordovician and Silurian beds +have been found in several localities. Along the northern border +of the folded belt lies the coal basin of the Ruhr in Westphalia, +which is the continuation of the Belgian coal-field, and bears much +the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian area that the coal basin +of Liége bears to the Ardennes. Carboniferous and Devonian beds +are also found south-east of the Bohemian <i>massif</i>, where lies the +extensive coal-field of Silesia. The Permian, as in England, is not +involved in the folds which have affected the older beds, and in +general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly around the +masses of ancient rock, and one of the largest areas is that of the +Saar.</p> + +<p>Between the old rocks of the Rhine on the west and the ancient +<i>massif</i> of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic beds extends +from Hanover to Basel and from Metz to Bayreuth. Over the +greater part of this region the Triassic beds are free from folding +and are nearly horizontal, but faulting is by no means absent, +especially along the margins of the Bohemian and Rhenish hills. +The Triassic beds must indeed have covered a large part of these old +rock masses, but they have been preserved only where they were +faulted down to a lower level. Along the southern margin of the +Triassic area there is a long band of Jurassic beds dipping towards +the Danube; and at its eastern extremity this band is continuous +with a synclinal of Jurassic beds, running parallel to the western +border of the Bohemian <i>massif</i>, but separated from it by a narrow +strip of Triassic beds. Towards the north, in Hanover and Westphalia, +the Triassic beds are followed by Jurassic and Cretaceous +deposits, the latter being here the more important. As in the south of +England, the lower beds of the Cretaceous are of estuarine origin and +the Upper Cretaceous overlaps the Lower, lying in the valley of the +Ruhr directly upon the Palaeozoic rocks. In Saxony also the upper +Cretaceous beds rest directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks. +Still more to the east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and +Cretaceous beds are again met with, but they are to a large extent +concealed by the recent accumulations of the great plain. The +Eocene system is unknown in Germany except in the foothills of the +Alps; but the Oligocene and Miocene are widely spread, especially +in the great plain and in the depression of the Danube. The Oligocene +is generally marine. Marine Miocene occurs in N.W. Germany +and the Miocene of the Danube valley is also in part marine, but in +central Germany it is of fluviatile or lacustrine origin. The lignites +of Hesse, Cassel, &c., are interstratified with basaltic lava-flows +which form the greater part of the Vogelsberg and other hills. The +trachytes of the Siebengebirge are probably of slightly earlier date. +The precise age of the volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a +very perfect state of preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly +Tertiary or Post-tertiary. Leucite and nepheline lavas are here +abundant. In the Siebengebirge the little crater of Roderberg, +with its lavas and scoriae of leucite-basalt, is posterior to some of +the Pleistocene river deposits.</p> + +<p>A glance at a geological map of Germany will show that the greater +part of Prussia and of German Poland is covered by Quaternary +deposits. These are in part of glacial origin, and contain Scandinavian +boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur. +Quaternary beds also cover the floor of the broad depression through +which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz, and occupy a large +part of the plain of the Danube. The depression of the Rhine is a +trough lying between two faults or system of faults. The very +much broader depression of the Danube is associated with the +formation of the Alps, and was flooded by the sea during a part of +the Miocene period.</p> +<div class="author">(P. La.)</div> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:519px; height:540px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img807.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of Germany is to be regarded as intermediate +between the oceanic and continental climates of western and eastern +Europe respectively. It has nothing in common with the Mediterranean +climate of southern Europe, Germany being separated from +that region by the lofty barrier of the Alps. Although there are very +considerable differences in the range of temperature and the amount +of rainfall throughout Germany, these are not so great as they would +be were it not that the elevated plateaus and mountain chains are +in the south, while the north is occupied by low-lying plains. In the +west no chain of hills intercepts the warmer and moister winds +which blow from the Atlantic, and these accordingly influence at +times even the eastern regions of Germany. The mean annual +temperature of south-western Germany, or the Rhine and Danube +basins, is about 52° to 54° F., that of central Germany 48° to 50°, +and that of the northern plain 46° to 48°. In Pomerania and West +Prussia it is only 44° to 45°, and in East Prussia 42° to 44°. The +mean January temperature varies between 22° and 34° (in Masuren +and Cologne respectively); the mean July temperature, between 61° +in north Schleswig and 68° at Cologne. The extremes of cold and +heat are, as recorded in the ten years 1895-1905, 7° in Königsberg +and 93° in Heidelberg (the hottest place in Germany). The difference +in the mean annual temperature between the south-west and north-west +of Germany amounts to about 3°. The contrasts of heat and +cold are furnished by the valley of the Rhine above Mainz, which +has the greatest mean heat, the mildest winter and the highest +summer temperature, and the lake plateau of East Prussia, where +Arys on the Spirdingsee has a like winter temperature to the Brocken +at 3200 ft. The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the +autumn there is also not characterized by an appreciably higher +degree of warmth. In central Germany the high plateaus of the +Erz and Fichtelgebirge are the coldest regions. In south Germany +the upper Bavarian plain experiences an inclement winter and a cold +summer. In Alsace-Lorraine the Vosges and the plateau of Lorraine +are also remarkable for low temperatures. The warmest districts of +the German empire are the northern parts of the Rhine plain, from +Karlsruhe downwards, especially the Rheintal; these are scarcely +300 ft. above the sea-level, and are protected by mountainous tracts +of land. The same holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and +Mosel. Hence the vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts. +The mean summer temperature there is 66° and upwards, while the +average temperature of January does not descend to the freezing +point (32°). The climate of north-western Germany (west of the +Elbe) shows a predominating oceanic character, the summers not +being too hot (mean summer temperature 60° to 62°), and snow in +winter remaining but a short time on the ground. West of the +Weser the average temperature of January exceeds 32°; to the east +it sinks to 30°, and therefore the Elbe is generally covered with ice +for some months of the year, as are also its tributaries. The farther +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and +winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60° to +62°, the January temperature falls as low as 26° to 28° in West +Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22° to 26° in East Prussia and upper +Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by +frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the Bavarian +plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for +January being 25° to 26°.</p> + +<p>As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where +precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of +summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes +a middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe +and the aridity of the east. There are considerable differences +between particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian +tableland and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel, +Sauerland, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhön, Vogelsberg, Spessart, +the Black Forest, the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated +at 34 in. or more, while in the lower terraces of south-western +Germany, as in the Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated +at 30 to 32 in. only. The same average obtains also on the humid +north-west coast of Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In +the remaining parts of western Germany, on the shores of farther +Pomerania, and in East Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in. +In western Germany there is a district famous for the scarcity of +rain and for producing the best kind of wine: in the valley of the +Rhine below Strassburg, in the Palatinate, and also in the valley +of the Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg, +Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the plateau of Thuringia, +West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also to be classed among +the more arid regions of Germany, the annual rainfall being 16 to +20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July, and vary between +fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, descending in the +eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanerogamic +and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section +of the central European zone, and its flora is largely under the +influence of the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree +here coalesce. All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound. +Wheat, rye, barley and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt +only in the south and buckwheat in the north and north-west. +Maize only ripens in the south. Potatoes grow in every part of the +country, those of the sandy plains in the north being of excellent +quality. All the commoner sorts of fruit—apples, pears, cherries, +&c.—grow everywhere, but the more delicate kinds, such as figs, +apricots and peaches, are confined to the warmer districts. The vine +flourishes as far as the 51° N., but only yields good wine in the +districts of the Rhine and Danube. Flax is grown in the north, +and hemp more particularly in the central districts. Rape can be +produced everywhere when the soil permits. Tobacco is cultivated +on the upper Rhine and in the +valley of the Oder. The +northern plain, especially in +the province of Saxony, produces +beet (for sugar), and hops +are largely grown in Bavaria, +Württemberg, Alsace, Baden +and the Prussian province of +Posen.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, northern +Germany is not nearly so well +wooded as central +and southern Germany, +where indeed most of the +lower mountains are covered +with timber, as is indicated by +the frequent use of the termination +<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span> +<i>wald</i> affixed to the names +of the mountain ranges (as +Schwarzwald, Thüringerwald, +&c.). The “Seenplatten” are +less wooded than the hill +country, but the eastern portion +of the northern lowlands +is well provided with timber. +A narrow strip along the shores +of the Baltic is covered with +oaks and beeches; farther inland, +and especially east of the +Elbe, coniferous trees are the +most prevalent, <span class="correction" title="amended from praticularly">particularly</span> +the Scotch fir; birches are also +abundant. The mountain +forests consist chiefly of firs, +pines and larches, but contain +also silver firs, beeches and +oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts +appear on the terraces of the +Rhine valley and in Swabia +and Franconia. The whole +north-west of Germany is destitute +of wood, but to compensate for this the people have ample +supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches of turf.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great. +Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found everywhere; +bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they find +their way sometimes from French territory to the western provinces, +or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the +hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game +there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the +wild rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests +of East Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in +the fields, woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse, +partridges, snipe, woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful +all over the country, and in recent years preserves have been largely +stocked with pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage +remain in Germany differs considerably with the different species. +The stork is seen for about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, the +snow-goose 260, the snipe 220. In northern Germany these birds +arrive from twenty to thirty days later than in the south.</p> + +<p>The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and +species are few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant; +after them rank the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch +and the lamprey. The Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe +abound in crayfish, and in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches +are bred. In addition to frogs, Germany has few varieties of +Amphibia. Of serpents there are only two poisonous kinds, the +common viper and the adder (<i>Kreuzotter</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—Until comparatively recent times no estimate +of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any +value. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was +divided into some hundred states, but there was no central +agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform plan. The +formation of the German Confederation in 1815 effected but +little change in this respect, and it was left to the different states +to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On the +foundation, however, of the German customs union, or <i>Zollverein</i>, +between certain German states, the necessity for accurate +statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile +trustworthy tables. Researches show the population of the +German empire, as at present constituted, to have been: +(1816) 24,833,396; (1855) 36,113,644; and (1871) 41,058,792. +The following table shows the population and area of each +of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875, +1900 and 1905:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Area and Population of the German States.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">States of the Empire.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Area<br />English<br />Sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Density<br />per<br />Sq. m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">1871.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1875.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kingdoms—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">134,616</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,691,433</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,742,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,472,509</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,293,324</td> <td class="tcr rb">277.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Bavaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,292</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,863,450</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,022,390</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,176,057</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,524,372</td> <td class="tcr rb">222.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,789</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,556,244</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,760,586</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,202,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,508,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">778.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Württemberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,534</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,818,539</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,881,505</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,169,480</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,302,179</td> <td class="tcr rb">305.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand-Duchies—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Baden</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,823</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,461,562</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,507,179</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,867,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,010,728</td> <td class="tcr rb">345.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Hesse</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,966</td> <td class="tcr rb">852,894</td> <td class="tcr rb">884,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,119,893</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,209,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">407.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Mecklenburg-Schwerin</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,068</td> <td class="tcr rb">557,897</td> <td class="tcr rb">553,785</td> <td class="tcr rb">607,770</td> <td class="tcr rb">625,045</td> <td class="tcr rb">123.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Saxe-Weimar</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,397</td> <td class="tcr rb">286,183</td> <td class="tcr rb">292,933</td> <td class="tcr rb">362,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">388,095</td> <td class="tcr rb">277.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Mecklenburg-Strelitz</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,131</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,982</td> <td class="tcr rb">95,673</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,602</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,451</td> <td class="tcr rb">91.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Oldenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,482</td> <td class="tcr rb">314,459</td> <td class="tcr rb">319,314</td> <td class="tcr rb">399,180</td> <td class="tcr rb">438,856</td> <td class="tcr rb">176.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchies—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">311,764</td> <td class="tcr rb">327,493</td> <td class="tcr rb">464,333</td> <td class="tcr rb">485,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">342.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Saxe-Meiningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">953</td> <td class="tcr rb">187,957</td> <td class="tcr rb">194,494</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,731</td> <td class="tcr rb">268,916</td> <td class="tcr rb">282.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Saxe-Altenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">511</td> <td class="tcr rb">142,122</td> <td class="tcr rb">145,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">194,914</td> <td class="tcr rb">206,508</td> <td class="tcr rb">404.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha</td> <td class="tcr rb">764</td> <td class="tcr rb">174,339</td> <td class="tcr rb">182,599</td> <td class="tcr rb">229,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">242,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">317.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Anhalt</td> <td class="tcr rb">888</td> <td class="tcr rb">203,437</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,565</td> <td class="tcr rb">316,085</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,029</td> <td class="tcr rb">369.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principalities—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Schwartzburg-Sondershausen</td> <td class="tcr rb">333</td> <td class="tcr rb">75,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,676</td> <td class="tcr rb">80,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,152</td> <td class="tcr rb">255.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt</td> <td class="tcr rb">363</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,191</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,480</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,059</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">266.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Waldeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">433</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,743</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,918</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,127</td> <td class="tcr rb">136.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Reuss-Greiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,094</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,985</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,396</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,603</td> <td class="tcr rb">578.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Reuss-Schleiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">319</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,032</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">144,584</td> <td class="tcr rb">453.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Schaumburg-Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,059</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,133</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">44,992</td> <td class="tcr rb">343.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">469</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,135</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,452</td> <td class="tcr rb">138,952</td> <td class="tcr rb">145,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">310.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Free Towns—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Lübeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,158</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,912</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,775</td> <td class="tcr rb">105,857</td> <td class="tcr rb">920.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Bremen</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,402</td> <td class="tcr rb">142,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">224,882</td> <td class="tcr rb">263,440</td> <td class="tcr rb">2661.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Hamburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">160</td> <td class="tcr rb">338,974</td> <td class="tcr rb">388,618</td> <td class="tcr rb">768,349</td> <td class="tcr rb">874,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">5467.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imperial Territory—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Alsace-Lorraine</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,604</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,549,738</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,531,804</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,719,470</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,814,564</td> <td class="tcr rb">323.8</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">German Empire</td> <td class="tcr allb">208,780</td> <td class="tcr allb">41,058,792</td> <td class="tcr allb">42,727,360</td> <td class="tcr allb">56,367,178</td> <td class="tcr allb">60,641,278</td> <td class="tcr allb">290.4</td></tr> +</table> + + +<table class="pt2" summary="Illustration"><tr><td><img style="width:436px; height:630px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img808a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td><img style="width:444px; height:630px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img808b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img808c.jpg">(Click to enlarge left side.)</a></p> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img808d.jpg">(Click to enlarge right side.)</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">The population of the empire has thus increased, since 1871, by +19,582,486 or 47.6%. The increase of population during 1895-1900 +was greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Saxony, Prussia +and Baden, and least in Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Waldeck. Of the +total population in 1900, 54.3% was urban (<i>i.e.</i> living in towns of +2000 inhabitants and above), leaving 45.7% to be classified as rural. +On the 1st of December 1905, of the total population 29,884,681 +were males and 30,756,597 females; and it is noticeable that the +male population shows of late years a larger relative increase than +the female, the male population having in five years increased by +2,147,434 and the female by only 2,126,666. The greater increase +in the male population is attributable to diminished emigration +and to the large increase in immigrants, who are mostly males. +In 1905, 485,906 marriages were contracted in Germany, being at the +rate of 8.0 per thousand inhabitants. In the same year the total +number of births was 2,048,453. Of these, 61,300 were stillborn +and 174,494 illegitimate, being at the rate, respectively, of 3% +and 8.5% of the total. Illegitimacy is highest in Bavaria (about +15%), Berlin (14%), and over 12% in Saxony, Mecklenburg-Schwerin +and Saxe-Meiningen. It is lowest in the Rhine Province +and Westphalia (3.9 and 2.6 respectively). Divorce is steadily on +the increase, being in 1904, 11.1 per 10,000 marriages, as against +8.1, 8.1, 9.3 and 10.1 for the four preceding years. The average +deaths for the years 1901-1905 amounted to 1,227,903; the rate was +thus 20.2 per thousand inhabitants, but the death-rate has materially +decreased, the total number of deaths in 1907 standing at 1,178,349; +the births for the same year were 2,060,974. In connexion with +suicides, it is interesting to observe that the highest rates prevail +in some of the smaller and more prosperous states of the empire—for +example, in Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg +(on a three years’ average of figures), while the Roman +Catholic country Bavaria, and the impoverished Prussian province +of Posen show the most favourable statistics. For Prussia the rate +is 20, and for Saxony it is as high as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants. +The large cities, notably Berlin, Hamburg, Breslau and Dresden, +show, however, relatively the largest proportion.</p> + +<p>In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted +to 51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there +were: Polish, 3,086,489; French (mostly in Lorraine), 211,679; +Masurian, 142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305; +Cassubian, 100,213; Wendish, 93,032; Dutch, 80,361; Italian, +65,961; Moravian, 64,382; Czech, 43,016; Frisian, 20,677; +English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. In 1905 there were resident +within the empire 1,028,560 subjects of foreign states, as compared +with 778,698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were subjects of Great Britain +and Ireland, 17,184 of the United States of America and 20,584 of +France. The bulk of the other foreigners residing in the country +belonged to countries lying contiguous, such as Austria, which +claimed nearly the half, Russia and Italy.</p> + +<p><i>Languages.</i>—The German-speaking nations in their various +branches and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons, +extend in a compact mass along the shores of the Baltic and of the +North Sea, from Memel in the east to a point between Gravelines +and Calais near the Straits of Dover. On this northern line the +Germans come in contact with the Danes who inhabit the northern +parts of Schleswig within the limits of the German empire. A line +from Flensburg south-westward to Joldelund and thence northwestward +to Hoyer will nearly give the boundary between the two +idioms.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The German-French frontier traverses Belgium from west +to east, touching the towns of St Omer, Courtrai and Maastricht. +Near Eupen, south of Aix-la-Chapelle, it turns southward, and near +Arlon south-east as far as the crest of the Vosges mountains, which +it follows up to Belfort, traversing there the watershed of the Rhine +and the Doubs. In the Swiss territory the line of demarcation +passes through Bienne, Fribourg, Saanen, Leuk and Monte Rosa. +In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhaeto-Romans +and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein +and the Engadine, while the latter have settled on the southern slopes +of the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the +Adige. Carinthia and Styria are inhabited by German people, except +the valley of the Drave towards Klagenfurt. Their eastern neighbours +there are first the Magyars, then the northern Slavs and the +Poles. The whole eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot +be described in a few words. Besides detached German colonies in +Hungary proper, there is a considerable and compact German (Saxon) +population in Transylvania. The river March is the frontier north +of the Danube from Pressburg as far as Brünn, to the north of which +the German regions begin near Olmütz, the interior of Bohemia and +Moravia being occupied by Czechs and Moravians. In these countries +the Slav language has been steadily superseding the German. In +the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen the eastern parts are +mixed territories, the German language progressing very slowly +among the Poles. In Bromberg and Thorn, in the valley of the +Vistula, German is prevalent. In West Prussia some parts of the +interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian frontier, +are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia, Masurians in +East Prussia). The total number of German-speaking people, +within the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mass +of the population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be +included, at 65 millions.</p> + +<p>The geographical limits of the German language thus do not quite +coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about +3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> millions of persons who do not make use of German in everyday +life, not counting the resident foreigners.</p> + +<p>Apart from the foreigners above mentioned, German subjects +speaking a tongue other than German are found only in Prussia, +Saxony and Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly +the distribution of German-speaking people in the world outside +the German empire:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">Other European Countries</td> <td class="tcr">2,300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Netherlands (Dutch)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,200,000</td> <td class="tcl">America</td> <td class="tcr">13,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium (Walloon)</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">Asia</td> <td class="tcr">100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl">Africa</td> <td class="tcr">600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,300,000</td> <td class="tcl">Australia</td> <td class="tcr">150,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">500,000</td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were +51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374 +speaking two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to +the census of 1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lusatia. +With respect to Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census) +gave the number of French in the territory of Lorraine at about +170,000, and in that of Alsace at about 46,000.</p> + +<p>The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of +births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces +of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polonization of +many Germans through clerical and other influences (see <i>History</i>). +The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district +of Oppeln; 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are +numerous in West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14%).</p> + +<p>The Wends are decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians +on the eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs are only found in +Silesia on the confines of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Russians flocked to Germany in thousands after the Russo-Japanese +War and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900 +had been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various +nationalities, with the exception of the British, the larger proportion of +whom are females either in domestic service or engaged in tuition.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>—According to the results of the census of the 1st +of December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with +populations exceeding 100,000, viz.:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">State.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Population.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,040,148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">802,793</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bavaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">538,393</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dresden</td> <td class="tcl rb">Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,996</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leipzig</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">502,570</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">470,751</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cologne</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">428,503</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Frankfort-on-Main</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">334,951</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nuremberg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bavaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">294,344</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Düsseldorf</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">253,099</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hanover</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,032</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stuttgart</td> <td class="tcl rb">Württemberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,443</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chemnitz</td> <td class="tcl rb">Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">244,405</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magdeburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">240,661</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Charlottenburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">239,512</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Essen</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">231,396</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stettin</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">224,078</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königsberg</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">219,862</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,953</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duisburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,227</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dortmund</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">175,575</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Halle</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">169,899</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Altona</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">168,301</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strassburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Alsace-Lorraine</td> <td class="tcr rb">167,342</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kiel</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">163,710</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Elberfeld</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">162,682</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mannheim</td> <td class="tcl rb">Baden</td> <td class="tcr rb">162,607</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Danzig</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">159,685</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Barmen</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">156,148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rixdorf</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">153,650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gelsenkirchen</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,037</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aix-la-Chapelle</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">143,906</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schöneberg</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">140,992</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brunswick</td> <td class="tcl rb">Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">136,423</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Posen</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">137,067</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cassel</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,446</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bochum</td> <td class="tcl rb">   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,455</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karlsruhe</td> <td class="tcl rb">Baden</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Crefeld</td> <td class="tcl rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,347</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Plauen</td> <td class="tcl rb">Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">105,182</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Wiesbaden</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100,953</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span></p> + +<p><i>Density of Population.</i>—In respect of density of population, +Germany with (1900) 269.9 and (1905) 290.4 inhabitants to the +square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and +England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and +Lübeck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz +the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most +thinly populated districts are found, not as might be expected in +the mountain regions, but in some parts of the plains. Leaving out +of account the small centres, Germany may be roughly divided into +two thinly and two densely populated parts. In the former division +has to be classed all the North German plain. There it is only in the +valleys of the larger navigable rivers and on the southern border +of the plain that the density exceeds 200 inhabitants per square mile. +In some places, indeed, it is far greater, <i>e.g.</i> at the mouths of the +Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein, in the delta of the Memel and +the environs of Hamburg. This region is bordered on the south by +a densely peopled district, the northern boundary of which may be +defined by a line from Coburg via Cassel to Münster, for in this part +there are not only very fertile districts, such as the <i>Goldene Aue</i> in +Thuringia, but also centres of industry. The population is thickest +in upper Silesia around Beuthen (coal-fields), around Ratibor, Neisse +and Waldenburg (coal-fields), around Zittau (kingdom of Saxony), +in the Elbe valley around Dresden, in the districts of Zwickau and +Leipzig as far as the Saale, on the northern slopes of the Harz and +around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds +400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises +to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the +Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and +Würzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division +embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Neckar and the district +of Düsseldorf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion exceeds +1200 inhabitants to the square mile.</p> + +<p><i>Emigration.</i>—There have been great oscillations in the actual +emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the Franco-German +War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years +1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than +1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those +who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated +at more than 4,500,000. The number of German emigrants to +Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52,000. The greater +number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural +provinces of northern Germany—West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, +Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the +emigration reached 1% of the total population of these provinces. +In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly +decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But to this +number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were +shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to +distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German +emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to +Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674 to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other +parts of America; 57 to Africa; and 84 to Australia.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Despite the enormous development of industries +and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent +in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth. +Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures +and meadows, and of the whole area, in 1900, 91% was classed +as productive. Of the total area 47.67% was occupied by land +under tillage, 0.89% by gardens, 11.02% by meadow-land, +5.01% by pastures, and 0.25% by vineyards. The largest estates +are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and +Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine +province, in Baden and Württemberg small farms are the rule.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the +empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the +north and east rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts are +added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice-wheat, lesser spelt and maize. +In general the soil is remarkably well cultivated. The three years’ +rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and +fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in +some districts, where the system has been modified and improved. +In south Germany the so-called <i>Fruchtwechsel</i> is practised, the fields +being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or +beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c., in the intermediate years. +In north Germany the mixed <i>Koppelwirthschaft</i> is the rule, by which +system, after several years of grain crops, the ground is for two or +three seasons in pasture.</p> + +<p>Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat +amounted to 3,550,033 tons (metric), rye to 9,296,616 tons, barley +to 3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7,160,883 tons. But, in spite of this +considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot cover her home +consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900-1905 +about 4½ million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency. +The potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for distillation +into spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially in +eastern Germany. The number of distilleries throughout the +German empire was, in 1905-1906, 68,405. The common beet +(<i>Beta vulgaris</i>) is largely grown in some districts for the production of +sugar, which has greatly increased of recent years. There are two +centres of the beet sugar production: Magdeburg for the districts +Prussian Saxony, Hanover, Brunswick, Anhalt and Thuringia, +and Frankfort-on-Oder at the centre of the group Silesia, Brandenburg +and Pomerania. Flax and hemp are cultivated, though not so +much as formerly, for manufacture into linen and canvas, and also +rape seed for the production of oil. The home supply of the former +no longer suffices for the native demand. The cultivation of hops +is in a very thriving condition in the southern states of Germany. +The soil occupied by hops was estimated in 1905 at 98,000 acres—a +larger area than in Great Britain, which had in the same year about +48,000 acres. The total production of hops was 29,000 tons in 1905, +and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden +and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops is consumed +in the country by the great breweries.</p> + +<p>Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable object of culture +in many districts. The total extent under this crop in 1905 was about +35,000 acres, of which 45% was in Baden, 12% in Bavaria, 30% +in Prussia, and the rest in Alsace and Hesse-Darmstadt. In the +north the plant is cultivated principally in Pomerania, Brandenburg +and East and West Prussia. Of late years the production has somewhat +diminished, owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturing +industries of Bremen and Hamburg, which import almost exclusively +foreign leaves.</p> + +<p>Ulm, Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Guben +are famed for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for +its flower nurseries, the Rhine valley, Württemberg and the Elbe +valley below Dresden for fruit, and Frankfort-on-main for cider.</p> + +<p>The culture of the vine is almost confined to southern and western +Germany, and especially to the Rhine district. The northern limits +of its growth extend from Bonn in a north-easterly +direction through Cassel to the southern foot of the +<span class="sidenote">Vine.</span> +Harz, crossing 52° N. on the Elbe, running then east some miles to +the north of that parallel, and finally turning sharply towards the +south-west on the Warthe. In the valley of the Saale and Elbe +(near Dresden), and in lower Silesia (between Guben and Grünberg), +the number of vineyards is small, and the wines of inferior quality; +but along the Rhine from Basel to Coblenz, in Alsace, Baden, the +Palatinate and Hesse, and above all in the province of Nassau, the +lower slopes of the hills are literally covered with vines. Here are +produced the celebrated Rüdesheimer, Hochheimer and Johannisberger. +The vines of the lower Main, particularly those of Würzburg, +are the best kinds; those of the upper Main and the valley of the +Neckar are rather inferior. The Moselle wines are lighter and more +acid than those of the Rhine. The total amount produced in +Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a value of £4,000,000; +Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden, 175; Bavaria, +Württemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the remainder, which +though small in quantity is in quality the best, is produced by +Prussia.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly +improved in recent times and is in a highly prosperous condition. +The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Hanover +(especially the marsh-lands near the sea) and the grand-duchy +<span class="sidenote">Live stock.</span> +of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are particularly remarkable +in this respect. The best meadow-lands of Bavaria are in the +province of Franconia and in the outer range of the Alps, and those +of Saxony in the Erzgebirge. Württemberg, Hesse and Thuringia +also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large cattle-rearing +centres not only supply the home markets but export live stock in +considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is also +largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from +Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has +attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West +Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some +parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia, +lower Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnen +in East Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy +a European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shown +a considerable falling off, and the rearing of them is mostly carried +on only on large estates, the number showing only 9,692,501 in 1900, +and 7,907,200 in 1904, as against 28,000,000 in 1860. As a rule, +sheep-farming is resorted to where the soil is of inferior quality and +unsuitable for tillage and the breeding of cattle. Far more attention +is accordingly given to sheep-farming in northern and north-eastern +Germany than in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, the Rhineland +and south Germany. The native demand for wool is not covered by +the home production, and in this article the export from the United +Kingdom to Germany is steadily rising, having amounted in 1905 +to a value of £1,691,035, as against £742,632 in 1900. The largest +stock of pigs is in central Germany and Saxony, in Westphalia, on +the lower Rhine, in Lorraine and Hesse. Central Germany (especially +Gotha and Brunswick) exports sausages and hams largely, as +well as Westphalia, but here again considerable importation takes +place from other countries. Goats are found everywhere, but especially +in the hilly districts. Poultry farming is a considerable industry, +the geese of Pomerania and the fowls of Thuringia and Lorraine being +in especial favour. Bee-keeping is of considerable importance, +particularly in north Germany and Silesia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span></p> + +<p>On the whole, despite the prosperous condition of the German +live-stock farming, the consumption of meat exceeds the amount +rendered available by home production, and prices can only be kept +down by a steady increase in the imports from abroad.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries.</i>—The German fisheries, long of little importance, have +been carefully fostered within recent years. The deep-sea fishing +in the North Sea, thanks to the exertions of the German fishing league +(<i>Deutscher Fischereiverein</i>) and to government support, is extremely +active. Trawlers are extensively employed, and steamers bring the +catches directly to the large fish markets at Geestemünde and Altona, +whence facilities are afforded by the railways for the rapid transport +of fish to Berlin and other centres. The fish mostly caught are cod, +haddock and herrings, while Heligoland yields lobsters, and the +islands of Föhr, Amrum and Sylt oysters of good quality. The +German North Sea fishing fleet numbered in 1905 618 boats, with +an aggregate crew of 5441 hands. Equally well developed are the +Baltic fisheries, the chief ports engaged in which are Danzig, Eckernförde, +Kolberg and Travemünde. The principal catch is haddock +and herrings. The catch of the North Sea and Baltic fisheries in +1906 was valued at over £700,000, exclusive of herrings for salting. +The fisheries do not, however, supply the demand for fish, and fresh, +salt and dried fish is imported largely in excess of the home yield.</p> + +<p><i>Mines and Minerals.</i>—Germany abounds in minerals, and the +extraordinary industrial development of the country since 1870 is +largely due to its mineral wealth. Having left France much behind +in this respect, it now rivals Great Britain and the United States.</p> + +<p>Germany produces more silver than any other European state, +and the quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the +ores in the mines of Freiburg (Saxony), the Harz Mountains, upper +Silesia, Merseburg, Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden and Arnsberg. +Gold is found in the sand of the rivers Isar, Inn and Rhine, and also, +to a limited extent, on the Harz. The quantity yielded in 1905 was, +of silver, about 400 tons of a value of £1,600,000, and gold, about 4 +tons, valued at about £548,000.</p> + +<p>Lead is produced in considerable quantities in upper Silesia, the +Harz Mountains, in the Prussian province of Nassau, in the Saxon +Erzgebirge and in the Sauerland. The yield in 1905 amounted to +about 153,000 tons; of which 20,000 tons were exported.</p> + +<p>Copper is found principally in the Mansfeld district of the Prussian +province of Saxony and near Arnsberg in the Sauerland, the ore +yielding 31,713 tons in 1905, of which 5000 tons were exported.</p> + +<p>About 90% of the zinc produced in Europe is yielded by Belgium +and Germany. It is mostly found in upper Silesia, around Beuthen, +and in the districts of Wiesbaden and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1905 +no less than 198,000 tons of block zinc were produced, of which 16,500 +tons were exported.</p> + +<p>Of other minerals (with the exceptions of coal, iron and salt treated +below) nickel and antimony are found in the upper Harz; cobalt in +the hilly districts of Hesse and the Saxon Erzgebirge; arsenic in the +Riesengebirge; quicksilver in the Sauerland and in the spurs of the +Saarbrücken coal hills; graphite in Bavaria; porcelain clay in +Saxony and Silesia; amber along the whole Baltic coast; and lime +and gypsum in almost all parts.</p> + +<p>Coal-mining appears to have been first practised in the 14th century +at Zwickau (Saxony) and on the Ruhr. There are six large coal-fields, +occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which +the most important occupies the basin of the Ruhr, its +<span class="sidenote">Coal.</span> +extent being estimated at 2800 sq. m. Here there are more than +60 beds, of a total thickness of 150 to 200 ft. of coal; and the amount +in the pits has been estimated at 45,000 millions of tons. Smaller +fields are found near Osnabrück, Ibbenbüren and Minden, and a +larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar coal-field, within the +area enclosed by the rivers Saar, Nahe and Blies (460 sq. m.), is of +great importance. The thickness of 80 beds amounts to 250 ft., +and the total mass of coal is estimated at 45,400 million tons. The +greater part of the basin belongs to Prussia, the rest to Lorraine. +A still larger field exists in the upper Silesian basin, on the borderland +between Austria and Poland, containing about 50,000 million +tons. Beuthen is the chief centre. The Silesian coal-fields have a +second centre in Waldenburg, east of the Riesengebirge. The Saxon +coal-fields stretch eastwards for some miles from Zwickau. Deposits +of less consequence are found in upper Bavaria, upper Franconia, +Baden, the Harz and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the rapidly increasing development +of the coal production. That of lignite is added, the provinces of +Saxony and Brandenburg being rich in this product:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Production of Coal and Lignite.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Coal.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Lignite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Quantities.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hands.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Quantities.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Value.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hands.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Mill. Tons.</td> <td class="tcr rb">Mill. Mks.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">Mill. Tons.</td> <td class="tcr rb">Mill. Mks.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">218.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">252.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">180,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">589.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">283,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">35,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">101.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">789.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">379,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">78.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">44,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">109.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">966.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">414,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">98.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">50,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">121.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1049.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">490,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">52.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">122.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">52,800</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This production permits a considerable export of coal to the west +and south of the empire, but the distance from the coal-fields to +the German coast is such that the import of British coal cannot yet +be dispensed with (1905, over 7,000,000 tons). Besides this, from +7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons of lignite come annually from Bohemia. +In north Germany peat is also of importance as a fuel; the area of +the peat moors in Prussia is estimated at 8000 sq. m., of which 2000 +are in the north of Hanover.</p> + +<p>The iron-fields of Germany fall into three main groups: those of +the lower Rhine and Westphalia, of which Dortmund and Düsseldorf +are the centres; those of Lorraine and the Saar; and those of upper +Silesia. The output of the ore has enormously increased of recent +years, and the production of pig iron, as given for 1905, amounted +to 10,875,000 tons of a value of £28,900,000.</p> + +<p>Germany possesses abundant salt deposits. The actual production +not only covers the home consumption, but also allows a yearly +increasing exportation, especially to Russia, Austria and Scandinavia. +The provinces of Saxony and Hanover, with Thuringia and Anhalt, +produce half the whole amount. A large salt-work is found at +Strzalkowo (Posen), and smaller ones near Dortmund, Lippstadt +and Minden (Westphalia). In south Germany salt abounds most +in Württemberg (Hall, Heilbronn, Rottweil); the principal Bavarian +works are at the foot of the Alps near Freilassing and Rosenheim. +Hesse and Baden, Lorraine and the upper Palatinate have also salt-works. +The total yield of mined salt amounted in 1905 to 6,209,000 +tons, including 1,165,000 tons of rock salt. The production has +made great advance, having in 1850 been only 5 million cwts.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—In no other country of the world has the +manufacturing industry made such rapid strides within recent +years as in Germany. This extraordinary development of +industrial energy embraces practically all classes of manufactured +articles. In a general way the chief manufactures may be +geographically distributed as follows. Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, +Bavaria and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron manufacture. +Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predominant +in the production of textiles, though Silesia and Westphalia +manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely produced in +Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine and Württemberg, woollens +and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine province, silk in Rhenish +Prussia (Elberfeld), Alsace and Baden. Glass and porcelain +are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Saxony; tobacco +in Bremen and Hamburg; chemicals in the Prussian province +of Saxony; watches in Saxony (Glashütte) and Nuremberg; +toys in Bavaria; gold and silver filagree in Berlin and Aschaffenburg; +and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is perhaps more in respect of its iron industry than of its other +manufactures that Germany has attained a leading position in the +markets of the world. Its chief centres are in Westphalia +and the Rhine province (<i>auf roter Erde</i>), in upper Silesia, +<span class="sidenote">Iron industry.</span> +in Alsace-Lorraine and in Saxony. Of the total production +of pig iron in 1905 amounting to over 10,000,000 tons, more than the +half was produced in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Huge blast +furnaces are in constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and +steel is constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance +has been made. The greater part of it is produced at or +around Essen, where are the famous Krupp works, and Bochum. +Many states have been for a considerable time supplied by Krupp +with steel guns and battleship plates. The export of steel (railway) +rails and bridges from this part is steadily on the increase.</p> + +<p>Hardware also, the production of which is centred in Solingen, +Heilbronn, Esslingen, &c., is largely exported. Germany stands +second to Great Britain in the manufacture of machines and engines. +There are in many large cities of north Germany extensive establishments +for this purpose, but the industry is not limited to the large +cities. In agricultural machinery Germany is a serious competitor +with England. The locomotives and wagons for the German railways +are almost exclusively built in Germany; and Russia, as well as +Austria, receives large supplies of railway plant from German works. +In shipbuilding, likewise, Germany is practically independent, +yards having been established for the construction of the largest +vessels.</p> + +<p>Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France +exceeded that in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture +is pursued largely in Alsace, the balance is now +against the former country. In 1905 there +<span class="sidenote">Cotton and textiles.</span> +were about 9,000,000 spindles in Germany. The +export of the goods manufactured amounted in +this year to an estimated value of £19,600,000. Cotton +spinning and weaving are not confined to one district, but +are prosecuted in upper Alsace (Mülhausen, Gebweiler, +Colmar), in Saxony (Zwickau, Chemnitz, Annaberg), in +Silesia (Breslau, Liegnitz), in the Rhine province (Düsseldorf, +Münster, Cologne), in Erfurt and Hanover, in +Württemberg (Reutlingen, Cannstatt), in Baden, Bavaria +(Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth) and in the Palatinate.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span></p> + +<p>Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home production +of these materials is not sufficient to meet the demand of +manufactures, and large quantities of them have to be imported. +In 1895 almost a million persons (half of them women) were employed +in this branch of industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin +and flannel manufacture was estimated at £18,000,000. The chief +seats of this manufacture are the Rhenish districts of Aix-la-Chapelle, +Düren, Eupen and Lennep, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower +Lusatia, the chief centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Spremberg, +Sagan and Sommerfeld.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials +centres mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace. +Furniture covers, table covers and plush are made in Elberfeld and +Chemnitz, in Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elberfeld +and Barmen); shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland; +carpets in Berlin, Barmen and Silesia. In the town of Schmiedeberg +in the last district, as also in Cottbus (Lusatia), oriental patterns are +successfully imitated. The chief seats of the stocking manufacture +are Chemnitz and Zwickau in Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia. +The export of woollen goods from Germany in 1905 amounted to +a value of £13,000,000.</p> + +<p>Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of +manufacture, Germany is now left far behind in this industry by +Great Britain, France and Austria-Hungary. This branch of textile +manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia, Saxony +and Württemberg, while Hirschberg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia +and Zittau in Saxony are noted for the excellence of their productions. +The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly, coarse in texture, +vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of Belfast. In the +textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in 1905, 276,000 fine +spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms in operation, +and, in 1905, linen and jute materials were exported of an estimated +value of over £2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the principal +centres of which are Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg, has of +late attained considerable dimensions.</p> + +<p>Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the +empire, and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by +importation. The main centre of the silk industry is Crefeld and its +neighbourhood; then come Elberfeld and Barmen, Aix-la-Chapelle, +as well as Berlin, Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district +around Mülhausen in Alsace.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of paper is prosecuted almost everywhere in the +empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895, and the exports +in 1905 amounted to more than £3,700,000 sterling, as +<span class="sidenote">Paper.</span> +against imports of a value of over £700,000. The manufacture +is carried on to the largest extent in the Rhine province, in +Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers are produced chiefly in Rhenish +Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer sorts of letter-paper in +Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg; and printing-paper (especially for +books) in Leipzig, Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main.</p> + +<p>The chief seat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in +which Mainz and Worms produce excellent material. In Prussia +large factories are in operation in the Rhine province, in +<span class="sidenote">Leather.</span> +Westphalia and Silesia (Brieg). Boot and shoe manufactures +are carried on everywhere; but the best goods are produced +by Mainz and Pirmasens. Gloves for export are extensively made in +Württemberg, and Offenbach and Aschaffenburg are renowned for +fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the like.</p> + +<p>Berlin and Mainz are celebrated for the manufacture of furniture; +Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for +pencils; Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes; and +Cologne for the famous eau-de-Cologne.</p> + +<p>The beetroot sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres +mainly in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the +<span class="sidenote">Sugar.</span> +chief market for the whole of Germany, in Anhalt, Brunswick +and Silesia. The number of factories was, in 1905, +376, and the amount of raw sugar and molasses produced amounted +to 2,643,531 metric tons, and of refined sugar 1,711,063 tons.</p> + +<p>Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The production +is relatively greatest in Bavaria. The <i>Brausteuergebiet</i> +(beer excise district) embraces all the states forming the +Zollverein, with the exception of Bavaria, Württemberg, +Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which countries the excise duties are +<span class="sidenote">Beer.</span> +separately collected. The total number of breweries in the beer +excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995, which produced 1017 million +gallons; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries with 392 million gallons; +in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million gallons; in Württemberg +over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons; and in Alsace-Lorraine +95 breweries with about 29 million gallons. The amount +brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly to +160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 in +Württemberg; 260 in Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It may +be remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darker +colour than that produced in other states, and extra strong brews +are exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The rapid development of German trade dates +from the <i>Zollverein</i> (customs union), under the special rules +and regulations of which it is administered. The Zollverein +emanates from a convention originally entered into, in 1828, +between Prussia and Hesse, which, subsequently joined by the +Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of Saxony and the +Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the countries +concerned, on the 1st of January 1834. With progressive +territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embracing +the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the +German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m., +with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition +was in October 1888, when Hamburg and Bremen were incorporated. +Included within it, besides the grand-duchy of +Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and +Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories +of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven and Geestemünde, +Heligoland, and small portions of the districts of Constance +and Waldshut, lying on the Baden Swiss frontier. Down to +1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade country. In this +year, however, a rigid protective system was introduced by the +<i>Zolltarifgesetz</i>, since modified by the commercial treaties between +Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium, +of the 1st of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the +25th of December 1902. The foreign commercial relations +of Germany were again altered by the general and conventional +customs tariff, which came into force on the 1st of March 1906. +The Zolltarifgesetz of the 15th of July 1879, while restricting +the former free import, imposed considerable duties. Exempt +from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific instruments, +ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four articles—notably +beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish oils, +ether, alum and soda—were unaffected by the change, while +duties were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles +which had previously been admitted duty free, such as pig iron, +machines and locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow, horses, +cattle and sheep; and, again, the tariff law further increased +the duties leviable upon numerous other articles. Export duties +were abolished in 1865 and transit dues in 1861. The law under +which Great Britain enjoyed the “most favoured nation treatment” +expired on the 31st of December 1905, but its provisions +were continued by the <i>Bundesrat</i> until further notice. The +average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany under +the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission +of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce +and other sources. There are separate valuations for imports +and exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment +of crossing the frontier. For imports the price does not include +customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, warehousing, &c., +incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price +includes all charges within the territory, but drawbacks and +bounties are not taken into account. The quantities are determined +according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports, +the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For +packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence +goods are imported and the ultimate destination of exports are +registered. The import dues amounted in the year 1906, the +first year of the revised tariff, to about £31,639,000, or about +10s. 5d. per head of population.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire are necessarily +confined to comparatively recent times. The quantities of such +imported articles as are liable to duty have, indeed, been known +for many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing +the value both of imports and of exports. But when the results +of these tables proved the importation to be very much greater +than the exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of the +exports was erroneous and below the reality. In 1872 the value of the +imports was placed at £173,400,000 and that of the exports at +£124,700,000. In 1905 the figures were—imports, £371,000,000, +and exports, £292,000,000, including precious metals.</p> +</div> + +<p>Table A following shows the classification of goods adopted +before the tariff revision of 1906. From 1907 a new classification +has been adopted, and the change thus introduced is so great +that it is impossible to make any comparisons between the +statistics of years subsequent to and preceding the year 1906. +Table B shows imports and exports for 1907 and 1908 according +to the new classification adopted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table A.</span>—<i>Classes of Imports and Exports, 1905.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Import.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Export.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Refuse</td> <td class="tcr rb">£6,866,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,170,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cotton and cottons</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,488,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,949,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lead and by-products</td> <td class="tcr rb">996,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">979,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brush and sieve makers’ goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">515,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Drugs, chemists’ and oilmen’s colours</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,896,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,196,250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Iron and iron goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,156,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,126,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ores, precious metals, asbestos, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,834,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,899,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flax and other vegetable spinning</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  materials except cotton</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,794,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,235,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grain and agricultural produce</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,136,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,496,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glass</td> <td class="tcr rb">538,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,743,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hair, feathers, bristles</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,218,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,848,150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Skins</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,965,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,548,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wood and wooden wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,940,850</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,056,150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hops</td> <td class="tcr rb">913,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,135,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Instruments, machines, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,351,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,898,250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Calendars</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Caoutchouc, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,379,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,616,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Clothes, body linen, millinery</td> <td class="tcr rb">739,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,321,050</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Copper and copper goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,273,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,307,050</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hardware, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,042,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,610,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leather and leather goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,567,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,665,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Linens</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,750,100</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,904,950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Candles</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">42,350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Literary and works of art</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,066,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,025,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Groceries and confectionery</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,446,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,585,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fats and oils</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,510,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,631,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paper goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,086,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,158,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Furs</td> <td class="tcr rb">265,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">720,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Petroleum</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,036,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Silks and silk goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,523,300</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,889,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Soap and perfumes</td> <td class="tcr rb">151,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">768,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Playing cards</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stone goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,822,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,110,550</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coal, lignite, coke and peat</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,136,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,096,450</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Straw and hemp goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">561,650</td> <td class="tcr rb">262,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tar, pitch, resin</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,504,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">834,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Animals, and animal products</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,926,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">590,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Earthenware goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">391,650</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,076,350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cattle</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,366,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">725,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oilcloth</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">177,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wools and woollen textiles</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,290,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,562,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Zinc and zinc goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">682,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,413,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tin and japanned goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,770,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">744,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Goods insufficiently declared</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">806,300</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total.</td> <td class="tcr allb">£352,317,250</td> <td class="tcr allb">£284,626,900</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table B.</span>—<i>Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Groups of Articles.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Exports.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Value in £1000.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Value in £1000.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1908.*</td> <td class="tcc allb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1908.*</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Agricultural and forest produce**</td> <td class="tcr rb">215,532</td> <td class="tcr rb">205,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,796</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,324</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Agricultural produce***</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,954</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,369</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,168</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Colonial produce and substitutes for the same</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,151</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,328</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Southern fruit and fruit peel</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,214</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,262</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Forest produce</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,066</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,967</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Resins</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,216</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,209</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,325</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Animals and animal products**</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,283</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,794</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,676</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Hides and skins</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,920</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,699</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,383</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,453</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Meat, oil, sugar, beverages</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,284</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,048</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mineral and fossil raw materials, mineral oils</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,575</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,208</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Earths and stones</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,541</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,542</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,006</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Ores, slag, cinders</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,465</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,451</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,407</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,206</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Mineral fuel</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,895</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,910</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,445</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,020</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Mineral oils and other fossil raw materials</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,168</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,209</td> <td class="tcr rb">558</td> <td class="tcr rb">491</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Coal-tar, coal-tar oils</td> <td class="tcr rb">506</td> <td class="tcr rb">428</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,506</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,485</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chemical and pharmaceutical products, colours</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,784</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,850</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,116</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,845</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Chemical primary materials, acids, salts</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,226</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,661</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,832</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Colours and dyeing materials</td> <td class="tcr rb">951</td> <td class="tcr rb">879</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,518</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Varnish, lacquer</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb">158</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">221</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Ether, alcohol not included elsewhere,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  essential oils, perfumery and cosmetics</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,979</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,918</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,118</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,004</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Artificial manures</td> <td class="tcr rb">992</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,001</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,303</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,236</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Explosives of all kinds</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,269</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Other chemical and pharmaceutical products</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,361</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,270</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,586</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,765</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Animal and vegetable textile</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  materials and wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,105</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,086</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,343</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Silk and silk goods</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,533</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,324</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,364</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wool</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,260</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,195</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,114</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,918</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Unworked wool</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,975</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,309</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,647</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,561</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Worked wool</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,625</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,961</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,799</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,393</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Wares of spun wool</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,925</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,964</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Cotton</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,543</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,456</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,004</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,201</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Unworked cotton</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,705</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,167</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,264</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,987</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Worked cotton</td> <td class="tcr rb">980</td> <td class="tcr rb">950</td> <td class="tcr rb">912</td> <td class="tcr rb">891</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Cotton wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,858</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,338</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,828</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,324</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Other vegetable textile materials</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,783</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,411</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,471</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Unworked</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,923</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,819</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,125</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,211</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Worked</td> <td class="tcr rb">166</td> <td class="tcr rb">168</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,685</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,423</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,531</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,124</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leather and leather wares, furriers’ wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,695</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,657</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,778</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,835</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Leather</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,658</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,804</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,503</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,328</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Leather wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,332</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,176</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,016</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,867</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Furriers’ wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,698</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,237</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,616</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Caoutchouc wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">694</td> <td class="tcr rb">754</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,328</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,325</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wares of soft caoutchouc</td> <td class="tcr rb">670</td> <td class="tcr rb">735</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,694</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,723</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Hardened caoutchouc and wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">634</td> <td class="tcr rb">602</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wares of animal or vegetable material for</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  carving or moulding</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,448</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,068</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,260</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,131</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wooden wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">859</td> <td class="tcr rb">769</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,707</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,666</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paper, cardboard and wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,349</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,205</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,342</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,111</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Books, pictures, paintings</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,992</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,765</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Earthenware</td> <td class="tcr rb">467</td> <td class="tcr rb">377</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,612</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glass and glassware</td> <td class="tcr rb">747</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,671</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,149</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Precious metals and wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,281</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,243</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,858</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Gold</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,616</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,151</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Gold</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,184</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,071</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,897</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Gold wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">432</td> <td class="tcr rb">422</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,827</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,254</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Silver</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,948</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,731</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,707</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Silver</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,434</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,716</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,418</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Silver wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">231</td> <td class="tcr rb">232</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,525</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,289</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Base metals and wares thereof</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,035</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,398</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,146</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Iron and iron wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,903</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,472</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,899</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,162</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Pig iron (including non-malleable alloys)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">912</td> <td class="tcr rb">966</td> <td class="tcr rb">905</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Iron wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,302</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,560</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,933</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,257</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Aluminium and aluminium wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">546</td> <td class="tcr rb">453</td> <td class="tcr rb">368</td> <td class="tcr rb">273</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Raw aluminium</td> <td class="tcr rb">529</td> <td class="tcr rb">433</td> <td class="tcr rb">152</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Aluminium wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb">196</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Lead and lead wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,438</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,484</td> <td class="tcr rb">945</td> <td class="tcr rb">985</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Raw lead (including waste)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,427</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,470</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">568</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Lead wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">420</td> <td class="tcr rb">417</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Zinc and zinc wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">727</td> <td class="tcr rb">847</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,433</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,489</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Raw zinc (including waste)</td> <td class="tcr rb">706</td> <td class="tcr rb">825</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,631</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,784</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Zinc wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">802</td> <td class="tcr rb">705</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Tin and tin wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,405</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,380</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,236</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Raw tin (including waste)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,581</td> <td class="tcr rb">787</td> <td class="tcr rb">688</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Tin wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">593</td> <td class="tcr rb">548</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Nickel and nickel wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb">540</td> <td class="tcr rb">246</td> <td class="tcr rb">298</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Raw nickel</td> <td class="tcr rb">375</td> <td class="tcr rb">527</td> <td class="tcr rb">160</td> <td class="tcr rb">233<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Nickel wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Copper and copper wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,803</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,088</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,998</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,470</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   Raw copper (including copper coin, brass,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">   tombac, &c.)</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,995</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,192</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,204</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,014</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Copper wares</td> <td class="tcr rb">808</td> <td class="tcr rb">896</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,794</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,456</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Instruments of precision</td> <td class="tcr rb">813</td> <td class="tcr rb">885</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,877</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,982</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Machinery, vehicles</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,117</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,653</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Machinery</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,090</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,451</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,041</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,684</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Electro-technical products</td> <td class="tcr rb">411</td> <td class="tcr rb">451</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,227</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,107</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Vehicles and vessels</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,562</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,587</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,849</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,862</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Firearms, clocks, musical instruments, toys</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,424</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,505</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Clocks and watches</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,382</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,134</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,296</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Musical instruments</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">170</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,176</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Toys</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,949</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,273</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">442,663</td> <td class="tcr allb">429,636</td> <td class="tcr allb">349,114</td> <td class="tcr allb">336,347</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="5">* Provisional figures only.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="5">** Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="5">*** Excluding vegetable textile materials.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany +and the chief countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Imports.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1907.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Imports.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Imports.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Imports.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,439</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,315</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,586</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,986</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,302</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,050</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,772</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,306</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,302</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,320</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,531</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,350</td> <td class="tcr rb">3  </td> <td class="tcr rb">11,851</td> <td class="tcr rb">3  </td> <td class="tcr rb">14,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,077</td> <td class="tcr rb">3  </td> <td class="tcr rb">11,864</td> <td class="tcr rb">3  </td> <td class="tcr rb">11,187</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,974</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,814</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,939</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,568</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,774</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,365</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,816</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,528</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,887</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,359</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,457</td> <td class="tcr rb">2  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,659</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,366</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,742</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,410</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British South Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,766</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,258</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dominion of Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">481</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">463</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">483</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British West Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,562</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,731</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,657</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,842</td> <td class="tcr rb">4  </td> <td class="tcr rb">20,016</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dutch Indies</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,848</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,199</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentine Republic</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,302</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,756</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,454</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,246</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,636</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,536</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,131</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,770</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,787</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,864</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Commonwealth of Australia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,690</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,619</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,209</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Exports.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Country.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1907.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Exports.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Exports.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Value<br />in<br />£1000.</td> +<td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of<br />Germany’s<br />Total<br />Exports.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,364</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,509</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,861</td> <td class="tcr rb">5  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,699</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,182</td> <td class="tcr rb">3  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,420</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,815</td> <td class="tcr rb">6  </td> <td class="tcr rb">22,080</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,473</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,135</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,045</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,354</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,893</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,799</td> <td class="tcr rb">7  </td> <td class="tcr rb">22,232</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,573</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,211</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,526</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,926</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,231</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.8</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 3,140</td> <td class="tcr rb">1  </td> <td class="tcr rb">3,372</td> <td class="tcr rb">1  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,027</td> <td class="tcr rb">6  </td> <td class="tcr rb">19,962</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,531</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,653</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,675</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,177</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,367</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,948</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,838</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,228</td> <td class="tcr rb">1  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British South Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,422</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dominion of Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,071</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,203</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,456</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcr rb">227</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">244</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">263</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,484</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,357</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,011</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,226</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,011</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,868</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">China</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,727</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,331</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,105</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Japan</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,158</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,328</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentine Republic</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,463</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,367</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,810</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,525</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,364</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,118</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,660</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,281</td> <td class="tcr rb">10  </td> <td class="tcr rb">32,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Commonwealth of Australia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,264</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,863</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,004</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span></p> + +<p>The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which +progresses <i>pari passu</i> with its greatly increased production. The +export of ships from the United Kingdom to the empire decreased +during two years, 1903 (£305,682) and 1904 (£365,062), almost to a +vanishing point, German yards being able to cope with the demands +made upon them for the supply of vessels of all classes, including +mercantile vessels and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years, +however, the degree of employment in German yards increased to +such an extent, principally owing to the placing of the Admiralty +contracts with private builders, that the more urgent orders for +mercantile vessels were placed abroad.</p> + +<p>The following tables give the value of trade between the United +Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Staple Imports into the United<br />Kingdom from Germany.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sugar</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,164,573</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,488,085</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Glass and manufactures</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,078,648</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,108,117</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eggs</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,017,119</td> <td class="tcr rb">764,966</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottons and yarn</td> <td class="tcr rb">992,244</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,476,385</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Woollens and yarn</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,312,671</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,984,475</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Iron and steel and manufactures</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,012,376</td> <td class="tcr rb">379,479</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Machinery</td> <td class="tcr rb">411,178</td> <td class="tcr rb">735,536</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paper</td> <td class="tcr rb">523,544</td> <td class="tcr rb">528,946</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Musical instruments</td> <td class="tcr rb">660,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">676,391</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Toys</td> <td class="tcr rb">644,690</td> <td class="tcr rb">714,628</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Zinc and manufactures</td> <td class="tcr rb">461,023</td> <td class="tcr rb">673,602</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wood and manufactures</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,470,839</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,109,584</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Chemicals</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">513,200</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">735,830</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Principal Articles exported by<br />Great Britain to Germany.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td> <td class="tcc rb">£</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cottons and yarn</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,843,917</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,941,917</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Woollens and yarn</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,743,842</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,795,591</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alpaca, &c., yarn</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,022,259</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,325,519</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wool</td> <td class="tcr rb">742,632</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,691,035</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ironwork</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,937,055</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,414</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Herrings</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,651,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,042,483</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Machinery</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,040,797</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,102,835</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coals, cinders</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,267,172</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,406,535</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">New ships</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,592,865</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,377,081</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><i>Navigation.</i>—The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the +world, and the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a +respected name long before a German mercantile marine, +properly so called, was heard of. Many Hamburg vessels sailed +under charter of English and other houses in foreign, especially +Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have carried a +common flag—black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg, +Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia +had each its own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed +under the Danish flag. The German mercantile fleet occupies, +in respect of the number of vessels, the fourth place—after +Great Britain, the United States of America and Norway; +but in respect of tonnage it stands third—after Great Britain +and the United States only.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January +of the two years 1905 and 1908:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Baltic Ports.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">North Sea Ports.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Total Shipping.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tonnage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1905—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sailing vessels</td> <td class="tcc rb">386</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,067</td> <td class="tcc rb">2181</td> <td class="tcr rb">559,436</td> <td class="tcc rb">2567</td> <td class="tcr rb">578,503</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Steamers</td> <td class="tcc rb">486</td> <td class="tcr rb">236,509</td> <td class="tcc rb">1171</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,537,563</td> <td class="tcc rb">1657</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,774,072</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb tb">Totals</td> <td class="tcc allb">872</td> <td class="tcr allb">255,576</td> <td class="tcc allb">3352</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,096,999</td> <td class="tcc allb">4224</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,352,575</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1908—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sailing vessels</td> <td class="tcc rb">394</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,472</td> <td class="tcc rb">2255</td> <td class="tcr rb">516,180</td> <td class="tcc rb">2649</td> <td class="tcr rb">533,652</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Steamers</td> <td class="tcc rb">521</td> <td class="tcr rb">274,952</td> <td class="tcc rb">140l</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,981,831</td> <td class="tcc rb">1922</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,256,783</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Totals</td> <td class="tcc allb">915</td> <td class="tcr allb">292,424</td> <td class="tcc allb">3656</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,498,011</td> <td class="tcc allb">4571</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,790,435</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1905, 2136 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of +284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors +of the mercantile marine was 60,616 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908.</p> + +<p>The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Lübeck, +Flensburg, Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), Geestemünde +and Emden; and the number and tonnage of vessels of foreign +nationality entering and clearing the ports of the empire, as compared +with national shipping, were in 1906:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Foreign Ships.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />entered<br />in Cargo.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tonnage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />cleared<br />in Cargo.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tonnage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Danish</td> <td class="tcr rb">5917</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,589,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">5059</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,219,388</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British</td> <td class="tcr rb">5327</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,129,017</td> <td class="tcr rb">3211</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,552,268</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swedish</td> <td class="tcr rb">4891</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,164,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">3317</td> <td class="tcr rb">747,656</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dutch</td> <td class="tcr rb">2181</td> <td class="tcr rb">458,401</td> <td class="tcr rb">1973</td> <td class="tcr rb">316,562</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Norwegian</td> <td class="tcr rb">1565</td> <td class="tcr rb">817,483</td> <td class="tcr rb">720</td> <td class="tcr rb">347,811</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Russian</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">720</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">250,564</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">439</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">143,983</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for +emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast commercial +trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the +main gates of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom +and Germany.</p> + +<p>The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and +coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—The period of railway construction was inaugurated +in Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from +Nuremberg to Fürth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.) +between Leipzig and Dresden, opened throughout in 1839. +The development of the railway system was slow and was not +conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central government +operated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate +negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign +states were required before a line could be constructed; and, +moreover, the course it was to take was often determined less +by the general exigencies of commerce than by many trifling +interests or desires of neighbouring states. The state which +was most self-seeking in its railway politics was Hanover, which +separated the eastern and western parts of the kingdom of +Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia from this source +were experienced in a still greater degree by the seaports of +Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the +particularism displayed by Hanover.</p> + +<p>The making of railways was from the outset regarded by +some German states as exclusively a function of the government. +The South German states, for example, have only possessed state +railways. In Prussia numerous private companies, in the first +instance, constructed their systems, and the state contented +itself for the most part with laying lines in such districts only +as were not likely to attract private capital.</p> + +<p>The development of the German railway system falls conveniently +into four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces +the beginnings of railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848, +shows the linking-up of various existing lines and the establishment +of inter-connexion between the chief towns. The third, +down to 1881, shows the gradual establishment of state control +in Prussia, and the formation of direct trunk lines. The +fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of practically all +the railways in Prussia by the government, and the introduction +of a uniform system of interworking between the various +state systems. The purchase of the railways +by the Prussian government was on the whole +equably carried out, but there were several +hard cases in the expropriation of some of +the smaller private lines.</p> + +<p>The majority of the German railways are +now owned by the state governments. Out of +34,470 m. of railway completed and open for +traffic in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property +of private undertakings, and of these about +150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the +railways are of the normal 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge. +Narrow-gauge (2½ ft.) lines—or light railways—extended +over 1218 m. in 1903, and of these +537 m. were worked by the state.</p> + +<p>The board responsible for the imperial control over the +whole railway system in Germany is the <i>Reichseisenbahnamt</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span> +in Berlin, the administration of the various state systems residing, +in Prussia, in the ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the +ministry of the royal house and of the exterior; in Württemberg +in the ministry of the exterior; in Saxony in the ministry of +the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in commissions of +the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the imperial +ministry of railways.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The management of the Prussian railway system is committed +to the charge of twenty “directions,” into which the whole network +of lines is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, +Danzig, Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main, +Halle a.d. Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Königsberg, +Magdeburg, Münster, Posen, Saarbrücken and Stettin. The entire +length of the system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about +950 m. to each “direction.” The smallest mileage controlled by a +“direction” is Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Königsberg, +with 1200 m.</p> + +<p>The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and +managed, apart from the “general direction” in Munich, by ten +traffic boards, in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich, +Nuremberg, Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Würzburg.</p> + +<p>The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and +is controlled by the general direction in Dresden.</p> + +<p>The length of the Württemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed +by a general direction in Stuttgart.</p> + +<p>Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382, +Mecklenburg-Schwerin +726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Railways +lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by +Prussia.</p> + +<p>Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked +by the imperial general direction in Strassburg.</p> + +<p>By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk +line routes have been developed—notably the lines +Berlin-Vienna-Budapest; +Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris; +Berlin-Halle-Frankfort-on-Main-Basel; +Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and Verona; +and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform +system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining +its own fares—a condition that led to much confusion. From the +1st of May 1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary +trains the rate for first class was fixed at 1¼d. a mile; for second +class at .7d.; for third class at ½d., and for fourth class at ¼d. a mile. +For express trains an extra charge is made of 2s. for distances +exceeding 93 m. (150 kils.) in the two superior classes, and 1s. for a +lesser distance, and of 1s. and 6d. respectively in the case of third +class tickets. Fourth class passengers are not conveyed by express +trains. The above rates include government duty; but the privilege +of free luggage (as up to 56 ℔) has been withdrawn, and all luggage +other than hand baggage taken into the carriages is charged for. +In 1903 371,084,000 metric tons of goods, including animals, were +conveyed by the German railways, yielding £68,085,000 sterling, +and the number of passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding +£29,300,000.</p> + +<p>The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications +to distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Bremerhaven) and +Hamburg (Cuxhaven) both of which are situate on the North Sea. +From them great steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd, +the Hamburg-American, the Hamburg South American and the +German East African steamship companies, maintain express mail +and other services with North and South America, Australia, the +Cape of Good Hope and the Far East. London and other English +ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns are also served by +passenger steamboat sailings from the two great North Sea ports. +The Baltic ports, such as Lübeck, Stettin, Danzig (Neufahrwasser) +and Königsberg, principally provide communication with the coast +towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Waterways.</i>—In Germany the waterways are almost solely +in the possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the +Kaiser Wilhelm canal (1887-1895), 61 m. long, connecting the +North Sea and the Baltic; it was made with a breadth at +bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213 ft., and with a depth +of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1908 work was begun for doubling the bottom +width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect of internal +navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are the +Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, constructed +in 1892-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth +of 8 ft. The latter, constructed 1895-1900, has a length of 43 m. +and a mean depth of about 7½ ft. A project was sanctioned in +1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels up to 600 tons, from the +Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a portion of the Dortmund-Ems +canal; for a channel accommodating vessels of similar +size between Berlin and Stettin; for improving the waterway +between the Oder and the Vistula, so as to render it capable +of accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the canalization +of the upper Oder.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. In +South Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of +Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by +King Louis I. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and the +Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to Kelheim on +the Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine +with the Rhone and the Marne, a branch serving the collieries of the +Saar valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal +by which Russian grain is conveyed to Königsberg, joining the +Pregel to the Memel, and the upper Silesian coalfield is in communication +with the Oder by means of the Klodnitz canal. The +greatest number of canals is found around Berlin; they serve to +join the Spree to the Oder and Elbe, and include the Teltow canal +opened in 1906. The canals in Germany (including ship canals +through lakes) have a total length of about 2600 m. Navigable +and canalized rivers, to which belong the great water-systems of +the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length of about 6000 m.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Roads.</i>—The construction of good highways has been well +attended to in Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The +separation of the empire into small states was favourable to +road-making, inasmuch as it was principally the smaller governments +that expended large sums for their network of roads. +Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for the +excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still +from the want of good highways. The introduction of railways +for a time diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect +has of late been to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts +(<i>Kreise</i>) have undertaken the charge of the construction of the +roads; but they receive a subsidy from the public funds of the +several provinces. Turnpikes were abolished in Prussia in 1874 +and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of the public roads is +estimated at 80,000 m.</p> + +<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs.</i>—With the exception of Bavaria and +Württemberg, which have administrations of their own, all the +German states belong to the imperial postal district (<i>Reichspostgebiet</i>). +Since 1874 the postal and telegraphic departments +have been combined. Both branches of administration have +undergone a surprising development, especially since the reduction +of the postal rates. Germany, including Bavaria and +Württemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal +union (Deutsch-Österreichischer Postverband), besides forming +part of the international postal union. There are no statistics +of posts and telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the +North German union was formed that the lesser states resigned +their right of carrying mails in favour of the central authority. +Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis was postmaster-general +of Germany, but only some of the central states belonged to his +postal territory. The seat of management was Frankfort-on-Main.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table shows the growth in the number of post +offices for the whole empire:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Post Offices.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Men employed.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,518</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,460</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,952</td> <td class="tcc rb">128,687</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,388</td> <td class="tcc rb">206,945</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,658</td> <td class="tcc rb">261,985</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">40,083</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">319,026</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1890, +17,200; and in 1907, 37,309. There were 188 places provided with +telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts +amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to £33,789,460, and the expenditure +to £31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of £2,692,516.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Constitution.</i>—The constitution of the German empire is, in +all essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which +came into force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the presidency +(<i>Praesidium</i>) of the confederation was vested in the +king of Prussia and his heirs. As a result of the Franco-German +war of 1870 the South German states joined the confederation; +on the 9th of December 1870 the diet of the confederation +accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation the +name of German Empire (<i>Deutsche Reich</i>), and on the 18th of +January 1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +emperor (<i>Deutscher Kaiser</i>) at Versailles. This was a change of +style, not of functions and powers. The title is “German emperor,” +not “emperor of Germany,” being intended to show +that the Kaiser is but <i>primus inter pares</i> in a confederation of +territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial sovereign +(<i>Landesherr</i>) extends over Prussia, not over Germany.</p> + +<p>The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzollern, +and follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises +the imperial power in the name of the confederated states. In +his office he is assisted by a federal council (<i>Bundesrat</i>), which +represents the governments of the individual states of Germany. +The members of this council, 58 in number, are appointed for +each session by the governments of the individual states. The +legislative functions of the empire are vested in the emperor, the +Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial Diet. The members +of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space of five years +by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member is +elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme +and independent control in matters relating to military affairs +and the navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce, +to posts and telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these +affect the common defence of the country. Bavaria and Württemberg, +however, have preserved their own postal and telegraphic +administration. The legislative power of the empire also takes +precedence of that of the separate states in the regulation of +matters affecting freedom of migration (<i>Freizügigkeit</i>), domicile, +settlement and the rights of German subjects generally, as well +as in all that relates to banking, patents, protection of intellectual +property, navigation of rivers and canals, civil and criminal +legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and control of +the press and of associations.</p> + +<p>The executive power is in the emperor’s hands. He represents +the empire internationally, and can declare war if defensive, +and make peace as well as enter into treaties with other nations; +he also appoints and receives ambassadors. For declaring +offensive war the consent of the federal council must be obtained. +The separate states have the privilege of sending ambassadors +to the other courts; but all consuls abroad are officials of the +empire and are named by the emperor.</p> + +<p>Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions +convoked by the emperor who has the right of proroguing and +dissolving the Diet; but the prorogation must not exceed 60 +days, and in case of dissolution new elections must be ordered +within 60 days, and the new session opened within 90 days. All +laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order to pass, +receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal council +and the Reichstag.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrat by four commissioners +(<i>Kommissäre</i>), without votes, who are nominated by the +Statthalter (imperial lieutenant).</p> + +<p>The fifty-eight members of the Bundesrat are nominated by the +governments of the individual states for each session; while the +members of the Reichstag are elected by universal suffrage and ballot +for the term of five years. Every German who has completed his +twenty-fifth year is prima facie entitled to the suffrage in the state +within which he has resided for one year. Soldiers and those in the +navy are not thus entitled, so long as they are serving under the +colours. Excluded, further, are persons under tutelage, bankrupts +and paupers, as also such persons who have been deprived of civil +rights, during the time of such deprivation. Every German citizen +who has completed his twenty-fifth year and has resided for a year +in one of the federal states is eligible for election in any part of the +empire, provided he has not been, as in the cases above, excluded +from the right of suffrage. The secrecy of the ballot is ensured by +special regulations passed on the 28th of April 1903. The voting-paper, +furnished with an official stamp, must be placed in an envelope +by the elector in a compartment set apart for the purpose in the +polling room, and, thus enclosed, be handed by him to the presiding +officer. An absolute majority of votes decides the election. If +(as in the case of several candidates) an absolute majority over all +the others has not been declared, a test election (<i>Stichwahl</i>) takes +place between the two candidates who have received the greatest +number of votes. In case of an equal number of votes being cast +for both candidates, the decision is by lot.</p> + +<p>The subjoined table gives the names of the various states composing +the empire and the number of votes which the separate states +have in the federal council. Each state may appoint as many +members to the federal council as it has votes. The table also gives +the number of the deputies in the Reichstag.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">States of the Empire.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Members in<br />Bundesrat.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />Members in<br />Reichstag.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kingdom of Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">236</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kingdom of Bavaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kingdom of Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kingdom of Württemberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Baden</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Hesse</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Grand duchy of Oldenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchy of Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Duchy of Anhalt</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Waldeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Reuss-Greiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Reuss-Schleiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Principality of Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Free town of Lübeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Free town of Bremen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Free town of Hamburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">58</td> <td class="tcr allb">397</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since +November 1906 its members have been paid (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Payment of +Members</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The following table shows its composition after the elections of +1903 and 1907:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Parties.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1903.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1907.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Centre</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Social Democrats</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Conservatives</td> <td class="tcr rb">51</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">National Liberals</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freisinnige Volkspartei</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Reichspartei</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsatians, Guelphs and Danes</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poles</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wirtschaftliche Vereinigung (Reform Partei)</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freisinnige Vereinigung</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wilde (no party)</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bund der Landwirte</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Bauernbund</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>All the German states have separate representative assemblies, +except Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. +The six larger states have adopted the two-chamber system, but +in the composition of the houses great differences are found. +The lesser states also have chambers of representatives numbering +from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz) to 48 members (in Brunswick), +and in most states the different classes, as well as the cities and +the rural districts, are separately represented. The free towns +have legislative assemblies, numbering from 120 to 200 members.</p> + +<p>Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the +Reichstag, must obtain the sanction of the emperor in order to +become law, and must be countersigned, when promulgated, by +the chancellor of the empire (<i>Reichskanzler</i>). All members of the +federal council are entitled to be present at the deliberations of +the Reichstag. The Bundesrat, acting under the direction of +the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme administrative +and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing committees, +viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes; +for tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for +railways, posts and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for +financial accounts; for foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine. +Each committee includes representatives of at least four states +of the empire.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span></p> + +<p>For the several branches of administration a considerable +number of imperial offices have been gradually created. All +of them, however, either are under the immediate authority +of the chancellor of the empire, or are separately managed under +his responsibility. The most important +are the chancery office, the foreign office +and the general post and telegraph office. +But the heads of these do not form a cabinet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Chancellor of the Empire</i> (<i>Reichskanzler</i>).—The +Prussian plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat +is the president of that assembly; he is appointed +by the emperor, and bears the title +Reichskanzler. This head official can be represented +by any other member of the Bundesrat +named in a document of substitution. The +Reichskanzler is the sole responsible official, +and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with +the exception of such as are of a purely military +character, and is the intermediary between the +emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. All +imperial rescripts require the counter-signature +of the chancellor before attaining validity. All +measures passed by the Reichstag require the +sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and +only become binding on being proclaimed on +behalf of the empire by the chancellor, which +publication takes place through the <i>Reichsgesetzblatt</i> +(the official organ of the chancellor).</p> + +<p><i>Government Offices.</i>—The following imperial +offices are directly responsible to the chancellor and stand under his +control:—</p> + +<p>1. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments: +(i.) the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial; +(iii.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of state, +taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor.</p> + +<p>2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state) +is divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department; +(iii.) a disciplinary court.</p> + +<p>3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct +of a secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments, +dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the +elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval +matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.) purely +social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance, migration, +settlement, poor law administration, &c.; (iii.) sanitary +matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures; +and (iv.) commercial and economic relations—such as agriculture, +industry, commercial treaties and statistics.</p> + +<p>4. The imperial admiralty (<i>Reichsmarineamt</i>), which is the chief +board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance +and development.</p> + +<p>5. The imperial ministry of justice (<i>Reichsjustizamt</i>), presided over +by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the +<i>Reichsgericht</i> (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig, deals +principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted to +the Reichstag.</p> + +<p>6. The imperial treasury (<i>Reichsschatzamt</i>), or exchequer, is the +head financial office of the empire. Presided over by a secretary of +state, its functions are principally those appertaining to the control +of the national debt and its administration, together with such as +in the United Kingdom are delegated to the board of inland revenue.</p> + +<p>7. The imperial railway board (<i>Reichseisenbahnamt</i>), the chief +official of which has the title of “president,” deals exclusively with +the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far +as they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect +of laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and +the safety of passengers conveyed.</p> + +<p>8. The imperial post office (<i>Reichspostamt</i>), under a secretary of +state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire +(with the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg), as also those in +the colonies and dependencies.</p> + +<p>9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial +railways in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian +minister of public works.</p> + +<p>10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire (<i>Rechnungshof</i>), +which controls and supervises the expenditure of the sums voted +by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the imperial +bank (<i>Reichsbank</i>).</p> + +<p>11. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, <i>i.e.</i> of the +fund set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war +of 1870-71; and</p> + +<p>12. The imperial bank (<i>Reichsbank</i>), supervised by a committee of +four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth +and permanent member of such committee.</p> + +<p>The heads of the various departments of state do not form, as in +England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries +of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who represents +all the offices in his person, and, as has been said, is the medium +of communication between the emperor and the Bundesrat and +Reichstag.</p> + +<p><i>Colonies.</i>—The following table gives some particulars of the +dependencies of the empire:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Name.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Date of<br />Acquisition.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area<br />(estimated)<br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop.<br />(estimated).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">In Africa—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Togoland</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Cameroon</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">190,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  S.W. Africa</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">322,450</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  East Africa</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">364,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total in Africa</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">910,150</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,700,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">In the Pacific—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  German New Guinea</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,000(?)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Bismarck Archipelago</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">188,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">800</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Solomon Islands</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,200</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Marshall Islands</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">160</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Samoan Islands</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">985</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">33,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Total in Pacific</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">96,145</td> <td class="tcr rb">432,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">In Asia—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  Kiao-chow</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total dependencies</td> <td class="tcc allb">1884-1899</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,006,412</td> <td class="tcr allb">12,192,600</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the +dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial +office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department +of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial +affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in +1906 was: imports into Germany, £1,028,000; exports from +Germany, £2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies +was £849,000; the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in +the same year being £4,362,000. (See the articles on the various +colonies.)</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Local Government.</i>—In the details of its organization local +self-government differs considerably in the various states of the +German empire. The general principle on which it is based, +however, is that which has received its most complete expression +in the Prussian system: government by experts, checked by +lay criticism and the power of the purse, and effective control +by the central authorities. In Prussia at least the medieval +system of local self-government had succumbed completely to +the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was revived +it was at the will and for the purposes of the central authorities, +as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact determined +its general characteristics. In England the powers of the local +authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the +limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general +powers are granted by law, subject to the approval of the central +authorities, with the result that it is the government departments +that determine what the local elected authorities may do, and +that the latter regard themselves as commissioned to carry out, +not so much the will of the locality by which they are elected, +as that of the central government. This attitude is, indeed, +inevitable from the double relation in which they stand. A +<i>Bürgermeister</i>, once elected, becomes a member of the bureaucracy +and is responsible to the central administration; even the headman +of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his +functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful +classification of affairs into local and central, many things which +in England are regarded as local (<i>e.g.</i> education, sanitary administration, +police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the +central government, which either administers them directly +or by means of territorial delegations consisting either of +individuals or of groups of individuals. These may be purely +official (<i>e.g.</i> the Prussian <i>Regierung</i>), a mixture of officials and +of elected non-official members approved by the government +(<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Bezirksausschuss</i>), or may consist wholly of authorities +elected for another purpose, but made to act as the agents of the +central departments (<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Kreisausschuss</i>). That this system +works without friction is due to the German habit of discipline; +that it is, on the whole, singularly effective is a result of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German +bureaucracy.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The unit of the German system of local government is the +commune (<i>Gemeinde</i>, or more strictly <i>Ortsgemeinde</i>). These are +divided into rural communes (<i>Landgemeinden</i>) and urban communes +(<i>Stadtgemeinden</i>), the powers and functions of which, +though differing widely, are based upon the same general +principle of representative local self-government. The higher +organs of local government, so far as these are representative, +are based on the principle of a group or union of communes +(<i>Gemeindeverband</i>). Thus, in Prussia, the representative +assembly of the Circle (<i>Kreistag</i>) is composed of delegates of +the rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the +towns, while the members of the provincial diet (<i>Provinziallandtag</i>) +are chosen by the <i>Kreistage</i> and by such towns as form +separate <i>Kreise</i>.</p> + +<p>In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows: +(1) the province, (2) the government district (<i>Regierungsbezirk</i>), +(3) the rural circle (<i>Landkreis</i>) and urban circle (<i>Stadtkreis</i>), +(4) the official district (<i>Amtsbezirk</i>), (5) the town commune +(<i>Stadtgemeinde</i>) and rural commune (<i>Landgemeinde</i>). Of these +areas the provinces, circles and communes are for the purposes +both of the central administration and of local self-government, +and the bodies by which they are governed are corporations. +The <i>Regierungsbezirke</i> and <i>Amtsbezirke</i>, on the other hand, are +for the purposes of the central administration only and are not +incorporated. The Prussian system is explained in greater +detail in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prussia</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Here it must suffice to +indicate briefly the general features of local government in the +other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The +province, which usually covers the area of a formerly independent +state (<i>e.g.</i> Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The <i>Regierungsbezirk</i>, +however, is common to the larger states under various names, +<i>Regierungsbezirk</i> in Bavaria, <i>Kreishauptmannschaft</i> in Saxony, +<i>Kreis</i> in Württemberg. Common to all is the president (<i>Regierungspräsident</i>, +<i>Kreishauptmann</i> in Saxony), an official who, with a +committee of advisers, is responsible for the oversight of the +administration of the circles and communes within his jurisdiction. +Whereas in Prussia, however, the <i>Regierung</i> is purely +official, with no representative element, the <i>Regierungsbezirk</i> +in Bavaria has a representative body, the <i>Landrat</i>, consisting of +delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large landowners, +clergy and—in certain cases—the universities; the president +is assisted by a committee (<i>Landratsausschuss</i>) of six members +elected by the <i>Landrat</i>. In Saxony the <i>Kreishauptmann</i> is +assisted by a committee (<i>Kreisausschuss</i>).</p> + +<p>Below the <i>Regierungsbezirk</i> is the <i>Kreis</i>, or Circle, in Prussia, +Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the <i>Distrikt</i> in Bavaria, +the <i>Oberamt</i> in Württemberg<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and the <i>Amtshauptmannschaft</i> in +Saxony. The representative assembly of the Circle (<i>Kreistag</i>, +<i>Distriktsrat</i> in Bavaria, <i>Amtsversammlung</i> in Württemberg, +<i>Bezirksversammlung</i> in Saxony) is elected by the communes, and +is presided over by an official, either elected or, as in the case +of the Prussian <i>Landrat</i>, nominated from a list submitted by +the assembly. So far as their administrative and legislative +functions are concerned the German <i>Kreistage</i> have been compared +to the English county councils or the Hungarian <i>comitatus</i>. +Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their +official chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee +(<i>Kreisausschuss</i>, <i>Distriktsausschuss</i>, &c.) is elected subject to +official approval. The official district (<i>Amtsbezirk</i>), a subdivision +of the circle for certain administrative purposes (notably police), +is peculiar to Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Rural Communes.</i>—As stated above, the lowest administrative +area is the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the +constitution and powers of the rural communes vary much in the +different states. In general the commune is a body corporate, its +assembly consisting either (in small villages) of the whole body of the +qualified inhabitants (<i>Gemeindeversammlung</i>), or of a representative +assembly (<i>Gemeindevertretung</i>) elected by them (in communes where +there are more than forty qualified inhabitants). At its head is an +elected headman (<i>Schulze</i>, <i>Dorfvorsteher</i>, &c.), with a small body of +assistants (<i>Schöffen</i>, &c.). He is a government official responsible, +<i>inter alia</i>, for the policing of the commune. Where there are large +estates these sometimes constitute communes of themselves. For +common purposes several communes may combine, such combinations +being termed in Württemberg <i>Bürgermeistereien</i>, in the Rhine +province <i>Amtsverbände</i>. In general the communes are of slight +importance. Where the land is held by small peasant proprietors, +they display a certain activity; where there are large ground landlords, +these usually control them absolutely.</p> + +<p><i>Towns.</i>—The constitution of the towns (<i>Städteverfassung</i>) varies +more greatly in the several states than that of the rural communes. +According to the so-called <i>Stein’sche Städteverfassung</i> (the system +introduced in Prussia by Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate +between it and other systems, is called the <i>Magistratsverfassung</i> (or +magisterial constitution), the municipal communes enjoy a greater +degree of self-government than do the rural. In the magisterial +constitution of larger towns and cities, the members of the <i>Magistrat</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> the executive council (also called <i>Stadtrat</i>, <i>Gemeinderat</i>), are +elected by the representative assembly of the citizens (<i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i>) +out of their own body.</p> + +<p>In those parts of Germany which come under the influence of +French legislation, the constitution of the towns and that of the +rural communes (the so-called <i>Bürgermeistereiverfassung</i>) is identical, +in that the members of the communal executive body are, in the +same way as those of the communal assembly, elected to office +immediately by the whole body of municipal electors.</p> + +<p>The government of the towns is regulated in the main by municipal +codes (<i>Städteordnungen</i>), largely based upon Stein’s reform of 1808. +This, superseding the autonomy severally enjoyed by the towns and +cities since the middle ages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune</a></span>), aimed at welding the +citizens, who had hitherto been divided into classes and gilds, into +one corporate whole, and giving them all an active share in the administration +of public affairs, while reserving to the central authorities +the power of effective control.</p> + +<p>The system which obtains in all the old Prussian provinces (with +the exception of Rügen and Vorpommern or Hither Pomerania) +and in Westphalia is that of Stein, modified by subsequent laws—notably +those of 1853 and 1856—which gave the state a greater +influence, while extending the powers of the <i>Magistrat</i>. In Vorpommern +and Rügen, and thus in the towns of Greifswald, Stralsund +and Bergen, among others, the old civic constitutions remain unchanged. +In the new Prussian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main received +a special municipal constitution in 1867 and the towns of +Schleswig-Holstein in 1869. The province of Hanover retains its +system as emended in 1858, and Hesse-Nassau, with the exception +of Frankfort-on-Main, received a special corporate system in 1897. +The municipal systems of Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony are +more or less based on that of Stein, but with a wider sphere of self-government. +In Mecklenburg there is no uniform system. In +Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and Neustadt have separate and +peculiar municipal constitutions. In almost all the other states +the system is uniform. The free cities of Lübeck, Hamburg and +Bremen, as sovereign states, form a separate class. Their constitutions +are described in the articles on them.</p> + +<p>Where the “magisterial” constitution prevails, the members of +the <i>Magistrat</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the executive council (also called variously +<i>Stadtrat</i>, <i>Gemeindevorstand</i>, &c.), are as a rule elected by the representative +assembly of the burgesses (<i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i>; +also <i>Gemeinderat</i>, <i>städtischer Ausschuss</i>, <i>Kollegium der Bürgervorsteher</i>, +<i>Stadtältesten</i>, &c.). The <i>Magistrat</i> consists of the chief burgomaster +(<i>Erster Bürgermeister</i> or <i>Stadtschultheiss</i>, and in the large cities +Oberbürgermeister), a second burgomaster or assessor, and in large +towns of a number of paid and unpaid town councillors (<i>Ratsherren</i>, +<i>Senatoren</i>, <i>Schöffen</i>, <i>Ratsmänner</i>, <i>Magistratsräte</i>), together with +certain salaried members selected for specific purposes (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Baurat</i>, +for building). Over this executive body the <i>Stadtverordneten</i>, who +are elected by the whole body of citizens and unpaid, exercise a +general control, their assent being necessary to any measures of +importance, especially those involving any considerable outlay. +They are elected for from three to six years; the members of the +<i>Magistrat</i> are chosen for six, nine or twelve years, sometimes even +for life. In the large towns the burgomasters must be jurists, and +are paid. The police are under the control of the <i>Magistrat</i>, except +in certain large cities, where they are under a separate state department.</p> + +<p>The second system mentioned above (<i>Bürgermeistereiverfassung</i>) +prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse, +Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldeck and the principalities of Reuss and +Schwarzburg. In Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the +system is a compromise between the two; both the town and rural +communes have a mayor (<i>Bürgermeister</i> or <i>Schultheiss</i>, as the case +may be) and a <i>Gemeinderat</i> for administrative purposes, the citizens +exercising control through a representative <i>Gemeindeausschuss</i> +(communal committee).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Justice.</i>—By the Judicature Act—<i>Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz</i>—of +1879, the so-called “regular litigious” jurisdiction of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span> +courts of law was rendered uniform throughout the empire, and +the courts are now everywhere alike in character and composition; +and with the exception of the <i>Reichsgericht</i> (supreme court of the +empire), immediately subject to the government of the state +in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the imperial +government. The courts, from the lowest to the highest, are +<i>Amtsgericht</i>, <i>Landgericht</i>, <i>Oberlandesgericht</i> and <i>Reichsgericht</i>. +There are, further, <i>Verwaltungsgerichte</i> (administrative courts) +for the adjustment of disputes between the various organs +of local government, and other special courts, such as military, +consular and arbitration courts (<i>Schiedsgericht</i>). In addition +to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious +matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship +and the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions, +all which are almost entirely within the province of the <i>Amtsgerichte</i>. +There are uniform codes of criminal law (<i>Strafgesetzbuch</i>), +commercial law and civil law (<i>Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</i>), the +last of which came into force on the 1st of +January 1900. The criminal code, based +on that of Prussia anterior to 1870, was +gradually adopted by all the other states +and was generally in force by 1872. It +has, however, been frequently emended +and supplemented.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The lowest courts of first instance are +the <i>Amtsgerichte</i>, each presided over by a +single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty +criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks +(£15). They are also competent to deal +with all disputes as to wages, and letting and hiring, without +regard to the value of the object in dispute. Petty criminal cases +are heard by the judge (<i>Amtsrichter</i>) sitting with two <i>Schöffen</i>—assessors—selected +by lot from the jury lists, who are competent +to try prisoners for offences punishable with a fine, not exceeding +600 marks (£30) or corresponding confinement, or with imprisonment +not exceeding three months. The <i>Landgerichte</i> revise the +decisions of the <i>Amtsgerichte</i>, and have also an original jurisdiction +in criminal and civil cases and in divorce proceedings. The criminal +chamber of the <i>Landgericht</i> is composed of five judges, and a majority +of four is required for a conviction. These courts are competent +to try cases of felony punishable with a term of imprisonment not +exceeding five years. The preliminary examination is conducted +by a judge, who does not sit on the bench at the trial. Jury courts +(<i>Schwurgerichte</i>) are not permanent institutions, but are periodically +held. They are formed of three judges of the <i>Landgericht</i> and a jury +of twelve; and a two-thirds majority is necessary to convict. +There are 173 <i>Landgerichte</i> in the empire, being one court for every +325,822 inhabitants. The first court of second instance is the +<i>Oberlandesgericht</i>, which has an original jurisdiction in grave offences +and is composed of seven judges. There are twenty-eight such +courts in the empire. Bavaria alone has an <i>Oberstes Landesgericht</i>, +which exercises a revising jurisdiction over the <i>Oberlandesgerichte</i> in +the state. The supreme court of the German empire is the <i>Reichsgericht</i>, +having its seat at Leipzig. The judges, numbering ninety-two, +are appointed by the emperor on the advice of the federal council +(<i>Bundesrat</i>). This court exercises an appellate jurisdiction in civil +cases remitted, for the decision of questions of law, by the inferior +courts and also in all criminal cases referred to it. It sits in four +criminal and six civil senates, each consisting of seven judges, one +of whom is the president. The judges are styled <i>Reichsgerichtsräte</i> +(counsellors of the imperial court).</p> + +<p>In the <i>Amtsgericht</i> a private litigant may conduct his own case; +but where the object of the litigation exceeds 300 marks (£15), +and in appeals from the <i>Amtsgericht</i> to the <i>Landgericht</i>, the plaintiff +(and also the defendant) must be represented by an advocate—<i>Rechtsanwalt</i>.</p> + +<p>A <i>Rechtsanwalt</i>, having studied law at a university for four years +and having passed two state examinations, if desiring to practise +must be admitted as “defending counsel” by the <i>Amtsgericht</i> or +<i>Landgericht</i>, or by both. These advocates are not state officials, +but are sworn to the due execution of their duties. In case a client +has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the +latter can be made responsible. In every district of the <i>Oberlandesgericht</i>, +the <i>Rechtsanwälte</i> are formed into an <i>Anwaltkammer</i> (chamber +of advocates), and the council of each chamber, sitting as a +court of honour, deals with and determines matters affecting the +honour of the profession. An appeal lies from this to a second +court of honour, consisting of the president, three judges of the +<i>Reichsgericht</i> and of three lawyers admitted to practice before that +court.</p> + +<p>Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by +the <i>Staatsanwälte</i> (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the +judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence as +being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the +courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are +cases heard <i>in camera</i>.</p> + +<p>Military offences come before the military court and serious +offences before the <i>Kriegsgericht</i>. The court-martial is, in every +case, composed of the commander of the district as president, and +four officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (<i>Kriegsgerichtsrat</i>), who +conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the +most serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates +are the judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he +may himself appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority, +but only be condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are also +<i>Kaufmanns-</i> and <i>Gewerbegerichte</i> (commercial and industrial courts), +composed of persons belonging to the classes of employers and +employees, under the presidency of a judge of the court. Their +aim is the effecting of a reconciliation between the parties. From +the decision of these courts an appeal lies to the <i>Landgericht</i> where +the amount of the object in dispute exceeds 100 marks (£5).</p> + +<p>The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried +before the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted +persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil +population over twelve years of age:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Cases tried.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Persons convicted.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Convictions<br />per 10,000<br />Inhabitants.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"><i>Amtsgericht.</i></td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>Landgericht.</i></td> <td class="tccm allb">Males.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Females.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,143,687</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 94,241</td> <td class="tcc rb">396,975</td> <td class="tcc rb">72,844</td> <td class="tcc rb">469,819</td> <td class="tcc rb">119.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,205,558</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,471</td> <td class="tcc rb">419,592</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,718</td> <td class="tcc rb">497,310</td> <td class="tcc rb">125.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,221,080</td> <td class="tcc rb">104,434</td> <td class="tcc rb">431,257</td> <td class="tcc rb">81,072</td> <td class="tcc rb">512,329</td> <td class="tcc rb">127.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,251,662</td> <td class="tcc rb">105,241</td> <td class="tcc rb">424,813</td> <td class="tcc rb">80,540</td> <td class="tcc rb">505,353</td> <td class="tcc rb">123.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,287,686</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">105,457</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">435,191</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">81,785</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">516,976</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">124.2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="7">Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><i>Poor Law.</i>—A law passed by the North German Confederation +of the 6th of June 1870, and subsequently amended by an +imperial law of the 12th of March 1894, laid down rules for the +relief of the destitute in all the states composing the empire, +with the exception of Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. According +to the system adopted, the public relief of the poor is committed +to the care of local unions (<i>Ortsarmenverbände</i>) and provincial +unions (<i>Landarmenverbände</i>), the former corresponding, generally, +to the commune, and the latter to a far wider area, a circle or a +province. Any person of eighteen years, who has continuously +resided with a local union for the space of two years, there +acquires his domicile. But any destitute German subject must +be relieved by the local union in which he happens to be at the +time, the cost of the relief being defrayed by the local or provincial +union in which he has his domicile. The wife and children +have also their domicile in the place where the husband or father +has his.<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Relief of the poor is one of the chief duties of the organs of local +self-government. The moneys for the purpose are mainly derived +from general taxation (poor rates per se being but rarely directly +levied), special funds and voluntary contributions. In some +German states and communes certain dues (such as the dog tax in +Saxony), death duties and particularly dues payable in respect of +public entertainments and police court fines, are assigned to the poor-relief +chest. In some large towns the Elberfeld system of unpaid +district visitors and the interworking of public and private charity +is in force. The imperial laws which introduced the compulsory +insurance of all the humbler workers within the empire, and gave +them, when incapacitated by sickness, accident and old age, an +absolute right to pecuniary assistance, have greatly reduced pauperism +and crime.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Workmen’s Insurance.</i>—On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as +the result of the policy announced by the emperor William I. +in his speech from the throne in 1881, passed an act making +insurance against sickness, accident, and incapacity compulsory +on all workers in industrial pursuits. By further laws, in 1885 +and 1892, this obligation was extended to certain other classes +of workers, and the system was further modified by acts passed +in 1900 and 1903. Under this system every person insured has a +right to assistance in case of sickness, accident, or incapacity, +while in case of death his widow and children receive an +annuity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Insurance against sickness is provided for under these laws +partly by the machinery already existing, <i>i.e.</i> the sick benefit societies, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +partly by new machinery devised to meet the new obligation imposed. +The sick-funds (<i>Krankenkassen</i>) are thus of seven kinds: +(1) free assistance funds (<i>Freie Hilfskassen</i>), either registered under +the law of 1876, as modified in 1884 (<i>Eingeschriebene Hilfskassen</i>), +or established under the law of the separate states (<i>landesrechtliche +Hilfskassen</i>); (2) <i>Betriebs-</i> or <i>Fabrikkrankenkassen</i>, funds established +by individual factory-owners; (3) <i>Baukrankenkasse</i>, a fund established +for workmen engaged on the construction (<i>Bau</i>) of particular +engineering works (canal-digging, &c.), by individual contractors; +(4) gild sick funds (<i>Innungskrankenkassen</i>), established by the gilds +for the workmen and apprentices of their members; (5) miners’ +sick fund (<i>Knappschaftskasse</i>); (6) local sick fund (<i>Ortskrankenkasse</i>), +established by the commune for particular crafts or classes of +workmen; (7) <i>Gemeindekrankenversicherung</i>, <i>i.e.</i> insurance of +members of the commune as such, in the event of their not subscribing +to any of the other funds. Of these, 2, 3, 6 and 7 were created +under the above-mentioned laws.</p> + +<p>The number of such funds amounted in 1903 to 23,271, and +included 10,224,297 workmen. The <i>Ortskrankenkassen</i>, with +4,975,322 members, had the greatest, and the <i>Baukrankenkassen</i>, +with 16,459, the smallest number of members. The <i>Ortskrankenkassen</i>, +which endeavour to include workmen of a like trade, have +to a great extent, especially in Saxony, fallen under the control of +the Social Democrats. The appointment of permanent doctors +(<i>Kassenärzte</i>) at a fixed salary has given rise to much difference +between the medical profession and this local sick fund; and the +insistence on “freedom of choice” in doctors, which has been made +by the members and threatens to militate against the interest of the +profession, has been met on the part of the medical body by the +appointment of a commission to investigate cases of undue influence +in the selection.</p> + +<p>According to the statistics furnished in the <i>Vierteljahreshefte zur +Statistik des deutschen Reiches</i> for 1905, the receipts amounted to +upwards of £10,000,000 for 1903, and the expenditure to somewhat +less than this sum. Administrative changes were credited with +nearly £600,000, and the invested funds totalled £9,000,000. The +workmen contribute at the rate of two-thirds and the employers at +the rate of one-third; the sum payable in respect of each worker +varying from 1½-3% of the earnings in the “communal sick fund” +to at most l½-4% in the others.</p> + +<p>2. Insurance against old age and invalidity comprehends all +persons who have entered upon their 17th year, and who belong to +one of the following classes of wage-earners: artisans, apprentices, +domestic servants, dressmakers, charwomen, laundresses, seamstresses, +housekeepers, foremen, engineers, journeymen, clerks and +apprentices in shops (excepting assistants and apprentices in chemists’ +shops), schoolmasters, schoolmistresses, teachers and governesses, +provided the earnings do not exceed £100 per annum. The insured +are arranged in five classes, according to the amount of their +yearly earnings: viz. £17, 10s.; £27, 10s.; £47, 10s.; £57, 10s.; +and £100. The contributions, affixed to a “pension book” in +stamps, are payable each week, and amount, in English money, to +1.45d., 2.34d., 2.82d., 3.30d. and 4.23d. Of the contribution one +half is paid by the employer and the other by the employee, whose +duty it is to see that the amount has been properly entered in the +pension book. The pensions, in case of invalidity, amount (including +a state subsidy of £2, 10s. for each) respectively to £8, 8s.; +£11, 5s.; £13, 10s.; £15, 15s.; and £18. The old-age pensions +(beginning at 70 years) amount to £5, 10s.; £7; £8, 10s.; £10; +and £11, 10s. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried out by +thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added nine +special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in +1903, £8,500,000 (including £1,700,000 imperial subsidy). The +capital collected was upwards of £50,000,000.</p> + +<p>It may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses, +who have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is +below £150, are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this +insurance.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Accident Insurance</i> (<i>Unfallversicherung</i>).—The insurance of +workmen and the lesser officials against the risks of accident is +effected not through the state or the commune, but through associations +formed <i>ad hoc</i>. These associations are composed of members +following the same or allied occupations (<i>e.g.</i> foresters, seamen, +smiths, &c.), and hence are called “professional associations” +(<i>Berufsgenossenschaften</i>). They are empowered, subject to the +limits set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a +general meeting and of elected committees. The greater number +of these associations cover a very wide field, generally the whole +empire; in such cases they are empowered to divide their spheres +into sections, and to establish agents in different centres to inquire +into cases of accident, and to see to the carrying out of the rules +prescribed by the association for the avoidance of accidents. Those +associations, of which the area of operations extends beyond any +single state, are subordinate to the control of the imperial insurance +bureau (<i>Reichsversicherungsamt</i>) at Berlin; those that are confined +to a single state (as generally in the case of foresters and husbandmen) +are under the control of the state insurance bureau (<i>Landesversicherungsamt</i>).</p> + +<p>So far as their earnings do not exceed £150 per annum, the following +classes are under the legal obligation to insure: labourers in mines, +quarries, dockyards, wharves, manufactories and breweries; bricklayers +and navvies; post-office, railway, and naval and military servants and +officials; carters, raftsmen and canal hands; cellarmen, warehousemen; +stevedores; and agricultural labourers. Each of these groups +forms an association, which within a certain district embraces all the +industries with which it is connected. The funds for covering the +compensation payable in respect of accidents are raised by payments +based, in agriculture, on the taxable capital, and in other trades and +industries on the earnings of the insured. Compensation in respect +of injury or death is not paid if the accident was brought about +through the culpable negligence or other delict of the insured. In +case of injury, involving incapacity for more than thirteen weeks +(for the earlier period the <i>Krankenkassen</i> provide), the weekly sum +payable during complete or permanent incapacity is fixed at the +ratio of two-thirds of the earnings during the year preceding the +accident, and in case of partial disablement, at such a proportion +of the earnings as corresponds to the loss through disablement. +In certain circumstances (<i>e.g.</i> need for paid nursing) the sum may be +increased to the full rate of the previous earnings. In case of death, +as a consequence of injury, the following payments are made: (1) +a sum of at least £2, 10s. to defray the expenses of interment; +(2) a monthly allowance of one-fifth of the annual earnings as above +to the widow and each child up to the age of 15.</p> + +<p><i>Life Insurance.</i>—There were forty-six companies in 1900 for the +insurance of life. The number of persons insured was 1,446,249 +at the end of that year, the insurances amounting to roughly +£320,000,000. Besides these are sixty-one companies—of which +forty-six are comprised in the above life insurance companies—paying +subsidies in case of death or of military service, endowments, +&c. Some of these companies are industrial. The transactions of +all these companies included in 1900 over 4,179,000 persons, and the +amount of insurances effected was £80,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—So far as the empire as a whole is concerned there +is no state religion, each state being left free to maintain its own +establishment. Thus while the emperor, as king of Prussia, is +<i>summus episcopus</i> of the Prussian Evangelical Church, as emperor +he enjoys no such ecclesiastical headship. In the several +states the relations of church and state differ fundamentally +according as these states are Protestant or Catholic. In the +latter these relations are regulated either by concordats between +the governments and the Holy See, or by bulls of circumscription +issued by the pope after negotiation. The effects of concordats +and bulls alike are tempered by the exercise by the civil +power of certain traditional reserved rights, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>placetum +regium</i>, <i>recursus ab abusu</i>, <i>nominatio regia</i>, and that of vetoing +the nomination of <i>personae minus gratae</i>. In the Protestant +states the ecclesiastical authority remains purely territorial, +and the sovereign remains effective head of the established +church. During the 19th century, however, a large measure of +ecclesiastical self-government (by means of general synods, &c.) +was introduced, <i>pari passu</i> with the growth of constitutional +government in the state; and in effect, though the theoretical +supremacy of the sovereign survives in the church as in the state, +he cannot exercise it save through the general synod, which is +the state parliament for ecclesiastical purposes. Where a +sovereign rules over a state containing a large proportion of +both Catholics and Protestants, which is usually the case, both +systems coexist. Thus in Prussia the relations of the Roman +Catholic community to the Protestant state are regulated by +arrangement between the Prussian government and Rome; +while in Bavaria the king, though a Catholic, is legally <i>summus +episcopus</i> of the Evangelical Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>According to the religious census of 1900 there were in the German +empire 35,231,104 Evangelical Protestants, 20,327,913 Roman +Catholics, 6472 Greek Orthodox, 203,678 Christians belonging to +other confessions, 586,948 Jews, 11,597 members of other sects and +5938 unclassified. The Christians belonging to other confessions +include Moravian Brethren, Mennonites, Baptists, Methodists and +Quakers, German Catholics, Old Catholics, &c. The table on following +page shows the distribution of the population according to +religious beliefs as furnished by the census of 1900.</p> + +<p>Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical +Church, and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the +actual figures (based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evangelical +Protestants, 62.5; Roman Catholics, 36.1; Dissenters and +others, .043, and Jews, 1.0. The Protestants have not increased +proportionately in number since 1890, while the Roman Catholics +show a small relative increase. Three states in Germany have a +decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population, viz. Alsace-Lorraine, +Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the Protestant +element prevails, but with from 24 to 34% of Roman Catholics; +viz. Prussia, Württemberg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +the eighteen minor states the number of Roman Catholics is only +from 0.3 to 3.3% of the population.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Evangelicals.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Catholics.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Other<br />Christians.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Jews.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Prussia</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,817,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,113,670</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,127</td> <td class="tcr rb">392,322</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bavaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,749,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,363,178</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,928</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saxony</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,972,063</td> <td class="tcr rb">198,265</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,103</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,416</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Württemberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,497,299</td> <td class="tcr rb">650,392</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,426</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,916</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Baden</td> <td class="tcr rb">704,058</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,131,639</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,563</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,132</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hesse</td> <td class="tcr rb">746,201</td> <td class="tcr rb">341,570</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,486</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mecklenburg-Schwerin</td> <td class="tcr rb">597,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,182</td> <td class="tcr rb">487</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,763</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saxe-Weimar</td> <td class="tcr rb">347,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,158</td> <td class="tcr rb">361</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,188</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mecklenburg-Strelitz</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,568</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">331</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oldenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">309,510</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,920</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,334</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,359</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brunswick</td> <td class="tcr rb">436,976</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,271</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,824</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saxe-Meiningen</td> <td class="tcr rb">244,810</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,170</td> <td class="tcr rb">395</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,351</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saxe-Altenburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">189,885</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,723</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saxe-Coburg-Gotha</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,330</td> <td class="tcr rb">515</td> <td class="tcr rb">608</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Anhalt</td> <td class="tcr rb">301,953</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,699</td> <td class="tcr rb">794</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,605</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schwarzburg-Sondershausen</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,593</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,110</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">166</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,298</td> <td class="tcr rb">676</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Waldeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,285</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,831</td> <td class="tcr rb">164</td> <td class="tcr rb">637</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Reuss-Greiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,860</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,043</td> <td class="tcr rb">444</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Reuss-Schleiz</td> <td class="tcr rb">135,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,579</td> <td class="tcr rb">466</td> <td class="tcr rb">178</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Schaumburg-Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,908</td> <td class="tcr rb">785</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcr rb">257</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lippe</td> <td class="tcr rb">132,708</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,157</td> <td class="tcr rb">205</td> <td class="tcr rb">879</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lübeck</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,671</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,190</td> <td class="tcr rb">213</td> <td class="tcr rb">670</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bremen</td> <td class="tcr rb">208,815</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,506</td> <td class="tcr rb">876</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,409</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">712,338</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,903</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,149</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,949</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsace-Lorraine</td> <td class="tcr rb">372,078</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,310,450</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,301</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,379</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">35,231,104</td> <td class="tcr allb">20,327,913</td> <td class="tcr allb">203,678</td> <td class="tcr allb">586,948</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>From the above table little can be inferred as to the geographical +distribution of the two chief confessions. On this point it must be +borne in mind that the population of the larger towns, on account +of the greater mobility of the population since the introduction of +railways and the abolition of restrictions upon free settlement, has +become more mixed—Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg, &c., showing +proportionally more Roman Catholics, and Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, +Munich more Protestants than formerly. Otherwise the +geographical limits of the confessions have been but little altered +since the Thirty Years’ War. In the mixed territories those places +which formerly belonged to Roman Catholic princes are Roman +Catholic still, and <i>vice versa</i>. Hence a religious map of South +Germany looks like an historical map of the 17th century. The +number of localities where the two confessions exist side by side is +small. Generally speaking, South Germany is predominantly Roman +Catholic. Some districts along the Danube (province of Bavaria, +Upper Palatinate, Swabia), southern Württemberg and Baden, and +in Alsace-Lorraine are entirely so. These territories are bordered +by a broad stretch of country on the north, where Protestantism +has maintained its hold since the time of the Reformation, including +Bayreuth or eastern upper Franconia, middle Franconia, the northern +half of Württemberg and Baden, with Hesse and the Palatinate. +Here the average proportion of Protestants to Roman Catholics is +two to one. The basin of the Main is again Roman Catholic from +Bamberg to Aschaffenburg (western upper Franconia and lower +Franconia). In Prussia the western and south-eastern provinces are +mostly Roman Catholic, especially the Rhine province, together +with the government districts of Münster and Arnsberg. The +territories of the former principality of Cleves and of the countship +of Mark (comprising very nearly the basin of the Ruhr), which went +to Brandenburg in 1609, must, however, be excepted. North of +Münster, Roman Catholicism is still prevalent in the territory of +the former bishopric of Osnabrück. In the east, East Prussia +(Ermeland excepted) is purely Protestant. Roman Catholicism was +predominant a hundred years ago in all the frontier provinces acquired +by Prussia in the days of Frederick the Great, but since then +the German immigrants have widely propagated the Protestant +faith in these districts. A prevailingly Roman Catholic population +is still found in the district of Oppeln and the countship of Glatz, +in the province of Posen, in the Polish-speaking <i>Kreise</i> of West +Prussia, and in Ermeland (East Prussia). In all the remaining +territory the Roman Catholic creed is professed only in the Eichsfeld +on the southern border of the province of Hanover and around +Hildesheim.</p> + +<p>The adherents of Protestantism are divided by their confessions +into Reformed and Lutheran. To unite these the “church union” +has been introduced in several Protestant states, as for +example in Prussia and Nassau in 1817, in the Palatinate +<span class="sidenote">Protestant Church.</span> +in 1818 and in Baden in 1822. Since 1817 the distinction +has accordingly been ignored in Prussia, and Christians are there +enumerated only as Evangelical or Roman Catholic. The union, however, +has not remained wholly unopposed—a section of the more rigid +Lutherans who separated themselves from the state church being +now known as Old Lutherans. In 1866 Prussia annexed Hanover +and Schleswig-Holstein, where the Protestants were Lutherans, +and Hesse, where the Reformed Church had +the preponderance. The inhabitants of these +countries opposed the introduction of the +union, but could not prevent their being subordinated +to the Prussian <i>Oberkirchenrat</i> (high +church-council), the supreme court of the +state church. A synodal constitution for the +Evangelical State Church was introduced in +Prussia in 1875. The <i>Oberkirchenrat</i> retains +the right of supreme management. The +ecclesiastical affairs of the separate provinces +are directed by consistorial boards. The +parishes (<i>Pfarreien</i>) are grouped into dioceses +(<i>Sprengel</i>), presided over by superintendents, +who are subordinate to the superintendent-general +of the province. Prussia has sixteen +superintendents-general. The ecclesiastical +administration is similarly regulated in the +other countries of the Protestant creed. +Regarding the number of churches and +chapels Germany has no exact statistics.</p> + +<p>There are five archbishoprics within the +German empire: Gnesen-Posen, Cologne, +Freiburg (Baden), Munich-Freising +and Bamberg. The twenty bishoprics +are: Breslau (where the bishop +has the title of “prince-bishop”), +Ermeland (seat at Frauenburg, East Prussia), +Kulm (seat at Pelplin, West Prussia), Fulda, +<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholic Church.</span> +Hildesheim, Osnabrück, Paderborn, Münster, +Limburg, Trier, Metz, Strassburg, Spires, +Würzburg, Regensburg, Passau, Eichstätt, +Augsburg, Rottenburg (Württemberg) and +Mainz. Apostolic vicariates exist in Dresden (for Saxony), and +others for Anhalt and the northern missions.</p> + +<p>The Old Catholics (<i>q.v.</i>), who seceded from the Roman Church in +consequence of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, +number roughly 50,000, with 54 clergy.</p> + +<p>It is in the towns that the Jewish element is chiefly to be found. +They belong principally to the mercantile class, and are to a very +large extent dealers in money. Their wealth has grown +to an extraordinary degree. They are increasingly numerous +<span class="sidenote">Jews.</span> +in Hamburg, Berlin, Frankfort-on-Main, Breslau, Königsberg, +Posen, Cologne, Nuremberg and Fürth. As a rule their numbers +are proportionately greater in Prussia than elsewhere within the +empire. But, since 1871, the Jewish population of Germany shows +a far smaller increase than that of the Christian confessions, and +even in the parts of the country where the Jewish population is +densest it has shown a tendency to diminish. It is relatively +greatest in the province of Posen, where the numbers have fallen +from 61,982 (39.1 per thousand) in 1871 to 35,327 (18.7 per thousand) +in 1900. The explanation is twofold—the extraordinary increase +(1) in their numbers in Berlin and the province of Brandenburg, +and (2) in the number of conversions to the Christian faith. In this +last regard it may be remarked that the impulse is less from religious +conviction than from a desire to associate on more equal terms +with their neighbours. Though still, in fact at least, if not by law, +excluded from many public offices, especially from commands in +the army, they nevertheless are very powerful in Germany, the press +being for the most part in their hands, and they furnish in many +cities fully one-half of the lawyers and the members of the corporation. +It should be mentioned, as a curious fact, that the numbers +of the Jewish persuasion in the kingdom of Saxony increased +from 3358 (1.3 per thousand) in 1871 to 12,416 (3 per thousand) +in 1900.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—In point of educational culture Germany ranks +high among all the civilized great nations of the world (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span>: <i>Germany</i>). Education is general and compulsory +throughout the empire, and all the states composing it have, with +minor modifications, adopted the Prussian system providing +for the establishment of elementary schools—<i>Volksschulen</i>—in +every town and village. The school age is from six to fourteen, +and parents can be compelled to send their children to a <i>Volksschule</i>, +unless, to the satisfaction of the authorities, they are +receiving adequate instruction in some other recognized school +or institution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The total number of primary schools was 60,584 in 1906-1907; +teachers, 166,597; pupils, 9,737,262—an average of about +one <i>Volksschule</i> to every 900 inhabitants. The annual expenditure +was over £26,000,000, of which sum £7,500,000 was provided +by state subvention. There were also in Germany in +the same year 643 private schools, giving instruction similar to +that of the elementary schools, with 41,000 pupils. A good +criterion of the progress of education is obtained from the diminishing +number of illiterate army recruits, as shown by the following:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Number of<br />Recruits.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Unable to Read or Write.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per 1000<br />Recruits.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1875-1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">139,855</td> <td class="tcr rb">3331</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880-1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">151,180</td> <td class="tcr rb">2406</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885-1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">152,933</td> <td class="tcr rb">1657</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">193,318</td> <td class="tcr rb">1035</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">250,287</td> <td class="tcr rb">374</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898-1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">252,382</td> <td class="tcr rb">173</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900-1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">253,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.45</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of the above 131 illiterates in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and +West Prussia, Posen and Silesia.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Universities and Higher Technical Schools.</i>—Germany owes +its large number of universities, and its widely diffused higher +education to its former subdivision into many separate states. +Only a few of the universities date their existence from the +19th century; the majority of them are very much older. Each +of the larger provinces, except Posen, has at least one university, +the entire number being 21. All have four faculties except +Münster, which has no faculty of medicine. As regards theology, +Bonn, Breslau and Tübingen have both a Protestant and a +Catholic faculty; Freiburg, Munich, Münster and Würzburg +are exclusively Catholic; and all the rest are Protestant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table gives the names of the 21 universities, the dates +of their respective foundations, the number of their professors and +other teachers for the winter half-year 1908-1909, and of the students +attending their lectures during the winter half-year of 1907-1908:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date of<br />Foundation.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Professors<br />and<br />Teachers.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Students.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Theology.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Law.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Medicine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Philosophy.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb">1809</td> <td class="tcr rb">493</td> <td class="tcr rb">326</td> <td class="tcr rb">2747</td> <td class="tcr rb">1153</td> <td class="tcr rb">3934</td> <td class="tcr rb">8220</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bonn</td> <td class="tcc rb">1818</td> <td class="tcr rb">190</td> <td class="tcr rb">395</td> <td class="tcr rb">833</td> <td class="tcr rb">282</td> <td class="tcr rb">1699</td> <td class="tcr rb">3209</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Breslau</td> <td class="tcc rb">1811</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb">330</td> <td class="tcr rb">617</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td> <td class="tcr rb">840</td> <td class="tcr rb">2071</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Erlangen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1743</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">323</td> <td class="tcr rb">355</td> <td class="tcr rb">225</td> <td class="tcr rb">1058</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1457</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">219</td> <td class="tcr rb">373</td> <td class="tcr rb">580</td> <td class="tcr rb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb">1814</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Giessen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1607</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td> <td class="tcr rb">331</td> <td class="tcr rb">546</td> <td class="tcr rb">1144</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Göttingen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1737</td> <td class="tcr rb">161</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">441</td> <td class="tcr rb">188</td> <td class="tcr rb">1126</td> <td class="tcr rb">1857</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greifswald</td> <td class="tcc rb">1456</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">188</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">361</td> <td class="tcr rb">803</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Halle</td> <td class="tcc rb">1694</td> <td class="tcr rb">174</td> <td class="tcr rb">331</td> <td class="tcr rb">450</td> <td class="tcr rb">217</td> <td class="tcr rb">1239</td> <td class="tcr rb">2237</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heidelberg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1385</td> <td class="tcr rb">177</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">357</td> <td class="tcr rb">385</td> <td class="tcr rb">879</td> <td class="tcr rb">1676</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jena</td> <td class="tcc rb">1558</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">267</td> <td class="tcr rb">265</td> <td class="tcr rb">795</td> <td class="tcr rb">1375</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kiel</td> <td class="tcc rb">1665</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">271</td> <td class="tcr rb">239</td> <td class="tcr rb">480</td> <td class="tcr rb">1025</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Königsberg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1544</td> <td class="tcr rb">152</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">317</td> <td class="tcr rb">218</td> <td class="tcr rb">502</td> <td class="tcr rb">1105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leipzig</td> <td class="tcc rb">1409</td> <td class="tcr rb">234</td> <td class="tcr rb">303</td> <td class="tcr rb">1013</td> <td class="tcr rb">606</td> <td class="tcr rb">2419</td> <td class="tcr rb">4341</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Marburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1527</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb">261</td> <td class="tcr rb">876</td> <td class="tcr rb">1670</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcc rb">1826</td> <td class="tcr rb">239</td> <td class="tcr rb">169</td> <td class="tcr rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">1979</td> <td class="tcr rb">5943</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Münster</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">278</td> <td class="tcr rb">458</td> <td class="tcc rb">. .</td> <td class="tcr rb">870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1606</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rostock</td> <td class="tcc rb">1418</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">211</td> <td class="tcr rb">322</td> <td class="tcr rb">648</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Strassburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td> <td class="tcr rb">369</td> <td class="tcr rb">255</td> <td class="tcr rb">844</td> <td class="tcr rb">1709</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tübingen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1477</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">464</td> <td class="tcr rb">467</td> <td class="tcr rb">263</td> <td class="tcr rb">384</td> <td class="tcr rb">1578</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Würzburg</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1582</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">331</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">625</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">320</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1382</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Not included in the above list is the little academy—Lyceum +Hosianum—at Braunsberg in Prussia, having faculties of theology +(Roman Catholic) and philosophy, with 13 teachers and 150 students. +In all the universities the number of matriculated students in 1907-1908 +was 46,471, including 320 women, 2 of whom studied theology, +14 law, 150 philosophy and 154 medicine. There were also, within +the same period, 5653 non-matriculated <i>Hörer</i> (hearers), including +2486 women.</p> + +<p>Ten schools, technical high schools, or <i>Polytechnica</i>, rank with the +universities, and have the power of granting certain degrees. They +have departments of architecture, building, civil engineering, +chemistry, metallurgy and, in some cases, anatomy. These schools +are as follows: Berlin (Charlottenburg), Munich, Darmstadt, Karlsruhe, +Hanover, Dresden, Stuttgart, Aix-la-Chapelle, Brunswick +and Danzig; in 1908 they were attended by 14,149 students (2531 +foreigners), and had a teaching staff of 753. Among the remaining +higher technical schools may be mentioned the three mining academies +of Berlin, Clausthal, in the Harz, and Freiberg in Saxony. For +instruction in agriculture there are agricultural schools attached to +several universities—notably Berlin, Halle, Göttingen, Königsberg, +Jena, Poppelsdorf near Bonn, Munich and Leipzig. Noted academies +of forestry are those of Tharandt (in Saxony), +Eberswalde, Münden on the Weser, Hohenheim +near Stuttgart, Brunswick, Eisenach, Giessen and +Karlsruhe. Other technical schools are again the +five veterinary academies of Berlin, Hanover, Munich, Dresden and +Stuttgart, the commercial colleges (<i>Handelshochschulen</i>) of Leipzig, +Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Frankfort-on-Main and Cologne, in +addition to 424 commercial schools of a lesser degree, 100 schools for +textile manufactures and numerous schools for special metal industries, +wood-working, ceramic industries, naval architecture and +engineering and navigation. For military science there are the +academies of war (<i>Kriegsakademien</i>) in Berlin and Munich, a naval +academy in Kiel, and various cadet and non-commissioned officers’ +schools.</p> + +<p><i>Libraries.</i>—Mental culture and a general diffusion of knowledge +are extensively promoted by means of numerous public libraries +established in the capital, the university towns and other places. +The most celebrated public libraries are those of Berlin (1,000,000 +volumes and 30,000 MSS.); Munich (1,000,000 volumes, 40,000 +MSS.); Heidelberg (563,000 volumes, 8000 MSS.); Göttingen +(503,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Strassburg (760,000 volumes); +Dresden (500,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Hamburg (municipal +library, 600,000 volumes, 5000 MSS.); Stuttgart (400,000 volumes, +3500 MSS.); Leipzig (university library, 500,000 volumes, 5000 MSS.); +Würzburg (350,000 volumes); Tübingen (340,000 volumes); Rostock +(318,000 volumes); Breslau (university library, 300,000 volumes, +7000 MSS.); Freiburg-im-Breisgau (250,000 volumes); Bonn +(265,000 volumes); and Königsberg (230,000 volumes, 1100 MSS.). +There are also famous libraries at Gotha, Wolfenbüttel and Celle.</p> + +<p><i>Learned Societies.</i>—There are numerous societies and unions, +some of an exclusively scientific character and others designed for +the popular diffusion of useful knowledge. Foremost among German +academies is the Academy of Sciences (<i>Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>) +in Berlin, founded in 1700 on Leibnitz’s great plan and opened in +1711. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it was reorganized by +Frederick the Great on the French model and received its present +constitution in 1812. It has four sections: physical, mathematical, +philosophical and historical. The members are (1) ordinary (50 in +number, each receiving a yearly dotation of £30), and (2) extraordinary, +consisting of honorary and corresponding (foreign) members. +It has published since 1811 a selection of treatises furnished by its +most eminent men, +among whom must be +reckoned Schleiermacher, +the brothers +Humboldt, Grimm, +Savigny, Böckh, Ritter +and Lachmann, and +has promoted philological +and historical +research by helping +the production of such +works as <i>Corpus inscriptionum +Graecarum</i>; +<i>Corpus inscriptionum +Latinarum</i>; <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica</i>, +the works of +Aristotle, Frederick +the Great’s works and +Kant’s collected works. +Next in order come +(1) the Academy of +Sciences at Munich, +founded in 1759, +divided into three +classes, philosophical, +historical and physical, +and especially famous +for its historical research; (2) the Society of Sciences (<i>Gesellschaft der +Wissenschaften</i>) in Göttingen, founded in 1742; (3) that of Erfurt, +founded 1758; (4) Görlitz (1779) and (5) the “Royal Saxon Society +of Sciences” (<i>Königliche sächsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften</i>), +founded in Leipzig in 1846. Ample provision is made for scientific +collections of all kinds in almost all places of any importance, either +at the public expense or through private munificence.</p> + +<p><i>Observatories.</i>—These have in recent years been considerably +augmented. There are 19 leading observatories in the empire, viz. +at Bamberg, Berlin (2), Bonn, Bothkamp in Schleswig, Breslau, +Düsseldorf, Gotha, Göttingen, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel, +Königsberg, Leipzig, Munich, Potsdam, Strassburg and Wilhelmshaven.</p> + +<p><i>Book Trade.</i>—This branch of industry, from the important +position it has gradually acquired since the time of the Reformation, +is to be regarded as at once a cause and a result of the mental culture +of Germany. Leipzig, Berlin and Stuttgart are the chief centres of +the trade. The number of booksellers in Germany was not less than +10,000 in 1907, among whom were approximately 6000 publishers. +The following figures will show the recent progress of German +literary production, in so far as published works are concerned:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Year</td> <td class="tcr">1570</td> <td class="tcr">1600</td> <td class="tcr">1618</td> <td class="tcr">1650</td> <td class="tcr">1700</td> <td class="tcr">1750</td> <td class="tcr">1800</td> <td class="tcr">1840</td> <td class="tcr">1884</td> <td class="tcr">1902</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Books</td> <td class="tcr">229</td> <td class="tcr">791</td> <td class="tcr">1293</td> <td class="tcr">725</td> <td class="tcr">951</td> <td class="tcr">1219</td> <td class="tcr">3335</td> <td class="tcr">6904</td> <td class="tcr">15,607</td> <td class="tcr">26,902</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Newspapers.</i>—While in England a few important newspapers +have an immense circulation, the newspapers of Germany are much +more numerous, but on the whole command a more limited sale. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +Some large cities, notably Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg, Dresden, +Leipzig and Munich, have, however, newspapers with a daily circulation +of over 100,000 copies, and in the case of some papers in +Berlin a million copies is reached. Most readers receive their +newspapers through the post office or at their clubs, which may help +to explain the smaller number of copies sold.</p> + +<p><i>Fine Arts.</i>—Perhaps the chief advantage which Germany has +derived from the survival of separate territorial sovereignties within +the empire has been the decentralization of culture. Patronage of +art is among the cherished traditions of the German princes; and +even where—as for instance at Cassel—there is no longer a court, +the artistic impetus given by the former sovereigns has survived +their fall. The result has been that there is in Germany no such +concentration of the institutions for the encouragement and study +of the fine arts as there is in France or England. Berlin has no +practical monopoly, such as is possessed by London or Paris, of the +celebrated museums and galleries of the country. The picture +galleries of Dresden, Munich and Cassel still rival that at Berlin, +though the latter is rapidly becoming one of the richest in the world +in works of the great masters, largely at the cost of the private +collections of England. For the same reason the country is very well +provided with excellent schools of painting and music. Of the art +schools the most famous are those of Munich, Düsseldorf, Dresden +and Berlin, but there are others, <i>e.g.</i> at Karlsruhe, Weimar and +Königsberg. These schools are in close touch with the sovereigns +and the governments, and the more promising pupils are thus from +the first assured of a career, especially in connexion with the decoration +of public buildings and monuments. To this fact is largely +due the excellence of the Germans in grandiose decorative painting +and sculpture, a talent for the exercise of which plenty of scope has +been given them by the numerous public buildings and memorials +raised since the war of 1870. Perhaps for this very reason, however, +the German art schools have had no such cosmopolitan influence +as that exercised by the schools of Paris, the number of foreign +students attending them being comparatively small. It is otherwise +with the schools of music, which exercise a profound influence far +beyond the borders of Germany. Of these the most important are +the conservatoires of Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Munich and Frankfort-on-Main. +The fame of Weimar as a seat of musical education, +though it possesses an excellent conservatoire, is based mainly on +the tradition of the abbé Liszt, who gathered about him here a +number of distinguished pupils, some of whom have continued +to make it their centre. Music in Germany also receives a +great stimulus from the existence, in almost every important +town, of opera-houses partly supported by the sovereigns or +by the civic authorities. Good music being thus brought within +the reach of all, appreciation of it is very wide-spread in all classes of +the population. The imperial government maintains institutes at +Rome and Athens which have done much for the advancement of +archaeology.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—The system of the “nation in arms” owes its existence +to the reforms in the Prussian army that followed Jena. The +“nation in arms” itself was the product of the French Revolutionary +and Napoleonic wars, but it was in Prussia that was +seen the systematization and the economical and effective +application of the immense forces of which the revolutionary +period had demonstrated the existence (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Army</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conscription</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>, &c.). It was +with an army and a military system that fully represented the +idea of the “nation in arms” that Prussia created the powerful +Germany of later days, and the same system was extended +by degrees over all the other states of the new empire. But +these very successes contained in themselves the germ of new +troubles. Increased prosperity, a still greater increase in population +and the social and economic disturbances incidental to the +conversion of an agricultural into a manufacturing community, +led to the practical abandonment of the principle of +<i>universal</i> service. More men came before the recruiting +officer than there was money to train; and in 1895 the period +of service with the colours was reduced from three to two +years—a step since followed by other military powers, the idea +being that with the same peace effective and financial grants +half as many men again could be passed through the ranks as +before.</p> + +<p>In 1907 the recruiting statistics were as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Number of young men attaining service age (including + those who had voluntarily enlisted before their time)</p></td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcrb">556,772</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Men belonging to previous years who had been put back + for re-examination, &., still borne on the lists</p></td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcrb">657,753</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,214,525</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p><i>Deduct</i>—Physically unfit, &c.</p></td> <td class="tcr">35,802</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p> Struck off</p></td> <td class="tcr">860</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Voluntarily enlisted in the army and navy, + on or before attaining service age</p></td> <td class="tcr">57,739</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Assigned as recruits to the navy</p></td> <td class="tcr">10,374</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Put back, &c.</p></td> <td class="tcr">684,193</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">788,968</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Available as army recruits, fit</p></td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr un">425,557</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Of these, (<i>a</i>) Assigned to the active army for two or three + years’ service with the colours</p></td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcrb">212,661</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>  (<i>b</i>) Assigned to the Ersatz-Reserve of the + army and navy</p></td> <td class="tccm cl" rowspan="2"><i>untrained</i></td> <td class="tcrb">89,877</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>  (<i>c</i>) Assigned to the 1st levy of Landsturm</p></td> <td class="tcrb">123,019</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr">425,557</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Thus only half the men on whom the government has an +effective hold go to the colours in the end. Moreover few of the +men “put back, &c.,” who figure on both sides of the account for +any one year, and seem to average 660,000, are really “put back.” +They are in the main those who have failed or fail to present themselves, +and whose names are retained on the liability lists against +the day of their return. Many of these have emigrated.</p> + +<p>By the constitution of the 16th of April 1871 every German +is liable to service and no substitution is allowed. Liability +begins at the age of seventeen, and actual service, as a rule, +from the age of twenty. The men serve in the active army and +army reserve for seven years, of which two years (three in the +case of cavalry and horse artillery recruits) are spent with the +colours. During his four or five years in the reserve, the soldier +is called out for training with his corps twice, for a maximum +of eight weeks (in practice usually for six). After quitting the +reserve the soldier is drafted into the first ban of the <i>Landwehr</i> +for five years more, in which (except in the cavalry, which is +not called out in peace time) he undergoes two trainings of from +eight to fourteen days. Thence he passes into the second ban +and remains in it until he has completed his thirty-ninth year—<i>i.e.</i> +from six to seven years more, the whole period of army and Landwehr +service being thus nineteen years. Finally, all soldiers are +passed into the <i>Landsturm</i>, in the first ban of which they remain +until the completion of their forty-fifth year. The second ban +consists of untrained men between the ages of thirty-nine and +forty-five. Young men who reach a certain standard of education, +however, are only obliged to serve for one year in the active +army. They are called One-Year Volunteers (<i>Einjährig-Freiwilligen</i>), +defray their own expenses and are the chief source of +supply of reserve and Landwehr officers. That proportion of +the annual contingents which is dismissed untrained goes either +to the Ersatz-Reserve or to the 1st ban of the Landsturm (the +Landwehr, it will be observed, contains only men who have +served with the colours). The Ersatz consists exclusively of +young men, who would in war time be drafted to the regimental +depots and thence sent, with what training circumstances had +in the meantime allowed, to the front. Some men of the Ersatz +receive a short preliminary training in peace time.</p> + +<p>In 1907 the average height of the private soldiers was 5 ft. 6 in., +that of the non-commissioned officers 5 ft. 6½ in., and that of the +one-year volunteers 5 ft. 9½ in. A much greater proportion of +the country recruits were accepted as “fit” than of those +coming from the towns. Voluntary enlistments of men who +desired to become non-commissioned officers were most frequent +in the provinces of the old Prussian monarchy, but in Berlin +itself and in Westphalia the enlistments fell far short of the +number of non-commissioned officers required for the territorial +regiments of the respective districts. Above all, in Alsace-Lorraine +one-eighth only of the required numbers were obtained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Peace and War Strengths.</i>—German military policy is revised +every five years; thus a law of April 1905 fixes the strength and +establishments to be attained on March 31, 1910, the necessary +augmentations, &c., being carried out gradually in the intervening +years. The peace strength for the latter date was fixed at 505,839 +men (not including officers, non-commissioned officers and one-year +volunteers), forming—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">633</td> <td class="tcl">battalions infantry.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">510</td> <td class="tcl">squadrons cavalry.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">574</td> <td class="tcl">batteries field and horse artillery.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">40</td> <td class="tcl">battalions foot artillery.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">29</td> <td class="tcl">battalions pioneers.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcl">battalions communication troops.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">23</td> <td class="tcl">train battalions, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span></p> + +<p class="noind">The addition of about 25,000 officers and 85,000 non-commissioned +officers, one-year men, &c., brings the peace footing of the German +army in 1910 to a total of about 615,000 of all ranks.</p> + +<p>As for war, the total fighting strength of the German nation +(including the navy) has been placed at as high a figure as 11,000,000. +Of these 7,000,000 have received little or no training, owing to medical +unfitness, residence abroad, failure to appear, surplus of annual +contingents, &c., as already explained, and not more than 3,000,000 +of these would be available in war. The real military resources of +Germany, untrained and trained, are thus about 7,000,000, of whom +4,000,000 have at one time or another done a continuous period of +service with the colours.<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> This is of course for a war of defence <i>à +outrance</i>. For an offensive war, only the active army, the reserve, +the Ersatz and the 1st levy of the Landwehr would be really available.</p> + +<p>A rough calculation of the number of these who go to form or to +reinforce the field armies and the mobilized garrisons may be given:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Cadres of officers and non-commissioned officers</p></td> <td class="tcrb">100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>From 7 annual contingents of recruits (<i>i.e.</i> + active army and reserve)</p></td> <td class="tcrb">1,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>From 5 contingents of Landwehr (1st ban)</p></td> <td class="tcrb">600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>From 7 classes of Ersatz reserve called to the + depots, able-bodied men</p></td> <td class="tcrb">400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>One-year volunteers recalled to the colours or + serving as reserve and Landwehr officers</p></td> <td class="tcrb">100,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcrb">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcrb">2,400,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These again would divide into a first line army of 1,350,000 and a +second of 1,050,000. It is calculated that the field army would +consist, in the third week of a great war, of 633 battalions, 410 +squadrons and 574 batteries, with technical, departmental and +medical troops (say 630,000 bayonets, 60,000 sabres and 3444 guns, +or 750,000 men), and that these could be reinforced in three or four +weeks by 350 fresh battalions. Behind these forces there would +shortly become available for secondary operations about 460 battalions +of the 1st ban Landwehr, and 200 squadrons and about 220 +batteries of the reserve and Landwehr. In addition, each would +leave behind depot troops to form the nucleus on which the 2nd ban +Landwehr and the Landsturm would eventually be built up. The +total number of units of the three arms in all branches may be stated +approximately at 2200 battalions, 780 squadrons and 950 batteries.</p> + +<p><i>Command and Organization</i>.—By the articles of the constitution +the whole of the land forces of the empire form a united army in +war and peace under the orders of the emperor. The sovereigns of +the chief states are entitled to nominate the lower grades of officers, +and the king of Bavaria has reserved to himself the special privilege +of superintending the general administration of the three Bavarian +army corps; but all appointments are made subject to the emperor’s +approval. The emperor is empowered to erect fortresses in any part +of the empire. It is the almost invariable practice of the kings of +Prussia to command their forces in person, and the army commands, +too, are generally held by leaders of royal or princely rank. The +natural corollary to this is the assignment of special advisory duties +to a responsible chief of staff. The officers are recruited either +from the Cadet Corps at Berlin or from amongst those men, of +sufficient social standing, who join the ranks as “avantageurs” +with a view to obtaining commissions. Reserve and Landwehr +officers are drawn from among officers and selected non-commissioned +officers retired from the active army, and one-year volunteers who +have passed a special examination. All candidates, from whatever +source they come, are subject to approval or rejection by their +brother officers before being definitively commissioned. Promotion +in the German army is excessively slow, the senior subalterns having +eighteen to twenty years’ commissioned service and the senior +captains sometimes thirty. The number of officers on the active list +is about 25,000. The under-officers number about 84,000.</p> + +<p>The German army is organized in twenty-three army corps, +stationed and recruited in the various provinces and states as follows: +Guard, Berlin (general recruiting); I. Königsberg (East Prussia); +II. Stettin (Pomerania); III. Berlin (Brandenburg); IV. Magdeburg +(Prussian Saxony); V. Posen (Poland and part of Silesia); VI. +Breslau (Silesia); VII. Münster (Westphalia); VIII. Coblenz +(Rhineland); IX. Altona (Hanse Towns and Schleswig-Holstein); +X. Hanover (Hanover); XI. Cassel (Hesse-Cassel); XII. Dresden +(Saxony); XIII. Stuttgart (Württemberg); XIV. Karlsruhe +(Baden); XV. Strassburg (Alsace); XVI. Metz (Lorraine); XVII. +Danzig (West Prussia); XVIII. Frankfurt-am-Main (Hesse Darmstadt, +Main country); XIX. Leipzig (Saxony); I. Bavarian Corps, +Munich; II. Bavarian Corps, Würzburg; III. Bavarian Corps, +Nuremberg. The formation of a XX. army corps out of the extra +division of the XIV. corps at Colmar in Alsace, with the addition of +two regiments from Westphalia and drafts of the XV. and XVI. +corps, was announced in 1908 as the final step of the programme for +the period 1906-1910. The normal composition of an army corps +on war is (<i>a</i>) staff, (<i>b</i>) 2 infantry divisions, each of 2 brigades (4 +regiments or 12 battalions), 2 regiments of field artillery (comprising +9 batteries of field-guns and 3 of field howitzers, 72 pieces in all), +3 squadrons of cavalry, 1 or 2 companies of pioneers, a bridge train +and 1 or 2 bearer companies; (<i>c</i>) corps troops, 1 battalion rifles, +telegraph troops, bridge train, ammunition columns, train (supply) +battalion, field bakeries, bearer companies and field hospitals, &c., +with, as a rule, one or two batteries of heavy field howitzers or +mortars and a machine-gun group. The remainder of the cavalry +and horse artillery attached to the army corps in peace goes in war +to form the cavalry divisions. Certain corps have an increased +effective; thus the Guard has a whole cavalry division, and the I. +corps (Königsberg) has three divisions. Several corps possess an +extra infantry brigade of two 2-battalion regiments, but these, +unless stationed on the frontiers, are gradually absorbed into new +divisions and army corps. In war several army corps, cavalry +divisions and reserve divisions are grouped in two or more “armies,” +and in peace the army corps are divided for purposes of superior +control amongst several “army inspections.”</p> + +<p>The cavalry is organized in regiments of cuirassiers, dragoons, +lancers, hussars and mounted rifles,<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the regiments having four +service and one depot squadrons. Troopers are armed with lance, +sword and carbine (for which in 1908 the substitution of a short rifle +with bayonet was suggested). In peace time the highest permanent +organization is the brigade of two regiments or eight squadrons, but +in war and at manœuvres divisions of three brigades, with horse +artillery attached, are formed.</p> + +<p>The infantry consists of 216 regiments, mostly of three battalions +each. These are numbered, apart from the eight Guard regiments +and the Bavarians, serially throughout the army. Certain regiments +are styled grenadiers and fusiliers. In addition there are eighteen +chasseur or rifle battalions (<i>Jäger</i>). The battalion has always four +companies, each, at war strength, 250 strong. The armament +of the infantry is the model 1898 magazine rifle and bayonet (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The field (including horse) artillery consists in peace of 94 regiments +subdivided into two or three groups (<i>Abteilungen</i>), each of +two or three 6-gun batteries. The field gun in use is the quick-firing +gun 96/N.A. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>: <i>Field Equipments</i>).</p> + +<p>The foot artillery is intended for siege and fortress warfare, and to +furnish the heavy artillery of the field army. It consists of forty +battalions. Machine gun detachments, resembling 4-gun batteries +and horsed as artillery, were formed to the number of sixteen in +1904-1906. These are intended to work with the cavalry divisions. +Afterwards it was decided to form additional small groups of two +guns each, less fully horsed, to assist the infantry, and a certain +number of these were created in 1906-1908.</p> + +<p>The engineers are a technical body, not concerned with field +warfare or with the command of troops. On the other hand, the +pioneers (29 battalions) are assigned to the field army, with duties +corresponding roughly to those of field companies R.E. in the British +service. Other branches represented in Great Britain by the Royal +Engineers are known in Germany by the title “communication +troops,” and comprise railway, telegraph and airship and balloon +battalions. The Train is charged with the duties of supply and +transport. There is one battalion to each army corps.</p> + +<p><i>Remounts</i>.—The peace establishment in horses is approximately +100,000. Horses serve eight to nine years in the artillery and nine +to ten in the cavalry, after which, in the autumn of each year, they +are sold, and their places taken by remounts. The latter are bought +at horse-fairs and private sales, unbroken, and sent to the 25 remount +depots, whence, when fit for the service, they are sent to the various +units, as a rule in the early summer. Most of the cavalry and +artillery riding horses come from Prussia proper. The Polish +districts produce swift Hussar horses of a semi-eastern type. Hanover +is second only to East Prussia in output of horses. Bavaria, Saxony +and Württemberg do not produce enough horses for their own armies +and have to draw on Prussia. Thirteen thousand four hundred +and forty-five young horses were bought by the army authorities +during 1907. The average price was about £51 for field artillery +draught horses, £65 for heavy draught horses, and £46 for riding +horses.</p> + +<p>The military expenditure of Germany, according to a comparative +table furnished to the House of Commons by the British war office +in 1907, varied between £36,000,000 and £44,000,000 per annum +in the period 1899-1902, and between £42,000,000 and £51,000,000 +per annum in that of 1905-1909.</p> + +<p><i>Colonial Troops</i>.—In 1906 these, irrespective of the brigade of +occupation then maintained in north China and of special reinforcements +sent to S.W. Africa during the Herrero war, consisted of the +<i>German East Africa</i> troops, 220 Europeans and 1470 natives; the +<i>Cameroon</i> troops, 145 European and 1170 natives; <i>S.W. African +troops</i>, entirely European and normally consisting of 606 officers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +and men active and a reserve of ex-soldier settlers; the Kiao-Chau +garrison (chiefly marines), numbering 2687 officers and men; and +various small police forces in Togo, New Guinea, Samoa, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Fortresses</i>.—The fixed defences maintained by the German empire +(apart from naval ports and coast defences) belong to two distinct +epochs in the military policy of the state. In the first period +(roughly 1871-1899), which is characterized by the development of +the offensive spirit, the fortresses, except on the French and Russian +frontiers, were reduced to a minimum. In the interior only Spandau, +Cüstrin, Magdeburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm were maintained as +defensive supporting points, and similarly on the Rhine, which +was formerly studded with fortresses from Basel to Emmerich, the +defences were limited to New Breisach, Germersheim, Mainz, +Coblenz, Cologne and Wesel, all of a “barrier” character and not +organized specially as centres of activity for field armies. The +French frontier, and to a less extent the Russian, were organized +offensively. Metz, already surrounded by the French with a girdle of +forts, was extended and completed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>) +as a great entrenched camp, and Strassburg, which in 1870 +possessed no outlying works, was similarly expanded, though the +latter was regarded an instrument of defence more than of attack. +On the Russian frontier Königsberg, Danzig, Thorn, Posen, Glogau +(and on a smaller scale Boyen in East Prussia and Graudenz on the +Vistula) were modernized and improved.</p> + +<p>From 1899, however, Germany began to pay more attention to +her fixed defences, and in the next years a long line of fortifications +came into existence on the French frontier, the positions and strength +of which were regulated with special regard to a new strategic +disposition of the field armies and to the number and sites of the +“strategic railway stations” which were constructed about the +same time. Thus, the creation of a new series of forts extending +from Thionville (Diedenhofen) to Metz and thence south-eastward +was coupled with the construction of twelve strategic railway +stations between Cologne and the Belgian frontier, and later—the +so-called “fundamental plan” of operations against France having +apparently undergone modification in consequence of changes in the +foreign relations of the German government—an immense strategic +railway station was undertaken at Saarburg, on the right rear of +Thionville and well away from the French frontier, and many important +new works both of fortification and of railway construction +were begun in Upper Alsace, between Colmar and Basel.</p> + +<p>The coast defences include, besides the great naval ports +of Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea and Kiel on the Baltic, +Danzig, Pillau, Memel, Friedrichsort, Cuxhaven, Geestemünde and +Swinemünde.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<p><i>Navy</i>.—The German navy is of recent origin. In 1848 the +German people urged the construction of a fleet. Money was +collected, and a few men-of-war were fitted out; but these +were subsequently sold, the German <i>Bundestag</i> (federal council) +not being in sympathy with the aspirations of the nation. Prussia +however, began laying the foundations of a small navy. To +meet the difficulty arising from the want of good harbours in +the Baltic, a small extent of territory near Jade Bay was bought +from Oldenburg in 1854, for the purpose of establishing a war-port +there. Its construction was completed at enormous expense, +and it was opened for ships by the emperor in June 1869 under +the name of Wilhelmshaven. In 1864 Prussia, in annexing +Holstein, obtained possession of the excellent port of Kiel, +which has since been strongly fortified. From the time of the +formation of the North German Confederation the navy has +belonged to the common federal interest. Since 1st October +1867 all its ships have carried the same flag, of the national +colours—black, white, red, with the Prussian eagle and the iron +cross.</p> + +<p>From 1848 to 1868 the increase of the navy was slow. In +1851 it consisted of 51 vessels, including 36 small gunboats +of 2 guns each. In 1868 it consisted of 45 steamers (including +2 ironclads) and 44 sailing vessels, but during the various wars +of the period 1848-1871, only a few minor actions were fought +at sea, and for many years after the French War the development +of the navy did not keep pace with that of the empire’s commercial +interests beyond the seas, or compete seriously with +the naval power of possible rivals. But towards the end of the +19th century Germany started on a new naval policy, by which +her fleet was largely and rapidly increased. Details of this +development will be found in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navy</a></span> (see also <i>History</i> +below, <i>ad fin.</i>). It will be sufficient here to give the statistics +relating to the beginning of the year 1909, reference being made +only to ships effective at that date and to ships authorized in +the construction programme of 1907:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Modern battleships</td> <td class="tcr">20</td> <td class="tcl">effective, 4 approaching completion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Old battleships and coast defence ships</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcl">effective (4 non-effective).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Armoured cruisers</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcl">effective, 1 approaching completion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Protected cruisers</td> <td class="tcr">31</td> <td class="tcl">effective, 2 approaching completion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Torpedo craft of modern types</td> <td class="tcr">130</td> <td class="tcl">effective, 3 approaching completion.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Administration</i>.—In 1889 the administration was transferred +from the ministry of war to the imperial admiralty (<i>Reichsmarineamt</i>), +at the head of which is the naval secretary of state. The chief +command was at the same time separated from the administration +and vested in a naval officer, who controls the movements of the +fleet, its personnel and training, while the maintenance of the arsenals +and dockyards, victualling and clothing and all matters immediately +affecting the <i>matériel</i>, fall within the province of the secretary of +state. The navy is divided between the Baltic (Kiel) and North Sea +(Wilhelmshaven) stations, which are strategically linked by the +Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (opened in 1895), across the Schleswig-Holstein +peninsula. Danzig, Cuxhaven and Sonderburg have also been +made naval bases.</p> + +<p><i>Personnel</i>.—The German navy is manned by the obligatory service +of the essentially maritime population—such as sailors, fishermen +and others, as well as by volunteers, who elect for naval service in +preference to that in the army. It is estimated that the total +seafaring population of Germany amounts to 80,000. The active +naval personnel was, in 1906, 2631 officers (including engineers, +marines, medical, &c.) and 51,138 under-officers and men, total +53,769. In addition, there is a reserve of more than 100,000 officers +and men.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + +<p><i>Finance</i>.—The imperial budget is voted every year by the +Reichstag. The “extraordinary funds,” from which considerable +sums appear annually in the budget, were created after the +Franco-German War. Part of the indemnity was invested +for definite purposes. The largest of these investments served +for paying the pensions of the invalided, and amounted originally +to £28,000,000. Every year, not only the interest, but part +of the capital is expended in paying these pensions, and the +capital sum was thus reduced in 1903 to £15,100,000, and in 1904 +to £13,200,000. Another fund, of about £5,200,000, serves +for the construction and armament of fortresses; while +£6,000,000, known as the <i>Reichskriegsschatz</i>—or “war treasure +fund”—is not laid out at interest, but is stored in coined gold +and bullion in the Juliusturm at Spandau. In addition to +these, the railways in Alsace-Lorraine, which France bought +of the Eastern Railway Company for £13,000,000, in order to +transfer them to the control of Germany, are also the property +of the empire.</p> + +<p>During the years 1908 and 1909 considerable public discussion +and political activity were devoted to the reorganization of +German imperial finance, and it is only possible here to deal +historically with the position up to that time, since further +developments of an important nature were already foreshadowed.</p> + +<p>In 1871 the system accepted was that the imperial budget +should be financed substantially by its reliance on the revenue +from what were the obvious imperial resources—customs and +excise duties, stamp duties, post and telegraph receipts, and +among minor sources the receipts from the Alsace-Lorraine +railways. But it was also provided that, for the purpose of +deficits, the states should, in addition, if required by the imperial +minister of finance, contribute their quotas according to population—<i>Matrikular +Beiträge</i>. It was not expected that these would +become chronic, but in a few years, and emphatically by the early +’eighties, they were found to be an essential part of the financial +system, owing to regular deficits. It had been intended that, +in return for the <i>Matrikular Beiträge</i>, regular assignments (<i>Überweisungen</i>) +should be returned to the states, in relief of their +own taxation, which would practically wipe out the contribution; +but instead of these the <i>Überweisungen</i> were considerably less. +Certain reorganizations were made in 1887 and 1902, but the +excess of the <i>Matrikular Beiträge</i> over the <i>Überweisungen</i> continued; +the figures in 1905 and 1908 being as follows (in millions +of marks):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Matrikular-<br />Beiträge.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Überweisungen.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Excess.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">213</td> <td class="tcc rb">189</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">346</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">150</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span></p> + +<p>These figures show how natural it was to desire to relieve the +states by increasing the direct imperial revenue.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in spite of the “matricular contributions,” the +calls on imperial finance had steadily increased, and up to 1908 +were continually met to a large extent by loans, involving a +continual growth of the imperial debt, which in 1907 amounted +to 3643 millions of marks. The imperial budget, like that of +most European nations, is divided into two portions, the ordinary +and the extraordinary; and the increase under both heads +(especially for army and navy) became a recurrent factor. A +typical situation is represented by the main figures for 1905 and +1906 (in millions of marks):</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2"> </td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Raised by<br />Loan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Ordinary.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Extra-<br />ordinary.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">2002</td> <td class="tcc rb">193</td> <td class="tcc rb">2053</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2157</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">235</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2118</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">258</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The same process went on in 1907 and 1908, and it was +necessarily recognized that the method of balancing the imperial +budget by a regular increase of debt could not be satisfactory +in a country where the general increase of +wealth and taxable capacity had meanwhile +been conspicuous. And though the main +proposals made by the government for new +taxation, including new direct taxes, resulted +in a parliamentary deadlock in 1909, and led +to Prince von Bülow’s resignation as chancellor, +it was already evident that some important +reorganization of the imperial financial system +was inevitable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Currency.</i>—The German empire adopted a gold +currency by the law of the 4th of December +1871. Subsequently the old local coinages +(<i>Landesmünzen</i>) began to be called in and replaced +by new gold and silver coins. The old gold +coins, amounting to £4,550,000, had been called in +as early as 1873; and the old silver coins have +since been successively put out of circulation, so +that none actually remains as legal tender but the +thaler (3s.). The currency reform was at first +facilitated by the French indemnity, a great part +of which was paid in gold. But later on that metal became scarcer; +the London gold prices ran higher and higher, while silver prices +declined. The average rate per ounce of standard silver in 1866-1870 +was 60<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>d., in January 1875 only 57½d., in July 1876 as low as +49d. It rose in January 1877 to 57½d., but again declined, and in +September 1878 it was 50<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>d. While the proportion of like weights +of fine gold and fine silver in 1866-1870 averaged 1 to 15.55, it was 1 +to 17.79 in 1876, 1 to 17.18 in 1877, and, in 1902, in consequence +of the heavy fall in silver, the ratio became as much as 1 to 39. +By the currency law of the 9th of July 1873, the present coinage +system was established and remains, with certain minor modifications, +now in force as then introduced. The unit is the mark (1 +shilling)—the tenth part of the imperial <i>gold coin</i> (Krone = crown), +of which last 139½ are struck from a pound of pure gold. Besides +these ten-mark pieces, there are Doppelkronen (double crowns), +about equivalent in value to an English sovereign (the average rate +of exchange being 20 marks 40 pfennige per £1 sterling), and, +formerly, half-crowns (halbe Kronen = 5 marks) in gold were also +issued, but they have been withdrawn from circulation. Silver coins +are 5, 2 and 1 mark pieces, equivalent to 5, 2 and 1 shillings respectively, +and 50 pfennige pieces = 6d. Nickel coins are 10 and 5 +pfennige pieces, and there are bronze coins of 2 and 1 pfennige. +The system is decimal; thus 100 pfennige = 1 mark, 1000 pfennige = the +gold krone (or crown), and 1d. English amounts roughly to 8 +pfennige.</p> + +<p><i>Banking.</i>—A new banking law was promulgated for the whole +empire on the 14th of March 1875. Before that date there existed +thirty-two banks with the privilege of issuing notes, and on the 31st +of December 1872, £67,100,000 in all was in circulation, £25,100,000 +of that sum being uncovered. The banking law was designed to +reduce this circulation of notes; £19,250,000 was fixed as an aggregate +maximum of uncovered notes of the banks. The private banks +were at the same time obliged to erect branch offices in Berlin or +Frankfort-on-Main for the payment of their notes. In consequence +of this regulation numerous banks resigned the privilege of issuing +notes, and at present there are in Germany but the following private +note banks, issuing private notes, viz. the Bavarian, the Saxon, +the Württemberg, the Baden and the Brunswick, in addition to the +Imperial Bank. The Imperial Bank (Reichsbank) ranks far above +the others in importance. It took the place of the Prussian Bank +in 1876, and is under the superintendence and management of the +empire, which shares in the profits. Its head office is in Berlin, and +it is entitled to erect branch offices in any part of the empire. It +has a capital of £9,000,000 divided into 40,000 shares of £150 each, +and 60,000 shares of £50 each. The Imperial Bank is privileged to +issue bank-notes, which must be covered to the extent of 1s. 3d. in +coined money, bullion or bank-notes, the remainder in bills at short +sight. Of the net profits, a dividend of 3½% is first payable to the +shareholders, 20% of the remainder is transferred to the reserve +until this has reached a total of £3,000,000, and of the remainder +again a quarter is apportioned to the shareholders and three-quarters +falls to the imperial exchequer. If the net profits do not reach +3½%, the balance must be made good from the reserve. Private +note banks are not empowered to do business outside the state +which has conceded them the privilege to issue notes, except under +certain limitations. One of these is that they agree that their +privilege to issue private notes may be withdrawn at one year’s +notice without compensation. But this condition has not been +enforced in the case of such banks as have agreed to accept as +binding the official rate of discount of the Reichsbank after this has +reached or when it exceeds 4%. At other times they are not to +discount at more than ¼% below the official rate of the Reichsbank, +or in case the Reichsbank itself discounts at a lower rate than the +official rate, at more than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>% below that rate.</p> + +<p>The following table shows the financial condition of the note-issuing +banks, in thousands of marks, over a term of years:</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Liabilities.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Banks.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Reserve.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Notes in<br />Circulation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total, including<br />other Liabilities.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">219,672</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,329</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,313,855</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,237,017</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">231,672</td> <td class="tcc rb">54,901</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,345,436</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,360,453</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">216,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">56,684</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,373,482</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,353,951</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">216,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">60,131</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,394,336</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,365,256</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">216,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">64,385</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,433,421</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,378,845</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Assets.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Banks.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coin and<br />Bullion.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Notes of State<br />and other Banks.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bills.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">899,630</td> <td class="tcc rb">51,931</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,036,961</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,239,564</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">990,262</td> <td class="tcc rb">60,770</td> <td class="tcr rb">990,950</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,360,355</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,052,391</td> <td class="tcc rb">54,389</td> <td class="tcr rb">901,408</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,354,253</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">973,953</td> <td class="tcc rb">54,231</td> <td class="tcr rb">984,604</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,356,511</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">996,601</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">66,372</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">947,358</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,379,234</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The total turnover of the Imperial Bank was, in the first year of its +foundation, 1¾ milliards pounds sterling; and, in 1899, 90 milliards. +Eighty-five per cent of its bank-notes have been, on the average, +covered by metal reserve.</p> + +<p>The total value of silver coins is not to exceed 10 marks, and that +of copper and nickel 2½ marks per head of the population. While +the coinage of silver, nickel and copper is reserved to the state, +the coinage of gold pieces can be undertaken by the state for the +account of private individuals on payment of a fixed charge. The +coinage takes place in the six mints belonging to the various states—thus +Berlin (Prussia), Munich (Bavaria), Dresden (in the Muldenerhütte +near Freiberg, Saxony), Stuttgart (Württemberg), Karlsruhe +(Baden) and Hamburg (for the state of Hamburg). Of the thalers, +the Vereinsthaler, coined until 1867 in Austria, was by ordinance of +the Bundesrat declared illegal tender since the 1st of January 1903. +No one can be compelled to accept more than 20 marks in silver or +more than 1 mark in nickel and copper coin; but, on the other hand, +the Imperial Bank accepts imperial silver coin in payment to any +amount.</p> + +<p>The total value of thalers, which, with the exception of the +Vereinsthaler, are legal tender, was estimated in 1894 at about +£20,000,000.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Cotta, <i>Deutschlands Boden</i> (2 vols., 1853); H.A. +Daniel, <i>Deutschland</i> (1896); J. Kutzen, <i>Das deutsche Land</i> (Breslau, +1900); Von Klöden, <i>Geographisches Handbuch</i>, vol. ii. (1875); +G. Neumann, <i>Das deutsche Reich</i> (2 vols., 1874); O. Brunckow, <i>Die +Wohnplätze des deutschen Reiches—auf Grund der amtlichen Materialien +bearbeitet</i> (new ed., Berlin, 1897); <i>Handbuch der Wirtschaftskunde +Deutschlands</i> (4 vols., Leipzig, 1901-1905); <i>Gothaischer genealogischer +Hofkalender auf das Jahr 1907</i> (Gotha); A. von W. Keil, <i>Neumanns +Ortslexikon des deutschen Reiches</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1894); Meyer, +<i>Konversations-Lexikon</i> (1902 seqq.); Brockhaus, <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i> +(1900 seqq.); J. Kürschner, <i>Staats- Hof- und Kommunal-handbuch +des Reiches und der Einzelstaaten</i> (Leipzig, 1900); P. Hage, +<i>Grundriss der deutschen Staats- und Rechtskunde</i> (Stuttgart, 1906), +and for Statistical matter chiefly the following: <i>Centralblatt für +das deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben im Reichsamt der Innern</i> (Berlin, +1900); <i>Die deutsche Armee und die kaiserliche Marine</i> (Berlin, 1889); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> +<i>Gewerbe und Handel im deutschen Reich nach der gewerblichen +Betriebszählung, vom 14. Juni 1895</i> (Berlin, 1899); <i>Handbuch für +das deutsche Reich auf das Jahr 1900, bearbeitet im Reichsamt der +Innern</i> (Berlin); <i>Handbuch für die deutsche Handelsmarine auf das +Jahr 1900; Statistik des deutschen Reichs</i>, published by the <i>Kaiserliches +Statistisches Amt</i> (including trade, navigation, criminal +statistics, sick insurance, &c.); <i>Statistisches Jahrbuch für das deutsche +Reich</i> (Berlin, 1906) and <i>Vierteljahrshefte für Statistik des deutschen +Reichs</i> (including census returns, commerce and railways). See also +among English publications on geographical and statistical matter: +<i>Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign +Countries and British Possessions for the Year 1899</i> (London, 1900); +and G.G. Chisholm, <i>Europe</i>, being vols. i. and ii. of Stanford’s +<i>Compendium of Geography and Travel</i> (London, 1899 and 1900). +The fullest general account of the geology of Germany will be found +in R. Lepsius, <i>Geologie von Deutschland und den angrenzenden Gebieten</i> +(Stuttgart, first volume completed in 1892). Shorter descriptions +will be found in E. Kayser, <i>Lehrbuch der geologischen Formationskunde</i> +(Stuttgart, English edition under the title <i>Text-book of Comparative +Geology</i>), and H. Credner, <i>Elemente der Geologie</i> (Leipzig).</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Archaeology</p> + +<p>From an archaeological point of view Germany is very far +from being a homogeneous whole. Not only has the development +of the south differed from that of the north, and the west +been subjected to other influences than those affecting the east, +but even where the same influences have been at work the period +of their operation has often varied widely in the different districts, +so that in a general sketch of the whole country the chronology +can only be a very rough approximation. In this article the +dates assigned to the various periods in south Germany are those +given by Sophus Müller, on the lines first laid down by Montelius. +As regards north Germany, Müller puts the Northern Bronze age +500 years later than the Southern, but a recent find in Sweden +bears out Montelius’s view that southern influence made itself +rapidly felt in the North. The conclusions of Montelius and +Müller are disputed by W. Ridgeway, who maintains that the +Iron age originated in central Europe, and that iron must consequently +have been worked in those regions as far back as +<i>c.</i> 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p><i>Older Palaeolithic Period</i>.—The earliest traces of man’s +handiwork are found either at the end of the pre-Glacial epoch, +or in an inter-Glacial period, but it is a disputed point whether +the latter is the first of a series of such periods. A typical German +find is at Taubach, near Weimar, where almond-shaped stone +wedges, small flint knives, and roughly-hacked pieces of porphyry +and quartz are found, together with the remains of elephants. +There are also bone implements, which are not found in the +earliest periods in France.</p> + +<p><i>Palaeolithic Transition Period</i> (<i>Solutré</i>).—More highly developed +forms are found when the mammoth has succeeded the elephant. +Implements of chipped stone for the purposes of boring and +scraping suggest that man worked hides for clothing. Ornaments +of perforated teeth and shells are found.</p> + +<p><i>Later Palaeolithic Period</i> (<i>La Madeleine</i>).—The next period is +marked by the presence of reindeer. In the Hohlefels in the +Swabian Achthal there is still no trace of earthenware, and we +find the skull of a reindeer skilfully turned into a drinking-vessel. +Saws, needles, awls and bone harpoons are found. It is to be +noticed that none of the German finds (mostly in the south and +west) show any traces of the highly developed artistic sense so +characteristic of the dwellers in France at this period.</p> + +<p>The gap in our knowledge of the development of Palaeolithic +into Neolithic civilization has recently been partially filled in +by discoveries in north Germany and France of objects showing +rather more developed forms than those of the former period, +but still unaccompanied by earthenware. It is a disputed point +whether the introduction of Neolithic civilization is due to a new +ethnological element.</p> + +<p><i>Neolithic Age</i> (in south Germany till <i>c.</i> 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—Neolithic +man lived under the same climatic conditions as prevail to-day, +but amidst forests of fir. He shows advance in every direction, +and by the end of the later Neolithic period he is master of the +arts of pottery and spinning, is engaged in agricultural pursuits, +owns domestic animals, and makes weapons and tools of fine +shape, either ground and polished or beautifully chipped. +Traces of Neolithic settlements have been found chiefly in the +neighbourhood of Worms, in the Main district and in Thuringia. +These dwellings are usually holes in the ground, and presumably +had thatched roofs. Our knowledge of the later Neolithic age, +as of the succeeding periods, is largely gained from the remains of +lake-dwellings, represented in Germany chiefly by Bavarian +finds. The lake-dwellings in Mecklenburg, Pomerania and East +Prussia are of a different type, and it is not certain that they date +back to the Stone age. Typical Neolithic cemeteries are found at +Hinkelstein, Alzey and other places in the neighbourhood of +Worms. In these graves the skeletons lie flat, while in other +cemeteries, as at Flomborn in Rhine-Hessen, and near Heilbronn, +they are in a huddled position (hence the name <i>Hockergräber</i>). +Necklaces and bracelets of Mediterranean shells point to a considerable +amount of commerce. Other objects found in the +graves are small flint knives, stone axes, flint and lumps of pyrites +for obtaining fire, and, in the women’s graves, hand-mills for +grinding corn. The earthenware vessels usually have rounded +bottoms. The earliest ornamentation consists of finger-imprints. +Later we find two periods of zigzag designs in south Germany +with an intermediate stage of spirals and wavy lines, while in +north and east Germany the so-called string-ornamentation +predominates. Towards the end of the period the inhabitants of +north Germany erect megalithic graves, and in Hanover especially +the passage-graves.</p> + +<p><i>Bronze Age</i> (in south Germany from <i>c.</i> 2000-1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—In +the later Stone age we note the occasional use of copper, and then +the gradual appearance of bronze. The bronze civilization of the +Aegean seems to have had direct influence along the basins of +the Danube and Elbe, while the culture of the western parts of +central Germany was transmitted through Italy and France. +No doubt the pre-eminence of the north, and especially of Denmark, +at this period, was due to the amber trade, causing southern +influence to penetrate up the basin of the Elbe to Jutland. The +earlier period is characterized by the practice of inhumation in +barrows made of clays, stones or sand, according to the district. +Bronze is cast, whereas at a later time it shows signs of the +hammer. From the finds in Bavarian graves it appears that the +chief weapons were the dagger and the long pointed <i>Palstab</i> +(palstave), while a short dagger fixed like an axe on a long shaft +is characteristic of the North. The women wore two bronze +pins, a bracelet on each arm, amber ornaments and a necklace of +bronze tubes in spirals. One or two vases are found in each +barrow, ornamented with finger-imprints, “string” decoration, +&c. The later period is characterized by the practice of cremation, +though the remains are still placed in barrows. Swords +make their appearance. The women wear more and more +massive ornaments. The vases are highly polished and of +elegant form, with zigzag decoration.</p> + +<p><i>Hallstatt Period</i> (in Germany 8th-5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—The +Hallstatt stage of culture, named after the famous cemetery in +upper Austria, is marked by the introduction of iron (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hallstatt</a></span>). In Germany its centre is Bavaria, Baden and +Württemberg, with the Thuringian forest as the northern +boundary. In Brandenburg, Lusatia, Silesia, Posen and Saxony, +where there was no strong Bronze age tradition, Hallstatt influence +is very noticeable. In west Prussia the urns with human +faces deserve notice. The dead are either buried in barrows +or cremated, the latter especially in north and east Germany. +In Bavaria both practices are resorted to, as at Hallstatt. The +pottery develops beautiful form and colour. Fibulae, often of +the “kettle-drum” form, take the place of the Bronze age pin.</p> + +<p><i>La Tène Period</i> (4th-1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—Down to this time there +is very little evidence concerning the racial affinities of the population. +When our records first begin the western and southern +portions of Germany seem to have been inhabited by Celtic +peoples (see below “Ethnography”). La Tène, in Switzerland, has +given its name to the period, of which the earlier part corresponds +to the time of Celtic supremacy. It is interesting to note how +the Celts absorb Roman and still more Greek culture, even +imitating foreign coins, and pass on their new arts to their +Teutonic neighbours; but in spite of the strong foreign influence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +the Celtic civilization can in some sort be termed national. +Later it has a less rich development, betraying the political +decay of the race. Its centres in Germany are the southern +districts as far as Thuringia, and the valleys of the Main and Saar. +The ornamentation is of the conventionalized plant type: gold +is freely used, and enamel, of a kind different from the Roman +enamel used later in Germany, is applied to weapons and ornaments. +Chariots are used in war, and fortified towns are built, +though we must still suppose the houses to have consisted of a +wooden framework coated with clay. In these districts La Tène +influence is contemporary with the use of tumuli, but in the +(non-Celtic) coast districts it must be sought in urn-cemeteries.</p> + +<p><i>Roman Period</i> (from the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>).—The period succeeding +to La Tène ought rather to be called Romano-Germanic, +the relation of the Teutonic races to the Roman civilization +being much the same as that of the Celts to classical culture in +the preceding period. The Rhine lands were of course the centre +of Roman civilization, with Roman roads, fortresses, stone and +tiled houses and marble temples. By this time the Teutonic +peoples had probably acquired the art of writing, though the +origin of their national (Runic) alphabet is still disputed. The +graves of the period contain urns of earthenware or glass, +cremation being the prevalent practice, and the objects found +include one or more coins in accordance with Roman usage.</p> + +<p><i>Period of National Migrations</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300-500).—The grave-finds +do not bear out the picture of a period of ceaseless war painted +by the Roman historians. On the contrary, weapons are seldom +found, at any rate in graves, the objects in which bear witness +to a life of extraordinary luxury. Magnificent drinking-vessels, +beautifully ornamented dice and draughtsmen, masses of gay +beads, are among the commonest grave-finds. A peculiarity +of the period is the development of decoration inspired by +animal forms, but becoming more and more tortuous and fantastic. +Only those eastern parts of Germany which were now +occupied by Slavonic peoples remained uninfluenced by this rich +civilization.</p> + +<p><i>The Merovingian Period</i> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500-800) sees the completion +of the work of converting the German tribes to Christianity. +<i>Reihengräber</i>, containing objects of value, but otherwise like +modern cemeteries, with the dead buried in rows (<i>Reihen</i>), are +found over all the Teutonic part of Germany, but some tribes, +notably the Alamanni, seem still to have buried their dead in +barrows. Among the Franks and Burgundians we find monolithic +sarcophagi in imitation of the Romans, and in other +districts sarcophagi were constructed out of several blocks of +stone—the so-called <i>Plattengräber</i>. The weapons are the <i>spatha</i>, +or double-bladed German sword, the <i>sax</i> (a short sword, or +long knife, <i>semispathium</i>), the knife, shield, and the favourite +German axe, though this latter is not found in Bavaria. The +ornaments are beads, earrings, brooches, rings, bracelets, &c., +thickly studded with precious stones.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—S. Müller, <i>Urgeschichte Europas</i> (1905), and +<i>Tierornamentik</i> (1881); O. Montelius, “Chronologie der Bronzezeit +in N. Deutschland und Skandinavien,” in <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>, +vols. xxv. and xxvi.; M. Hoernes, <i>Urgeschichte des Menschen</i> +(1892), and <i>Der diluviale Mensch in Europa</i> (1903); M. Much, +<i>Kupferzeit in Europa</i> (1893); R. Munro, <i>Lake-dwellings of Europe</i> +(1890); J. Naue, <i>Bronzezeit in Ober-Bayern</i> (1894); O. Tischler, +<i>Ostpreussische Altertümer</i> (1902); R. Virchow, <i>Über Hünengräber +und Pfahlbauten</i> (1866); J. Mestorf, <i>Urnenfriedhöfe in +Schleswig-Holstein</i> (1886); A. Lissauer, <i>Prähistorische Denkmäler Preussens</i> +(1887); I. Undset, <i>Erstes Auftreten des Eisens in N. Europa</i> (1882); +L. Lindenschmit, <i>Handbuch der deutschen Altertumskunde</i>, i. +(1880-1889); and W. Ridgeway, <i>Early Age of Greece</i>, i. (1901). Also +articles by the above and others, chiefly in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i> +(Berlin); <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i> (Brunswick); <i>Globus</i> (Brunswick); +<i>Westdeutsche Zeitschrift</i> (Trier); <i>Schriften der physikalisch-ökonomischen +Gesellschaft</i> (Königsberg); <i>Nachrichten über deutsche +Altertumskunde</i> (Berlin); <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft +für Anthropologie</i>, &c.; <i>Beiträge zur Anthropologie Bayerns</i> (Munich); +and <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum</i> (Berlin).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(B. S. P.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Ethnography and Early History</p> + +<p>Our direct knowledge of Germany begins with the appointment +of Julius Caesar as governor of Gaul in 59 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Long +before that time there is evidence of German communication +with southern civilization, as the antiquities prove, and occasional +<span class="sidenote">Julius Caesar in Germany.</span> +travellers from the Mediterranean had made their way into +those regions (<i>e.g.</i> Pytheas, towards the end of the 4th +century), but hardly any records of their journeys survive. +The first Teutonic peoples whom the Romans are +said to have encountered are the Cimbri and Teutoni, +probably from Denmark, who invaded Illyria, Gaul and Italy +towards the end of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> When Caesar arrived +in Gaul the westernmost part of what is now Germany was in +the possession of Gaulish tribes. The Rhine practically formed +the boundary between Gauls and Germans, though one Gaulish +tribe, the Menapii, is said to have been living beyond the Rhine +at its mouth, and shortly before the arrival of Caesar an invading +force of Germans had seized and settled down in what is now +Alsace, 72 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At this time the Gauls were being pressed by +the Germans along the whole frontier, and several of Caesar’s +campaigns were occupied with operations, either against the +Germans, or against Gaulish tribes set in motion by the Germans. +Among these we may mention the campaign of his first year of +office, 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, against the German king Ariovistus, who led the +movement in Alsace, and that of 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in which he expelled +the Usipetes and Tencteri who had crossed the lower Rhine. +During the period of Caesar’s government he succeeded in +annexing the whole of Gaul as far as the Rhine. (For the campaigns +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar, Julius</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>After peace had been established in Italy by Augustus, +attempts were made to extend the Roman frontier beyond the +Rhine. The Roman prince Nero Claudius Drusus (<i>q.v.</i>) +in the year 12 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> annexed what is now the kingdom +<span class="sidenote">The campaign of other Roman leaders.</span> +of the Netherlands, and constructed a canal (Fossa +Drusiana) between the Rhine and the lake Flevo +(Lacus Flevus), which partly corresponded to the +Zuyder Zee, though the topography of the district has greatly +altered. He also penetrated into regions beyond and crossed +the Weser, receiving the submission of the Bructeri, Chatti and +Cherusci. After Drusus’ death in 9 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while on his return from +an expedition which reached the Elbe, the German command +was twice undertaken by Tiberius, who in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 5 received the +submission of all the tribes in this quarter, including the Chauci +and the Langobardi. A Roman garrison was left in the conquered +districts between the Rhine and the Elbe, but the reduction was +not thoroughly completed. About the same time the Roman +fleet voyaged along the northern coast apparently as far as the +north of Jutland, and received the nominal submission of several +tribes in that region, including the Cimbri and the Charudes. +In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9 Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, was surprised +in the <i>Saltus Teutobergensis</i> between the Lippe and the Weser +by a force raised by Arminius, a chief of the Cherusci, and his +army consisting of three legions was annihilated. Germanicus +Caesar, during his tenure of the command of the Roman armies +on the Rhine, made repeated attempts to recover the Roman +position in northern Germany and exact vengeance for the death +of Varus, but without real success, and after his recall the Rhine +formed for the greater part of its course the boundary of the +Empire. A standing army was kept up on the Rhine, divided +into two commands, upper and lower Germany, the headquarters +of the former being at Mainz, those of the latter at +Vetera, near Xanten. A number of important towns grew up, +among which we may mention Trier (Augusta Trevirorum), +Cologne (Colonia Agrippinensis), Bonn (Bonna), Worms (Borbetomagus), +Spires (Noviomagus), Strassburg (Argentoratum) and +Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum).</p> + +<p>At a later date, however, probably under the Flavian emperors, +the frontier of upper Germany was advanced somewhat beyond +the Rhine, and a fortification, the <i>Pfahlgraben</i>, constructed to +protect it. It led from Hönningen on the Rhine, about half-way +between Bonn and Coblenz, to Mittenberg above Aschaffenburg +on the Main, thence southwards to Lorch in Württemberg, +whence it turned east to the junction of the Altmühl with the +Danube at Kelheim.</p> + +<p>During the wars of Drusus, Tiberius and Germanicus the +Romans had ample opportunity of getting to know the tribal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +geography of Germany, especially the western part, and though +most of our authorities lived at a somewhat later period, it is +probable that they derived their information very largely from +records of that time. It will be convenient, therefore, to give an +account of the tribal geography of Germany in the time of Augustus, +as our knowledge of the subject is much more complete for his +reign than for several centuries later.</p> + +<p>Of the Gaulish tribes west of the Rhine, the most important +was the Treveri, inhabiting the basin of the Moselle, from whom +the city of Trier (Trèves) derives its name. The Rauraci +probably occupied the south of Alsace. To the south +<span class="sidenote">The German tribes.</span> +of the Treveri lay the Mediomatrici, and to the west +of them lay the important tribe of the Sequani, who +had called in Ariovistus. The Treveri claimed to be of German +origin, and the same claim was made by a number of tribes in +Belgium, the most powerful of which were the Nervii. The +meaning of this claim is not quite clear, as there is some obscurity +concerning the origin of the name Germani. It appears to be a +Gaulish term, and there is no evidence that it was ever used by +the Germans themselves. According to Tacitus it was first +applied to the Tungri, whereas Caesar records that four Belgic +tribes, namely, the Condrusi, Eburones, Caeraesi and Paemani, +were collectively known as Germani. There is no doubt that +these tribes were all linguistically Celtic, and it is now the +prevailing opinion that they were not of German origin ethnologically, +but that the ground for their claim was that they had +come from over the Rhine (cf. Caesar, <i>De Bello Gallico</i> ii. 4). +It would therefore seem that the name Germani originally +denoted certain Celtic tribes to the east of the Rhine, and that +it was then transferred to the Teutonic tribes which subsequently +occupied the same territory.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that during the last century before the +Christian era the Celtic peoples had been pushed considerably +farther west by the Teutonic peoples, a process which +was still going on in Caesar’s time, when we hear of +<span class="sidenote">Their movements.</span> +the overthrow of the Menapii, the last Gaulish tribe +beyond the Rhine. In the south the same process can be +observed. The Boii were expelled from their territories in Bohemia +by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus, and the Helvetii +are also recorded to have occupied formerly lands east of the +Rhine, in what is now Baden and Württemberg. Caesar also +mentions a Gaulish tribe named Volcae Tectosages as living +in Germany in his time. The Volcae Arecomici in the south of +France and the Tectosages of Galatia were in all probability +offshoots of this people. The name of the tribe was adopted +in the Teutonic languages as a generic term for all Celtic and +Italian peoples (O.H.G. <i>Walha</i>, A.S. <i>Wealas</i>), from which it is +probably to be inferred that they were the Celtic people with +whom the Teutonic races had the closest association in early +times. It has been thought that they inhabited the basin of +the Weser, and a number of place-names in this district are +supposed to be of Celtic origin. Farther to the south and west +Ptolemy mentions a number of place-names which are certainly +Celtic, <i>e.g.</i> Mediolanion, Aregelia, Lougidounon, Lokoriton, +Segodounon. There is therefore great probability that a large +part of western Germany east of the Rhine had formerly been +occupied by Celtic peoples. In the east a Gaulish people named +Cotini are mentioned, apparently in the upper basin of the Oder, +and Tacitus speaks of a tribe in the same neighbourhood, the +Osi, who he says spoke the Pannonian language. It is probable, +therefore, that in other directions also the Germans had considerably +advanced their frontier southwards at a comparatively +recent period.</p> + +<p>Coming now to the Germans proper, the basin of the Rhine +between Strassburg and Mainz was inhabited by the Tribocci, +Nemetes and Vangiones, farther down by the Mattiaci +about Wiesbaden, and the Ubii in the neighbourhood +<span class="sidenote">Tribes in the west and north.</span> +of Cologne; beyond them were the Sugambri, and +in the Rhine delta the Batavi and other smaller +tribes. All these tribes remained in subjection to the Romans. +Beyond them were the Tencteri, probably about the basin of +the Lahn, and the Usipetes about the basin of the Ruhr. The +basin of the Lippe and the upper basin of the Ems were inhabited +by the Bructeri, and in the same neighbourhood were the Ampsivarii, +who derive their name from the latter river. East of +them lay the Chasuarii, presumably in the basin of the Hase. +The upper basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Chatti, whose +capital was Mattium, supposed to be Maden on the Eder. To +the north-west of them were situated the Marsi, apparently +between the Diemel and the Lippe, while the central part of the +basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Cherusci, who seem to +have extended considerably eastward. The lower part of the +river-basin was inhabited by the Angrivarii. The coastlands +north of the mouth of the Rhine were occupied by the Canninefates, +beyond them by the Frisii as far as the mouth of the Ems, +thence onward to the mouth of the Elbe by the Chauci. As to +the affinities of all these various tribes we have little definite +information, but it is worth noting that the Batavi in Holland +are said to have been a branch of the Chatti, from whom they had +separated owing to a <i>seditio domestica</i>. The basin of the Elbe +was inhabited by Suebic tribes, the chief of which were the +Marcomanni, who seem to have been settled on the Saale during +the latter part of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but moved into Bohemia +before the beginning of the Christian era, where they at once +became a formidable power under their king Maroboduus. +The Quadi were settled somewhat farther east about the source +of the Elbe. The Hermunduri in the basin of the Saale were in +alliance with the Romans and occupied northern Bavaria with +their consent. The Semnones apparently dwelt below the +junction of the Saale and Elbe. The Langobardi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lombards</a></span>) +possessed the land between the territory of the Semnones and +the mouth of the river. Their name is supposed to be preserved +in Bardengau, south of Hamburg. From later evidence it is +likely that another division of the Suebi inhabited western +Holstein. The province of Schleswig (perhaps only the west +coast) and the islands adjacent were inhabited by the Saxons, +while the east coast, at least in later times, was occupied by the +Angli. The coast of Mecklenburg was probably inhabited by +the Varini (the later Warni). The eastern part of Germany +was much less known to the Romans, information being particularly +deficient as to the populations of the coast districts, though +it seems probable that the Rugii inhabited the eastern part of +Pomerania, where a trace of them is preserved in the name +Rügenwalde. The lower part of the basin of the Oder was +probably occupied by the Burgundiones, and the upper part by +a number of tribes collectively known as Lugii, who seem to +correspond to the Vandals of later times, though the early +Roman writers apparently used the word Vandilii in a wider +sense, embracing all the tribes of eastern Germany. Among the +Lugii we may probably include the Silingae, who afterwards +appear among the Vandals in Spain, and whose name is preserved +in Slavonic form in that of the province Silesia. The Goths +(Gotones) apparently inhabited the basin of the Vistula about +the middle of its course, but the lower part of the basin was +inhabited by non-Teutonic peoples, among whom we may +mention the Galindi, probably Prussians, and the Aestii, either +Prussian or Esthonian, in the coastlands at the mouth of the +river, who are known especially in connexion with the amber +trade. To the east of the Vistula were the Slavonic tribes +(Veneti), and amongst them, perhaps rather to the north, a +Finnish population (Fenni), which disappeared in later times.</p> + +<p>In the time of Augustus by far the most powerful ruler in +Germany was Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. His +supremacy extended over all the Suebic tribes (except +perhaps the Hermunduri), and most of the peoples +<span class="sidenote">Domestic wars of the Germans.</span> +of eastern Germany, including apparently the Lugii +and Goths. But in the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 17 he became involved +in an unsuccessful campaign against Arminius, prince of the +Cherusci, in which the Semnones and Langobardi revolted +against him, and two years later he was deprived of his throne +by a certain Catualda. The latter, however, was soon expelled +by Vibilius, king of the Hermunduri, and his power was transferred +to Vannius, who belonged to the Quadi. About the same time +Arminius met his death while trying to make himself king of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +Cherusci. In the year 28 the Frisians revolted from the Romans, +and though they submitted again in the year 47, Claudius +immediately afterwards recalled the Roman troops to the left +bank of the Rhine. In the year 50 Vannius, king of the Suebi, +was driven from the throne by Vibilius, king of the Hermunduri, +and his nephews Vangio and Sido obtained his kingdom. In +the year 58 the Chatti suffered a serious disaster in a campaign +against the Hermunduri. They seem, however, to have recovered +very soon, and at the end of the 1st century had apparently +extended their power at the expense of the Cherusci. During +the latter part of the 1st century the Chauci seem to have been +enlarging their territories: as early as the year 47 we find them +raiding the Roman lands on the lower Rhine, and in 58 they +expelled the Ampsivarii, who after several vain attempts to +acquire new possessions were annihilated by the neighbouring +tribes. During the last years of the 1st century the Angrivarii +are found moving westwards, probably under pressure from the +Chauci, and the power of the Bructeri was almost destroyed by +their attack. In 69 the Roman territory on the lower Rhine +was disturbed by the serious revolt of Claudius Civilis, a prince +of the Batavi who had served in the Roman army. He was +joined by the Bructeri and other neighbouring tribes, but being +defeated by Petilius Cerealis (afterwards consular legate in +Britain) at Vetera and in other engagements gave up the struggle +and arranged a capitulation in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70. By the end of the 1st +century the Chauci and Chatti seem to have become by far +the most powerful tribes in western Germany, though the former +are seldom mentioned after this time.</p> + +<p>After the time of Tacitus our information regarding German +affairs becomes extremely meagre. The next important conflict +with the Romans was the Marcomannic War (166-180), in +which all the Suebic tribes together with the Vandals (apparently +the ancient Lugii) and the Sarmatian Iazyges seem to have +taken part. Peace was made by the emperor Commodus in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180 on payment of large sums of money.</p> + +<p>About the beginning of the 3rd century we find a forward +movement in south-west Germany among a group of tribes +known collectively as Alamanni (<i>q.v.</i>) who came in +conflict with the emperor Caracalla in the year 213. +<span class="sidenote">The Alamanni, the Goths and the Franks.</span> +About the same time the Goths also made their first +appearance in the south-east and soon became the +most formidable antagonists of Rome. In the year +251 they defeated and slew the emperor Decius, and in the +reign of Gallienus their fleets setting out from the north of the +Black Sea worked great havoc on the coast of the Aegean (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goths</a></span>). It is not to be supposed, however, that they had quitted +their own lands on the Vistula by this time. In this connexion +we hear also of the Heruli (<i>q.v.</i>), who some twenty years later, +about 289, make their appearance in the western seas. In 286 +we hear for the first time of maritime raids by the Saxons in +the same quarter. About the middle of the 3rd century the +name Franks (<i>q.v.</i>) makes its first appearance, apparently a +new collective term for the tribes of north-west Germany from +the Chatti to the mouth of the Rhine.</p> + +<p>In the 4th century the chief powers in western Germany were +the Franks and the Alamanni, both of whom were in constant +conflict with the Romans. The former were pressed +in their rear by the Saxons, who at some time before +<span class="sidenote">Arrival of the Huns.</span> +the middle of the 4th century appear to have invaded +and conquered a considerable part of north-west +Germany. About the same time great national movements +seem to have been taking place farther east. The Burgundians +made their appearance in the west shortly before the end of the +3rd century, settling in the basin of the Main, and it is probable +that some portions of the north Suebic peoples, perhaps the +ancient Semnones, had already moved westward. By the middle +of the 4th century the Goths had become the dominant power +in eastern Germany, and their King Hermanaric held a supremacy +which seems to have stretched from the Black Sea to Holstein. +At his death, however, the supremacy of eastern Germany +passed to the Huns, an invading people from the east, whose +arrival seems to have produced a complete displacement of +population in this region. With regard to the course of events +in eastern Germany we have no knowledge, but during the 5th +century several of the peoples previously settled there appear +to have made their way into the lands south of the Carpathians +and Riesengebirge, amongst whom (besides the Goths) may +be especially mentioned the Rugii and the Gepides, the latter +perhaps originally a branch of the Goths. According to tradition +the Vandals had been driven into Pannonia by the Goths in +the time of Constantine. We do not know how far northward +the Hunnish power reached in the time of Attila, but the invasion +of this nation was soon followed by a great westward +movement of the Slavs.</p> + +<p>In the west the Alamanni and the descendants of the Marcomanni, +now called Baiouarii (Bavarians), had broken through +the frontiers of the Roman provinces of Vindelicia +and Noricum at the beginning of the 5th century, +<span class="sidenote">The Burgundians and other tribes.</span> +while the Vandals together with some of the Suebi +and the non-Teutonic Alani from the east crossed +the Rhine and invaded Gaul in 406. About 435-440 the Burgundians +were overthrown by Attila, and their king Gunthacarius +(Gundahar) killed. The remains of the nation shortly +afterwards settled in Gaul. About the same time the Franks +overran and occupied the modern Belgium, and in the course of +the next half-century their dominions were enormously extended +towards the south (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franks</a></span>). After the death of Attila in +453 the power of the Huns soon collapsed, but the political +divisions of Germany in the ensuing period are far from clear.</p> + +<p>In the 6th century the predominant peoples are the Franks, +Frisians, Saxons, Alamanni, Bavarians, Langobardi, Heruli +and Warni. By the beginning of this century the +Saxons seem to have penetrated almost, if not quite, +<span class="sidenote">The Franks and others in the 6th century.</span> +to the Rhine in the Netherlands. Farther south, +however, the old land of the Chatti was included in +the kingdom of Clovis. Northern Bavaria was occupied +by the Franks, whose king Clovis subdued the Alamanni in +495. To the east of the Franks between the Harz, the Elbe and +the Saale lay the kingdom of the Thuringi, the origin of whom +is not clear. The Heruli also had a powerful kingdom, probably +in the basin of the Elbe, and to the east of them were the Langobardi. +The Warni apparently now dwelt in the regions about +the mouth of the Elbe, while the whole coast from the mouth +of the Weser to the west Scheldt was in the hands of the Frisians. +By this time all the country east of the lower Elbe seems to +have been Slavonic. In the north, perhaps in the province of +Schleswig, we hear now for the first time of the Danes. Theodoric, +king of the Ostrogoths, endeavoured to form a confederacy +with the Thuringi, Heruli and Warni against Clovis in order +to protect the Visigoths in the early years of the 6th century, +but very shortly afterwards the king of the Heruli was slain +by the Langobardi and their existence as an independent power +came to an end. In 531 the Thuringian kingdom was destroyed +by the Frankish king Theodoric, son of Clovis, with whom the +Saxons were in alliance.</p> + +<p>During the 6th and 7th centuries the Saxons were intermittently +under Frankish supremacy, but their conquest was not +complete until the time of Charlemagne. Shortly +after the middle of the 6th century the Franks were +<span class="sidenote">The Saxons and the Franks.</span> +threatened with a new invasion by the Avars. In +567-568 the Langobardi, who by this time had moved +into the Danube basin, invaded Italy and were followed by those +of the Saxons who had settled in Thuringia. Their lands were +given by the Frankish king Sigeberht to the north Suebi and +other tribes who had come either from the Elbe basin or possibly +from the Netherlands. About the same time Sigeberht was +defeated by the Avars, and though the latter soon withdrew +from the Frankish frontiers, their course was followed by a +movement of the Slavs, who occupied the basin of the Elster +and penetrated to that of the Main.</p> + +<p>By the end of the 6th century the whole basin of the Elbe +except the Saxon territory near the mouth had probably become +Slavonic. To the east of the Saale were the Sorbs (Sorabi), and +beyond them the Daleminci and Siusli. To the east of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +Saxons were the Polabs (Polabi) in the basin of the Elbe, and +beyond them the Hevelli about the Havel. Farther north in +Mecklenburg were the Warnabi, and in eastern Holstein the +Obotriti and the Wagri. To the east of the Warnabi were the +Liutici as far as the Oder, and beyond that river the Pomerani. +To the south of the Oder were the Milcieni and the Lusici, and +farther east the Poloni with their centre in the basin of the +Vistula. The lower part of the Vistula basin, however, was in +possession of Prussian tribes, the Prussi and Lithuani.</p> + +<p>The Warni now disappear from history, and from this time +the Teutonic peoples of the north as far as the Danish boundary +about the Eider are called Saxons. The conquest of the Frisians +by the Franks was begun by Pippin (Pepin) of Heristal in 689 +and practically completed by Charles Martel, though they were +not entirely brought into subjection until the time of Charlemagne. +The great overthrow of the Saxons took place about +772-773 and by the end of the century Charlemagne had extended +his conquests to the border of the Danes. By this time the whole +of the Teutonic part of Germany had been finally brought under +his government.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Caesar, <i>De bello Gallico</i>, especially i. 31 ff., iv. +1-19, vi. 21 ff.; Velleius Paterculus, especially ii. 105 ff.; Strabo, +especially pp. 193 ff., 290 ff.; Pliny, <i>Natural History</i>, iv. §§ 99 ff., +106; Tacitus, Annales, i. 38 ff., ii. 5 ff., 44 ff., 62 f., 88; <i>Germania</i>, +passim; <i>Histories</i>, iv.; Ptolemy ii. 9, §§ 2 ff., 11, iii. 5, §§ 19 ff.; +Dio Cassius, passim; Julius Capitolinus; Claudius Mamertinus; +Ammianus Marcellinus, passim; Zosimus; Jordanes, <i>De origine +Getarum</i>; Procopius, <i>De bello Gothico</i>; K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen und +die Nachbarstämme</i>; O. Bremer in Paul’s <i>Grundriss d. germ. Philologie</i> +(2nd ed.), vol. iii. pp. 735 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Medieval and Modern History</p> + +<p>When Clovis, or Chlodovech, became king of a tribe of the +Salian Franks in 481, five years after the fall of the Western +empire, the region afterwards called Germany was +divided into five main districts, and its history for +<span class="sidenote">Divisions of Germany.</span> +the succeeding three centuries is mainly the history +of the tribes inhabiting these districts. In the north-east, +dwelling between the Rhine and the Elbe, were the Saxons +(<i>q.v.</i>), to the east and south of whom stretched the extensive +kingdom of Thuringia (<i>q.v.</i>). In the south-west the Alamanni +occupied the territory afterwards called Swabia (<i>q.v.</i>), and extended +along the middle Rhine until they met the Ripuarian +Franks, then living in the northern part of the district which at +a later period was called after them, Franconia (<i>q.v.</i>); and in +the south-east were the Bavarians, although it was some time +before their country came to be known as Bavaria (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Clovis was descended from Chlogio, or Clodion, who had ruled +over a branch of the Salian Franks from 427 to 447, and whose +successors, following his example, had secured an +influential position for their tribe. Having obtained +<span class="sidenote">The wars of Clovis.</span> +possession of that part of Gaul which lay between the +Seine and the Loire, Clovis turned his attention to his eastern +neighbours, and was soon engaged in a struggle with the Alamanni +which probably arose out of a quarrel between them and the +Ripuarian Franks for the possession of the middle Rhine. When +in 496, or soon afterwards, the Alamanni were defeated, they +were confined to what was afterwards known as Swabia, and the +northern part of their territory was incorporated with the kingdom +of the Franks. Clovis had united the Salian Franks under his +rule, and he persuaded, or compelled, the Ripuarian Franks +also to accept him as their king; but on his death in 511 his +kingdom was divided, and the Ripuarian, or Rhenish, Franks +as they are sometimes called, together with some of the Alamanni, +came under the rule of his eldest son Theuderich or Theodoric I. +This was the first of the many partitions which effectually divided +the kingdom of the Franks into an eastern and a western portion, +that is to say, into divisions which eventually became Germany +and France respectively, and the district ruled by Theuderich +was almost identical with that which afterwards bore the name +of Austrasia. In 531 Theuderich killed Hermannfried, king of +the Thuringians, a former ally, with whom he had quarrelled, +conquered his kingdom, and added its southern portion to his +own possessions. His son and successor, Theudebert I., exercised +a certain supremacy over the Alamanni and the Bavarians, and +even claimed authority over various Saxon tribes between +whom and the Franks there had been some fighting. After his +death in 548, however, the Frankish power in Germany sank to +very minute proportions, a result due partly to the spirit of +tribal independence which lingered among the German races, +but principally to the paralysing effect of the unceasing rivalry +between Austrasia and Neustria. From 548 the Alamanni were +ruled by a succession of dukes who soon made themselves independent; +and in 555 a duke of the Bavarians, who exercised +his authority without regard for the Frankish supremacy, is +first mentioned. In Thuringia, which now only consisted of the +central part of the former kingdom, King Dagobert I. set up in +634 a duke named Radulf who soon asserted his independence +of Dagobert and of his successor, Sigebert III. The Saxons for +their part did not own even a nominal allegiance to the Frankish +kings, whose authority on the right bank of the Rhine was confined +to the district actually occupied by men of their own name, +which at a later date became the duchy of Franconia. During +these years the eastern border of Germany was constantly +ravaged by various Slavonic tribes. King Dagobert sent troops +to repel these marauders from time to time, but the main burden +of defence fell upon the Saxons, Bavarians and Thuringians. +The virtual independence of these German tribes lasted until +the union of Austrasia and Neustria in 687, an achievement +mainly due to the efforts of Pippin of Heristal, who soon became +the actual, though not the nominal, ruler of the Frankish realm. +Pippin and his son Charles Martel, who was mayor of the palace +from 717 to 741, renewed the struggle with the Germans and +were soon successful in re-establishing the central power which +the Merovingian kings had allowed to slip from their grasp. +The ducal office was abolished in Thuringia, a series of wars +reduced the Alamanni to strict dependence, and both countries +were governed by Frankish officials. Bavaria was brought +into subjection about the same time; the Bavarian law, committed +to writing between 739 and 748, strongly emphasizes the +supremacy of the Frankish king, whose authority it recognizes +as including the right to appoint and even to depose the duke +of Bavaria. The Saxons, on the other hand, succeeded in retaining +their independence as a race, although their country was +ravaged in various campaigns and some tribes were compelled +from time to time to pay tribute. The rule of Pippin the Short, +both before and after his coronation as king, was troubled by +constant risings on the part of his East Frankish or German +subjects, but aided by his brother Carloman, who for a time +administered this part of the Frankish kingdom, Pippin was +generally able to deal with the rebels.</p> + +<p>After all, however, even these powerful Frankish conquerors +had but imperfect success in Germany. When they were present +with their formidable armies, they could command +obedience; when engaged, as they often were, in +<span class="sidenote">The Saxons remain independent.</span> +distant parts of the vast Frankish territory, they +could not trust to the fulfilment of the fair promises +they had exacted. One of the chief causes of their +ill-success was the continued independence of the Saxons. Ever +since they had acquired the northern half of Thuringia, this warlike +race had been extending its power. They were still heathens, +cherishing bitter hatred towards the Franks, whom they regarded +as the enemies both of their liberties and of their religion; and +their hatred found expression, not only in expeditions into +Frankish territory, but in help willingly rendered to every German +confederation which wished to throw off the Frankish yoke. +Hardly any rebellion against the dukes of the Franks, or against +King Pippin, took place in Germany without the Saxons coming +forward to aid the rebels. This was perfectly understood by +the Frankish rulers, who tried again and again to put an end to +the evil by subduing the Saxons. They could not, however, attain +their object. An occasional victory was gained, and some border +tribes were from time to time compelled to pay tribute; but the +mass of the Saxons remained unconquered. This was partly +due to the fact that the Saxons had not, like the other German +confederations, a duke who, when beaten, could be held responsible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +for the engagements forced upon him as the representative of +his subjects. A Saxon chief who made peace with the Franks +could undertake nothing for the whole people. As a conquering +race, they were firmly compact; conquered, they were in the +hands of the victor a rope of sand.</p> + +<p>It was during the time of Pippin of Heristal and his son and +grandson that the conversion of the Germans to Christianity +was mainly effected. Some traces of Roman Christianity +still lingered in the Rhine valley and in southern +<span class="sidenote">Christianity in Germany.</span> +Germany, but the bulk of the people were heathen, +in spite of the efforts of Frank and Irish missionaries +and the command of King Dagobert I. that all his subjects should +be baptized. Rupert, bishop of Worms, had already made some +progress in the work of converting the Bavarians and Alamanni, +as had Willibrord among the Thuringians when St Boniface +appeared in Germany in 717. Appointed bishop of the Germans +by Pope Gregory II., and supported by Charles Martel, he preached +with much success in Bavaria and Thuringia, notwithstanding +some hostility from the clergy who disliked the influence of +Rome. He founded or restored bishoprics in Bavaria, Thuringia +and elsewhere, and in 742 presided over the first German council. +When he was martyred in 755 Christianity was professed by all +the German races except the Saxons, and the church, organized +and wealthy, had been to a large extent brought under the control +of the papacy. The old pagan faith was not yet entirely destroyed, +and traces of its influence may still be detected in popular +beliefs and customs. But still Christianity was dominant, and +soon became an important factor in the process of civilization, +while the close alliance of the German church with the +papacy was followed by results of the utmost consequence for +Germany.</p> + +<p>The reign of Charlemagne is a period of great importance +in the history of Germany. Under his rule the first signs of +national unity and a serious advance in the progress of +order and civilization may be seen. The long struggle, +<span class="sidenote">The work of Charlemagne.</span> +which ended in 804 with the submission of the Saxons +to the emperor, together with the extension of a real +Frankish authority over the Bavarians, brought the German races +for the first time under a single ruler; while war and government, +law and religion, alike tended to weld them into one people. +The armies of Charlemagne contained warriors from all parts of +Germany; and although tribal law was respected and codified, +legislation common to the whole empire was also introduced. +The general establishment of the Frankish system of government +and the presence of Frankish officials helped to break down the +barriers of race, and the influence of Christianity was in the same +direction. With the conversion of the Saxons the whole German +race became nominally Christian; and their ruler was lavish in +granting lands and privileges to prelates, and untiring in founding +bishoprics, monasteries and schools. Measures were also taken +for the security and good government of the country. Campaigns +against the Slavonic tribes, if sometimes failing in their immediate +object, taught those peoples to respect the power of the Frankish +monarch; and the establishment of a series of marches along +the eastern frontier gave a sense of safety to the neighbouring +districts. The tribal dukes had all disappeared, and their duchies +were split up into districts ruled by counts (<i>q.v.</i>), whose tendencies +to independence the emperor tried to check by the visits of the +<i>missi dominici</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). Some of the results of the government +of Charlemagne were, however, less beneficial. His coronation +as Roman emperor in 800, although it did not produce at the +time so powerful an impression in Germany as in France, was +fraught with consequences not always favourable for the former +country. The tendencies of the tribe to independence were +crushed as their ancient popular assemblies were discouraged; +and the liberty of the freemen was curtailed owing to the exigencies +of military service, while the power of the church was +rarely directed to the highest ends.</p> + +<p>The reign of the emperor Louis I. was marked by a number +of abortive schemes for the partition of his dominions among his +sons, which provoked a state of strife that was largely responsible +for the increasing weakness of the Empire. The mild nature of +<span class="sidenote">Louis I. and his sons.</span> +his rule, however, made Louis popular with his German subjects, +to whose support mainly he owed his restoration to power on +two occasions. When in 825 his son Louis, afterwards +called “the German,” was entrusted with the +government of Bavaria and from this centre gradually +extended his authority over the Carolingian dominions +east of the Rhine, a step was taken in the process by which +East Francia, or Germany, was becoming a unit distinguishable +from other portions of the Empire; a process which was +carried further by the treaty of Verdun in August 843, when, +after a struggle between Louis the German and his brothers for +their father’s inheritance, an arrangement was made by which +Louis obtained the bulk of the lands east of the Rhine together +with the districts around Mainz, Worms and Spires on the left +bank. Although not yet a single people, the German tribes had +now for the first time a ruler whose authority was confined to +their own lands, and from this time the beginnings of national +life may be traced. For fifty years the main efforts of Louis +were directed to defending his kingdom from the inroads of his +Slavonic neighbours, and his detachment from the rest of the +Empire necessitated by these constant engagements towards the +east, gradually gave both him and his subjects a distinctive +character, which was displayed and emphasized when, in +ratifying an alliance with his half-brother, the West-Frankish +king, Charles the Bald, the oath was sworn in different tongues. +The East and West Franks were unable to understand each +other’s speech, so Charles took the oath in a Romance, and +Louis in a German dialect.</p> + +<p>Important as is the treaty of Verdun in German history, that +of Mersen, by which Louis and Charles the Bald settled in 870 +their dispute over the kingdom of Lothair, second son +of the emperor Lothair I., is still more important. +<span class="sidenote">Louis the German and his successors.</span> +The additional territory which Louis then obtained +gave to his dominions almost the proportions which +Germany maintained throughout the middle ages. They were +bounded on the east by the Elbe and the Bohemian mountains, +and on the west beyond the Rhine they included the districts +known afterwards as Alsace and Lorraine. His jurisdiction +embraced the territories occupied by the five ancient German +tribes, and included the five archbishoprics of Mainz, Treves +(Trier), Cologne, Salzburg and Bremen. When Louis died in +876 his kingdom was divided among his three sons, but as the +two elder of these soon died without heirs, Germany was again +united in 882 under his remaining son Charles, called “the Fat,” +who soon became ruler of almost the whole of the extensive +domains of Charlemagne. There was, however, no cohesion in +the restored empire, the disintegration of which, moreover, was +hastened by the ravages of the Northmen, who plundered the +cities in the valley of the Rhine. Charles attempted to buy off +these redoubtable invaders, a policy which aroused the anger of +his German subjects, whose resentment was accentuated by the +king’s indifference to their condition, and found expression in +887 when Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, the eldest +son of Louis the German, led an army of Bavarians against him. +Arnulf himself was recognized as German or East-Frankish +king, although his actual authority was confined to Bavaria and +its neighbourhood. He was successful in freeing his kingdom +for a time from the ravages of the Northmen, but was not equally +fortunate in his contests with the Moravians. After his death in +899 his kingdom came under the nominal rule of his young son +Louis “the Child,” and in the absence of firm rule and a central +authority became the prey of the Magyars and other hordes of +invaders.</p> + +<p>During these wars feudalism made rapid advance in Germany. +The different peoples compelled to attend to their own defence +appointed dukes for special military services (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duke</a></span>); and these dukes, chosen often from members +<span class="sidenote">Feudalism in Germany.</span> +of the old ducal families, succeeded without much +difficulty in securing a more permanent position for +themselves and their descendants. In Saxony, for example, +we hear of Duke Otto the Illustrious, who also ruled over +Thuringia; and during the early years of the 10th century dukes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +appear in Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. These +dukes acquired large tracts of land of which they gave grants +on conditions of military service to persons on whom they could +rely; while many independent landowners sought their protection +on terms of vassalage. The same process took place in the case +of great numbers of freemen of a lower class, who put themselves +at the service of their more powerful neighbours in return for +protection. In this manner the feudal tenure of land began to +prevail in almost all parts of Germany, and the elaborate social +system which became known as feudalism was gradually built +up. The dukes became virtually independent, and when Louis +the Child died in 911, the royal authority existed in name +only.</p> + +<p>While Louis the Child lived the German dukes were virtually +kings in their duchies, and their natural tendency was to make +themselves absolute rulers. But, threatened as they +were by the Magyars, with the Slavs and Northmen +<span class="sidenote">Conrad I.</span> +always ready to take advantage of their weakness, they could +not afford to do without a central government. Accordingly +the nobles assembled at Forchheim, and by the advice of Otto +the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, Conrad of Franconia was chosen +German king. The dukes of Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine were +displeased at this election, probably because Conrad was likely +to prove considerably more powerful than they wished. Rather +than acknowledge him, the duke of Lotharingia, or Lorraine, +transferred his allegiance to Charles the Simple of France; and +it was in vain that Conrad protested and despatched armies into +Lorraine. With the help of the French king the duke maintained +his ground, and for the time his country was lost to Germany. +Bavaria and Swabia yielded, but, mainly through the fault of +the king himself, their submission was of brief duration. The +rise of the dukes had been watched with extreme jealousy by +the leading prelates. They saw that the independence they had +hitherto enjoyed would be much more imperilled by powerful +local governors than by a sovereign who necessarily regarded it +as part of his duty to protect the church. Hence they had done +everything they could to prevent the dukes from extending their +authority, and as the government was carried on during the reign +of Louis the Child mainly by Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz, they +had been able to throw considerable obstacles in the way of their +rivals. They had now induced Conrad to quarrel with both +Swabia and Bavaria, and also with Henry, duke of Saxony, son +of the duke to whom he chiefly owed his crown. In these contests +the German king met with indifferent success, but the struggle +with Saxony was not very serious, and when dying in December +919 Conrad recommended the Franconian nobles to offer the +crown to Henry, the only man who could cope with the anarchy +by which he had himself been baffled.</p> + +<p>The nobles of Franconia acted upon the advice of their king, +and the Saxons were very willing that their duke should rise +to still higher honours. Henry I., called “the Fowler,” +who was chosen German king in May 919, was one of +<span class="sidenote">Henry the Fowler.</span> +the best of German kings, and was a born statesman +and warrior. His ambition was of the noblest order, for he sank +his personal interests in the cause of his country, and he knew +exactly when to attain his objects by force, and when by concession +and moderation. Almost immediately he overcame +the opposition of the dukes of Swabia and Bavaria; some time +later, taking advantage of the troubled state of France, he +accepted the homage of the duke of Lorraine, which for many +centuries afterwards remained a part of the German kingdom.</p> + +<p>Having established internal order, Henry was able to turn +to matters of more pressing moment. In the first year of his +reign the Magyars, who had continued to scourge +Germany during the reign of Conrad, broke into +<span class="sidenote">Henry and the Magyars.</span> +Saxony and plundered the land almost without hindrance. +In 924 they returned, and this time by good +fortune one of their greatest princes fell into the hands of the +Germans. Henry restored him to his countrymen on condition +that they made a truce for nine years; and he promised to pay +yearly tribute during this period. The barbarians accepted his +terms, and faithfully kept their word in regard to Henry’s own +lands, although Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia they occasionally +invaded as before. The king made admirable use of the opportunity +he had secured, confining his efforts, however, to Saxony +and Thuringia, the only parts of Germany over which he had +any control.</p> + +<p>In the southern and western German lands towns and fortified +places had long existed; but in the north, where Roman influence +had only been feeble, and where even the Franks +had not exercised much authority until the time of +<span class="sidenote">Henry’s work in Saxony.</span> +Charlemagne, the people still lived as in ancient times, +either on solitary farms or in exposed villages. Henry +saw that, while this state of things lasted, the population could +never be safe, and began the construction of fortresses and walled +towns. Of every group of nine men one was compelled to devote +himself to this work, while the remaining eight cultivated his +fields and allowed a third of their produce to be stored against +times of trouble. The necessities of military discipline were +also a subject of attention. Hitherto the Germans had fought +mainly on foot, and, as the Magyars came on horseback, the +nation was placed at an immense disadvantage. A powerful +force of cavalry was now raised, while at the same time the +infantry were drilled in new and more effective modes of fighting. +Although these preparations were carried on directly under +Henry’s supervision, only in Saxony and Thuringia the neighbouring +dukes were stimulated to follow his example. When he +was ready he used his new troops, before turning them against +their chief enemy, the Magyars, to punish refractory Slavonic +tribes; and he brought under temporary subjection nearly +all the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder. He proceeded +also against the Bohemians, whose duke was compelled to do +homage.</p> + +<p>The truce with the Magyars was not renewed, whereupon in +933 a body of invaders crossed, as in former years, the frontier +of Thuringia. Henry prudently waited until dearth +of provisions forced the enemy to divide into two +<span class="sidenote">The Magyars return.</span> +bands. He then swept down upon the weaker force, +annihilated it, and rapidly advanced against the +remaining portion of the army. The second battle was more +severe than the first, but not less decisive. The Magyars, unable +to cope with a disciplined army, were cut down in great numbers, +and those who survived rode in terror from the field. The exact +scenes of these conflicts are not known, although the date of the +second encounter was the 15th of March 933; but few more +important battles have ever been fought. The power of the +Magyars was not indeed destroyed, but it was crippled, and the +way was prepared for the effective liberation of Germany from +an intolerable plague. While the Magyars had been troubling +Germany on the east and south, the Danes had been irritating +her on the north. Charlemagne had established a march between +the Eider and the Schlei; but in course of time the Danes had +not only seized this territory, but had driven the German population +beyond the Elbe. The Saxons had been slowly reconquering +the lost ground, and now Henry, advancing with his victorious +army into Jutland, forced Gorm, the Danish king, to become +his vassal and regained the land between the Eider and the +Schlei. But Henry’s work concerned the duchy of Saxony +rather than the kingdom of Germany. He concentrated all his +energies on the government and defence of northern and eastern +Germany, leaving the southern and western districts to profit +by his example, while his policy of refraining from interference +in the affairs of the other duchies tended to diminish the ill-feeling +which existed between the various German tribes and to bring +peace to the country as a whole. It is in these directions that +the reign of Henry the Fowler marks a stage in the history of +Germany.</p> + +<p>When this great king died in July 936 every land inhabited +by a German population formed part of the German kingdom, +and none of the duchies were at war either with him or among +themselves. Along the northern and eastern frontier were tributary +races, and the country was for the time rid of an enemy +<span class="sidenote">The growth of towns.</span> +which, for nearly a generation, had kept it in perpetual fear. Great +as were these results, perhaps Henry did even greater service +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +in beginning the growth of towns throughout north Germany. +Not content with merely making them places of defence, he +decreed that they should be centres for the administration +of justice, and that in them should be held all public +festivities and ceremonies; he also instituted markets, +and encouraged traders to take advantage of the opportunities +provided for them. A strong check was thus imposed +upon the tendency of freemen to become the vassals of great lords. +This movement had become so powerful by the troubles of the +epoch that, had no other current of influence set in, the entire class +of freemen must soon have disappeared. As they now knew that +they could find protection without looking to a superior, they +had less temptation to give up their independence, and many +of them settled in the towns where they could be safe and free. +Besides maintaining a manly spirit in the population, the towns +rapidly added to their importance by the stimulus they gave +to all kinds of industry and trade.</p> + +<p>Before his death Henry obtained the promise of the nobles +at a national assembly, or diet, at Erfurt to recognize his son +Otto as his successor, and the promise was kept, Otto +being chosen German king in July 936. Otto I. the +<span class="sidenote">Otto the Great.</span> +Great began his reign under the most favourable +circumstances. He was twenty-four years of age, and at the +coronation festival, which was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, the dukes +performed for the first time the nominally menial offices known +as the arch-offices of the German kingdom. But these peaceful +relations soon came to an end. Reversing his father’s policy, +Otto resolved that the dukes should act in the strictest sense +as his vassals, or lose their dignities. At the time of his coronation +Germany was virtually a federal state; he wished to transform +it into a firm and compact monarchy. This policy speedily led to +a formidable rebellion, headed by Thankmar, the king’s half-brother, +a fierce warrior, who fancied that he had a prior claim +to the crown, and who secured a number of followers in Saxony. +He was joined by Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and it was only +by the aid of the duke of Swabia, whom the duke of Franconia +had offended, that the rising was put down. This happened in +938, and in 939 a second rebellion, led by Otto’s brother Henry, +was supported by the duke of Franconia and by Giselbert, duke +of Lorraine. Otto again triumphed, and derived immense advantages +from his success. The duchy of Franconia he kept +in his own hands, and in 944 he granted Lorraine to Conrad +the Red, an energetic and honourable count, whom he still +further attached to himself by giving him his daughter for his +wife. Bavaria, on the death of its duke in 947, was placed under +his brother Henry, who, having been pardoned, had become +a loyal subject. The duchy of Swabia was also brought into +Otto’s family by the marriage of his son Ludolf with Duke +Hermann’s daughter, and by these means Otto made himself +master of the kingdom. For the time, feudalism in truth meant +that lands and offices were held on condition of service; the king +was the genuine ruler, not only of freemen, but of the highest +vassals in the nation.</p> + +<p>In the midst of these internal troubles Otto was attacked +by the French king, Louis IV., who sought to regain Lorraine. +However, the German king was soon able to turn his +arms against his new enemy; he marched into France +<span class="sidenote">Otto’s wars with France and with the Slavs.</span> +and made peace with Louis in 942. Otto’s subsequent +interventions in the affairs of France were mainly +directed towards making peace between Louis and his +powerful and rebellious vassal, Hugh the Great, duke of the +Franks, both of whom were married to sisters of the German +king. Much more important than Otto’s doings in France were +his wars with his northern and eastern neighbours. The duke of +Bohemia, after a long struggle, was brought to submission in +950. Among the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder the king +was represented by Margrave Gero, a warrior well fitted for the +rough work he had to do, loyal to his sovereign, but capable +of any treachery towards his enemies, who conquered much of +the country north of Bohemia between the Oder and the upper +and middle Elbe. Margrave Billung, who looked after the +Abotrites on the lower Elbe, was less fortunate, mainly because +of the neighbourhood of the Danes, who, after the death of King +Henry, often attacked the hated Germans, but some progress +was made in bringing this district under German influence. +Otto, having profound faith in the power of the church to +reconcile conquered peoples to his rule, provided for the benefit +of the Danes the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ripen and Aarhus; +and among those which he established for the Slavs were the +important bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg. In his +later years he set up the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which +took in the sees of Meissen, Zeitz and Merseburg.</p> + +<p>Having secured peace in Germany and begun the real conquest +of the border races, Otto was by far the greatest sovereign +in Europe; and, had he refused to go beyond the +limits within which he had hitherto acted, it is probable +<span class="sidenote">Otto in Italy.</span> +that he would have established a united monarchy. +But a decision to which he soon came deprived posterity of the +results which might have sprung from the policy of his earlier +years. About 951 Adelaide, widow of Lothair, son of Hugh, +king of Italy, having refused to marry the son of Berengar, +margrave of Ivrea, was cast into prison and cruelly treated. She +appealed to Otto; other reasons called him in the same direction, +and in 951 he crossed the Alps and descended into Lombardy. +He displaced Berengar, and was so fascinated by Queen Adelaide +that within a few weeks he was married to her at Pavia. But +Otto’s son, Ludolf, who had received a promise of the German +crown, saw his rights threatened by this marriage. He went +to an old enemy of his father, Frederick, archbishop of Mainz, +and the two plotted together against the king, who, hearing of +their proceedings, returned to Germany in 952, leaving Duke +Conrad of Lorraine as his representative in Italy. Otto, who +did not suspect how deep were the designs of the conspirators, +paid a visit to Mainz, where he was seized and was compelled +to take certain solemn pledges which, after his escape, he +repudiated.</p> + +<p>War broke out in 953, and the struggle was the most serious +in which he had been engaged. In Lorraine, of which duchy +Otto made his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, +administrator, his cause was triumphant; but everywhere +<span class="sidenote">The civil war.</span> +else dark clouds gathered over his head. Conrad +the Red hurried from Italy and joined the rebels; in Swabia, +in Bavaria, in Franconia and even in Saxony, the native land +of the king, many sided with them. It is extremely remarkable +that this movement acquired so quickly such force and volume. +The explanation, according to some historians, is that the +people looked forward with alarm to the union of Germany with +Italy. There were still traditions of the hardships inflicted upon +the common folk by the expeditions of Charlemagne, and it is +supposed that they anticipated similar evils in the event of his +empire being restored. Whether or not this be the true explanation, +the power of Otto was shaken to its foundations. At last +he was saved by the presence of an immense external peril. The +Magyars were as usual stimulated to action by the disunion of +their enemies; and Conrad and Ludolf made the blunder of +inviting their help, a proceeding which disgusted the Germans, +many of whom fell away from their side and rallied to the +head and protector of the nation. In a very short time Conrad +and the archbishop of Mainz submitted, and although Ludolf +held out a little longer he soon asked for pardon. Lorraine +was given to Bruno; but Conrad, its former duke, although +thus punished, was not disgraced, for Otto needed his services +<span class="sidenote">Defeat of Magyars.</span> +in the war with the Magyars. The great battle against +these foes was fought on the 10th of August 955 +on the Lechfeld near Augsburg. After a fierce and +obstinate fight, in which Conrad and many other nobles fell, +the Germans were victorious; the Magyars were even more +thoroughly scourged than in the battles in which Otto’s father +had given them their first real check. The deliverance of Germany +was complete, and from this time, notwithstanding +certain wild raids towards the east, the Magyars began to settle +in the land they still occupy, and to adapt themselves to the +conditions of civilized life.</p> + +<p>Entreated by Pope John XII., who needed a helper against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +Berengar, Otto went a second time to Italy, in 961; and on +this occasion he received from the pope at Rome the imperial +<span class="sidenote">Otto crowned emperor.</span> +crown. In 966 he was again in Italy, where he remained +six years, exercising to the full his imperial +rights in regard to the papacy, but occupied mainly +in an attempt to make himself master of the southern, +as well as of the northern half of the peninsula.</p> + +<p>By far the most important act of Otto’s eventful life was +his assumption of the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His +successors steadily followed his example, and the +sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle claimed as his +right coronation by the pope in Rome. Thus grew +<span class="sidenote">Connexion of Germany with the Empire.</span> +up the Holy Roman Empire, that strange state which, +directly descending through the empire of Charlemagne +from the empire of the Caesars, contained so many elements +foreign to ancient life. We are here concerned with it only as +it affected Germany. Germany itself never until our own day +became an empire. It is true that at last the Holy Roman +Empire was in reality confined to Germany; but in theory it +was something quite different. Like France, Germany was a +kingdom, but it differed from France in this, that its king was +also king in Italy and Roman emperor. As the latter title made +him nominally the secular lord of the world, it might have +been expected to excite the pride of his German subjects; and +doubtless, after a time, they did learn to think highly of themselves +as the imperial race. But the evidence tends to show +that at first at least they had no wish for this honour, and would +have preferred their ruler to devote himself entirely to his own +people.</p> + +<p>There are signs that during Otto’s reign they began to have +a distinct consciousness of national life, their use of the word +“deutsch” to indicate the whole people being one of these +symptoms. Their common sufferings, struggles and triumphs, +however, account far more readily for this feeling than the +supposition that they were elated by their king undertaking +obligations which took him for years together away from his +native land. So solemn were the associations of the imperial +title that, after acquiring it, Otto probably looked for more +intimate obedience from his subjects. They were willing enough +to admit the abstract claims of the Empire; but in the world of +feudalism there was a multitude of established customs and +rights which rudely conflicted with these claims, and in action, +remote and abstract considerations gave way before concrete +and present realities. Instead of strengthening the allegiance +of the Germans towards their sovereign, the imperial title was +the means of steadily undermining it. To the connexion of their +kingdom with the Empire they owe the fact that for centuries +they were the most divided of European nations, and that they +have only recently begun to create a genuinely united state. +France was made up of a number of loosely connected lands, +each with its own lord, when Germany, under Otto, was to a +large extent moved by a single will, well organized and strong. +But the attention of the French kings was concentrated on their +immediate interests, and in course of time they brought their +unruly vassals to order. The German kings, as emperors, had +duties which often took them away for long periods from Germany. +This alone would have shaken their authority, for, during their +absence, the great vassals seized rights which were afterwards +difficult to recover. But the emperors were not merely absent, +they had to engage in struggles in which they exhausted the +energies necessary to enforce obedience at home; and, in order +to obtain help, they were sometimes glad to concede advantages +to which, under other conditions, they would have tenaciously +clung. Moreover, the greatest of all their struggles was with +the papacy; so that a power outside their kingdom, but exercising +immense influence within it, was in the end always prepared +to weaken them by exciting dissension among their people. +Thus the imperial crown was the most fatal gift that could have +been offered to the German kings; apparently giving them +all things, it deprived them of nearly everything. And in doing +this it inflicted on many generations incalculable and needless +suffering.</p> + +<p>By the policy of his later years Otto did much to prepare +the way for the process of disintegration which he rendered +inevitable by restoring the Empire. With the kingdom +divided into five great duchies, the sovereign could +<span class="sidenote">Otto and the duchies.</span> +always have maintained at least so much unity as Henry +the Fowler secured; and, as the experience of Otto +himself showed, there would have been chances of much greater +centralization. Yet he threw away this advantage. Lorraine +was divided into two duchies, Upper Lorraine and Lower Lorraine. +In each duchy of the kingdom he appointed a count palatine, +whose duty was to maintain the royal rights; and after Margrave +Gero died in 965 his territory was divided into three marches, +and placed under margraves, each with the same powers as Gero. +Otto gave up the practice of retaining the duchies either in his +own hands or in those of relatives. Even Saxony, his native +duchy and the chief source of his strength, was given to Margrave +Billung, whose family kept it for many years. To combat the +power of the princes, Otto, especially after he became emperor +and looked upon himself as the protector of the church, immensely +increased the importance of the prelates. They received great +gifts of land, were endowed with jurisdiction in criminal as well +as civil cases, and obtained several other valuable sovereign +rights. The emperor’s idea was that, as church lands and +offices could not be hereditary, their holders would necessarily +favour the crown. But he forgot that the church had a head +outside Germany, and that the passion for the rights of an order +may be not less intense than that for the rights of a family. +While the Empire was at peace with the popes the prelates did +strongly uphold it, and their influence was unquestionably, +on the whole, higher than that of rude secular nobles. But +with the Empire and the Papacy in conflict, they could not but +abide, as a rule, by the authority which had the most sacred +claims to their loyalty. From all these circumstances it curiously +happened that the sovereign who did more than almost any other +to raise the royal power, was also the sovereign who, more than +any other, wrought its decay.</p> + +<p>Otto II. had been crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle +and emperor at Rome during his father’s lifetime. Becoming +sole ruler in May 973, his troubles began in Lorraine, +but were more serious in Bavaria, which was now a +<span class="sidenote">Otto II.</span> +very important duchy. Its duke, Henry, the brother of Otto I., +had died in 955 and had been succeeded by a young son, Henry, +whose turbulent career subsequently induced the Bavarian +historian Aventinus to describe him as <i>rixosus</i>, or the Quarrelsome. +In 973 Burchard II., duke of Swabia, died, and the new +emperor refused to give this duchy to Henry, further irritating +this duke by bestowing it upon his enemy, Otto, a grandson +of the emperor Otto I. Having collected allies Henry rebelled, +and in 976 the emperor himself marched against him and drove +him into Bohemia. Bavaria was taken from him and given to +Otto of Swabia, but it was deprived of some of its importance. +The southern part, Carinthia, which had hitherto been a march +district, was separated from it and made into a duchy, and the +church in Bavaria was made dependent upon the king and not +upon the duke. Having arrived at this settlement Otto marched +against the Bohemians, but while he was away from Germany +war was begun against him by Henry, the new duke of Carinthia, +who, forgetting the benefits he had just received, rose to avenge +the wrongs of his friend, the deposed duke Henry of Bavaria. +The emperor made peace with the Bohemians and quickly put +down the rising. Henry of Bavaria was handed over to the +keeping of the bishop of Utrecht and Carinthia received another +duke.</p> + +<p>In his anxiety to obtain possession of southern Italy, Otto I. +had secured as a wife for his son and successor Theophano, +daughter of the East Roman emperor, Romanus +II., the ruler of much of southern Italy. Otto II., +<span class="sidenote">Otto and France.</span> +having all his father’s ambition with much of his +strength and haughtiness, longed to get away from Germany +and to claim these remoter districts. But he was detained for +some time owing to the sudden invasion of Lower Lorraine by +Lothair, king of France, in 978. So stealthily did the invader +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +advance that the emperor had only just time to escape from +Aix-la-Chapelle before the town was seized and plundered. +As quickly as possible Otto placed himself at the head of +a great army and marched to Paris, but he was compelled +to retreat without taking the city, and in 980 peace was +made.</p> + +<p>At last, after an expedition against the Poles, Otto was able +to fulfil the wish of his heart; he went to Italy in 980 and never +returned to Germany. His claims to southern Italy +were vehemently opposed, and in July 982 he suffered +<span class="sidenote">Otto in Italy.</span> +a disastrous defeat at the hands of the East Roman +emperor’s subjects and their Saracen allies. The news of this +crushing blow cast a gloom over Germany, which was again +suffering from the attacks of her unruly neighbours. The Saxons +were able to cope with the Danes and the German boundary +was pushed forward in the south-east; but the Slavs fought +with such courage and success that during the reigns of the +emperors Otto II. and Otto III. much of the work effected by +the margraves Hermann Billung and Gero was undone, and +nearly two centuries passed before they were driven back to +the position which they had perforce occupied under Otto the +Great. Such were the first-fruits of the assumption of the +imperial crown.</p> + +<p>About six months before his death in Rome, in December +983, Otto held a diet at Verona which was attended by many +of the German princes, who recognized his infant +son Otto as his successor. Otto was then taken to +<span class="sidenote">Otto III.</span> +Germany, and after his father’s death he was crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle on Christmas Day 983. Henry of Bavaria +was released from his confinement and became his guardian; +but as this restless prince showed an inclination to secure the +crown for himself, the young king was taken from him and placed +in the care of his mother Theophano. Henry, however, gained +a good deal of support both within and without Germany and +caused much anxiety to Otto’s friends, but in 985 peace was made +and he was restored to Bavaria. While Theophano acted as +regent, the chief functions of government were discharged by +Willigis, archbishop of Mainz (d. 1011), a vigorous prelate who +had risen from a humble rank to the highest position in the +German Church. He was aided by the princes, each of whom +claimed a voice in the administration, and, during the lifetime of +Theophano at least, a stubborn and sometimes a successful +resistance was offered to the attacks of the Slavs. But under +the prevalent conditions a vigorous rule was impossible, and +during Otto’s minority the royal authority was greatly weakened. +In Saxony the people were quickly forgetting their hereditary +connexion with the successors of Henry the Fowler; in Bavaria, +after the death of Duke Henry in 995, the nobles, heedless of the +royal power, returned to the ancient German custom and chose +Henry’s son Henry as their ruler.</p> + +<p>In 995 Otto III. was declared to have reached his majority. +He had been so carefully trained in all the learning of the time +that he was called the “wonder of the world,” and a +certain fascination still belongs to his imaginative and +<span class="sidenote">The character of Otto.</span> +fantastic nature. Imbued by his mother with the +extravagant ideas of the East Roman emperors he +introduced into his court an amount of splendour and ceremonial +hitherto unknown in western Europe. The heir of the western +emperors and the grandson of an eastern emperor, he spent most +of his time in Rome, and fancied he could unite the world under +his rule. In this vague design he was encouraged by Gerbert, the +greatest scholar of the day, whom, as Silvester II., he raised to +the papal throne. Meanwhile Germany was suffering severely +from internal disorders and from the inroads of her rude +neighbours; and when in the year 1000 Otto visited his northern +kingdom there were hopes that he would smite these enemies +with the vigour of his predecessors. But these hopes were +disappointed; on the contrary, Otto seems to have released +Boleslaus, duke of the Poles, from his vague allegiance to the +German kings, and he founded an archbishopric at Gnesen, +thus freeing the Polish sees from the authority of the archbishop +of Magdeburg.</p> + +<p>When Otto III. died in January 1002 there remained no +representative of the elder branch of the imperial family, and +several candidates came forward for the vacant throne. +Among these candidates was Henry of Bavaria, son +<span class="sidenote">Henry II.</span> +of Duke Henry the Quarrelsome and a great-grandson of Henry +the Fowler, and at Mainz in June 1002 this prince was chosen +German king as Henry II. Having been recognized as king by +the Saxons, the Thuringians and the nobles of Lorraine, the new +king was able to turn his attention to the affairs of government, +but on the whole his reign was an unfortunate one for Germany. +For ten years civil war raged in Lorraine; in Saxony much blood +was shed in petty quarrels; and Henry made expeditions against +his turbulent vassals in Flanders and Friesland. He also interfered +in the affairs of Burgundy, but the acquisition of this kingdom +was the work of his successor, Conrad II. During nearly the +whole of this reign the Germans were fighting the Poles. Boleslaus +of Poland, who was now a very powerful sovereign, having +conquered Lusatia and Silesia, brought Bohemia also under his +rule and was soon at variance with the German king. Anxious +to regain these lands Henry allied himself with some Slavonic +tribes, promising not to interfere with the exercise of their +heathen religion, while Boleslaus found supporters among the +discontented German nobles. The honours of the ensuing war +were with Henry, and when peace was made in 1006 Boleslaus +gave up Bohemia, but the struggle was soon renewed and neither +side had gained any serious advantage when peace was again +made in 1013. A third Polish war broke out in 1015. Henry +led his troops in person and obtained assistance from the Russians +and the Hungarians; peace was concluded in 1018, the Elbe +remaining the north-east boundary of Germany. Henry made +three journeys to Italy, being crowned king of the Lombards +at Pavia in 1004 and emperor at Rome ten years later. Before +the latter event, in order to assert his right of sovereignty over +Rome, he called himself king of the Romans, a designation which +henceforth was borne by his successors until they received the +higher title from the pope. Hitherto a sovereign crowned at +Aix-la-Chapelle had been “king of the West Franks,” or “king +of the Franks and Saxons.” Henry was generous to the church, +to which he looked for support, but he maintained the royal +authority over the clergy. Although generally unsuccessful he +strove hard for peace, and during this reign the principle of +inheritance was virtually established with regard to German +fiefs.</p> + +<p>After Henry’s death the nobles met at Kamba, near Oppenheim, +and in September 1024 elected Conrad, a Franconian +count, to the vacant throne. Although favoured by +the German clergy the new king, Conrad II., had to +<span class="sidenote">Conrad II.</span> +face some opposition; this, however, quickly vanished and he received +the homage of the nobles in the various duchies and seemed +to have no reason to dread internal enemies. Nevertheless, +he had soon to battle with a conspiracy headed by his stepson, +Ernest II., duke of Swabia. This was caused primarily by +Conrad’s avowed desire to acquire the kingdom of Burgundy, but +other reasons for dissatisfaction existed, and the revolting duke +found it easy to gather around him the scattered forces of discontent. +However, the king was quite able to deal with the +rising, which, indeed, never attained serious proportions, although +Ernest gave continual trouble until his death in 1030. With +regard to the German duchies Conrad followed the policy of +Otto the Great. He wished to control, not to abolish them. +In 1026, when Duke Henry of Bavaria died, he obtained the +duchy for his son Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.; +later, despite the opposition of the nobles, he invested the same +prince with Swabia, where the ducal family had died out. +Franconia was in the hands of Conrad himself; thus Saxony, +Thuringia, Carinthia and Lorraine were the only duchies not +completely dependent upon the king.</p> + +<p>When Conrad ascended the throne the safety of Germany +was endangered from three different points. On the north was +Denmark ruled by Canute the Great; on the east was the wide +Polish state whose ruler, Boleslaus, had just taken the title of +<span class="sidenote">The neighbouring countries.</span> +king; and on the south-east was Hungary, which under its king, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +St Stephen, was rapidly becoming an organized and formidable +power. Peace was maintained with Canute, and in 1035 a treaty +was concluded and the land between the Eider and +the Schlei was ceded to Denmark. In 1030 Conrad +waged a short war against Hungary, but here also +he was obliged to assent to a cession of territory. +In Poland he was more fortunate. After the death of Boleslaus +in 1025 the Poles plunged into a civil war, and Conrad was able +to turn this to his own advantage. In 1031 he recovered Lusatia +and other districts, and in 1033 the Polish duke of Mesislaus +did homage to him at Merseburg. His authority was recognized +by the Bohemians, and two expeditions taught the Slavonic +tribes between the Elbe and the Oder to respect his power.</p> + +<p>In Italy, whither he journeyed in 1026 and 1036, Conrad +was not welcomed. Although as emperor and as king of the +Lombards he was the lawful sovereign of that country, +the Germans were still regarded as intruders and could +<span class="sidenote">Conrad in Italy.</span> +only maintain their rights by force. The event which +threw the greatest lustre upon this reign was the acquisition of +the kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, which was bequeathed to +Conrad by its king, Rudolph III., the uncle of his wife, Gisela. +Rudolph died in 1032, and in 1033 Conrad was crowned king +at Peterlingen, being at once recognized by the German-speaking +population. For about two years his rival, Odo, count of +Champagne, who was supported by the Romance-speaking +inhabitants, kept up the struggle against him, but eventually +all opposition was overcome and the possession of Burgundy +was assured to the German king.</p> + +<p>This reign is important in the history of Germany because +it marks the beginning of the great imperial age, but it has other +features of interest. In dealing with the revolt of +Ernest of Swabia Conrad was aided by the reluctance +<span class="sidenote">The nobles and the land.</span> +of the vassals of the great lords to follow them against +the king. This reluctance was due largely to the +increasing independence of this class of landholders, who were +beginning to learn that the sovereign, and not their immediate +lord, was the protector of their liberties; the independence +in its turn arose from the growth of the principle of heredity. +In Germany Conrad did not definitely decree that fiefs should +pass from father to son, but he encouraged and took advantage +of the tendency in this direction, a tendency which was, obviously, +a serious blow at the power of the great lords over their vassals. +In 1037 he issued from Milan his famous edict for the kingdom +of Italy which decreed that upon the death of a landholder his +fief should descend to his son, or grandson, and that no fiefholder +should be deprived of his fief without the judgment of his peers. +In another direction Conrad’s policy was to free himself as king +from dependence upon the church. He sought to regain lands +granted to the church by his predecessors; prelates were employed +on public business much less frequently than heretofore. +He kept a firm hand over the church, but his rule was purely +secular; he took little or no interest in ecclesiastical affairs. +During this reign the centre and basis of the imperial power in +Germany was moved southwards. Saxony, the home of the +Ottos, became less prominent in German politics, while Bavaria +and the south were gradually gaining in importance.</p> + +<p>Henry III., who had been crowned German king and also +king of Burgundy during his father’s lifetime, took possession +of his great inheritance without the slightest sign of +opposition in June 1039. He was without the impulsiveness +<span class="sidenote">Henry III.</span> +which marred Conrad’s great qualities, but he had +the same decisive judgment, wide ambition and irresistible +will as his father. During the late king’s concluding years a +certain Bretislaus, who had served Conrad with distinction +in Lusatia, became duke of Bohemia and made war upon the +disunited Poles, easily bringing them into subjection. Thus +Germany was again threatened with the establishment of a great +and independent Slavonic state upon her eastern frontier. To +combat this danger Henry invaded Bohemia, and after two +reverses compelled Bretislaus to appear before him as a suppliant +at Regensburg. The German king treated his foe generously +and was rewarded by receiving to the end of his reign the service +of a loyal vassal; he also gained the goodwill of the Poles by +helping to bring about the return of their duke, Casimir I., who +willingly did homage for his land. The king of Denmark, too, +acknowledged Henry as his feudal lord. Moreover, by several +campaigns in Hungary the German king brought that country +into the position of a fief of the German crown. This war was +occasioned by the violence of the Hungarian usurper, Aba Samuel, +and formed Henry’s principal occupation from 1041 to 1045.</p> + +<p>In Germany itself Henry acquired, during the first ten years +of his rule, an authority which had been unknown since the days +of Otto the Great. Early in his reign he had made a +determined enemy of Godfrey the Bearded, duke of +<span class="sidenote">Henry’s internal policy.</span> +upper Lorraine, who, in 1044, conspired against him +and who found powerful allies in Henry I., king of +France, in the counts of Flanders and Holland, and in certain +Burgundian nobles. However, Godfrey and his friends were +easily worsted, and when the dispossessed duke again tried the +fortune of war he found that the German king had detached +Henry of France from his side and was also in alliance with the +English king, Edward the Confessor. While thus maintaining +his authority in the north-east corner of the country by alliances +and expeditions, Henry was strong enough to put the laws in +motion against the most powerful princes and to force them to +keep the public peace. Under his severe but beneficent rule, +Germany enjoyed a period of internal quiet such as she had +probably never experienced before, but even Henry could not +permanently divert from its course the main political tendency +of the age, the desire of the great feudal lords for independence.</p> + +<p>Cowed, but unpacified and discontented, the princes awaited +their opportunity, while the king played into their hands by +allowing the southern duchies, Swabia, Bavaria and +Carinthia, to pass from under his own immediate +<span class="sidenote">Henry’s wars.</span> +control. His position was becoming gradually weaker +when in 1051 he invaded Hungary, where a reaction against +German influence was taking place. After a second campaign +in 1052 the Hungarian king, Andrew, was compelled to make +peace and to own himself the vassal of the German king. Meanwhile +Saxony and Bavaria were permeated by the spirit of unrest, +and Henry returned from Hungary just in time to frustrate +a widespread conspiracy against him in southern Germany. +Encouraged by the support of the German rebels, Andrew of +Hungary repudiated the treaty of peace and the German +supremacy in that country came to a sudden end. Among the +causes which undermined Henry’s strength was the fact that the +mediate nobles, who had stood loyally by his father, Conrad, +were not his friends; probably his wars made serious demands +upon them, and his strict administration of justice, especially +his insistence upon the maintenance of the public peace, was +displeasing to them.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of Henry’s reign the church all over Europe +was in a deplorable condition. Simony was universally practised +and the morality of the clergy was very low. The +Papacy, too, had sunk to a degraded condition and its +<span class="sidenote">Henry and the church.</span> +authority was annihilated, not only by the character +of successive popes, but by the fact that there were at +the same time three claimants for the papal throne. Henry, a +man of deep, sincere and even rigorous piety, regarded these +evils with sorrow; he associated himself definitely with the +movement for reform which proceeded from Cluny, and +commanded his prelates to put an end to simony and other +abuses. Then moving farther in the same direction he resolved +to strike at the root of the evil by the exercise of his imperial +authority. In 1046 he entered Italy at the head of an army +which secured for him greater respect than had been given to +any German ruler since Charlemagne, and at Sutri and in Rome +he deposed the three rival popes. He then raised to the papal +see Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who, as Pope Clement II., +crowned him emperor; after Clement three other German popes—Damasus II., +Leo IX. and Victor II.—owed their elevation to +Henry. Under these popes a new era began for the church, and +in thus reforming the Papacy Henry III. fulfilled what was +regarded as the noblest duty of his imperial office, but he also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +sharpened a weapon whose keen edge was first tried against +his son.</p> + +<p>The last years of Henry III. form a turning-point in German +history. Great kings and emperors came after him, but none +of them possessed the direct, absolute authority which he +freely wielded; even in the case of the strongest the forms of +feudalism more and more interposed themselves between the +monarch and the nation, and at last the royal authority virtually +disappeared. During this reign the towns entered upon an age +of prosperity, and the Rhine and the Weser became great +avenues of trade.</p> + +<p>When Henry died in October 1056 the decline of the royal +authority was accelerated by the fact that his successor was a +child. Henry IV., who had been crowned king in +1054, was at first in charge of his mother, the empress +<span class="sidenote">The minority of Henry IV.</span> +Agnes, whose weak and inefficient rule was closely +watched by Anno, archbishop of Cologne. In 1062, +however, Anno and other prominent prelates and laymen, +perhaps jealous of the influence exercised at court by Henry, +bishop of Augsburg (d. 1063), managed by a clever trick to +get possession of the king’s person. Deserted by her friends +Agnes retired, and forthwith Anno began to rule the state. +But soon he was compelled to share his duties with Adalbert, +archbishop of Bremen, and a year or two later Adalbert became +virtually the ruler of Germany, leaving Anno to attend to affairs +in Italy. Adalbert’s rule was very successful. Compelling +King Solomon to own Henry’s supremacy he restored the +influence of Germany in Hungary; in internal affairs he restrained +the turbulence of the princes, but he made many +enemies, especially in Saxony, and in 1066 Henry, who had +just been declared of age, was compelled to dismiss him. The +ambitious prelate, however, had gained great influence over +Henry, who had grown up under the most diverse influences. +The young king was generous and was endowed with considerable +intellectual gifts; but passing as he did from Anno’s gloomy +palace at Cologne to Adalbert’s residence in Bremen, where he +was petted and flattered, he became wayward and wilful.</p> + +<p>Henry IV. assumed the duties of government soon after the +fall of Adalbert and quickly made enemies of many of the chief +princes, including Otto of Nordheim, the powerful +duke of Bavaria, Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and +<span class="sidenote">Henry’s personal rule.</span> +Berthold of Zähringen, duke of Carinthia. In Saxony, +where, like his father, he frequently held his court, +he excited intense hostility by a series of injudicious proceedings. +While the three Ottos were pursuing the shadow of imperial +greatness in Italy, much of the crown land in this duchy had been +seized by the nobles and was now held by their descendants. +Henry IV. insisted on the restoration of these estates and encroached +upon the rights of the peasants. Moreover, he built +a number of forts which the people thought were intended for +prisons; he filled the land with riotous and overbearing Swabians; +he kept in prison Magnus, the heir to the duchy; and is said +to have spoken of the Saxons in a tone of great contempt. All +classes were thus combined against him, and when he ordered +his forces to assemble for a campaign against the Poles the +Saxons refused to join the host. In 1073 the universal discontent +found expression in a great assembly at Wormesleben, in which +the leading part was taken by Otto of Nordheim, by Werner, +archbishop of Magdeburg, and by Burkhard II., bishop of +Halberstadt. Under Otto’s leadership the Thuringians joined +the rising, which soon spread far and wide. Henry was surprised +by a band of rebels in his fortress at the Harzburg; he fled to +Hersfeld and appealed to the princes for support, but he could +not compel them to aid him and they would grant him nothing. +After tedious negotiations he was obliged to yield to the demands +of his enemies, and peace was made at Gerstungen in 1074. +Zealously carrying out the conditions of the peace, the peasants +not only battered down the detested forts, they even destroyed +the chapel at the Harzburg and committed other acts of desecration. +These proceedings alarmed the princes, both spiritual and +secular, and Henry, who had gained support from the cities +of the Rhineland, was able to advance with a formidable army +into Saxony in 1075. He gained a decisive victory, rebuilt the +forts and completely restored the authority of the crown.</p> + +<p>In 1073, while Germany was in this confused state, Hildebrand +had become pope as Gregory VII., and in 1075 he issued his +famous decree against the marriage of the clergy and +against their investiture by laymen. To the latter +<span class="sidenote">Pope Gregory VII.</span> +decree it was impossible for any sovereign to submit, +and in Germany there were stronger reasons than +elsewhere for resistance. A large part of the land of the country +was held by the clergy, and most of it had been granted to them +because it was supposed that they would be the king’s most +efficient helpers. Were the feudal tie broken, the crown must +soon vanish, and the constitution of medieval society undergo +a radical change. Henry, who hitherto had treated the new +pope with excessive respect, now announced his intention of +going to Rome and assuming the imperial title. The pope, +to whom the Saxons had been encouraged to complain, responded +by sending back certain of Henry’s messengers, with the command +that the king should do penance for the crimes of which his +subjects accused him. Enraged by this unexpected arrogance, +Henry summoned a synod of German bishops to Worms in +January 1076, and Hildebrand was declared deposed. The +papal answer was a bull excommunicating the German king, +dethroning him and liberating his subjects from their oath of +allegiance.</p> + +<p>Never before had a pope ventured to take so bold a step. +It was within the memory even of young men that a German +king had dismissed three popes, and had raised in +turn four of his own prelates to the Roman see. And +<span class="sidenote">Effect of Henry’s excommunication.</span> +now a pope attempted to drag from his throne the +successor of this very sovereign. The effect of the +bull was tremendous; no other was ever followed by +equally important results. The princes had long been chafing +under the royal power; they had shaken even so stern an +autocrat as Henry III., and the authority of Henry IV. was +already visibly weakened. At this important stage in their +contest with the crown a mighty ally suddenly offered himself, +and with indecent eagerness they hastened to associate themselves +with him. Their vassals and subjects, appalled by the invisible +powers wielded by the head of the church, supported them in +their rebellion. The Saxons again rose in arms and Otto of +Nordheim succeeded in uniting the North and South German +supporters of the pope. Henry had looked for no such result +as this; he did not understand the influences which lay beneath +the surface and was horrified by his unexpected isolation. At +a diet in Tribur he humbled himself before the princes, but in +vain. They turned from him and decided that the pope should +be asked to judge Henry; that if, within a year, the sentence +of excommunication were not removed, the king should lose his +crown; and that in the meantime he should live in retirement.</p> + +<p>Next came the strange scene at Canossa which burned itself +into the memory of Europe. For three days the representative +of the Caesars entreated to be admitted into the pope’s +presence. No other mode of escape than complete +<span class="sidenote">Scene at Canossa.</span> +subjection to Gregory had suggested itself, or was +perhaps possible; but it did not save him. Although the pope +forgave him, the German princes, resolved not to miss the chance +which fortune had given them, met in March 1077, and deposed +him, electing Rudolph, duke of Swabia, as his successor. But +Henry’s bitter humiliations transformed his character; they +brought out all his latent capacities of manliness.</p> + +<p>The war of investitures that followed was the opening of the +tremendous struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, +which is the central fact of medieval history and +which, after two centuries of conflict, ended in the +<span class="sidenote">The struggle over investitures.</span> +exhaustion of both powers. Its details belong more +to the history of Italy than to that of Germany, +where it took the form of a fight between two rival kings, but +in Germany its effects were more deeply felt. The nation now +plucked bitter fruit from the seed planted by Otto the Great +in assuming the imperial crown and by a long line of kings and +emperors in lavishing worldly power upon the church. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +ambition of the spiritual and the secular princes the pope had +an immensely powerful engine of offence against the emperor, +and without the slightest scruple this was turned to the best +advantage.</p> + +<p>When this struggle began it may be said in general that Henry +was supported by the cities and the lower classes, while Rudolph +relied upon the princes and the opponents of a united +Germany; or, to make another division, Henry’s +<span class="sidenote">Henry IV. and the anti-kings.</span> +strength lay in the duchies of Franconia and Bavaria, +Rudolph’s in Swabia and Saxony. In the Rhineland +and in southern Germany the cities had been steadily growing +in wealth and power, and they could not fail to realize that +they had more to fear from the princes than from the crown. +Hence when Henry returned to Germany in 1078 Worms, +Spires and many other places opened their gates to him and +contributed freely to his cause; nevertheless his troops were +beaten in three encounters and Pope Gregory thundered anew +against him in March 1080. However, the fortune of war soon +turned, and in October 1080 Rudolph of Swabia was defeated +and slain. Henry then carried the war into Italy; in 1084 +he was crowned emperor in Rome by Wibert, archbishop of +Ravenna, whom, as Clement III., he had set up as an anti-pope, +and in 1085 Gregory died an exile from Rome. Meanwhile +in Germany Henry’s opponents had chosen Hermann, count of +Luxemburg, king in succession to Rudolph of Swabia. Hermann, +however, was not very successful, and when Henry returned +to Germany in 1084 he found that his most doughty opponent, +Otto of Nordheim, was dead, and that the anti-king had few +friends outside Saxony. This duchy was soon reduced to +obedience and was treated with consideration, and when the +third anti-king, Egbert, margrave of Meissen, was murdered in +1090 there would have been peace if Germany had followed +her own impulses.</p> + +<p>In the Papacy, however, Henry had an implacable foe; and +again and again when he seemed on the point of a complete +triumph the smouldering embers of revolt were kindled +once more into flame. In Italy his son, Conrad, was +<span class="sidenote">Henry and the Papacy.</span> +stirred up against him and in 1093 was crowned king +at Monza; then ten years later, when Germany was +more peaceful than it had been for years and when the emperor’s +authority was generally acknowledged, his second son, Henry, +afterwards the emperor Henry V., was induced to head a dangerous +rebellion. The Saxons and the Thuringians were soon in +arms, and they were joined by those warlike spirits of Germany +to whom an age of peace brought no glory and an age of prosperity +brought no gain. After some desultory fighting Henry IV. +was taken prisoner and compelled to abdicate; he had, however, +escaped and had renewed the contest when he died in August +1106.</p> + +<p>During this reign the first crusade took place, and the German +king suffered severely from the pious zeal which it expressed +<span class="sidenote">The First Crusade.</span> +and intensified. The movement was not in the end +favourable to papal supremacy, but the early crusaders, +and those who sympathized with them, regarded the +enemies of the pope as the enemies of religion.</p> + +<p>The early years of Henry V.’s reign were spent in campaigns +in Flanders, Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, but the new king +was soon reminded that the dispute over investitures +was unsettled. Pope Paschal II. did not doubt, now +that Henry IV. was dead, that he would speedily +<span class="sidenote">Henry V. in Germany.</span> +triumph; but he was soon undeceived. Henry V., +who with unconscious irony had promised to treat the pope +as a father, continued, like his predecessors, to invest prelates +with the ring and the staff, and met the expostulations of Paschal +by declaring that he would not surrender a right which had +belonged to all former kings. Lengthened negotiations took +place but they led to no satisfactory result, while the king’s +enemies in Germany, taking advantage of the deadlock, showed +signs of revolt. One of the most ardent of these enemies was +Lothair of Supplinburg, whom Henry himself had made duke +of Saxony upon the extinction of the Billung family in 1106. +Lothair was humbled in 1112, but he took advantage of the +emperor’s difficulties to rise again and again, the twin pillars of +his strength being the Saxon hatred of the Franconian emperors +and an informal alliance with the papal see. Henry’s chief friends +were his nephews, the two Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick +and Conrad, to whose father Frederick the emperor Henry IV. +had given the duchy of Swabia when its duke Rudolph +became his rival. The younger Frederick succeeded to this +duchy in 1105, while ten years later Conrad was made duke of +Franconia, a country which for nearly a century had been under +the immediate government of the crown. The two brothers +were enthusiastic imperialists, and with persistent courage they +upheld the cause of their sovereign during his two absences +in Italy.</p> + +<p>At last, in September 1122, the investiture question was +settled by the concordat of Worms. By this compromise, +which exhaustion forced upon both parties, the right +of electing prelates was granted to the clergy, and +<span class="sidenote">The concordat of Worms.</span> +the emperor surrendered the privilege of investing +them with the ring and the staff. On the other hand +it was arranged that these elections should take place in the +presence of the emperor or his representative, and that he should +invest the new prelate with the sceptre, thus signifying that +the bishop, or abbot, held his temporal fiefs from him and not +from the pope. In Germany the victory remained with the +emperor, but it was by no means decisive. The Papacy was far +from realizing Hildebrand’s great schemes; yet in regard to the +question in dispute it gained solid advantage, and its general +authority was incomparably more important than it had been +half a century before. During this period it had waged war upon +the emperor himself. Instead of acknowledging its inferiority as +in former times it had claimed to be the higher power; it had +even attempted to dispose of the imperial crown as if the Empire +were a papal fief; and it had found out that it could at any +time tamper, and perhaps paralyse, the imperial authority by +exciting internal strife in Germany. Having thus settled this +momentous dispute Henry spent his later years in restoring +order in Germany, and in planning to assist his father-in-law, +Henry I. of England, in France. During this reign under the +lead of Otto, bishop of Bamberg (<i>c.</i> 1063-1139), Pomerania +began to come under the influence of Germany and of +Christianity.</p> + +<p>The Franconian dynasty died out with Henry V. in May 1125, +and after a protracted contest Lothair, duke of Saxony, the +candidate of the clergy, was chosen in the following +August to succeed him. The new king’s first enterprise +<span class="sidenote">The reign of Lothair the Saxon.</span> +was a disastrous campaign in Bohemia, but +before this occurrence he had aroused the enmity of +the Hohenstaufen princes by demanding that they should +surrender certain lands which had formerly been the property +of the crown. Lothair’s rebuff in Bohemia stiffened the backs +of Frederick and Conrad, and in order to contend with them +the king secured a powerful ally by marrying his daughter +Gertrude to Henry the Proud, a grandson of Welf, whom Henry +IV. had made duke of Bavaria, a duchy to which Henry himself +had succeeded in 1126. Henry was perhaps the most powerful +of the king’s subjects, nevertheless the dukes of Swabia and +Franconia withstood him, and a long war desolated South +Germany. This was ended by the submission of Frederick in +1134 and of Conrad in the following year. Lothair’s position, +which before 1130 was very weak, had gradually become stronger. +He had put down the disorder in Bavaria, in Saxony and in +Lorraine; a diet held at Magdeburg in 1135 was attended by +representatives from the vassal states of Denmark, Hungary, +Bohemia and Poland; and in 1136, when he visited Italy for +the second time, Germany was in a very peaceful condition. In +June 1133 during the king’s first visit to Italy he had received +from Pope Innocent II. the imperial crown and also the investiture +of the extensive territories left by Matilda, marchioness of +Tuscany; and at this time the pope seems to have claimed the +emperor as his vassal, a statement to this effect (<i>post homo fit +papae, sumit quo dante coronam</i>) being inscribed in the audience +hall of the Lateran at Rome.</p> + +<p class="f90" style="text-align: right;">(<i>Continued in volume</i> 11 <i>slice</i> 8.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> the territory once under the jurisdiction of an imperial <i>Vogt</i> +or <i>advocatus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advocate</a></span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The question, much disputed between Germans and Danes, is +exhaustively treated by P. Lauridsen in F. de Jessen’s <i>La Question +de Sleswig</i> (Copenhagen, 1906), pp. 114 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See the comparative study in Percy Ashley’s <i>Local and Central +Government</i> (London, 1906).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The <i>Kreis</i> in Württemberg corresponds to the <i>Regierungsbezirk</i> +elsewhere.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The system of compulsory registration, which involves a notification +to the police of any change of address (even temporary), of +course makes it easy to determine the domicile in any given case.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Actually between 1883 and 1908 over five million recruits +passed through the drill sergeant’s hands, as well as perhaps 210,000 +one-year volunteers.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> These last have a curious history. They were formed from about +1890 onwards, by individual squadrons, two or three being voted each +year. Ostensibly raised for the duties of mounted orderlies, at a +time when it would have been impolitic to ask openly for more +cavalry, they were little by little trained in real cavalry work, +then combined in provisional regiments for disciplinary purposes +and at last frankly classed as cavalry.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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