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diff --git a/37523-8.txt b/37523-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1a3a06 --- /dev/null +++ b/37523-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16349 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 11, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 7 + "Geoponici" to "Germany" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 24, 2011 [EBook #37523] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 11 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GEORGE III.: "George III. therefore waited his time." + 'George' amended from 'Goerge'. + + ARTICLE GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS: "He was the syncellus (cell-mate, the + confidential companion assigned to the patriarchs ..." 'companion' + amended from 'campanion'. + + ARTICLE GEORGIA: "The governor's power of veto extends to separate + items in appropriation bills, but in every case his veto may be + overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature." 'overridden' + amended from 'overriden'. + + ARTICLE GERMAN LITERATURE: "But it had no vitality of its own; it + virtually sprang into existence at the command of Charlemagne ..." + 'existence' amended from 'existance'. + + ARTICLE GERMAN LITERATURE: "The unkempt literature of the + Reformation age admittedly stood in need of guidance and + discipline, but the 17th century made the fatal mistake of trying + to impose the laws and rules of Romance literatures on a people of + a purely Germanic stock." 'guidance' amended from 'guidauce'. + + ARTICLE GERMANY: "The sandstone range of the Elbe unites in the + east with the low Lusatian group, along the east of which runs the + best road from northern Germany to Bohemia." 'sandstone' amended + from 'standstone'. + + ARTICLE GERMANY: "... farther inland, and especially east of the + Elbe, coniferous trees are the most prevalent, particularly the + Scotch fir; birches are also abundant." 'particularly' amended from + 'praticularly'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XI, SLICE VII + + Geoponici to Germany + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GEOPONICI GÉRARD, ÉTIENNE MAURICE + GEORGE, SAINT GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS + GEORGE I. GÉRARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE + GEORGE II. GERARD, JOHN + GEORGE III. GÉRARDMER + GEORGE IV. GERASA + GEORGE V. (of Great Britain) GÉRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LÉON + GEORGE V. (of Hanover) GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG + GEORGE I. (of the Hellenes) GERBERON, GABRIEL + GEORGE (of Saxony) GERBERT, MARTIN + GEORGE OF LAODICEA GERBIL + GEORGE OF TREBIZOND GERENUK + GEORGE THE MONK GERGOVIA + GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD + GEORGE, HENRY GERHARD, JOHANN + GEORGE PISIDA GERHARDT, CHARLES FRÉDÉRIC + GEORGE, LAKE GERHARDT, PAUL + GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC GÉRICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRÉ THÉODORE + GEORGETOWN (British Guiana) GERIZIM + GEORGETOWN (Washington, U.S.A.) GERLACHE, ÉTIENNE CONSTANTIN + GEORGETOWN (Kentucky, U.S.A.) GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE + GEORGETOWN (South Car., U.S.A.) GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN + GEORGETOWN (Texas, U.S.A.) GERMAN CATHOLICS + GEORGIA (U.S.A.) GERMAN EAST AFRICA + GEORGIA (Transcaucasia) GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF N. AMERICA + GEORGIAN BAY GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY + GEORGSWALDE GERMANICUS CAESAR + GEPHYREA GERMANIUM + GERA GERMAN LANGUAGE + GERALDTON GERMAN LITERATURE + GÉRANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT + GERANIACEAE GERMAN SILVER + GERANIUM GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA + GERARD (archbishop of York) GERMANTOWN + GERARD (Tum, Tunc, Tenque) GERMANY (part) + GERARD OF CREMONA + + + + +GEOPONICI,[1] or _Scriptores rei rusticae_, the Greek and Roman writers +on husbandry and agriculture. On the whole the Greeks paid less +attention than the Romans to the scientific study of these subjects, +which in classical times they regarded as a branch of economics. Thus +Xenophon's _Oeconomicus_ (see also _Memorabilia_, ii. 4) contains a +eulogy of agriculture and its beneficial ethical effects, and much +information is to be found in the writings of Aristotle and his pupil +Theophrastus. About the same time as Xenophon, the philosopher +Democritus of Abdera wrote a treatise [Greek: Peri Geôrgias], frequently +quoted and much used by the later compilers of _Geoponica_ (agricultural +treatises). Greater attention was given to the subject in the +Alexandrian period; a long list of names is given by Varro and +Columella, amongst them Hiero II. and Attalus III. Philometor. Later, +Cassius Dionysius of Utica translated and abridged the great work of the +Carthaginian Mago, which was still further condensed by Diophanes of +Nicaea in Bithynia for the use of King Deïotarus. From these and similar +works Cassianus Bassus (q.v.) compiled his _Geoponica_. Mention may also +be made of a little work [Greek: Peri Geôrgikôn] by Michael Psellus +(printed in Boissonade, _Anecdota Graeca_, i.). + +The Romans, aware of the necessity of maintaining a numerous and +thriving order of agriculturists, from very early times endeavoured to +instil into their countrymen both a theoretical and a practical +knowledge of the subject. The occupation of the farmer was regarded as +next in importance to that of the soldier, and distinguished Romans did +not disdain to practise it. In furtherance of this object, the great +work of Mago was translated into Latin by order of the senate, and the +elder Cato wrote his _De agri cultura_ (extant in a very corrupt state), +a simple record in homely language of the rules observed by the old +Roman landed proprietors rather than a theoretical treatise. He was +followed by the two Sasernae (father and son) and Gnaeus Tremellius +Scrofa, whose works are lost. The learned Marcus Terentius Varro of +Reate, when eighty years of age, composed his _Rerum rusticarum, libri +tres_, dealing with agriculture, the rearing of cattle, and the +breeding of fishes. He was the first to systematize what had been +written on the subject, and supplemented the labours of others by +practical experience gained during his travels. In the Augustan age +Julius Hyginus wrote on farming and bee-keeping, Sabinus Tiro on +horticulture, and during the early empire Julius Graecinus and Julius +Atticus on the culture of vines, and Cornelius Celsus (best known for +his _De medicina_) on farming. The chief work of the kind, however, is +that of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (q.v.). About the middle of +the 2nd century the two Quintilii, natives of Troja, wrote on the +subject in Greek. It is remarkable that Columella's work exercised less +influence in Rome and Italy than in southern Gaul and Spain, where +agriculture became one of the principal subjects of instruction in the +superior educational establishments that were springing up in those +countries. One result of this was the preparation of manuals of a +popular kind for use in the schools. In the 3rd century Gargilius +Martialis of Mauretania compiled a _Geoponica_ in which medical botany +and the veterinary art were included. The _De re rustica_ of Palladius +(4th century), in fourteen books, which is almost entirely borrowed from +Columella, is greatly inferior in style and knowledge of the subject. It +is a kind of farmer's calendar, in which the different rural occupations +are arranged in order of the months. The fourteenth book (on forestry) +is written in elegiacs (85 distichs). The whole of Palladius and +considerable fragments of Martialis are extant. + + The best edition of the _Scriptores rei rusticae_ is by J.G. Schneider + (1794-1797), and the whole subject is exhaustively treated by A. + Magerstedt, _Bilder aus der römischen Landwirtschaft_ (1858-1863); see + also Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, 54; C.F. Bähr in + Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The latinized form of a non-existent [Greek: Geôponikoi], used + for convenience. + + + + +GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303), the patron saint of England, Aragon and +Portugal. According to the legend given by Metaphrastes the Byzantine +hagiologist, and substantially repeated in the Roman _Acta sanctorum_ +and in the Spanish breviary, he was born in Cappadocia of noble +Christian parents, from whom he received a careful religious training. +Other accounts place his birth at Lydda, but preserve his Cappadocian +parentage. Having embraced the profession of a soldier, he rapidly rose +under Diocletian to high military rank. In Persian Armenia he organized +and energized the Christian community at Urmi (Urumiah), and even +visited Britain on an imperial expedition. When Diocletian had begun to +manifest a pronounced hostility towards Christianity, George sought a +personal interview with him, in which he made deliberate profession of +his faith, and, earnestly remonstrating against the persecution which +had begun, resigned his commission. He was immediately laid under +arrest, and after various tortures, finally put to death at Nicomedia +(his body being afterwards taken to Lydda) on the 23rd of April 303. His +festival is observed on that anniversary by the entire Roman Catholic +Church as a semi-duplex, and by the Spanish Catholics as a duplex of the +first class with an octave. The day is also celebrated as a principal +feast in the Orthodox Eastern Church, where the saint is distinguished +by the titles [Greek: megalomartyr] and [Greek: tropaiophoros]. + +The historical basis of the tradition is particularly unsound, there +being two claimants to the name and honour. Eusebius, _Hist. eccl._ +viii. 5, writes: "Immediately on the promulgation of the edict (of +Diocletian) a certain man of no mean origin, but highly esteemed for his +temporal dignities, as soon as the decree was published against the +churches in Nicomedia, stimulated by a divine zeal and excited by an +ardent faith, took it as it was openly placed and posted up for public +inspection, and tore it to shreds as a most profane and wicked act. +This, too, was done when the two Caesars were in the city, the first of +whom was the eldest and chief of all and the other held fourth grade of +the imperial dignity after him. But this man, as the first that was +distinguished there in this manner, after enduring what was likely to +follow an act so daring, preserved his mind, calm and serene, until the +moment when his spirit fled." Rivalling this anonymous martyr, who is +often supposed to have been St George, is an earlier martyr briefly +mentioned in the _Chronicon Pascale_: "In the year 225 of the Ascension +of our Lord a persecution of the Christians took place, and many +suffered martyrdom, among whom also the Holy George was martyred." + +Two Syrian church inscriptions bearing the name, one at Ezr'a and the +other at Shaka, found by Burckhardt and Porter, and discussed by J. Hogg +in the _Transactions of the Royal Literary Society_, may with some +probability be assigned to the middle of the 4th century. Calvin +impugned the saint's existence altogether, and Edward Reynolds +(1599-1676), bishop of Norwich, like Edward Gibbon a century later, made +him one with George of Laodicea, called "the Cappadocian," the Arian +bishop of Alexandria (see GEORGE OF LAODICEA). + +Modern criticism, while rejecting this identification, is not unwilling +to accept the main fact that an officer named Georgios, of high rank in +the army, suffered martyrdom probably under Diocletian. In the canon of +Pope Gelasius (494) George is mentioned in a list of those "whose names +are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to God," +a statement which implies that legends had already grown up around his +name. The caution of Gelasius was not long preserved; Gregory of Tours, +for example, asserts that the saint's relics actually existed in the +French village of Le Maine, where many miracles were wrought by means of +them; and Bede, while still explaining that the _Gesta Georgii_ are +reckoned apocryphal, commits himself to the statement that the martyr +was beheaded under Dacian, king of Persia, whose wife Alexandra, +however, adhered to the Christian faith. The great fame of George, who +is reverenced alike by Eastern and Western Christendom and by +Mahommedans, is due to many causes. He was martyred on the eve of the +triumph of Christianity, his shrine was reared near the scene of a great +Greek legend (Perseus and Andromeda), and his relics when removed from +Lydda, where many pilgrims had visited them, to Zorava in the Hauran +served to impress his fame not only on the Syrian population, but on +their Moslem conquerors, and again on the Crusaders, who in grateful +memory of the saint's intervention on their behalf at Antioch built a +new cathedral at Lydda to take the place of the church destroyed by the +Saracens. This cathedral was in turn destroyed by Saladin. + +The connexion of St George with a dragon, familiar since the _Golden +Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, can be traced to the close of the 6th +century. At Arsuf or Joppa--neither of them far from Lydda--Perseus had +slain the sea-monster that threatened the virgin Andromeda, and George, +like many another Christian saint, entered into the inheritance of +veneration previously enjoyed by a pagan hero.[1] The exploit thus +attaches itself to the very common Aryan myth of the sun-god as the +conqueror of the powers of darkness. + +The popularity of St George in England has never reached the height +attained by St Andrew in Scotland, St David in Wales or St Patrick in +Ireland. The council of Oxford in 1222 ordered that his feast should be +kept as a national festival; but it was not until the time of Edward +III. that he was made patron of the kingdom. The republics of Genoa and +Venice were also under his protection. + + See P. Heylin, _The History of ... S. George of Cappadocia_ (1631); S. + Baring-Gould, Curious _Myths of the Middle Ages_; Fr. Görres, "Der + Ritter St Georg in der Geschichte, Legende und Kunst" (_Zeitschrift + für wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxx., 1887, Heft i.); E.A.W. Budge, + _The Martyrdom and Miracles of St George of Cappadocia_: the Coptic + texts edited with an English translation (1888); Bolland, _Acta + Sancti_, iii. 101; E.O. Gordon, _Saint George_ (1907); M.H. Bulley, + _St George for Merrie England_ (1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] G.A. Smith (_Hist. Geog. of Holy Land_, p. 164) points out + another coincidence. "The Mahommedans who usually identify St George + with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one about + Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is Dajjal, and they have a + tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. The + notion sprang from an ancient bas-relief of George and the Dragon on + the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a very common + confusion between _n_ and _l_, from Dagon, whose name two + neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of + Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon." It is a curious process + by which the monster that symbolized heathenism conquered by + Christianity has been evolved out of the first great rival of the God + of Israel. + + + + +GEORGE I. [George Louis] (1660-1727), king of Great Britain and Ireland, +born in 1660, was heir through his father Ernest Augustus to the +hereditary lay bishopric of Osnabrück, and to the duchy of Calenberg, +which formed one portion of the Hanoverian possessions of the house of +Brunswick, whilst he secured the reversion of the other portion, the +duchy of Celle or Zell, by his marriage (1682) with the heiress, his +cousin Sophia Dorothea. The marriage was not a happy one. The morals of +German courts in the end of the 17th century took their tone from the +splendid profligacy of Versailles. It became the fashion for a prince to +amuse himself with a mistress or more frequently with many mistresses +simultaneously, and he was often content that the mistresses whom he +favoured should be neither beautiful nor witty. George Louis followed +the usual course. Count Königsmark--a handsome adventurer--seized the +opportunity of paying court to the deserted wife. Conjugal infidelity +was held at Hanover to be a privilege of the male sex. Count Königsmark +was assassinated. Sophia Dorothea was divorced in 1694, and remained in +seclusion till her death in 1726. When George IV., her descendant in the +fourth generation, attempted in England to call his wife to account for +sins of which he was himself notoriously guilty, free-spoken public +opinion reprobated the offence in no measured terms. But in the Germany +of the 17th century all free-spoken public opinion had been crushed out +by the misery of the Thirty Years' War, and it was understood that +princes were to arrange their domestic life according to their own +pleasure. + +The prince's father did much to raise the dignity of his family. By +sending help to the emperor when he was struggling against the French +and the Turks, he obtained the grant of a ninth electorate in 1692. His +marriage with Sophia, the youngest daughter of Elizabeth the daughter of +James I. of England, was not one which at first seemed likely to confer +any prospect of advancement to his family. But though there were many +persons whose birth gave them better claims than she had to the English +crown, she found herself, upon the death of the duke of Gloucester, the +next Protestant heir after Anne. The Act of Settlement in 1701 secured +the inheritance to herself and her descendants. Being old and +unambitious she rather permitted herself to be burthened with the honour +than thrust herself forward to meet it. Her son George took a deeper +interest in the matter. In his youth he had fought with determined +courage in the wars of William III. Succeeding to the electorate on his +father's death in 1698, he had sent a welcome reinforcement of +Hanoverians to fight under Marlborough at Blenheim. With prudent +persistence he attached himself closely to the Whigs and to Marlborough, +refusing Tory offers of an independent command, and receiving in return +for his fidelity a guarantee by the Dutch of his succession to England +in the Barrier treaty of 1709. In 1714 when Anne was growing old, and +Bolingbroke and the more reckless Tories were coquetting with the son of +James II., the Whigs invited George's eldest son, who was duke of +Cambridge, to visit England in order to be on the spot in case of need. +Neither the elector nor his mother approved of a step which was likely +to alienate the queen, and which was specially distasteful to himself, +as he was on very bad terms with his son. Yet they did not set +themselves against the strong wish of the party to which they looked for +support, and it is possible that troubles would have arisen from any +attempt to carry out the plan, if the deaths, first of the electress +(May 28) and then of the queen (August 1, 1714), had not laid open +George's way to the succession without further effort of his own. + +In some respects the position of the new king was not unlike that of +William III. a quarter of a century before. Both sovereigns were +foreigners, with little knowledge of English politics and little +interest in English legislation. Both sovereigns arrived at a time when +party spirit had been running high, and when the task before the ruler +was to still the waves of contention. In spite of the difference between +an intellectually great man and an intellectually small one, in spite +too of the difference between the king who began by choosing his +ministers from both parties and the king who persisted in choosing his +ministers from only one, the work of pacification was accomplished by +George even more thoroughly than by William. + +George I. was fortunate in arriving in England when a great military +struggle had come to an end. He had therefore no reason to call upon the +nation to make great sacrifices. All that he wanted was to secure for +himself and his family a high position which he hardly knew how to +occupy, to fill the pockets of his German attendants and his German +mistresses, to get away as often as possible from the uncongenial +islanders whose language he was unable to speak, and to use the strength +of England to obtain petty advantages for his German principality. In +order to do this he attached himself entirely to the Whig party, though +he refused to place himself at the disposal of its leaders. He gave his +confidence, not to Somers and Wharton and Marlborough, but to Stanhope +and Townshend, the statesmen of the second rank. At first he seemed to +be playing a dangerous game. The Tories, whom he rejected, were +numerically superior to their adversaries, and were strong in the +support of the country gentlemen and the country clergy. The strength of +the Whigs lay in the towns and in the higher aristocracy. Below both +parties lay the mass of the nation, which cared nothing for politics +except in special seasons of excitement, and which asked only to be let +alone. In 1715 a Jacobite insurrection in the north, supported by the +appearance of the Pretender, the son of James II., in Scotland, was +suppressed, and its suppression not only gave to the government a +character of stability, but displayed its adversaries in an unfavourable +light as the disturbers of the peace. + +Even this advantage, however, would have been thrown away if the Whigs +in power had continued to be animated by violent party spirit. What +really happened was that the Tory leaders were excluded from office, but +that the principles and prejudices of the Tories were admitted to their +full weight in the policy of the government. The natural result +followed. The leaders to whom no regard was paid continued in +opposition. The rank and file, who would personally have gained nothing +by a party victory, were conciliated into quiescence. + +This mingling of two policies was conspicuous both in the foreign and +the domestic actions of the reign. In the days of Queen Anne the Whig +party had advocated the continuance of war with a view to the complete +humiliation of the king of France, whom they feared as the protector of +the Pretender, and in whose family connexion with the king of Spain they +saw a danger for England. The Tory party, on the other hand, had been +the authors of the peace of Utrecht, and held that France was +sufficiently depressed. A fortunate concurrence of circumstances enabled +George's ministers, by an alliance with the regent of France, the duke +of Orleans, to pursue at the same time the Whig policy of separating +France from Spain and from the cause of the Pretender, and the Tory +policy of the maintenance of a good understanding with their neighbour +across the Channel. The same eclecticism was discernible in the +proceedings of the home government. The Whigs were conciliated by the +repeal of the Schism Act and the Occasional Conformity Act, whilst the +Tories were conciliated by the maintenance of the Test Act in all its +vigour. The satisfaction of the masses was increased by the general +well-being of the nation. + +Very little of all that was thus accomplished was directly owing to +George I. The policy of the reign is the policy of his ministers. +Stanhope and Townshend from 1714 to 1717 were mainly occupied with the +defence of the Hanoverian settlement. After the dismissal of the latter +in 1717, Stanhope in conjunction with Sunderland took up a more decided +Whig policy. The Occasional Conformity Act and the Schism Act were +repealed in 1719. But the wish of the liberal Whigs to modify if not to +repeal the Test Act remained unsatisfied. In the following year the +bursting of the South Sea bubble, and the subsequent deaths of Stanhope +in 1721 and of Sunderland in 1722, cleared the way for the accession to +power of Sir Robert Walpole, to whom and not to the king was due the +conciliatory policy which quieted Tory opposition by abstaining from +pushing Whig principles to their legitimate consequences. + +Nevertheless something of the honour due to Walpole must be reckoned to +the king's credit. It is evident that at his accession his decisions +were by no means unimportant. The royal authority was still able within +certain limits to make its own terms. This support was so necessary to +the Whigs that they made no resistance when he threw aside their leaders +on his arrival in England. When by his personal intervention he +dismissed Townshend and appointed Sunderland, he had no such social and +parliamentary combination to fear as that which almost mastered his +great-grandson in his struggle for power. If such a combination arose +before the end of his reign it was owing more to his omitting to fulfil +the duties of his station than from the necessity of the case. As he +could talk no English, and his ministers could talk no German, he +absented himself from the meetings of the cabinet, and his frequent +absences from England and his want of interest in English politics +strengthened the cabinet in its tendency to assert an independent +position. Walpole at last by his skill in the management of parliament +rose as a subject into the almost royal position denoted by the name of +prime minister. In connexion with Walpole the force of wealth and +station established the Whig aristocracy in a point of vantage from +which it was afterwards difficult to dislodge them. Yet, though George +had allowed the power which had been exercised by William and Anne to +slip through his hands, it was understood to the last that if he chose +to exert himself he might cease to be a mere cipher in the conduct of +affairs. As late as 1727 Bolingbroke gained over one of the king's +mistresses, the duchess of Kendal; and though her support of the fallen +Jacobite took no effect, Walpole was not without fear that her +reiterated entreaties would lead to his dismissal. The king's death in a +carriage on his way to Hanover, in the night between 10th and 11th June +in the same year, put an end to these apprehensions. + +His only children were his successor George II. and Sophia Dorothea +(1687-1757), who married in 1706 Frederick William, crown prince +(afterwards king) of Prussia. She was the mother of Frederick the Great. + (S. R. G.) + + See the standard English histories. A recent popular work is L. + Melville's _The First George in Hanover and England_ (1908). + + + + +GEORGE II. [George Augustus] (1683-1760), king of Great Britain and +Ireland, the only son of George I., was born in 1683. In 1705 he married +Wilhelmina Caroline of Anspach. In 1706 he was created earl of +Cambridge. In 1708 he fought bravely at Oudenarde. At his father's +accession to the English throne he was thirty-one years of age. He was +already on bad terms with his father. The position of an heir-apparent +is in no case an easy one to fill with dignity, and the ill-treatment of +the prince's mother by his father was not likely to strengthen in him a +reverence for paternal authority. It was most unwillingly that, on his +first journey to Hanover in 1716, George I. appointed the prince of +Wales guardian of the realm during his absence. In 1717 the existing +ill-feeling ripened into an open breach. At the baptism of one of his +children, the prince selected one godfather whilst the king persisted in +selecting another. The young man spoke angrily, was ordered into arrest, +and was subsequently commanded to leave St James's and to be excluded +from all court ceremonies. The prince took up his residence at Leicester +House, and did everything in his power to support the opposition against +his father's ministers. + +When therefore George I. died in 1727, it was generally supposed that +Walpole would be at once dismissed. The first direction of the new king +was that Sir Spencer Compton would draw up the speech in which he was to +announce to the privy council his accession. Compton, not knowing how to +set about his task, applied to Walpole for aid. Queen Caroline took +advantage of this evidence of incapacity, advocated Walpole's cause with +her husband and procured his continuance in office. This curious scene +was indicative of the course likely to be taken by the new sovereign. +His own mind was incapable of rising above the merest details of +business. He made war in the spirit of a drill-sergeant, and he +economized his income with the minute regularity of a clerk. A blunder +of a master of the ceremonies in marshalling the attendants on a levee +put him out of temper. He took the greatest pleasure in counting his +money piece by piece, and he never forgot a date. He was above all +things methodical and regular. "He seems," said one who knew him well, +"to think his having done a thing to-day an unanswerable reason for his +doing it to-morrow." + +Most men so utterly immersed in details would be very impracticable to +deal with. They would obstinately refuse to listen to a wisdom and +prudence which meant nothing in their ears, and which brought home to +them a sense of their own inferiority. It was the happy peculiarity of +George II. that he was exempt from this failing. He seemed to have an +instinctive understanding that such and such persons were either wiser +or even stronger than himself, and when he had once discovered that, he +gave way with scarcely a struggle. Thus it was that, though in his +domestic relations he was as loose a liver as his father had been, he +allowed himself to be guided by the wise but unobtrusive counsels of his +wife until her death in 1737, and that when once he had recognized +Walpole's superiority he allowed himself to be guided by the political +sagacity of the great minister. It is difficult to exaggerate the +importance of such a temper upon the development of the constitution. +The apathy of the nation in all but the most exciting political +questions, fostered by the calculated conservatism of Walpole, had +thrown power into the hands of the great landowners. They maintained +their authority by supporting a minister who was ready to make use of +corruption, wherever corruption was likely to be useful, and who could +veil over the baseness of the means which he employed by his talents in +debate and in finance. To shake off a combination so strong would not +have been easy. George II. submitted to it without a struggle. + +So strong indeed had the Whig aristocracy grown that it began to lose +its cohesion. Walpole was determined to monopolize power, and he +dismissed from office all who ventured to oppose him. An opposition +formidable in talents was gradually formed. In its composite ranks were +to be found Tories and discontented Whigs, discarded official hacks who +were hungry for the emoluments of office, and youthful purists who +fancied that if Walpole were removed, bribes and pensions would cease to +be attractive to a corrupt generation. Behind them was Bolingbroke, +excluded from parliament but suggesting every party move. In 1737 the +opposition acquired the support of Frederick, prince of Wales. The young +man, weak and headstrong, rebelled against the strict discipline exacted +by his father. His marriage in 1736 to Augusta of Saxony brought on an +open quarrel. In 1737, just as the princess of Wales was about to give +birth to her first child, she was hurried away by her husband from +Hampton Court to St James's Palace at the imminent risk of her life, +simply in order that the prince might show his spite to his father who +had provided all necessary attendance at the former place. George +ordered his son to quit St James's, and to absent himself from court. +Frederick in disgrace gave the support of his name, and he had nothing +else to give, to the opposition. Later in the year 1737, on the 20th of +November, Queen Caroline died. In 1742 Walpole, weighed down by the +unpopularity both of his reluctance to engage in a war with Spain and of +his supposed remissness in conducting the operations of that war, was +driven from office. His successors formed a composite ministry in which +Walpole's old colleagues and Walpole's old opponents were alike to be +found. + +The years which followed settled conclusively, at least for this reign, +the constitutional question of the power of appointing ministers. The +war between Spain and England had broken out in 1739. In 1741 the death +of the emperor Charles VI. brought on the war of the Austrian +succession. The position of George II. as a Hanoverian prince drew him +to the side of Maria Theresa through jealousy of the rising Prussian +monarchy. Jealousy of France led England in the same direction, and in +1741 a subsidy of £300,000 was voted to Maria Theresa. The king himself +went to Germany and attempted to carry on the war according to his own +notions. Those notions led him to regard the safety of Hanover as of far +more importance than the wishes of England. Finding that a French army +was about to march upon his German states, he concluded with France a +treaty of neutrality for a year without consulting a single English +minister. In England the news was received with feelings of disgust. The +expenditure of English money and troops was to be thrown uselessly away +as soon as it appeared that Hanover was in the slightest danger. In 1742 +Walpole was no longer in office. Lord Wilmington, the nominal head of +the ministry, was a mere cipher. The ablest and most energetic of his +colleagues, Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), attached himself +specially to the king, and sought to maintain himself in power by his +special favour and by brilliant achievements in diplomacy. + +In part at least by Carteret's mediation the peace of Breslau was +signed, by which Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick (July 28, +1742). Thus relieved on her northern frontier, she struck out vigorously +towards the west. Bavaria was overrun by her troops. In the beginning of +1743 one French army was driven across the Rhine. On June 27th another +French army was defeated by George II. in person at Dettingen. Victory +brought elation to Maria Theresa. Her war of defence was turned into a +war of vengeance. Bavaria was to be annexed. The French frontier was to +be driven back. George II. and Carteret after some hesitation placed +themselves on her side. Of the public opinion of the political classes +in England they took no thought. Hanoverian troops were indeed to be +employed in the war, but they were to be taken into British pay. +Collisions between British and Hanoverian officers were frequent. A +storm arose against the preference shown to Hanoverian interests. After +a brief struggle Carteret, having become Lord Granville by his mother's +death, was driven from office in November 1744. + +Henry Pelham, who had become prime minister in the preceding year, thus +saw himself established in power. By the acceptance of this ministry, +the king acknowledged that the function of choosing a ministry and +directing a policy had passed from his hands. In 1745 indeed he recalled +Granville, but a few days were sufficient to convince him of the +futility of his attempt, and the effort to exclude Pitt at a later time +proved equally fruitless. + +Important as were the events of the remainder of the reign, therefore, +they can hardly be grouped round the name of George II. The resistance +to the invasion of the Young Pretender in 1745, the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, the great war ministry of Pitt at the close of +the reign, did not receive their impulse from him. He had indeed done +his best to exclude Pitt from office. He disliked him on account of his +opposition in former years to the sacrifices demanded by the Hanoverian +connexion. When in 1756 Pitt became secretary of state in the Devonshire +administration, the king bore the yoke with difficulty. Early in the +next year he complained of Pitt's long speeches as being above his +comprehension, and on April 5, 1757, he dismissed him, only to take him +back shortly after, when Pitt, coalescing with Newcastle, became master +of the situation. Before Pitt's dismissal George II. had for once an +opportunity of placing himself on the popular side, though, as was the +case of his grandson during the American war, it was when the popular +side happened to be in the wrong. In the true spirit of a martinet, he +wished to see Admiral Byng executed. Pitt urged the wish of the House of +Commons to have him pardoned. "Sir," replied the king, "you have taught +me to look for the sense of my subjects in another place than in the +House of Commons." When George II. died in 1760, he left behind him a +settled understanding that the monarchy was one of the least of the +forces by which the policy of the country was directed. To this end he +had contributed much by his disregard of English opinion in 1743; but it +may fairly be added that, but for his readiness to give way to +irresistible adversaries, the struggle might have been far more bitter +and severe than it was. + +Of the connexion between Hanover and England in this reign two memorials +remain more pleasant to contemplate than the records of parliamentary +and ministerial intrigues. With the support of George II., amidst the +derision of the English fashionable world, the Hanoverian Handel +produced in England those masterpieces which have given delight to +millions, whilst the foundation of the university of Göttingen by the +same king opened a door through which English political ideas afterwards +penetrated into Germany. + +George II. had three sons,--Frederick Louis (1707-1751); George William +(1717-1718); and William Augustus, duke of Cumberland (1721-1765); and +five daughters, Anne (1709-1759), married to William, prince of Orange, +1734; Amelia Sophia Eleonora (1711-1786); Elizabeth Caroline +(1713-1757); Mary (1723-1772), married to Frederick, landgrave of +Hesse-Cassel, 1740; Louisa (1724-1751), married to Frederick V., king of +Denmark, 1743. (S. R. G.) + + See Lord Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, ed. by J. W, + Croker (3 vols., London, 1884); Horace Walpole, _Mem. of the Reign of + George II._, with notes by Lord Holland (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1847). + + + + +GEORGE III. [George William Frederick] (1738-1820), king of Great +Britain and Ireland, son of Frederick, prince of Wales, and grandson of +George II., whom he succeeded in 1760, was born on the 4th of June 1738. +After his father's death in 1751 he had been educated in seclusion from +the fashionable world under the care of his mother and of her favourite +counsellor the earl of Bute. He had been taught to revere the maxims of +Bolingbroke's "Patriot King," and to believe that it was his appointed +task in life to break the power of the Whig houses resting upon +extensive property and the influence of patronage and corruption. That +power had already been gravely shaken. The Whigs from their incompetency +were obliged when the Seven Years' War broke out to leave its management +in the hands of William Pitt. The nation learned to applaud the great +war minister who succeeded where others had failed, and whose immaculate +purity put to shame the ruck of barterers of votes for places and +pensions. + +In some sort the work of the new king was the continuation of the work +of Pitt. But his methods were very different. He did not appeal to any +widely spread feeling or prejudice; nor did he disdain the use of the +arts which had maintained his opponents in power. The patronage of the +crown was to be really as well as nominally his own; and he calculated, +not without reason, that men would feel more flattered in accepting a +place from a king than from a minister. The new Toryism of which he was +the founder was no recurrence to the Toryism of the days of Charles II. +or even of Anne. The question of the amount of toleration to be accorded +to Dissenters had been entirely laid aside. The point at issue was +whether the crown should be replaced in the position which George I. +might have occupied at the beginning of his reign, selecting the +ministers and influencing the deliberations of the cabinet. For this +struggle George III. possessed no inconsiderable advantages. With an +inflexible tenacity of purpose, he was always ready to give way when +resistance was really hopeless. As the first English-born sovereign of +his house, speaking from his birth the language of his subjects, he +found a way to the hearts of many who never regarded his predecessors as +other than foreign intruders. The contrast, too, between the pure +domestic life which he led with his wife Charlotte, whom he married in +1761, and the habits of three generations of his house, told in his +favour with the vast majority of his subjects. Even his marriage had +been a sacrifice to duty. Soon after his accession he had fallen in love +with Lady Sarah Lennox, and had been observed to ride morning by morning +along the Kensington Road, from which the object of his affections was +to be seen from the lawn of Holland House making hay, or engaged in some +other ostensible employment. Before the year was over Lady Sarah +appeared as one of the queen's bridesmaids, and she was herself married +to Sir Charles Bunbury in 1762. + +At first everything seemed easy to him. Pitt had come to be regarded by +his own colleagues as a minister who would pursue war at any price, and +in getting rid of Pitt in 1761 and in carrying on the negotiations which +led to the peace of Paris in 1762, the king was able to gather round him +many persons who would not be willing to acquiesce in any permanent +change in the system of government. With the signature of the peace his +real difficulties began. The Whig houses, indeed, were divided amongst +themselves by personal rivalries. But they were none of them inclined to +let power and the advantages of power slip from their hands without a +struggle. For some years a contest of influence was carried on without +dignity and without any worthy aim. The king was not strong enough to +impose upon parliament a ministry of his own choice. But he gathered +round himself a body of dependants known as the king's friends, who were +secure of his favour, and who voted one way or the other according to +his wishes. Under these circumstances no ministry could possibly be +stable; and yet every ministry was strong enough to impose some +conditions on the king. Lord Bute, the king's first choice, resigned +from a sense of his own incompetency in 1763. George Grenville was in +office till 1765; the marquis of Rockingham till 1766; Pitt, becoming +earl of Chatham, till illness compelled him to retire from the conduct +of affairs in 1767, when he was succeeded by the duke of Grafton. But a +struggle of interests could gain no real strength for any government, +and the only chance the king had of effecting a permanent change in the +balance of power lay in the possibility of his associating himself with +some phase of strong national feeling, as Pitt had associated himself +with the war feeling caused by the dissatisfaction spread by the +weakness and ineptitude of his predecessors. + +Such a chance was offered by the question of the right to tax America. +The notion that England was justified in throwing on America part of the +expenses caused in the late war was popular in the country, and no one +adopted it more pertinaciously then George III. At the bottom the +position which he assumed was as contrary to the principles of +parliamentary government as the encroachments of Charles I. had been. +But it was veiled in the eyes of Englishmen by the prominence given to +the power of the British parliament rather than to the power of the +British king. In fact the theory of parliamentary government, like most +theories after their truth has long been universally acknowledged, had +become a superstition. Parliaments were held to be properly vested with +authority, not because they adequately represented the national will, +but simply because they were parliaments. There were thousands of people +in England to whom it never occurred that there was any good reason why +a British parliament should be allowed to levy a duty on tea in the +London docks and should not be allowed to levy a duty on tea at the +wharves of Boston. Undoubtedly George III. derived great strength from +his honest participation in this mistake. Contending under parliamentary +forms, he did not wound the susceptibilities of members of parliament, +and when at last in 1770 he appointed Lord North--a minister of his own +selection--prime minister, the object of his ambition was achieved with +the concurrence of a large body of politicians who had nothing in common +with the servile band of the king's friends. + +As long as the struggle with America was carried on with any hope of +success they gained that kind of support which is always forthcoming to +a government which shares in the errors and prejudices of its subjects. +The expulsion of Wilkes from the House of Commons in 1769, and the +refusal of the House to accept him as a member after his re-election, +raised a grave constitutional question in which the king was wholly in +the wrong; and Wilkes was popular in London and Middlesex. But his case +roused no national indignation, and when in 1774 those sharp measures +were taken with Boston which led to the commencement of the American +rebellion in 1775, the opposition to the course taken by the king made +little way either in parliament or in the country. Burke might point out +the folly and inexpedience of the proceedings of the government. Chatham +might point out that the true spirit of English government was to be +representative, and that that spirit was being violated at home and +abroad. George III., who thought that the first duty of the Americans +was to obey himself, had on his side the mass of unreflecting Englishmen +who thought that the first duty of all colonists was to be useful and +submissive to the mother-country. The natural dislike of every country +engaged in war to see itself defeated was on his side, and when the news +of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga arrived in 1777, subscriptions of +money to raise new regiments poured freely in. + +In March 1778 the French ambassador in London announced that a treaty of +friendship and commerce had been concluded between France and the new +United States of America. Lord North was anxious to resign power into +stronger hands, and begged the king to receive Chatham as his prime +minister. The king would not hear of it. He would have nothing to say to +"that perfidious man" unless he would humble himself to enter the +ministry as North's subordinate. Chatham naturally refused to do +anything of the kind, and his death in the course of the year relieved +the king of the danger of being again overruled by too overbearing a +minister. England was now at war with France, and in 1779 she was also +at war with Spain. + +George III. was still able to control the disposition of office. He +could not control the course of events. His very ministers gave up the +struggle as hopeless long before he would acknowledge the true state of +the case. Before the end of 1779, two of the leading members of the +cabinet, Lords Gower and Weymouth, resigned rather than bear the +responsibility of so ruinous an enterprise as the attempt to overpower +America and France together. Lord North retained office, but he +acknowledged to the king that his own opinion was precisely the same as +that of his late colleagues. + +The year 1780 saw an agitation rising in the country for economical +reform, an agitation very closely though indirectly connected with the +war policy of the king. The public meetings held in the country on this +subject have no unimportant place in the development of the +constitution. Since the presentation of the Kentish petition in the +reign of William III. there had been from time to time upheavings of +popular feeling against the doings of the legislature, which kept up the +tradition that parliament existed in order to represent the nation. But +these upheavings had all been so associated with ignorance and violence +as to make it very difficult for men of sense to look with displeasure +upon the existing emancipation of the House of Commons from popular +control. The Sacheverell riots, the violent attacks upon the Excise +Bill, the no less violent advocacy of the Spanish War, the declamations +of the supporters of Wilkes at a more recent time, and even in this very +year the Gordon riots, were not likely to make thoughtful men anxious to +place real power in the hands of the classes from whom such exhibitions +of folly proceeded. But the movement for economical reform was of a very +different kind. It was carried on soberly in manner, and with a definite +practical object. It asked for no more than the king ought to have been +willing to concede. It attacked useless expenditure upon sinecures and +unnecessary offices in the household, the only use of which was to +spread abroad corruption amongst the upper classes. George III. could +not bear to be interfered with at all, or to surrender any element of +power which had served him in his long struggle with the Whigs. He held +out for more than another year. The news of the capitulation of Yorktown +reached London on the 25th of November 1781. On the 20th of March 1782 +Lord North resigned. + +George III. accepted the consequences of defeat. He called the marquis +of Rockingham to office at the head of a ministry composed of pure Whigs +and of the disciples of the late earl of Chatham, and he authorized the +new ministry to open negotiations for peace. Their hands were greatly +strengthened by Rodney's victory over the French fleet, and the failure +of the combined French and Spanish attack upon Gibraltar; and before the +end of 1782 a provisional treaty was signed with America, preliminaries +of peace with France and Spain being signed early in the following year. +On the 3rd of September 1783 the definitive treaties with the three +countries were simultaneously concluded. "Sir," said the king to John +Adams, the first minister of the United States of America accredited to +him, "I wish you to believe, and that it may be understood in America, +that I have done nothing in the late contest but what I thought myself +indispensably bound to do by the duty which I owed to my people. I will +be very frank with you. I was the last to consent to the separation: but +the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have +always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the +friendship of the United States as an independent power." + +Long before the signature of the treaties Rockingham died (July 1, +1782). The king chose Lord Shelburne, the head of the Chatham section of +the government, to be prime minister. Fox and the followers of +Rockingham refused to serve except under the duke of Portland, a +minister of their own selection, and resigned office. The old +constitutional struggle of the reign was now to be fought out once more. +Fox, too weak to obtain a majority alone, coalesced with Lord North, and +defeated Shelburne in the House of Commons on the 27th of February 1783. +On the 2nd of April the coalition took office, with Portland as nominal +prime minister, and Fox and North the secretaries of state as its real +heads. + +This attempt to impose upon him a ministry which he disliked made the +king very angry. But the new cabinet had a large majority in the House +of Commons, and the only chance of resisting it lay in an appeal to the +country against the House of Commons. Such an appeal was not likely to +be responded to unless the ministers discredited themselves with the +nation. George III. therefore waited his time. Though a coalition +between men bitterly opposed to one another in all political principles +and drawn together by nothing but love of office was in itself +discreditable, it needed some more positive cause of dissatisfaction to +arouse the constituencies, which were by no means so ready to interfere +in political disputes at that time as they are now. Such dissatisfaction +was given by the India Bill, drawn up by Burke. As soon as it had passed +through the Commons the king hastened to procure its rejection in the +House of Lords by his personal intervention with the peers. He +authorized Lord Temple to declare in his name that he would count any +peer who voted for the bill as his enemy. On the 17th of December 1783 +the bill was thrown out. The next day ministers were dismissed. William +Pitt became prime minister. After some weeks' struggle with a constantly +decreasing majority in the Commons, the king dissolved parliament on the +25th of March 1784. The country rallied round the crown and the young +minister, and Pitt was firmly established in office. + +There can be no reasonable doubt[1] that Pitt not only took advantage of +the king's intervention in the Lords, but was cognizant of the intrigue +before it was actually carried out. It was upon him, too, that the +weight of reconciling the country to an administration formed under such +circumstances lay. The general result, so far as George III. was +concerned, was that to all outward appearance he had won the great +battle of his life. It was he who was to appoint the prime minister, not +any clique resting on a parliamentary support. But the circumstances +under which the victory was won were such as to place the constitution +in a position very different from that in which it would have been if +the victory had been gained earlier in the reign. Intrigue there was +indeed in 1783 and 1784 as there had been twenty years before. +Parliamentary support was conciliated by Pitt by the grant of royal +favours as it had been in the days of Bute. The actual blow was struck +by a most questionable message to individual peers. But the main result +of the whole political situation was that George III. had gone a long +way towards disentangling the reality of parliamentary government from +its accidents. His ministry finally stood because it had appealed to the +constituencies against their representatives. Since then it has properly +become a constitutional axiom that no such appeal should be made by the +crown itself. But it may reasonably be doubted whether any one but the +king was at that time capable of making the appeal. Lord Shelburne, the +leader of the ministry expelled by the coalition, was unpopular in the +country, and the younger Pitt had not had time to make his great +abilities known beyond a limited circle. The real question for the +constitutional historian to settle is not whether under ordinary +circumstances a king is the proper person to place himself really as +well as nominally at the head of the government; but whether under the +special circumstances which existed in 1783 it was not better that the +king should call upon the people to support him, than that government +should be left in the hands of men who rested their power on close +boroughs and the dispensation of patronage, without looking beyond the +walls of the House of Commons for support. + +That the king gained credit far beyond his own deserts by the glories of +Pitt's ministry is beyond a doubt. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt +that his own example of domestic propriety did much to strengthen the +position of his minister. It is true that that life was insufferably +dull. No gleams of literary or artistic taste lightened it up. The +dependants of the court became inured to dull routine unchequered by +loving sympathy. The sons of the household were driven by the sheer +weariness of such an existence into the coarsest profligacy. But all +this was not visible from a distance. The tide of moral and religious +improvement which had set in in England since the days of Wesley brought +popularity to a king who was faithful to his wife, in the same way that +the tide of manufacturing industry and scientific progress brought +popularity to the minister who in some measure translated into practice +the principles of the _Wealth of Nations_. + +Nor were there wanting subjects of importance beyond the circle of +politics in which George III. showed a lively interest. The voyages of +discovery which made known so large a part of the islands and coasts of +the Pacific Ocean received from him a warm support. In the early days of +the Royal Academy, its finances were strengthened by liberal grants from +the privy purse. His favourite pursuit, however, was farming. When +Arthur Young was issuing his _Annals of Agriculture_, he was supplied +with information by the king, under the assumed name of Mr Ralph +Robinson, relating to a farm at Petersham. + +The life of the king was suddenly clouded over. Early in his reign, in +1765, he had been out of health, and--though the fact was studiously +concealed at the time--symptoms of mental aberration were even then to +be perceived. In October 1788 he was again out of health, and in the +beginning of the following month his insanity was beyond a doubt. Whilst +Pitt and Fox were contending in the House of Commons over the terms on +which the regency should be committed to the prince of Wales, the king +was a helpless victim to the ignorance of physicians and the brutalities +of his servants. At last Dr Willis, who had made himself a name by +prescribing gentleness instead of rigour in the treatment of the insane, +was called in. Under his more humane management the king rapidly +recovered. Before the end of February 1789 he was able to write to Pitt +thanking him for his warm support of his interests during his illness. +On the 23rd of April he went in person to St Paul's to return thanks for +his recovery. + +The popular enthusiasm which burst forth around St Paul's was but a +foretaste of a popularity far more universal. The French Revolution +frightened the great Whig landowners till they made their peace with the +king. Those who thought that the true basis of government was +aristocratical were now of one mind with those who thought that the true +basis of government was monarchical; and these two classes were joined +by a far larger multitude which had no political ideas whatever, but +which had a moral horror of the guillotine. As Elizabeth had once been +the symbol of resistance to Spain, George was now the symbol of +resistance to France. He was not, however, more than the symbol. He +allowed Pitt to levy taxes and incur debt, to launch armies to defeat, +and to prosecute the English imitators of French revolutionary courses. +At last, however, after the Union with Ireland was accomplished, he +learned that Pitt was planning a scheme to relieve the Catholics from +the disabilities under which they laboured. The plan was revealed to him +by the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, a selfish and intriguing +politician who had served all parties in turn, and who sought to forward +his own interests by falling in with the king's prejudices. George III. +at once took up the position from which he never swerved. He declared +that to grant concessions to the Catholics involved a breach of his +coronation oath. No one has ever doubted that the king was absolutely +convinced of the serious nature of the objection. Nor can there be any +doubt that he had the English people behind him. Both in his peace +ministry and in his war ministry Pitt had taken his stand on royal +favour and on popular support. Both failed him alike now, and he +resigned office at once. The shock to the king's mind was so great that +it brought on a fresh attack of insanity. This time, however, the +recovery was rapid. On the 14th of March 1801 Pitt's resignation was +formally accepted, and the late speaker, Mr Addington, was installed in +office as prime minister. + +The king was well pleased with the change. He was never capable of +appreciating high merit in any one; and he was unable to perceive that +the question on which Pitt had resigned was more than an improper +question, with which he ought never to have meddled. "Tell him," he +said, in directing his physician to inform Pitt of his restoration to +health, "I am now quite well, quite recovered from my illness; but what +has he not to answer for, who has been the cause of my having been ill +at all?" Addington was a minister after his own mind. Thoroughly honest +and respectable, with about the same share of abilities as was possessed +by the king himself, he was certainly not likely to startle the world by +any flights of genius. But for one circumstance Addington's ministry +would have lasted long. So strong was the reaction against the +Revolution that the bulk of the nation was almost as suspicious of +genius as the king himself. Not only was there no outcry for legislative +reforms, but the very idea of reform was unpopular. The country +gentlemen were predominant in parliament, and the country gentlemen as a +body looked upon Addington with respect and affection. Such a minister +was therefore admirably suited to preside over affairs at home in the +existing state of opinion. But those who were content with inaction at +home would not be content with inaction abroad. In time of peace +Addington would have been popular for a season. In time of war even his +warmest admirers could not say that he was the man to direct armies in +the most terrible struggle which had ever been conducted by an English +government. + +For the moment this difficulty was not felt. On the 1st of October 1801, +preliminaries of peace were signed between England and France, to be +converted into the definitive peace of Amiens on the 27th of March 1802. +The ruler of France was now Napoleon Bonaparte, and few persons in +England believed that he had any real purpose of bringing his aggressive +violence to an end. "Do you know what I call this peace?" said the king; +"an experimental peace, for it is nothing else. But it was unavoidable." + +The king was right. On the 18th of May 1803 the declaration of war was +laid before parliament. The war was accepted by all classes as +inevitable, and the French preparations for an invasion of England +roused the whole nation to a glow of enthusiasm only equalled by that +felt when the Armada threatened its shores. On the 26th of October the +king reviewed the London volunteers in Hyde Park. He found himself the +centre of a great national movement with which he heartily sympathized, +and which heartily sympathized with him. + +On the 12th of February 1804 the king's mind was again affected. When he +recovered, he found himself in the midst of a ministerial crisis. Public +feeling allowed but one opinion to prevail in the country--that Pitt, +not Addington, was the proper man to conduct the administration in time +of war. Pitt was anxious to form an administration on a broad basis, +including Fox and all prominent leaders of both parties. The king would +not hear of the admission of Fox. His dislike of him was personal as +well as political, as he knew that Fox had had a great share in drawing +the prince of Wales into a life of profligacy. Pitt accepted the king's +terms, and formed an administration in which he was the only man of real +ability. Eminent men, such as Lord Grenville, refused to join a ministry +from which the king had excluded a great statesman on purely personal +grounds. + +The whole question was reopened on Pitt's death on the 23rd of January +1806. This time the king gave way. The ministry of All the Talents, as +it was called, included Fox amongst its members. At first the king was +observed to appear depressed at the necessity of surrender. But Fox's +charm of manner soon gained upon him. "Mr Fox," said the king, "I +little thought that you and I should ever meet again in this place; but +I have no desire to look back upon old grievances, and you may rest +assured I never shall remind you of them." On the 13th of September Fox +died, and it was not long before the king and the ministry were openly +in collision. The ministry proposed a measure enabling all subjects of +the crown to serve in the army and navy in spite of religious +disqualifications. The king objected even to so slight a modification of +the laws against the Catholics and Dissenters, and the ministers +consented to drop the bill. The king asked more than this. He demanded a +written and positive engagement that this ministry would never, under +any circumstances, propose to him "any measure of concession to the +Catholics, or even connected with the question." The ministers very +properly refused to bind themselves for the future. They were +consequently turned out of office, and a new ministry was formed with +the duke of Portland as first lord of the treasury and Mr Perceval as +its real leader. The spirit of the new ministry was distinct hostility +to the Catholic claims. On the 27th of April 1807 a dissolution of +parliament was announced, and a majority in favour of the king's +ministry was returned in the elections which speedily followed. + +The elections of 1807, like the elections of 1784, gave the king the +mastery of the situation. In other respects they were the counterpart of +one another. In 1784 the country declared, though perhaps without any +clear conception of what it was doing, for a wise and progressive +policy. In 1807 it declared for an unwise and retrogressive policy, with +a very clear understanding of what it meant. It is in his reliance upon +the prejudices and ignorance of the country that the constitutional +significance of the reign of George III. appears. Every strong +government derives its power from its representative character. At a +time when the House of Commons was less really representative than at +any other, a king was on the throne who represented the country in its +good and bad qualities alike, in its hatred of revolutionary violence, +its moral sturdiness, its contempt of foreigners, and its defiance of +all ideas which were in any way strange. Therefore it was that his +success was not permanently injurious to the working of the constitution +as the success of Charles I. would have been. If he were followed by a +king less English than himself, the strength of representative power +would pass into other hands than those which held the sceptre. + +The overthrow of the ministry of All the Talents was the last political +act of constitutional importance in which George III. took part. The +substitution of Perceval for Portland as the nominal head of the +ministry in 1809 was not an event of any real significance, and in 1811 +the reign practically came to an end. The king's reason finally broke +down after the death of the princess Amelia, his favourite child; and +the prince of Wales (see GEORGE IV.) became prince regent. The remaining +nine years of George III.'s life were passed in insanity and blindness, +and he died on the 29th of January 1820. + +His wife, Charlotte Sophia (1744-1818), was a daughter of Charles Louis +of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1816), and was married to the king in London +on the 8th of September 1761. After a peaceful and happy married life +the queen died at Kew on the 17th of November 1818. + +George III. had nine sons. After his successor came Frederick, duke of +York and Albany (1763-1827); William Henry, duke of Clarence, afterwards +King William IV. (1765-1837); Edward Augustus, duke of Kent (1767-1825), +father of Queen Victoria; Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, +afterwards king of Hanover (1771-1851); Augustus Frederick, duke of +Sussex (1773-1843); Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850); +Octavius (1779-1783); Alfred (1780-1782). He had also six +daughters--Charlotte Augusta (1766-1828), married in 1797 to Frederick, +afterwards king of Württemberg; Augusta Sophia (1768-1840); Elizabeth +(1770-1840), married Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 1818; Mary +(1776-1857), married to William Frederick, duke of Gloucester, 1816; +Sophia (1777-1848); Amelia (1783-1810). (S. R. G.) + + The numerous contemporary memoirs and diaries are full of the best + material for a picture of George III.'s reign, apart from the standard + histories. Thackeray's _Four Georges_ must not be trusted so far as + historical judgment is concerned; Jesse's _Memoirs of the Life and + Reign of George III._ (2nd ed., 1867) is chiefly concerned with + personalities. See also Beckles Willson, _George III., as Man, Monarch + and Statesman_ (1907). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Lord Fitzmaurice's _Life of Shelburne_, iii. 393. + + + + +GEORGE IV. [George Augustus Frederick] (1762-1830), king of Great +Britain and Ireland, eldest son of George III., was born at St James's +Palace, London, on the 12th of August 1762. He was naturally gifted, was +well taught in the classics, learnt to speak French, Italian and German +fluently, and had considerable taste for music and the arts; and in +person he was remarkably handsome. His tutor, Bishop Richard Hurd, said +of him when fifteen years old that he would be "either the most polished +gentleman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe--possibly both"; +and the latter prediction was only too fully justified. Reaction from +the strict and parsimonious style of his parents' domestic life, which +was quite out of touch with the gaiety and extravagance of London +"society," had its natural effect in plunging the young prince of Wales, +flattered and courted as he was, into a whirl of pleasure-seeking. At +the outset his disposition was brilliant and generous, but it was +essentially unstable, and he started even before he came of age on a +career of dissipation which in later years became wholly profligate. He +had an early amour with the actress Mary ("Perdita") Robinson, and in +the choice of his friends he opposed and annoyed the king, with whom he +soon became (and always remained) on the worst of terms, by associating +himself with Fox and Sheridan and the Whig party. When in 1783 he came +of age, a compromise between the coalition ministry and the king secured +him an income of £50,000 from the Civil List, and £60,000 was voted by +parliament to pay his debts and start his separate establishment at +Carlton House. There, under the auspices of C.J. Fox and Georgiana, +duchess of Devonshire, he posed as a patron of Whig politics and a +leader in all the licence and luxury of gay society--the "First +gentleman in Europe," as his flatterers described him as years went on. +And at this early age he fell seriously in love with the famous Mrs +Fitzherbert. + +His long connexion with this lady may most conveniently be summarized +here. It was indeed for some time the one redeeming and restraining +factor in his life, though her devotion and self-sacrificing conduct +were in marked contrast with his unscrupulousness and selfishness. Mary +Anne (or as she always called herself, Maria) Fitzherbert (1756-1837) +was the daughter of Walter Smythe, the second son of Sir John Smythe, +Bart., of Acton Burnell Park, Shropshire, and came of an old Roman +Catholic family. Educated at a French convent, she married first in 1775 +Edward Weld, who died within the year, and secondly in 1778 Thomas +Fitzherbert, who died in 1781, leaving his widow with a comfortable +fortune. A couple of years later she became a prominent figure in London +society, and her beauty and charm at once attracted the young prince, +who wooed her with all the ardour of a violent passion. She herself was +distracted between her desire to return his love, her refusal to +contemplate becoming his mistress, and her knowledge that state reasons +made a regular marriage impossible. The Act of Settlement (1689) +entailed his forfeiture of the succession if he married a Roman +Catholic, apart from the fact that the Royal Marriage Act of 1772 made +any marriage illegal without the king's consent, which was out of the +question. But after trying for a while to escape his attentions, her +scruples were overcome. In Mrs Fitzherbert's eyes the state law was, +after all, not everything. To a Roman Catholic, and equally to any +member of the Christian church, a formal marriage ceremony would be +ecclesiastically and sacramentally binding; and after a period of +passionate importunacy on his part they were secretly married by the +Rev. R. Burt, a clergyman of the Church of England, on the 15th of +December 1785.[1] There is no doubt as to Mrs Fitzherbert's belief, +supported by ecclesiastical considerations, in her correct and binding, +though admittedly illegal, relationship to the prince as his canonical +wife; and though that relationship was not, and for political reasons +could not be, publicly admitted, it was in fact treated by their +intimates on the footing of a morganatic marriage. The position +nevertheless was inevitably a false one; Mrs Fitzherbert had promised +not to publish the evidence of the marriage (which, according to a +strict interpretation of the Act of Settlement might have barred +succession to the crown), and the rumours which soon got about led the +prince to allow it to be disavowed by his political friends. He lived in +the most extravagant way, became heavily involved in debt, and as the +king would not assist him, shut up Carlton House, and went to live with +Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton. In 1787 a proposal was brought before the +House of Commons by Alderman Newnham for a grant in relief of his +embarrassments. It was on this occasion that Fox publicly declared in +the House of Commons, as on the prince's own authority, in answer to +allusions to the marriage, that the story was a malicious falsehood. A +little later Sheridan, in deference to Mrs Fitzherbert's pressure and to +the prince's own compunction, made a speech guardedly modifying Fox's +statement; but though in private the denial was understood, it effected +its object, the House voting a grant of £221,000 to the prince and the +king adding £10,000 to his income; and Mrs Fitzherbert, who at first +thought of severing her connexion with the prince, forgave him. Their +union--there was no child of the marriage--was brutally broken off in +June 1794 by the prince, when further pressure of debts (and the +influence of a new Egeria in Lady Jersey) made him contemplate his +official marriage with princess Caroline; in 1800, however, it was +renewed, after urgent pleading on the prince's part, and after Mrs +Fitzherbert had obtained a formal decision from the pope pronouncing her +to be his wife, and sanctioning her taking him back; her influence over +him continued till shortly before the prince became regent, when his +relations with Lady Hertford brought about a final separation. For the +best years of his life he had at least had in Mrs Fitzherbert the +nearest approach to a real wife, and this was fully recognized by the +royal family.[2] But his dissolute nature was entirely selfish, and his +various liaisons ended in the dominance of Lady Conyngham, the "Lady +Steward" of his household, from 1821 till his death. + +Notorious as the prince of Wales had become by 1788, it was in that year +that his father's first attack of insanity made his position in the +state one of peculiar importance. Fox maintained and Pitt denied that +the prince of Wales, as the heir-apparent, had a right to assume the +regency independently of any parliamentary vote. Pitt, with the support +of both Houses, proposed to confer upon him the regency with certain +restrictions. The recovery of the king in February 1789 put an end, +however, to the prince's hopes. In 1794 the prince consented to a +marriage with a German Protestant princess, because his father would not +pay his debts on any other terms, and his cousin, Princess Caroline of +Brunswick, was brought over from Germany and married to him in 1795. Her +behaviour was light and flippant, and he was brutal and unloving. The +ill-assorted pair soon parted, and soon after the birth of their only +child, the princess Charlotte, they were formally separated. With great +unwillingness the House of Commons voted fresh sums of money to pay the +prince's debts. + +In 1811 he at last became prince regent in consequence of his father's +definite insanity. No one doubted at that time that it was in his power +to change the ministry at his pleasure. He had always lived in close +connexion with the Whig opposition, and he now empowered Lord Grenville +to form a ministry. There soon arose differences of opinion between them +on the answer to be returned to the address of the Houses, and the +prince regent then informed the prime minister, Mr Perceval, that he +should continue the existing ministry in office. The ground alleged by +him for this desertion of his friends was the fear lest his father's +recovery might be rendered impossible if he should come to hear of the +advent of the opposition to power. Lord Wellesley's resignation in +February 1812 made the reconstruction of the ministry inevitable. As +there was no longer any hope of the king's recovery, the former +objection to a Whig administration no longer existed. Instead of taking +the course of inviting the Whigs to take office, he asked them to join +the existing administration. The Whig leaders, however, refused to join, +on the ground that the question of the Catholic disabilities was too +important to be shelved, and that their difference of opinion with Mr +Perceval was too glaring to be ignored. The prince regent was +excessively angry, and continued Perceval in office till that minister's +assassination on the 11th of May, when he was succeeded by Lord +Liverpool, after a negotiation in which the proposition of entering the +cabinet was again made to the Whigs and rejected by them. In the +military glories of the following years the prince regent had no share. +When the allied sovereigns visited England in 1814, he played the part +of host to perfection. So great was his unpopularity at home that hisses +were heard in the streets as he accompanied his guests into the city. +The disgust which his profligate and luxurious life caused amongst a +people suffering from almost universal distress after the conclusion of +the war rapidly increased. In 1817 the windows of the prince regent's +carriage were broken as he was on his way to open parliament. + +The death of George III. on the 29th of January 1820, gave to his son +the title of king without in any way altering the position which he had +now held for nine years. Indirectly, however, this change brought out a +manifestation of popular feeling such as his father had never been +subjected to even in the early days of his reign, when mobs were burning +jack-boots and petticoats. The relations between the new king and his +wife unavoidably became the subject of public discussion. In 1806 a +charge against the princess of having given birth to an illegitimate +child had been conclusively disproved, and the old king had consequently +refused to withdraw her daughter, the princess Charlotte, from her +custody. When in the regency the prince was able to interfere, and +prohibited his wife from seeing her daughter more than once a fortnight. +On this, in 1813, the princess addressed to her husband a letter setting +forth her complaints, and receiving no answer published it in the +_Morning Chronicle_. The prince regent then referred the letter, +together with all papers relating to the inquiry of 1806, to a body of +twenty-three privy councillors for an opinion whether it was fit that +the restrictions on the intercourse between the princess Charlotte and +her mother should continue in force. All except two answered as the +regent wished them to answer. But if the official leaning was towards +the husband, the leaning of the general public was towards the wife of a +man whose own life had not been such as to justify him in complaining of +her whom he had thrust from him without a charge of any kind. Addresses +of sympathy were sent up to the princess from the city of London and +other public bodies. The discord again broke out in 1814 in consequence +of the exclusion of the princess from court during the visit of the +allied sovereigns. In August in that year she left England, and after a +little time took up her abode in Italy. The accession of George IV. +brought matters to a crisis. He ordered that no prayer for his wife as +queen should be admitted into the Prayer Book. She at once challenged +the accusation which was implied in this omission by returning to +England. On the 7th of June she arrived in London. Before she left the +continent she had been informed that proceedings would be taken against +her for adultery if she landed in England. Two years before, in 1818, +commissioners had been sent to Milan to investigate charges against her, +and their report, laid before the cabinet in 1819, was made the basis of +the prosecution. On the day on which she arrived in London a message was +laid before both Houses recommending the criminating evidence to +parliament. A secret committee in the House of Lords after considering +this evidence brought in a report on which the prime minister founded a +Bill of Pains and Penalties to divorce the queen and to deprive her of +her royal title. The bill passed the three readings with diminished +majorities, and when on the third reading it obtained only a majority of +nine, it was abandoned by the Government. The king's unpopularity, great +as it had been before, was now greater than ever. Public opinion, +without troubling itself to ask whether the queen was guilty or not, was +roused to indignation by the spectacle of such a charge being brought by +a husband who had thrust away his wife to fight the battle of life +alone, without protection or support, and who, whilst surrounding her +with spies to detect, perhaps to invent, her acts of infidelity, was +himself notorious for his adulterous life. In the following year (1821) +she attempted to force her way into Westminster Abbey to take her place +at the coronation. On this occasion the popular support failed her; and +her death in August relieved the king from further annoyance. + +Immediately after the death of the queen, the king set out for Ireland. +He remained there but a short time, and his effusive declaration that +rank, station, honours were nothing compared with the exalted happiness +of living in the hearts of his Irish subjects gained him a momentary +popularity which was beyond his attainment in a country where he was +better known. His reception in Dublin encouraged him to attempt a visit +to Edinburgh in the following year (August 1822). Since Charles II. had +come to play the sorry part of a covenanting king in 1650 no sovereign +of the country had set foot on Scottish soil. Sir Walter Scott took the +leading part in organizing his reception. The enthusiasm with which he +was received equalled, if it did not surpass, the enthusiasm with which +he had been received in Dublin. But the qualities which enabled him to +fix the fleeting sympathies of the moment were not such as would enable +him to exercise the influence in the government which had been +indubitably possessed by his father. He returned from Edinburgh to face +the question of the appointment of a secretary of state which had been +raised by the death of Lord Londonderry (Castlereagh). It was upon the +question of the appointment of ministers that the battle between the +Whigs and the king had been fought in the reign of George III. George +IV. had neither the firmness nor the moral weight to hold the reins +which his father had grasped. He disliked Canning for having taken his +wife's side very much as his father had disliked Fox for taking his own. +But Lord Liverpool insisted on Canning's admission to office, and the +king gave way. Tacitly and without a struggle the constitutional victory +of the last reign was surrendered. But it was not surrendered to the +same foe as that from which it had been won. The coalition ministry in +1784 rested on the great landowners and the proprietors of rotten +boroughs. Lord Liverpool's ministry had hitherto not been very +enlightened, and it supported itself to a great extent upon a narrow +constituency. But it did appeal to public opinion in a way that the +coalition did not, and what it wanted itself in popular support would be +supplied by its successors. What one king had gained from a clique +another gave up to the nation. Once more, on Lord Liverpool's death in +1827, the same question was tried with the same result. The king not +only disliked Canning personally, but he was opposed to Canning's +policy. Yet after some hesitation he accepted Canning as prime minister; +and when, after Canning's death and the short ministry of Lord Goderich, +the king in 1828 authorized the duke of Wellington to form a ministry, +he was content to lay down the principle that the members of it were not +expected to be unanimous on the Catholic question. When in 1829 the +Wellington ministry unexpectedly proposed to introduce a Bill to remove +the disabilities of the Catholics, he feebly strove against the proposal +and quickly withdrew his opposition. The worn-out debauchee had neither +the merit of acquiescing in the change nor the courage to resist it. + +George IV. died on the 26th of June 1830, and was succeeded by his +brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV. His only child by Queen +Caroline, the princess Charlotte Augusta, was married in 1816 to Leopold +of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of the Belgians, and died in childbirth +on the 6th of November 1817. + + George IV. was a bad king, and his reign did much to disgust the + country with the Georgian type of monarchy; but libertine and + profligate as he became, the abuse which has been lavished on his + personal character has hardly taken into sufficient consideration the + loose morals of contemporary society, the political position of the + Whig party, and his own ebullient temperament. Thackeray, in his _Four + Georges_, is frequently unfair in this respect. The just condemnation + of the moralist and satirist requires some qualification in the light + of the picture of the period handed down in the memoirs and diaries of + the time, such as Greville's, Croker's, Creevey's, Lord Holland's, + Lord Malmesbury's, &c. Among later works see _The First Gentleman of + Europe_, by Lewis Melville (1906), a book for the general reader. + (S. R. G.; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For a discussion of the ecclesiastical validity of the marriage + see W.H. Wilkins, _Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV._ (1905), chs. vi. + and vii. + + [2] Mrs Fitzherbert herself, after her final separation from the + prince, with an annuity of £6000 a year, lived an honoured and more + or less retired life mainly at Brighton, a town which owed its rapid + development in fashionable popularity and material wealth to its + selection by the prince and herself as a residence from the earliest + years of their union; and there she died, seven years after the death + of George IV., in 1837. William IV. on his accession offered to + create her a duchess, but she declined; she accepted, however, his + permission to put her servants in royal livery. William IV. in fact + did all he could, short of a public acknowledgment (which the duke of + Wellington opposed on state grounds), to recognize her position as + his brother's widow. Charles Greville, writing of her after her + death, says in his _Diary_, "She was not a clever woman, but of a + very noble spirit, disinterested, generous, honest and affectionate." + The actual existence of a marriage tie and the documentary evidence + of her rights were not definitely established for many years; but in + 1905 a sealed packet, deposited at Coutts's bank in 1833, was at + length opened by royal permission, and the marriage certificate and + other conclusive proofs therein contained were published in Mr W.H. + Wilkins's _Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV_. In 1796 the prince had + made a remarkable will in Mrs Fitzherbert's favour, which he gave her + in 1799, and it is included among these documents (now in the private + archives at Windsor). In this he speaks of her emphatically + throughout as "my wife." It also contained directions that at his + death a locket with her miniature, which he always wore, should be + interred with him; and Mrs Fitzherbert was privately assured, on the + duke of Wellington's authority, that when the king was buried at + Windsor the miniature was on his breast. + + + + +GEORGE V. [GEORGE FREDERICK ERNEST ALBERT], king of Great Britain and +Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, emperor of India +(1865- ), second son of King Edward VII., was born at Marlborough House, +London, on the 3rd of June 1865. When four years old, he and his elder +brother, Prince Albert Victor, two years his senior, were placed under +the tutorship of John Neale Dalton, then curate of Sandringham. In 1877 +the two princes became naval cadets on the "Britannia" at Spithead, +where they passed through the ordinary curriculum, and in 1879 they +joined H.M.S. "Bacchante" under the command of Captain Lord Charles +Scott, making a voyage to the West Indies, in the course of which they +were rated midshipmen. After a month at home in 1880 they returned to +the ship to make another prolonged cruise in H.M.S. "Bacchante," in the +course of which they visited South America, South Africa, Australia, the +Fiji Islands, Japan, Ceylon, Egypt, Palestine and Greece. A narrative of +this voyage, _The Cruise of H.M.S. "Bacchante_," compiled from the +letters, diaries and notebooks of the princes, was published in 1886. At +the close of this tour in 1882 the brothers separated. Prince George, +who remained in the naval service, was appointed to H.M.S. "Canada," +commanded by Captain Durrant, on the North American and West Indian +station, and was promoted sub-lieutenant. On his return home he passed +through the Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the gunnery and torpedo +schools, being promoted lieutenant in 1885. A year later he was +appointed to H.M.S. "Thunderer" of the Mediterranean squadron, and was +subsequently transferred to H.M.S. "Dreadnaught" and H.M.S. "Alexandra." +In 1889 he joined the flagship of the Channel squadron, H.M.S. +"Northumberland," and in that year was in command of torpedo boat No. 79 +for the naval manoeuvres. In 1890 he was put in command of the gunboat +H.M.S. "Thrush" for service on the North American and West Indian +station. After his promotion as commander in 1891 he commissioned H.M.S. +"Melampus," the command of which he relinquished on the death of his +brother, Albert Victor, the duke of Clarence, in January 1892, since his +duties as eventual heir to the crown precluded him from devoting himself +exclusively to the navy. He was promoted captain in 1893, rear-admiral +in 1901, and vice-admiral in 1903. He was created duke of York, earl of +Inverness, and Baron Killarney in 1892, and on the 6th of July 1893 he +married Princess Victoria Mary (b. 26th May 1867), daughter of Francis, +duke of Teck, and Princess Mary Adelaide, duchess of Teck, daughter of +Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge. Their eldest son, Prince Edward +Albert, was born at White Lodge, Richmond, on the 23rd of June 1894; +Prince Albert Frederick George was born at Sandringham on the 14th of +December 1895; Princess Victoria Alexandra on the 25th of April 1897; +Prince Henry William Frederick Albert on the 31st of March 1900; Prince +George Edward Alexander Edmund on the 20th of December 1902; and Prince +John Charles Francis on the 12th of July 1905. The duke and duchess of +York visited Ireland in 1899, and it had been arranged before the death +of Queen Victoria that they should make a tour in the colonies. On the +accession of King Edward VII. (1901) this plan was confirmed. They +sailed in the "Ophir" on the 16th of March 1901, travelling by the +ordinary route, and landed at Melbourne in May, when they opened the +first parliament of the Commonwealth. They then proceeded to New +Zealand, returning by way of South Africa and Canada. An official +account of the tour was published by Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace as +_The Web of Empire_ (1902). In November 1901 the duke was created prince +of Wales. On the death of Edward VII. (May 6, 1910) he succeeded to the +Crown as George V., his consort taking the style of Queen Mary. + + + + +GEORGE V., king of Hanover (1819-1878), was the only son of Ernest +Augustus, king of Hanover and duke of Cumberland, and consequently a +grandson of the English king George III. Born in Berlin on the 27th of +May 1819, his youth was passed in England and in Berlin until 1837, when +his father became king of Hanover and he took up his residence in that +country. He lost the sight of one eye during a childish illness, and the +other by an accident in 1833. Being thus totally blind there were doubts +whether he was qualified to succeed to the government of Hanover; but +his father decided that he should do so, as the law of the dissolved +empire only excluded princes who were born blind. This decision was a +fatal one to the dynasty. Both from his father and from his maternal +uncle, Charles Frederick, prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1785-1837), +one of the most influential men at the Prussian court, George had +learned to take a very high and autocratic view of royal authority. His +blindness prevented him from acquiring the shrewdness and knowledge of +the world which had assisted his father, and he easily fell into the +hands of unwise, and perhaps dishonest and disloyal, advisers. A man of +deep religious feeling, he formed a fantastic conception of the place +assigned to the house of Guelph in the divine economy, and had ideas of +founding a great Guelph state in Europe. It is, therefore, not +surprising that from the time of his accession in November 1851 he was +constantly engaged in disputes with his _Landtag_ or parliament, and was +consequently in a weak and perilous position when the crisis in the +affairs of Germany came in 1866. Having supported Austria in the diet of +the German confederation in June 1866, he refused, contrary to the +wishes of his parliament, to assent to the Prussian demand that Hanover +should observe an unarmed neutrality during the war. As a result his +country and his capital were at once occupied by the Prussians, to whom +his army surrendered on the 29th of June 1866, and in the following +September Hanover was formally annexed by Prussia. From his retreat at +Hietzing near Vienna, George appealed in vain to the powers of Europe; +and supported by a large number of his subjects, an agitation was +carried on which for a time caused some embarrassment to Prussia. All +these efforts, however, to bring about a restoration were unavailing, +and the king passed the remainder of his life at Gmünden in Austria, or +in France, refusing to the last to be reconciled with the Prussian +government. Whilst visiting Paris for medical advice he died in that +city on the 12th of June 1878, and was buried in St George's chapel, +Windsor. In February 1843 he had married Marie, daughter of Joseph, duke +of Saxe-Altenburg, by whom he left a son and two daughters. His son, +Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland (b. 1845), continued to maintain the +claim of his house to the kingdom of Hanover. + +By the capitulation of 1866 the king was allowed to retain his personal +property, which included money and securities equal to nearly +£1,500,000, which had been sent to England before the Prussian invasion +of Hanover. The crown jewels had also been secretly conveyed to England. +His valuable plate, which had been hidden at Herrenhausen, was restored +to him in 1867; his palace at Herrenhausen, near Hanover, was reserved +as his property; and in 1867 the Prussian government agreed to +compensate him for the loss of his landed estates, but owing to his +continued hostility the payment of the interest on this sum was +suspended in the following year (see HANOVER). + + See O. Klopp, _König Georg V._ (Hanover, 1878); O. Theodor, + _Erinnerungen an Georg V._ (Bremerhaven, 1878); and O. Meding, + _Memoiren zur Zeitgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1881-1884). + + + + +GEORGE I., king of the Hellenes (1845- ), second son of King Christian +IX. of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th of December 1845. +After the expulsion of King Otho in 1862, the Greek nation, by a +plebiscite, elected the British prince, Alfred, duke of Edinburgh +(subsequently duke of Coburg), to the vacant throne, and on his refusal +the national assembly requested Great Britain to nominate a candidate. +The choice of the British government fell on Prince Christian William +Ferdinand Adolphus George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, +whose election as king of the Hellenes, with the title George I., was +recognized by the powers (6th of June 1863). The sister of the new +sovereign, Princess Alexandra, had a few months before (10th March) +married the prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward VII., and his father +succeeded to the crown of Denmark in the following November. Another +sister, Princess Dagmar, subsequently married the grand duke Alexander +Alexandrovitch, afterwards Emperor Alexander III. of Russia. On his +accession, King George signed an act resigning his right of succession +to the Danish throne in favour of his younger brother Prince Waldemar. +He was received with much enthusiasm by the Greeks. Adopting the motto, +"My strength is the love of my people," he ruled in strict accordance +with constitutional principles, though not hesitating to make the +fullest use of the royal prerogative when the intervention of the crown +seemed to be required by circumstances. For the events of his reign see +GREECE: _History_. + +King George married, on the 27th of October 1867, the grand duchess Olga +Constantinovna of Russia, who became distinguished in Greece for her +activity on behalf of charitable objects. Their children were Prince +Constantine, duke of Sparta (b. 1868), who married in 1889 Princess +Sophia of Prussia, daughter of the emperor Frederick, and granddaughter +of Queen Victoria; Prince George (b. 1869), from November 1898 to +October 1906 high commissioner of the powers in Crete; Prince Nicholas +(b. 1872), who married in 1902 the grand duchess Helen-Vladimirovna of +Russia; Prince Andrew (b. 1882), who married in 1903 Princess Alice of +Battenberg; Prince Christopher (b. 1888); and a daughter, Princess Marie +(b. 1876), who married in 1900 the grand duke George Michailovich of +Russia. + + + + +GEORGE, king of Saxony (1832-1904), the youngest son of King John of +Saxony (d. 1873) and Queen Amelia, was born at Dresden on the 8th of +August 1832. From an early age he received a careful scientific and +military training, and in 1846 entered the active army as a lieutenant +of artillery. In 1849-1850 he was a student at the university of Bonn, +but soon returned to military life, for which he had a predilection. In +the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 he commanded a Saxon cavalry brigade, +and in the early part of the war of 1870-71 a division, but later +succeeded to the supreme command of the XII. (Saxon) army corps in the +room of his brother, the crown prince Albert (afterwards king) of +Saxony. His name is inseparably associated with this campaign, during +which he showed undoubted military ability and an intrepidity which +communicated itself to all ranks under his command, notably at the +battles of St Privat and Beaumont, in which he greatly distinguished +himself. On his brother succeeding to the throne he became +commander-in-chief of the Saxon army, and was in 1888 made a Prussian +field marshal by the emperor William I. He married in 1859 the infanta +Maria, sister of King Louis of Portugal, and King Albert's marriage +being childless, succeeded on his death in 1902 to the throne of Saxony. +He died on the 15th of October 1904, at Pillnitz. + + + + +GEORGE OF LAODICEA in Syria, often called "the Cappadocian," from 356 to +361 Arian archbishop of Alexandria, was born about the beginning of the +4th century. According to Ammianus (xxii. 11), he was a native of +Epiphania, in Cilicia. Gregory Nazianzen tells us that his father was a +fuller, and that he himself soon became notorious as a parasite of so +mean a type that he would "sell himself for a cake." After many +wanderings, in the course of which he seems to have amassed a +considerable fortune, first as an army-contractor and then as a receiver +of taxes, he ultimately reached Alexandria. It is not known how or when +he obtained ecclesiastical orders; but, after Athanasius had been +banished in 356, George was promoted by the influence of the then +prevalent Arian faction to the vacant see. His theological attitude was +that known as semi-Arian or Homoiousian, and his associates were +Eustathius of Sebaste and Basil of Ancyra. At George's instigation the +second Sirmian formula (promulgated by the third council of Sirmium +357), which was conciliatory towards strict Arianism, was opposed at the +council of Ancyra in 358 (Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, iv. 76). His +persecutions and oppressions of the orthodox ultimately raised a +rebellion which compelled him to flee for his life; but his authority +was restored, although with difficulty, by a military demonstration. +Untaught by experience, he resumed his course of selfish tyranny over +Christians and heathen alike, and raised the irritation of the populace +to such a pitch that when, on the accession of Julian, his downfall was +proclaimed and he was committed to prison, they dragged him thence and +killed him, finally casting his body into the sea (24th of December +361). With much that was sordid and brutal in his character George +combined a highly cultivated literary taste, and in the course of his +chequered career he had found the means of collecting a splendid +library, which Julian ordered to be conveyed to Antioch for his own use. +An anonymous work against the Manicheans discovered by Lagarde in 1859 +in a MS. of Titus of Bostra has been attributed to him. + + The original sources for the facts of the life of George of Laodicea + are Ammianus, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius and Athanasius. His + character has been drawn with graphic fidelity by Gibbon in the 23rd + chapter of the _Decline and Fall_; but the theory, accepted by Gibbon, + which identifies him with the patron saint of England is now rejected + (see GEORGE, SAINT). See C.S. Hulst, _St George of Cappadocia in + Legend and History_ (1910). + + + + +GEORGE OF TREBIZOND (1395-1484), Greek philosopher and scholar, one of +the pioneers of the revival of letters in the Western world, was born in +the island of Crete, and derived his surname Trapezuntios from the fact +that his ancestors were from Trebizond. At what period he came to Italy +is not certain; according to some accounts he was summoned to Venice +about 1430 to act as amanuensis to Francesco Barbaro, who appears to +have already made his acquaintance; according to others he did not visit +Italy till the time of the council of Florence (1438-1439). He learned +Latin from Vittorino da Feltre, and made such rapid progress that in +three years he was able to teach Latin literature and rhetoric. His +reputation as a teacher and a translator of Aristotle was very great, +and he was selected as secretary by Pope Nicholas V., an ardent +Aristotelian. The needless bitterness of his attacks upon Plato (in the +_Comparatio Aristotelis et Platonis_), which drew forth a powerful +response from Bessarion (q.v.), and the manifestly hurried and +inaccurate character of his translations of Plato, Aristotle and other +classical authors, combined to ruin his fame as a scholar, and to +endanger his position as a teacher of philosophy. The indignation +against him on account of his first-named work was so great that he +would probably have been compelled to leave Italy had not Alphonso V. +given him protection at the court of Naples. He subsequently returned to +Rome, where he died in great poverty on the 12th of August 1484. He had +long outlived his reputation, and towards the end of his life his +intellect failed him. From all accounts he was a man of very +disagreeable character, conceited and quarrelsome. + + See G. Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums_ (1893), + and article by C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopädie_. For a complete list of his numerous works, consisting + of translations from Greek into Latin (Plato, Aristotle and the + Fathers) and original essays in Greek (chiefly theological) and Latin + (grammatical and rhetorical), see Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. + Harles), xii. + + + + +GEORGE THE MONK [GEORGIOS MONACHOS], called Hamartolos (Greek for +"sinner"), Byzantine chronicler, lived during the reign of Michael III. +(842-867). He wrote a _Chronicle_ of events, in four books, from the +creation of the world to the death of the emperor Theophilus (842), +whose widow Theodora restored the worship of images in the same year. It +is the only original contemporary authority for the years 813-842, and +therefore so far indispensable; the early parts of the work are merely a +compilation. In the introduction the author disclaims all pretensions to +literary style, and declares that his only object was to relate such +things as were "useful and necessary" with a strict adherence to truth. +Far too much attention, however, is devoted to religious matters; the +iconoclasts are fiercely attacked, and the whole is interlarded with +theological discussions and quotations from the fathers. The work was +very popular, and translations of it served as models for Slavonic +writers. The MSS. give a continuation down to 948, the author of which +is indicated simply as "the logothete," by whom probably Symeon +Metaphrastes (second half of the 10th century) is meant. In this +religious questions are relegated to the background, more attention is +devoted to political history, and the language is more popular. Still +further continuations of little value go down to 1143. The large +circulation of the work and its subsequent reissues, with alterations +and interpolations, make it very difficult to arrive at the original +text. + + EDITIONS: E. de Muralt (St Petersburg, 1859); J.P. Migne, _Patrologia + Graeca_, cx.; C. de Boor (in Teubner series, 1904- ). See F. Hirsch, + _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. de Boor in _Historische + Untersuchungen_ (in honour of Arnold Schäfer, Bonn, 1882); C. + Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + + + +GEORGE THE SYNCELLUS [GEORGIOS SYNKELLOS], of Constantinople, Byzantine +chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived at the end of the 8th and the +beginning of the 9th century A.D. He was the _syncellus_ (cell-mate, the +confidential companion assigned to the patriarchs, sometimes little more +than a spy; see SYNCELLUS) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, +patriarch of Constantinople (784-806), after whose death he retired to a +convent, and wrote his _Chronicle_ of events from Adam to Diocletian +(285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubtless intended to +bring down to his own times, was continued after his death by his friend +Theophanes Confessor. The _Chronicle_, which, as its title implies, is +rather a chronological table (with notes) than a history, is written +with special reference to pre-Christian times and the introduction of +Christianity, and exhibits the author as a staunch upholder of +orthodoxy. But in spite of its religious bias and dry and uninteresting +character, the fragments of ancient writers and apocryphal books +preserved in it render it specially valuable. For instance, considerable +portions of the original text of the _Chronicle_ of Eusebius have been +restored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were Annianus of +Alexandria (5th century) and Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who wrote +about the year 400 and drew largely from Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius +Africanus. + + Editio princeps, by J. Goar (1652); in Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. + Byz._, by W. Dindorf (1829). See also H. Gelzer, _Sextus Julius + Africanus_, ii. 1 (1885); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + + + +GEORGE, HENRY (1839-1897), American author and political economist, was +born in Philadelphia, Penn., on the 2nd of September 1839. He settled in +California in 1858; removed to New York, 1880; was first a printer, then +an editor, but finally devoted all his life to economic and social +questions. In 1871 he published _Our Land Policy_, which, as further +developed in 1879 under the title of _Progress and Poverty_, speedily +attracted the widest attention both in America and in Europe. In 1886 he +published _Protection or Free Trade_. Henry George had no political +ambition, but in 1886 he received an independent nomination as mayor of +New York City, and became so popular that it required a coalition of +the two strongest political parties to prevent his election. He received +68,000 votes, against 90,000 for the coalition candidate. His death on +the 29th of October 1897 was followed by one of the greatest +demonstrations of popular feeling and general respect that ever attended +the funeral of any strictly private citizen in American history. The +fundamental doctrine of Henry George, the equal right of all men to the +use of the earth, did not originate with him; but his clear statement of +a method by which it could be enforced, without increasing state +machinery, and indeed with a great simplification of government, gave it +a new form. This method he named the _Single Tax_. His doctrine may be +condensed as follows: The land of every country belongs of right to all +the people of that country. This right cannot be alienated by one +generation, so as to affect the title of the next, any more than men can +sell their yet unborn children for slaves. Private ownership of land has +no more foundation in morality or reason than private ownership of air +or sunlight. But the private occupancy and use of land are right and +indispensable. Any attempt to divide land into equal shares is +impossible and undesirable. Land should be, and practically is now, +divided for private use in parcels among those who will pay the highest +price for the use of each parcel. This price is now paid to some persons +annually, and it is called _rent_. By applying the rent of land, +exclusive of all improvements, to the equal benefit of the whole +community, absolute justice would be done to all. As rent is always more +than sufficient to defray all necessary expenses of government, those +expenses should be met by a tax upon rent alone, to be brought about by +the gradual abolition of all other taxes. Landlords should be left in +undisturbed possession and nominal ownership of the land, with a +sufficient margin over the tax to induce them to collect their rents and +pay the tax. They would thus be transformed into mere land agents. +Obviously this would involve absolute free trade, since all taxes on +imports, manufactures, successions, documents, personal property, +buildings or improvements would disappear. Nothing made by man would be +taxed at all. The right of private property in all things made by man +would thus be absolute, for the owner of such things could not be +divested of his property, without full compensation, even under the +pretence of taxation. The idea of concentrating all taxes upon +ground-rent has found followers in Great Britain, North America, +Australia and New Zealand. In practical politics this doctrine is +confined to the "Single Tax, Limited," which proposes to defray only the +needful public expenses from ground-rent, leaving the surplus, whatever +it may be, in the undisturbed possession of landowners. + + The principal books by Henry George are: _Progress and Poverty_ + (1879), _The Irish Land Question_ (1881), _Social Problems_ (1884), + _Protection or Free Trade_ (1886), _The Condition of Labor_ (1891), _A + Perplexed Philosopher_ (1892), _Political Economy_ (1898). His son, + Henry George (b. 1862), has written a _Life_ (1900). For the Single + Tax theory see Shearman's _Natural Taxation_ (1899). (T. G. S.) + + + + +GEORGE PISIDA [GEORGIOS PISIDES], Byzantine poet, born in Pisidia, +flourished during the 7th century A.D. Nothing is known of him except +that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper of the records) of the +church of St Sophia. His earliest work, in three cantos ([Greek: +akroaseis]), on the campaign of the emperor Heraclius against the +Persians, seems to be the work of an eyewitness. This was followed by +the _Avarica_, an account of a futile attack on Constantinople by the +Avars (626), said to have been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary; +and by the _Heraclias_, a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius +both at home and abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. +George Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, _Hexaëmeron_ or +_Cosmourgia_, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the vanity +of life, after the manner of _Ecclesiastes_; a controversial composition +against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems upon the +resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred crucifix stolen +by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the iambic. As a versifier +Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a chronicler of contemporary +events he is exceedingly useful; and later Byzantine writers +enthusiastically compared him with, and even preferred him to Euripides. +Recent criticism, however, characterizes his compositions as artificial +and almost uniformly dull. + + Complete works in J.P. Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, xcii.; see also _De + Georgii Pisidae apud Theophanem aliosque historicos reliquiis_. + (1900), by S.L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poems for the + first time from a Paris MS. in _Wiener Studien_, xiii., xiv. + (1891-1892); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ + (1897); C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_. + + + + +GEORGE, LAKE, a lake in the E. part of New York, U.S.A., among the S.E. +foothills of the Adirondack Mountains. It extends from N.N.E. to S.S.W. +about 34 m., and varies in width from 2 to 4 m. It has a maximum depth +of about 400 ft., and is 323 ft. above the sea and 227 ft. above Lake +Champlain, into which it has an outlet to the northward through a narrow +channel and over falls and rapids. The lake is fed chiefly by mountain +brooks and submerged springs; its bed is for the most part covered with +a clean sand; its clear water is coloured with beautiful tints of blue +and green; and its surface is studded with about 220 islands and islets, +all except nineteen of which belong to the state and constitute a part +of its forest reserve. Near the head of the lake is Prospect Mountain, +rising 1736 ft. above the sea, while several miles farther down the +shores is Black Mountain, 2661 ft. in height. Lake George has become a +favourite summer resort. Lake steamers ply between the village of Lake +George (formerly Caldwell) at the southern end of the lake and Baldwin, +whence there is rail connexion with Lake Champlain steamers. + +Lake George was formed during the Glacial period by glacial drift which +clogged a pre-existing valley. According to Prof. J.F. Kemp the valley +occupied by Lake George was a low pass before the Glacial period; a dam +of glacial drift at the southern end and of lacustrine clays at the +northern end formed the lake which has submerged the pass, leaving +higher parts as islands. Before the advent of the white man the lake was +a part of the war-path over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made +their way northward to attack the Algonquins and the Hurons, and during +the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy in +America, waterways being still the chief means of communication, it was +of great strategic importance (see CHAMPLAIN, _Lake_). Father Isaac +Jogues, René Goupil and Guillaume Couture seem to have been the first +white men to see the lake (on the 9th of August 1642) as they were being +taken by their Iroquois captors from the St Lawrence to the towns of the +Mohawks, and in 1646 Father Jogues, having undertaken a half-religious, +half-political mission to the Mohawks, was again at the lake, to which, +in allusion to his having reached it on the eve of Corpus Christi, he +gave the name Lac Saint Sacrement. This name it bore until the summer of +1755, when General William Johnson renamed it Lake George in honour of +King George II. + +General Johnson was at this time in command of a force of colonists and +Indians sent against the French at Crown Point on Lake Champlain. The +expedition, however, had proceeded no farther than to the head of Lake +George when Johnson was informed that a force of French and Indians +under Baron Ludwig August Dieskau was pushing on from Crown Point to +Fort Lyman (later Fort Edward), 14 m. to the S. of their encampment. +Accordingly, on the morning of the 8th of September a detachment of 1000 +colonials under Colonel Ephraim Williams (1715-1755) and 200 Indians +under Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, was sent to aid Fort Lyman, but when +about 3 m. S. of the lake this detachment fell into an ambuscade +prepared for it by Dieskau and both Williams and Hendrick were killed. +The survivors were pursued to their camp, and then followed on the same +day the main battle of Lake George, in which 1000 colonials fighting at +first behind a hastily prepared barricade defeated about 1400 French and +Indians. Both commanders were wounded; Dieskau was captured; the French +lost about 300; and the colonials nearly the same (including those who +fell earlier in the day). Johnson now built on the lake shore, near the +battlefield, a fort of gravel and logs and called it Fort William Henry +(the site was occupied by the Fort William Henry Hotel till it was +burned in 1909). In the meantime the French entrenched themselves at +Ticonderoga at the foot of the lake. In March 1757 Fort William Henry +successfully withstood an attack of 1600 men sent out by the marquis de +Vaudreuil, governor of Canada, but on the 9th of August of the same year +its garrison, after being reduced to desperate straits, surrendered to +the marquis de Montcalm. By the terms of surrender the garrison was to +be allowed to march out with the honours of war and was to be escorted +to Fort Edward, but the guard provided by Montcalm was inadequate to +protect them from his Indian allies and on the day following the +surrender many were massacred or taken prisoners. The fort was razed to +the ground. In 1758 General James Abercrombie proceeded by way of Lake +George against Fort Ticonderoga, and in 1759 Baron Jeffrey Amherst, +while on his way to co-operate with General James Wolfe against Quebec, +built near the site of Fort William Henry one bastion of a fort since +known as Fort George, the ruins of which still remain. + +A monument commemorative of the battle of Lake George was unveiled on +the 8th of September 1903, on the site of the battle, and within the +state reservation of 35 acres known as Fort George Battle Park. Horicon +is a name that was given to the lake by James Fenimore Cooper. The +Indian name of the lake was Andia-ta-roc-te. + + See Francis Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_ (Boston, 1884); and E.E. + Seelye, _Lake George in History_ (Lake George, 1897). + + + + +GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, an American industrial institution, situated +near the small village of Freeville, in Tompkins county, New York, +U.S.A., 9 m. E.N.E. of Ithaca, at the junction of the Sayre-Auburn and +the Elmira-Cortland branches of the Lehigh Valley railway. The George +Junior Republic forms a miniature state whose economic, civic and social +conditions, as nearly as possible, reproduce those of the United States, +and whose citizenship is vested in young people, especially those who +are neglected or wayward, who are thus taught self-reliance, +self-control and morality. The founder, William Reuben George (b. 1866), +was a native of West Dryden, a village near Freeville, who as a business +man in New York City became interested in the Fresh Air Fund charity +supervised by the New York _Tribune_, took charge of summer outings for +city children (1890-1894), and, becoming convinced that such charities +tended to promote pauperism and crime among the older of their protégés, +devised first (1894) the plan of requiring payment by the children in +labour for all they received during these summer jaunts, then (1895) +self-government for a summer colony near Freeville, and finally a +permanent colony, in which the children stay for several years. The +Republic was founded on the 10th of July 1895; the only check on the +powers of executive, representative and judicial branches of the +government lies in the veto of the superintendent. "Nothing without +labour" is the motto of the community, so strictly carried out that a +girl or boy in the Republic who has not money[1] to pay for a night's +lodging must sleep in jail and work the next day for the use of the +cell. The legislative body, originally a House of Representatives and a +Senate, in 1899 became more like the New England town meeting. The +respect for the law that follows its enactment by the citizens +themselves is remarkable in a class so largely of criminal tendencies; +and it is particularly noticeable that positions on the police force are +eagerly coveted. Fifteen is the age of majority; suffrage is universal, +children under fifteen must be in charge of a citizen guardian. The +average age of citizens was seventeen in 1908. The proportion of girls +to boys was originally small, but gradually increased; in 1908 there +were about 70 girls and 90 boys. The tendency is to admit only those +aged at least sixteen and physically well equipped. In the Republic's +earlier years the citizens lived in boarding-houses of different grades, +but later in family groups in cottages (there were in 1910 twelve +cottages) under the care of "house-mothers." The labour of the place is +divided into sewing, laundry work, cooking and domestic service for the +girls, and furniture making, carpentry, farm work, baking bread and +wafers (the business of an Auburn biscuit factory was bought in 1903), +plumbing and printing for the boys. Masonry and shoe and harness making +were tried for a few years. There is an efficient preparatory and high +school, from which students enter directly leading colleges. The +religious influence is strong, wholesome and unsectarian; students in +Auburn Theological Seminary have assisted in the religious work; Roman +Catholic and Hebrew services are also held; and attendance at church +services is compulsory only on convicts and prisoners. + +There are "Woman's Aid" societies in New York City, Ithaca, Syracuse, +Buffalo, Boston and elsewhere, to promote the work of the Republic. A +"republic" for younger boys, begun at Freeville, was established in +Litchfield, Connecticut; and a National Junior Republic near Annapolis +Junction, Maryland, and a Carter Junior Republic at Readington, near +Easton, Pennsylvania, are modelled on the George Junior Republic. In +1908-1910 new "states" were established at Chino, California, Grove +City, Pennsylvania, and Flemington Junction, New Jersey. In February +1908 the National Association of Junior Republics was formed with Mr +George (its founder) as its director, its aims being to establish at +least one "republic" in each state of the Union, and in other countries +similar institutions for youth and miniature governments modelled on +that of the country in which each "state" is established, and to +establish colonies for younger children, to be sent at the age of +fifteen to the Junior Republic. At the time of its formation the +National Association included the "states" at Freeville, N.Y., +Litchfield, Conn., and Annapolis Junction, Md.; others joined the +federation later. + + See William R. George, _The Junior Republic: its History and Ideals_ + (New York, 1910); _The Junior Republic Citizen_ (Freeville, 1895 + sqq.), written and printed by "citizens"; _Nothing Without Labor, + George Junior Republic_ (7th ed., Freeville, 1909), a manual; J.R. + Commons, "The Junior Republic," in _The American Journal of Sociology_ + (1898); D.F. Lincoln, "The George Junior Republic," in _The Coming + Age_ (1900); and Lyman Abbott, "A Republic within a Republic," in the + _Outlook_ for February 15, 1908. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The "government" issued its own currency in tin and later in + aluminium, and "American" money could not be passed within the 48 + acres of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the + Republic's coinage out of use and "American" coin was made legal + tender. + + + + +GEORGETOWN, the capital of British Guiana (see GUIANA), and the seat of +the colonial government, situated on the left bank of the Demerara river +at its mouth, in 6° 29' 24" N. and 58° 11' 30" W. It was known during +the Dutch occupation as Stabroek, and was established as the seat of +government of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with +Berbice forming the three counties of British Guiana) in 1784, its name +being changed to Georgetown in 1812. It is one of the finest towns in +this part of the world, the streets being wide and straight, +intersecting each other at right angles, several having double roadways +with lily-covered canals in the centre, the grass banks on either side +carrying rows of handsome shade trees. In Main Street, the finest street +in Georgetown, the canal has been filled in to form a broad walk, an +obvious precedent for the treatment of the other canals, which (however +beautiful) are useless and merely act as breeding grounds for +mosquitoes. The principal residences, standing in their own gardens +surrounded by foliage and flowers, are scattered over the town, as are +also the slums, almost the worst of which abut on the best residential +quarters. Water Street, the business centre, runs parallel to the river +for about 2½ m. and contains the stores of the wholesale and retail +merchants, their wharves running out into the river to allow steamers to +come alongside. Most of the houses and public buildings are constructed +of wood, the former generally raised on brick pillars some 4 ft. to 10 +ft. from the ground, the bright colouring of the wooden walls, jalousies +and roofs adding to the beauty of the best streets. The large structure +known as the Public Buildings in the centre of the city, containing the +offices of the executive government and the hall of the court of policy, +was erected between 1829 and 1834. It is a handsome, E-shaped, +brick-plastered building of considerable size, with deep porticos and +marble-paved galleries carried on cast-iron columns. The law courts, +built in the 'eighties, have a ground floor of concrete and iron, the +upper storey being of hardwood. Among other public buildings are the +town hall, the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several handsome +churches, the local banks and insurance offices, and the almshouse. The +public hospital consists of several large blocks. The Royal +Agricultural and Commercial Society has a large reading-room and +lending library. The assembly rooms, above and owned by the Georgetown +club, has a good stage and is admirably adapted to dramatic and musical +entertainments. A museum (free), belonging to the Royal Agricultural and +Commercial Society, is chiefly devoted to the fauna of British Guiana, +but also contains an instructive collection of local economic, +mineralogical and botanical exhibits, a miscellaneous collection of +foreign birds and mammals, and an interesting series of views of the +colony. The botanical gardens to the east of the city are of +considerable extent and admirably laid out. The nurseries cover a large +area and are devoted chiefly to the raising of plants of economic +importance which can be purchased at nominal rates. The collections of +ferns and orchids are very fine. In the gardens are also located the +fields of the board of agriculture, where experimental work in the +growth of sugar-cane, rice, cotton and all tropical plants of economic +importance is carried on. Other popular resorts are the sea wall and the +promenade gardens in the centre of the city. + +The local government of Georgetown is vested in a mayor and town council +elected under a very restricted franchise. The city is divided into +fourteen wards each with one representative. A councillor must possess, +either personally or through his wife, premises within the city of the +appraised value of at least $1500. A voter must either own house +property of the appraised value of $250 or occupy premises of an annual +rental of $240. There are indeed only 297 municipal voters in a +population of nearly 50,000. The revenue, just over £50,000 annually, is +mainly derived from a direct rate on house property. The colonial +government pays rates on its property and also gives a grant-in-aid +towards the upkeep of the streets. The expenditure is principally on +sanitation, fire brigade, streets, water-supply, street lighting and +drainage. Street lighting is carried out under contract by the Demerara +Electric Company, which has a monopoly of private lighting and works an +excellent tram service. Water for public and domestic purposes is taken +from the conservancy of the east coast and is delivered by pumping +throughout the city, but drinking-water is collected in tanks attached +to the dwellings from the rain falling on the roofs. The fire brigade is +a branch of the police force, half the cost being borne by the rates and +half by the general revenue. There is an excellent service of +telephones, a branch of the post office, and halfpenny postage within +the city boundaries. There are in Georgetown two well-equipped +foundries, a dry dock, and factories for the manufacture of rice, +cigars, soap, boots, chocolate, candles, aerated waters and ice. +Georgetown is connected by rail and ferry with New Amsterdam, by ferry +and rail with the west coast of Demerara, and by steamer with all the +country districts along the coast and up the navigable reaches of the +principal rivers. (A. G. B.*) + + + + +GEORGETOWN, formerly a city of the District of Columbia, U.S.A., and now +part (sometimes called West Washington) of the city of Washington, +U.S.A., at the confluence of the Potomac river and Rock Creek, and on +the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, about 2½ m. W.N.W. of the National +Capitol. Pop. (1890) 14,046; (1900) 14,549. The streets are +old-fashioned, narrow and well shaded. On the "Heights" are many fine +residences with beautiful gardens; the Monastery and Academy (for girls) +of Visitation, founded in 1799 by Leonard Neale, second archbishop of +Baltimore; and the college and the astronomical observatory (1842) of +Georgetown University. The university was founded as a Roman Catholic +Academy in 1789, was opened in 1791, transferred to the Society of Jesus +in 1805, authorized in 1815 by Congress to confer college or university +degrees, and by the Holy See in 1833 to confer degrees in philosophy and +theology, incorporated as Georgetown College by Act of Congress in 1844, +and began graduate work about 1856. The college library includes the +historical collection of James Gilmary Shea. A school of medicine was +opened in 1851, a dental school in 1901 and a school of law in 1870. In +1909-1910 the university had an enrolment of 859 students. Rising in +terraces from Rock Creek is Oak Hill Cemetery, a beautiful +burying-ground containing the graves of John Howard Payne, the author +of "Home, Sweet Home," Edwin McMasters Stanton and Joseph Henry. On the +bank of the Potomac is a brick house which was for several years the +home of Francis Scott Key, author of "The Star-Spangled Banner"; on +Analostan Island in the river was a home of James Murray Mason; +Georgetown Heights was the home of the popular novelist, Mrs Emma +Dorothy Eliza Nevitte Southworth (1819-1899). Before the advent of +railways Georgetown had an important commerce by way of the Chesapeake +and Ohio Canal, by which considerable coal as well as some grain is +still brought hither, and of which Georgetown is now a terminus; the +canal formerly crossed the Potomac at this point on an aqueduct bridge +(1446 ft. long), but in 1887 the crossing was abandoned and the old +bridge was purchased by the United States government, which in 1889 +constructed a new steel bridge upon the old masonry piers. Chief among +the manufactories are several large flour mills--Georgetown flour was +long noted for its excellence. There is a very large fish-market here. +Georgetown was settled late in the 17th century, was laid out as a town +in 1751, chartered as a city in 1789, merged in the District of Columbia +in 1871, and annexed to the city of Washington in 1878. In the early +days of Washington it was a social centre of some importance, where many +members of Congress as well as some cabinet officers and representatives +of foreign countries lived and the President gave state dinners; and +here were the studio, for two years, of Gilbert Stuart, and "Kalorama," +the residence of Joel Barlow. + + + + +GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Scott county, Kentucky, +U.S.A., about 11 miles N. of Lexington. Pop. (1900) 3823 (1677 negroes); +(1910) 4533. Georgetown is served by the Cincinnati Southern (Queen & +Crescent Route), the Frankfort & Cincinnati, and the Southern railways, +and is connected with Lexington by an electric line. It is the seat of +Georgetown College (Baptist, co-educational), chartered in 1829 as the +successor of Rittenhouse Academy, which was founded in 1798. Georgetown +is situated in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky, and the surrounding +country is devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. One of the largest +independent oil refineries in the country (that of the Indian Refining +Co.) is in Georgetown, and among manufactures are bricks, flour, ice, +bagging and hemp. The remarkable "Royal Spring," which rises near the +centre of the city, furnishes about 200,000 gallons of water an hour for +the city's water supply, and for power for the street railway and for +various industries. The first settlement was made in 1775, and was named +McClellan's, that name being changed to Lebanon a few years afterwards. +In 1790 the place was incorporated as a town under its present name +(adopted in honour of George Washington), and Georgetown was chartered +as a city of the fourth class in 1894. Bacon College, which developed +into Kentucky (now Transylvania) University (see Lexington, Ky.), was +established here by the Disciples of Christ in 1836, but in 1839 was +removed to Harrodsburg. + + + + +GEORGETOWN, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Georgetown +county, South Carolina, U.S.A., at the head of Winyah Bay, and at the +mouth of the Pedee river, about 15 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and about +55 m. N.E. of Charleston. Pop. (1890) 2895; (1900) 4138 (2718 negroes); +(1910) 5530. Georgetown is served by the Georgetown & Western railway, +has steamship communication with Charleston, Wilmington, New York City +and other Atlantic ports, and, by the Pedee river and its tributaries +(about 1000 m. of navigable streams), has trade connexions with a large +area of South Carolina and part of North Carolina. The principal public +buildings are the post office and custom house. Among the city's +manufactures are lumber, foundry and machine-shop products, naval stores +and oars; and there are shad and sturgeon fisheries. The growing of +cotton and truck-gardening are important industries in the neighbouring +region, and there is considerable trade in such products. The first +settlement here was made about 1700; and the town was laid out a short +time before 1734. The Winyah Indigo Society grew out of a social club +organized about 1740, and was founded in 1757 by a group of planters +interested in raising indigo; It long conducted a school (discontinued +during the Civil War) which eventually became part of the city's public +school system. In 1780 Georgetown was occupied by a body of Loyalist +troops, with whom the American troops had several skirmishes, but on the +10th of August 1781 General Francis Marion forced the evacuation of the +town and took possession of it. A few days later, an American named +Manson, who had joined the British forces, attacked the town from an +armed vessel, and burned about forty houses, the small body of militia +being unable to make an effective resistance. General Lafayette first +landed on American soil at Georgetown on the 24th of April 1777. +Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1805, and was chartered as a +city in 1895. + + + + +GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Williamson county, Texas, +U.S.A., on the San Gabriel river, about 25 m. N. by E. of Austin. Pop. +(1890) 2447; (1900) 2790 (608 negroes); (1910) 3096. The city is served +by the International & Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas +railways. Georgetown is the seat of the Southwestern University +(Methodist Episcopal, South, co-educational), formed in 1873 (chartered +1875) by the combination of Ruterville College (Methodist Episcopal, at +Ruterville, Texas, chartered in 1840, and closed in 1850), McKenzie +College (at Clarksville, Texas, founded in 1841 and closed in 1872), +Wesleyan College at San Augustine (chartered in 1844, burned a few years +later, and not rebuilt), and Soule University at Chapel Hill (chartered +in 1856, but closed in 1870). The university includes a fitting school +at Georgetown, and a medical department at Dallas, Texas; in 1909 it had +an enrolment of 1037 students. The principal manufactures of Georgetown +are cotton and cotton-seed oil, and planing-mill products. In Page Park +are mineral springs, whose waters have medicinal qualities similar to +the famous Karlsbad waters. The first settlement was made here in 1848; +and Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1866, and was chartered as +a city in 1890. + + + + +GEORGIA, a southern state of the United States of America, one of the +thirteen original states, situated between 30° 31' 39" and 35° N., and +between 81° and 85° 53' 38" W. It is bounded N. by Tennessee and North +Carolina, E. by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Florida, +and W. by Alabama. The total area of the state is 59,265 sq. m., of +which 540 sq. m. are water surface. + + The surface of Georgia is divided into five physiographic zones. From + the sea coast, which is skirted by fertile, semi-tropical islands, a + plain of 35,000 sq. m., known as South Georgia, extends northward to + the "fall-line" passing from Augusta, through Milledgeville and Macon, + to Columbus. This is a part of the great Atlantic Coastal Plain. For + 20 m. from the coast its elevation is 10 ft., then it rises abruptly + 70 ft. higher, and 20 m. farther N. another elevation begins, which + reaches 575 ft. at Milledgeville, the average elevation of the entire + region being 250 ft. North of the line mentioned, and collectively + known as North Georgia, are the four other regions, each with + well-defined characteristics. The largest and southernmost, a broad + belt extending from the "fall-line" to a line passing through + Clarkesville, Habersham county, Cartersville, Bartow county and + Buchanan, Haralson county (approximately), is known as the Piedmont + Belt or Plateau, being a region of faint relief eroded on highly + complicated crystalline rocks. The Blue Ridge escarpment, a striking + topographic feature in Virginia and the Carolinas, extends into + Georgia along the north-eastern border of this belt, but is less + strongly developed here than elsewhere, dying out entirely towards the + south-west. North of the Piedmont Belt lie the Appalachian Mountains + Region and the Great Valley Region, the former to the east, the latter + to the west of a dividing line from Cartersville northward. The former + region consists of detached mountain masses of crystalline rocks, not + yet eroded down to the level of the Piedmont Belt. In Towns county, in + the Appalachian Region, is the highest point in the state, Brasstown + Bald, also called Enota Mountain (4768 ft.). The Great Valley Region + consists of folded sedimentary rocks, extensive erosion having removed + the soft layers to form valleys, leaving the hard layers as ridges, + both layers running in a N.E.-S.W. direction. In the extreme + north-west corner of the state is a small part of the Cumberland + Plateau, represented by Lookout and Sand Mts. + + On the Blue Ridge escarpment near the N.E. corner of the state is a + water-parting separating the waters which find their way respectively + N.W. to the Tennessee river, S.W. to the Gulf of Mexico and S.E. to + the Atlantic Ocean; indeed, according to B.M. and M.R. Hall (_Water + Resources of Georgia_, p. 2), "there are three springs in north-east + Georgia within a stone's throw of each other that send out their + waters to Savannah, Ga., to Apalachicola, Fla., and to New Orleans, + La." The water-parting between the waters flowing into the Atlantic + and those flowing into the Gulf extends from this point first S.E. for + a few miles, then turns S.W. to Atlanta, and from there extends S.S.E. + to the Florida line. West of where the escarpment dies out, the Great + Valley Region and a considerable portion of the Appalachian Mountains + Region are drained by the Coosa, the Tallapoosa and their tributaries, + into Mobile Bay, but the Cumberland Plateau, like that part of the + Appalachian Mountains Region which lies directly N. of the Blue Ridge + escarpment, constitutes a part of the Tennessee Basin. The principal + rivers of the state are the Chattahoochee and the Flint, which unite + in the S.W. corner to form the Apalachicola; the Ocmulgee (whose + western tributary, the Towaliga, falls 96 ft. in less than a quarter + of a mile), and the Oconee, which unite in the S.E. to form the + Altamaha; and the Savannah, which forms the boundary between Georgia + and South Carolina. All of these rise in the upper part of the + Piedmont Plateau, through which they pursue a rapid course over rocky + beds, and are navigable only south of the "fall-line," at which and + north of which they furnish an abundance of water-power. The upper + Savannah river first flows S.W., then turns abruptly S.E., while the + Chattahoochee river rises near this point and continues S.W. This is + because the upper Savannah[1] was formerly part of the Chattahoochee, + but was captured and turned S.E. by headward growth of the Savannah. + As a result of the capture there is a deep gorge along the upper + Savannah, especially along the branch called the Tallulah river; and + the upper Tallulah, in a series of cascades, 2-2/3 m. long, falls 525 + ft. from the former higher level down to the main bed of the upper + Savannah, at Tallulah Falls, a summer resort. + + The fauna and flora have no distinctive features. (See UNITED STATES.) + +_Climate and Soils._--The climate of Georgia, though temperate, differs +considerably in different parts of the state. All the nine climate belts +in the United States, except that of southern Florida, are represented +within its borders. The lowest mean annual temperature, 40° F. and +below, is that of some of the mountain tops of northern Georgia; from +the mountain-sides to the Piedmont Plateau this mean temperature varies +from 45° to 60°; on the Piedmont Plateau from 60° to 65°; and on the +Coastal Plain from 60° to 70°. The July isotherm of 80° crosses the +state a little N. of Augusta and Macon, touching the W. boundary at West +Point, Troup county. The mean July temperature for the whole state is +81.8°; for the part S. of the 80° isotherm the average temperature for +July is between 80° and 85°. The average rainfall for the state is 49.3 +in.; the maximum is 71.7 in., at Rabun Gap in the extreme N.E. part of +the state; the minimum is 39.4 at Swainsboro, Emanuel county, a little +S.E. of the centre of the state. + +Georgia is also notable for the variety of its soils. In the Cumberland +Plateau and Great Valley Regions are a red or brown loam, rich in +decomposed limestone and calcareous shales, and sandy or gravelly loams. +In the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian Mountains Regions the surface +soil is generally sandy, but in considerable areas the subsoil is a red +clay derived largely from the decomposition of hornblende. By far the +greatest variety of soils is found in the Coastal Plain Region. Here the +Central Cotton Belt, extending from the "fall-line" as far S. as a line +bisecting Early county in the W. and passing through Baker, Worth, +Dooly, Dodge, Laurens, Johnson, Jefferson and Burke counties, has three +distinct kinds of soil; a sand, forming what is known as the sand-hill +region; red clay derived from silicious rock in the red hills; and grey, +sandy soils with a subsoil of yellow loam. South of the Cotton Belt is +the Lime Sink Region, which includes Miller, Baker, Mitchell, Colquitt +and Worth counties, the northern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas, +Brooks and Lowndes, the eastern parts of Dooly and Lee, and the eastern +portions of Berrien, Irwin, Wilcox, Dodge, and some parts of Burke, +Screven and Bulloch. The soft limestone underlying this region is +covered, in the uplands, with grey, sandy soils, which have a subsoil of +loam; in the lowlands the surface soils are loams, the subsoils clays. +Adjoining this region are the pine barrens, which extend S. to a line +passing through the northern portions of Pierce, Wayne, Liberty, Bryan +and Effingham counties. Here the prevailing soils are grey and sandy +with a subsoil of loam, but they are less fertile than those of the Lime +Sink or Cotton Belts. The coast counties of the S.E. and generally those +on the Florida frontier are not suitable for cultivation, on account of +the numerous marshes and swamps, Okefinokee Swamp being 45 m. long and +approximately 30 m. wide; but the southern portions of Decatur, Grady, +Thomas and Brooks counties are sufficiently elevated for agriculture, +and the islands off the coast are exceedingly productive. + + _Minerals._--The mineral resources of Georgia are as varied as its + climate and soils, a total of thirty-nine different mineral products + being found within its borders. The most important is stone: in 1905 + the value of the granite quarried in the state was $971,207 (Georgia + ranking fifth in the United States), of the marble $774,550 (Georgia + ranking third in the United States, Vermont and New York being first + and second); in 1908 the granite was valued at $970,832 (Georgia + ranking fifth in the United States), and the marble at $916,281 + (Georgia ranking second in the United States, Vermont being first). + Generally more than one-fourth of the granite is used for paving; + curb, building and monument stone are next in importance in the order + named. Stone Mountain (1686 ft.) in De Kalb county near Atlanta is a + remarkable mass of light-coloured muscovite granite, having a + circumference at its base of 7 m. Stone Mountain granite was first + quarried about 1850; it is extensively used as building material in + Georgia and other southern states. A laminated granite, otherwise like + the Stone Mountain granite, is found in De Kalb, Rockdale and Gwinnett + counties, and is used for curbing and building. Biotite granites, + which take a good polish and are used for monuments and for + decoration, are quarried in Oglethorpe and Elbert counties. Georgia + marble was first quarried on a large scale in Pickens county in 1884; + the pure white marble of this county had been worked for tombstones + near Tate, the centre of the marble belt, in 1840; after its + commercial exploitation it was used in the capitol buildings of + Georgia, Rhode Island, Mississippi and Minnesota, in the Corcoran Art + Gallery, Washington, D.C., and in St Luke's Hospital, New York City. + It is sometimes used for the entire building, and sometimes only for + decoration. Other colours than the snowy white are found in the main + marble belt of the state, which runs from Canton, Cherokee county, 60 + m. generally N. to the northern boundary of the state. Other deposits, + less well known, are the dark brown and light grey marbles of + Whitfield county, which resemble the stone quarried in eastern + Tennessee. Limestone and slate are quarried at Rock Mart, Polk county, + and there are cement quarries at Cement, near Kingston, Bartow county. + Iron deposits occur in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, where are the + more important brown ores, and (red ores) in Walker and Chattooga + counties. The quantity of iron ore mined in Georgia declined from 1890 + to 1900; it was 200,842 long tons in 1905 and 321,060 long tons in + 1908, when 319,812 tons were brown haematite and 1248 tons were red + haematite. Before the discovery of gold in California the Georgia + "placers" were very profitable, the earliest mining being in 1829 by + placer miners from the fields of Burke county, North Carolina, who + began work in what is now White county, and went thence to Habersham + and Lumpkin counties. Dahlonega and Auraria, the latter named by John + C. Calhoun, who owned a mine there, were the centres of this early + gold mining. Work was summarily stopped by Federal troops enforcing + the governor's proclamation in 1831, because of the disorder in the + mining region; but it was soon renewed and a mint was established at + Dahlonega in 1838. After the discovery of gold in California, mining + in Georgia was not renewed on anything but the smallest scale until + the early 'eighties. In 1908 the gold product was valued at $56,207 + (it was $96,910 in 1905) and the silver product at $106. Up to 1909 + the gold product of Georgia (see State Geol. Survey _Bulletin 19_) was + about $17,500,000. Extensive clay deposits occur in all parts of the + state, and are remarkable for their comparative freedom from + impurities and for their high fusion point; the most valuable are + sedimentary, and form a belt several miles wide across the middle of + the state from Augusta to Columbus. In 1908 the clay products of the + state were valued at $1,928,611. More asbestos has been found in + Georgia than in any other state of the Union; it occurs in the + amphibole form throughout the N. part of the state, and most of the + country's domestic supply comes from the Sall Mountain mine in White + county. Manganese ores, found in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, were + formerly important; in 1896 4096 long tons were mined, in 1905 only + 150 tons, and in 1908 none. Bauxite was found in Georgia first of the + United States, near Rome, in 1887; the output, principally from Floyd, + Bartow and Polk counties, was the entire product of the United States + until 1891, and in 1902 was more than half the country's product, but + in 1908, even when combined with the Alabama output, was less than the + amount mined in Arkansas. Coal is not extensively found, but the mine + on Sand Mountain, in Walker county, was one of the first opened S. of + the Ohio river; in 1908 the value of the coal mined in the state was + $364,279 (264,822 short tons), the value of coke at the ovens was + $137,524 (39,422 short tons), and the value of ammonium sulphate, coal + tar, illuminating gas and gas coke was more than $800,000. Copper was + mined in Fannin and Cherokee counties before the Civil War. In 1906 + the copper mined was valued at $5057. Corundum was discovered on + Laurel Creek in Rabun county in 1871, and was worked there and at + Trackrock, Union county, especially between 1880 and 1893, but in + later years low prices closed most of the mines. The limestone + formations furnished most of the lime for domestic use. Sandstone, + ochre, slate, soapstone, graphite are also mined, and lead, zinc, + barytes, gypsum and even diamonds have been discovered but not + exploited. + +_Agriculture._--The principal occupation in Georgia is agriculture, +which in 1900 engaged seven-tenths of the land surface of the state and +the labour of three-fifths of the population, ten years old and over, +who are employed in profitable occupations. The products are so +diversified that, with the exception of some tropical fruits of +California and Florida, almost everything cultivated in the United +States can be produced. The chief staple is cotton, of which a valuable +hybrid called the Floradora, a cross of long and short staple, has been +singularly successful. Cotton is raised in all counties of the state +except Rabun, Towns and Fannin in the extreme north, and about one-third +of the total cultivated land of the state was devoted to it in +1900-1907. In 1899-1904 the crop exceeded that of the other +cotton-producing states except Texas, and in 1899, 1900 and 1903 +Mississippi, averaging 1,467,121 commercial bales per annum; the crop in +1904 was 1,991,719 bales, and in 1907-1908 the crop was 1,815,834 bales, +second only to the crop of Texas. The cause of this extensive +cultivation of cotton is not a high average yield per acre, but the fact +that before 1860 "Cotton was King," and that the market value of the +staple when the Civil War closed was so high that farmers began to +cultivate it to the exclusion of the cereals, whose production, Indian +corn excepted, showed a decline during each decade from 1879 to 1899. +But in the 'nineties the price of the cotton fell below the cost of +production, owing to the enormous supply, and this was accompanied by +economic depression. These conditions have caused some diversification +of crops, and successful experiments in cattle-raising, movements +encouraged by the Department of Agriculture and the leading newspapers. + +The principal cereals cultivated are Indian corn (product, 53,750,000 +bushels in 1908) and wheat; the cultivation of the latter, formerly +remunerative, declined on account of the competition of the Western +States, but revived after 1899, largely owing to the efforts of the +Georgia Wheat Growers' Association (organized in 1897), and in 1908 the +yield was 2,208,000 bushels. The sugar-cane crop declined in value after +1890, and each year more of it was made into syrup. In 1908 the tobacco +crop was 2,705,625 lb., and the average farm price was 35 cents, being +nearly as high as that of the Florida crop; Sumatra leaf for wrappers is +grown successfully. The acreage and product of tobacco and peanuts +increased from 1890 to 1900 respectively 188% and 319.2%, and 92.6% and +129.9%, and in the production of sweet potatoes Georgia was in 1899 +surpassed only by North Carolina. Alfalfa and grasses grow well. Truck +farming and the cultivation of orchard and small fruits have long been +remunerative occupations; the acreage devoted to peaches doubled between +1890 and 1900. Pecan nuts are an increasingly important crop. + + Agriculture in Georgia was in a state of transition at the beginning + of the 20th century. Owing to the abundance of land and to negro + slavery, exploitative methods of cultivation were employed before the + Civil War, and such methods, by which lands after being worked to + exhaustion are deserted for new fields, had not yet been altogether + abandoned. One reason for this was that, according to the census of + 1900, 36.9% of the farms were operated by negroes, of whom 86% were + tenants who desired to secure the greatest possible product without + regard to the care of the soil. Consequently there were large tracts + of untilled "waste" land; but these rapidly responded to fertilization + and rotation of crops, often yielding 800 to 1200 lb. of cotton per + acre, and Georgia in 1899 used more fertilizers than any other state + in the Union. Another feature of agriculture in Georgia was the great + increase in the number of farms, the average size of plantations + having declined from 440 acres in 1860 to 117.5 in 1900, or almost + 75%, while the area in cultivation increased only 15.6% between 1850 + and 1900. The tenantry system was also undergoing a change--the share + system which developed in the years succeeding the Civil War being + replaced by a system of cash rental. + +[Illustration: Georgia.] + +_Manufactures._--Although excelled by Alabama in the manufacture of +mineral products, and by North Carolina and South Carolina in the number +and output of cotton mills, in 1900 and in 1905 Georgia surpassed each +of those states in the total value of factory products, which was, +however, less than the value of the factory products of Louisiana and +Virginia among the southern states. The chief features of this +industrial activity are its early beginning and steady, constant +development. As far back as 1850 there were 1522 manufacturing +establishments (35 of which were cotton mills) in the state, whose total +product was valued at $7,082,075. Despite the Civil War, there was some +advance during each succeeding decade, the most prosperous relatively +being that from 1880 to 1890. In 1900 the number of establishments was +7504, an increase of 75.1% over the number in 1890; the capital invested +was $89,789,656, an increase of 57.7%, and the value of products +($106,654,527) was 54.8% more than in 1890. Of the 7504 establishments +in 1900, 3015 were conducted under the "factory system," and had a +capital of $79,303,316 and products valued at $94,532,368. In 1905 there +were 3219 factories, with a capital of $135,211,551 (an increase of +70.5% over 1900), and a gross product valued at $151,040,455 (59.8% +greater than the value of the factory product in 1900). + + The most important manufacturing industries are those that depend upon + cotton for raw material, with a gross product in 1900 valued at + $26,521,757. In that year[2] there were 67 mills engaged in the + manufacture of cotton goods, with a capital of $24,158,159, and they + yielded a gross product valued at $18,457,645; the increase between + 1900 and 1905 was actually much larger (and proportionately very much + larger) than between 1890 and 1900; the number of factories in 1905 + was 103 (an increase of 53.7% over 1900); their capital was + $42,349,618 (75.3% more than in 1900); and their gross product was + valued at $35,174,248 (an increase of 90.6% since 1900). The rank of + Georgia among the cotton manufacturing states was seventh in 1900 and + fourth in 1905. Cotton-seed oil and cake factories increased in number + from 17 to 43 from 1890 to 1900, and to 112 in 1905, and the value of + their product increased from $1,670,196 to $8,064,112, or 382.8% in + 1890-1900, and to $13,539,899 in 1905, or an increase of 67.9% over + 1900, and in 1900 and in 1905 the state ranked second (to Texas) in + this industry in the United States. This growth in cotton manufactures + is due to various causes, among them being the proximity of raw + material, convenient water-power, municipal exemption from taxation + and the cheapness of labour. The relation between employer and + employee is in the main far more personal and kindly than in the mills + of the Northern States. + + The forests of Georgia, next to the fields, furnish the largest amount + of raw material for manufactures. The yellow pines of the southern + part of the state, which have a stand of approximately 13,778,000 ft., + yielded in 1900 rosin and turpentine valued at $8,110,468 (more than + the product of any other state in the Union) and in 1905 valued at + $7,705,643 (second only to the product of Florida). From the same + source was derived most of the lumber product valued[3] in 1900 at + $13,341,160 (more than double what it was in 1890) and in 1905 at + $16,716,594. The other important woods are cypress, oak and poplar. + + Fourth in value in 1905 (first, cotton goods; second, lumber and + timber; third, cotton-seed oil and cake) were fertilizers, the value + of which increased from $3,367,353 in 1900 to $9,461,415 in 1905, when + the state ranked first of the United States in this industry; in 1900 + it had ranked sixth. + + _Communications._--Means of transportation for these products are + furnished by the rivers, which are generally navigable as far north as + the "fall line" passing through Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon and + Columbus; by ocean steamship lines which have piers at St Mary's, + Brunswick, Darien and Savannah; and by railways whose mileage in + January 1909 was 6,871.8 m. The most important of the railways are the + Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the + Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia and the Georgia Southern & Florida. In + 1878 a state railway commission was established which has mandatory + power for the settlement of all traffic problems and makes annual + reports. + +_Population._--The population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180; in 1890 +1,837,353, an increase of 19.1%; in 1900 2,216,331, a further increase +of 20.6%[4]; in 1910, 2,609,121. Of the 1900 population, 53.3% were +whites and 46.7% were negroes,[5] the centre of the black population +being a little south of the "fall line." Here the negroes increased, +from 1890 to 1900, faster than the whites in eighteen counties, but in +northern Georgia, where the whites are in the majority, the negro +population declined in twelve counties. Also the percentage of negro +illiteracy is higher in northern Georgia than in other parts of the +state, the percentage of negro male illiterates of voting age being +38.3% in Atlanta in 1900, and in Savannah only 30.7%. The population of +Georgia has a very slight foreign-born element (.6% in 1900) and a small +percentage (1.7% in 1900) of people of foreign parentage. The urban +population (i.e. the population in places of 2500 inhabitants and over) +was 15.6% of the total in 1900, and the number of incorporated cities, +towns and villages was 372. Of these only forty had a population +exceeding 2000, and thirteen exceeding 5000. The largest city in 1900 +was Atlanta, the capital since 1868 (Louisville, Jefferson county, was +the capital in 1795-1804, and Milledgeville in 1804-1868), with 89,872 +inhabitants. Savannah ranked second with 54,244, and Augusta third with +39,441. In 1900 the other cities in the state with a population of more +than 5000 were: Macon (23,272), Columbus (17,614), Athens (10,245), +Brunswick (9081), Americus (7674), Rome (7291), Griffin (6857), Waycross +(5919), Valdosta (5613), and Thomasville (5322). + +The total membership of the churches in 1906 was about 1,029,037, of +whom 596,319 were Baptists, 349,079 were Methodists, 24,040 were +Presbyterians, 19,273 were Roman Catholics, 12,703 were Disciples of +Christ, 9790 were Protestant Episcopalians, and 5581 were +Congregationalists. + +_Government._--The present constitution, which was adopted in 1877,[6] +provides for a system of government similar in general to that of the +other states (see UNITED STATES). The executive officials are elected +for a term of two years, and the judges of the Supreme Court and of the +court of appeals for six years, while those of the superior court and of +the ordinaries and the justices of the peace are chosen every four +years. Before 1909 all male citizens of the United States at least +twenty-one years of age (except those mentioned below), who had lived in +the state for one year immediately preceding an election and in the +county six months, and had paid their taxes, were entitled to vote. From +the suffrage and the holding of office are excluded idiots and insane +persons and all those who have been convicted of treason, embezzlement, +malfeasance in office, bribery or larceny, or any crime involving moral +turpitude and punishable under the laws of the state by imprisonment in +the penitentiary--this last disqualification, however, is removable by a +pardon for the offence. Before 1909 there was no constitutional +discrimination aimed against the exercise of the suffrage by the negro, +but in fact the negro vote had in various ways been greatly reduced. By +a constitutional amendment adopted by a large majority at a special +election in October 1908, new requirements for suffrage, designed +primarily to exclude negroes, especially illiterate negroes, were +imposed (supplementary to the requirements mentioned above concerning +age, residence and the payment of taxes), the amendment coming into +effect on the 1st of January 1909: in brief this amendment requires that +the voter shall have served in land or naval forces of the United States +or of the Confederate States or of the state of Georgia in time of war, +or be lawfully descended from some one who did so serve; or that he be a +person of good character who proves to the satisfaction of the +registrars of elections that he understands the duties and obligations +of a citizen; or that he read correctly in English and (unless +physically disabled) write any paragraph of the Federal or state +constitution; or that he own 40 acres of land or property valued at $500 +and assessed for taxation. After the 1st of January 1915 no one may +qualify as a voter under the first or second of these clauses (the +"grandfather" and "understanding" clauses); but those who shall have +registered under their requirements before the 1st of January 1915 thus +become voters for life. + +The governor, who receives a salary of $5000, must be at least thirty +years old, must at the time of his election have been a citizen of the +United States for fifteen years and of the state for six years, and +"shall not be eligible to re-election after the expiration of a second +term, for the period of four years." In case of his "death, removal or +disability," the duties of his office devolve in the first instance upon +the president of the Senate, and in the second upon the speaker of the +House of Representatives. The governor's power of veto extends to +separate items in appropriation bills, but in every case his veto may be +overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. An amendment to the +constitution may be proposed by a two-thirds vote of the legislature, +and comes into effect on receiving a majority of the popular vote. +Members of the Senate must be at least twenty-five years old, must be +citizens of the United States, and must, at the time of their election, +have been citizens of the state for four years, and of the senatorial +district for one year; representatives must be at least twenty-one years +old, and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens of the +state for two years. By law, in Georgia, lobbying is a felony. + +Habitual intoxication, wilful desertion for three years, cruel +treatment, and conviction for an offence the commission of which +involved moral turpitude and for which the offender has been sentenced +to imprisonment for at least two years, are recognized as causes for +divorce. All petitions for divorce must be approved by two successive +juries, and a woman holds in her own name all property acquired before +and after marriage. Marriage between the members of the white and negro +races is prohibited by law. + +As the result of the general campaign against child labour, an act was +passed in 1906 providing that no child under 10 shall be employed or +allowed to labour in or about any factory, under any circumstances; +after the 1st of January 1907 no child under 12 shall be so employed, +unless an orphan with no other means of support, or unless a widowed +mother or disabled or aged father is dependent on the child's labour, in +which case a certificate to the facts, holding good for one year only, +is required; after the 1st of January 1908 no child under 14 shall be +employed in a factory between the hours of 7 P.M. and 6 A.M.; after the +same date no child under 14 shall be employed in any factory without a +certificate of school attendance for 12 weeks (of which 6 weeks must be +consecutive) of the preceding year; no child shall be employed without +the filing of an affidavit as to age. Making a false affidavit as to age +or as to other facts required by the act, and the violation of the act +by any agent or representative of a factory or by any parent or guardian +of a child are misdemeanours. + +In 1907 a state law was passed prohibiting after the 1st of January 1908 +the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors; nine-tenths of the +counties of the state, under local option laws, were already "dry" at +the passage of this bill. The law permits druggists to keep for sale no +other form of alcoholic drink than pure alcohol; physicians prescribing +alcohol must fill out a blank, specifying the patient's ailment, and +certifying that alcohol is necessary; the prescription must be filled +the day it is dated, must be served directly to the physician or to the +patient, must not call for more than a pint, and may not be refilled.[7] + +The state supports four benevolent institutions: a lunatic asylum for +the whites and a similar institution for the negroes, both at +Milledgeville, an institute for the deaf and dumb at Cave Spring, and an +academy for the blind at Macon. There are also a number of private +charitable institutions, the oldest being the Bethesda orphan asylum, +near Savannah, founded by George Whitefield in 1739. The Methodist, +Baptist, Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal Churches, and the +Hebrews of the state also support homes for orphans. A penitentiary was +established in 1817 at Milledgeville. In 1866 the lease system was +introduced, by which the convicts were leased for a term of years to +private individuals. In 1897 this was supplanted by the contract system, +by which a prison commission accepted contracts for convict labour, but +the prisoners were cared for by state officials. But the contract system +for convicts and the peonage system (under which immigrants were held in +practical slavery while they "worked out" advances made for +passage-money, &c.) were still sources of much injustice. State laws +made liable to prosecution for misdemeanour any contract labourer who, +having received advances, failed for any but good cause to fulfil the +contract; or any contract labourer who made a second contract without +giving notice to his second employer of a prior and unfulfilled +contract; or any employer of a labourer who had not completed the term +of a prior contract. In September 1908, after an investigation which +showed that many wardens had been in the pay of convict lessees and that +terrible cruelty had been practised in convict camps, an extra session +of the legislature practically put an end to the convict lease or +contract system; the act then passed provided that after the 31st of +March 1909, the date of expiration of leases in force, no convicts may +be leased for more than twelve months and none may be leased at all +unless there are enough convicts to supply all demands for convict +labour on roads made by counties, each county to receive its _pro rata_ +share on a population basis, and to satisfy all demands made by +municipalities which thus secure labour for $100 per annum (per man) +paid into the state treasury, and all demands made by the state prison +farm and factory established by this law. + +_Education._--Georgia's system of public instruction was not instituted +until 1870, but as early as 1817 the legislature provided a fund for the +education in the private schools of the state of children of indigent +parents. The constitution of 1868 authorized "a thorough system of +general education, to be for ever free to all children of the State," +and in 1870 the first public school law was enacted. Education, however, +has never been made compulsory. The constitution, as amended in 1905, +provides that elections on the question of local school taxes for +counties or for school districts may be called upon a petition signed by +one-fourth of the qualified voters of the county, or district, in +question; under this provision several counties and a large number of +school districts are supplementing the general fund. But the principal +source of the annual school revenue is a state tax; the fund derived +from this tax, however, is not large enough. In 1908 the common school +fund approximated $3,786,830, of which amount the state paid $2,163,200 +and about $1,010,680 was raised by local taxation. In 1908 69% of the +school population (79% of whites; 58% of negroes) were enrolled in the +schools; in 1902 it was estimated that the negroes, 52.3% of whom (10 +years of age and over) were illiterates (i.e. could not write or could +neither read nor write) in 1900 (81.6% of them were illiterate in 1880), +received the benefit of only about a fifth of the school fund. Of the +total population, 10 years of age and over, 30.5% were illiterates in +1900--49.9% were illiterates in 1880--and as regards the whites of +native birth alone, Georgia ranked ninth in illiteracy, in 1900, among +the states and territories of the Union. Of the illiterates about +four-fifths were negroes in 1900. In addition to the public schools, the +state also supports the University of Georgia; and in 1906 $235,000 was +expended for the support of higher education. In 1906-1907 eleven +agricultural and mechanical arts colleges were established, one in each +congressional district of the state. Of the colleges of the university, +Franklin was the first state college chartered in America (1785); the +Medical College of Georgia, at Augusta, was opened in 1829; the State +College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts was established at Athens in +1872; the North Georgia Agricultural College, at Dahlonega, was opened +in 1873; the Georgia School of Technology, at Atlanta, in 1888; the +Georgia Normal and Industrial College (for women), in Milledgeville, in +1899; the Georgia State Normal School, at Athens, in 1895; the Georgia +State Industrial College for Coloured Youth, near Savannah, in 1890; the +School of Pharmacy, at Athens, in 1903; and the School of Forestry, and +the Georgia State College of Agriculture, at Athens, in 1906. Affiliated +with the university, but not receiving state funds, are three +preparatory schools, the South Georgia Military and Agricultural College +at Thomasville, the Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College at +Milledgeville, and the West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College +at Hamilton. Among the institutions generally grouped as denominational +are--Baptist: Mercer University, at Macon (Penfield, 1837; Macon, 1871), +Shorter College (1877) at Rome, Spelman Seminary (1881) in Atlanta for +negro women and girls, and Bessie Tift College, formerly Monroe College +(1849) for women, at Forsyth; Methodist Episcopal: Emory College (1836), +at Oxford, and Wesleyan Female College (1836) at Macon, both largely +endowed by George Ingraham Seney (1837-1893), and the latter one of the +earliest colleges for women in the country; Methodist Episcopal Church, +South: Young Harris College (1855) at Young Harris, Andrew Female +College (1854) at Cuthbert, and Dalton Female College (1872) at Dalton; +Presbyterian: Agnes Scott College at Decatur; and African Methodist +Episcopal: Morris Brown College (1885) at Atlanta. A famous school for +negroes is the non-sectarian Atlanta University (incorporated in 1867, +opened in 1869), which has trained many negroes for teaching and other +professions. Non-sectarian colleges for women are: Lucy Cobb Institute +(1858) at Athens, Cox College (1843) at College Park, near Atlanta, and +Brenau College Conservatory (1878) at Gainesville. + + _Finance._--The assessed value of taxable property in 1910 was about + $735,000,000. A general property tax, which furnishes about + four-fifths of the public revenue, worked so inequitably that a Board + of Equalization was appointed in 1901. By the Constitution the tax + rate is limited to $5 on the thousand, and, as the rate of taxation + has increased faster than the taxable property, the state has been + forced to contract several temporary loans since 1901, none of which + has exceeded $200,000, the limit for each year set by the + Constitution. On the 1st of January 1910 the bonded debt was + $6,944,000, mainly incurred by the extravagance of the Reconstruction + administration (see _History_, below). Each year $100,000 of this debt + is paid off, and there are annual appropriations for the payment of + interest (about $303,260 in 1910). The state owns the Western & + Atlantic railway (137 m. long) from Chattanooga, Tennessee, to + Atlanta, which has valuable terminal facilities in both cities, and + which in 1910 was estimated to be worth $8,400,240 (more than the + amount of the bonded debt); this railway the state built in 1841-1850, + and in 1890 leased for 29 years, at an annual rental of $420,012, to + the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis railway. + + Banking in Georgia is in a prosperous condition. The largest class of + depositors are the farmers, who more and more look to the banks for + credit, instead of to the merchants and cotton speculators. Hence the + number of banks in agricultural districts is increasing. The state + treasurer is the bank examiner, and to him all banks must make a + quarterly statement and submit their books for examination twice a + year. The legal rate of interest is 7%, but by contract it may be 8%. + +_History._--Georgia derives its name from King George II. of Great +Britain. It was the last to be established of the English colonies in +America. Its formation was due to a desire of the British government to +protect South Carolina from invasion by the Spaniards from Florida and +by the French from Louisiana, as well as to the desire of James Edward +Oglethorpe (q.v.) to found a refuge for the persecuted Protestant sects +and the unfortunate but worthy indigent classes of Europe. A charter was +granted in 1732 to "the Trustees for establishing the colony of Georgia +in America," and parliament gave £10,000 to the enterprise. The first +settlement was made at Savannah in 1733 under the personal supervision +of Oglethorpe. The early colonists were German Lutherans (Salzburgers), +Piedmontese, Scottish Highlanders, Swiss, Portuguese Jews and +Englishmen; but the main tide of immigration, from Virginia and the +Carolinas, did not set in until 1752. As a bulwark against the Spanish, +the colony was successful, but as an economic experiment it was a +failure. The trustees desired that there should be grown in the colony +wine grapes, hemp, silk and medical plants (barilla, kali, cubeb, caper, +madder, &c.) for which England was dependent upon foreign countries; +they required the settlers to plant mulberry trees, and forbade the sale +of rum, the chief commercial staple of the colonies. They also forbade +the introduction of negro slaves. Land was leased by military tenure, +and until 1739 grants were made only in male tail and alienations were +forbidden. The industries planned for the colony did not thrive, and as +sufficient labour could not be obtained, the importation of slaves was +permitted under certain conditions in 1749. About the same time the +House of Commons directed the trustees to remove the prohibition on the +sale of rum. In 1753 the charter of the trustees expired and Georgia +became a royal province. + +Under the new regime the colony was so prosperous that Sir James Wright +(1716-1785), the last of the royal governors, declared Georgia to be +"the most flourishing colony on the continent." The people were led to +revolt against the mother country through sympathy with the other +colonies rather than through any grievance of their own. The centre of +revolutionary ideas was St John's Parish, settled by New Englanders +(chiefly from Dorchester, Massachusetts). The Loyalist sentiment was so +strong that only five of the twelve parishes sent representatives to the +First Provincial Congress, which met on the 18th of January 1775, and +its delegates to the Continental Congress therefore did not claim seats +in that assembly. But six months later all the parishes sent +representatives to another Provincial Congress which met on the 4th of +July 1775. Soon afterward the royal government collapsed and the +administration of the colony was assumed by a council of safety. + +The war that followed was really a severe civil conflict, the Loyalist +and Revolutionary parties being almost equal in numbers. In 1778 the +British seized Savannah, which they held until 1782, meanwhile reviving +the British civil administration, and in 1779 they captured Augusta and +Sunbury; but after 1780 the Revolutionary forces were generally +successful. Civil affairs also fell into confusion. In 1777 a state +constitution was adopted, but two factions soon appeared in the +government, led by the governor and the executive council respectively, +and harmony was not secured until 1781. + +Georgia's policy in the formation of the United States government was +strongly national. In the constitutional convention of 1787 its +delegates almost invariably gave their support to measures designed to +strengthen the central government. Georgia was the fourth state to +ratify (January 2, 1788), and one of the three that ratified +unanimously, the Federal Constitution. But a series of conflicts between +the Federal government and the state government caused a decline of this +national sentiment and the growth of States Rights theories. + +First of these was the friction involved in the case, before the Supreme +Court of the United States, of _Chisolm_ v. _Georgia_, by which the +plaintiff, one Alexander Chisolm, a citizen of South Carolina, secured +judgment in 1793 against the state of Georgia (see 2 Dallas Reports +419). In protest, the Georgia House of Representatives, holding that the +United States Supreme Court had no constitutional power to try suits +against a sovereign state, resolved that any Federal marshal who should +attempt to execute the court's decision would be "guilty of felony, and +shall suffer death, without benefit of clergy, by being hanged." No +effort was made to execute the decision, and in 1798 the Eleventh +Amendment to the Federal Constitution was adopted, taking from Federal +courts all jurisdiction over any suit brought "against one of the United +States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any +foreign state." + +The position of Congress and of the Supreme Court with reference to +Georgia's policy in the Yazoo Frauds also aroused distrust of the +Federal government. In 1795 the legislature granted for $500,000 the +territory extending from the Alabama and Coosa rivers to the Mississippi +river and between 35° and 31° N. lat. (almost all of the present state +of Mississippi and more than half of the present state of Alabama) to +four land companies, but in the following year a new legislature +rescinded the contracts on the ground that they had been fraudulently +and corruptly made, as was probably the case, and the rescindment was +embodied in the Constitution of 1798., In the meantime the United States +Senate had appointed a committee to inquire into Georgia's claim to the +land in question, and as this committee pronounced that claim invalid, +Congress in 1800 established a Territorial government over the region. +The legislature of Georgia remonstrated but expressed a willingness to +cede the land to the United States, and in 1802 the cession was +ratified, it being stipulated among other things that the United States +should pay to the state $1,250,000, and should extinguish "at their own +expense, for the use of Georgia, as soon as the same can be peaceably +obtained on reasonable terms," the Indian title to all lands within the +state of Georgia. Eight years later the Supreme Court of the United +States decided in the case of _Fletcher_ v. _Peck_ (6 Cranch 87) that +such a rescindment as that in the new state constitution was illegal, on +the ground that a state cannot pass a law impairing the obligation of +contracts; and at an expense of more than four millions of dollars the +Federal government ultimately extinguished all claims to the lands. + +This decision greatly irritated the political leaders of Georgia, and +the question of extinguishing the Indian titles, on which there had long +been a disagreement, caused further and even more serious friction +between the Federal and state authorities. The National government, +until the administration of President Jackson, regarded the Indian +tribes as sovereign nations with whom it alone had the power to treat, +while Georgia held that the tribes were dependent communities with no +other right to the soil than that of tenants at will. In 1785 Georgia +made treaties with the Creeks by which those Indians ceded to the state +their lands S. and W. of the Altamaha river and E. of the Oconee river, +but after a remonstrance of one of their half-breed chiefs Congress +decided that the cessions were invalid, and the National government +negotiated, in 1790, a new treaty which ceded only the lands E. of the +Oconee. The state appealed to the National government to endeavour to +secure further cessions, but none had been made when, in 1802, the +United States assumed its obligation to extinguish all Indian titles +within the state. Several cessions were made between 1802 and 1824, but +the state in the latter year remonstrated in vigorous terms against the +dilatory manner in which the National government was discharging its +obligation, and the effect of this was that in 1825 a treaty was +negotiated at Indian Springs by which nearly all the Lower Creeks agreed +to exchange their remaining lands in Georgia for equal territory beyond +the Mississippi. But President J.Q. Adams, learning that this treaty was +not approved by the entire Creek nation, authorized a new one, signed at +Washington in 1826, by which the treaty of 1825 was abrogated and the +Creeks kept certain lands W. of the Chattahoochee. The Georgia +government, under the leadership of Governor George M. Troup +(1780-1856), had proceeded to execute the first treaty, and the +legislature declared the second treaty illegal and unconstitutional. In +reply to a communication of President Adams early in 1827 that the +United States would take strong measures to enforce its policy, Governor +Troup declared that he felt it his duty to resist to the utmost any +military attack which the government of the United States should think +proper to make, and ordered the military companies to prepare to resist +"any hostile invasion of the territory of this state." But the strain +produced by these conditions was relieved by information that new +negotiations had been begun for the cession of all Creek lands in +Georgia. These negotiations were completed late in the year. + +There was similar conflict in the relation of the United States and +Georgia with the Cherokees. In 1785 the Cherokees of Georgia placed +themselves under the protection of the Federal government, and in 1823 +their chiefs, who were mostly half-breeds, declared: "It is the fixed +and unalterable determination of this nation never again to cede one +foot more of land," and that they could not "recognize the sovereignty +of any state within the limits of their territory"; in 1827 they framed +a constitution and organized a representative government. President +Monroe and President J.Q. Adams treated the Cherokees with the courtesy +due to a sovereign nation, and held that the United States had done all +that was required to meet the obligation assumed in 1802. The Georgia +legislature, however, contended that the United States had not acted in +good faith, declared that all land within the boundaries of the state +belonged to Georgia, and in 1828 extended the jurisdiction of Georgia +law to the Cherokee lands. Then President Jackson, holding that Georgia +was in the right on the Indian question, informed the Cherokees that +their only alternative to submission to Georgia was emigration. +Thereupon the chiefs resorted to the United States Supreme Court, which +in 1832 declared that the Cherokees formed a distinct community "in +which the laws of Georgia have no force," and annulled the decision of a +Georgia court that had extended its jurisdiction into the Cherokee +country (_Worcester_ v. _Georgia_). But the governor of Georgia declared +that the decision was an attempt at usurpation which would meet with +determined resistance, and President Jackson refused to enforce the +decree. The President did, however, work for the removal of the Indians, +which was effected in 1838. + +On account of these conflicts a majority of Georgians adopted the +principles of the Democratic-Republican party, and early in the 19th +century the people were virtually unanimous in their political ideas. +Local partisanship centred in two factions: one, led by George M. Troup, +which represented the interests of the aristocratic and slave-holding +communities; the other, formed by John Clarke (1766-1832) and his +brother Elijah, found support among the non-slave-holders and the +frontiersmen. The cleavage of these factions was at first purely +personal; but by 1832 it had become one of principle. Then the Troup +faction under the name of States Rights party, endorsed the +nullification policy of South Carolina, while the Clarke faction, +calling itself a Union party, opposed South Carolina's conduct, but on +the grounds of expediency rather than of principle. On account, however, +of its opposition to President Jackson's attitude toward nullification, +the States Rights party affiliated with the new Whig party, which +represented the national feeling in the South, while the Union party was +merged into the Democratic party, which emphasized the sovereignty of +the states. + +The activity of Georgia in the slavery controversy was important. As +early as 1835 the legislature adopted a resolution which asserted the +legality of slavery in the Territories, a principle adopted by Congress +in the Kansas Bill in 1854, and in 1847 ex-Governor Wilson Lumpkin +(1783-1870) advocated the organization of the Southern states to resist +the aggression of the North. Popular opinion at first opposed the +Compromise of 1850, and some politicians demanded immediate secession +from the Union; and the legislature had approved the Alabama Platform of +1848. But Congressmen Robert Toombs, Alexander H. Stephens, Whigs, and +Howell Cobb, a Democrat, upon their return from Washington, contended +that the Compromise was a great victory for the South, and in a campaign +on this issue secured the election of such delegates to the state +convention (at Milledgeville) of 1850 that that body adopted on the 10th +of December, by a vote of 237 to 19, a series of conciliatory +resolutions, since known as the "Georgia Platform," which declared in +substance: (1) that, although the state did not wholly approve of the +Compromise, it would "abide by it as a permanent adjustment of this +sectional controversy," to preserve the Union, as the thirteen original +colonies had found compromise necessary for its formation; (2) that the +state "will and ought to resist, even (as a last resort) to the +disruption of every tie that binds her to the Union," any attempt to +prohibit slavery in the Territories or a refusal to admit a slave state. +The adoption of this platform was accompanied by a party reorganization, +those who approved it organizing the Constitutional Union party, and +those who disapproved, mostly Democrats, organizing the Southern Rights +party; the approval in other states of the Georgia Platform in +preference to the Alabama Platform (see ALABAMA) caused a reaction in +the South against secession. The reaction was followed for a short +interval by a return to approximately the former party alignment, but in +1854 the rank and file of the Whigs joined the American or Know-Nothing +party while most of the Whig leaders went over to the Democrats. The +Know-Nothing party was nearly destroyed by its crushing defeat in 1856 +and in the next year the Democrats by a large majority elected for +governor Joseph Emerson Brown (1821-1894) who by three successive +re-elections was continued in that office until the close of the Civil +War. Although Governor Brown represented the poorer class of white +citizens he had taken a course in law at Yale College, had practised +law, and at the time of his election was judge of a superior court; +although he had never held slaves he believed that the abolition of +slavery would soon result in the ruin of the South, and he was a man of +strong convictions. The Kansas question and the attitude of the North +toward the decision in the Dred Scott case were arousing the South when +he was inaugurated the first time, and in his inaugural address he +clearly indicated that he would favour secession in the event of any +further encroachment on the part of the North. In July 1859 Senator +Alfred Iverson (1798-1874) declared that in the event of the election of +a Free-Soil resident in 1860 he would favour the establishment of an +independent confederacy; later in the same year Governor Brown expressed +himself to a similar effect and urged the improvement of the military +service. On the 7th of November following the election of President +Lincoln the governor, in a special message to the legislature, +recommended the calling of a convention to decide the question of +secession, and Alexander H. Stephens was about the only prominent +political leader who contended that Lincoln's election was insufficient +ground for such action. On the 17th of November the legislature passed +an act directing the governor to order an election of delegates on the +2nd of January 1861 and their meeting in a convention on the 16th. On +the 19th this body passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 208 to +89. Already the first regiment of Georgia Volunteers, under Colonel +Alexander Lawton (1818-1896) had seized Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the +Savannah river and now Governor Brown proceeded to Augusta and seized +the Federal arsenal there. Toward the close of the same year, however, +Federal warships blockaded Georgia's ports, and early in 1862 Federal +forces captured Tybee Island, Fort Pulaski, St Mary's, Brunswick and St +Simon Island. Georgia had responded freely to the call for volunteers, +but when the Confederate Congress had passed, in April 1862, the +Conscript Law which required all white men (except those legally +exempted from service) between the ages of 18 and 35 to enter the +Confederate service, Governor Brown, in a correspondence with President +Davis which was continued for several months, offered serious +objections, his leading contentions being that the measure was +unnecessary as to Georgia, unconstitutional, subversive of the state's +sovereignty, and therefore "at war with the principles for the support +of which Georgia entered into this revolution." + +In 1863 north-west Georgia was involved in the Chattanooga campaign. In +the following spring Georgia was invaded from Tennessee by a Federal +army under General William T. Sherman; the resistance of General Joseph +E. Johnston and General J.B. Hood proved ineffectual; and on the 1st of +September Atlanta was taken. Then Sherman began his famous "march to the +sea," from Atlanta to Savannah, which revealed the weakness of the +Confederacy. In the spring of 1865, General J.H. Wilson with a body of +cavalry entered the state from Alabama, seized Columbus and West Point +on the 16th of April, and on the 10th of May captured Jefferson Davis, +president of the Confederacy, at Irwinville in Irwin county. + +In accord with President Andrew Johnson's plan for reorganizing the +Southern States, a provisional governor, James Johnson, was appointed on +the 17th of June 1865, and a state convention reformed the constitution +to meet the new conditions, rescinding the ordinance of secession, +abolishing slavery and formally repudiating the state debt incurred in +the prosecution of the war. A governor and legislature were elected in +November 1865, the legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment on the +9th of December and five days later the governor-elect was inaugurated. +But both the convention and legislature incurred the suspicion and +ill-will of Congress; the convention had congratulated the president on +his policy, memorialized him on behalf of Jefferson Davis, and provided +pensions for disabled Confederate soldiers and the widows of those who +had lost their lives during the war, while the legislature passed +apprenticeship, labour and vagrancy laws to protect and regulate the +negroes, and rejected the Fourteenth Amendment. Although the civil +rights were conferred upon the freedmen, Congress would not tolerate the +political incapacity and social inferiority which the legislature had +assigned to them, and therefore Georgia was placed under military +government, as part of the third military district, by the +Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Under the auspices of the +military authorities registration of electors for a new state convention +was begun and 95,168 negroes and 96,333 whites were registered. The +acceptance of the proposition to call the convention and the election of +many conscientious and intelligent delegates were largely due to the +influence of ex-Governor Brown, who was strongly convinced that the +wisest course for the South was to accept quickly what Congress had +offered. The convention met in Atlanta on the 9th of December 1867 and +by March 1868 had revised the constitution to meet the requirements of +the Reconstruction Acts. The constitution was duly adopted by popular +vote, and elections were held for the choice of a governor and +legislature. Rufus Brown Bullock (b. 1834), Republican, was chosen +governor, the Senate had a majority of Republicans, but in the House of +Representatives a tie vote was cast for the election of a speaker. On +the 21st of July the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, and a section of +the state constitution (which denied the power of state courts to +entertain against any resident of the state suits founded on contracts +existing on the 15th of June 1865) was repealed by the legislature in +pursuance of the congressional "Omnibus Bill" of the 25th of June 1868, +and as evidence of the restoration of Georgia to the Union the +congressmen were seated on the 25th of July in that year. + +But in September of the same year the Democrats in the state +legislature, being assisted by some of the white Republicans, expelled +the 27 negro members and seated their defeated white contestants, +relying upon the legal theory that the right to hold office belonged +only to those citizens designated by statute, the common law or custom. +In retaliation the 41st Congress excluded the state's representatives on +a technicality, and, on the theory that the government of Georgia was a +provisional organization, passed an act requiring the ratification of +the Fifteenth Amendment before the admission of Georgia's senators and +representatives. The war department now concluded that the state was +still subject to military authority, and placed General A.H. Terry in +command. With his aid, and that of Congressional requirements that all +members of the legislature must take the Test Oath and none be excluded +on account of colour, a Republican majority was secured for both houses, +and the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified. Georgia was now finally +admitted to the Union by Act of Congress, on the 15th of July 1870. + +The Reconstruction period in Georgia is remarkable for its comparative +moderation. Although there was great political excitement, there was not +as much extravagance in public administration as there was in other +Southern States, the state debt increasing approximately from $6,600,000 +to $16,000,000. The explanation lies in the fact that there were +comparatively few "carpet-baggers" or adventurers in the state, and that +a large number of conservative citizens, under the leadership of +ex-Governor Brown, supported the Reconstruction policy of Congress and +joined the Republican party. + +The election of 1871 gave the Democrats a majority in the legislature; +Governor Bullock, fearing impeachment, resigned, and at a special +election James M. Smith was chosen to fill the unexpired term. After +that the control of the Democrats was complete. In 1891 the Populist +party was organized, but it never succeeded in securing a majority of +the votes in the state. + +LIST OF GOVERNORS + + I. _Administration of the Trustees._ + + James Edward Oglethorpe[8] 1732-1743 + William Stephens[9] 1743-1751 + Henry Parker[9] 1751-1753 + Patrick Graham[9] 1753-1754 + + II. _Royal Administration._ + + John Reynolds 1754-1757 + Henry Ellis 1757-1760 + Sir James Wright 1760-1782 + + III. _Provincial Administration._ + + William Ewen[10] 1775 + Archibald Bulloch[11] 1776 + Button Gwinnett[11] 1777 + Jonathan Bryan[11] 1777 + + IV. _Georgia as a State._ + + John A. Treutlen[12] 1777-1778 + John Houston 1778-1779 + John Wereat[13] 1779 + George Walton 1779-1780 + Richard Hawley 1780 + Stephen Heard[13] 1780-1781 + Myrick Davies[13] 1781 + Nathan Brownson 1781-1782 + John Martin 1782-1783 + Lyman Hall 1783-1785 + Samuel Elbert 1785-1786 + Edward Telfair 1786-1787 + George Matthews 1787-1788 + George Handley 1788-1789 + George Walton 1789-1790 Democratic-Republican + Edward Telfair 1790-1793 " " + George Matthews 1793-1796 " " + Jared Irwin 1796-1798 " " + James Jackson 1798-1801 " " + David Emanuel 1801 " " + Josiah Tattnall 1801-1802 " " + John Milledge 1802-1806 " " + Jared Irwin 1806-1809 " " + David B. Mitchell 1809-1813 " " + Peter Early 1813-1815 " " + David B. Mitchell 1815-1817 " " + William Rabun[14] 1817-1819 " " + Matthew Talbot[14] 1819 " " + John Clarke 1819-1823 " " + George M. Troup 1823-1827 " " + John Forsyth 1827-1829 " " + George R. Gilmer 1829-1831 National Republican + Wilson Lumpkin 1831-1835 Democratic-Republican + William Schley 1835-1837 Union + George Gilmer 1837-1839 Democrat + Charles J. McDonald 1839-1843 Union + George W. Crawford 1843-1847 Whig + George W.B. Towns 1847-1851 Democrat + Howell Cobb 1851-1853 Constitutional Union + Herschell V. Johnson 1853-1856 Democrat + Joseph E. Brown 1857-1865 " + James Johnson[15] 1865 " + Charles J. Jenkins 1865-1868 " + Thomas H. Ruger 1868 " + Rufus B. Bullock 1868-1871 Republican + Benjamin Conley[14] 1871-1872 " + James M. Smith 1872-1876 Democrat + Alfred H. Colquitt 1876-1882 " + Alexander H. Stephens 1882-1883 " + James S. Boynton[14] 1883 " + Henry D. McDaniel 1883-1886 " + John B. Gordon 1886-1890 " + W.J. Northen 1890-1894 " + W.Y. Atkinson 1894-1898 " + A.D. Candler 1898-1902 " + Joseph M. Terrell 1902-1907 " + Hoke Smith 1907-1909 " + Joseph M. Brown 1909-1911 " + Hoke Smith 1911- " + + A brief bibliography, chiefly of historical materials, is given by + U.B. Phillips in his monograph "Georgia and State Rights," in vol. ii. + of the _Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1901_ + (Washington, 1902). Valuable information concerning the resources and + products of the state is given in the publications of the Department + of Agriculture, which include weekly and monthly _Bulletins_, biennial + _Reports_ and a volume entitled _Georgia, Historical and Industrial_ + (Atlanta, 1901). The Reports of the United States Census (especially + the Twelfth Census for 1900 and the special census of manufactures for + 1905) should be consulted, and _Memoirs of Georgia_ (2 vols., Atlanta, + Ga., 1895) contains chapters on industrial conditions. + + The principal sources for public administration are the annual reports + of the state officers, philanthropic institutions, the prison + commission and the railroad commission, and the revised Code of + Georgia (Atlanta, 1896), adopted in 1895; see also L.F. Schmeckebier's + "Taxation in Georgia" (_Johns Hopkins University Studies_, vol. + xviii.) and "Banking in Georgia" (_Banker's Magazine_, vol. xlviii.). + Education and social conditions are treated in C.E. Jones's _History + of Education in Georgia_ (Washington, 1890), the Annual Reports of the + School Commissioner, and various magazine articles, such as "Georgia + Cracker in the Cotton Mill" (_Century Magazine_, vol. xix.) and "A + Plea for Light" (_South Atlantic Quarterly_, vol. iii.). The view of + slavery given in Frances A. Kemble's _Journal of a Residence on a + Georgia Plantation in 1838-1839_ (New York, 1863) should be compared + with R.Q. Mallard's _Plantation Life before Emancipation_ (Richmond, + Va., 1897), and with F.L. Olmsted's _A Journey in the Seaboard Slave + States_ (New York, 1856). + + The best book for the entire field of Georgia history is Lawton B. + Evans's _A Student's History of Georgia_ (New York, 1898), a textbook + for schools. This should be supplemented by C.C. Jones's _Antiquities + of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia Tribes_ (New + York, 1873), for the aborigines; W.B. Stevens's _History of Georgia to + 1798_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1847-1859) and C.C. Jones, jun., History + of Georgia (2 vols., Boston, 1883) for the Colonial and Revolutionary + periods; C.H. Haskins's _The Yazoo Land Companies_ (Washington, 1891); + the excellent monograph (mentioned above) by U.B. Phillips for + politics prior to 1860; Miss Annie H. Abel's monograph "The History of + Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi," in + vol. i. of the _Annual Report of the American Historical Association + for 1906_ (Washington, 1908) for a good account of the removal of the + Indians from Georgia; the judicious monograph by E.C. Woolley, + _Reconstruction in Georgia_ (New York, 1901); and I.W. Avery's + _History of Georgia from 1850 to 1881_ (New York, 1881), which is + marred by prejudice but contains material of value. _The Confederate + Records of the State of Georgia_ were published at Atlanta in 1909. + See also: E.J. Harden's _Life of George M. Troup_ (Savannah, 1840); + R.M. Johnston and W.H. Browne, _Life of Alexander H. Stephens + (Philadelphia, 1878), and Louis Pendleton, Life of Alexander H. + Stephens_ (Philadelphia, 1907); P.A. Stovall's _Robert Toombs_ (New + York, 1892); H. Fielder's _Life, Times and Speeches of Joseph E. + Brown_ (Springfield, Mass., 1883) and C.C. Jones, jun., _Biographical + Sketches of Delegates from Georgia to the Continental Congress_ (New + York, 1891). There is much valuable material, also, in the + publications (beginning with 1840) of the Georgia Historical Society + (see the list in vol. ii. of the _Report of the American Historical + Association for 1905_). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] According to the usual nomenclature, the branch flowing S.W. is + called the Chattooga; this unites with the Tallulah to form the + Tugaloo, which in turn unites with the Kiowee to form the Savannah + proper. + + [2] The manufacturing statistics for 1900 which follow are not those + given in the Twelfth Census, but are taken from the _Census of + Manufactures_, 1905, the 1900 figures here given being only for + "establishments on a factory basis," and thus being comparable with + those of 1905. In 1890 there were 53 mills with a capital of + $17,664,675 and a product valued at $12,035,629. + + [3] In these valuations for 1900 and for 1905 the rough lumber + dressed or remanufactured in planing mills enters twice into the + value of the product. + + [4] The population of the state was 82,548 in 1790, 162,686 in 1800, + 252,433 in 1810, 340,989 in 1820, 516,823 in 1830, 691,392 in 1840, + 906,185 in 1850, 1,057,286 in 1860, and 1,184,100 in 1870. + + [5] This negro percentage includes 211 Chinese, Japanese and Indians. + + [6] The state has had four other constitutions--those of 1777, 1789, + 1798 and 1868. + + [7] Owing to the custom which holds in Georgia of choosing state + senators in rotation from each of the counties making up a senatorial + district, it happened in 1907 that few cities were represented + directly by senators chosen from municipalities. It is believed that + this fact contributed to the passage of the prohibition law. + + [8] _De facto._ + + [9] President of the Colony. + + [10] President of the Council of Safety. + + [11] President of Georgia. + + [12] First Governor under a State Constitution. + + [13] President Executive Council and _de facto_ Governor. + + [14] President of Senate. + + [15] Provisional. + + + + +GEORGIA, a former kingdom of Transcaucasia, which existed historically +for more than 2000 years. Its earliest name was Karthli or Karthveli; +the Persians knew it as Gurjistan, the Romans and Greeks as Iberia, +though the latter placed Colchis also in the west of Georgia. Vrastan is +the Armenian name and Gruzia the Russian. Georgia proper, which included +Karthli and Kakhetia, was bounded on the N. by Ossetia and Daghestan, on +the S. by the principalities of Erivan and Kars, and on the W. by Guria +and Imeretia; but the kingdom also included at different times Guria, +Mingrelia, Abkhasia, Imeretia and Daghestan, and extended from the +Caucasus range on the N. to the Aras or Araxes on the S. It is now +divided between the Russian governments of Tiflis and Kutais, under +which headings further geographical particulars are given. (See also +CAUCASIA.) + +_History._--According to traditional accounts, the Georgian (Karthlian), +Kakhetian, Lesghian, Mingrelian and other races of Transcaucasia are the +descendants of Thargamos, great-grandson of Japheth, son of Noah, though +Gen. x. 3 makes Togarmah to be the son of Gomer, who was the son of +Japheth. These various races were subsequently known under the general +name of Thargamosides. Karthlos, the second son of Thargamos, is the +eponymous king of his race, their country being called Karthli after +him. Mtskhethos, son of Karthlos, founded the city of Mtskhetha (the +modern Mtskhet) and made it the capital of his kingdom. We come, +however, to firmer historic ground when we read that Georgia was +conquered by Alexander the Great, or rather by one of his generals. The +Macedonian yoke was shaken off by Pharnavaz or Pharnabazus, a prince of +the royal race, who ruled from 302 to 237 B.C. All through its history +Georgia, being on the outskirts of Armenia and Persia, both of them +more powerful neighbours than itself, was at times more or less closely +affected by their destinies. In this way it was sometimes opposed to +Rome, sometimes on terms of friendship with Byzantium, according as +these were successively friendly or hostile to the Armenians and the +Persians. In the end of the 2nd century B.C. the last Pharnavazian +prince was dethroned by his own subjects and the crown given to Arsaces, +king of Armenia, whose son Arshag, ascending the throne of Georgia in 93 +B.C., established there the Arsacid dynasty. This close association with +Armenia brought upon the country an invasion (65 B.C.) by the Roman +general Pompey, who was then at war with Mithradates, king of Pontus and +Armenia; but Pompey did not establish his power permanently over Iberia. +A hundred and eighty years later the Emperor Trajan penetrated (A.D. +114) into the heart of the country, and chastised the Georgians; yet his +conquest was only a little more permanent than Pompey's. During one of +the internecine quarrels, which were not infrequent in Georgia, the +throne fell to Mirhan or Mirian (265-342), a son of the Persian king, +who had married a daughter of Asphagor, the last sovereign of the +Arsacid dynasty. + +With Mirian begins the Sassanian dynasty. He and his subjects were +converted to Christianity by a nun Nuno (Nino), who had escaped from the +religious persecutions of Tiridates, king of Armenia. Mirian erected the +first Christian church in Georgia on the site now occupied by the +cathedral of Mtskhet. In or about the year 371 Georgia was overrun by +the Persian king Shapur or Sapor II., and in 379 a Persian general built +the stronghold of Tphilis (afterwards Tiflis) as a counterpoise to +Mtskhet. The Persian grasp upon Georgia was loosened by Tiridates, who +reigned from 393 to 405. One of Mirian's successors, Vakhtang (446-499), +surnamed Gurgaslan or Gurgasal, the Wolf-Lion, established a +patriarchate at Mtskhet and made Tphilis his capital. This sovereign, +having conquered Mingrelia and Abkhasia, and subdued the Ossetes, made +himself master of a large part of Armenia. Then, co-operating for once +with the king of Persia, he led an army into India; but towards the end +of his reign there was enmity between him and the Persians, against whom +he warred unsuccessfully. His son Dachi or Darchil (499-514) upon +ascending the throne transferred the seat of government permanently from +Mtskhet to Tphilis (Tiflis). Again Persia stretched out her hand over +Georgia, and proved a formidable menace to the existence of the kingdom, +until, owing to the severe pressure of the Turks on the one side and of +the Byzantine Greeks on the other, she found it expedient to relax her +grasp. The Georgians, seizing the opportunity, appealed (571) to the +Byzantine emperor, Justin II. who gave them a king in the person of +Guaram, a prince of the Bagratid family of Armenia, conferring upon him +the title, not of king, but of viceroy. Thus began the dynasty of the +Bagratids, who ruled until 1803. + +This was not, however, the first time that Byzantine influence had been +effectively exercised in Georgia. As early as the reign of Mirian, in +the 3rd century, the organizers of the early Georgian church had looked +to Byzantium, the leading Christian power in the East, for both +instruction and guidance, and the connexion thus begun had been +strengthened as time went on. From this period until the Arab (i.e. +Mahommedan) invasions began, the authority of Byzantium was supreme in +Georgia. Some seventy years after the Bagratids began to rule in Georgia +the all-conquering Arabs appeared on the frontiers of the country, and +for the next one hundred and eighty years they frequently devastated the +land, compelling its inhabitants again and again to accept Islam at the +sword's point. But it was not until the death of the Georgian king Ashod +(787-826) that they completely subdued the Caucasian state and imposed +their will upon it. Nevertheless they were too much occupied elsewhere +or too indifferent to its welfare to defend it against alien aggressors, +for in 842 Bogha, a Turkish chief, invaded the country, and early in the +10th century the Persians again overran it. But a period of relief from +these hostile incursions was afforded by the reign of Bagrat III. +(980-1014). During his father's lifetime he had been made king of +Abkhasia, his mother belonging to the royal house of that land, and +after ascending the Georgian throne he made his power felt far beyond +the frontiers of his hereditary dominions, until his kingdom extended +from the Black Sea to the Caspian, while Armenia, Azerbaijan and Kirman +all paid him tribute. Not only did he encourage learning and patronize +the fine arts, but he built, in 1003, the cathedral at Kutais, one of +the finest examples extant of Georgian architecture. During the reign of +Bagrat IV. (1027-1072) the Seljuk Turks more than once burst, after +1048, into the country from Asia Minor, but they were on the whole +successfully repulsed, although they plundered Tiflis. During the reign +of the next king, George II., they again devastated Tiflis. But once +more fortune changed after the accession of David II. (1089-1125), +surnamed the Renovator, one of the greatest of Georgian kings. With the +help of the Kipchaks, a Mongol or Turkish race, from the steppe lands to +the north of the Caucasus, whom he admitted into his country, David +drove the Seljuks out of his domains and forced them back over the +Armenian mountains. Under George III. (1156-1184), a grandson of David +II., Armenia was in part conquered, and Ani, one of its capitals, taken. +George's daughter Thamar or Tamara, who succeeded him, reigned over the +kingdom as left by David II. and further extended her power over +Trebizond, Erzerum, Tovin (in Armenia) and Kars. These successes were +continued by her son George IV. (1212-1223), who conquered Ganja (now +Elisavetpol) and repulsed the attacks of the Persians; but in the last +years of his reign there appeared (1220 and 1222) the people who were to +prove the ruin of Georgia, namely the Mongol hosts of Jenghiz Khan, led +by his sons. George IV. was succeeded by his sister Rusudan, whose +capital was twice captured by the Persians and her kingdom overrun and +fearfully devastated by the Mongols in 1236. Then, after a period of +wonderful recovery under George V. (1318-1346), who conquered Imeretia +and reunited it to his crown, Georgia was again twice (1386 and +1393-1394) desolated by the Mongols under Timur (Tamerlane), prince of +Samarkand, who on the second occasion laid waste the entire country with +fire and sword, and crushed it under his relentless heel until the year +1403. Alexander I. (1413-1442) freed his country from the last of the +Mongols, but at the end of his reign divided his territory between his +three sons, whom he made sovereigns of Imeretia, Kakhetia and Karthli +(Georgia) respectively. The first mentioned remained a separate state +until its annexation to Russia in 1810; the other two were soon +reunited. + +Political relations between Russia and Georgia began in the end of the +same century, namely in 1492, when the king of Kakhetia sought the +protection of Ivan III. during a war between the Turks and the Persians. +In the 17th century the two states were brought into still closer +relationship. In 1619, when Georgia was harried by Shah Abbas of Persia, +Theimuraz (1629-1634), king of Georgia, appealed for help to Michael, +the first of the Romanov tsars of Russia, and his example was followed +later in the century by the rulers of other petty Thargamosid or +Caucasian states, namely Imeretia and Guria. In 1638 the prince of +Mingrelia took the oath of allegiance to the Russian tsar, and in 1650 +the same step was taken by the prince of Imeretia. Vakhtang VI. of +Georgia put himself under the protection of Peter the Great early in the +18th century. When Persia fell into the grip of the Afghans early in the +18th century the Turks seized the opportunity, and, ousting the Persians +from Georgia, captured Tiflis and compelled Vakhtang to abdicate. But in +1735 they renounced all claim to supremacy over the Caucasian states. +This left Persia with the predominating influence, for though Peter the +Great extorted from Persia (1722) her prosperous provinces beside the +Caspian, he left the mountaineers to their own dynastic quarrels. +Heraclius II. of Georgia declared himself the vassal of Russia in 1783, +and when, twelve years later, he was hard pressed by Agha Mahommed, shah +of Persia, who seized Tiflis and laid it in ruins, he appealed to Russia +for help. The appeal was again renewed by the next king of Georgia, +George XIII., in 1798, and in the following year he renounced his crown +in favour of the tsar, and in 1801 Georgia was converted into a Russian +province. The state of Guria submitted to Russia in 1829. (J. T. Be.) + +_Ethnology._--Of the three main groups into which the Caucasian races +are now usually divided, the Georgian is in every respect the most +important and interesting. It has accordingly largely occupied the +attention of Orientalists almost incessantly from the days of Klaproth. +Yet such are the difficulties connected with the origin and mutual +relations of the Caucasian peoples that its affinities are still far +from being clearly established. Anton von Schiefner and P.V. Uslar, +however, arrived at some negative conclusions valuable as +starting-points for further research. In their papers, published in the +_Memoirs_ of the St Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences and +elsewhere (1859 et seq.), they finally disposed of the views of Bopp and +Brosset (1836), who attempted on linguistic grounds to connect the +Georgians with the Indo-European family. They also clearly show that Max +Müller's "Turanian" theory is untenable, and they go a long way towards +proving that the Georgian, with all the other Caucasian languages except +the Ossetian, forms a distinct linguistic family absolutely independent +of all others. This had already been suspected by Klaproth, and the same +conclusion was arrived at by Fr. Müller and Zagarelli. + +Uslar's "Caucasian Family" comprises the following three great +divisions: + + 1. Western Group. Typical races: Circassians and Abkhasians. + 2. Eastern Group. Typical races: Chechens and Lesghians. + 3. Southern Group. Typical race: Georgians. + +Here the term "family" must be taken in a far more elastic sense than +when applied, for instance, to the Indo-European, Semitic or Eastern +Polynesian divisions of mankind. Indeed the three groups present at +least as wide divergences as are found to exist between the Semitic and +Hamitic linguistic families. Thus, while the Abkhasian of group 1 is +still at the agglutinating, the Lesghian of group 2 has fairly reached +the inflecting stage, and the Georgian seems still to waver between the +two. In consequence of these different stages of development, Uslar +hesitated finally to fix the position of Georgian in the family, +regarding it as possibly a connecting link between groups 1 and 2, but +possibly also radically distinct from both. + +Including all its numerous ramifications, the Georgian or southern group +occupies the greater part of Transcaucasia, reaching from about the +neighbourhood of Batum on the Black Sea eastwards to the Caspian, and +merging southwards with the Armenians of Aryan stock. It comprises +altogether nine subdivisions, as in the subjoined table: + + 1. The GEORGIANS PROPER, who are the Iberians of the ancients and the + Grusians of the Russians, but who call themselves Karthlians, and who + in medieval times were masters of the Rion and Upper Kura as far as + its confluence with the Alazan. + + 2. The IMERETIANS, west of the Suram mountains as far as the river + Tskheniz-Tskhali. + + 3. The GURIANS, between the Rion and Lazistan. + + 4. The LAZIS of Lazistan on the Black Sea. + + 5. The SVANETIANS, SHVANS or SWANIANS, on the Upper Ingur and + Tskheniz-Tskhali rivers. + + 6. The MINGRELIANS, between the rivers Tskheniz-Tskhali, Rion, Ingur + and the Black Sea. + + 7. The TUSHES or MOSOKS \ + | about the headstreams of the + 8. The PSHAVS or PH'CHAVY > Alazan and Yora rivers. + | + 9. The KHEVSURS / + +The representative branch of the race has always been the Karthlians. It +is now pretty well established that the Georgians are the descendants of +the aborigines of the Pambak highlands, and that they found their way to +their present homes from the south-east some four or five thousand years +ago, possibly under pressure from the great waves of Aryan migration +flowing from the Iranian tableland westwards to Asia Minor and Europe. +The Georgians proper are limited on the east by the Alazan, on the north +by the Caucasus, on the west by the Meskes hills, separating them from +the Imeretians, and on the south by the Kura river and Kara-dagh and +Pambak mountains. Southwards, however, no hard and fast ethnical line +can be drawn, for even immediately south of Tiflis, Georgians, Armenians +and Tatars are found intermingled confusedly together. + +The Georgian race, which represents the oldest elements of civilization +in the Caucasus, is distinguished by some excellent mental qualities, +and is especially noted for personal courage and a passionate love of +music. The people, however, are described as fierce and cruel, and +addicted to intemperance, though Max von Thielmann (_Journey in the +Caucasus_, &c., 1875) speaks of them as "rather hard drinkers than +drunkards." Physically they are a fine athletic race of pure Caucasian +type; hence during the Moslem ascendancy Georgia supplied, next to +Circassia, the largest number of female slaves for the Turkish harems +and of recruits for the Osmanli armies, more especially for the select +corps of the famous Mamelukes. + +The social organization rested on a highly aristocratic basis, and the +lowest classes were separated by several grades of vassalage from the +highest. But since their incorporation with the Russian empire, these +relations have become greatly modified, and a more sharply defined +middle class of merchants, traders and artisans has been developed. The +power of life and death, formerly claimed and freely exercised by the +nobles over their serfs, has also been expressly abolished. The +Georgians are altogether at present in a fairly well-to-do condition, +and under Russian administration they have become industrious, and have +made considerable moral and material progress. + +Missionaries sent by Constantine the Great introduced Christianity about +the beginning of the 4th century. Since that time the people have, +notwithstanding severe pressure from surrounding Mahommedan communities, +remained faithful to the principles of Christianity, and are still +amongst the most devoted adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church. Indeed +it was their attachment to the national religion that caused them to +call in the aid of the Christian Muscovites against the proselytizing +attempts of the Shiite Persians--a step which ultimately brought about +their political extinction. + +As already stated, the Karthli language is not only fundamentally +distinct from the Indo-European linguistic family, but cannot be shown +to possess any clearly ascertained affinities with either of the two +northern Caucasian groups. It resembles them chiefly in its phonetic +system, so that according to Rosen (_Sprache der Lazen_) all the +languages of central and western Caucasus might be adequately rendered +by the Georgian alphabet. Though certainly not so harsh as the Avar, +Lesghian and other Daghestan languages, it is very far from being +euphonious, and the frequent recurrence of such sounds as ts, ds, thz, +kh, khh, gh (Arab. [Arabic: gh]), q (Arab. [Arabic: q]), for all of +which there are distinct characters, renders its articulation rather +more energetic and rugged than is agreeable to ears accustomed to the +softer tones of the Iranian and western Indo-European tongues. It +presents great facilities for composition, the laws of which are very +regular. Its peculiar morphology, standing midway between agglutination +and true inflexion, is well illustrated by its simple declension common +to noun, adjective and pronoun, and its more intricate verbal +conjugation, with its personal endings, seven tenses and incorporation +of pronominal subject and object, all showing decided progress towards +the inflecting structure of the Indo-European and Semitic tongues. + +Georgian is written in a native alphabet obviously based on the +Armenian, and like it attributed to St Mesropius (Mesrop), who +flourished in the 5th century. Of this alphabet there are two forms, +differing so greatly in outline and even in the number of the letters +that they might almost be regarded as two distinct alphabetic systems. +The first and oldest, used exclusively in the Bible and liturgical +works, is the square or monumental Khutsuri, i.e. "sacerdotal," +consisting of 38 letters, and approaching the Armenian in appearance. +The second is the Mkhedruli kheli, i.e. "soldier's hand," used in +ordinary writing, and consisting of 40 letters, neatly shaped and full +of curves, hence at first sight not unlike the modern Burmese form of +the Pali. + +Of the Karthli language there are several varieties; and, besides those +comprised in the above table, mention should be made of the Kakhetian +current in the historic province of Kakhetia. A distinction is sometimes +drawn between the Karthlians proper and the Kakhetians, but it rests on +a purely political basis, having originated with the partition in 1424 +of the ancient Iberian estates into the three new kingdoms of +Karthlinia, Kakhetia and Imeretia. On the other hand, both the Laz of +Lazistan and the Svanetian present such serious structural and verbal +differences from the common type that they seem to stand rather in the +relation of sister tongues than of dialects to the Georgian proper. All +derive obviously from a common source, but have been developed +independently of each other. The Tush or Mosok appears to be +fundamentally a Kistinian or Chechen idiom affected by Georgian +influences. + +The Bible is said to have been translated into Georgian as early as the +5th century. The extant version, however, dates only from the 8th +century, and is attributed to St Euthymius. But even so, it is far the +most ancient work known to exist in the language. Next in importance is, +perhaps, the curious poem entitled _The Amours of Turiel and Nestan +Darejan_, or _The man clothed in the panther's skin_, attributed to +Rustevel, who lived during the prosperous reign of Queen Thamar (11th +century). Other noteworthy compositions are the national epics of the +_Baramiani_ and the _Rostomiani_, and the prose romances of _Visramiani_ +and _Darejaniani_, the former by Sarg of Thmogvi, the latter by Mosi of +Khoni. Apart from these, the great bulk of Georgian literature consists +of ecclesiastical writings, hymns sacred and profane, national codes and +chronicles. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard authority on the history is M.F. Brosset's + translation of the Georgian chronicles under the title of _Histoire de + la Géorgie_ (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1849-1858); but compare also + Khakanov, _Histoire de Géorgie_ (Paris, 1900). See further A. Leist, + _Das georgische Volk_ (Dresden, 1903); M. de Villeneuve, _La Géorgie_ + (Paris, 1870); O. Wardrop, _The Kingdom of Georgia_ (London, 1888); + and Langlois, _Numismatique géorgienne_ (Paris, 1860). For the + philology see Zagarelli, _Examen de la littérature relative à la + grammaire géorgienne_ (1873); _Friedrich Müller, Grundriss der + Sprachwissenschaft_ (1887), iii. 2; Leist, _Georgische Dichter_ + (1887); Erskert, _Sprachen des kaukasischen Stammes_ (1895). For other + points as to anthropology, Michel Smirnow's paper in _Revue + d'anthropologie_ (April 15, 1878); Chantre, _Recherches + anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (1885-1887); and Erckert, _Der + Kaukasus und seine Völker_ (1887). + + + + +GEORGIAN BAY, the N.E. section of Lake Huron, separated from it by +Manitoulin Island and the peninsula comprising the counties of Grey and +Bruce, Ontario. It is about 100 m. long and 50 m. wide, and is said to +contain 30,000 islands. It receives numerous rivers draining a large +extent of country; of these the chief are the French river draining Lake +Nipissing, the Maganatawan draining a number of small lakes, the Muskoka +draining the Muskoka chain of lakes (Muskoka, Rosseau, Joseph, &c.) and +the Severn draining Lake Simcoe. Into its southern extremity, known as +Nottawasaga Bay, flows the river of the same name. The Trent valley +canal connects Georgian Bay with the Bay of Quinte and Lake Ontario, and +a canal system has long been projected to Montreal by way of the French +and Ottawa rivers and Lake Nipissing. + + + + +GEORGSWALDE, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. +Pop. (1900) 8131, including Neu-Georgswalde, Wiesenthal and +Philippsdorf, which form together a single commune. Georgswalde is one +of the oldest industrial places of Bohemia, and together with the +neighbouring town of Rumburg is the principal centre of the linen +industry. The village of Philippsdorf, now incorporated with +Georgswalde, has become since 1866 a famous place of pilgrimage, owing +to the miracles attributed to an image of the Virgin, placed now in a +magnificent new church (1885). + + + + +GEPHYREA, the name used for several groups of worm-like animals with +certain resemblances but of doubtful affinity. In the article "Annelida" +in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia, W.C. McIntosh followed the +accepted view in associating in this group the _Echiuridae_, +_Sipunculidae_ and _Priapulidae_. E. Ray Lankester, in the preface to +the English translation of C. Gegenbaur's _Comparative Anatomy_ (1878), +added the _Phoronidae_ to these forms. Afterwards the same author +(article "Zoology," _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.) recognized that the +_Phoronidae_ had other affinities, and placed the other "gephyreans" in +association with the Polyzoa as the two classes of a phylum _Podaxonia_. +In the present state of knowledge the old group _Gephyrea_ is broken up +into _Echiuroidea_ (q.v.) or _Gephyrea armata_, which are certainly +Annelids; the _Sipunculoidea_ (q.v.) or _Gephyrea achaeta_, an independent +group, certainly coelomate, but of doubtful affinity; the _Priapuloidea_ +(q.v.), equally of doubtful affinity; and the _Phoronidea_ (q.v.), which +are almost certainly _Hemichordata_. + + + + +GERA, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Schleiz +(called also Reuss younger line), situated in a valley on the banks of +the White Elster, 45 m. S.S.W. of Leipzig on the railway to Probstzella. +Pop. (1885) 34,152; (1905) 47,455. It has been mostly rebuilt since a +great fire in 1780, and the streets are in general wide and straight, +and contain many handsome houses. There are three Evangelical churches +and one Roman Catholic. Among other noteworthy buildings are the +handsome town-hall (1576, afterwards restored) and the theatre (1902). +Its educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial and a +weaving school. The castle of Osterstein, the residence of the princes +of Reuss, dates from the 9th century, but has been almost entirely +rebuilt in modern times. Gera is noted for its industrial activity. Its +industries include wool-weaving and spinning, dyeing, iron-founding, the +manufacture of cotton and silk goods, machinery, sewing machines and +machine oil, leather and tobacco, and printing (books and maps) and +flower gardening. + +Gera (in ancient chronicles _Geraha_) was raised to the rank of a town +in the 11th century, at which time it belonged to the counts of Groitch. +In the 12th century it came into the possession of the lords of Reuss. +It was stormed and sacked by the Bohemians in 1450, was two-thirds +burned down by the Swedes in 1639 during the Thirty Years' War, and +suffered afterwards from great conflagrations in 1686 and 1780, being in +the latter year almost completely destroyed. + + + + +GERALDTON, a town in the district of Victoria, West Australia, on +Champion Bay, 306 m. by rail N.W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2593. It is the +seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, an important seaport carrying on a +considerable trade with the surrounding gold-fields and agricultural +districts, the centre of a considerable railway system and an +increasingly popular seaside resort. The harbour is safe and extensive, +having a pier affording accommodation for large steamers. The chief +exports are gold, copper, lead, wool and sandalwood. + + + + +GÉRANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE (1772-1842), French philosopher, was born at +Lyons on the 29th of February 1772. When the city was besieged in 1793 +by the armies of the Republic, de Gérando took up arms, was made +prisoner and with difficulty escaped with his life. He took refuge in +Switzerland, whence he afterwards fled to Naples. In 1796 the +establishment of the Directory allowed him to return to France. At the +age of twenty-five he enlisted as a private in a cavalry regiment. About +this time the Institute proposed as a subject for an essay this +question,--"What is the influence of symbols on the faculty of thought?" +De Gérando gained the prize, and heard of his success after the battle +of Zürich, in which he had distinguished himself. This literary triumph +was the first step in his upward career. In 1799 he was attached to the +ministry of the interior by Lucien Bonaparte; in 1804 he became general +secretary under Champagny; in 1805 he accompanied Napoleon into Italy; +in 1808 he was nominated master of requests; in 1811 he received the +title of councillor of state; and in the following year he was appointed +governor of Catalonia. On the overthrow of the empire, de Gérando was +allowed to retain this office; but having been sent during the hundred +days into the department of the Moselle to organize the defence of that +district, he was punished at the second Restoration by a few months of +neglect. He was soon after, however, readmitted into the council of +state, where he distinguished himself by the prudence and conciliatory +tendency of his views. In 1819 he opened at the law-school of Paris a +class of public and administrative law, which in 1822 was suppressed by +government, but was reopened six years later under the Martignac +ministry. In 1837 he was made a baron. He died at Paris on the 9th of +November 1842. + +De Gérando's best-known work is his _Histoire comparée des systèmes de +philosophie relativement aux principes des connaissances humaines_ +(Paris, 1804, 3 vols.). The germ of this work had already appeared in +the author's _Mémoire de la génération des connaissances humaines_ +(Berlin, 1802), which was crowned by the Academy of Berlin. In it de +Gérando, after a rapid review of ancient and modern speculations on the +origin of our ideas, singles out the theory of primary ideas, which he +endeavours to combat under all its forms. The latter half of the work, +devoted to the analysis of the intellectual faculties, is intended to +show how all human knowledge is the result of experience; and reflection +is assumed as the source of our ideas of substance, of unity and of +identity. It is divided into two parts, the first of which is purely +historical, and devoted to an exposition of various philosophical +systems; in the second, which comprises fourteen chapters of the entire +work, the distinctive characters and value of these systems are compared +and discussed. In spite of the disadvantage that it is impossible to +separate advantageously the history and critical examination of any +doctrine in the arbitrary manner which de Gérando chose, the work has +great merits. In correctness of detail and comprehensiveness of view it +was greatly superior to every work of the same kind that had hitherto +appeared in France. During the Empire and the first years of the +Restoration, de Gérando found time to prepare a second edition (Paris, +1822, 4 vols.), which is enriched with so many additions that it may +pass for an entirely new work. The last chapter of the part published +during the author's lifetime ends with the revival of letters and the +philosophy of the 15th century. The second part, carrying the work down +to the close of the 18th century, was published posthumously by his son +in 4 vols. (Paris, 1847). Twenty-three chapters of this were left +complete by the author in manuscript; the remaining three were supplied +from other sources, chiefly printed but unpublished memoirs. + +His essay _Du perfectionnement moral et de l'éducation de soi-même_ was +crowned by the French Academy in 1825. The fundamental idea of this work +is that human life is in reality only a great education, of which +perfection is the aim. + + Besides the works already mentioned, de Gérando left many others, of + which we may indicate the following:--_Considérations sur diverses + méthodes d'observation des peuples sauvages_ (Paris, 1801); _Éloge de + Dumarsais,--discours qui a remporté le prix proposé par la seconde + classe de l'Institut National_ (Paris, 1805); _Le Visiteur de pauvre_ + (Paris, 1820); _Instituts du droit administratif_ (4 vols., Paris, + 1830); _Cours normal des instituteurs primaires ou directions + relatives à l'éducation physique, morale, et intellectuelle dans les + écoles primaires_ (Paris, 1832); _De l'éducation des sourds-muets_ (2 + vols., Paris, 1832); _De la bienfaisance publique_ (4 vols., 1838). A + detailed analysis of the _Histoire comparée des systèmes_ will be + found in the _Fragments philosophiques_ of M. Cousin. In connexion + with his psychological studies, it is interesting that in 1884 the + French Anthropological Society reproduced his instructions for the + observation of primitive peoples, and modern students of the + beginnings of speech in children and the cases of deaf-mutes have + found useful matter in his works. See also J.P. Damiron, _Essai sur la + philosophie en France au XIX^e siècle_. + + + + +GERANIACEAE, in botany, a small but very widely distributed natural +order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Polypetalae, containing +about 360 species in 11 genera. It is represented in Britain by two +genera, _Geranium_ (crane's-bill) and _Erodium_ (stork's-bill), to which +belong nearly two-thirds of the total number of species. The plants are +mostly herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, with generally simple glandular +hairs on the stem and leaves. The opposite or alternate leaves have a +pair of small stipules at the base of the stalk and a palminerved blade. +The flowers, which are generally arranged in a cymose inflorescence, are +hermaphrodite, hypogynous, and, except in _Pelargonium_, regular. The +parts are arranged in fives. There are five free sepals, overlapping in +the bud, and, alternating with these, five free petals. In _Pelargonium_ +the flower is zygomorphic with a spurred posterior sepal and the petals +differing in size or shape. In _Geranium_ the stamens are +obdiplostemonous, i.e. an outer whorl of five opposite the petals +alternates with an inner whorl of five opposite the sepals; at the base +of each of the antisepalous stamens is a honey-gland. In _Erodium_ the +members of the outer whorl are reduced to scale-like structures +(staminodes), and in _Pelargonium_ from two to seven only are fertile. +There is no satisfactory explanation of this break in the regular +alternation of successive whorls; the outer whorl of stamens arises in +course of development before the inner, so that there is no question of +subsequent displacement. There are five, or sometimes fewer, carpels, +which unite to form an ovary with as many chambers, in each of which are +one or two, rarely more, pendulous anatropous ovules, attached to the +central column in such a way that the micropyle points outwards and the +raphe is turned towards the placenta. The long beak-like style divides +at the top into a corresponding number of slender stigmas. + +[Illustration: Meadow Crane's-bill, _Geranium pratense_. (After Curtis, +_Flora Londinensis_.) + + 1, Flower after removal of petals. + + 2, Fruit after splitting. 1 and 2 about natural size. + + 3, Floral diagram, the dots opposite the inner stamens represent + honey-glands.] + +The larger-flowered species of _Geranium_ are markedly protandrous, the +outer stamens, inner stamens and stigmas becoming functional in +succession. For instance, in meadow crane's-bill _G. pratense_, each +whorl of stamens ripens in turn, becoming erect and shedding their +pollen; as the anthers wither the filaments bend outwards, and when all +the anthers have diverged the stigmas become mature and ready for +pollination. By this arrangement self-pollination is prevented and +cross-pollination ensured by the visits of bees which come for the honey +secreted by the glands at the base of the inner stamens. + +In species with smaller and less conspicuous flowers, such as _G. +molle_, the flowers of which are only 1/3 to ½ in. in diameter, +self-pollination is rendered possible, since the divisions of the stigma +begin to separate before the outer stamens have shed all their pollen; +the nearness of the stigmas to the dehiscing anthers favours +self-pollination. + +In the ripe fruit the carpels separate into five one-seeded portions +(_cocci_), which break away from the central column, either rolling +elastically outwards and upwards or becoming spirally twisted. In most +species of _Geranium_ the cocci split open on the inside and the seeds +are shot out by the elastic uptwisting (fig. 1); in _Erodium_ and +_Pelargonium_ each coccus remains closed, and the long twisted upper +portion separates from the central column, forming an awn, the +distribution of which is favoured by the presence of bristles or hairs. +The embryo generally fills the seed, and the cotyledons are rolled or +folded on each other. + +_Geranium_ is the most widely distributed genus; it has 160 species and +is spread over all temperate regions with a few species in the tropics. +Three British species--_G. sylvaticum_, _G. pratense_ and _G. +Robertianum_ (herb-Robert)--reach the arctic zone, while _G. +patagonicum_ and _G. magellanicum_ are found in the antarctic. _Erodium_ +contains 50 species (three are British), most of which are confined to +the Mediterranean region and west Asia, though others occur in America, +in South Africa and West Australia. _Pelargonium_, with 175 species, has +its centre in South Africa; the well-known garden and greenhouse +"geraniums" are species of _Pelargonium_ (see GERANIUM). + + + + +GERANIUM, the name of a genus of plants, which is taken by botanists as +the type of the natural order Geraniaceae. The name, as a scientific +appellation, has a much more restricted application than when taken in +its popular sense. Formerly the genus _Geranium_ was almost conterminous +with the order Geraniaceae. Then as now the geranium was very popular as +a garden plant, and the species included in the original genus became +widely known under that name, which has more or less clung to them ever +since, in spite of scientific changes which have removed the large +number of them to the genus _Pelargonium_. This result has been probably +brought about in some degree by an error of the nurserymen, who seem in +many cases to have acted on the conclusion that the group commonly known +as _Scarlet Geraniums_ were really geraniums and not pelargoniums, and +were in consequence inserted under the former name in their trade +catalogues. In fact it may be said that, from a popular point of view, +the pelargoniums of the botanist are still better known as geraniums +than are the geraniums themselves, but the term "zonal Pelargonium" is +gradually making its way amongst the masses. + +The species of _Geranium_ consist mostly of herbs, of annual or +perennial duration, dispersed throughout the temperate regions of the +world. They number about 160, and bear a considerable family +resemblance. The leaves are for the most part palmately-lobed, and the +flowers are regular, consisting of five sepals, five imbricating petals, +alternating with five glandules at their base, ten stamens and a beaked +ovary. Eleven species are natives of the British Isles and are popularly +known as crane's-bill. _G. Robertianum_ is herb-Robert, a common plant +in hedgebanks. _G. sanguineum_, with flowers a deep rose colour, is +often grown in borders, as are also the double-flowered varieties of _G. +pratense_. Many others of exotic origin form handsome border plants in +our gardens of hardy perennials; amongst these _G. armenum_, _G. +Endressi_, _G. ibericum_ and its variety _platypetalum_ are conspicuous. + +From these regular-flowered herbs, with which they had been mixed up by +the earlier botanists, the French botanist L'Heritier in 1787 separated +those plants which have since borne the name of _Pelargonium_, and +which, though agreeing with them in certain points of structure, differ +in others which are admitted to be of generic value. One obvious +distinction of _Pelargonium_ is that the flowers are irregular, the two +petals which stand uppermost being different--larger, smaller or +differently marked--from the other three, which latter are occasionally +wanting. This difference of irregularity the modern florist has done +very much to annul, for the increased size given to the flowers by high +breeding has usually been accompanied by the enlargement of the smaller +petals, so that a very near approach to regularity has been in some +cases attained. Another well-marked difference, however, remains in +_Pelargonium_: the back or dorsal sepal has a hollow spur, which spur is +adnate, i.e. joined for its whole length with the flower-stalk; while in +_Geranium_ there is no spur. This peculiarity is best seen by cutting +clean through the flower-stalk just behind the flower, when in +_Pelargonium_ there will be seen the hollow tube of the spur, which in +the case of _Geranium_ will not be found, but the stalk will appear as a +solid mass. There are other characters which support those already +pointed out, such as the absence of the glandules, and the declination +of the stamens; but the features already described offer the most ready +and obvious distinctions. + +To recapitulate, the geraniums properly so-called are regular-flowered +herbs with the flower-stalks solid, while many geraniums falsely +so-called in popular language are really pelargoniums, and may be +distinguished by their irregular flowers and hollow flower-stalks. In a +great majority of cases too, the pelargoniums so commonly met with in +greenhouses and summer parterres are of shrubby or sub-shrubby habit. + +The various races of pelargoniums have sprung from the intermixture of +some of the species obtained from the Cape. The older show-flowered +varieties have been gradually acquired through a long series of years. +The fancy varieties, as well as the French spotted varieties and the +market type, have been evolved from them. The zonal or bedding race, on +the other hand, has been more recently perfected; they are supposed to +have arisen from hybrids between _Pelargonium inquinans_ and _P. +zonale_. In all the sections the varieties are of a highly ornamental +character, but for general cultivation the market type is preferable for +indoor purposes, while the zonals are effective either in the greenhouse +or flower garden. Some of the Cape species are still in cultivation--the +leaves of many of them being beautifully subdivided, almost fern-like in +character, and some of them are deliciously scented; _P. quercifolium_ +is the oak-leaf geranium. The ivy-leaf geranium, derived from _P. +peltatum_, has given rise to an important class of both double- and +single-flowered forms adapted especially for pot culture, hanging +baskets, window boxes and the greenhouse. Of late years the ivy-leaf +"geraniums" have been crossed with the "zonals," and a new race is being +gradually evolved from these two distinct groups. + +The best soil for pelargoniums is a mellow fibrous loam with good +well-rotted stable manure or leaf-mould in about the proportion of +one-fifth; when used it should not be sifted, but pulled to pieces by +the hand, and as much sand should be added as will allow the water to +pass freely through it. The large-flowered and fancy kinds cannot bear +so much water as most soft-wooded plants, and the latter should have a +rather lighter soil. + +All the pelargoniums are readily increased by cuttings made from the +shoots when the plants are headed down after flowering, or in the +spring, when they will root freely in a temperature of 65° to 70°. They +must not be kept too close, and must be very moderately watered. When +rooted they may be moved into well-drained 3-in. pots, and when from 6 +to 8 in. high, should have the points pinched out in order to induce +them to push out several shoots nearer the base. These shoots are, when +long enough, to be trained in a horizontal direction; and when they have +made three joints they should have the points again pinched out. These +early-struck plants will be ready for shifting into 6-in. pots by the +autumn, and should still be trained outwards. The show varieties after +flowering should be set out of doors in a sunny spot to ripen their +wood, and should only get water enough to keep them from flagging. In +the course of two or three weeks they will be ready to cut back within +two joints of where these were last stopped, when they should be placed +in a frame or pit, and kept close and dry until they have broken. When +they have pushed an inch or so, turn them out of their pots, shake off +the old soil, trim the straggling roots, and repot them firmly in +smaller pots if practicable; keep them near the light, and as the shoots +grow continue to train them outwardly. They require to be kept in a +light house, and to be set well up to the glass; the night temperature +should range about 45°; and air should be given on all mild days, but no +cold currents allowed, nor more water than is necessary to keep the soil +from getting parched. The young shoots should be topped about the end of +October, and when they have grown an inch or two beyond this, they may +be shifted into 7-in. pots for flowering. The shoots must be kept tied +out so as to be fully exposed to the light. If required to flower early +they should not be stopped again; if not until June they may be stopped +in February. + +The zonal varieties, which are almost continuous bloomers, are of much +value as decorative subjects; they seldom require much pruning after the +first stopping. For winter flowering, young plants should be raised +from cuttings about March, and grown on during the summer, but should +not be allowed to flower. When blossoms are required, they should be +placed close up to the glass in a light house with a temperature of 65°, +only just as much water being given as will keep them growing. For +bedding purposes the zonal varieties are best struck towards the middle +of August in the open air, taken up and potted or planted in boxes as +soon as struck, and preserved in frames or in the greenhouse during +winter. + +The fancy varieties root best early in spring from the half-ripened +shoots; they are slower growers, and rather more delicate in +constitution than the zonal varieties, and very impatient of excess of +water at the root. + + + + +GERARD (d. 1108), archbishop of York under Henry I., began his career as +a chancery clerk in the service of William Rufus. He was one of the two +royal envoys who, in 1095, persuaded Urban II. to send a legate and +Anselm's pallium to England. Although the legate disappointed the king's +expectations, Gerard was rewarded for his services with the see of +Hereford (1096). On the death of Rufus he at once declared for Henry I., +by whom he was nominated to the see of York. He made difficulties when +required to give Anselm the usual profession of obedience; and it was +perhaps to assert the importance of his see that he took the king's side +on the question of investitures. He pleaded Henry's cause at Rome with +great ability, and claimed that he had obtained a promise, on the pope's +part, to condone the existing practice of lay investiture. But this +statement was contradicted by Paschal, and Gerard incurred the suspicion +of perjury. About 1103 he wrote or inspired a series of tracts which +defended the king's prerogative and attacked the oecumenical pretensions +of the papacy with great freedom of language. He changed sides in 1105, +becoming a stanch friend and supporter of Anselm. Gerard was a man of +considerable learning and ability; but the chroniclers accuse him of +being lax in his morals, an astrologer and a worshipper of the devil. + + See the _Tractatus Eboracenses_ edited by H. Bochmer in _Libelli de + lite Sacerdotii et Imperii_, vol. iii. (in the _Monumenta hist. + Germaniae_, quarto series), and the same author's _Kirche und Staat in + England und in der Normandie_ (Leipzig, 1899). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +GERARD (c. 1040-1120), variously surnamed TUM, TUNC, TENQUE or THOM, +founder of the order of the knights of St John of Jerusalem (q.v.), was +born at Amalfi about the year 1040. According to other accounts +Martigues in Provence was his birthplace, while one authority even names +the Château d'Avesnes in Hainaut. Either as a soldier or a merchant, he +found his way to Jerusalem, where a hospice had for some time existed +for the convenience of those who wished to visit the holy places. Of +this institution Gerard became guardian or provost at a date not later +than 1100; and here he organized that religious order of St John which +received papal recognition from Paschal II. in 1113, by a bull which was +renewed and confirmed by Calixtus II. shortly before the death of Gerard +in 1120. + + + + +GERARD OF CREMONA (c. 1114-1187), the medieval translator of Ptolemy's +Astronomy, was born at Cremona, Lombardy, in or about 1114. Dissatisfied +with the meagre philosophies of his Italian teachers, he went to Toledo +to study in Spanish Moslem schools, then so famous as depositories and +interpreters of ancient wisdom; and, having thus acquired a knowledge of +the Arabic language, he appears to have devoted the remainder of his +life to the business of making Latin translations from its literature. +The date of his return to his native town is uncertain, but he is known +to have died there in 1187. His most celebrated work is the Latin +version by which alone Ptolemy's _Almagest_ was known to Europe until +the discovery of the original [Greek: Megalê Suntaxis]. In addition to +this, he translated various other treatises, to the number, it is said, +of sixty-six; among these were the _Tables_ of "Arzakhel," or Al Zarkala +of Toledo, Al Farabi _On the Sciences_ (_De scientiis_), Euclid's +_Geometry_, Al Farghani's _Elements of Astronomy_, and treatises on +algebra, arithmetic and astrology. In the last-named latitudes are +reckoned from Cremona and Toledo. Some of the works, however, with which +he has been credited (including the _Theoria_ or _Theorica planetarum_, +and the versions of Avicenna's _Canon of Medicine_--the basis of the +numerous subsequent Latin editions of that well-known work--and of the +_Almansorius_ of Abu Bakr Razi) are probably due to a later Gerard, of +the 13th century, also called Cremonensis but more precisely de +Sabloneta (Sabbionetta). This writer undertook the task of interpreting +to the Latin world some of the best work of Arabic physicians, and his +translation of Avicenna is said to have been made by order of the +emperor Frederic II. + + See Pipini, "Cronica," in Muratori, _Script. rer. Ital._ vol. ix.; + Nicol. Antonio, _Bibliotheca Hispana vetus_, vol. ii.; Tiraboschi, + _Storia della letteratura Italiana_, vols. iii. (333) and iv.; Arisi, + _Cremona literata_; Jourdain, Recherches sur ... _l'origine des + traductions latines d'Aristote_; Chasles, _Aperçu historique des + méthodes en géométrie_, and in _Comptes rendus de l'Académie des + Sciences_, vol. xiii. p. 506; J.T. Reinaud, _Géographie d'Aboulféda_, + introduction, vol. i. pp. ccxlvi.-ccxlviii.; Boncompagni, _Della vita + e delle opere di Gherardo Cremonese e di Gherardo da Sabbionetta_ + (Rome, 1851). Much of the work of both the Gerards remains in + manuscript, as in Paris, National Library, MSS. Lat. 7400, 7421; MSS. + Suppl. Lat. 49; Rome, Vatican library, 4083, and Ottobon, 1826; + Oxford, Bodleian library, Digby, 47, 61. The Vatican MS. 2392 is + stated to contain a eulogy of "Gerard of Cremona" and a list of "his" + translations, apparently confusing the two scholars. The former's most + valuable work was in astronomy; the latter's in medicine. + (C. R. B.) + + + + +GÉRARD, ÉTIENNE MAURICE, COUNT (1773-1852), French general, was born at +Damvilliers (Meuse), on the 4th of April 1773. He joined a battalion of +volunteers in 1791, and served in the campaigns of 1792-1793 under +Generals Dumouriez and Jourdan. In 1795 he accompanied Bernadotte as +aide-de-camp. In 1799 he was promoted _chef d'escadron_, and in 1800 +colonel. He distinguished himself at the battles of Austerlitz and Jena, +and was made general of brigade in November 1806, and for his conduct in +the battle of Wagram he was created a baron. In the Spanish campaign of +1810 and 1811 he gained special distinction at the battle of Fuentes +d'Onor; and in the expedition to Russia he was present at Smolensk and +Valutina, and displayed such bravery and ability in the battle of +Borodino that he was made general of division. He won further +distinction in the disastrous retreat from Moscow. In the campaign of +1813, in command of a division, he took part in the battles of Lützen +and Bautzen and the operations of Marshal Macdonald, and at the battle +of Leipzig (in which he commanded the XI. corps) he was dangerously +wounded. After the battle of Bautzen he was created by Napoleon a count +of the empire. In the campaign of France of 1814, and especially at La +Rothière and Montereau, he won still greater distinction. After the +first restoration he was named by Louis XVIII. grand cross of the Legion +of Honour and chevalier of St Louis. In the Hundred Days Napoleon made +Gérard a peer of France and placed him in command of the IV. corps of +the Army of the North. In this capacity Gérard took a brilliant part in +the battle of Ligny (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), and on the morning of the +18th of June he was foremost in advising Marshal Grouchy to march to the +sound of the guns. Gérard retired to Brussels after the fall of +Napoleon, and did not return to France till 1817. He sat as a member of +the chamber of deputies in 1822-1824, and was re-elected in 1827. He +took part in the revolution of 1830, after which he was appointed +minister of war and named a marshal of France. On account of his health +he resigned the office of war minister in the October following, but in +1831 he took the command of the northern army, and was successful in +thirteen days in driving the army of Holland out of Belgium. In 1832 he +commanded the besieging army in the famous scientific siege of the +citadel of Antwerp. He was again chosen war minister in July 1834, but +resigned in the October following. In 1836 he was named grand chancellor +of the Legion of Honour in succession to Marshal Mortier, and in 1838 +commander of the National Guards of the Seine, an office which he held +till 1842. He became a senator under the empire in 1852, and died on the +17th of April in the same year. + + + + +GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS, BARON (1770-1837), French painter, was born on the 4th +of May 1770, at Rome, where his father occupied a post in the house of +the French ambassador. At the age of twelve Gérard obtained admission +into the Pension du Roi at Paris. From the Pension he passed to the +studio of Pajou (sculptor), which he left at the end of two years for +that of the painter Brenet, whom he quitted almost immediately to place +himself under David. In 1789 he competed for the Prix de Rome, which was +carried off by his comrade Girodet. In the following year (1790) he +again presented himself, but the death of his father prevented the +completion of his work, and obliged him to accompany his mother to Rome. +In 1791 he returned to Paris; but his poverty was so great that he was +forced to forgo his studies in favour of employment which should bring +in immediate profit. David at once availed himself of his help, and one +of that master's most celebrated pictures--Le Pelletier de St +Fargeau--may owe much to the hand of Gérard. This painting was executed +early in 1793, the year in which Gérard, at the request of David, was +named a member of the revolutionary tribunal, from the fatal decisions +of which he, however, invariably absented himself. In 1794 he obtained +the first prize in a competition, the subject of which was "The Tenth of +August," and, further stimulated by the successes of his rival and +friend Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1794, Gérard (nobly aided by +Isabey the miniaturist) produced in 1795 his famous "Bélisaire." In 1796 +a portrait of his generous friend (in the Louvre) obtained undisputed +success, and the money received from Isabey for these two works enabled +Gérard to execute in 1797 his "Psyché et l'Amour." At last, in 1799, his +portrait of Madame Bonaparte established his position as one of the +first portrait-painters of the day. In 1808 as many as eight, in 1810 no +less than fourteen portraits by him, were exhibited at the Salon, and +these figures afford only an indication of the enormous numbers which he +executed yearly; all the leading figures of the empire and of the +restoration, all the most celebrated men and women of Europe, sat to +Gérard. This extraordinary vogue was due partly to the charm of his +manner and conversation, for his _salon_ was as much frequented as his +studio; Madame de Staël, Canning, Talleyrand, the duke of Wellington, +have all borne witness to the attraction of his society. Rich and +famous, Gérard was stung by remorse for earlier ambitions abandoned; at +intervals he had indeed striven to prove his strength with Girodet and +other rivals, and his "Bataille d'Austerlitz" (1810) showed a breadth of +invention and style which are even more conspicuous in "L'Entrée d'Henri +IV" (Versailles)--the work with which in 1817 he did homage to the +Bourbons. After this date Gérard declined, watching with impotent grief +the progress of the Romantic school. Loaded with honours--baron of the +empire, member of the Institute, officer of the legion of honour, first +painter to the king--he worked on sad and discouraged; the revolution of +1830 added to his disquiet; and on the 11th of January 1837, after three +days of fever, he died. By his portraits Gérard is best remembered; the +colour of his paintings has suffered, but his drawings show in uninjured +delicacy the purity of his line; and those of women are specially +remarkable for a virginal simplicity and frankness of expression. + + M. Ch. Lenormant published in 1846 _Essai de biographie et de critique + sur François Gérard_, a second edition of which appeared in 1847; and + M. Delécluze devoted several pages to the same subject in his work + _Louis David, son école et son temps_. + + + + +GÉRARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE (1803-1847), French caricaturist, generally +known by the pseudonym of Grandville--the professional name of his +grandparents, who were actors--was born at Nancy on the 13th of +September 1803. He received his first instruction in drawing from his +father, a miniature painter, and at the age of twenty-one came to Paris, +where he soon afterwards published a collection of lithographs entitled +_Les Tribulations de la petite propriété_. He followed this by Les +Plaisirs de toutâge and _La Sibylle des salons_; but the work which +first established his fame was _Métamorphoses du jour_, published in +1828, a series of seventy scenes in which individuals with the bodies of +men and faces of animals are made to play a human comedy. These drawings +are remarkable for the extraordinary skill with which human +characteristics are represented in animal features. The success of this +work led to his being engaged as artistic contributor to various +periodicals, such as _La Silhouette_, _L'Artiste_, _La Caricature_, _Le +Charivari_; and his political caricatures, which were characterized by +marvellous fertility of satirical humour, soon came to enjoy a general +popularity. Besides supplying illustrations for various standard works, +such as the songs of Béranger, the fables of La Fontaine, _Don Quixote_, +_Gulliver's Travels_, _Robinson Crusoe_, he also continued the issue of +various lithographic collections, among which may be mentioned _La Vie +privée et publique des animaux_, _Les Cent Proverbes_, _L'Autre Monde_ +and _Les Fleurs animées_. Though the designs of Gérard are occasionally +unnatural and absurd, they usually display keen analysis of character +and marvellous inventive ingenuity, and his humour is always tempered +and refined by delicacy of sentiment and a vein of sober thoughtfulness. +He died of mental disease on the 17th of March 1847. + + A short notice of Gérard, under the name of Grandville, is contained + in Théophile Gautier's _Portraits contemporains_. See also Charles + Blanc, _Grandville_ (Paris, 1855). + + + + +GERARD, JOHN (1545-1612), English herbalist and surgeon, was born +towards the end of 1545 at Nantwich in Cheshire. He was educated at +Wisterson, or Willaston, 2 m. from Nantwich, and eventually, after +spending some time in travelling, took up his abode in London, where he +exercised his profession. For more than twenty years he also acted as +superintendent of the gardens in London and at Theobalds, in +Hertfordshire, of William Cecil, Lord Burghley. In 1596 he published a +catalogue of plants cultivated in his own garden in Holborn, London, +1039 in number, inclusive of varieties of the same species. Their +English as well as their Latin names are given in a revised edition of +the catalogue issued in 1599. In 1597 appeared Gerard's well-known +_Herball_, described by him in its preface as "the first fruits of these +mine own labours," but more truly an adaptation of the _Stirpium +historiae pemptades_ of Rembert Dodoens (1518-1585), published in 1583, +or rather of a translation of the whole or part of the same by Dr +Priest, with M. Lobel's arrangement. Of the numerous illustrations of +the _Herball_ sixteen appear to be original, the remainder are mostly +impressions from the wood blocks employed by Jacob Theodorus +Tabernaemontanus in his _Icones stirpium_, published at Frankfort in +1590. A second edition of the _Herball_, with considerable improvements +and additions, was brought out by Thomas Johnson in 1633, and reprinted +in 1636. Gerard was elected a member of the court of assistants of the +barber-surgeons in 1595, by which company he was appointed an examiner +in 1598, junior warden in 1605, and master in 1608. He died in February +1612, and was buried at St Andrews, Holborn. + + See Johnson's preface to his edition of the _Herball_; and _A + Catalogue of Plants cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard in the + years 1596-1599, edited with Notes, References to Gerard's Herball, + the Addition of modern Names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin + Daydon Jackson, F.L.S._, privately printed (London, 1876, 4to). + + + + +GÉRARDMER, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of Vosges, +33 m. E.S.E. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 3993; of the +commune, 10,041. Gérardmer is beautifully situated at a height of 2200 +ft. at the eastern end of the small Lake of Gérardmer (285 acres in +extent) among forest-clad mountains. It is the chief summer-resort of +the French Vosges and is a centre for excursions, among which may be +mentioned those to the Höhneck (4481 ft.), the second highest summit in +the Vosges, the Schlucht, the mountain pass from France to Germany, and, +nearer the town, the picturesque defile of Granges, watered by the +Vologne, which at one point forms the cascade known as the Saut des +Cuves. The town itself, in which the chief object of interest is the +huge lime-tree in the market-place, carries on cloth-weaving, bleaching, +wood-sawing and the manufacture of wooden goods; there is trade in the +cheeses (_géromés_) manufactured in the neighbourhood. Gérardmer is said +to owe its name to Gerard of Alsace, 1st duke of Lorraine, who in the +11th century built a tower on the bank of the lake or _mer_, near which, +in 1285, a new town was founded. + + + + +GERASA (mod. _Gerash_ or _Jerash_), a city of Palestine, and a member of +the league known as the Decapolis (q.v.), situated amid the mountains of +Gilead, about 1757 ft. above the sea, 20 m. from the Jordan and 21 m. N. +of Philadelphia. Of its origin nothing is known; it has been suggested +that it represents the biblical Ramoth Gilead. From Josephus we learn +that it was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (c. 83 B.C.), rebuilt by the +Romans (c. A.D. 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the massacre at +Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated by Annius, the general of +Vespasian; but, in spite of these disasters, it was still in the 2nd and +3rd centuries of the Christian era one of the wealthiest and most +flourishing cities of Palestine. It was a centre of Greek civilization, +devoted especially to the worship of Artemis, and producing famous +teachers, of whom Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and +Plato. As late as 1121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by +a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of the +following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of it as deserted +and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered about 1806, and since +then frequently visited and described, still attest the splendour of the +Roman city. They are distributed along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook +which flows south through the Wadi-ed-Der to join the Zerka or Jabbok; +but all the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the +right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced and +indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than 2 m., and the +main street was less than half a mile in length; but remains of +buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the south gate, show that +the town had outgrown the limit of its fortifications. The most striking +feature of the ruins is the profusion of columns, no fewer than 230 +being even now in position; the main street is a continuous colonnade, a +large part of which is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a +forum of similar formation. Among the public buildings still +recognizable are a theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a +naumachia (circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the +largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing a +portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of the city is +probably due to earthquake; and the absence of Moslem erections or +restorations seems to show that the disaster took place before the +Mahommedan period. + +The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose houses have +been built with materials from the earlier buildings, and there has been +much destruction of the interesting ruins. "The country of the +Gerasenes" (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels; other readings, Gadarenes, +Gergesenes) must be looked for in another quarter--on the E. coast of +the Sea of Galilee, probably in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa +(C.W. Wilson in _Recovery of Jerusalem_, p. 369). (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GÉRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LÉON (1860- ), French journalist and politician, +was born at Bonnétable in the department of Sarthe, of a peasant family. +He began life as a working upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris +(1880), where his peasant and socialist songs soon won him fame in the +Montmartre quarter. Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on +_La Bataille_, and he became a regular contributor to the advanced +journals, especially to _La Petite République_, of which he became +editor-in-chief in 1897. In 1893 he founded _Le Chambard_, and was +imprisoned for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon the +president, Casimir-Périer. In January 1895 he was elected to the chamber +as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement of Paris. He was +defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris, but was re-elected in 1902 +and in 1906 by the colony of Guadeloupe. + + + + +GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG (1746-1819), German musician, author of a famous +dictionary of musicians, was born at Sondershausen in the principality of +Schwarzburg-Sondershausen on the 29th of September 1746. His father, +Henry Nicolas Gerber (1702-1775), a pupil of J.S. Bach, was an organist +and composer of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at +an early age had made great progress in his musical studies. In 1765 he +went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music, which had gained +additional strength from his acquaintanceship with J.A. Hiller, soon came +to occupy almost his sole attention. On his return to Sondershausen he +was appointed music teacher to the children of the prince, and in 1775 he +succeeded his father as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his +time to the study of the literature and history of music, and with this +view he made himself master of several modern languages. His +_Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler_ appeared in 1790 and +1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what was virtually an +improved and corrected edition of this work was published in 1810 under +the title _Neues historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler_, +followed by other three volumes in 1812, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also +contributed a number of papers to musical periodicals, and published +several minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the 30th +of June 1819. + + + + +GERBERON, GABRIEL (1628-1711), French Jansenist monk, was born on the +12th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the department of Sarthe. At the +age of twenty he took the vows of the Benedictine order at the abbey of +Ste Melaine, Rennes, and afterwards taught rhetoric and philosophy in +several monasteries. His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however, +caused his superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the +order, and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St +Germain-des-Prés at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the doctrine of +the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form of an apology for +Rupert, abbot of Deutz (_Apologia pro Ruperto abbate Tuitensi_, Paris, +1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels, under the name of "Sieur Flore +de Ste Foi" his _Miroir de la piété chrétienne_, an enlarged edition of +which appeared at Liége in the following year. This was condemned by +certain archbishops and theologians as the repetition of the five +condemned propositions of Jansen, and Gerberon defended it, under the +name of "Abbé Valentin" in _Le Miroir sans tache_ (Paris, 1680). He had +by this time aroused against him the full fury of the Jesuits, and at +their instigation a royal provost was sent to Corbie to arrest him. He +had, however, just time to escape, and fled to the Low Countries, where +he lived in various towns. He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to +Holland, where he wrote another controversial work against the +Protestants: _Défense de l'Église Romain contre la calomnie des +Protestants_ (Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the +Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe he returned to +Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism (_Histoire +générale du Jansénisme_), a dry work, by which, however, he is best +remembered. He adhered firmly to the Augustinian doctrine of +Predestination, and on the 30th of May 1703 he was arrested at Brussels +at the instance of the archbishop of Malines, and ordered to subscribe +the condemnation of the five sentences of Jansen. On his refusal, he was +handed over to his superiors and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and +afterwards at Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon +him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and spirit, he +consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de Noailles claimed as a +recantation. Upon this he was released in 1710. The first use he made of +his freedom was to write a work (which, however, his friends prudently +prevented him from publishing), _Le Vaine Triomphe du cardinal de +Noailles_, containing a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory +recantation. He died at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 1711. + + + + +GERBERT, MARTIN (1720-1793), German theologian, historian and writer on +music, belonged to the noble family of Gerbert von Hornau, and was born +at Horb on the Neckar, Württemberg, on the 12th (or 11th or 13th) of +August 1720. He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau +in Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the Black +Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was ordained priest, +and immediately afterwards appointed professor, first of philosophy and +later of theology. Between 1754 and 1764 he published a series of +theological treatises, their main tendency being to modify the rigid +scholastic system by an appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from +1759 to 1762 he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a +view to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic +libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien, and proved +himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince. His examination of +archives during his travels had awakened in him a taste for historical +research, and under his rule St Blasien became a notable centre of the +methodical study of history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote +his _Monumenta domus Austriacae_, of which the first two volumes were +edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a _Codex +epistolaris Rudolphi I., Romani regis_ (1772) and _De Rudolpho Suevico +comite de Rhinfelden, duce et rege, deque ejus familia_ (1785). It was, +however, in sacramental theology, liturgiology, and notably +ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was mainly interested. In 1774 he +published two volumes _De cantu et musica sacra_; in 1777, _Monumenta +veteris liturgiae Alemannicae_; and in 1784, in three volumes, +_Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra_, a collection of the +principal writers on church music from the 3rd century till the +invention of printing. The materials for this work he had gathered +during his travels, and although it contains many textual errors, its +publication has been of great importance for the history of music, by +preserving writings which might either have perished or remained +unknown. His interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer +Gluck, who became his intimate friend. + +As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests of the +house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed to Joseph II.'s +church policy. In the Febronian controversy (see FEBRONIANISM) he had +early taken a mediating attitude, and it was largely due to his +influence that Bishop Hontheim had been induced to retract his extreme +views. + +In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church, was burnt +to the ground, and the splendid new church which rose on the ruins of +the old (1783) remained until its destruction by fire in 1874, at once a +monument of Gerbert's taste in architecture and of his Habsburg +sympathies. It was at his request that it was made the mausoleum of all +the Austrian princes buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly +transferred to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he +published his _Historia Nigrae Silvae, ordinis S. Benedicti coloniae_ (3 +vols., St Blasien, 1783). + +Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and Protestants +alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793. + + See Joseph Bader, _Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine + Gelehrtenakademie_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874), which contains a + chronological list of Gerbert's works. + + + + +GERBIL, or GERBILLE, the name of a group of small, elegant, large-eyed, +jumping rodents typified by the North African _Gerbillus aegyptiacus_ +(or _gerbillus_), and forming a special subfamily, _Gerbillinae_, of the +rat tribe or _Muridae_. They are found over the desert districts of both +Asia and Africa, and are classed in the genera _Gerbillus_ (or +_Tatera_), _Pachyuromys_, _Meriones_, _Psammomys_ and _Rhombomys_, with +further divisions into subgenera. They have elongated hind-limbs and +long hairy tails; and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas, +from which they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have +transverse plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates +diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half in +the third. The upper incisor teeth are generally marked by grooves. +Gerbils are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where they dwell in +burrows furnished with numerous exits, and containing large grass-lined +chambers. The Indian _G. indicus_ produces at least a dozen young at a +birth. All are more or less completely nocturnal. + + + + +GERENUK, the Somali name of a long-necked aberrant gazelle, commonly +known as Waller's gazelle (_Lithocranius walleri_), and ranging from +Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck and limbs, coupled with +peculiarities in the structure of the skull, entitle the gerenuk, which +is a large species, to represent a genus. The horns of the bucks are +heavy, and have a peculiar forward curvature at the tips; the colour of +the coat is red-fawn, with a broad brown band down the back. Gerenuk are +browsing ruminants, and, in Somaliland, are found in small +family-parties, and feed more by browsing on the branches and leaves of +trees and shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by +standing on their hind-legs with the fore-feet resting against the trunk +of the tree on which they are feeding. Their usual pace is an awkward +trot, not unlike that of a camel; and they seldom break into a gallop. +The Somali form has been separated as _L. sclateri_, but is not more +than a local race. (See ANTELOPE.) + + + + +GERGOVIA (mod. _Gergovie_), in ancient geography, the chief town of the +Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvergne, about 8 m. from the Puy de +Dôme, France. Julius Caesar attacked it in 52 B.C., but was beaten off; +some walls and earthworks seem still to survive from this period. Later, +when Gaul had been subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish +inhabitants resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of +Augustonemetum (mod. _Clermont-Ferrand_). + + + + +GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867), German archaeologist, was +born at Posen on the 29th of November 1795, and was educated at Breslau +and Berlin. The reputation he acquired by his _Lectiones Apollonianae_ +(1816) led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the +gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on account of +weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where he remained for +fifteen years. He contributed to Platner's _Beschreibung der Stadt Rom_, +then under the direction of Bunsen, and was one of the principal +originators and during his residence in Italy director of the _Instituto +di corrispondenza archeologica_, founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to +Germany in 1837 he was appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of +Berlin, and in 1844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and +a professor in the university. He died at Berlin on the 12th of May +1867. + + Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in the + _Annali_ of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the + Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman and + other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums, Gerhard + was the author of the following works: _Antike Bildwerke_ (Stuttgart, + 1827-1844); _Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder_ (1839-1858); + _Etruskische Spiegel_ (1839-1865); _Hyperboreisch-röm. Studien_ (vol. + i., 1833; vol. ii., 1852); _Prodromus mytholog. Kunsterklärung_ + (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1828); and _Griech. Mythologie_ (1854-1855). + His _Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften_ were + published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867. + + + + +GERHARD, JOHANN (1582-1637), Lutheran divine, was born in Quedlinburg on +the 17th of October 1582. In his fifteenth year, during a dangerous +illness, he came under the personal influence of Johann Arndt, author of +_Das wahre Christenthum_, and resolved to study for the church. He +entered the university of Wittenberg in 1599, and first studied +philosophy. He also attended lectures in theology, but, a relative +having persuaded him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two +years. In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, and +in the following year received a new impulse from J.W. Winckelmann +(1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1627) at Marburg. Having +graduated and begun to give lectures at Jena in 1605, he in 1606 +accepted the invitation of John Casimir, duke of Coburg, to the +superintendency of Heldburg and mastership of the gymnasium; soon +afterwards he became general superintendent of the duchy, in which +capacity he was engaged in the practical work of ecclesiastical +organization until 1616, when he became theological professor at Jena, +where the remainder of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and +Johann Himmel, he formed the "Trias Johannea." Though still +comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be regarded as the +greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany; in the numerous +"disputations" of the period he was always protagonist, while on all +public and domestic questions touching on religion or morals his advice +was widely sought. It is recorded that during the course of his lifetime +he had received repeated calls to almost every university in Germany +(e.g. Giessen, Altdorf, Helmstädt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to +Upsala in Sweden. He died in Jena on the 20th of August 1637. + + His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dogmatic + and practical theology. To the first category belong the _Commentarius + in harmoniam historiae evangelicae de passione Christi_ (1617), the + _Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistolam_ (1641), and also his + commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy (1658). Of a + controversial character are the _Confessio Catholica_ (1633-1637), an + extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical and catholic + character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession from the writings + of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the _Loci communes theologici_ + (1610-1622), his principal contribution to science, in which + Lutheranism is expounded "nervose, solide, et copiose," in fact with + a fulness of learning, a force of logic and a minuteness of detail + that had never before been approached. _The Meditationes sacrae_ + (1606), a work expressly devoted to the uses of Christian edification, + has been frequently reprinted in Latin and has been translated into + most of the European languages, including Greek. The English + translation by R. Winterton (1631) has passed through at least + nineteen editions. There is also an edition by W. Papillon in English + blank verse (1801). His life, _Vita Joh. Gerhardi_, was published by + E.R. Fischer in 1723, and by C.J. Böttcher, _Das Leben Dr Johann + Gerhards_, in 1858. See also W. Gass, _Geschichte der protestantischen + Dogmatik_ (1854-1867), and the article in the _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_. + + + + +GERHARDT, CHARLES FRÉDÉRIC (1816-1856), French chemist, was born at +Strassburg on the 21st of August 1816. After attending the gymnasium at +Strassburg and the polytechnic at Karlsruhe, he was sent to the school +of commerce at Leipzig, where he studied chemistry under Otto Erdmann. +Returning home in 1834 he entered his father's white lead factory, but +soon found that business was not to his liking, and after a sharp +disagreement with his father enlisted in a cavalry regiment. In a few +months military life became equally distasteful, and he purchased his +discharge with the assistance of Liebig, with whom, after a short +interval at Dresden, he went to study at Giessen in 1836. But his stay +at Giessen was also short, and in 1837 he re-entered the factory. Again, +however, he quarrelled with his father, and in 1838 went to Paris with +introductions from Liebig. There he attended Jean Baptiste Dumas' +lectures and worked with Auguste Cahours (1813-1891) on essential oils, +especially cumin, in Michel Eugéne Chevreul's laboratory, while he +earned a precarious living by teaching and making translations of some +of Liebig's writings. In 1841, by the influence of Dumas, he was charged +with the duties of the chair of chemistry at the Montpellier faculty of +sciences, becoming titular professor in 1844. In 1842 he annoyed his +friends in Paris by the matter and manner of a paper on the +classification of organic compounds, and in 1845 he and his opinions +were the subject of an attack by Liebig, unjustifiable in its +personalities but not altogether surprising in view of his wayward +disregard of his patron's advice. The two were reconciled in 1850, but +his faculty for disagreeing with his friends did not make it easier for +him to get another appointment after resigning the chair at Montpellier +in 1851, especially as he was unwilling to go into the provinces. He +obtained leave of absence from Montpellier in 1848 and from that year +till 1855 resided in Paris. During that period he established an "École +de chimie pratique" of which he had great hopes; but these were +disappointed, and in 1855, after refusing the offer of a chair of +chemistry at the new Zürich Polytechnic in 1854, he accepted the +professorships of chemistry at the Faculty of Sciences and the École +Polytechnique at Strassburg, where he died on the 19th of August in the +following year. Although Gerhardt did some noteworthy experimental +work--for instance, his preparation of acid anhydrides in 1852--his +contributions to chemistry consist not so much in the discovery of new +facts as in the introduction of new ideas that vitalized and organized +an inert accumulation of old facts. In particular, with his +fellow-worker Auguste Laurent (1807-1853), he did much to reform the +methods of chemical formulation by insisting on the distinction between +atoms, molecules and equivalents; and in his unitary system, directly +opposed to the dualistic doctrines of Berzelius, he combined Dumas' +substitution theory with the old radicle theory and greatly extended the +notion of types of structure. His chief works were _Précis de chimie +organique_ (1844-1845), and _Traité de chimie organique_ (1853-1856). + + See _Charles Gerhardt, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance_, by his + son, Charles Gerhardt, and E. Grimaux (Paris, 1900). + + + + +GERHARDT, PAUL (c. 1606-1676), German hymn-writer, was born of a good +middle-class family at Gräfenhainichen, a small town on the railway +between Halle and Wittenberg, in 1606 or 1607--some authorities, indeed, +give the date March 12, 1607, but neither the year nor the day is +accurately known. His education appears to have been retarded by the +troubles of the period, the Thirty Years' War having begun about the +time he reached his twelfth year. After completing his studies for the +church he is known to have lived for some years at Berlin as tutor in +the family of an advocate named Berthold, whose daughter he subsequently +married, on receiving his first ecclesiastical appointment at Mittelwald +(a small town in the neighbourhood of Berlin) in 1651. In 1657 he +accepted an invitation as "diaconus" to the Nicolaikirche of Berlin; +but, in consequence of his uncompromising Lutheranism in refusing to +accept the elector Frederick William's "syncretistic" edict of 1664, he +was deprived in 1666. Though absolved from submission and restored to +office early in the following year, on the petition of the citizens, his +conscience did not allow him to retain a post which, as it appeared to +him, could only be held on condition of at least a tacit repudiation of +the Formula Concordiae, and for upwards of a year he lived in Berlin +without fixed employment. In 1668 he was appointed archdeacon of Lübben +in the duchy of Saxe-Merseburg, where, after a somewhat sombre ministry +of eight years, he died on the 7th of June 1676. Gerhardt is the +greatest hymn-writer of Germany, if not indeed of Europe. Many of his +best-known hymns were originally published in various church hymn-books, +as for example in that for Brandenburg, which appeared in 1658; others +first saw the light in Johann Crüger's _Geistliche Kirchenmelodien_ +(1649) and _Praxis pietatis melica_ (1656). The first complete set of +them is the _Geistliche Andachten_, published in 1666-1667 by Ebeling, +music director in Berlin. No hymn by Gerhardt of a later date than 1667 +is known to exist. + + The life of Gerhardt has been written by Roth (1829), by Langbecker + (1841), by Schultz (1842), by Wildenhahn (1845) and by Bachmann + (1863); also by Kraft in Ersch u. Gruber's _Allg. Encycl._ (1855). The + best modern edition of the hymns, published by Wackernagel in 1843, + has often been reprinted. There is an English translation by Kelly + (_Paul Gerhardt's Spiritual Songs_, 1867). + + + + +GÉRICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRÉ THÉODORE (1791-1824), French painter, the +leader of the French realistic school, was born at Rouen in 1791. In +1808 he entered the studio of Charles Vernet, from which, in 1810, he +passed to that of Guérin, whom he drove to despair by his passion for +Rubens, and by the unorthodox manner in which he persisted in +interpreting nature. At the Salon of 1812 Géricault attracted attention +by his "Officier de Chasseurs à Cheval" (Louvre), a work in which he +personified the cavalry in its hour of triumph, and turned to account +the solid training received from Guérin in rendering a picturesque point +of view which was in itself a protest against the cherished convictions +of the pseudo-classical school. Two years later (1814) he re-exhibited +this work accompanied with the reverse picture "Cuirassier blessé" +(Louvre), and in both subjects called attention to the interest of +contemporary aspects of life, treated neglected types of living form, +and exhibited that mastery of and delight in the horse which was a +feature of his character. Disconcerted by the tempest of contradictory +opinion which arose over these two pictures, Géricault gave way to his +enthusiasm for horses and soldiers, and enrolled himself in the +_mousquetaires_. During the Hundred Days he followed the king to +Bethune, but, on his regiment being disbanded, eagerly returned to his +profession, left France for Italy in 1816, and at Rome nobly illustrated +his favourite animal by his great painting "Course des Chevaux Libres." +Returning to Paris, Géricault exhibited at the Salon of 1819 the "Radeau +de la Méduse" (Louvre), a subject which not only enabled him to prove +his zealous and scientific study of the human form, but contained those +elements of the heroic and pathetic, as existing in situations of modern +life, to which he had appealed in his earliest productions. Easily +depressed or elated, Géricault took to heart the hostility which this +work excited, and passed nearly two years in London, where the "Radeau" +was exhibited with success, and where he executed many series of +admirable lithographs now rare. At the close of 1822 he was again in +Paris, and produced a great quantity of projects for vast compositions, +models in wax, and a horse _écorché_, as preliminary to the production +of an equestrian statue. His health was now completely undermined by +various kinds of excess, and on the 26th of January 1824 he died, at the +age of thirty-three. + + Géricault's biography, accompanied by a _catalogue raisonné_ of his + works, was published by M.C. Clément in 1868. + + + + +GERIZIM, a mountain in the hill-country of Samaria, 2849 ft. above the +sea-level, and enclosing, with its companion Ebal, the valley in which +lies the town of Nablus (Shechem). It is the holy place of the community +of the Samaritans, who hold that it was the scene of the sacrifice of +Isaac--a tradition accepted by Dean Stanley but no other western writers +of importance. Here, on the formal entrance of the Israelites into the +possession of the Promised Land, were pronounced the blessings connected +with a faithful observance of the law (Josh. viii. 33, 34; cf. Deut. xi. +29, 30, xxvii. 12-26), the six tribes, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, +Joseph and Benjamin, standing here for the purpose while the remaining +tribes stood on Ebal to accept the curses attached to specific +violations thereof. Gerizim was probably chosen as the mount of blessing +as being on the right hand, the fortunate side, of a spectator facing +east. The counter-suggestion of Eusebius and Jerome that the Ebal and +Gerizim associated with this solemnity were not the Shechem mountains at +all, but two small hills near Jericho, is no longer considered +important. From this mountain Jotham spoke his parable to the elders of +Shechem (Judg. ix. 7). Manasseh, the son of the Jewish high-priest in +the days of Nehemiah, married the daughter of Sanballat and, about 432 +B.C., erected on this mountain a temple for the Samaritans; it was +destroyed by Hyrcanus about 300 years afterwards. Its site is a small +level plateau a little under the summit of the mountain. Close to this +is the place where the Passover is still annually celebrated in exact +accordance with the rites prescribed in the Pentateuch. On the summit of +the mountain, which commands a view embracing the greater part of +Palestine, are a small Moslem shrine and the ruins of a castle probably +dating from Justinian's time. There was an octagonal Byzantine church +here, but the foundations alone remain. Josephus describes it as the +highest of the mountains of Samaria, but Ebal and Tell Azur are both +higher. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GERLACHE, ÉTIENNE CONSTANTIN, BARON DE (1785-1871), Belgian politician +and historian, was born at Biourge, Luxemburg, on the 24th of December +1785. He studied law in Paris and practised there for some time, but +settled at Liege after the establishment of the kingdom of the +Netherlands. As member of the states-general he was an energetic member +of the opposition, and, though he repudiated an ultramontane policy, he +supported the alliance of the extreme Catholics with the Liberal party, +which paved the way for the revolution of 1830. On the outbreak of +disturbance in August 1830 he still, however, thought the Orange-Nassau +dynasty and the union with the Dutch states essential; but his views +changed, and, after holding various offices in the provisional +government, he became president of congress, and brought forward the +motion inviting Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become king of the Belgians. +In 1832 he was president of the chamber of representatives, and for +thirty-five years he presided over the court of appeal. He presided over +the Catholic congresses held at Malines between 1863 and 1867. That his +early Liberal views underwent some modification is plain from the +Conservative principles enunciated in his _Essai sur le mouvement des +partis en Belgique_ (Brussels, 1852). As an historian his work was +strongly coloured by his anti-Dutch prejudices and his Catholic +predilections. His _Histoire des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830_ +(Brussels, 2 vols., 1839), which reached a fourth edition in 1875, was a +piece of special pleading against the Dutch domination. The most +important of his other works were his _Histoire de Liége_ (Brussels, +1843) and his _Études sur Salluste et sur quelques-uns des principaux +historiens de l'antiquité_ (Brussels, 1847). + + A complete edition of his works (6 vols., Brussels, 1874-1875) + contains a biography by M. Thonissen. + + + + +GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE (1736-c. 1801), French revolutionist and +mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Entering the Carthusian order +early in life, he became prior of Laval-Dieu in Perche, and afterwards +of Pont-Sainte-Marie at Moulins. Elected deputy to the states-general in +1789, Gerle became very popular, and though he had no seat in the +assembly until after the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy +_suppléant_, he is represented in David's classic painting as taking +part in it. In 1792 he was chosen elector of Paris. In the +revolutionary turmoil Gerle developed a strong vein of mysticism, +mingled with ideas of reform, and in June 1790 the prophetic powers of +Suzanne Labrousse (1747-1821), a visionary who had predicted the +Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice of the +Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritualistic doctor +and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a cabinetmaker, his +mystical tendencies were strengthened. The insane fancies of Catherine +Théot, a convent servant turned prophetess, who proclaimed herself the +Virgin, the "Mother of God" and the "new Eve," were eminently attractive +to Gerle; in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at +the meetings of the Théotists he officiated with the aged prophetess as +co-president. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts were +short-lived. The Théotists' cult of Robespierre was a weapon in the +hands of his opponents; and shortly after the festival of the Supreme +Being, Vadier made a report to the Convention calling for the +prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and others as fanatics and conspirators. +They were arrested, thrown into prison and, in the confusion of +Robespierre's fall, apparently forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but +Gerle, released by the Directory, became one of the editors of the +_Messager du soir_, and was afterwards in the office of Pierre Bénézech +(1775-1802), minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic +vows in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of his +life, Christine Raffet, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The date of his +death is uncertain. + + + + +GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN, or GERMAN BRETHREN, a sect of American Baptists +which originated in Germany, and whose members are popularly known in +the United States as "Dunkers," "Dunkards" or "Tunkers," corruptions of +the German verb _tunken_, "to dip," in recognition of the sect's +continued adherence to the practice of trine immersion. The sect was the +outcome of one of the many Pietistic movements of the 17th century, and +was founded in 1708 by Andrew Mack of Swartzenau, Germany, and seven of +his followers, upon the general issue that both the Lutheran and +Reformed churches were taking liberties with the literal teachings of +the Scriptures. The new sect was scarcely organized in Germany when its +members were compelled by persecution to take refuge in Holland, whence +they emigrated to Pennsylvania, in small companies, between 1719 and +1729. The first congregation in America was organized on Christmas Day +1723 by Peter Becker at Germantown, Pennsylvania, and here in 1743 +Christopher Sauer, one of the sect's first pastors, and a printer by +trade, printed the first Bible (a few copies of which are still in +existence) published in a European language in America. From +Pennsylvania the sect spread chiefly westward, and, after various +vicissitudes, caused by defections and divisions due to doctrinal +differences, in 1908 were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, +Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and +North Dakota. + +There is much uncertainty about the early theological history of the +sect, but it is probable that Mack and his followers were influenced by +both the Greek Catholics and the Waldensians. P.H. Bashor in his +historical sketch, read before the World's Fair Congress of the Brethren +Church (1894), says: "From the history of extended labour by Greek +missionaries, from the active propaganda of doctrine by scattered +Waldensian refugees, through parts of Germany and Bavaria, from the +credence that may generally be given to local tradition, and from the +strong similarity between the three churches in general features of +circumstantial service, the conclusion, without additional evidence, is +both reasonable and natural that the founders of the new church received +their teaching, their faith and much of their church idea from intimate +acquaintance with the established usages of both societies, and from +their amplification and enforcement by missionaries and pastors.... In +doctrine the church has been from the first contentious for believers' +baptism, holding that nowhere in the New Testament can be found any +authority even by inference, precept or example for the baptism of +infants. On questions of fundamental doctrine they held to the belief +in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe--the Divine +Godhead--the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit--the tri-personality." +Hence their practice of triple immersion, which provides that the +candidate shall kneel in the water and be immersed, face first, three +times--in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From +this practice the sect received the less commonly used nickname +"Dompelaers," meaning "tumblers.") They accept implicitly and literally +the New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters, holding +it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus Christ and, by +inspiration, through the Apostles. They also believe in the inspiration +of the Old Testament. In their celebration of the communion service they +aim exactly to imitate the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in +the evening, and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by +all communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of the +washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the three +last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separately. They pray +over their sick and, when so requested, anoint them with oil. They are +rigid non-resistants, and will not bear arms or study the art of war; +they refuse to take oaths, and discountenance going to law over issues +that can possibly be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest +was at first forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon. +They "testify" against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco, and +advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect opposed +voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but these +restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly the earlier +prejudice against higher education, and the maintenance of institutions +for that purpose, has given place to greater liberality along those +lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slave-holding by its members. + +The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops (or +ministers), elders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and +deaconesses--chiefly aged women who are permitted at times to take +leading parts in church services. The bishops are chosen from the +teachers; they are itinerant, conduct marriage and funeral services, and +are present at communions, at ordinations, when deacons are chosen or +elected, and at trials for the excommunication of members. The elders +are the first or oldest teachers of congregations, for which there is no +regular bishop. They have charge of the meetings of such congregations, +and participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which they +preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the offices of the +deacons. The teachers, who are chosen by vote, may also exhort or +preach, when their services are needed for such purposes, and may, at +the request of a bishop, perform marriage or baptismal ceremonies. The +deacons have general oversight of the material affairs of the +congregation, and are especially charged with the care of poor widows +and their children. In the discharge of these duties they are expected +to visit each family in the congregation at least once a year. The +government of the church is chiefly according to the congregational +principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men; but annual +meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and other delegates from the +several congregations are held, and at these sessions the larger +questions involving church polity are considered and decided by a +committee of five bishops. + +An early secession from the general body of Dunkers was that of the +Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was that the seventh +day was the true Sabbath. Their founder was Johann Conrad Beissel +(1690-1768), a native of Eberbach and one of the first emigrants, who, +after living as a hermit for several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania, founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a +hermit in a cave (formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimelech) on +the Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a +semi-monastic community (the "Order of the Solitary") with a convent +(the "Sister House") and a monastery (the "Brother House") at Ephrata, +in what is now Lancaster county, about 55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia. +Among the industries of the men were printing (in both English and +German), book-binding, tanning, quarrying, and the operation of a saw +mill, a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the women did embroidery, +quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known as +Fracturschrift.[1] The monastic feature was gradually abandoned, and in +1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh Day Baptists, its +affairs being placed in the hands of a board of trustees. More important +in the history of the modern church was the secession, in the decade +between 1880 and 1890, of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday +Schools and the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and +India, and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the +radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and to +the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher education was +long forbidden and is consistently opposed by the Old Order. The same +element in the Brethren opposed a census, but according to Howard +Miller's census of 1880 (_Record of the Faithful_) the number of Dunkers +was 59,749 in that year; by the United States census of 1890 it was then +73,795; the figures for 1904 are given by Henry King Carroll in his +"Statistics of the Churches" in the _Christian Advocate_ (Jan. 5, 1905): +Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95,000; Old Order, 4000; +Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh Day, 194; total, 114,194. In +1909 the German Baptist Brethren had an estimated membership of +approximately 100,000, and the Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or +Conservatives, support schools at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris, +Illinois; Lordsburg, California; McPherson, Kansas; Bridgewater, +Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; North Manchester, Indiana; +Plattsburg, Missouri; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; Union Bridge, +Maryland; and Fruitdale, Alabama. They have a publishing house at Elgin, +Illinois, and maintain missions in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India +and China. The Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a +publishing house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary work in +Canada, South America and Persia. + + AUTHORITIES.--Lamech and Agrippa, _Chronicon Ephratense_, in German + (Ephrata, Penn., 1786) and in English (Lancaster, 1889); G.N. + Falkenstein, "The German Baptist Brethren, or Dunkers," part 8 of + "Pennsylvania: The German Influence in its Settlement and + Development," in vol. x. of the _Pennsylvania German Society, + Proceedings and Addresses_ (Lancaster, Penn., 1900); Julius Friedrich + Sachse, _The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1742-1800: A Critical + and Legendary History of the Ephrata Cloister and the Dunkers_ + (Philadelphia, 1900); and John Lewis Gillin, _The Dunkers: A + Sociological Interpretation_ (New York, 1906), a doctor's + dissertation, with full bibliography. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Beissel (known in the community as "Friedsam") was their leader + until his death; he published several collections of hymns. The stone + over his grave bears the inscription: "Here rests an outgrowth of the + love of God, 'Friedsam,' a Solitary Brother, afterwards a leader of + the Solitary and the Congregation of Grace in and around Ephrata ... + Fell asleep July 6, 1768, in the 52nd year of his spiritual life, but + the 72nd year and fourth month of his natural life." The borough of + Ephrata was separated from the township in 1891. Pop. (1900) of the + borough, 2451; of the township, 2390. The "Brother House" and the + "Sister House" are still standing (though in a dilapidated + condition). In 1777, after the battle of Brandywine, many wounded + American soldiers were nursed here by the Sisters, and about 200 are + buried here. + + + + +GERMAN CATHOLICS (_Deutschkatholiken_), the name assumed in Germany +towards the close of 1844 by certain dissentients from the Church of +Rome. The most prominent leader of the German Catholic movement was +Johann Ronge, a priest who in the _Sächsische Vaterlandsblätter_ for the +15th of October 1844 made a vigorous attack upon Wilhelm Arnoldi, bishop +of Trier since 1842, for having ordered (for the first time since 1810) +the exposition of the "holy coat of Trier," alleged to be the seamless +robe of Christ, an event which drew countless pilgrims to the cathedral. +Ronge, who had formerly been chaplain at Grottkau, was then a +schoolmaster at Laurahütte near the Polish border. The article made a +great sensation, and led to Ronge's excommunication by the chapter of +Breslau in December 1844. The ex-priest received a large amount of +public sympathy, and a dissenting congregation was almost immediately +formed at Breslau with a very simple creed, in which the chief articles +were belief in God the Father, creator and ruler of the universe; in +Jesus Christ the Saviour, who delivers from the bondage of sin by his +life, doctrine and death; in the operation of the Holy Ghost; in a holy, +universal, Christian church; in forgiveness of sins and the life +everlasting. The Bible was made the sole rule, and all external +authority was barred. Within a few weeks similar communities were formed +at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Offenbach, Worms, Wiesbaden and elsewhere; +and at a "council" convened at Leipzig at Easter 1845, twenty-seven +congregations were represented by delegates, of whom only two or at most +three were in clerical orders. + +Even before the beginning of the agitation led by Ronge, another +movement fundamentally distinct, though in some respects similar, had +been originated at Schneidemühl, Posen, under the guidance of Johann +Czerski (1813-1893), also a priest, who had come into collision with the +church authorities on the then much discussed question of mixed +marriages, and also on that of the celibacy of the clergy. The result +had been his suspension from office in March 1844; his public +withdrawal, along with twenty-four adherents, from the Roman communion +in August; his excommunication; and the formation, in October, of a +"Christian Catholic" congregation which, while rejecting clerical +celibacy, the use of Latin in public worship, and the doctrines of +purgatory and transubstantiation, retained the Nicene theology and the +doctrine of the seven sacraments. Czerski had been at some of the +sittings of the "German Catholic" council of Leipzig; but when a formula +somewhat similar to that of Breslau had been adopted, he refused his +signature because the divinity of Christ had been ignored, and he and +his congregation continued to retain by preference the name of +"Christian Catholics," which they had originally assumed. Of the German +Catholic congregations which had been represented at Leipzig some +manifested a preference for the fuller and more positive creed of +Schneidemühl, but a great majority continued to accept the comparatively +rationalistic position of the Breslau school. The number of these +rapidly increased, and the congregations scattered over Germany numbered +nearly 200. External and internal checks, however, soon limited this +advance. In Austria, and ultimately also in Bavaria, the use of the name +German Catholics was officially prohibited, that of "Dissidents" being +substituted, while in Prussia, Baden and Saxony the adherents of the new +creed were laid under various disabilities, being suspected both of +undermining religion and of encouraging the revolutionary tendencies of +the age. Ronge himself was a foremost figure in the troubles of 1848; +after the dissolution of the Frankfort parliament he lived for some time +in London, returning in 1861 to Germany. He died at Vienna on the 26th +of October 1887. In 1859 some of the German Catholics entered into +corporate union with the "Free Congregations," an association of +free-thinking communities that had since 1844 been gradually withdrawing +from the orthodox Protestant Church, when the united body took the title +of "The Religious Society of Free Congregations." Before that time many +of the congregations which were formed in 1844 and the years immediately +following had been dissolved, including that of Schneidemühl itself, +which ceased to exist in 1857. There are now only about 2000 strict +German Catholics, all in Saxony. The movement has been superseded by the +Old Catholic (q.v.) organization. + + See G.G. Gervinus, _Die Mission des Deutschkatholicismus_ (1846); F. + Kampe, _Das Wesen des Deutschkatholicismus_ (1860); Findel, _Der + Deutschkatholicismus in Sachsen_ (1895); Carl Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyk. für prot. Theol._ iv. 583. + + + + +GERMAN EAST AFRICA, a country occupying the east-central portion of the +African continent. The colony extends at its greatest length north to +south from 1° to 11° S., and west to east from 30° to 40° E. It is +bounded E. by the Indian Ocean (the coast-line extending from 4° 20' to +10° 40' S.), N.E. and N. by British East Africa and Uganda, W. by +Belgian Congo, S.W. by British Central Africa and S. by Portuguese East +Africa. + +[Illustration: German East Africa.] + + _Area and Boundaries._--On the north the boundary line runs N.W. from + the mouth of the Umba river to Lake Jipe and Mount Kilimanjaro + including both in the protectorate, and thence to Victoria Nyanza, + crossing it at 1° S., which parallel it follows till it reaches 30° E. + In the west the frontier is as follows: From the point of intersection + of 1° S. and 30° E., a line running S. and S.W. to the north-west end + of Lake Kivu, thence across that lake near its western shore, and + along the river Rusizi, which issues from it, to the spot where the + Rusizi enters the north end of Lake Tanganyika; along the middle line + of Tanganyika to near its southern end, when it is deflected eastward + to the point where the river Kalambo enters the lake (thus leaving the + southern end of Tanganyika to Great Britain). From this point the + frontier runs S.E. across the plateau between Lakes Tanganyika and + Nyasa, in its southern section following the course of the river + Songwe. Thence it goes down the middle of Nyasa as far as 11° 30' S. + The southern frontier goes direct from the last-named point eastward + to the Rovuma river, which separates German and Portuguese territory. + A little before the Indian Ocean is reached the frontier is deflected + south so as to leave the mouth of the Rovuma in German East Africa. + These boundaries include an area of about 364,000 sq. m. (nearly + double the size of Germany), with a population estimated in 1910 at + 8,000,000. Of these above 10,000 were Arabs, Indians, Syrians and + Goanese, and 3000 Europeans (over 2000 being Germans). The island of + Mafia (see below) is included in the protectorate. + + _Physical Features._--The coast of German East Africa (often spoken of + as the Swahili coast, after the inhabitants of the seaboard) is + chiefly composed of coral, is little indented, and is generally low, + partly sandy, partly rich alluvial soil covered with dense bush or + mangroves. Where the Arabs have established settlements the coco-palm + and mango tree introduced by them give variety to the vegetation. The + coast plain is from 10 to 30 m. wide and 620 m. long; it is bordered + on the west by the precipitous eastern side of the interior plateau of + Central Africa. This plateau, considerably tilted from its horizontal + position, attains its highest elevation north of Lake Nyasa (see + LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS), where several peaks rise over 7000 ft., one to + 9600, while its mean altitude is about 3000 to 4000 ft. From this + region the country slopes towards the north-west, and is not + distinguished by any considerable mountain ranges. A deep narrow + gorge, the so-called "eastern rift-valley," traverses the middle of + the plateau in a meridional direction. In the northern part of the + country it spreads into several side valleys, from one of which rises + the extinct volcano Kilimanjaro (q.v.), the highest mountain in Africa + (19,321 ft.). Its glaciers send down a thousand rills which combine to + form the Pangani river. About 40 m. west of Kilimanjaro is Mount Meru + (14,955 ft.), another volcanic peak, with a double crater. The greater + steepness of its sides makes Meru in some aspects a more striking + object than its taller neighbour. South-east of Mount Kilimanjaro are + the Pare Mountains and Usambara highlands, separated from the coast by + a comparatively narrow strip of plain. To the south of the Usambara + hills, and on the eastern edge of the plateau, are the mountainous + regions of Nguru (otherwise Unguru), Useguha and Usagara. As already + indicated, the southern half of Victoria Nyanza and the eastern + shores, in whole or in part, of Lakes Kivu, Tanganyika and Nyasa, are + in German territory. (The lakes are separately described.) Several + smaller lakes occur in parts of the eastern rift-valley. Lake Rukwa + (q.v.) north-west of Nyasa is presumably only the remnant of a much + larger lake. Its extent varies with the rainfall of each year. + North-west of Kilimanjaro is a sheet of water known as the Natron Lake + from the mineral alkali it contains. In the northern part of the + colony the Victoria Nyanza is the dominant physical feature. The + western frontier coincides with part of the eastern wall of another + depression, the Central African or Albertine rift-valley, in which lie + Tanganyika, Kivu and other lakes. Along the north-west frontier north + of Kivu are volcanic peaks (see MFUMBIRO). + + The country is well watered, but with the exception of the Rufiji the + rivers, save for a few miles from their mouths, are unnavigable. The + largest streams are the Rovuma and Rufiji (q.v.), both rising in the + central plateau and flowing to the Indian Ocean. Next in importance is + the Pangani river, which, as stated above, has its head springs on the + slopes of Kilimanjaro. Flowing in a south-easterly direction it + reaches the sea after a course of some 250 m. The Wami and Kingani, + smaller streams, have their origin in the mountainous region fringing + the central plateau, and reach the ocean opposite the island of + Zanzibar. Of inland river systems there are four--one draining to + Victoria Nyanza, another to Tanganyika, a third to Nyasa and a fourth + to Rukwa. Into Victoria Nyanza are emptied, on the east, the waters of + the Mori and many smaller streams; on the west, the Kagera (q.v.), + besides smaller rivers. Into Tanganyika flows the Malagarasi, a + considerable river with many affluents, draining the west-central part + of the plateau. The Kalambo river, a comparatively small stream near + the southern end of Tanganyika, flows in a south-westerly direction. + Not far from its mouth there is a magnificent fall, a large volume of + water falling 600 ft. sheer over a rocky ledge of horse-shoe shape. Of + the streams entering Nyasa the Songwe has been mentioned. The Ruhuhu, + which enters Nyasa in 10° 30' S., and its tributaries drain a + considerable area west of 36° E. The chief feeders of Lake Rukwa are + the Saisi and the Rupa-Songwe. + + Mafia Island lies off the coast immediately north of 8° N. It has an + area of 200 sq. m. The island is low and fertile, and extensively + planted with coco-nut palms. It is continued southwards by an + extensive reef, on which stands the chief village, Chobe, the + residence of a few Arabs and Banyan traders. Chobe stands on a shallow + creek almost inaccessible to shipping. + + _Geology._--The narrow foot-plateau of British East Africa broadens + out to the south of Bagamoyo to a width of over 100 m. This is covered + to a considerable extent by rocks of recent and late Tertiary ages. + Older Tertiary rocks form the bluffs of Lindi. Cretaceous marls and + limestones appear at intervals, extending in places to the edge of the + upper plateau, and are extensively developed on the Makonde plateau. + They are underlain by Jurassic rocks, from beneath which sandstones + and shales yielding _Glossopteris browniana_ var. _indica_, and + therefore of Lower Karroo age, appear in the south but are overlapped + on the north by Jurassic strata. The central plateau consists almost + entirely of metamorphic rocks with extensive tracts of granite in + Unyamwezi. In the vicinity of Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, sandstones + and shales of Lower Karroo age and yielding seams of coal are + considered to owe their position and preservation to being let down by + rift faults into hollows of the crystalline rocks. In Karagwe certain + quartzites, slates and schistose sandstones resemble the ancient + gold-bearing rocks of South Africa. + + The volcanic plateau of British East Africa extends over the boundary + in the region of Kilimanjaro. Of the sister peaks, Kibo and Mawenzi, + the latter is far the oldest and has been greatly denuded, while Kibo + retains its crateriform shape intact. The rift-valley faults continue + down the depression, marked by numerous volcanoes, in the region of + the Natron Lake and Lake Manyara; while the steep walls of the deep + depression of Tanganyika and Nyasa represent the western rift system + at its maximum development. + + Fossil remains of saurians of gigantic size have been found; one thigh + bone measures 6 ft. 10 in., the same bone in the _Diplodocus Carnegii_ + measuring only 4 ft. 11 in. + + _Climate._--The warm currents setting landwards from the Indian Ocean + bring both moisture and heat, so that the Swahili coast has a higher + temperature and heavier rainfall than the Atlantic seaboard under the + same parallels of latitude. The mean temperature on the west and east + coasts of Africa is 72° and 80° Fahr. respectively, the average + rainfall in Angola 36 in., in Dar-es-Salaam 60 in. On the Swahili + coast the south-east monsoon begins in April and the north-east + monsoon in November. In the interior April brings south-east winds, + which continue until about the beginning of October. During the rest + of the year changing winds prevail. These winds are charged with + moisture, which they part with on ascending the precipitous side of + the plateau. Rain comes with the south-east monsoon, and on the + northern part of the coast the rainy season is divided into two parts, + the great and the little Masika: the former falls in the months of + September, October, November; the latter in February and March. In the + interior the climate has a more continental character, and is subject + to considerable changes of temperature; the rainy season sets in a + little earlier the farther west and north the region, and is well + marked, the rain beginning in November and ending in April; the rest + of the year is dry. On the highest parts of the plateau the climate is + almost European, the nights being sometimes exceedingly cold. + Kilimanjaro has a climate of its own; the west and south sides of the + mountain receive the greatest rainfall, while the east and north sides + are dry nearly all the year. Malarial diseases are rather frequent, + more so on the coast than farther inland. The Kilimanjaro region is + said to enjoy immunity. Smallpox is frequent on the coast, but is + diminishing before vaccination; other epidemic diseases are extremely + rare. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The character of the vegetation varies with and + depends on moisture, temperature and soil. On the low littoral zone + the coast produced a rich tropical bush, in which the mangrove is very + prominent. Coco-palms and mango trees have been planted in great + numbers, and also many varieties of bananas. The bush is grouped in + copses on meadows, which produce a coarse tall grass. The river banks + are lined with belts of dense forest, in which useful timber occurs. + The _Hyphaene_ palm is frequent, as well as various kinds of + gum-producing mimosas. The slopes of the plateau which face the + rain-bringing monsoon are in some places covered with primeval forest, + in which timber is plentiful. The silk-cotton tree (_Bombax ceiba_), + miomba, tamarisk, copal tree (_Hymenaea courbaril_) are frequent, + besides sycamores, banyan trees (_Ficus indica_) and the deleb palm + (_Borassus aethiopum_). It is here we find the _Landolphia florida_, + which yields the best rubber. The plateau is partly grass land without + bush and forest, partly steppe covered with mimosa bush, which + sometimes is almost impenetrable. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru + exhibit on a vertical scale the various forms of vegetation which + characterize East Africa (see KILIMANJARO). + + East Africa is rich in all kinds of antelope, and the elephant, + rhinoceros and hippopotamus are still plentiful in parts. + Characteristic are the giraffe, the chimpanzee and the ostrich. + Buffaloes and zebras occur in two or three varieties. Lions and + leopards are found throughout the country. Crocodiles are numerous in + all the larger rivers. Snakes, many venomous, abound. Of birds there + are comparatively few on the steppe, but by rivers, lakes and swamps + they are found in thousands. Locusts occasion much damage, and ants of + various kinds are often a plague. The tsetse fly (_Glossina + morsitans_) infests several districts; the sand-flea has been imported + from the west coast. Land and water turtles are numerous. + +_Inhabitants._--On the coast and at the chief settlements inland are +Arab and Indian immigrants, who are merchants and agriculturists. The +Swahili (q.v.) are a mixed Bantu and Semitic race inhabiting the +seaboard. The inhabitants of the interior may be divided into two +classes, those namely of Bantu and those of Hamitic stock. What may be +called the indigenous population consists of the older Bantu races. +These tribes have been subject to the intrusion from the south of more +recent Bantu folk, such as the Yao, belonging to the Ama-Zulu branch of +the race, while from the north there has been an immigration of +Hamito-Negroid peoples. Of these the Masai and Wakuafi are found in the +region between Victoria Nyanza and Kilimanjaro. The Masai (q.v.) and +allied tribes are nomads and cattle raisers. They are warlike, and live +in square mud-plastered houses called _tembe_ which can be easily +fortified and defended. The Bantu tribes are in general peaceful +agriculturists, though the Bantus of recent immigration retain the +warlike instincts of the Zulus. The most important group of the Bantus +is the Wanyamwezi (see UNYAMWEZI), divided into many tribes. They are +spread over the central plains, and have for neighbours on the +south-east, between Nyasa and the Rufiji, the warlike Wahehe. The +Wangoni (Angoni), a branch of the Ama-Zulu, are widely spread over the +central and Nyasa regions. Other well-known tribes are the Wasambara, +who have given their name to the highlands between Kilimanjaro and the +coast, and the Warundi, inhabiting the district between Tanganyika and +the Kagera. In Karagwe, a region adjoining the south-west shores of +Victoria Nyanza, the Bahima are the ruling caste. Formerly Karagwe under +its Bahima kings was a powerful state. Many different dialects are +spoken by the Bantu tribes, Swahili being the most widely known (see +BANTU LANGUAGES). Their religion is the worship of spirits, ancestral +and otherwise, accompanied by a vague and undefined belief in a Supreme +Being, generally regarded as indifferent to the doings of the people. + +The task of civilizing the natives is undertaken in various ways by the +numerous Protestant and Roman Catholic missions established in the +colony, and by the government. The slave trade has been abolished, and +though domestic slavery is allowed, all children of slaves born after +the 31st of December 1905 are free. For certain public works the Germans +enforce a system of compulsory labour. Efforts are made by instruction +in government and mission schools to spread a knowledge of the German +language among the natives, in order to fit them for subordinate posts +in administrative offices, such as the customs. Native chiefs in the +interior are permitted to help in the administration of justice. The +Mission du Sacré Coeur in Bagamoyo, the oldest mission in the colony, +has trained many young negroes to be useful mechanics. The number of +native Christians is small. The Moslems have vigorous and successful +missions. + + _Chief Towns._--The seaports of the colony are Tanga (pop. about + 6000), Bagamoyo 5000 (with surrounding district some 18,000), + Dar-es-Salaam 24,000, Kilwa 5000, (these have separate notices), + Pangani, Sadani, Lindi and Mikindani. Pangani (pop. about 3500) is + situated at the mouth of the river of the same name; it serves a + district rich in tropical products, and does a thriving trade with + Zanzibar and Pemba. Sadani is a smaller port midway between Pangani + and Bagamoyo. Lindi (10° 0' S., 39° 40' E.) is 80 m. north of Cape + Delgado. Lindi (Swahili for The Deep Below) Bay runs inland 6 m. and + is 3 m. across, affording deep anchorage. Hills to the west of the bay + rise over 1000 ft. The town (pop. about 4000) is picturesquely + situated on the north side of the bay. The Arab _boma_, constructed in + 1800, has been rebuilt by the Germans, who have retained the fine + sculptured gateway. Formerly a rendezvous for slave caravans Lindi now + has a more legitimate trade in white ivory. Mikindani is the most + southern port in the colony. Owing to the prevalence of malaria there, + few Europeans live at the town, and trade is almost entirely in the + hands of Banyans. + + Inland the principal settlements are Korogwe, Mrogoro, Kilossa, Mpapua + and Tabora. Korogwe is in the Usambara hills, on the north bank of the + Pangani river, and is reached by railway from Tanga. Mrogoro is some + 140 m. due west of Dar-es-Salaam, and is the first important station + on the road to Tanganyika. Kilossa and Mpapua are farther inland on + the same caravan route. Tabora (pop. about 37,000), the chief town of + the Wanyamwezi tribes, occupies an important position on the central + plateau, being the meeting-place of the trade routes from Tanganyika, + Victoria Nyanza and the coast. In the railway development of the + colony Tabora is destined to become the central junction of lines + going north, south, east and west. + + On Victoria Nyanza there are various settlements. Mwanza, on the + southern shore, is the lake terminus of the route from Bagamoyo: + Bukoba is on the western shore, and Schirati on the eastern shore; + both situated a little south of the British frontier. On the German + coast of Tanganyika are Ujiji (q.v.), pop. about 14,000, occupying a + central position; Usumbura, at the northern end of the lake where is a + fort built by the Germans; and Bismarckburg, near the southern end. On + the shores of the lake between Ujiji and Bismarckburg are four + stations of the Algerian "White Fathers," all possessing churches, + schools and other stone buildings. Langenburg is a settlement on the + north-east side of Lake Nyasa. The government station, called New + Langenburg, occupies a higher and more healthy site north-west of the + lake. Wiedhafen is on the east side of Nyasa at the mouth of the + Ruhuhu, and is the terminus of the caravan route from Kilwa. + + _Productions._--The chief wealth of the country is derived from + agriculture and the produce of the forests. From the forests are + obtained rubber, copal, bark, various kinds of fibre, and timber + (teak, mahogany, &c.). The cultivated products include coffee, the + coco-nut palm, tobacco, sugar-cane, cotton, vanilla, sorghum, + earth-nuts, sesame, maize, rice, beans, peas, bananas (in large + quantities), yams, manioc and hemp. Animal products are ivory, hides, + tortoise-shell and pearls. On the plateaus large numbers of cattle, + goats and sheep are reared. The natives have many small smithies. + Gold, coal, iron, graphite, copper and salt have been found. Garnets + are plentiful in the Lindi district, and agates, topaz, moonstone and + other precious stones are found in the colony. The chief gold and iron + deposits are near Victoria Nyanza. In the Mwanza district are + conglomerate reefs of great extent. Mining began in 1905, Mica is + mined near Mrogoro. The chief exports are sisal fibre, rubber, hides + and skins, wax, ivory, copra, coffee, ground-nuts and cotton. The + imports are chiefly articles of food, textiles, and metals and + hardware. More than half the entire trade, both export and import, is + with Zanzibar. Germany takes about 30% of the trade. In the ten years + 1896-1905 the value of the external trade increased from about + £600,000 to over £1,100,000. In 1907 the imports were valued at + £1,190,000, the exports at £625,000. + + Numerous companies are engaged in developing the resources of the + country by trading, planting and mining. The most important is the + _Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft_, founded in 1885, which has + trading stations in each seaport, and flourishing plantations in + various parts of the country. It is the owner of vast tracts of land. + From 1890 to 1903 this company was in possession of extensive mining, + railway, banking and coining rights, but in the last-named year, by + agreement with the German government, it became a land company purely. + The company has a right to a fifth part of the land within a zone of + 10 m. on either side of any railway built in the colony previously to + 1935. In addition to the companies a comparatively large number of + private individuals have laid out plantations, Usambara and Pare + having become favourite districts for agricultural enterprise. In the + delta of the Rufiji and in the Kilwa district cotton-growing was begun + in 1901. The plantations are all worked by native labour. The + government possesses large forest reserves. + + _Communications._--Good roads for foot traffic have been made from the + seaports to the trading stations on Lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika and + Victoria. Caravans from Dar-es-Salaam to Tanganyika take 60 days to do + the journey. The lack of more rapid means of communication hindered + the development of the colony and led to economic crises (1898-1902), + which were intensified, and in part created, by the building of a + railway in the adjacent British protectorate from Mombasa to Victoria + Nyanza, the British line securing the trade with the lake. At that + time the only railway in the country was a line from Tanga to the + Usambara highlands. This railway passes through Korogwe (52 m. from + Tanga) and is continued via Mombo to Wilhelmstal, a farther distance + of 56 m. The building of a trunk line from Dar-es-Salaam to Mrogoro + (140 m.), and ultimately to Ujiji by way of Tabora, was begun in 1905. + Another proposed line would run from Kilwa to Wiedhafen on Lake Nyasa. + This railway would give the quickest means of access to British + Central Africa and the southern part of Belgian Congo. On each of the + three lakes is a government steamer. British steamers on Victoria + Nyanza maintain communication between the German stations and the take + terminus of the Uganda railway. The German East Africa Line of Hamburg + runs a fleet of first-class steamers to East Africa, which touch at + Tanga, Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar. There is a submarine cable from + Dar-es-Salaam to Zanzibar, and an overland line connecting all the + coast stations. + + _Administration, Revenue, &c._--For administrative purposes the + country is divided into districts (_Bezirksämter_), and stations + (_Stationsbezirke_). Each station has a chief, who is subordinate to + the official of his district, these in their turn being under the + governor, who resides in Dar-es-Salaam. The governor is commander of + the colonial force, which consists of natives under white officers. + District councils are constituted, on which the European merchants and + planters are represented. Revenue is raised by taxes on imports and + exports, on licences for the sale of land and spirituous liquors, and + for wood-cutting, by harbour and other dues, and a hut tax on natives. + The deficiency between revenue and expenditure is met by a subsidy + from the imperial government. In no case during the first twenty-one + years' existence of the colony had the local revenue reached 60% of + the local expenditure, which in normal years amounted to about + £500,000. In 1909, however, only the expenditure necessary for + military purposes (£183,500) was received by way of subsidy. + +_History._--Until nearly the middle of the 19th century only the coast +lands of the territory now forming German East Africa were known either +to Europeans or to the Arabs. When at the beginning of the 16th century +the Portuguese obtained possession of the towns along the East African +coast, they had been, for periods extending in some cases fully five +hundred years, under Arab dominion. After the final withdrawal of the +Portuguese in the early years of the 18th century, the coast towns north +of Cape Delgado fell under the sway of the Muscat Arabs, passing from +them to the sultan of Zanzibar. From about 1830, or a little earlier, +the Zanzibar Arabs began to penetrate inland, and by 1850 had +established themselves at Ujiji on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. +The Arabs also made their way south to Nyasa. This extension of Arab +influence was accompanied by vague claims on the part of the sultan of +Zanzibar to include all these newly opened countries in his empire. How +far from the coast the real authority of the sultan extended was never +demonstrated. Zanzibar at this time was in semi-dependence on India, and +British influence was strong at the court of Bargash, who succeeded to +the sultanate in 1870. Bargash in 1877 offered to Sir (then Mr) William +Mackinnon a lease of all his mainland territory. The offer, made in the +year in which H.M. Stanley's discovery of the course of the Congo +initiated the movement for the partition of the continent, was declined. +British influence was, however, still so powerful in Zanzibar that the +agents of the German Colonization Society, who in 1884 sought to secure +for their country territory on the east coast, deemed it prudent to act +secretly, so that both Great Britain and Zanzibar might be confronted +with accomplished facts. Making their way inland, three young Germans, +Karl Peters, Joachim Count Pfeil and Dr Jühlke, concluded a "treaty" in +November 1884 with a chieftain in Usambara who was declared to be +independent of Zanzibar. Other treaties followed, and on the 17th of +February 1885, the German emperor granted a charter of protection to the +Colonization Society. The German acquisitions were resented by Zanzibar, +but were acquiesced in by the British government (the second Gladstone +administration). The sultan was forced to acknowledge their validity, +and to grant a German company a lease of his mainland territories south +of the mouth of the Umba river, a British company formed by Mackinnon +taking a lease of the territories north of that point. The story of the +negotiations between Great Britain, Germany and France which led to this +result is told elsewhere (see AFRICA, section 5). By the agreement of +the 1st of July 1890, between the British and German governments, and by +agreements concluded between Germany and Portugal in 1886 and 1894, and +Germany and the Congo Free State in 1884 and later dates, the German +sphere of influence attained its present area. On the 28th of October +1890 the sultan of Zanzibar ceded absolutely to Germany the mainland +territories already leased to a German company, receiving as +compensation £200,000. + +While these negotiations were going on, various German companies had set +to work to exploit the country, and on the 16th of August 1888 the +German East African Company, the lessee of the Zanzibar mainland strip, +took over the administration from the Arabs. This was followed, five +days later, by a revolt of all the coast Arabs against German rule--the +Germans, raw hands at the task of managing Orientals, having aroused +intense hostility by their brusque treatment of the dispossessed rulers. +The company being unable to quell the revolt, Captain Hermann +Wissmann--subsequently Major Hermann von Wissmann (1853-1905)--was sent +out by Prince Bismarck as imperial commissioner. Wissmann, with 1000 +soldiers, chiefly Sudanese officered by Germans, and a German naval +contingent, succeeded by the end of 1889 in crushing the power of the +Arabs. Wissmann remained in the country until 1891 as commissioner, and +later (1895-1896) was for eighteen months governor of the colony--as the +German sphere had been constituted by proclamation (1st of January +1897). Towards the native population Wissmann's attitude was +conciliatory, and under his rule the development of the resources of the +country was pushed on. Equal success did not attend the efforts of other +administrators; in 1891-1892 Karl Peters had great trouble with the +tribes in the Kilimanjaro district and resorted to very harsh methods, +such as the execution of women, to maintain his authority. In 1896 +Peters was condemned by a disciplinary court for a misuse of official +power, and lost his commission. After 1891, in which year the Wahehe +tribe ambushed and almost completely annihilated a German military force +of 350 men under Baron von Zelewski, there were for many years no +serious risings against German authority, which by the end of 1898 had +been established over almost the whole of the hinterland. The +development of the country was, however, slow, due in part to the +disinclination of the Reichstag to vote supplies sufficient for the +building of railways to the fertile lake regions. Count von Götzen +(governor 1901-1906) adopted the policy of maintaining the authority of +native rulers as far as possible, but as over the greater part of the +colony the natives have no political organizations of any size, the +chief burden of government rests on the German authorities. In August +1905 serious disturbances broke out among the Bantu tribes in the +colony. The revolt was due largely to resentment against the +restrictions enforced by the Germans in their efforts at civilization, +including compulsory work on European plantations in certain districts. +Moreover, it is stated that the Herero in rebellion in German South-west +Africa sent word to the east coast natives to follow their example, an +instance of the growing solidarity of the black races of Africa. Though +the revolt spread over a very large area, the chief centre of +disturbance was the region between Nyasa and the coast at Kilwa and +Lindi. Besides a number of settlers a Roman Catholic bishop and a party +of four missionaries and nuns were murdered in the Kilwa hinterland, +while nearer Nyasa the warlike Wangoni held possession of the country. +The Germans raised levies of Masai and Sudanese, and brought natives +from New Guinea to help in suppressing the rising, besides sending naval +and military contingents from Germany. In general, the natives, when +encountered, were easily dispersed, but it was not until March 1906 that +the coast regions were again quiet. In July following the Wangoni were +beaten in a decisive engagement. It was officially stated that the +death-roll for the whole war was not below 120,000 men, women and +children. In 1907 a visit was paid to the colony by Herr B. Dernburg, +the colonial secretary. As a result of this visit more humane methods in +the treatment of the natives were introduced, and measures taken to +develop more fully the economic resources of the country. + + AUTHORITIES.--S. Passarge and others, _Das deutsche Kolonialreich_, + Erster Band (Leipzig, 1909); P. Reichard, _Deutsch Ostafrika, das Land + und seine Bewohner_ (Leipzig, 1892); F. Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pasha im + Herzen von Afrika_ (Berlin, 1894); Brix Foerster, _Deutsch-Ostafrika; + Geographie und Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1890); Oscar Baumann, In + _Deutsch-Ostafrika während des Aufstands_ (Vienna, 1890), _Usambara + und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), and _Durch Massailand zur + Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894). For special studies see P. Samassa, _Die + Besiedelung Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Leipzig, 1909); A. Engler, _Die + Pflanzenwelt Ost-Afrikas und der Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1895-1896) + and other works by the same author; Stromer von Reichenbach, _Die + Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika_ (Munich and Leipzig, + 1896); W. Bornhardt, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Berlin, 1898); F. + Fullerborn, _Beiträge zur physischen Anthropologie der + Nord-Nyassaländer_ (Berlin, 1902), a fine series of pictures of native + types, and _Das Deutsche Nyassa- und Ruwuma-gebiet, Land und Leute_ + (Berlin, 1906); K. Weule, _Native Life in East Africa_ (London, 1909); + Hans Meyer, _Der Kilimandjaro_ (Berlin, 1900) and _Die Eisenbahnen im + tropischen Afrika_ (Leipzig, 1902); J. Strandes, _Die Portugiesenzeit + von Deutsch- u. Englisch-Ostafrika_ (Berlin, 1899), a valuable + monograph on the Portuguese period. See also British Official Reports + on East Africa (specially No. 4221 ann. ser.), the German White Books + and annual reports, the _Mitteilungen aus den deutschen + Schutzgebiete_, and the _Deutsches Kolonialblatt_, published + fortnightly at Berlin since 1890. The _Deutscher Kolonial-Atlas_ has + maps on the 1:1,000,000 scale. (F. R. C.) + + + + +GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH AMERICA, a Protestant church dating +from October 1840, and known, in its early years, as the German +Evangelical Association of the West. It was formed by six German +ministers who had been ordained in Prussia and were engaged in +missionary and pioneer work in Missouri and Illinois. The original +organization was strengthened in 1858 by amalgamation with the German +Evangelical Church Association of Ohio, and later by the inclusion of +the German United Evangelical Synod of the East (1860), the Evangelical +Synod of the North-West (1872) and the United Evangelical Synod of the +East (1872). The church bases its position on the Bible as interpreted +by the symbols of the Lutheran and Reformed churches so far as they are +in agreement, points of difference being left to "that liberty of +conscience which, as a component part of the basis of man's ultimate +responsibility to God himself, is the inalienable privilege of every +believer." The church, which has (1909) 985 ministers and some 238,000 +communicant members, is divided into seventeen districts, with officers +responsible to the General Synod, which meets every four years. There +are boards for home and foreign missions, the latter operating chiefly +in the Central Provinces of India. The literature of the church is +mainly in German, though English is rapidly gaining ground. + + + + +GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. Of those Germanic laws of the early middle ages +which are known as _leges barbarorum_, we here deal with the principal +examples other than Frankish, viz. (1) _Leges Wisigothorum_, (2) _Lex +Burgundionum_, (3) _Pactus Alamannorum_ and _Lex Alamannorum_, (4) _Lex +Bajuvariorum_, (5) _Lex Saxonum_, (6) _Lex Frisionum_, (7) _Lex +Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringorum_, and (8) _Leges +Langobardorum_. All these laws may in general be described as codes of +procedure and tariffs of compositions. They present somewhat similar +features with the Salic law, but often differ from it in the date of +compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature of the crimes, +the number, rank, duties and titles of the officers, &c. For the Salic +law and other Frankish laws, see SALIC LAW, and for the edict of +Theodoric I., which was applicable to the Ostrogoths and Romans, see +ROMAN LAW. + + For the whole body of the Germanic laws see P. Canciani, _Barbarorum + leges antiquae_ (Venice, 1781-1789); F. Walter, _Corpus juris + germanici antiqui_ (Berlin, 1824); _Monumenta Germaniae historica, + Leges_. For further information on the codes in general, see H.M. + Zöpfl, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_ (4th ed., Heidelberg, 1871-1876); + J.E.O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, + 1860-1864); Paul Viollet, _Histoire du droit civil français_ (2nd ed., + Paris, 1893); H. Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_ (2nd ed., + Leipzig, 1906). + +1. _Leges Wisigothorum._--Karl Zeumer's edition of these laws in the 4to +series of the _Mon. Germ. Hist._ throws new light on all questions +relating to their date and composition. It is now certain that the +earliest written code of the Visigoths dates back to King Euric +(466-485). Besides his own constitutions, Euric included in this +collection constitutions of his predecessors, Theodoric I. (419-451), +Thorismund (451-453), and Theodoric II. (453-466), and he arranged the +whole in a logical order. Of this code fragments of chapters cclxxvi. to +cccxxxvi.[1] have been discovered in a palimpsest MS. in the +Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (Latin coll., No. 12161), a fact which +proves that the code ran over a large area. Euric's code was used for +all cases between Goths, and between them and Romans; in cases between +Romans, Roman law was used. At the instance of Euric's son, Alaric II., +an examination was made of the Roman laws in use among Romans in his +dominions, and the resulting compilation was approved in 506 at an +assembly at Aire, in Gascony, and is known as the Breviary of Alaric, +and sometimes as the _Liber Aniani_, from the fact that the authentic +copies bear the signature of the _referendarius_ Anian. + +Euric's code remained in force among the Visigoths of Spain until the +reign of Leovigild (568-586), who made a new one, improving upon that of +his predecessor. This work is lost, and we have no direct knowledge of +any fragment of it. In the 3rd codification, however, many provisions +have been taken from the 2nd, and these are designated by the word +"_antiqua_"; by means of these "_antiqua_" we are enabled in a certain +measure to reconstruct the work of Leovigild. + +After the reign of Leovigild the legislation of the Visigoths underwent +a transformation. The new laws made by the kings were declared to be +applicable to all the subjects in the kingdom, of whatever race--in +other words, they became territorial; and this principle of +territoriality was gradually extended to the ancient code. Moreover, the +conversion of Reccared I. (586-601) to orthodoxy effaced the religious +differences among his subjects, and all subjects, _qua_ Christians, had +to submit to the canons of the councils, which were made obligatory by +the kings. After this change had been accepted, Recceswinth (649-672) +made a new code, which was applicable to Visigoths and Romans alike. +This code, known as the _Liber judiciorum_, is divided into 12 books, +which are subdivided into _tituli_ and chapters (_aerae_). It comprises +324 constitutions taken from Leovigild's collection, a few of the laws +of Reccared and Sisebut, 99 laws of Chindaswinth (642-653), and 87 of +Recceswinth. A recension of this code of Recceswinth was made in 681 by +King Erwig (680-687), and is known as the _Lex Wisigothorum renovata_; +and, finally, some additamenta were made by Egica (687-702). In Zeumer's +edition of the _Leges Wisigothorum_ the versions of Recceswinth and +Erwig, where they differ from each other, are shown in parallel columns, +and the laws later than Erwig are denoted by the sign "_nov_." + + For further information see the preface to Zeumer's edition; H. + Brunner, _Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906); Ureña y + Smenyaud, _La Legislacion Gotico-hispana_ (Madrid, 1905). + +2. _Lex Burgundionum._--This code was compiled by King Gundobald +(474-516), very probably after his defeat by Clovis in 500. Some +additamenta were subsequently introduced either by Gundobald himself or +by his son Sigismund. This law bears the title of _Liber +Constitutionum_, which shows that it emanated from the king; it is also +known as the _Lex Gundobada_ or _Lex Gombata_. It was used for cases +between Burgundians, but was also applicable to cases between +Burgundians and Romans. For cases between Romans, however, Gundobald +compiled the _Lex Romana Burgundionum_, called sometimes, through a +misreading of the MSS., the _Liber Papiani_ or simply _Papianus_. The +barbarian law of the Burgundians shows strong traces of Roman influence. +It recognizes the will and attaches great importance to written deeds, +but on the other hand sanctions the judicial duel and the _cojuratores_ +(sworn witnesses). The vehement protest made in the 9th century by +Agobard, bishop of Lyons, against the _Lex Gundobada_ shows that it was +still in use at that period. So late as the 10th and even the 11th +centuries we find the law of the Burgundians invoked as personal law in +Cluny charters, but doubtless these passages refer to accretions of +local customs rather than to actual paragraphs of the ancient code. + + The text of the _Lex Burgundionum_ has been published by F. Bluhme in + the _Mon. Germ. hist._, _Leges_, iii. 525; by Karl Binding in the + _Fontes rerum Bernensium_ (vol. i., 1880); by J.E. Valentin Smith + (Paris, 1889 seq.); and by von Salis (1892) in the 4to series of the + _Mon. Germ. hist._ Cf. R. Dareste, "La Loi Gombette," in the _Journal + des savants_ (July 1891). + +3. _Pactus Alamannorum_ and _Lex Alamannorum._--Of the laws of the +Alamanni, who dwelt between the Rhine and the Lech, and spread over +Alsace and what is now Switzerland to the south of Lake Constance, we +possess two different texts. The earlier text, of which five short +fragments have come down to us, is known as the _Pactus Alamannorum_, +and from the persistent recurrence of the expression "et sic convenit" +was most probably drawn up by an official commission. The reference to +affranchisement _in ecclesia_ shows that it was composed at a period +subsequent to the conversion of the Alamanni to Christianity. There is +no doubt that the text dates back to the reign of Dagobert I., i.e. to +the first half of the 7th century. The later text, known as the _Lex +Alamannorum_, dates from a period when Alamannia was independent under +national dukes, but recognized the theoretical suzerainty of the +Frankish kings. There seems no reason to doubt the St Gall MS., which +states that the law had its origin in an agreement between the great +Alamannic lords and Duke Landfrid, who ruled the duchy from 709 to 730. + + The two texts have been published by J. Merkel in the _Mon. Germ. + hist._, _Leges_, iii., and by Karl Lehmann in the 4to series of the + same collection. + +4. _Lex Bajuvariorum._--We possess an important law of the Bavarians, +whose duchy was situated in the region east of the Lech, and was an +outpost of Germany against the Huns, known later as Avars. Parts of this +law have been taken directly from the Visigothic law of Euric and from +the law of the Alamanni. The Bavarian law, therefore, is later than that +of the Alamanni. It dates unquestionably from a period when the Frankish +authority was very strong in Bavaria, when the dukes were vassals of the +Frankish kings. Immediately after the revolt of Bavaria in 743 the +Bavarian duke Odilo was forced to submit to Pippin and Carloman, the +sons of Charles Martel, and to recognize the Frankish suzerainty. About +the same period, too, the church of Bavaria was organized by St +Boniface, and the country divided into several bishoprics; and we find +frequent references to these bishops (in the plural) in the law of the +Bavarians. On the other hand, we know that the law is anterior to the +reign of Duke Tassilo III. (749-788). The date of compilation must, +therefore, be placed between 743 and 749. + + There is an edition of the _Lex Bajuvariorum_ by J. Merkel in the + _Mon. Germ. hist._, _Leges_, iii. 183, and another was undertaken by + E. von Schwind for the 4to series of the same collection. Cf. von + Schwind's article in the _Neues Archiv_, vol. xxxi. + +5. _Lex Saxonum._--Germany comprised two other duchies, Saxony and +Frisia, of each of which we possess a text of law. The _Lex Saxonum_ has +come down to us in two MSS. and two old editions (those of B.J. Herold +and du Tillet), and the text has been edited by Karl von Richthofen in +the _Mon. Germ. hist._, _Leges_, v. The law contains ancient customary +enactments of Saxony, and, in the form in which it has reached us, is +later than the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. It is preceded by two +capitularies of Charlemagne for Saxony--the _Capitulatio de partibus +Saxoniae_ (A. Boretius i. 68), which dates undoubtedly from 782, and is +characterized by great severity, death being the penalty for every +offence against the Christian religion; and the _Capitulare Saxonicum_ +(A. Boretius i. 71), of the 28th of October 797, in which Charlemagne +shows less brutality and pronounces simple compositions for misdeeds +which formerly entailed death. The _Lex Saxonum_ apparently dates from +803, since it contains provisions which are in the _Capitulare legi +Ribuariae additum_ of that year. The law established the ancient +customs, at the same time eliminating anything that was contrary to the +spirit of Christianity; it proclaimed the peace of the churches, whose +possessions it guaranteed and whose right of asylum it recognized. + +6. _Lex Frisionum._--This consists of a medley of documents of the most +heterogeneous character. Some of its enactments are purely pagan--thus +one paragraph allows the mother to kill her new-born child, and another +prescribes the immolation to the gods of the defiler of their temple; +others are purely Christian, such as those which prohibit incestuous +marriages and working on Sunday. The law abounds in contradictions and +repetitions, and the compositions are calculated in different moneys. +From this it would appear that the documents were merely materials +collected from various sources and possibly with a view to the +compilation of a homogeneous law. These materials were apparently +brought together at the beginning of the 9th century, at a time of +intense legislative activity at the court of Charlemagne. + + There are no MSS. of the document extant; our knowledge of it is based + upon B.J. Herold's edition (_Originum ac Germanicarum antiquitatum + libri_, Basel, 1557), which has been reproduced by Karl von Richthofen + in the _Mon. Germ. hist._, _Leges_, iii. 631. + +7. _Lex Angliorum el Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringorum._--In early times +there dwelt in Thuringia, south of the river Unstrut, the Angli, who +gave their name to the _pagus Engili_, and to the east, between the +Saale and the Elster, the Warni (Werini, or Varini), whose name is seen +in Werenofeld. In the 9th century, however, this region (then called +Werenofeld) was occupied by the Sorabi, and the Warni and Angli either +coalesced with the Thuringi or sought an asylum in the north of Germany. +A collection of laws has come down to us bearing the name of these two +peoples, the _Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringorum_. This +text is a collection of local customs arranged in the same order as the +law of the Ripuarians. Parts of it are based on the _Capitulare legi +Ribuariae additum_ of 803, and it seems to have been drawn up in the +same conditions and circumstances as the law of the Saxons. There is an +edition of this code by Karl von Richthofen in the _Mon. Germ. hist._, +_Leges_, v. 103. The old opinion that the law originated in south +Holland is entirely without foundation. + +8. _Leges Langobardorum._--We possess a fair amount of information on +the origin of the last barbarian code, the laws of the Lombards. The +first part, consisting of 388 chapters, is known as the _Edictus +Langobardorum_, and was promulgated by King Rothar at a diet held at +Pavia on the 22nd of November 643. This work, composed at one time and +arranged on a systematic plan, is very remarkable. The compilers knew +Roman law, but drew upon it only for their method of presentation and +for their terminology; and the document presents Germanic law in its +purity. Rothar's edict was augmented by his successors; Grimoald (668) +added nine chapters; Liutprand (713-735), fifteen volumes, containing a +great number of ecclesiastical enactments; Ratchis (746), eight +chapters; and Aistulf (755), thirteen chapters. After the union of the +Lombards to the Frankish kingdom, the capitularies made for the entire +kingdom were applicable to Italy. There were also special capitularies +for Italy, called _Capitula Italica_, some of which were appended to the +edict of Rothar. + +At an early date compilations were formed in Italy for the use of legal +practitioners and jurists. Eberhard, duke and margrave of Rhaetia and +Friuli, arranged the contents of the edict with its successive +additamenta into a _Concordia de singulis causis_ (829-832). In the 10th +century a collection was made of the capitularies in use in Italy, and +this was known as the _Capitulare Langobardorum_. Then appeared, under +the influence of the school of law at Pavia, the _Liber legis +Langobardorum_, also called _Liber Papiensis_ (beginning of 11th +century), and the _Lombarda_ (end of 11th century) in two forms--that +given in a Monte Cassino MS. and known as the _Lombarda Casinensis_, and +the _Lombarda Vulgata_. + + There are editions of the _Edictus_, the _Concordia_, and the _Liber + Papiensis_ by F. Bluhme and A. Boretius in the _Mon. Germ. hist., + Leges_, iv. Bluhme also gives the rubrics of the _Lombardae_, which + were published by F. Lindenberg in his _Codex legum antiquarum_ in + 1613. For further information on the laws of the Lombards see J. + Merkel, _Geschichte des Langobardenrechts_ (1850); A. Boretius, _Die + Kapitularien im Langobardenreich_ (1864); and C. Kier, _Edictus + Rotari_ (Copenhagen, 1898). Cf. R. Dareste in the _Nouvelle Revue + historique de droit français et étranger_ (1900, p. 143). (C. Pf.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The lacunae in these fragments have been filled in by the aid of + the law of the Bavarians, where the chief provisions are reproduced. + + + + +GERMANICUS CAESAR (15 B.C.-A.D. 19), a Roman general and provincial +governor in the reign of Tiberius. The name Germanicus, the only one by +which he is known in history, he inherited from his father, Nero +Claudius Drusus, the famous general, brother of Tiberius and stepson of +Augustus. His mother was the younger Antonia, daughter of Marcus +Antonius and niece of Augustus, and he married Agrippina, the +granddaughter of the same emperor. It was natural, therefore, that he +should be regarded as a candidate for the purple. Augustus, it would +seem, long hesitated whether he should name him as his successor, and as +a compromise required his uncle Tiberius to adopt him, though Tiberius +had a son of his own. Of his early years and education little is known. +That he possessed considerable literary abilities, and that these were +carefully trained, we gather, both from the speeches which Tacitus puts +into his mouth, and from the reputation he left as an orator, as +attested by Suetonius and Ovid, and from the extant fragments of his +works. + +At the age of twenty he served his apprenticeship as a soldier under +Tiberius, and was rewarded with the triumphal insignia for his services +in crushing the revolt in Dalmatia and Pannonia. In A.D. 11 he +accompanied Tiberius in his campaign on the Rhine, undertaken, in +consequence of the defeat of Varus, with the object of securing the +German frontier. In 12 he was made consul, and increased his popularity +by appearing as an advocate in the courts of justice, and by the +celebration of brilliant games. Soon afterwards he was appointed by +Augustus to the important command of the eight legions on the Rhine. The +news of the emperor's death (14) found Germanicus at Lugdunum (Lyons), +where he was superintending the census of Gaul. Close upon this came the +report that a mutiny had broken out among his legions on the lower +Rhine. Germanicus hurried back to the camp, which was now in open +insurrection. The tumult was with difficulty quelled, partly by +well-timed concessions, for which the authority of the emperor was +forged, but chiefly owing to his personal popularity. Some of the +insurgents actually proposed that he should put himself at their head +and secure the empire for himself, but their offer was rejected with +indignation. In order to calm the excitement Germanicus determined at +once on an active campaign. Crossing the Rhine, he attacked and routed +the Marsi, and laid waste the valley of the Ems. In the following year +he marched against Arminius, the conqueror of Varus, and performed the +last rites over the remains of the Roman soldiers that still lay there +unburied, erecting a barrow to mark the spot. Arminius, however, +favoured by the marshy ground, was able to hold his own, and it required +another campaign before he was finally defeated. A masterly combined +movement by land and water enabled Germanicus to concentrate his forces +against the main body of the Germans encamped on the Weser, and to crush +them in two obstinately contested battles. A monument erected on the +field proclaimed that the army of Tiberius had conquered every tribe +between the Rhine and the Elbe. Great, however, as the success of the +Roman arms had been, it was not such as to justify this boastful +inscription; we read of renewed attacks from the barbarians, and plans +of a fourth campaign for the next summer. + +But the success of Germanicus had already stirred the jealousy and fears +of Tiberius, and he was reluctantly compelled to return to Rome. On the +26th of May 17 he celebrated a triumph. The enthusiasm with which he was +welcomed, not only by the populace, but by the emperor's own +praetorians, was so great that the earliest pretext was seized to remove +him from the capital. He was sent to the East with extraordinary powers +to settle a disputed succession in Parthia and Armenia. At the same time +Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, one of the most violent and ambitious of the old +nobility, was sent as governor of Syria to watch his movements. +Germanicus proceeded by easy stages to his province, halting on his way +in Dalmatia, and visiting the battlefield of Actium, Athens, Ilium, and +other places of historic interest. At Rhodes he met his coadjutor Piso, +who was seeking everywhere to thwart and malign him. When at last he +reached his destination, he found little difficulty in effecting the +settlement of the disturbed provinces, notwithstanding Piso's violent +and persistent opposition. At Artaxata Zeno, the popular candidate for +the throne, was crowned king of Armenia. To the provinces of Cappadocia +and Commagene Roman governors were assigned; Parthia was conciliated by +the banishment of the dethroned king Vonones. + +After wintering in Syria Germanicus started for a tour in Egypt. The +chief motive for his journey was love of travel and antiquarian study, +and it seems never to have occurred to him, till he was warned by +Tiberius, that he was thereby transgressing an unwritten law which +forbade any Roman of rank to set foot in Egypt without express +permission. On his return to Syria he found that all his arrangements +had been upset by Piso. Violent recriminations followed, the result of +which, it would seem, was a promise on the part of Piso to quit the +province. But at this juncture Germanicus was suddenly attacked at +Epidaphne near Antioch by a violent illness, which he himself and his +friends attributed to poison administered by Plancina, the wife of Piso, +at the instigation of Tiberius. Whether these suspicions were true is +open to question; it seems more probable that his death was due to +natural causes. His ashes were brought to Rome in the following year +(20) by his wife Agrippina, and deposited in the grave of Augustus. He +had nine children, six of whom, three sons and three daughters, survived +him, amongst them the future emperor Gaius and the notorious Agrippina, +the mother of Nero. The news of his death cast a gloom over the whole +empire. Nor was Germanicus unworthy of this passionate devotion. He had +wiped out a great national disgrace; he had quelled the most formidable +foe of Rome. His private life had been stainless, and he possessed a +singularly attractive personality. Yet there were elements of weakness +in his character which his short life only half revealed: an impetuosity +which made him twice threaten to take his own life; a superstitious vein +which impelled him to consult oracles and shrink from bad omens; an +amiable dilettantism which led him to travel in Egypt while his enemy +was plotting his ruin; a want of nerve and resolution which prevented +him from coming to an open rupture with Piso till it was too late. + +He possessed considerable literary abilities; his speeches and Greek +comedies were highly spoken of by his contemporaries. But the only +specimen of his work that has come down to us is the translation in +Latin hexameters (generally attributed to him, although some consider +Domitian the author), together with scholia, of the _Phaenomena_ of +Aratus, which is superior to those of Cicero and Avienus (best edition +by A. Breysig, 1867; 1899, without the scholia). A few extant Greek and +Latin epigrams also bear the name Germanicus. + + In addition to monographs by A. Zingerle (Trent, 1867) and A. Breysig + (Erfurt, 1892), there are treatises on the German campaigns by E. von + Wietersheim (1850), P. Höfer (1884), F. Knoke (1887, 1889), W. Fricke + (1889), A. Taramelli (1891), Dahm (1902). + + See Tacitus, _Annals_, i.-iv. (ed. Furneaux); Suetonius, _Augustus, + Tiberius_; J.C. Tarver, _Tiberius_ (1902); Merivale, _Hist. of the + Romans under the Empire_, chs. 42, 43; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der + römischen Kaiserzeit_, i. 1 (1883), pp. 227, 258, 261-266, 270-276; M. + Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_, pt. ii. (2nd ed., + 1901), and Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. tr., + 1900), 275. + + + + +GERMANIUM (symbol Ge, atomic weight 72.5); one of the metallic elements +included in the same natural family as carbon, silicon, tin and lead. It +was discovered in 1886 by C. Winkler in argyrodite, a mineral found at +Freiberg in Saxony. On examination of the metal and its salts it was +shown to be identical with the hypothetical element _ekasilicon_, whose +properties had been predicted by D. Mendeléeff many years previously. +The element is of extremely rare occurrence, being met with only in +argyrodite and, to a very small extent, in euxenite. It may be obtained +from argyrodite by heating the mineral in a current of hydrogen; or by +heating the dioxide to redness with carbon. It forms grey coloured +octahedra of specific gravity 5.496 at 20° C., melting at 900° C.; it +burns at a red heat, is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but dissolves in +_aqua regia_, and is also soluble in molten alkalis. Two oxides of +germanium are known, the _dioxide_, GeO2, being obtained by roasting the +sulphide and treatment with nitric acid. It is a white powder, very +slightly soluble in water, and possesses acid properties. By heating +with a small quantity of magnesium it is converted into _germanious +oxide_, GeO. By heating the metal with chlorine, _germanic chloride_, +GeCl4, is obtained as a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 86-87° C., +it is decomposed by water forming a hydrated germanium dioxide. +_Germanium dichloride_, GeCl2, and _germanium chloroform_, GeHCl3, have +also been described. + +Germanium compounds on fusion with alkaline carbonates and sulphur form +salts known as _thiogermanates_. If excess of a mineral acid be added to +a solution of an alkaline thiogermanate a white precipitate of +_germanium disulphide_, GeS2, is obtained. It can also be obtained by +passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of the dioxide in +hydrochloric acid. It is appreciably soluble in water, and also in +solutions of the caustic alkalis and alkaline sulphides. By heating the +disulphide in a current of hydrogen, _germanious sulphide_, GeS, is +formed. It sublimes in thin plates of a dark colour and metallic lustre, +and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Alkyl compounds of +germanium such as _germanium tetra-ethyl_, Ge(C2H5)4, a liquid boiling +at 160° C., have been obtained. The germanium salts are most readily +recognized by the white precipitate of the disulphide, formed in acid +solutions, on passing sulphuretted hydrogen. The atomic weight of the +element was determined by C. Winkler by analysis of the pure chloride +GeCl4, the value obtained being 72.32, whilst Lecoq de Boisbaudran +(_Comptes rendus_, 1886, 103, 452), by a comparison of the lines in the +spark spectrum of the element, deduced the value 72.3. + + + + +GERMAN LANGUAGE. Together with English and Frisian, the German language +forms part of the West Germanic group of languages. To this group +belongs also Langobardian, a dialect which died out in the 9th or 10th +century, while Burgundian, traces of which are not met with later than +the 5th century, is usually classed with the East Germanic group. Both +these tongues were at an early stage crushed out by Romance dialects, a +fate which also overtook the idiom of the Western Franks, who, in the +so-called _Strassburg Oaths_[1] of 842, use the Romance tongue, and are +addressed in that tongue by Louis the German. + +Leaving English and Frisian aside, we understand by _Deutsche_ +_Sprache_ the language of those West Germanic tribes, who, at their +earliest appearance in history, spoke a Germanic tongue, and still speak +it at the present day. The chief of these tribes are: the Saxons, the +Franks (but with the restriction noted above), the Chatti (Hessians), +Thuringians, Alemannians and Bavarians. This definition naturally +includes the languages spoken in the Low Countries, Flemish and Dutch, +which are offsprings of the Low Franconian dialect, mixed with Frisian +and Saxon elements; but, as the literary development of these languages +has been in its later stages entirely independent of that of the German +language, they are excluded from the present survey. + +The German language, which is spoken by about seventy-one millions, and +consequently occupies in this respect the third place among European +languages, borders, in the west and south, on Romance languages (French, +Italian), and also to some extent on Slavonic. On Italian and Slovenian +territory there are several German-speaking "islands," notably the Sette +and Tredici Communi, east and north-east of the Lake of Garda, and the +"Gottschee Ländchen" to the south of Laibach. The former of these is, +however, on the point of dying out. Neighbours on the east, where the +boundary line runs by no means as straight as on the west or south, are +the Magyars and again Slavonic races. Here, too, there are numerous +"islands" on Hungarian and Slavonic territory. Danes and Frisians join +hands with the Germans in the north.[2] + +In the west and south the German language has, compared with its status +in earlier periods, undoubtedly lost ground, having been encroached upon +by Romance tongues. This is the case in French Flanders, in Alsace and +Lorraine, at any rate before the war of 1870, in the valleys south of +Monte Rosa and in southern Tirol; in Styria and Carinthia the +encroachment is less marked, but quite perceptible. On the east, on the +other hand, German steadily spread from the days of Charles the Great +down to recent times, when it has again lost considerable ground in +Bohemia, Moravia and Livonia. At the time of Charles the Great the +eastern frontier extended very little beyond the lower Elbe, following +this river beyond Magdeburg, whence it passed over to the Saale, the +Bohemian forest and the river Enns (cf. the map in F. Dahn, +_Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen Völker_, vol. iii.). +Partly as a result of victories gained by the Germans over the Avars and +Slavs, partly owing to peaceful colonization, the eastern boundary was +pushed forward in subsequent centuries; Bohemia was in this way won for +the German tongue by German colonists in the 13th century, Silesia even +a little earlier; in Livonia German gained the upper hand during the +13th century, while about the same time the country of the Prussians was +conquered and colonized by the knights of the Teutonic order. The +dialect which these colonists and knights introduced bore the Middle +German character; and this, in various modifications, combined with Low +German and even Dutch elements, formed the German spoken in these +newly-won territories. In the north (Schleswig), where at the time of +Charles the Great the river Eider formed the linguistic boundary, German +has gained and is still gaining on Danish. + +Before considering the development of the language spoken within these +boundaries, a word of explanation is perhaps necessary with regard to +the word _deutsch_. As applied to the language, _deutsch_ first appears +in the Latin form _theotiscus_, _lingua theotisca_, _teutisca_, in +certain Latin writings of the 8th and 9th centuries, whereas the +original Old High German word _thiudisc_, _tiutisc_ (from _thiot_, +_diot_, "people," and the suffix _-isc_) signified only "appertaining to +the people," "in the manner of the people." Cf. also Gothic +_[thorn]iudisko_ as a translation of [Greek: ethnikôs] (Gal. ii. 14). +It, therefore, seems probable that if the application of the word to the +language (_lingua theotisca_) was not exactly an invention of Latin +authors of German nationality, its use in this sense was at least +encouraged by them in order to distinguish their own vernacular +(_lingua vulgaris_) from Latin as well as from the _lingua romana_.[3] + +In the 8th and 9th centuries German or "Deutsch" first appears as a +written language in the dialects of Old High German and Old Low German. +Of an "Urdeutsch" or primitive German, i.e. the common language from +which these sharply distinguished dialects of the earliest historical +period must have developed, we have no record; we can only infer its +character--and it was itself certainly not free from dialectic +variations--by a study of the above-named and other Germanic dialects. It +is usual to divide the history of the German language from this earliest +period, when it appears only in the form of proper names and isolated +words as glosses to a Latin text, down to the present day, into three +great sections: (1) Old High German (_Althochdeutsch_) and Old Low German +(Old Saxon; _Altniederdeutsch_, _Altsächsisch_); (2) Middle High German +(_Mittelhochdeutsch_) and Middle Low German (Mittelniederdeutsch); and +(3) Modern High German and Modern Low German (_Neuhochdeutsch_ and +_Neuniederdeutsch_). It is more difficult to determine the duration of +the different periods, for it is obvious that the transition from one +stage of a language to another takes place slowly and gradually. + +The first or Old High German period is commonly regarded as extending to +about the year 1100. The principal characteristic of the change from Old +High German to Middle High German is the weakening of the unaccented +vowels in final syllables (cf. O.H.G. _taga_, _gesti_, _geban_, _gabum_ +and M.H.G. _tage_, _geste_, _geben_, _gaben_). But it must be remembered +that this process began tentatively as early as the 10th century in Low +German, and also that long, unaccented vowels are preserved in the +Alemannic dialect as late as the 14th century and even later. Opinion is +more at variance with regard to the division between the second and +third periods. Some would date Modern High German from the time of +Luther, that is to say, from about 1500. But it must be noted that +certain characteristics attributed to the Modern German vowel system, +such as lengthening of Middle High German short vowels, the change from +Middle High German _i_, _u_, _iu_ to Modern High German _ei_, _au_, _eu_ +(_öu_), of Middle High German _ie_, _uo_, _üe_ to Modern High German +_i_, _u_, _ü_, made their appearance long before 1500. Taking this fact +into consideration, others distinguish a period of classical Middle High +German extending to about 1250, and a period of transition (sometimes +called _Frühneuhochdeutsch_, or Early Modern High German) from 1250 to +1650. The principal characteristics of Modern High German would then +consist in a greater stability of the grammatical and syntactical rules, +due to the efforts of earlier grammarians, such as Schottelius, +Gottsched and others, and the substitution of a single vowel sound for +the varying vowels of the singular and plural of the preterite of strong +verbs (cf. Middle High German _schreib_, _schriben_, and Modern High +German _schrieb_, _schrieben_, &c.). The much debated question of the +origins of Modern High German has been recently reopened by O. Behaghel +(_Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, l.c._ 661), who hopes that a more +satisfactory solution may be arrived at by the study of certain +syntactical peculiarities to be seen in the dialects of more recent +periods. + +As the middle ages did not produce a German _Schriftsprache_ or literary +language in the modern sense of the word, which--as is undoubtedly the +case in Modern German--might have influenced the spoken language +(_Umgangssprache_), the history of the language in its earlier stages is +a history of different dialects. These dialects will, therefore, claim +our attention at some length. + +It may be assumed that the languages of the different West Germanic +tribes enumerated above were, before the appearance of the tribes in +history, distinguished by many dialectic variations; this was certainly +the case immediately after the Migrations, when the various races began +to settle down. But these differences, consisting presumably in matters +of phonology and vocabulary, were nowhere so pronounced as to exclude a +mutual understanding of individuals belonging to different tribes. One +might compare the case of the Poles and Czechs of the present day. +During the 6th century, however, a phonological process set in, which +ultimately resulted in the separation of Germany into two great +linguistic divisions, south and north, or, as the languages are called, +High and Low German. This fundamental change, which is known as the +second or High German Soundshifting (_Lautverschiebung_), spread +northward from the mountainous districts in the south, and, whatever its +cause may have been,[4] left behind it clear and easily recognizable +effects on the Germanic voiced stop _d_, which became changed to _t_, +and more especially on the voiceless stops _t_, _p_ and _k_. Dialects +which have shifted initial _t_ and _tt_ in the middle of a word to the +affricate _tz_ (written _z_, _tz_) and _p_ and _k_ in corresponding +positions to the affricates _pf_ and _k[chi]_ (written _ch_), further, +_t_, _p_ and _k_ in the middle of words between vowels, to the double +spirant _zz_ (now written _ss_, _sz_), _ff_, _hh_ (written _ch_), are +called High German; those in which these changes have not taken place +form the Low German group, this group agreeing in this respect with +English and Frisian. + +Of these sound changes, that of _t_ to _tz_ and _zz_ (_ss_) is the most +universal, extending over the whole region in which shifting occurs; +that of _k_ to _k[chi]_ (_ch_), the most restricted, being only found in +Old Bavarian, and in the Swiss pronunciation, e.g. in _chind_. The +remaining dialects occupy positions between the two extremes of complete +shifting and the absence of shifting. Some Franconian dialects, for +instance, leave _p_ unchanged under certain conditions, and in one +dialect at least, Middle Franconian, _t_ has remained after vowels in +certain pronominal forms (_dat_, _wat_, _allet_, &c.). On this ground a +subdivision has been made in the High German dialects into (a) an Upper +German (_Oberdeutsch_) and (b) a Middle German (_Mitteldeutsch_) group; +and this subdivision practically holds good for all periods of the +language, although in Old High German times the Middle German group is +only represented, as far as the written language is concerned, by +Franconian dialects. + +As the scientific study of the German language advanced there arose a +keen revival of interest--and that not merely on the part of +scholars--in the dialects which were so long held in contempt as a mere +corruption of the _Schriftsprache_.[5] We are still in the midst of a +movement which, under the guidance of scholars, has, during the last +three decades, bestowed great care on many of the existing dialects; +phonological questions have received most attention, but problems of +syntax have also not been neglected. Monumental works like Wenker's +_Sprachatlas des deutschen Reiches_ and dialect dictionaries are either +in course of publication or preparing;[6] while the difficult questions +concerned with defining the boundaries of the various dialects and +explaining the reasons for them form the subject of many monographs.[7] + +Beginning in the north we shall now pass briefly in review the dialects +spoken throughout the German-speaking area. + + + A. THE LOW GERMAN DIALECTS + + The Low German dialects, as we have seen, stand nearest to the English + and Frisian languages, owing to the total absence of the consonantal + shifting which characterizes High German, as well as to other + peculiarities of sounds and inflections, e.g. the loss of the nasals + _m_ and _n_ before the spirants _f_, _s_ and _p_. Cf. Old Saxon _fif_ + (five), _us_ (us), _kup_ (cf. uncouth). The boundary-line between Low + and High German, the so-called _Benrather Linie_, may roughly be + indicated by the following place-names, on the understanding, however, + that the Ripuarian dialect (see below) is to be classed with High + German: Montjoie (French border-town), Eupen, Aachen, Benrath, + Düsseldorf, north of Siegen, Cassel, Heiligenstadt, Harzgerode, to the + Elbe south of Magdeburg; this river forms the boundary as far as + Wittenberg, whence the line passes to Lübben on the Spree, Fürstenwald + on the Oder and Birnbaum near the river Warthe. Beyond this point the + Low Germans have Slavs as their neighbours. Compared with the + conditions in the 13th century, it appears that Low German has lost + ground; down to the 14th and 15th centuries several towns, such as + Mansfeld, Eisleben, Merseburg, Halle, Dessau and Wittenberg, spoke Low + German. + + Low German falls into two divisions, a western division, namely, Low + Franconian, the parent, as we have already said, of Flemish and Dutch, + and an eastern division, Low Saxon (_Plattdeutsch_, or, as it is often + simply called, Low German). The chief characteristic of the division + is to be sought in the ending of the first and third person plural of + the present indicative of verbs, this being in the former case _-en_, + in the latter _-et_. Inasmuch as the south-eastern part of Low + Franconian--inclusive of Gelderland and Cleves--shifts final _k_ to + _ch_ (e.g. _ich_, _mich_, _auch_, _-lich_), it must obviously be + separated from the rest, and in this respect be grouped with High + German. Low Saxon is usually divided into Westphalian (to the west of + the Weser) and Low Saxon proper, between Weser and Elbe. The + south-eastern part of the latter has the verbal ending -en and further + shows the peculiarity that the personal pronoun has the same form in + the dative and accusative (_mik_, _dick_), whereas the remainder, as + well as the Westphalian, has _mi_, _di_ in the dative, and _mi_, _di_ + or _mik_, _dik_ in the accusative. To these Low German dialects must + also be added those spoken east of the Elbe on what was originally + Slavonic territory; they have the ending _-en_ in the first and third + person plural of verbs.[8] + + + B. THE HIGH GERMAN DIALECTS + + 1. _The Middle German Group._--This group, which comprises the + dialects of the Middle Rhine, of Hesse, Thuringia, Upper Saxony + (Meissen), Silesia and East Prussia to the east of the lower Vistula + between Bischofswerder, Marienburg, Elbing, Wormditt and Wartenberg--a + district originally colonized from Silesia--may be most conveniently + divided into an East and a West Middle German group. A common + characteristic of all these dialects is the diminutive suffix _-chen_, + as compared with the Low German form _-ken_ and the Upper German + _-lein_ (O.H.G. _lin_). East Middle German consists of Silesian, Upper + Saxon and Thuringian,[9] together with the linguistic colony in East + Prussia. While these dialects have shifted initial Germanic _p_ to + _ph_, or even to _f_ (_fert_ = _Pferd_), the West Middle German + dialects (roughly speaking to the west of the watershed of Werra and + Fulda) have retained it. If, following a convincing article in the + _Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum_ (37, 288 ff.) by F. Wrede, we + class East and South Franconian--both together may be called High + Franconian--with the Upper German dialects, there only remain in the + West Middle German group:[10] (a) Middle Franconian and (b) Rhenish + Franconian. The former of these,[11] which with its _dat_, _wat_, + _allet_, &c. (cf. above) and its retention of the voiced spirant _b_ + (written _v_) represents a kind of transition dialect to Low German, + is itself divided into ([alpha]) Ripuarian or Low Rhenish with Cologne + and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) as centres, and ([beta]) Moselle + Franconian[12] with Trier (Treves) as principal town. The latter is + distinguished by the fact that in the Middle High German period it + shifts Germanic _-rp-_ and _-rd-_, which are retained in (a), to + _-rf-_ and _-rt-_ (cf. _werfen_, _hirtin_ with _werpen_, + _hirdin_).[13] The Rhenish Franconian dialect is spoken in the Rhenish + palatinate, in the northern part of Baden (Heidelberg), Hesse[14] and + Nassau, and in the German-speaking part of Lorraine. A line drawn from + Falkenberg at the French frontier to Siegen on the Lahn, touching the + Rhine near Boppard, roughly indicates the division between Middle and + Rhenish Franconian. + + 2. _The Upper German Group._--The Upper German dialects, which played + the most important part in the literature of the early periods, may be + divided into (a) a Bavarian-Austrian group and (b) a High + Franconian-Alemannic group. Of all the German dialects the + Bavarian-Austrian has carried the soundshifting to its furthest + extreme; here only do we find the labial voiced stop _b_ written _p_ + in the middle of a word, viz. old Bavarian _kapames_, old Alemannic + _kabames_ ("we gave"); here too, in the 12th century, we find the + first traces of that broadening of _i_, _u_, _iu_ (_ü_) to _ei_, _au_, + _eu_, a change which, even at the present day, is still foreign to the + greater part of the Alemannic dialects. Only in Bavarian do we still + find the old pronominal dual forms _es_ and _enk_ (for _ihr_ and + _euch_). Finally, Bavarian forms diminutives in _-el_ and _-erl_ + (_Mädel_, _Mäderl_), while the Franconian-Alemannic forms are _-la_ + and _-le_ (_Mädle_). On the other hand, the pronunciation of _-s_ as + _-sch_, especially _-st_ as _-scht_ (cf. _Last_, _Haspel_, pronounced + _Lascht_, _Haschpel_), may be mentioned as characteristic of the + Alemannic, just as the _fortis_ pronunciation of initial _t_ is + characteristic of High Franconian, while the other Franconian and + Upper German dialects employ the _lenis_. + + The Alemannic dialect which, roughly speaking, is separated from + Bavarian by the Lech and borders on Italian territory in the south and + on French in the west, is subdivided into: (a) Swabian, the dialect of + the kingdom of Württemberg and the north-western part of Tirol (cf. H. + Fischer, _Geographie der schwäbischen Mundart_, 1895); (b) High + Alemannic (Swiss), including the German dialects of Switzerland, of + the southern part of the Black Forest (the Basel-Breisgau dialect), + and that of Vorarlberg; (c) Low Alemannic, comprising the dialects of + Alsace and part of Baden (to the north of the Feldberg and south of + Rastatt), also, at the present day, the town of Basel. Only Swabian + has taken part in the change of _i_ to _ei_, &c., mentioned above, + while initial Germanic _k_ has been shifted to _ch_ ([chi]) only in + High Alemannic (cf. _chalt_, _chind_, _chorn_, for _kalt_, _kind_, + _korn_). The pronunciation of _u_ as _ü_, _ü_ (_Hüs_ for _Haus_) is + peculiar to Alsatian. + + The High Franconian dialects, that is to say, east and south (or + south-Rhenish) Franconian, which are separated broadly speaking by the + river Neckar, comprise the language spoken in a part of Baden, the + dialects of the Main valley from Würzburg upwards to Bamberg, the + dialect of Nuremberg and probably of the Vogtland (Plauen) and + Egerland. During the older historical period the principal difference + between East and South Franconian consisted in the fact that initial + Germanic _d_ was retained in the latter dialect, while East Franconian + shifted it to _t_. Both, like Bavarian and Alemannic, shift initial + German _p_ to the affricate _pf_. + + Finally, the Bavarian-Austrian dialect is spoken throughout the + greater part of the kingdom of Bavaria (i.e. east of the Lech and a + fine drawn from the point where the Lech joins the Danube to the + sources of the rivers Elster and Mulde, this being the East Franconian + border-line), in Austria, western Bohemia, and in the German + linguistic "islands" embedded in Hungary, in Gottschee and the Sette + and Tredici Communi (cf. above).[15] + + + THE OLD HIGH GERMAN PERIOD + + The language spoken during the Old High German period, that is to say, + down to about the year 1050, is remarkable for the fulness and + richness of its vowel-sounds in word-stems as well as in inflections. + Cf. _elilenti_, _Elend_; _luginari_, _Lügner_; _karkari_, _Kerker_; + _menniskono slahta_, _Menschengeschlecht_; _herzono_, _Herzen_ (gen. + pl.); _furisto_, _vorderste_; _hartost_, (_am_) _härtesten_; + _sibunzug_, _siebzig_; _ziohemes_, (_wir_) _ziehen_; _salbota_, (_er_) + _salbte_; _gaworahtos_, (_du_) _wirktest_, &c. Of the consonantal + changes which took place during this period that of the spirant th + (preserved only in English) to d (_werthan_, _werdan_; _theob_, + _deob_) deserves mention. It spread from Upper Germany, where it is + noticeable as early as the 8th century to Middle and finally, in the + 11th and 12th centuries, to Low Germany. Further, the initial _h_ in + _hl_, _hn_, _hr_, _hw_ (cf. _hwer_, _wer_; _hreini_, _rein_; + _hlahhan_, _lachen_) and _w_ in _wr_ (_wrecceo_, _Recke_) disappeared, + this change also starting in Upper Germany and spreading slowly north. + The most important vowel-change is the so-called mutation + (_Umlaut_),[16] that is to say, the qualitative change of a vowel + (except _i_) in a stem-syllable, owing to the influence of an _i_ or + _j_ in the following syllable. This process commenced in the north + where it seems to have been already fully developed in Low German as + early as the 8th century. It is to be found, it may be noted, in + Anglo-Saxon, as early as the 6th century. It gradually worked its way + southwards to Middle and Upper Germany where, however, certain + consonants seem to have protected the stem syllable from the influence + of _i_ in a following syllable. Cf., for instance, Modern High German + _drucken_ and _drücken_; _glauben_, _kaufen_, _Haupt_, words which in + Middle German dialects show mutation. Orthographically, however, this + process is, during the first period, only to be seen in the change of + _a_ to _e_; from the 10th century onwards there are, it is true, some + traces of other changes, and vowels like _u_, _o_, _ou_ must have + already been affected, otherwise we could not account for the mutation + of these vowels at a period when the cause of it, the _i_ or _j_, no + longer existed. A no less important change, for it helped to + differentiate High from Low German, was that of Germanic _e_2 (a + closed _e_-sound) and _o_ diphthongs in Old High German, while they + were retained in Old Low German. Cf. O.H.G. _her_, _hear_, _hiar_, + O.L.G. _her_; O.H.G. _fuoz_, O.L.G. _fot_. The final result was that + in the 10th century ie (older forms, _ia_, _ea_) and _uo_ (older _ua_, + _oa_ in Alemannic, _ua_ in South Franconian) had asserted themselves + throughout all the High German dialects. Again while in Old High + German the older diphthongs _ai_ and _au_ were preserved as _ei_ and + _ou_, unless they happened to stand at the end of a word or were + followed by certain consonants (_h_, _w_, _r_ in the one case, and + _h_, _r_, _l_, _n_, _th_, _d_, _t_, _z_, _s_ in the other; cf. _zeh_ + from _zihan_, _zoh_ from _ziohan_, _verlôs_, &c.), the Old Low German + shows throughout the monophthongs _e_ (in Middle Low German a closed + sound) and _o_ (cf. O.L.G. _sten_, _oga_). These monophthongs are also + to be heard in Rhenish Franconian, the greater part of East Franconian + and the Upper Saxon and Silesian dialects of modern times (cf. + _Stein_: _Steen_ or _Stan_; _laufen_: _lofen_ or _lopen_). + + Of the dialects enumerated above, Bavarian and Alemannic, High and + Rhenish Franconian as well as Old Saxon are more or less represented + in the literature of the first period. But this literature, the chief + monuments of which are Otfrid's _Evangelienbuch_ (in South + Franconian), the Old Saxon _Heliand_ (a life of Christ in alliterative + verse), the translation of Tatian's _Gospel Harmony_ (East Franconian) + and that of a theological tract by Bishop Isidore of Seville and of + parts of the Bible (Rhenish Franconian), is almost exclusively + theological and didactic in character. One is consequently inclined to + attach more value to the scanty remains of the _Hildebrandslied_ and + some interesting and ancient charms. The didactic spirit again + pervades the translations and commentaries of Notker of St Gall in the + early part of the 11th century, as well as a paraphrase of the _Song + of Songs_ by an abbot Williram of Ebersberg a little later. Latin, + however, reigned supreme throughout this period, it being the language + of the charters, the lawbooks (there is nothing in Germany to compare + with the laws of the Anglo-Saxons), of science, medicine, and even + poetry. It is thus needless to say that there was no recognized + literary language (_Schriftsprache_) during this period, nor even any + attempt to form one; at most, we might speak of schools in the large + monasteries, such as Reichenau, St Gall, Fulda, which contributed to + the spread and acceptance of certain orthographical rules. + + + THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD + + The following are the chief changes in sounds and forms which mark the + development of the language in the Middle High German period. The + orthography of the MSS. reveals a much more extensive employment of + mutation (_Umlaut_) than was the case in the first period; we find, + for instance, as the mutation of _o_, _ö_, of _o_, _oe_, _of u_, _iu_ + (_ü_), of _uo_, _üe_, of _ou_, _öu_, and _eu_ (cf. _höler_, _boese_, + _hiuser_, _güete_, _böume_), although many scribes, and more + especially those of Middle and Low German districts, have no special + signs for the mutation of _u_, _u_, and _o_. Of special interest is + the so-called "later (or weaker) mutation" (_jüngerer oder + schwächerer Umlaut_) of _a_ to a very open _e_ sound, which is often + written _ä_. Cf. _mähte_ (O.H.G. _mahti_), _mägede_ (O.H.G. _magadi_). + The earlier mutation of this sound produced an _e_(_é_), a closed + sound (i.e. nearer _i_). Cf. _geste_ (O.H.G. _gesti_). + + The various Old High German vowels in unstressed syllables were either + weakened to an indifferent _e_ sound (_geben_, O.H.G. _geban_; _bote_, + O.H.G. _boto_; _sige_, O.H.G. _sigu_) or disappeared altogether. The + latter phenomenon is to be observed after _l_ and _r_, and partly + after _n_ and _m_ (cf. _ar(e)_, O.H.G. _aro_; _zal_, O.H.G. _zala_; + _wundern_, O.H.G. _wuntaron_, &c.); but it by no means took place + everywhere in the same degree and at the same time. It has been + already noted that the Alemannic dialect (as well as the archaic poets + of the German national epic) retained at least the long unstressed + vowels until as late as the 14th century (_gemarterot_, _gekriuzegot_, + &c., and Low and Middle German preserved the weakened _e_ sound in + many cases where Upper German dropped it. In this period the + beginnings are also to be seen in Low and Middle German (Heinrich von + Veldeke shows the first traces of it) of a process which became of + great importance for the formation of the Modern German literary + language. This is the lengthening of originally short vowels in open + syllables,[17] for example, in Modern High German _Tages_, _Weges_, + _lobe_ (Middle High German _tages_, _weges_, _lobe_). In Austria, on + the other hand, there began as far back as the first half of the 12th + century another movement of equal importance for Modern High German, + namely, the conversion of the long vowels, _i_, _u_, _ü_, into _ei_ + (_ou_), _au_, _eu_ (_äu_).[18] It is, therefore, in MSS. written in + the south-east that we find forms like _zeit_, _lauter_ (_löter_), + _heute_, &c., for the first time. With the exception of Low German and + Alemannic--Swabian, however, follows in this respect the majority--all + the German dialects participated in this change between the 14th and + 16th centuries, although not all to the same degree. The change was + perhaps assisted by the influence of the literary language which had + recognized the new sounds. In England the same process has led to the + modern pronunciation of _time_, _house_, &c., and in Holland to that + of _tijd_, _huis_, &c. F. Wrede (_Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum_ + xxxix. 257 ff.) has suggested that the explanation of the change is to + be sought in the apocope and syncope of the final _e_, and the greater + stress which was in consequence put on the stem-syllable. The tendency + to a change in the opposite direction, namely, the narrowing of + diphthongs to monophthongs, is to be noticed in Middle German + dialects, i.e. in dialects which resisted the apocope of the final + _e_, where _ie_, _uo_, _üe_ become _i_, _u_, _ü_; thus we have for + _Brief_, _brif_, for _huon_, _hun_, for _brüeder_, _brüder_, and this + too was taken over into the Modern High German literary language.[19] + + No consonantal change was so widespread during this period as that of + initial _s_ to _sch_ before _l_, _n_, _m_, _w_, _p_ and _t_. Cf. + _slingen_, _schlingen_; _swer_ (_e_) _n_, _schwören_, &c. The forms + _scht_- and _schp_- are often to be met with in Alemannic MSS., but + they were discarded again, although modern German recognizes the + pronunciation _schp_, _scht_.[20] With regard to changes affecting the + inflections of verbs and nouns, it must suffice here to point out that + the weakening or disappearance of vowels in unstressed syllables + necessarily affected the characteristic endings of the older language; + groups of verbs and substantives which in Old High German were + distinct now become confused. This is best seen in the case of the + weak verbs, where the three Old High German classes (cf. _nerien_, + _salbon_, _dagen_) were fused into one. Similarly in the declensions + we find an increasing tendency of certain forms to influence + substantives belonging to other classes; there is, for instance, an + increase in the number of neuter nouns taking _-er_ (_-ir_) in the + plural, and of those which show mutation in the plural on the model of + the _i-_ stems (O.H.G. _gast_, pl. _gesti_; cf. forms like _ban_, + _benne_; _hals_, _helse_; _wald_, _welde_). Of changes in syntax the + gradual decay in the use of the genitive case dependent on a noun or + governed by a verb (cf. constructions like _eine brünne rotes goldes_, + or _des todes wünschen_) towards the end of the period, and also the + disappearance of the Old High German sequence of tenses ought at least + to be mentioned. + + In the Middle High German period, the first classical period of German + poetry, the German language made great advances as a vehicle of + literary expression; its power of expression was increased and it + acquired a beauty of style hitherto unknown. This was the period of + the _Minnesang_ and the great popular and court epics, of Walther von + der Vogelweide, Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried + von Strassburg; it was a period when literature enjoyed the fostering + care of the courts and the nobility. At the same time German prose + celebrated its first triumphs in the sermons of Berthold von + Regensburg, and in the mystic writings and sermons of Meister Eckhart, + Tauler and others. History (Eike von Repkow's _Weltchronik_) and law + (_Sachsenspiegel_, _Schwabenspiegel_) no longer despised the + vernacular, and from about the middle of the 13th century German + becomes, in an ever-increasing percentage, the language of deeds and + charters. + + It has been a much debated question how far Germany in Middle High + German times possessed or aspired to possess a _Schriftsprache_ or + literary language.[21] About the year 1200 there was undoubtedly a + marked tendency towards a unification of the literary language on the + part of the more careful poets like Walther von der Vogelweide, + Hartmann von Aue and Gottfried von Strassburg; they avoid, more + particularly in their rhymes, dialectic peculiarities, such as the + Bavarian dual forms _es_ and _enk_, or the long vowels in unstressed + syllables, retained in Alemannic, and they do not make use of archaic + words or forms. We have thus a right to speak, if not of a Middle High + German literary language in the widest sense of the word, at least of + a Middle High German _Dichtersprache_ or poetic language, on an + Alemannic-Franconian basis. Whether, or in how far, this may have + affected the ordinary speech of the nobility or courts, is a matter of + conjecture; but it had an undeniable influence on Middle and Low + German poets, who endeavoured at least to use High German forms in + their rhymes. Attempts were also made in Low German districts, though + at a later stage of this period, to unify the dialects and raise them + to the level of an accepted literary language. It will be shown later + why these attempts were unsuccessful. Unfortunately, however, the + efforts of the High German poets to form a uniform language were also + shortlived; by the end of the 13th century the _Dichtersprache_ had + disappeared, and the dialects again reigned supreme. + + + MODERN HIGH GERMAN + + Although the Middle High German period had thus not succeeded in + effecting any permanent advance in the direction of a uniform literary + language, the desire for a certain degree of uniformity was never + again entirely lost. At the close of the 13th century literature had + passed from the hands of the nobility to those of the middle classes + of the towns; the number of writers who used the German tongue rapidly + increased; later the invention of printing, the increased efficiency + of the schools, and above all the religious movement of the + Reformation, contributed to awakening the desire of being understood + by those who stood outside the dialectic community of the individual. + A single authoritative form of writing and spelling was felt on all + sides to be particularly necessary. This was found in the language + used officially by the various chanceries (_Kanzleien_), and more + especially the imperial chancery. Since the days of Charles IV. + (1347-1378) the latter had striven after a certain uniform language in + the documents it issued, and by the time of Maximilian I. (1493-1519) + all its official documents were characterized by pretty much the same + phonology, forms and vocabulary, in whatever part of Germany they + originated. And under Maximilian's successor, Charles V., the + conditions remained pretty much the same. The fact that the seat of + the imperial chancery had for a long time been in Prague, led to a + mingling of Upper and Middle German sounds and inflections; but when + the crown came with Frederick III. (1440-1493) to the Habsburgs, the + Upper German elements were considerably increased. The chancery of the + Saxon electorate, whose territory was exclusively Middle German, had + to some extent, under the influence of the imperial chancery, allowed + Upper German characteristics to influence its official language. This + is clearly marked in the second half of the 15th century, and about + the year 1500 there was no essential difference between the languages + of the two chanceries. Thuringia, Silesia and Brandenburg soon + followed suit, and even Low German could not ultimately resist the + accepted High German notation (_ö_, _o_, _ü_, _u_, _ou_, _ie_, &c.). + We have here very favourable conditions for the creation of a uniform + literary language, and, as has already been said, the tendency to + follow these authorities is clearly marked. + + In the midst of this development arose the imposing figure of Luther, + who, although by no means the originator of a common High German + speech, helped very materially to establish it. He deliberately chose + (cf. the often quoted passage in his _Tischreden_, ch. 69) the + language of the Saxon chancery as the vehicle of his Bible translation + and subsequently of his own writings. The differences between Luther's + usage and that of the chancery, in phonology and inflection, are + small; still he shows, in his writings subsequent to 1524, a somewhat + more pronounced tendency towards Middle German. But it is noteworthy + that he, like the chancery, retained the old vowel-change in the + singular and plural of the preterite of the strong verbs (i.e. + _steig_, _stigen_; _starb_, _sturben_), although before Luther's time + the uniformity of the modern preterite had already begun to show + itself here and there. The adoption of the language of the chancery + gave rise to the mixed character of sounds and forms which is still a + feature of the literary language of Germany. Thus the use of the + monophthongs _i_, _ü_, and _u_, instead of the old diphthongs _ie_, + _uo_ and _üe_, comes from Middle Germany; the forms of the words and + the gender of the nouns follow Middle rather than Upper German usage, + whereas, on the other hand, the consonantal system (_p_ to _pf_; _d_ + to _t_) betrays in its main features its Upper German + (Bavarian-Austrian) origin. + + The language of Luther no doubt shows greater originality in its style + and vocabulary (cf. its influence on Goethe and the writers of the + _Sturm und Drang_), for in this respect the chancery could obviously + afford him but scanty help. His vocabulary is drawn to a great extent + from his own native Middle German dialect, and the fact that, since + the 14th century, Middle German literature (cf. for instance, the + writings of the German mystics, at the time of and subsequent to + Eckhart) had exercised a strong influence over Upper Germany, stood + him in good stead. Luther is, therefore, strictly speaking, not the + father of the modern German literary language, but he forms the most + important link in a chain of development which began long before him, + and did not reach its final stage until long after him. To infer that + Luther's language made any rapid conquest of Germany would not be + correct. It was, of course, immediately acceptable to the eastern part + of the Middle German district (Thuringia and Silesia), and it did not + find any great difficulty in penetrating into Low Germany, at least + into the towns and districts lying to the east of the Saale and Elbe + (Magdeburg, Hamburg). One may say that about the middle of the 16th + century Luther's High German was the language of the chanceries, about + 1600 the language of the pulpit (the last Bible in Low German was + printed at Goslar in 1621) and the printing presses. Thus the + aspirations of Low Germany to have a literary language of its own were + at an early stage crushed. Protestant Switzerland, on the other hand, + resisted the "uncommon new German" until well into the 17th century. + It was also natural that the Catholic Lower Rhine (Cologne) and + Catholic South Germany held out against it, for to adopt the language + of the reformer would have seemed tantamount to offering a helping + hand to Protestant ideas. At the same time, geographical and political + conditions, as well as the pronounced character of the Upper German + dialects, formed an important obstacle to a speedy unification. South + German grammarians of the 16th century, such as Laurentius Albertus, + raise a warning voice against those who, although far distant from the + proper use of words and the true pronunciation, venture to teach _nos + puriores Germanos_, namely, the Upper Germans. + + In 1593 J. Helber, a Swiss schoolmaster and notary, spoke of three + separate dialects as being in use by the printing presses:[22] (1) + _Mitteldeutsch_ (the language of the printers in Leipzig, Erfurt, + Nuremberg, Würzburg, Frankfort, Mainz, Spires, Strassburg and Cologne; + at the last mentioned place in the event of their attempting to print + _Ober-Teutsch_); (2) _Donauisch_ (the printers' language in South + Germany, but limited to Bavaria and Swabia proper--here more + particularly the Augsburg idiom, which was considered to be + particularly _zierlich_);[23] (3) _Höchst Reinisch_, which corresponds + to Swiss German. Thus in the 16th century Germany was still far from + real unity in its language; but to judge from the number and the + geographical position of the towns which printed in _Mitteldeutsch_ it + is pretty clear which idiom would ultimately predominate. During the + 17th century men like M. Opitz (_Buch von der deutschen Poeterey_) and + J.G. Schottelius (_Teutsche Sprachkunst_, 1641, and _Von der teutschen + Sprachkunst_, 1663), together with linguistic societies like the + _Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_ and the Nuremberg _Pegnitzorden_, did a + great deal to purify the German language from foreign (especially + French) elements; they insisted on the claims of the vernacular to a + place beside and even above Latin (in 1687 Christian Thomasius held + for the first time lectures in the German language at the university + of Leipzig), and they established a firm grammatical basis for + Luther's common language, which especially in the hymnals had become + modernized and more uniform. About the middle of the 17th century the + disparity between the vowels of the singular and plural of the + preterite of the strong verbs practically ceases; under East Middle + German influence the final _e_ is restored to words like _Knabe_, + _Jude_, _Pfaffe_, which in South German had been _Knab_, &c.; the + mixed declension (_Ehre_, _Ehren_; _Schmerz_, _Schmerzen_) was + established, and the plural in -_er_ was extended to some masculine + nouns (_Wald_, _Wälder_);[24] the use of the mutated sound has now + become the rule as a plural sign (Väter, Bäume). How difficult, even + in the first half of the 18th century, it was for a Swiss to write the + literary language which Luther had established is to be seen from the + often quoted words of Haller (1708-1777): "I am a Swiss, the German + language is strange to me, and its choice of words was almost unknown + to me." The Catholic south clung firmly to its own literary language, + based on the idiom of the imperial chancery, which was still an + influential force in the 17th century or on local dialects. This is + apparent in the writings of Abraham a Sancta Clara,[25] who died in + 1709, or in the attacks of the Benedictine monk, Augustin Dornblüth, + on the _Meissner Schriftsprache_ in 1755. + + In the 18th century, to which these names have introduced us, the + grammatical writings of J.C. Gottsched (_Deutsche Sprachkunst_, 1748) + and J.C. Adelung (_Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen + Mundart_, 1774-1786) exercised a decisive and far-reaching influence. + Gottsched took as his basis the spoken language (_Umgangssprache_) of + the educated classes of Upper Saxony (Meissen), which at this time + approximated as nearly as possible to the literary language. His + _Grammar_ did enormous services to the cause of unification, + ultimately winning over the resisting south; but he carried his purism + to pedantic lengths, he would tolerate no archaic or dialectical + words, no unusual forms or constructions, and consequently made the + language unsuited for poetry. Meanwhile an interest in Old German + literature was being awakened by Bodmer; Herder set forth better ideas + on the nature of language, and insisted on the value of native idioms; + and the _Sturm und Drang_ led by Goethe encouraged all individualistic + tendencies. All this gave rise to a movement counter to Gottsched's + absolutism, which resulted in the revival of many obsolete German + words and forms, these being drawn partly from Luther's Bible + translation (cf. V. Hehn, "Goethe und die Sprache der Bibel," in the + _Goethe-Jahrbuch_, viii. p. 187 ff.), partly from the older language + and partly from the vocabulary peculiar to different social ranks and + trades.[26] The latter is still a source of linguistic innovations. + German literary style underwent a similar rejuvenation, for we are on + the threshold of the second classical period of German literature. It + had strengthened Gottsched's hand as a linguistic reformer that the + earlier leaders of German literature, such as Gellert, Klopstock and + Lessing, were Middle Germans; now Wieland's influence, which was + particularly strong in South Germany, helped materially towards the + establishment of one accepted literary language throughout all + German-speaking countries; and the movement reaches its culmination + with Goethe and Schiller. At the same time this unification did not + imply the creation of an unalterable standard; for, just as the + language of Opitz and Schottelius differed from that of Luther, + so--although naturally in a lesser degree--the literary language of + our day differs from that of the classic writers of the 18th century. + Local peculiarities are still to be met with, as is to be seen in the + modern German literature that emanates from Switzerland or Austria. + + But this unity, imperfect as it is, is limited to the literary + language. The differences are much more sharply accentuated in the + _Umgangssprache_,[27] whereby we understand the language as it is + spoken by educated people throughout Germany; this is not only the + case with regard to pronunciation, although it is naturally most + noticeable here, but also with regard to the choice of words and the + construction of sentences. Compared with the times of Goethe and + Schiller a certain advance towards unification has undoubtedly been + made, but the differences between north and south are still very + great. This is particularly noticeable in the pronunciation of + _r_--either the uvular _r_ or the _r_ produced by the tip of the + tongue; of the voiced and voiceless stops, _b_, _p_, _d_, _t_, _g_ and + _k_; of the _s_ sounds; of the diphthongs; of the long vowels _e_ and + _oe_, &c. (cf. W. Vietor, _German Pronunciation_, 2nd ed., 1890). The + question as to whether a unified pronunciation (_Einheitaussprache_) + is desirable or even possible has occupied the attention of academies, + scholars and the educated public during recent years, and in 1898 a + commission made up of scholars and theatre directors drew up a scheme + of pronunciation for use in the royal theatres of Prussia.[28] This + scheme has since been recommended to all German theatres by the German + _Bühnenverein_. Desirable as such a uniform pronunciation is for the + national theatre, it is a much debated question how far it should be + adopted in the ordinary speech of everyday life. Some scholars, such + as W. Braune, declared themselves strongly in favour of its + adoption;[29] Braune's argument being that the system of modern + pronunciation is based on the spelling, not on the sounds produced in + speaking. The latter, he holds, is only responsible for the + pronunciation of _-chs-_ as _-ks-_ in _wachsen_, _Ochse_, &c., or for + that of _sp-_ and _st-_ in _spielen_, _stehen_, &c. Other scholars, + again, such as K. Luick and O. Brenner, warn against any such attempts + to create a living language on an artificial basis;[30] the + _Bühnendeutsch_ or "stage-German" they regard as little more than an + abstract ideal. Thus the decision must be left to time. + + AUTHORITIES.--_General Literature_: J. Grimm, _Geschichte der + deutschen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1848; 4th ed., 1880); W. Scherer, _Zur + Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1868; 2nd ed., 1878); E. + Förstemann, _Geschichte des deutschen Sprachstammes_ (Nordhausen, + 1874-1875); O. Behaghel, _Die deutsche Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1886; 2nd + ed., 1902); the same, "Geschichte der deutschen Sprache," in Paul's + _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd ed.), i. pp. 650 ff.; O. + Weise, _Unsere deutsche Sprache, ihr Werden und ihr Wesen_ (Leipzig, + 1898); K. von Raumer, _Geschichte der germanischen Philologie_ + (Munich, 1870); J. Grimm, _Deutsche Grammatik_ (4 vols., vols. i.-iii. + in new edition, 1870-1890); Dieter, _Laut- und Formenlehre der + altgermanischen Dialekte_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1898-1900); F. Kauffmann, + _Deutsche Grammatik_ (2nd ed., 1895); W. Wilmanns, _Deutsche + Grammatik_, so far, vols, i., ii. and iii., 1 (Strassburg, 1893-1906, + vol. i., 2nd ed., 1897); O. Brenner, _Grundzüge der geschichtlichen + Grammatik der deutschen Sprache_ (Munich, 1896); H. Lichtenberger, + _Histoire de la langue allemande_ (Paris, 1895). + + _Old and Middle High German Period_: W. Braune, _Althochdeutsche + Grammatik_ (2nd ed., Halle, 1891); the same, _Abriss der + althochdeutschen Grammatik_ (3rd ed., 1900); F. Holthausen, + _Altsächsisches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1899); W. Schlüter, + _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altsächsichen Sprache_, i. + (Göttingen, 1892); O. Schade, _Altdeutsches Wörterbuch_ (2nd ed., + Halle, 1872-1882); G.E. Graff, _Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz_ (6 + vols., Berlin, 1834-1842) (Index by Massmann, 1846); E. Steinmeyer and + E. Sievers, _Althochdeutsche Glossen_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1879-1898); + J.A. Schmeller, _Glossarium Saxonicum_ (Munich, 1840); K. Weinhold, + _Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik_ (3rd ed., Paderborn, 1892); H. Paul, + _Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik_ (5th ed., Halle, 1900); V. Michels, + _Mittelhochdeutsches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1900); O. Brenner, + _Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik_ (3rd ed., Munich, 1894); K. Zwierzina, + "Mittelhochdeutsche Studien," in _Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum_, + vols. xliv. and xlv.; A. Lübben, _Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik_ + (Leipzig, 1882); W. Müller and F. Zarncke, _Mittelhochdeutsches + Wörterbuch_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1854-1866); M. Lexer, + _Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch_ (3 vols., 1872-1878); the same, + _Mittelhochdeutsches Taschenwörterbuch_ (8th ed., 1906); K. Schiller + and A. Lübben, _Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch_ (6 vols., Bremen, + 1875-1881); A. Lübben, _Mittelniederdeutsches Handwörterbuch_ (Norden, + 1888); F. Seiler, _Die Entwicklung der deutsch. Kultur im Spiegel des + deutschen Lehnworts_ (Halle, i., 1895, 2nd ed., 1905, ii., 1900). + + _Modern High German Period_: E. Wülcker, "Die Entstehung der + kursächsischen Kanzleisprache" (in the _Zeitschrift des Vereins für + kursächsische Geschichte_, ix. p. 349); the same, "Luthers Stellung + zur kursächsischen Kanzleisprache" (in _Germania_, xxviii. pp. 191 + ff.); P. Pietsch, _Martin Luther und die hochdeutsche Schriftsprache_ + (Breslau, 1883); K. Burdach, _Die Einigung der neuhochdeutschen + Schriftsprache_, (1883); E. Opitz, _Die Sprache Luthers_ (Halle, + 1869); J. Luther, _Die Sprache Luthers in der Septemberbibel_ (Halle, + 1887); F. Kluge, _Von Luther bis Lessing_ (Strassburg, 1888) (cf. E. + Schröder's review in the _Göttinger gelehrte Anzeiger_, 1888, 249); H. + Rückert, _Geschichte der neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache bis zur Mitte + des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1875): J. Kehrein, _Grammatik der deutschen + Sprache des 15. bis 17. Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1863); K. von + Bahder, _Grundlagen des neuhochdeutschen Lautsystems_ (Strassburg, + 1890); R. Meyer, _Einführung in das ältere Neuhochdeutsche_ (Leipzig, + 1894); W. Scheel, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der neuhochdeutschen + Gemeinsprache in Köln_ (Marburg, 1892); R. Brandstetter, _Die + Rezeption der neuhochdeutschen Schriftsprache in Stadt und Landschaft + Luzern_ (1892); K. Burdach, "Zur Geschichte der neuhochdeutschen + Schriftsprache" (_Forschungen zur deutschen Philologie_, 1894); the + same, "Die Sprache des jungen Goethe" (_Verhandlungen der Dessauer + Philologenversammlung_, 1884, p. 164 ff.); F. Kasch, _Die Sprache des + jungen Schiller_ (Dissertation, 1900); F. Kluge, "Über die Entstehung + unserer Schriftsprache" (Beihefte zur _Zeitschrift des allgemeinen + Sprachvereins_, Heft 6, 1894); A. Waag, _Bedeutungsentwickelung + unseres Wortschatzes_ (Lahr, 1901). + + Mention must also be made of the work of the German commission of the + Royal Prussian Academy, which in 1904 drew up plans for making an + inventory of all German literary MSS. dating from before the year 1600 + and for the publication of Middle High German and early Modern High + German texts. This undertaking, which has made considerable progress, + provides rich material for the study of the somewhat neglected period + between the 14th and 16th centuries; at the same time it provides a + basis on which a monumental history of Modern High German may be built + up, as well as for a _Thesaurus linguae germanicae_. (R. Pr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] K. Müllenhoff and W. Scherer, _Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und + Prosa_, 3rd ed., by E. Steinmeyer, 1892, No. lxvii. + + [2] For a detailed description of the boundary line cf. O. Behaghel's + article in Paul's _Grundriss_, 2nd ed., pp. 652-657, where there is + also a map, and a very full bibliography relative to the changes in + the boundary. + + [3] Cf. J. Grimm, _Deutsche Grammatik_, 3rd ed., i. p. 13; F. Kluge, + _Etymologisches Wörterbuch_, 6th ed., pp. 75 ff.; K. Luick, "Zur + Geschichte des Wortes 'deutsch,'" in _Anzeiger für deutsches + Altertum_, xv., pp. 135, 248; H. Fischer, "Theotiscus, Deutsch," in + Paul and Braune's _Beiträge_, xviii. p. 203; H. Paul, _Deutsches + Wörterbuch_ (1897), p. 93. + + [4] Cf. P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen + Sprache_ (Göttingen, 1896), who holds the mingling of Celtic and + Germanic elements in southern and south-western Germany responsible + for the change. It might also be mentioned here that H. Meyer + (_Zeitschrift f. deut. Altertum_, xlv. pp. 101 ff.) endeavours to + explain the first soundshifting by the change of abode of the + Germanic tribes from the lowlands to the highlands of the Carpathian + Mountains. + + [5] Of writers who have made extensive use of dialects, it must + suffice to mention here the names of J.H. Voss, Hebel, Klaus Groth, + Fritz Reuter, Usteri, G.D. Arnold, Holtei, Castelli, J.G. Seidl and + Anzengruber, and in our own days G. Hauptmann. + + [6] Cf. F. Staub and L. Tobler, _Schweizerisches Idiotikon_ (1881 + ff.); E. Martin and F. Lienhart, _Wörterbuch der elsässischen + Mundarten_ (Strassburg, 1899 ff.); H. Fischer, _Schwäbisches + Wörterbuch_ (Tübingen, 1901 ff.). Earlier works, which are already + completed, are J.A. Schmeller, _Bayrisches Wörterbuch_ (2nd ed., 2 + vols., Munich, 1872-1877); J.B. Schöpf, _Tiroler Idiotikon_ + (Innsbruck, 1886); M. Lexer, _Kärntisches Wörterbuch_ (1862); H. + Gradl, _Egerländer Wörterbuch_, i. (Eger, 1883); A.F.C. Vilmar, + _Idiotikon von Kurhessen_ (Marburg, 1883) (with supplements by H. von + Pfister); W. Crecelius, _Oberhessisches Wörterbuch_ (Darmstadt, + 1890-1898). Professor J. Franck is responsible for a _Rheinisches + Wörterbuch_ for the Prussian Academy. + + [7] Cf. the article "Mundarten" by R. Loewe in R. Bethge, _Ergebnisse + und Fortschritte der germanistischen Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1902), + pp. 75-88; and F. Mentz, _Bibliographie der deutschen + Mundartforschung_ (Leipzig, 1892). Of periodicals may be mentioned + Deutsche Mundarten, by J.W. Nagl (Vienna, 1896 ff.); _Zeitschrift für + hochdeutsche Mundarten_, by O. Heilig and Ph. Lenz (Heidelberg, 1900 + ff.), continued as _Zeitschrift f. deutsche Mundarten_, Verlag des + Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins. Owing to its importance as a + model for subsequent monographs J. Kinteler's _Die Kerenzer Mundart + des Kantons Glarus_ (Leipzig, 1876) should not be passed unnoticed. + + [8] Cf. especially H. Tümpel, "Die Mundarten des alten + niedersächsischen Gebietes zwischen 1300 und 1500" (Paul und Braune's + Beiträge, vii. pp. 1-104); _Niederdeutsche Studien_, by the same + writer (Bielefeld, 1898); Bahnke, "Über Sprach- und Gaugrenzen + zwischen Elbe und Weser" (_Jahrbuch des Vereins für niederdeutsche + Sprachforschung_, vii. p. 77). + + [9] Upper Saxon and Thuringian are sometimes taken as a separate + group. + + [10] Cf. W. Braune, "Zur Kenntnis des Fränkischen" (_Beiträge_, i. + pp. 1-56); O. Böhme, _Zur Kenntnis des Oberfränkischen im 13., 14. + und 15. Jahrh._ (Dissertation) (Leipzig, 1893), where a good account + of the differences between the Rhenish Franconian and South + Franconian dialects will be found. + + [11] Cf. C. Nörrenberg, "Lautverschiebungsstufe des + Mittelfränkischen" (_Beiträge_, ix. 371 ff.); R. Heinzel, _Geschichte + der niederfränkischen Geschäftssprache_ (Paderborn, 1874). + + [12] This is also the dialect of the so-called Siebenbürger Sachsen. + + [13] Cf. E. Sievers, _Oxforder Benediktinerregel_ (Halle, 1887), p. + xvi.; J. Meier, Jolande (1887), pp. vii. ff.; O. Böhme, l.c. p. 60. + + [14] Lower Hesse (the northern and eastern parts) goes, however, in + many respects its own way. + + [15] On the High German dialects cf. K. Weinhold, _Alemannische + Grammatik_ (Berlin, 1863); F. Kauffmann, _Geschichte der schwäbischen + Mundart_ (Strassburg, 1870); E. Haendcke, _Die mundartlichen Elemente + in den elsässischen Urkunden_ (Strassburg, 1894); K. Weinhold, + _Bairische Grammatik_ (1867); J.A. Schmeller, _Die Mundarten Baierns_ + (Munich, 1821); J.N. Schwäbl, _Die altbairischen Mundarten_ (München, + 1903); O. Brenner, _Mundarten und Schriftsprache in Bayern_ (Bamberg, + 1890); J. Schatz, _Die Mundart von Imst_ (Strassburg, 1897); J.W. + Nagl, _Der Vocalismus der bairisch-österreichischen Mundarten_ + (1890-1891); W. Gradl, _Die Mundarten Westböhmens_ (Munich, 1896); P. + Lessiak, "Die Mundart von Pernegg in Kärnten" (Paul and Braune, + _Beiträge_, vol. xxviii.). + + [16] Cf., for a hypothesis of two _Umlautsperioden_ during the Old + High German time, F. Kauffmann, _Geschichte der schwäbischen Mundart_ + (Strassburg, 1890), S. 152. + + [17] Cf. W. Wilmanns, _Deutsche Grammatik_, i. (2nd edition) pp. + 300-304. + + [18] Wilmanns, l.c. pp. 273-280. It might be mentioned that, in + Modern High German, these new diphthongs are neither in spelling nor + in educated pronunciation distinguished from the older ones. + + [19] Cf. Wilmanns, pp. 280-284. + + [20] Ibid. pp. 129-132. + + [21] Cf. K. Lachmann, _Kleinere Schriften_, i. p. 161 ff.; Müllenhoff + and Scherer's _Denkmäler_ (3rd ed.), i. p. xxvii.; H. Paul, _Gab es + eine mhd. Schriftsprache?_ (Halle, 1873); O. Behaghel, _Zur Frage + nach einer mhd. Schriftsprache_ (Basel, 1886) (Cf. Paul and Braune's + _Beiträge_, xiii. p. 464 ff.); A. Socin, _Schriftsprache und + Dialekte_ (Heilbronn, 1888); H. Fischer, _Zur Geschichte des + Mittelhochdeutschen_ (Tübingen, 1889); O. Behaghel, _Schriftsprache + und Mundart_ (Giessen, 1896); K. Zwierzina, _Beobachtungen zum + Reimgebrauch Hartmanns und Wolframs_ (Haile, 1898); S. Singer, _Die + mhd. Schriftsprache_ (1900); C. Kraus, _Heinrich von Veldeke und die + mhd. Dichtersprache_ (Halle, 1899); G. Roethe, _Die Reimvorreden des + Sachsenspiegels_ (Berlin, 1899); H. Tümpel, _Niederdeutsche Studien_ + (1898). + + [22] For literature bearing on the complicated question of the + _Druckersprachen_, readers are referred to the article + "Neuhochdeutsche Schriftsprache," by W. Scheel, in Bethge's + _Ergebnisse ... der germanistischen Wissenschaft_ (1902), pp. 47, 50 + f. Cf. also K. von Bahder, _Grundlagen des nhd. Lautsystems_ (1890), + pp. 15 ff. + + [23] A German _Priamel_ mentions as an essential quality in a + beautiful woman: "die red dort her von Swaben." + + [24] Cf. for a detailed discussion of the noun declension, K. + Boiunga, _Die Entwicklung der mhd. Substantivflexion_ (Leipzig, + 1890); and, more particularly for the masculine and neuter nouns, two + articles by H. Molz, "Die Substantivflexion seit mhd. Zeit," in Paul + and Braune's _Beiträge_, xxvii. p. 209 ff. and xxxi. 277 ff. For the + changes in the gender of nouns, A. Polzin, _Geschlechtswandel der + Substantiva im Deutschen_ (Hildesheim, 1903). + + [25] Cf. C. Blanckenburg, _Studien über die Sprache Abrahams a S. + Clara_ (Halle, 1897); H. Strigl, "Einiges über die Sprache des P. + Abraham a Sancta Clara" (_Zeitschr. f. deutsche Wortforschung_, viii. + 206 ff.). + + [26] Cf. F. Kluge, _Etymologisches Wörterbuch_ (6th ed.), pp. 508 ff. + One can speak of: _Studenten-, Soldaten-, Weidmanns-, Bergmanns-, + Drucker-, Juristen-, und Zigeunersprache, und Rotwelsch_. Cf. F. + Kluge, _Die deutsche Studentensprache_ (Strassburg, 1894); + _Rotwelsch_ i. (Strassburg, 1901); R. Bethge, _Ergebnisse_, &c., p. + 55 f. + + [27] Cf. H. Wunderlich, _Unsere Umgangssprache_ (Weimar, 1894). + + [28] Cf. Th. Siebs, _Deutsche Bühnenaussprache_ (2nd ed., Berlin, + 1901), and the same writer's _Grundzüge der Bühnensprache_ (1900). + + [29] W. Braune, _Über die Einigung der deutschen Aussprache_ (Halle, + 1905); and the review by O. Brenner, in the _Zeitschrift des + allgemeinen deutschen Sprachvereins_, Beihefte iv. 27, pp. 228-232. + + [30] Cf. K. Luick, _Deutsche Lautlehre mit besonderer + Berücksichtigung der Sprechweise Wiens und der österreichischen + Alpenländer_ (1904); O. Brenner, "Zur Aussprache des Hochdeutschen" + l.c., pp. 218-228. + + + + +GERMAN LITERATURE. Compared with other literatures, that of the +German-speaking peoples presents a strangely broken and interrupted +course; it falls into more or less isolated groups, separated from each +other by periods which in intellectual darkness and ineptitude are +virtually without a parallel in other European lands. The explanation of +this irregularity of development is to be sought less in the chequered +political history of the German people--although this was often reason +enough--than in the strongly marked, one might almost say, provocative +character of the national mind as expressed in literature. The Germans +were not able, like their partially latinized English cousins--or even +their Scandinavian neighbours--to adapt themselves to the various waves +of literary influence which emanated from Italy and France and spread +with irresistible power over all Europe; their literary history has been +rather a struggle for independent expression, a constant warring against +outside forces, even when the latter--like the influence of English +literature in the 18th century and of Scandinavian at the close of the +19th--were hailed as friendly and not hostile. It is a peculiarity of +German literature that in those ages when, owing to its own poverty and +impotence, it was reduced to borrowing its ideas and its poetic forms +from other lands, it sank to the most servile imitation; while the first +sign of returning health has invariably been the repudiation of foreign +influence and the assertion of the right of genius to untrammelled +expression. Thus Germany's periods of literary efflorescence rarely +coincide with those of other nations, and great European movements, like +the Renaissance, passed over her without producing a single great poet. + +This chequered course, however, renders the grouping of German +literature and the task of the historian the easier. The first and +simplest classification is that afforded by the various stages of +linguistic development. In accordance with the three divisions in the +history of the High German language, there is an Old High German, a +Middle High German and a New High German or Modern High German literary +epoch. It is obvious, however, that the last of these divisions covers +too enormous a period of literary history to be regarded as analogous to +the first two. The present survey is consequently divided into six main +sections: + +I. The Old High German Period, including the literature of the Old Saxon +dialect, from the earliest times to the middle of the 11th century. + +II. The Middle High German Period, from the middle of the 11th to the +middle of the 14th century. + +III. The Transition Period, from the middle of the 14th century to the +Reformation in the 16th century. + +IV. The Period of Renaissance and Pseudo-classicism, from the end of the +16th century to the middle of the 18th. + +V. The Classical Period of Modern German literature, from the middle of +the 18th century to Goethe's death in 1832. + +VI. The Period from Goethe's death to the present day. + + +I. THE OLD HIGH GERMAN PERIOD (c. 750-1050) + +Of all the Germanic races, the tribes with which we have more +particularly to deal here were the latest to attain intellectual +maturity. The Goths had, centuries earlier, under their famous bishop +Ulfilas or Wulfila, possessed the Bible in their vernacular, the +northern races could point to their _Edda_, the Germanic tribes in +England to a rich and virile Old English poetry, before a written German +literature of any consequence existed at all. At the same time, these +continental tribes, in the epoch that lay between the Migrations of the +5th century and the age of Charles the Great, were not without poetic +literature of a kind, but it was not committed to writing, or, at least, +no record of such a poetry has come down to us. Its existence is vouched +for by indirect historical evidence, and by the fact that the sagas, out +of which the German national epic was welded at a later date, originated +in the great upheaval of the 5th century. When the vernacular literature +began to emerge from an unwritten state in the 8th century, it proved to +be merely a weak reflection of the ecclesiastical writings of the +monasteries; and this, with very few exceptions, Old High German +literature remained. Translations of the liturgy, of Tatian's _Gospel +Harmony_ (c. 835), of fragments of sermons, form a large proportion of +it. Occasionally, as in the so-called _Monsee Fragments_, and at the end +of the period, in the prose of Notker Labeo (d. 1022), this +ecclesiastical literature attains a surprising maturity of style and +expression. But it had no vitality of its own; it virtually sprang into +existence at the command of Charlemagne, whose policy with regard to the +use of the vernacular in place of Latin was liberal and far-seeing; and +it docilely obeyed the tastes of the rulers that followed, becoming +severely orthodox under Louis the Pious, and consenting to immediate +extinction when the Saxon emperors withdrew their favour from it. Apart +from a few shorter poetic fragments of interest, such as the _Merseburg +Charms_ (_Zaubersprüche_), an undoubted relic of pre-Christian times, +the _Wessobrunn Prayer_ (c. 780), the _Muspilli_, an imaginative +description of the Day of Judgment, and the _Ludwigslied_ (881), which +may be regarded as the starting point for the German historical ballad, +the only High German poem of importance in this early period was the +_Gospel Book_ (_Liber evangeliorum_) of Otfrid of Weissenburg (c. +800-870). Even this work is more interesting as the earliest attempt to +supersede alliteration in German poetry by rhyme, than for such poetic +life as the monk of Weissenburg was able to instil into his narrative. +In fact, for the only genuine poetry of this epoch we have to look, not +to the High German but to the Low German races. They alone seemed able +to give literary expression to the memories handed down in oral +tradition from the 5th century; to Saxon tradition we owe the earliest +extant fragment of a national saga, the _Lay of Hildebrand_ +(_Hildebrandslied_, c. 800), and a Saxon poet was the author of a +vigorous alliterative version of the Gospel story, the _Heliand_ (c. +830), and also of part of the Old Testament (_Genesis_). This +alliterative epic--for epic it may be called--is the one poem of this +age in which the Christian tradition has been adapted to German poetic +needs. Of the existence of a lyric poetry we only know by hearsay; and +the drama had nowhere in Europe yet emerged from its earliest purely +liturgic condition. Such as it was, the vernacular literature of the Old +High German period enjoyed but a brief existence, and in the 10th and +11th centuries darkness again closed over it. The dominant "German" +literature in these centuries is in Latin; but that literature is not +without national interest, for it shows in what direction the German +mind was moving. The _Lay of Walter_ (_Waltharilied_, c. 930), written +in elegant hexameters by Ekkehard of St Gall, the moralizing dramas of +Hrosvitha (Roswitha) of Gandersheim, the _Ecbasis captivi_ (c. 940), +earliest of all the Beast epics, and the romantic adventures of +_Ruodlieb_ (c. 1030), form a literature which, Latin although it is, +foreshadows the future developments of German poetry. + + +II. THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD (1050-1350) + +(a) _Early Middle High German Poetry._--The beginnings of Middle High +German literature were hardly less tentative than those of the preceding +period. The Saxon emperors, with their Latin and even Byzantine tastes, +had made it extremely difficult to take up the thread where Notker let +it drop. Williram of Ebersberg, the commentator of the _Song of Songs_ +(c. 1063), did certainly profit by Notker's example, but he stands +alone. The Church had no helping hand to offer poetry, as in the more +liberal epoch of the great Charles; for, at the middle of the 11th +century, when the linguistic change from Old to Middle High German was +taking place, a movement of religious asceticism, originating in the +Burgundian monastery of Cluny, spread across Europe, and before long all +the German peoples fell under its influence. For a century there was no +room for any literature that did not place itself unreservedly at the +service of the Church, a service which meant the complete abnegation of +the brighter side of life. Repellent in their asceticism are, for +instance, poems like _Memento mori_ (c. 1050), _Vom Glauben_, a verse +commentary on the creed by a monk Hartmann (c. 1120), and a poem on "the +remembrance of death" (_Von des todes gehugede_) by Heinreich von Melk +(c. 1150); only rarely, as in a few narrative Poems on Old Testament +subjects, are the poets of this time able to forget for a time their +lugubrious faith. In the _Ezzolied_ (c. 1060), a spirited lay by a monk +of Bamberg on the life, miracles and death of Christ, and in the +_Annolied_ (c. 1080), a poem in praise of the archbishop Anno of +Cologne, we find, however, some traces of a higher poetic imagination. + +The transition from this rigid ecclesiastic spirit to a freer, more +imaginative literature is to be seen in the lyric poetry inspired by the +Virgin, in the legends of the saints which bulk so largely in the poetry +of the 12th century, and in the general trend towards mysticism. +Andreas, Pilatus, Aegidius, Albanius are the heroes of monkish romances +of that age, and the stories of Sylvester and Crescentia form the most +attractive parts of the _Kaiserchronik_ (c. 1130-1150), a long, confused +chronicle of the world which contains many elements common to later +Middle High German poetry. The national sagas, of which the poet of the +_Kaiserchronik_ had not been oblivious, soon began to assert themselves +in the popular literature. The wandering _Spielleute_, the lineal +descendants of the jesters and minstrels of the dark ages, who were now +rapidly becoming a factor of importance in literature, were here the +innovators; to them we owe the romance of _König Rother_ (c. 1160), and +the kindred stories of _Orendel_, _Oswald_ and _Salomon und Markolf_ +(_Salman und Morolf_). All these poems bear witness to a new element, +which in these years kindled the German imagination and helped to +counteract the austerity of the religious faith--the Crusades. With what +alacrity the Germans revelled in the wonderland of the East is to be +seen especially in the _Alexanderlied_ (c. 1130), and in _Herzog Ernst_ +(c. 1180), romances which point out the way to another important +development of German medieval literature, the Court epic. The latter +type of romance was the immediate product of the social conditions +created by chivalry and, like chivalry itself, was determined and +influenced by its French origin; so also was the version of the _Chanson +de Roland_ (_Rolandslied_, c. 1135), which we owe to another priest, +Konrad of Regensburg, who, with considerable probability, has been +identified with the author of the _Kaiserchronik_. + +The Court epic was, however, more immediately ushered in by Eilhart von +Oberge, a native of the neighbourhood of Hildesheim who, in his +_Tristant_ (c. 1170), chose that Arthurian type of romance which from +now on was especially cultivated by the poets of the Court epic; and of +equally early origin is a knightly romance of _Floris und Blancheflur_, +another of the favourite love stories of the middle ages. In these +years, too, the Beast epic, which had been represented by the Latin +_Ecbasis captivi_, was reintroduced into Germany by an Alsatian monk, +Heinrich der Glichezære, who based his _Reinhart Fuchs_ (c. 1180) on the +French _Roman de Renart_. Lastly, we have to consider the beginning of +the _Minnesang_, or lyric, which in the last decades of the 12th century +burst out with extraordinary vigour in Austria and South Germany. The +origins are obscure, and it is still debatable how much in the German +Minnesang is indigenous and national, how much due to French and +Provençal influence; for even in its earliest phases the Minnesang +reveals correspondences with the contemporary lyric of the south of +France. The freshness and originality of the early South German singers, +such as Kürenberg, Dietmar von Eist, the Burggraf of Rietenburg and +Meinloh von Sevelingen, are not, however, to be questioned; in spite of +foreign influence, their verses make the impression of having been a +spontaneous expression of German lyric feeling in the 12th century. The +_Spruchdichtung_, a form of poetry which in this period is represented +by at least two poets who call themselves Herger and "Der Spervogel," +was less dependent on foreign models; the pointed and satirical strophes +of these poets were the forerunners of a vast literature which did not +reach its highest development until after literature had passed from the +hands of the noble-born knight to those of the burgher of the towns. + +(b) _The Flourishing of Middle High German Poetry._--Such was the +preparation for the extraordinarily brilliant, although brief epoch of +German medieval poetry, which corresponded to the reigns of the +Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I. Barbarossa, Henry VI. and Frederick +II. These rulers, by their ambitious political aspirations and +achievements, filled the German peoples with a sense of "world-mission," +as the leading political power in medieval Europe. Docile pupils of +French chivalry, the Germans had no sooner learned their lesson than +they found themselves in the position of being able to dictate to the +world of chivalry. In the same way, the German poets, who, in the 12th +century, had been little better than clumsy translators of French +romances, were able, at the beginning of the 13th, to substitute for +French _chansons de geste_ epics based on national sagas, to put a +completely German imprint on the French Arthurian romance, and to sing +German songs before which even the lyric of Provence paled. National +epic, Court epic and Minnesang--these three types of medieval German +literature, to which may be added as a subordinate group didactic +poetry, comprise virtually all that has come down to us in the Middle +High German tongue. A Middle High German prose hardly existed, and the +drama, such as it was, was still essentially Latin. + +The first place among the National or Popular epics belongs to the +_Nibelungenlied_, which received its present form in Austria about the +turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Combining, as it does, elements +from various cycles of sagas--the lower Rhenish legend of Siegfried, the +Burgundian saga of Gunther and Hagen, the Gothic saga of Dietrich and +Etzel--it stands out as the most representative epic of German medieval +life. And in literary power, dramatic intensity and singleness of +purpose its eminence is no less unique. The vestiges of gradual +growth--of irreconcilable elements imperfectly welded together--may not +have been entirely effaced, but they in no way lessen the impression of +unity which the poem leaves behind it; whoever the welder of the sagas +may have been, he was clearly a poet of lofty imagination and high epic +gifts (see NIBELUNGENLIED). Less imposing as a whole, but in parts no +less powerful in its appeal to the modern mind, is the second of the +German national epics, _Gudrun_, which was written early in the 13th +century. This poem, as it has come down to us, is the work of an +Austrian, but the subject belongs to a cycle of sagas which have their +home on the shores of the North Sea. It seems almost a freak of chance +that Siegfried, the hero of the Rhineland, should occupy so prominent a +position in the _Nibelungenlied_, whereas Dietrich von Bern (i.e. of +Verona), the name under which Theodoric the Great had been looked up to +for centuries by the German people as their national hero, should have +left the stamp of his personality on no single epic of the intrinsic +worth of the _Nibelungenlied_. He appears, however, more or less in the +background of a number of romances--_Die Rabenschlacht_, _Dietrichs +Flucht_, _Alpharts Tod_, _Biterolf und Dietlieb_, _Laurin_, &c.--which +make up what is usually called the _Heldenbuch_. It is tempting, indeed, +to see in this very unequal collection the basis for what, under more +favourable circumstances, might have developed into an epic even more +completely representative of the German nation than the +_Nibelungenlied_. + +While the influence of the romance of chivalry is to be traced on all +these popular epics, something of the manlier, more primitive ideals +that animated German national poetry passed over to the second great +group of German medieval poetry, the Court epic. The poet who, following +Eilhart von Oberge's tentative beginnings, established the Court epic in +Germany was Heinrich von Veldeke, a native of the district of the lower +Rhine; his _Eneit_, written between 1173 and 1186, is based on a French +original. Other poets of the time, such as Herbort von Fritzlar, the +author of a _Liet von Troye_, followed Heinrich's example, and selected +French models for German poems on antique themes; while Albrecht von +Halberstadt translated about the year 1210 the _Metamorphoses_ of Ovid +into German verse. With the three masters of the Court epic, Hartmann +von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strassburg--all of +them contemporaries--the Arthurian cycle became the recognized theme of +this type of romance, and the accepted embodiment of the ideals of the +knightly classes. Hartmann was a Swabian, Wolfram a Bavarian, Gottfried +presumably a native of Strassburg. Hartmann, who in his _Erec_ and +_Iwein_, _Gregorius_ and _Der arme Heinrich_ combined a tendency towards +religious asceticism with a desire to imbue the worldly life of the +knight with a moral and religious spirit, provided the Court epic of the +age with its best models; he had, of all the medieval court poets, the +most delicate sense for the formal beauty of poetry, for language, verse +and style. Wolfram and Gottfried, on the other hand, represent two +extremes of poetic temperament. Wolfram's _Parzival_ is filled with +mysticism and obscure spiritual significance; its flashes of humour +irradiate, although they can hardly be said to illumine, the gloom; its +hero is, unconsciously, a symbol and allegory of much which to the poet +himself must have been mysterious and inexplicable; in other words, +_Parzival_--and Wolfram's other writings, _Willehalm_ and _Titurel_, +point in the same direction--is an instinctive or, to use Schiller's +word, a "naïve" work of genius. Gottfried, again, is hardly less gifted +and original, but he is a poet of a wholly different type. His _Tristan_ +is even more lucid than Hartmann's _Iwein_, his art is more objective; +his delight in it is that of the conscious artist who sees his work +growing under his hands. Gottfried's poem, in other words, is free from +the obtrusion of those subjective elements which are in so high a degree +characteristic of _Parzival_; in spite of the tragic character of the +story, _Tristan_ is radiant and serene, and yet uncontaminated by that +tone of frivolity which the Renaissance introduced into love stories of +this kind. + +_Parzival_ and _Tristan_ are the two poles of the German Court epic, and +the subsequent development of that epic stands under the influence of +the three poets, Hartmann, Wolfram and Gottfried; according as the poets +of the 13th century tend to imitate one or other of these, they fall +into three classes. To the followers and imitators of Hartmann belong +Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, the author of a _Lanzelet_ (c. 1195); Wirnt von +Gravenberg, a Bavarian, whose _Wigalois_ (c. 1205) shows considerable +imaginative power; the versatile Spielmann, known as "Der Stricker"; and +Heinrich von dem Türlin, author of an unwieldy epic, _Die Krone_ ("the +crown of all adventures," c. 1220). The fascination of Wolfram's +mysticism is to be seen in _Der jüngere Titurel_ of a Bavarian poet, +Albrecht von Scharfenberg (c. 1270), and in the still later _Lohengrin_ +of an unknown poet; whereas Gottfried von Strassburg dominates the +_Flore und Blanscheflur_ of Konrad Fleck (c. 1220) and the voluminous +romances of the two chief poets of the later 13th century, Rudolf von +Ems, who died in 1254, and Konrad von Würzburg, who lived till 1287. Of +these, Konrad alone carried on worthily the traditions of the great age, +and even his art, which excels within the narrow limits of romances like +_Die Herzemoere_ and _Engelhard_, becomes diffuse and wearisome on the +unlimited canvas of _Der Trojanerkrieg_ and _Partonopier und Meliur_. + +The most conspicuous changes which came over the narrative poetry of the +13th century were, on the one hand, a steady encroachment of realism on +the matter and treatment of the epic, and, on the other, a leaning to +didacticism. The substitution of the "history" of the chronicle for the +confessedly imaginative stories of the earlier poets is to be seen in +the work of Rudolf von Ems, and of a number of minor chroniclers like +Ulrich von Eschenbach, Berthold von Holle and Jans Enikel; while for the +growth of realism we may look to the _Pfaffe Amis_, a collection of +comic anecdotes by "Der Stricker," the admirable peasant romance _Meier +Helmbrecht_, written between 1236 and 1250 by Wernher der Gartenaere in +Bavaria, and to the adventures of Ulrich von Lichtenstein, as described +in his _Frauendienst_ (1255) and _Frauenbuch_ (1257). + +More than any single poet of the Court epic, more even than the poet of +the _Nibelungenlied_, Walther von der Vogelweide summed up in himself +all that was best in the group of poetic literature with which he was +associated--the Minnesang. The early Austrian singers already mentioned, +poets like Heinrich von Veldeke, who in his lyrics, as in his epic, +introduced the French conception of _Minne_, or like the manly Friedrich +von Hausen, and the Swiss imitator of Provençal measures, Rudolf von +Fenis appear only in the light of forerunners. Even more original +poets, like Heinrich von Morungen and Walther's own master, Reinmar von +Hagenau, the author of harmonious but monotonously elegiac verses, or +among immediate contemporaries, Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von +Eschenbach, whose few lyric strophes are as deeply stamped with his +individuality as his epics--seem only tributary to the full rich stream +of Walther's genius. There was not a form of the German Minnesang which +Walther did not amplify and deepen; songs of courtly love and lowly +love, of religious faith and delight in nature, patriotic songs and +political _Sprüche_--in all he was a master. Of Walther's life we are +somewhat better informed than in the case of his contemporaries: he was +born about 1170 and died about 1230; his art he learned in Austria, +whereupon he wandered through South Germany, a welcome guest wherever he +went, although his vigorous championship of what he regarded as the +national cause in the political struggles of the day won him foes as +well as friends. For centuries he remained the accepted exemplar of +German lyric poetry; not merely the Minnesänger who followed him, but +also the Meistersinger of the 15th and 16th centuries looked up to him +as one of the founders and lawgivers of their art. He was the most +influential of all Germany's lyric poets, and in the breadth, +originality and purity of his inspiration one of her greatest (see +WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE). + +The development of the German Minnesang after Walther's death and under +his influence is easily summed up. Contemporaries had been impressed by +the dual character of Walther's lyric; they distinguished a higher +courtly lyric, and a lower more outspoken form of song, free from the +constraint of social or literary conventions. The later Minnesang +emphasized this dualism. Amongst Walther's immediate contemporaries, +high-born poets, whose lives were passed at courts, naturally cultivated +the higher lyric; but the more gifted and original singers of the time +rejoiced in the freedom of Walther's poetry of _niedere Minne_. It was, +in fact, in accordance with the spirit of the age that the latter should +have been Walther's most valuable legacy to his successors; and the +greatest of these, Neidhart von Reuental (c. 1180-c. 1250), certainly +did not allow himself to be hampered by aristocratic prejudices. +Neidhart sought the themes of his _höfische Dorfpoesie_ in the village, +and, as the mood happened to dictate, depicted the peasant with humorous +banter or biting satire. The lyric poets of the later 13th century were +either, like Burkart von Hohenfels, Ulrich von Winterstetten and +Gottfried von Neifen, echoes of Walther von der Vogelweide and of +Neidhart, or their originality was confined to some particular form of +lyric poetry in which they excelled. Thus the singer known as "Der +Tannhäuser" distinguished himself as an imitator of the French +_pastourelle_; Reinmar von Zweter was purely a _Spruchdichter_. More or +less common to all is the consciousness that their own ideas and +surroundings were no longer in harmony with the aristocratic world of +chivalry, which the poets of the previous generation had glorified. The +solid advantages, material prosperity and increasing comfort of life in +the German towns appealed to poets like Steinmar von Klingenau more than +the unworldly ideals of self-effacing knighthood which Ulrich von +Lichtenstein and Johann Hadlaub of Zürich clung to so tenaciously and +extolled so warmly. On the whole, the Spruchdichter came best out of +this ordeal of changing fashions; and the increasing interest in the +moral and didactic applications of literature favoured the development +of this form of verse. The confusion of didactic purpose with the lyric +is common to all the later poetry, to that of the learned Marner, of +Boppe, Rumezland and Heinrich von Meissen, who was known to later +generations as "Frauenlob." The _Spruchdichtung_, in fact, was one of +the connecting links between the Minnesang of the 13th and the lyric and +satiric poetry of the 15th and 16th centuries. + +The disturbing and disintegrating element in the literature of the 13th +century was thus the substitution of a utilitarian didacticism for the +idealism of chivalry. In the early decades of that century, poems like +_Der Winsbeke_, by a Bavarian, and _Der welsche Gast_, written in +1215-1216 by Thomasin von Zirclaere (Zirclaria), a native of Friuli, +still teach with uncompromising idealism the duties and virtues of the +knightly life. But in the _Bescheidenheit_ (c. 1215-1230) of a wandering +singer, who called himself Freidank, we find for the first time an +active antagonism to the unworldly code of chivalry and an unmistakable +reflection of the changing social order, brought about by the rise of +what we should now call the middle class. Freidank is the spokesman of +the _Bürger_, and in his terse, witty verses may be traced the germs of +German intellectual and literary development in the coming +centuries--even of the Reformation itself. From the advent of Freidank +onwards, the satiric and didactic poetry went the way of the epic; what +it gained in quantity it lost in quality and concentration. The satires +associated with the name of Seifried Helbling, an Austrian who wrote in +the last fifteen years of the 13th century, and _Der Renner_ by Hugo von +Trimberg, written at the very end of the century, may be taken as +characteristic of the later period, where terseness and incisive wit +have given place to diffuse moralizing and allegory. + +There is practically no Middle High German literature in prose; such +prose as has come down to us--the tracts of David of Augsburg, the +powerful sermons of Berthold von Regensburg (d. 1272), Germany's +greatest medieval preacher, and several legal codes, as the +_Sachsenspiegel_ and _Schwabenspiegel_--only prove that the Germans of +the 13th century had not yet realized the possibilities of prose as a +medium of literary expression. + + +III. THE TRANSITION PERIOD (1350-1600) + +(a) _The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries._--As is the case with all +transitional periods of literary history, this epoch of German +literature may be considered under two aspects: on the one hand, we may +follow in it the decadence and disintegration of the literature of the +Middle High German period; on the other, we may study the beginnings of +modern forms of poetry and the preparation of that spiritual revolution, +which meant hardly less to the Germanic peoples than the Renaissance to +the Latin races--the Protestant Reformation. + +By the middle of the 14th century, knighthood with its chivalric ideals +was rapidly declining, and the conditions under which medieval poetry +had flourished were passing away. The social change rendered the courtly +epic of Arthur's Round Table in great measure incomprehensible to the +younger generation, and made it difficult for them to understand the +spirit that actuated the heroes of the national epic; the tastes to +which the lyrics of the great Minnesingers had appealed were vitiated by +the more practical demands of the rising middle classes. But the stories +of chivalry still appealed as stories to the people, although the old +way of telling them was no longer appreciated. The feeling for beauty of +form and expression was lost; the craving for a moral purpose and +didactic aim had to be satisfied at the cost of artistic beauty; and +sensational incident was valued more highly than fine character-drawing +or inspired poetic thought. Signs of the decadence are to be seen in the +_Karlmeinet_ of this period, stories from the youth of Charlemagne, in a +continuation of _Parzival_ by two Alsatians, Claus Wisse and Philipp +Colin (c. 1335), in an _Apollonius von Tyrus_ by Heinrich von Neuenstadt +(c. 1315), and a _Königstochter von Frankreich_ by Hans von Bühel (c. +1400). The story of Siegfried was retold in a rough ballad, _Das Lied +von hürnen Seyfried_, the _Heldenbuch_ was recast in _Knittelvers_ or +doggerel (1472), and even the Arthurian epic was parodied. A no less +marked symptom of decadence is to be seen in a large body of allegorical +poetry analogous to the _Roman de la rose_ in France; Heinzelein of +Constance, at the end of the 13th, and Hadamar von Laber and Hermann von +Sachsenheim, about the middle of the 15th century, were representatives +of this movement. As time went on, prose versions of the old stories +became more general, and out of these developed the _Volksbücher_, such +as _Loher und Maller_, _Die Haimonskinder_, _Die schöne Magelone_, +_Melusine_, which formed the favourite reading of the German people for +centuries. As the last monuments of the decadent narrative literature of +the middle ages, we may regard the _Buch der Abenteuer_ of Ulrich +Füetrer, written at the end of the 15th century, and _Der Weisskönig_ +and _Teuerdank_ by the emperor Maximilian I. (1459-1519) printed in the +early years of the 16th. At the beginning of the new epoch the Minnesang +could still point to two masters able to maintain the great traditions +of the 13th century, Hugo von Montfort (1357-1423) and Oswald von +Wolkenstein (1367-1445); but as the lyric passed into the hands of the +middle-class poets of the German towns, it was rapidly shorn of its +essentially lyric qualities; _die Minne_ gave place to moral and +religious dogmatism, emphasis was laid on strict adherence to the rules +of composition, and the simple forms of the older lyric were superseded +by ingenious metrical distortions. Under the influence of writers like +Heinrich von Meissen ("Frauenlob," c. 1250-1318) and Heinrich von Mügeln +in the 14th century, like Muskatblut and Michael Beheim (1416-c. 1480) +in the 15th, the Minnesang thus passed over into the Meistergesang. In +the later 15th and in the 16th centuries all the south German towns +possessed flourishing Meistersinger schools in which the art of writing +verse was taught and practised according to complicated rules, and it +was the ambition of every gifted citizen to rise through the various +grades from _Schüler_ to _Meister_ and to distinguish himself in the +"singing contests" instituted by the schools. + +Such are the decadent aspects of the once rich literature of the Middle +High German period in the 14th and 15th centuries. Turning now to the +more positive side of the literary movement, we have to note a revival +of a popular lyric poetry--the Volkslied--which made the futility and +artificiality of the Meistergesang more apparent. Never before or since +has Germany been able to point to such a rich harvest of popular poetry +as is to be seen in the Volkslieder of these two centuries. Every form +of popular poetry is to be found here--songs of love and war, hymns and +drinking-songs, songs of spring and winter, historical ballads, as well +as lyrics in which the old motives of the Minnesang reappear stripped of +all artificiality. More obvious ties with the literature of the +preceding age are to be seen in the development of the _Schwank_ or +comic anecdote. Collections of such stories, which range from the +practical jokes of _Till Eulenspiegel_ (1515), and the coarse witticisms +of the _Pfaffe vom Kalenberg_ (end of 14th century) and _Peter Leu_ +(1550), to the religious and didactic anecdotes of J. Pauli's _Schimpf +und Ernst_ (1522) or the more literary _Rollwagenbüchlein_ (1555) of +Jörg Wickram and the _Wendunmut_ (1563 ff.) of H.W. Kirchhoff--these +dominate in large measure the literature of the 15th and 16th centuries; +they are the literary descendants of the medieval _Pfaffe Amis_, +_Markolf_ and _Reinhart Fuchs_. An important development of this type of +popular literature is to be seen in the _Narrenschiff_ of Sebastian +Brant (1457-1521), where the humorous anecdote became a vehicle of the +bitterest satire; Brant's own contempt for the vulgarity of the +ignorant, and the deep, unsatisfied craving of all strata of society for +a wider intellectual horizon and a more humane and dignified life, to +which Brant gave voice, make the _Narrenschiff_, which appeared in 1494, +a landmark on the way that led to the Reformation. Another form--the +Beast fable and Beast epic--which is but sparingly represented in +earlier times, appealed with peculiar force to the new generation. At +the very close of the Middle High German period, Ulrich Boner had +revived the Aesopic fable in his _Edelstein_ (1349), translations of +Aesop in the following century added to the popularity of the fable +(q.v.), and in the century of the Reformation it became, in the hands of +Burkard Waldis (_Esopus_, 1548) and Erasmus Alberus (_Buch von der +Tugend und Weisheit_, 1550), a favourite instrument of satire and +polemic. A still more attractive form of the Beast fable was the epic of +_Reinke de Vos_, which had been cultivated by Flemish poets in the 13th +and 14th centuries and has come down to us in a Low Saxon translation, +published at Lübeck in 1498. This, too, like Brant's poem, is a powerful +satire on human folly, and is also, like the _Narrenschiff_, a harbinger +of the coming Reformation. + +A complete innovation was the drama (q.v.), which, as we have seen, had +practically no existence in Middle High German times. As in all European +literatures, it emerged slowly and with difficulty from its original +subservience to the church liturgy. As time went on, the vernacular was +substituted for the original Latin, and with increasing demands for +pageantry, the scene of the play was removed to the churchyard or the +market-place; thus the opportunity arose in the 14th and 15th centuries +for developing the _Weihnachtsspiel_, _Osterspiel_ and _Passionsspiel_ +on secular lines. The enlargement of the scope of the religious play to +include legends of the saints implied a further step in the direction of +a complete separation of the drama from ecclesiastical ceremony. The +most interesting example of this encroachment of the secular spirit is +the _Spiel von Frau Jutten_--Jutta being the notorious Pope Joan--by an +Alsatian, Dietrich Schernberg, in 1480. Meanwhile, in the 15th century, +a beginning had been made of a drama entirely independent of the church. +The mimic representations--originally allegorical in character--with +which the people amused themselves at the great festivals of the year, +and more especially in spring, were interspersed with dialogue, and +performed on an improvised stage. This was the beginning of the +_Fastnachtsspiel_ or Shrovetide-play, the subject of which was a comic +anecdote similar to those of the many collections of _Schwänke_. Amongst +the earliest cultivators of the _Fastnachtsspiel_ were Hans Rosenplüt +(fl. c. 1460) and Hans Folz (fl. c. 1510), both of whom were associated +with Nuremberg. + +(b) _The Age of the Reformation._--Promising as were these literary +beginnings of the 15th century, the real significance of the period in +Germany's intellectual history is to be sought outside literature, +namely, in two forces which immediately prepared the way for the +Reformation--mysticism and humanism. The former of these had been a more +or less constant factor in German religious thought throughout the +middle ages, but with Meister Eckhart (? 1260-1327), the most powerful +and original of all the German mystics, with Heinrich Seuse or Suso (c. +1300-1366), and Johannes Tauler (c. 1300-1361), it became a clearly +defined mental attitude towards religion; it was an essentially personal +interpretation of Christianity, and, as such, was naturally conducive to +the individual freedom which Protestantism ultimately realized. It is +thus not to be wondered at that we should owe the early translations of +the Bible into German--one was printed at Strassburg in 1466--to the +mystics. Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg (1445-1510), a pupil of the +humanists and a friend of Sebastian Brant, may be regarded as a link +between Eckhart and the earlier mysticists and Luther. Humanism was +transplanted to German soil with the foundation of the university of +Prague in 1348, and it made even greater strides than mysticism. Its +immediate influence, however, was restricted to the educated classes; +the pre-Reformation humanists despised the vernacular and wrote and +thought only in Latin. Thus although neither Johann Reuchlin of +Pforzheim (1455-1522), nor even the patriotic Alsatian, Jakob Wimpfeling +(or Wimpheling) (1450-1528)--not to mention the great Dutch humanist +Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536)--has a place in the history of German +literature, their battle for liberalism in thought and scholarship +against the narrow orthodoxy of the Church cleared the way for a healthy +national literature among the German-speaking peoples. The incisive wit +and irony of humanistic satire--we need only instance the _Epistolae +obscurorum virorum_ (1515-1517)--prevented the German satirists of the +Reformation age from sinking entirely into that coarse brutality to +which they were only too prone. To the influence of the humanists we +also owe many translations from the Latin and Italian dating from the +15th century. Prominent among the writers who contributed to the group +of literature were Niklas von Wyl, chancellor of Württemberg, and his +immediate contemporary Albrecht von Eyb (1420-1475). + +Martin Luther (1483-1546), Germany's greatest man in this age of +intellectual new-birth, demands a larger share of attention in a survey +of literature than his religious and ecclesiastical activity would in +itself justify, if only because the literary activity of the age cannot +be regarded apart from him. From the Volkslied and the popular _Schwank_ +to satire and drama, literature turned exclusively round the Reformation +which had been inaugurated on the 31st of October 1517 by Luther's +publication of the _Theses against Indulgences_ in Wittenberg. In his +three tracts, _An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation_, _De +captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae_, and _Von der Freiheit eines +Christenmenschen_ (1520), Luther laid down his principles of reform, and +in the following year resolutely refused to recant his heresies in a +dramatic scene before the Council of Worms. Luther's Bible (1522-1534) +had unique importance not merely for the religious and intellectual +welfare of the German people, but also for their literature. It is in +itself a literary monument, a German classic, and the culmination and +justification of that movement which had supplanted the medieval knight +by the burgher and swept away Middle High German poetry. Luther, well +aware that his translation of the Bible must be the keystone to his +work, gave himself endless pains to produce a thoroughly German +work--German both in language and in spirit. It was important that the +dialect into which the Bible was translated should be comprehensible +over as wide an area as possible of the German-speaking world, and for +this reason he took all possible care in choosing the vocabulary and +forms of his _Gemeindeutsch_. The language of the Saxon chancery thus +became, thanks to Luther's initiative, the basis of the modern High +German literary language. As a hymn-writer (_Geistliche Lieder_, 1564), +Luther was equally mindful of the importance of adapting himself to the +popular tradition; and his hymns form the starting-point for a vast +development of German religious poetry which did not reach its highest +point until the following century. + +The most powerful and virile literature of this age was the satire with +which the losing side retaliated on the Protestant leaders. Amongst +Luther's henchmen, Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560), the "praeceptor +Germaniae," and Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) were powerful allies in +the cause, but their intellectual sympathies were with the Latin +humanists; and with the exception of some vigorous German prose and +still more vigorous German verse by Hutten, both wrote in Latin. The +satirical dramas of Niklas Manuel, a Swiss writer and the polemical +fables of Erasmus Alberus (c. 1500-1553), on the other hand, were +insignificant compared with the fierce assault on Protestantism by the +Alsatian monk, Thomas Murner (1475-1537). The most unscrupulous of all +German satirists, Murner shrank from no extremes of scurrility, his +attacks on Luther reaching their culmination in the gross personalities +of _Von dem lutherischen Narren_ (1522). It was not until the following +generation that the Protestant party could point to a satirist who in +genius and power was at all comparable to Murner, namely, to Johann +Fischart (c. 1550-c. 1591); but when Fischart's Rabelaisian humour is +placed by the side of his predecessor's work, we see that, in spite of +counter-reformations, the Protestant cause stood in a very different +position in Fischart's day from that which it had occupied fifty years +before. Fischart took his stand on the now firm union between humanism +and Protestantism. His chief work, the _Affentheuerlich +Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung_ (1575), a Germanization of the +first book of Rabelais' satire, is a witty and ingenious monstrosity, a +satirical comment on the life of the 16th century, not the virulent +expression of party strife. The day of a personal and brutal type of +satire was clearly over, and the writers of the later 16th century +reverted more and more to the finer methods of the humanists. The satire +of Bartholomaeus Ringwaldt (1530-1599) and of Georg Rollenhagen +(1542-1609), author of the _Froschmeuseler_ (1595), was more "literary" +and less actual than even Fischart's. + +On the whole, the form of literature which succeeded best in +emancipating itself from the trammels of religious controversy in the +16th century was the drama. Protestantism proved favourable to its +intellectual and literary development, and the humanists, who had always +prided themselves on their imitations of Latin comedy, introduced into +it a sense for form and proportion. The Latin school comedy in Germany +was founded by J. Wimpfeling with his _Stylpho_ (1470) and by J. +Reuchlin with his witty adaptation of _Maître Patelin_ in his _Henno_ +(1498). In the 16th century the chief writers of Latin dramas were +Thomas Kirchmair or Naogeorgus (1511-1563), Caspar Brülow (1585-1627), +and Nikodemus Frischlin (1547-1590), who also wrote dramas in the +vernacular. The work of these men bears testimony in its form and its +choice of subjects to the close relationship between Latin and German +drama in the 16th century. One of the earliest focusses for a German +drama inspired by the Reformation was Switzerland. In Basel, Pamphilus +Gengenbach produced moralizing _Fastnachtsspiele_ in 1515-1516; Niklas +Manuel of Bern (1484-1530)--who has just been mentioned--employed the +same type of play as a vehicle of pungent satire against the Mass and +the sale of indulgences. But it was not long before the German drama +benefited by the humanistic example: the _Parabell vam vorlorn Szohn_ by +Burkard Waldis (1527), the many dramas on the subject of +_Susanna_--notably those of Sixt Birck (1532) and Paul Rebhun(1535)--and +Frischlin's German plays are attempts to treat Biblical themes according +to classic methods. In another of the important literary centres of the +16th century, however, in Nuremberg, the drama developed on indigenous +lines. Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the Nuremberg cobbler and Meistersinger, +the most productive writer of the age, went his own way; a voracious +reader and an unwearied storyteller, he left behind him a vast literary +legacy, embracing every form of popular literature from _Spruch_ and +_Schwank_ to complicated _Meistergesang_ and lengthy drama. He laid +under contribution the rich Renaissance literature with which the +humanistic translators had flooded Germany, and he became himself an +ardent champion of the "Wittembergisch Nachtigall" Luther. But in the +progressive movement of the German drama he played an even smaller role +than his Swiss and Saxon contemporaries; for his tragedies and comedies +are deficient in all dramatic qualities; they are only stories in +dialogue. In the _Fastnachtsspiele_, where dramatic form is less +essential than anecdotal point and brevity, he is to be seen at his +best. Rich as the 16th century was in promise, the conditions for the +development of a national drama were unfavourable. At the close of the +century the influence of the English drama--brought to Germany by +English actors--introduced the deficient dramatic and theatrical force +into the humanistic and "narrative" drama which has just been +considered. This is to be seen in the work of Jakob Ayrer (d. 1605) and +Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick (1564-1613). But unfortunately these +beginnings had hardly made themselves felt when the full current of the +Renaissance was diverted across Germany, bringing in its train the +Senecan tragedy. Then came the Thirty Years' War, which completely +destroyed the social conditions indispensable for the establishment of a +theatre at once popular and national. + +The novel was less successful than the drama in extricating itself from +satire and religious controversy. Fischart was too dependent on foreign +models and too erratic--at one time adapting Rabelais, at another +translating the old heroic romance of _Amadis de Gaula_--to create a +national form of German fiction in the 16th century; the most important +novelist was a much less talented writer, the Alsatian Meistersinger and +dramatist Jörg Wickram (d. c. 1560), who has been already mentioned as +the author of a popular collection of anecdotes, the _Rollwagenbüchlein_. +His longer novels, _Der Knabenspiegel_ (1554) and Der Goldfaden (1557), +are in form, and especially in the importance they attach to +psychological developments, the forerunners of the movement to which we +owe the best works of German fiction in the 18th century. But Wickram +stands alone. So inconsiderable, in fact, is the fiction of the +Reformation age in Germany that we have to regard the old _Volksbücher_ +as its equivalent; and it is significant that of all the prose writings +of this age, the book which affords the best insight into the temper and +spirit of the Reformation was just one of these crude _Volksbücher_, +namely, the famous story of the magician _Doctor Johann Faust_, published +at Frankfort in 1587. + + +IV. THE RENAISSANCE (1600-1740) + +The 17th century in Germany presents a complete contrast to its +predecessor; the fact that it was the century of the Thirty Years' War, +which devastated the country, crippled the prosperity of the towns, and +threw back by many generations the social development of the people, +explains much, but it can hardly be held entirely responsible for the +intellectual apathy, the slavery to foreign customs and foreign ideas, +which stunted the growth of the nation. The freedom of Lutheranism +degenerated into a paralyzing Lutheran orthodoxy which was as hostile to +the "Freiheit eines Christenmenschen" as that Catholicism it had +superseded; the idealism of the humanists degenerated in the same way +into a dry, pedantic scholasticism which held the German mind in fetters +until, at the very close of the century, Leibnitz set it free. Most +disheartening of all, literature which in the 16th century had been so +full of promise and had conformed with such aptitude to the new ideas, +was in all its higher manifestations blighted by the dead hand of +pseudo-classicism. The unkempt literature of the Reformation age +admittedly stood in need of guidance and discipline, but the 17th +century made the fatal mistake of trying to impose the laws and rules of +Romance literatures on a people of a purely Germanic stock. + +There were, however, some branches of German poetry which escaped this +foreign influence. The church hymn, continuing the great Lutheran +traditions, rose in the 17th century to extraordinary richness both in +quality and quantity. Paul Gerhardt (1607-1676), the greatest German +hymn-writer, was only one of many Lutheran pastors who in this age +contributed to the German hymnal. On the Catholic side, Angelus +Silesius, or Johann Scheffler (1624-1677) showed what a wealth of poetry +lay in the mystic speculations of Jakob Boehme, the gifted shoemaker of +Görlitz (1575-1624), and author of the famous _Aurora, oder Morgenröte +im Aufgang_ (1612); while Friedrich von Spee (1591-1635), another +leading Catholic poet of the century, cultivated the pastoral allegory +of the Renaissance. The revival of mysticism associated with Boehme +gradually spread through the whole religious life of the 17th century, +Protestant as well as Catholic, and in the more specifically Protestant +form of pietism, it became, at the close of the period, a force of +moment in the literary revival. Besides the hymn, the Volkslied, which +amidst the struggles and confusion of the great war bore witness to a +steadily growing sense of patriotism, lay outside the domain of the +literary theorists and dictators, and developed in its own way. But all +else--if we except certain forms of fiction, which towards the end of +the 17th century rose into prominence--stood completely under the sway +of the Latin Renaissance. + +The first focus of the movement was Heidelberg, which had been a centre +of humanistic learning in the sixteenth century. Here, under the +leadership of J.W. Zincgref (1591-1635), a number of scholarly writers +carried into practice that interest in the vernacular which had been +shown a little earlier by the German translator of Marot, Paul Schede or +Melissus, librarian in Heidelberg. The most important forerunner of +Opitz was G.R. Weckherlin (1584-1653), a native of Württemberg who had +spent the best part of his life in England; his _Oden und Gesänge_ +(1618-1619) ushered in the era of Renaissance poetry in Germany with a +promise that was but indifferently fulfilled by his successors. Of these +the greatest, or at least the most influential, was Martin Opitz +(1597-1639). He was a native of Silesia and, as a student in Heidelberg, +came into touch with Zincgref's circle; subsequently, in the course of a +visit to Holland, a more definite trend was given to his ideas by the +example of the Dutch poet and scholar, Daniel Heinsius. As a poet, Opitz +experimented with every form of recognized Renaissance poetry from ode +and epic to pastoral romance and Senecan drama; but his poetry is for +the most part devoid of inspiration; and his extraordinary fame among +his contemporaries would be hard to understand, were it not that in his +_Buch von der deutschen Poeterey_ (1624) he gave the German Renaissance +its theoretical textbook. In this tract, in which Opitz virtually +reproduced in German the accepted dogmas of Renaissance theorists like +Scaliger and Ronsard, he not merely justified his own mechanical +verse-making, but also gave Germany a law-book which regulated her +literature for a hundred years. + +The work of Opitz as a reformer was furthered by another institution of +Latin origin, namely, literary societies modelled on the _Accademia +della Crusca_ in Florence. These societies, of which the chief were the +_Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_ or _Palmenorden_ (founded 1617), the +_Elbschwanenorden_ in Hamburg and the _Gekrönter Blumenorden an der +Pegnitz or Gesellschaft der Pegnitzschäfer_ in Nuremberg, were the +centres of literary activity during the unsettled years of the war. +Although they produced much that was trivial--such as the extraordinary +_Nürnberger Trichter_ (1647-1653) by G.P. Harsdörffer (1607-1658), a +treatise which professed to turn out a fully equipped German poet in the +space of six hours--these societies also did German letters an +invaluable service by their attention to the language, one of their +chief objects having been to purify the German language from foreign and +un-German ingredients. J.G. Schottelius (1612-1676), for instance, wrote +his epoch-making grammatical works with the avowed purpose of furthering +the objects of the _Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft_. Meanwhile the poetic +centre of gravity in Germany had shifted from Heidelberg to the extreme +north-east, to Königsberg, where a group of academic poets gave +practical expression to the Opitzian theory. Chief among them was Simon +Dach (1605-1659), a gentle, elegiac writer on whom the laws of the _Buch +von der deutschen Poeterey_ did not lie too heavily. He, like his more +manly and vigorous contemporary Paul Fleming (1609-1640), showed, one +might say, that it was possible to write good and sincere poetry +notwithstanding Opitz's mechanical rules. + +In the previous century the most advanced form of literature had been +satire, and under the new conditions the satiric vein still proved most +productive; but it was no longer the full-blooded satire of the +Reformation, or even the rich and luxuriant satiric fancy of Fischart, +which found expression in the 17th century. Satire pure and simple was +virtually only cultivated by two Low German poets, J. Lauremberg +(1590-1658) and J. Rachel (1618-1669), of whom at least the latter was +accepted by the Opitzian school; but the satiric spirit rose to higher +things in the powerful and scathing sermons of J.B. Schupp (1610-1661), +an outspoken Hamburg preacher, and in the scurrilous wit of the Viennese +monk Abraham a Sancta Clara (1644-1709), who had inherited some of his +predecessor Murner's intellectual gifts. Best of all are the epigrams of +the most gifted of all the Silesian group of writers, Friedrich von +Logau (1604-1655). Logau's three thousand epigrams (_Deutsche +Sinngedichte_, 1654) afford a key to the intellectual temper of the 17th +century; they are the epitome of their age. Here are to be seen +reflected the vices of the time, its aping of French customs and its +contempt for what was national and German; Logau held up to ridicule the +vain bloodshed of the war in the interest of Christianity, and, although +he praised Opitz, he was far from prostrating himself at the dictator's +feet. Logau is an epigrammatist of the first rank, and perhaps the most +remarkable product of the Renaissance movement in Germany. + +Opitz found difficulty in providing Germany with a drama according to +the classic canon. He had not himself ventured beyond translations of +Sophocles and Seneca, and Johann Rist (1607-1667) in Hamburg, one of the +few contemporary dramatists, had written plays more in the manner of +Duke Heinrich Julius of Brunswick than of Opitz. It was not until after +the latter's death that the chief dramatist of the Renaissance movement +came forward in the person of Andreas Gryphius (1616-1664). Like Opitz, +Gryphius also was a Silesian, and a poet of no mean ability, as is to be +seen from his lyric poetry; but his tragedies, modelled on the stiff +Senecan pattern, suffered from the lack of a theatre, and from his +ignorance of the existence of a more highly developed drama in France, +not to speak of England. As it was, he was content with Dutch models. In +the field of comedy, where he was less hampered by theories of dramatic +propriety, he allowed himself to benefit by the freedom of the Dutch +farce and the comic effects of the English actors in Germany; in his +_Horribilicribrifax_ and _Herr Peter Squentz_--the latter an adaptation +of the comic scenes of the _Midsummer Night's Dream_--Gryphius has +produced the best German plays of the 17th century. + +The German novel of the 17th century was, as has been already indicated, +less hampered by Renaissance laws than other forms of literature, and +although it was none the less at the mercy of foreign influence, that +influence was more varied and manifold in its character. _Don Quixote_ +had been partly translated early in the 17th century, the picaresque +romance had found its way to Germany at a still earlier date; while H.M. +Moscherosch (1601-1669) in his _Gesichte Philanders von Sittewald_ +(1642-1643) made the _Sueños_ of Quevedo the basis for vivid pictures of +the life of the time, interspersed with satire. The best German novel of +the 17th century, _Der abenteurliche Simplicissimus_ (1669) by H.J. +Christoffel von Grimmelshausen (c. 1625-1676), is a picaresque novel, +but one that owed little more than its form to the Spaniards. It is in +great measure the autobiography of its author, and describes with +uncompromising realism the social disintegration and the horrors of the +Thirty Years' War. But this remarkable book stands alone; +Grimmelshausen's other writings are but further contributions to the +same theme, and he left no disciples worthy of carrying on the tradition +he had created. Christian Weise (1642-1708), rector of the Zittau +gymnasium, wrote a few satirical novels, but his realism and satire are +too obviously didactic. He is seen to better advantage in his dramas, of +which he wrote more than fifty for performance by his scholars. + +The real successor of _Simplicissimus_ in Germany was the English +_Robinson Crusoe_, a novel which, on its appearance, was immediately +translated into German (1721); it called forth an extraordinary flood of +imitations, the so-called "Robinsonaden," the vogue of which is even +still kept alive by _Der schweizerische Robinson_ of J.R. Wyss (1812 +ff.). With the exception of J.G. Schnabel's _Insel Felsenburg_ +(1731-1743), the literary value of these imitations is slight. They +represented, however, a healthier and more natural development of +fiction than the "galant" romances which were introduced in the train of +the Renaissance movement, and cultivated by writers like Philipp von +Zesen (1619-1689), Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick (1633-1714), A.H. +Buchholtz (1607-1671), H.A. von Ziegler (1653-1697)--author of the +famous _Asiatische Banise_ (1688)--and D.C. von Lohenstein (1635-1683), +whose _Arminius_ (1689-1690) is on the whole the most promising novel of +this group. The last mentioned writer and Christian Hofmann von +Hofmannswaldau (1617-1679) are sometimes regarded as the leaders of a +"second Silesian school," as opposed to the first school of Opitz. As +the cultivators of the bombastic and Euphuistic style of the Italians +Guarini and Marini, and of the Spanish writer Gongora, Lohenstein and +Hofmannswaldau touched the lowest point to which German poetry ever +sank. + +But this aberration of taste was happily of short duration. Although +socially the recovery of the German people from the desolation of the +war was slow and laborious, the intellectual life of Germany was rapidly +recuperating under the influence of foreign thinkers. Samuel Pufendorf +(1632-1694), Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), Christian von Wolff +(1679-1754) and, above all, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), the +first of the great German philosophers, laid the foundations of that +system of rationalism which dominated Germany for the better part of the +18th century; while German religious life was strengthened and enriched +by a revival of pietism, under mystic thinkers like Philipp Jakob Spener +(1635-1705), a revival which also left its traces on religious poetry. +Such hopeful signs of convalescence could not but be accompanied by an +improvement in literary taste, and this is seen in the first instance in +a substitution for the bombast and conceits of Lohehstein and +Hofmannswaldau, of poetry on the stricter and soberer lines laid down by +Boileau. The so-called "court poets" who opposed the second Silesian +school, men like Rudolf von Canitz (1654-1699), Johann von Besser +(1654-1729) and Benjamin Neukirch (1665-1729), were not inspired, but +they had at least a certain "correctness" of taste; and from their midst +sprang one gifted lyric genius, Johann Christian Günther (1695-1723), +who wrote love-songs such as had not been heard in Germany since the +days of the Minnesang. The methods of Hofmannswaldau had obtained +considerable vogue in Hamburg, where the Italian opera kept the decadent +Renaissance poetry alive. Here, however, the incisive wit of Christian +Wernigke's (1661-1725) epigrams was an effective antidote, and Barthold +Heinrich Brockes (1680-1747), a native of Hamburg, who had been deeply +impressed by the appreciation of nature in English poetry, gave the +artificialities of the Silesians their death-blow. But the influence of +English literature was not merely destructive in these years; in the +translations and imitations of the English _Spectator_, _Tatler_ and +_Guardian_--the so-called _moralische Wochenschriften_--it helped to +regenerate literary taste, and to implant healthy moral ideas in the +German middle classes. + +The chief representative of the literary movement inaugurated by the +Silesian "court poets" was Johann Christoph Gottsched (1700-1766), who +between 1724 and 1740 succeeded in establishing in Leipzig, the +metropolis of German taste, literary reforms modelled on the principles +of French 17th-century classicism. He reformed and purified the stage +according to French ideas, and provided it with a repertory of French +origin; in his _Kritische Dichtkunst_ (1730) he laid down the principles +according to which good literature was to be produced and judged. As +Opitz had reformed German letters with the help of Ronsard, so now +Gottsched took his standpoint on the principles of Boileau as +interpreted by contemporary French critics and theorists. With +Gottsched, whose services in purifying the German language have stood +the test of time better than his literary or dramatic reforms, the +period of German Renaissance literature reaches its culmination and at +the same time its close. The movement of the age advanced too rapidly +for the Leipzig dictator; in 1740 a new epoch opened in German poetry +and he was soon left hopelessly behind. + + +V. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD OF MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE (1740-1832) + +(a) _From the Swiss Controversy to the "Sturm und Drang."_--Between +Opitz and Gottsched German literature passed successively through the +various stages characteristic of all Renaissance literatures--from that +represented by Trissino and the French Pléiade, by way of the +aberrations of Marini and the _estilo culto_, to the _art poétique_ of +Boileau. And precisely as in France, the next advance was achieved in a +battle between the "ancients" and the "moderns," the German "ancients" +being represented by Gottsched, the "moderns" by the Swiss literary +reformers, J.J. Bodmer (1698-1783) and J.J. Breitinger (1701-1776). The +latter in his _Kritische Dichtkunst_ (1739) maintained doctrines which +were in opposition to Gottsched's standpoint in his treatise of the same +name, and Bodmer supported his friend's initiative; a pamphlet war +ensued between Leipzig and Zürich, with which in 1740-1741 the classical +period of modern German literature may be said to open. The Swiss, men +of little originality, found their theories in the writings of Italian +and English critics; and from these they learned how literature might be +freed from the fetters of pseudo-classicism. Basing their arguments on +Milton's _Paradise Lost_, which Bodmer had translated into prose (1732), +they demanded room for the play of genius and inspiration; they insisted +that the imagination should not be hindered in its attempts to rise +above the world of reason and common sense. Their victory was due, not +to the skill with which they presented their arguments, but to the fact +that literature itself was in need of greater freedom. It was in fact a +triumph, not of personalities or of leaders, but of ideas. The effects +of the controversy are to be seen in a group of Leipzig writers of +Gottsched's own school, the _Bremer Beiträger_ as they were called after +their literary organ. These men--C.F. Gellert (1715-1769), the author of +graceful fables and tales in verse, G.W. Rabener (1714-1771), the mild +satirist of Saxon provinciality, the dramatist J. Elias Schlegel +(1719-1749), who in more ways than one was Lessing's forerunner, and a +number of minor writers--did not set themselves up in active opposition +to their master, but they tacitly adopted many of the principles which +the Swiss had advocated. And in the _Bremer Beiträge_ there appeared in +1748 the first instalment of an epic by F.G. Klopstock (1724-1803), _Der +Messias_, which was the best illustration of that lawlessness against +which Gottsched had protested. More effectively than Bodmer's dry and +uninspired theorizing, Klopstock's _Messias_, and in a still higher +degree, his _Odes_, laid the foundations of modern German literature in +the 18th century. His immediate followers, it is true, did not help to +advance matters; Bodmer and J.K. Lavater (1741-1801), whose +"physiognomic" investigations interested Goethe at a later date, wrote +dreary and now long forgotten epics on religious themes. Klopstock's +rhapsodic dramas, together with Macpherson's _Ossian_, which in the +'sixties awakened a widespread enthusiasm throughout Germany, were +responsible for the so-called "bardic" movement; but the noisy +rhapsodies of the leaders of this movement, the "bards" H.W. von +Gerstenberg (1737-1823), K.F. Kretschmann (1738-1809) and Michael Denis +(1729-1800), had little of the poetic inspiration of Klopstock's _Odes_. + +The indirect influence of Klopstock as the first inspired poet of modern +Germany and as the realization of Bodmer's theories can, however, hardly +be over-estimated. Under Frederick the Great, who, as the docile pupil +of French culture, had little sympathy for unregulated displays of +feeling, neither Klopstock nor his imitators were in favour in Berlin, +but at the university of Halle considerable interest was taken in the +movement inaugurated by Bodmer. Here, before Klopstock's name was known +at all, two young poets, J.I. Pyra (1715-1744) and S.G. Lange +(1711-1781), wrote _Freundschaftliche Lieder_ (1737), which were direct +forerunners of Klopstock's rhymeless lyric poetry; and although the +later Prussian poets, J.W.L. Gleim (1719-1803), J.P. Uz (1720-1796) and +J.N. Götz (1721-1781), who were associated with Halle, and K.W. Ramler +(1725-1798) in Berlin, cultivated mainly the Anacreontic and the +Horatian ode--artificial forms, which kept strictly within the classic +canon--yet Friedrich von Hagedorn (1708-1754) in Hamburg showed to what +perfection even the Anacreontic and the lighter _vers de société_ could +be brought. The Swiss physiologist Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) was +the first German poet to give expression to the beauty and sublimity of +Alpine scenery (_Die Alpen_, 1734), and a Prussian officer, Ewald +Christian von Kleist (1715-1759), author of _Der Frühling_ (1749), wrote +the most inspired nature-poetry of this period. Klopstock's supreme +importance lay, however, in the fact that he was a forerunner of the +movement of _Sturm und Drang_. But before turning to that movement we +must consider two writers who, strictly speaking, also belong to the age +under consideration--Lessing and Wieland. + +As Klopstock had been the first of modern Germany's inspired poets, so +Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was the first critic who brought +credit to the German name throughout Europe. He was the most +liberal-minded exponent of 18th-century rationalism. Like his +predecessor Gottsched, whom he vanquished more effectually than Bodmer +had done, he had unwavering faith in the classic canon, but "classic" +meant for him, as for his contemporary, J.J. Winckelmann (1717-1768), +Greek art and literature, and not the products of French +pseudo-classicism, which it had been Gottsched's object to foist on +Germany. He went, indeed, still further, and asserted that Shakespeare, +with all his irregularities, was a more faithful observer of the spirit +of Aristotle's laws, and consequently a greater poet, than were the +French classic writers. He looked to England and not to France for the +regeneration of the German theatre, and his own dramas were pioneer-work +in this direction. _Miss Sara Sampson_ (1755) is a _bürgerliche +Tragödie_ on the lines of Lillo's _Merchant of London, Minna von +Barnhelm_ (1767), a comedy in the spirit of Farquhar; in _Emilia +Galotti_ (1772), again with English models in view, he remoulded the +"tragedy of common life" in a form acceptable to the _Sturm und Drang_; +and finally in _Nathan der Weise_ (1779) he won acceptance for iambic +blank verse as the medium of the higher drama. His two most promising +disciples--J.F. von Cronegk (1731-1758), and J.W. von Brawe +(1738-1758)--unfortunately died young, and C.F. Weisse (1726-1804) was +not gifted enough to advance the drama in its literary aspects. +Lessing's name is associated with Winckelmann's in _Laokoon_ (1766), a +treatise in which he set about defining the boundaries between painting, +sculpture and poetry, and with those of the Jewish philosopher, Moses +Mendelssohn (1729-1786) and the Berlin bookseller C.F. Nicolai +(1733-1811) in the famous _Literaturbriefe_. Here Lessing identified +himself with the best critical principles of the rationalistic +movement--principles which, in the later years of his life, he employed +in a fierce onslaught on Lutheran orthodoxy and intolerance. + +To the widening and deepening of the German imagination C.M. Wieland +(1733-1813) also contributed, but in a different way. Although no enemy +of pseudo-classicism, he broke with the stiff dogmatism of Gottsched and +his friends, and tempered the pietism of Klopstock by introducing the +Germans to the lighter poetry of the south of Europe. With the exception +of his fairy epic _Oberon_ (1780), Wieland's work has fallen into +neglect; he did, however, excellent service to the development of German +prose fiction with his psychological novel, _Agathon_ (1766-1767), which +may be regarded as a forerunner of Goethe's _Wilhelm Meister_, and with +his humorous satire _Die Abderiten_ (1774). Wieland had a considerable +following, both among poets and prose writers; he was particularly +looked up to in Austria, towards the end of the 18th century, where the +literary movement advanced more slowly than in the north. Here Aloys +Blumauer (1755-1789) and J.B. von Alxinger (1755-1797) wrote their +travesties and epics under his influence. In Saxony, M.A. von Thümmel +(1738-1817) showed his adherence to Wieland's school in his comic epic +in prose, _Wilhelmine_ (1764), and in the general tone of his prose +writings; on the other hand, K.A. Kortum (1745-1824), author of the most +popular comic epic of the time, _Die Jobsiade_ (1784), was but little +influenced by Wieland. The German novel owed much to the example of +_Agathon_, but the groundwork and form were borrowed from English +models; Gellert had begun by imitating Richardson in his _Schwedische +Gräfin_ (1747-1748), and he was followed by J.T. Hermes (1738-1821), by +Wieland's friend Sophie von Laroche (1730-1807), by A. von Knigge +(1752-1796) and J.K.A. Musäus (1735-1787), the last mentioned being, +however, best known as the author of a collection of _Volksmärchen_ +(1782-1786). Meanwhile a rationalism, less materialistic and strict than +that of Wolff, was spreading rapidly through educated middle-class +society in Germany. Men like Knigge, Moses Mendelssohn, J.G. Zimmermann +(1728-1795), T.G. von Hippel (1741-1796), Christian Garve (1742-1798), +J.J. Engel (1741-1802), as well as the educational theorists J.B. +Basedow (1723-1790) and J.H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), wrote books and +essays on "popular philosophy" which were as eagerly read as the +_moralische Wochenschriften_ of the preceding epoch; and with this group +of writers must also be associated the most brilliant of German +18th-century satirists, G.C. Lichtenberg (1742-1799). + +Such was the _milieu_ from which sprang the most advanced pioneer of the +classical epoch of modern German literature, J.G. Herder (1744-1803). +The transition from the popular philosophers of the _Aufklärung_ to +Herder was due in the first instance to the influence of Rousseau; and +in Germany itself that transition is represented by men like Thomas Abbt +(1738-1766) and J.G. Hamann (1730-1788). The revolutionary nature of +Herder's thought lay in that writer's antipathy to hard and fast +systems, to laws imposed upon genius; he grasped, as no thinker before +him, the idea of historical evolution. By regarding the human race as +the product of a slow evolution from primitive conditions, he +revolutionized the methods and standpoint of historical science and +awakened an interest--for which, of course, Rousseau had prepared the +way--in the early history of mankind. He himself collected and published +the _Volkslieder_ of all nations (1778-1779), and drew attention to +those elements in German life and art which were, in the best and most +precious sense, national--elements which his predecessors had despised +as inconsistent with classic formulae and systems. Herder is thus not +merely the forerunner, but the actual founder of the literary movement +known as _Sturm und Drang_. New ground was broken in a similar way by a +group of poets, who show the results of Klopstock's influence on the new +literary movement: the Göttingen "Bund" or "Hain," a number of young +students who met together in 1772, and for several years published their +poetry in the _Göttinger Musenalmanach_. With the exception of the two +brothers, Ch. zu Stolberg (1748-1821) and F.L. zu Stolberg (1750-1819), +who occupied a somewhat peculiar position in the "Bund," the members of +this coterie were drawn from the peasant class of the lower +_bourgeoisie_; J.H. Voss (1751-1826), the leader of the "Bund," was a +typical North German peasant, and his idyll, _Luise_ (1784), gives a +realistic picture of German provincial life. L.H.C. Hölty (1748-1776) +and J.M. Miller (1750-1814), again, excelled in simple lyrics in the +tone of the _Volkslied_. Closely associated with the Göttingen group +were M. Claudius (1740-1815), the _Wandsbecker Bote_--as he was called +after the journal he edited--an even more unassuming and homely +representative of the German peasant in literature than Voss, and G.A. +Bürger (1748-1794) who contributed to the _Göttinger Musenalmanach_ +ballads, such as the famous Lenore (1774), of the very first rank. These +ballads were the best products of the Göttingen school, and, together +with Goethe's Strassburg and Frankfort songs, represent the highest +point touched by the lyric and ballad poetry of the period. + +But the Göttingen "Bund" stood somewhat aside from the main movement of +literary development in Germany; it was only a phase of _Sturm und +Drang_, and quieter, less turbulent than that on which Goethe had set +the stamp of his personality. Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) had, as +a student in Leipzig (1765-1768), written lyrics in the Anacreontic vein +and dramas in alexandrines. But in Strassburg, where he went to continue +his studies in 1770-1771, he made the personal acquaintance of Herder, +who won his interest for the new literary movement. Herder imbued him +with his own ideas of the importance of primitive history and Gothic +architecture and inspired him with a pride in German nationality; Herder +convinced him that there was more genuine poetry in a simple Volkslied +than in all the ingenuity of the German imitators of Horace or Anacreon; +above all, he awakened his enthusiasm for Shakespeare. The pamphlet _Von +deutscher Art und Kunst_ (1773), to which, besides Goethe and Herder, +the historian Justus Möser (1720-1794) also contributed, may be regarded +as the manifesto of the _Sturm und Drang_. The effect on Goethe of the +new ideas was instantaneous; they seemed at once to set his genius free, +and from 1771 to 1775 he was extraordinarily fertile in poetic ideas and +creations. His _Götz von Berlichingen_ (1771-1773), the first drama of +the _Sturm und Drang_, was followed within a year by the first novel of +the movement, _Werthers Leiden_ (1774); he dashed off _Clavigo_ and +_Stella_ in a few weeks in 1774 and 1775, and wrote a large number of +_Singspiele_, dramatic satires and fragments--including _Faust_ in its +earliest form (the so-called _Urfaust_)--not to mention love-songs which +at last fulfilled the promise of Klopstock. Goethe's lyrics were no less +epoch-making than his first drama and novel, for they put an end to the +artificiality which for centuries had fettered German lyric expression. +In all forms of literature he set the fashion to his time; the +Shakespearian restlessness of _Götz von Berlichingen_ found enthusiastic +imitators in J.M.R. Lenz (1751-1792), whose _Anmerkungen übers Theater_ +(1774) formulated theoretically the laws, or defiance of laws, of the +new drama, in F.M. von Klinger (1752-1831), J.A. Leisewitz (1752-1806), +H.L. Wagner (1747-1779) and Friedrich Müller, better known as Maler +Müller (1749-1825): The dramatic literature of the _Sturm und Drang_ was +its most characteristic product--indeed, the very name of the movement +was borrowed from a play by Klinger; it was inspired, as _Götz von +Berlichingen_ had been, by the desire to present upon the stage figures +of Shakespearian grandeur impelled and tortured by gigantic passions, +all considerations of plot, construction and form being regarded as +subordinate to the development of character. The fiction of the _Sturm +und Drang_, again, was in its earlier stages dominated by _Werthers +Leiden_, as may be seen in the novels of F.H. Jacobi (1743-1819) and +J.M. Miller, who has been already mentioned. Later, in the hands of +J.J.W. Heinse (1749-1803), author of _Ardinghello_ (1787), Klinger, K. +Ph. Moritz (1757-1793), whose _Anton Reiser_ (1785) clearly foreshadows +_Wilhelm Meister_, it reflected not merely the sentimentalism, but also +the philosophic and artistic ideas of the period. + +With the production of _Die Räuber_ (1781) by Johann Friedrich Schiller +(1759-1805), the drama of the _Sturm und Drang_ entered upon a new +development. Although hardly less turbulent in spirit than the work of +Klinger and Leisewitz, Schiller's tragedy was more skilfully adapted to +the exigencies of the theatre; his succeeding dramas, _Fiesco_ and +_Kabale und Liebe_, were also admirable stage-plays, and in _Don Carlos_ +(1787) he abandoned prose for the iambic blank verse which Lessing had +made acceptable in _Nathan der Weise_. The "practical" character of the +new drama is also to be seen in the work of Schiller's contemporary, O. +von Gemmingen (1755-1836), the imitator of Diderot, in the excellent +domestic dramas of the actors F.L. Schröder (1744-1816) and A.W. Iffland +(1759-1814), and even in the popular medieval plays, the so-called +_Ritterdramen_ of which _Götz von Berlichingen_ was the model. Germany +owes to the _Sturm und Drang_ her national theatre; permanent theatres +were established in these years at Hamburg, Mannheim, Gotha, and even at +Vienna, which, as may be seen from the dramas of C.H. von Ayrenhoff +(1733-1819), had hardly then advanced beyond Gottsched's ideal of a +national literature. The Hofburgtheater of Vienna, the greatest of all +the German stages, was virtually founded in 1776. + +(b) _German Classical Literature._--The energy of the _Sturm und Drang_, +which was essentially iconoclastic in its methods, soon exhausted +itself. For Goethe this phase in his development came to an end with his +departure for Weimar in 1775, while, after writing _Don Carlos_ (1787), +Schiller turned from poetry to the study of history and philosophy. +These subjects occupied his attention almost exclusively for several +years, and not until the very close of the century did he, under the +stimulus of Goethe's friendship, return to the drama. The first ten +years of Goethe's life in Weimar were comparatively unproductive; he had +left the _Sturm und Drang_ behind him; its developments, for which he +himself had been primarily responsible, were distasteful to him; and he +had not yet formed a new creed. Under the influence of the Weimar court, +where classic or even pseudo-classic tastes prevailed, he was gradually +finding his way to a form of literary art which should reconcile the +humanistic ideals of the 18th century with the poetic models of ancient +Greece. But he did not arrive at clearness in his ideas until after his +sojourn in Italy (1786-1788), an episode of the first importance for his +mental development. Italy was, in the first instance, a revelation to +Goethe of the antique; he had gone to Italy to find realized what +Winckelmann had taught, and here he conceived that ideal of a classic +literature, which for the next twenty years dominated German literature +and made Weimar its metropolis. In Italy he gave _Iphigenie auf Tauris_ +(1787) its final form, he completed _Egmont_ (1788)--like the exactly +contemporary _Don Carlos_ of Schiller, a kind of bridge from _Sturm und +Drang_ to classicism--and all but finished _Torquato Tasso_ (1790). +_Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre_ (1795-1796) bears testimony to the clear +and decisive views which he had acquired on all questions of art and of +the practical conduct of life. + +Long before _Wilhelm Meister_ appeared, however, German thought and +literature had arrived at that stability and self-confidence which are +the most essential elements in a great literary period. In the year of +Lessing's death, 1781, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), the great philosopher, +had published his _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, and this, together with +the two later treatises, _Kritik der praktischen Vernunft_ (1788) and +_Kritik der Urteilskraft_ (1790), placed the Germans in the front rank +of thinking nations. Under the influence of Kant, Schiller turned from +the study of history to that of philosophy and more especially +aesthetics. His philosophic lyrics, his treatises on _Anmut und Würde_, +on the _Ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen_ (1795), and _Über naive und +sentimentalische Dichtung_ (1795) show, on the philosophic and the +critical side, the movement of the century from the irresponsible +subjectivity of _Sturm und Drang_ to the calm idealism of classic +attainment. In the same way, German historical writing had in these +years, under the leadership of men like Justus Möser, Thomas Abbt, I. +Iselin, F.C. Schlosser, Schiller himself and, greatest of all, Johannes +von Müller (1752-1809), advanced from disconnected, unsystematic +chronicling to a clearly thought-out philosophic and scientific method. +J.G.A. Forster (1754-1794), who had accompanied Cook round the world, +and Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), gave Germany models of clear and +lucid descriptive writing. In practical politics and economics, when +once the unbalanced vagaries of undiluted Rousseauism had fallen into +discredit, Germany produced much wise and temperate thinking which +prevented the spread of the French Revolution to Germany, and provided a +practical basis on which the social and political fabric could be built +up anew, after the Revolution had made the old régime impossible in +Europe. Men like Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) and the philosopher +J.G. Fichte (1762-1814) were, in two widely different spheres, +representative of this type of intellectual eminence. + +Meanwhile, in 1794, that friendship between Goethe and Schiller had +begun, which lasted, unbroken, until the younger poet's death in 1805. +These years mark the summit of Goethe and Schiller's classicism, and the +great epoch of Weimar's history as a literary focus. Schiller's +treatises had provided a theoretical basis; his new journal, _Die +Horen_, might be called the literary organ of the movement--although in +this respect the subsequent _Musenalmanach_, in which the two poets +published their magnificent ballad poetry, had more value. Goethe, as +director of the ducal theatre, could to a great extent control dramatic +production in Germany. Under his encouragement, Schiller turned from +philosophy to poetry and wrote the splendid series of classic dramas +beginning with the trilogy of _Wallenstein_ and closing with _Wilhelm +Tell_ and the fragment of _Demetrius_; while to Goethe we owe, above +all, the epic of _Hermann und Dorothea_. Less important were the +latter's severely classical plays _Die natürliche Tochter_ and +_Pandora_; but it must not be forgotten that it was chiefly owing to +Schiller's stimulus that in those years Goethe brought the first part of +_Faust_ (1808) to a conclusion. + +Although acknowledged leaders of German letters, Goethe and Schiller had +considerable opposition to contend with. The _Sturm und Drang_ had by no +means exhausted itself, and the representatives of the once dominant +rationalistic movement were particularly arrogant and overbearing. The +literature associated with both _Sturm und Drang_ and rationalism was at +this period palpably decadent; no comparison could be made between the +magnificent achievements of Goethe and Schiller, or even of Herder and +Wieland with the "family" dramas of Iffland, still less with the +extraordinarily popular plays of A. von Kotzebue (1761-1819), or with +those bustling medieval _Ritterdramen_, which were especially cultivated +in south Germany. There is a wide gap between Moritz's _Anton Reiser_ or +the philosophic novels which Klinger wrote in his later years, and +Goethe's _Meister_; nor can the once so fervently admired novels of Jean +Paul Richter (1763-1825) take a very high place. Neither the fantastic +humour nor the penetrating thoughts with which Richter's books are +strewn make up for their lack of artistic form and interest; they are +essentially products of _Sturm und Drang_. Lastly, in the province of +lyric and epic poetry, it is impossible to regard poets like the gentle +F. von Matthisson (1761-1831), or the less inspired G.L. Kosegarten +(1758-1818) and C.A. Tiedge (1752-1841), as worthily seconding the +masterpieces of Goethe and Schiller. Thus when we speak of the greatness +of Germany's classical period, we think mainly of the work of her two +chief poets; the distance that separated them from their immediate +contemporaries was enormous. Moreover, at the very close of the 18th +century a new literary movement arose in admitted opposition to the +classicism of Weimar, and to this movement, which first took definite +form in the Romantic school, the sympathies of the younger generation +turned. Just as in the previous generation the _Sturm und Drang_ had +been obliged to make way for a return to classic and impersonal +principles of literary composition, so now the classicism of Goethe and +Schiller, which had produced masterpieces like _Wallenstein_ and +_Hermann und Dorothea_, had to yield to a revival of individualism and +subjectivity, which, in the form of Romanticism, profoundly influenced +the literature of the whole 19th century. + +(c) _The Romantic Movement._--The first Romantic school, however, was +founded, not as a protest against the classicism of Weimar, with which +its leaders were in essential sympathy, but against the shallow, +utilitarian rationalism of Berlin. Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853), a leading +member of the school, was in reality a belated _Stürmer und Dränger_, who +in his early years had chafed under the unimaginative tastes of the +Prussian capital, and sought for a positive faith to put in their place. +Friedrich Hölderlin (1770-1843), one of the most gifted poets of this +age, demonstrates no less clearly than Tieck the essential affinity +between _Sturm und Drang_ and Romanticism; he, too, forms a bridge from +the one individualistic movement to the other. The theoretic basis of +Romanticism was, however, established by the two brothers, August Wilhelm +and Friedrich Schlegel (1767-1845 and 1772-1829), who, accepting, in +great measure, Schiller's aesthetic conclusions, adapted them to the +needs of their own more subjective attitude towards literature. While +Schiller, like Lessing before him, insisted on the critic's right to sit +in judgment according to a definite code of principles, these Romantic +critics maintained that the first duty of criticism was to understand and +appreciate; the right of genius to follow its natural bent was sacred. +The _Herzensergiessungen eines kunstliebenden Klosterbruders_ by Tieck's +school-friend W.H. Wackenroder (1773-1798) contained the Romantic +art-theory, while the hymns and fragmentary novels of Friedrich von +Hardenberg (known as Novalis, 1772-1801), and the dramas and fairy tales +of Tieck, were the characteristic products of Romantic literature. The +universal sympathies of the movement were exemplified by the many +admirable translations--greatest of all, Schlegel's _Shakespeare_ +(1797-1810)--which were produced under its auspices. Romanticism was +essentially conciliatory in its tendencies, that is to say, it aimed at a +reconciliation of poetry with other provinces of social and intellectual +life; the hard and fast boundaries which the older critics had set up as +to what poetry might and might not do, were put aside, and the domain of +literature was regarded as co-extensive with life itself; painting and +music, philosophy and ethics, were all accepted as constituent elements +of or aids to Romantic poetry. Fichte, and to a much greater extent, +F.W.J. von Schelling (1775-1854) were the exponents of the Romantic +doctrine in philosophy, while the theologian F.E.D. Schleiermacher +(1768-1834) demonstrated how vital the revival of individualism was for +religious thought. + +The Romantic school, whose chief members were the brothers Schlegel, +Tieck, Wackenroder and Novalis, was virtually founded in 1798, when the +Schlegels began to publish their journal the _Athenaeum_; but the actual +existence of the school was of very short duration. Wackenroder and +Novalis died young, and by the year 1804 the other members were widely +separated. Two years later, however, another phase of Romanticism became +associated with the town of Heidelberg. The leaders of this second or +younger Romantic school were K. Brentano (1778-1842), L.A. von Arnim +(1781-1831) and J.J. von Görres (1776-1848), their organ, corresponding +to the _Athenaeum_, was the _Zeitung für Einsiedler_, or +_Tröst-Einsamkeit_, and their most characteristic production the +collection of _Volkslieder_, published under the title _Des Knaben +Wunderhorn_ (1805-1808). Compared with the earlier school the Heidelberg +writers were more practical and realistic, more faithful to nature and +the commonplace life of everyday. They, too, were interested in the +German past and in the middle ages, but they put aside the idealizing +glasses of their predecessors and kept to historic truth; they wrote +historical novels, not stories of an imaginary medieval world as Novalis +had done, and when they collected _Volkslieder_ and _Volksbücher_, they +refrained from decking out the simple tradition with musical effects, or +from heightening the poetic situation by "Romantic irony." Their +immediate influence on German intellectual life was consequently +greater; they stimulated and deepened the interest of the German people +in their own past; and we owe to them the foundations of the study of +German philology and medieval literature, both the brothers Jakob and +Wilhelm Grimm (1785-1863 and 1786-1859) having been in touch with this +circle in their early days. Again, the Heidelberg poets strengthened the +national and patriotic spirit of their people; they prepared the way +for the rising against Napoleon, which culminated in the year 1813, and +produced that outburst of patriotic song, associated with E.M. Arndt +(1769-1860), K. Th. Körner (1791-1813) and M. von Schenkendorf +(1783-1817). + +The subsequent history of Romanticism stands in close relation to the +Heidelberg school, and when, about 1809, the latter broke up, and Arnim +and Brentano settled in Berlin, the Romantic movement followed two +clearly marked lines of development, one north German, the other +associated with Württemberg. The Prussian capital, hotbed of rationalism +as it was, had, from the first, been intimately associated with +Romanticism; the first school had virtually been founded there, and +north Germans, like Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811) and Zacharias Werner +(1768-1823)had done more for the development of the Romantic drama than +had the members of either Romantic school. These men, and more +especially Kleist, Prussia's greatest dramatic poet, showed how the +capricious Romantic ideas could be brought into harmony with the classic +tradition established by Schiller, how they could be rendered +serviceable to the national theatre. At the same time, Berlin was not a +favourable soil for the development of Romantic ideas, and the circle of +poets which gathered round Arnim and Brentano there, either themselves +demonstrated the decadence of these ideas, or their work contained +elements which in subsequent years hastened the downfall of the +movement. Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué (1777-1843), for instance, shows +how easy it was for the medieval tastes of the Romanticists to +degenerate into mediocre novels and plays, hardly richer in genuine +poetry than were the productions of the later _Sturm und Drang_; and +E.T.A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), powerful genius though he was, cultivated +with preference in his stories, a morbid super-naturalism, which was +only a decadent form of the early Romantic delight in the world of +fairies and spirits. The lyric was less sensitive to baleful influences, +but even here the north German Romantic circle could only point to one +lyric poet of the first rank, J. von Eichendorff (1788-1857); while in +the poetry of A. von Chamisso (1781-1838) the volatile Romantic +spirituality is too often wanting. Others again, like Friedrich Rückert +(1788-1866), sought the inspiration which Romanticism was no longer able +to give, in the East; still another group, of which Wilhelm Müller +(1794-1827) is the chief representative, followed Byron's example and +awakened German sympathy for the oppressed Greeks and Poles. + +Apart from Eichendorff, the vital lyric poetry of the third and last +phase of Romanticism must be looked for in the Swabian school, which +gathered round Uhland. Ludwig Uhland (1787-1862) was himself a disciple +of the Heidelberg poets, and, in his lyrics and especially in his +ballads, he succeeded in grafting the lyricism of the Romantic school on +to the traditions of German ballad poetry which had been handed down +from Bürger, Schiller and Goethe. But, as was the case with so many +other disciples of the Heidelberg Romanticists, Uhland's interest in the +German past was the serious interest of the scholar rather than the +purely poetic interest of the earlier Romantic poets. The merit of the +Swabian circle, the chief members of which were J. Kerner (1786-1862), +G. Schwab (1792-1850), W. Waiblinger (1804-1830), W. Hauff (1802-1827) +and, most gifted of all, E. Mörike (1804-1875) was that these writers +preserved the Romantic traditions from the disintegrating influences to +which their north German contemporaries were exposed. They introduced +few new notes into lyric poetry, but they maintained the best traditions +intact, and when, a generation later, the anti-Romantic movement of +"Young Germany" had run its course, it was to Württemberg Germany looked +for a revival of the old Romantic ideas. + +Meanwhile, in the background of all these phases of Romantic evolution, +through which Germany passed between 1798 and 1832, stands the majestic +and imposing figure of Goethe. Personally he had in the early stages of +the movement been opposed to that reversion to subjectivity and +lawlessness which the first Romantic school seemed to him to represent; +to the end of his life he regarded himself as a "classic," not a +"romantic" poet. But, on the other hand, he was too liberal-minded a +thinker and critic to be oblivious to the fruitful influence of the new +movement. Almost without exception he judged the young poets of the new +century fairly, and treated them sympathetically and kindly; he was +keenly alive to the new--and for the most part "unclassical"--development +of literature in England, France and Italy; and his own published work, +above all, the first part of _Faust_ (1808), _Die Wahlverwandtschaften_ +(1809), _Dichtung und Wahrheit_ (1811-1814, a final volume in 1833), +_Westöstlicher Divan_ (1819), _Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre_ (1821-1829) +and the second part of _Faust_ (published in 1832 after the poet's +death), stood in no antagonism to the Romantic ideas of their time. One +might rather say that Goethe was the bond between the two fundamental +literary movements of the German classical age; that his work achieved +that reconciliation of "classic" and "romantic" which, rightly regarded, +was the supreme aim of the Romantic school itself. + + +VI. GERMAN LITERATURE SINCE GOETHE (1832-1906) + +(a) _Young Germany._--With Goethe's death a great age in German poetry +came to a close. Long before 1832 Romanticism had, as we have seen, +begun to lose ground, and the July revolution of 1830, the effects of +which were almost as keenly felt in Germany as in France, gave the +movement its death-blow. Meanwhile the march of ideas in Germany itself +had not been favourable to Romanticism. Schelling had given place to G. +W.F. Hegel (1770-1831), now the dominant force in German philosophy, and +the Hegelian metaphysics proved as unfruitful an influence on literature +as that of Fichte and Schelling had been fruitful. The transference of +Romantic ideas to the domain of practical religion and politics had +proved reactionary in its effects; Romanticism became the cloak for a +kind of Neo-catholicism, and Romantic politics, as enunciated by men +like F. von Gentz (1764-1832) and Adam Müller (1779-1829), served as an +apology for the Metternich régime in Austria. Only at the +universities--in Göttingen, Heidelberg and Berlin--did the movement +continue, in the best sense, to be productive; German philology, German +historical science and German jurisprudence benefited by Romantic ideas, +long after Romantic poetry had fallen into decay. The day of Romanticism +was clearly over; but a return to the classic and humanitarian spirit of +the 18th century was impossible. The social condition of Europe had been +profoundly altered by the French Revolution; the rise of industrialism +had created new economic problems, the march of science had overturned +old prejudices. And in a still higher degree were the ideas which lay +behind the social upheaval of the July revolution incompatible with a +reversion in Germany to the conditions of Weimar classicism. There was, +moreover, no disguising the fact that Goethe himself did not stand high +with the younger generation of German writers who came into power after +his death. + +"Young Germany" did not form a school in the sense in which the word was +used by the early Romanticists; the bond of union was rather the +consequence of political persecution. In December 1835 the German "Bund" +issued a decree suppressing the writings of the "literary school" known +as "Young Germany," and mentioned by name Heinrich Heine, Karl Gutzkow, +Ludolf Wienbarg, Theodor Mundt and Heinrich Laube. Of these men, Heine +(1797-1856) was by far the most famous. He had made his reputation in +1826 and 1827 with _Die Harzreise_ and _Das Buch der Lieder_, both of +which books show how deeply he was immersed in the Romantic traditions. +But Heine felt perhaps more acutely than any other man of his time how +the ground was slipping away from beneath his feet; he repudiated the +Romantic movement and hailed the July revolution as the first stage in +the "liberation of humanity"; while ultimately he sought in France the +freedom and intellectual stimulus which Germany withheld from him. Heine +suffered from having been born in an age of transition; he was unable to +realize in a wholehearted way all that was good in the new movement, +which he had embraced so warmly; his optimism was counteracted by doubts +as to whether, after all, life had not been better in that old Romantic +Germany of his childhood for which, to the last, he retained so warm an +affection. Personal disappointments and unhappiness added to the +bitterness of Heine's nature, and the supremely gifted lyric poet and +the hardly less gifted satirist were overshadowed by the cynic from +whose biting wit nothing was safe. + +Heine's contemporary and--although he was not mentioned in the decree +against the school--fellow-fighter, Ludwig Börne (1786-1837), was a more +characteristic representative of the "Young German" point of view; for +he was free from Romantic prejudices. Börne gave vent to his enthusiasm +for France in eloquent _Briefe aus Paris_ (1830-1833), which form a +landmark of importance in the development of German prose style. With +Karl Gutzkow (1811-1878), who was considerably younger than either Heine +or Börne, the more positive aspects of the "Young German" movement begin +to be apparent. He, too, had become a man of letters under the influence +of the July revolution, and with an early novel, _Wally, die Zweiflerin_ +(1835), which was then regarded as atheistic and immoral, he fought in +the battle for the new ideas. His best literary work, however, was the +comedies with which he enriched the German stage of the 'forties, and +novels like _Die Ritter vom Geiste_ (1850-1851), and _Der Zauberer von +Rom_ (1858-1861), which have to be considered in connexion with the +later development of German fiction. Heinrich Laube (1806-1884), who, as +the author of lengthy social novels, and _Reisenovellen_ in the style of +Heine's _Reisebilder_, was one of the leaders of the new movement, is +now only remembered as Germany's greatest theatre-director. Laube's +connexion (1850-1867) with the Burgtheater of Vienna forms one of the +most brilliant periods in the history of the modern stage. Heine and +Börne, Gutzkow and Laube--these were the leading spirits of "Young +Germany"; in their train followed a host of lesser men, who to the +present generation are hardly even names. In the domain of scholarship +and learning the "Young German" movement was associated with the +supremacy of Hegelianism, the leading spirits being D.F. Strauss +(1808-1874), author of the _Leben Jesu_ (1835), the historians G.G. +Gervinus (1805-1871) and W. Menzel (1798-1873), and the philosopher L.A. +Feuerbach (1804-1872), who, although a disciple of Hegel, ultimately +helped to destroy the latter's influence. + +Outside the immediate circle of "Young Germany," other tentative efforts +were made to provide a substitute for the discredited literature of +Romanticism. The historical novel, for instance, which Romanticists like +Arnim had cultivated, fell at an early date under the influence of Sir +Walter Scott; Wilhelm Hauff, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848) and K. +Spindler (1796-1855) were the most prominent amidst the many imitators +of the Scottish novelist. The drama, again, which since Kleist and +Werner had been without definite principles, was, partly under Austrian +influence, finding its way back to a condition of stability. In Germany +proper, the men into whose hands it fell were, on the one hand, +undisciplined geniuses such as C.D. Grabbe (1801-1836), or, on the +other, poets with too little theatrical blood in their veins like K.L. +Immermann (1796-1840), or with too much, like E. von Raupach +(1784-1852), K. von Holtei (1798-1880) and Adolf Müllner +(1774-1829)--the last named being the chief representative of the +so-called _Schicksalstragödie_. In those years the Germans were more +seriously interested in their opera, which, under C.M. Weber, H.A. +Marschner, A. Lortzing and O. Nicolai, remained faithful to the Romantic +spirit. In Austria, however, the drama followed lines of its own; here, +at the very beginning of the century, H.J. von Collin (1771-1811) +attempted in _Regulus_ and other works to substitute for the lifeless +pseudo-classic tragedy of Ayrenhoff the classic style of Schiller. His +attempt is the more interesting, as the long development that had taken +place in Germany between Gottsched and Schiller was virtually +unrepresented in Austrian literature. M. von Collin (1779-1824), a +younger brother of H.J. von Collin, did a similar service for the +Romantic drama. Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872), Austria's greatest poet, +began in the school of Müllner with a "fate drama," but soon won an +independent place for himself; more successfully than any other +dramatist of the century, he carried out that task which Kleist had +first seriously faced, the reconciliation of the classicism of Goethe +and Schiller with the Romantic and modern spirit of the 19th century. It +is from this point of view that works like _Das goldene Vliess_ (1820), +_König Ottokars Glück und Ende_ (1825), _Der Traum, ein Leben_ (1834) +and _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (1831) must be regarded. As far as +the poetic drama was concerned, Grillparzer stood alone, for E.F.J. von +Münch-Bellinghausen (1806-1871), his most promising contemporary, once +so popular under the pseudonym of Friedrich Halm, soon fell back into +the trivial sentimentality of the later Romanticists. In other forms of +dramatic literature Austria could point to many distinguished writers, +notably the comedy-writer, E. von Bauernfeld (1802-1890), while a host +of playwrights, chief of whom were F. Raimund (1790-1836) and J. Nestroy +(1801-1862), cultivated the popular Viennese farce and fairy-play. Thus, +in spite of Metternich's censorship of the drama, the Viennese theatre +was, in the first half of the 19th century, in closer touch with +literature than that of any other German centre. + +The transitional character of the age is best illustrated by two eminent +writers whom outward circumstances rather than any similarity of +character and aim have classed together. These were K.L. Immermann, who +has been already mentioned, and A. von Platen-Hallermund (1796-1835). +Immermann's dramas were of little practical value to the theatre, but +one at least, _Merlin_ (1832), is a dramatic poem of great beauty. In +his novels, however, _Die Epigonen_ (1836) and _Münchhausen_ +(1838-1839), Immermann was the spokesman of his time. He looked +backwards rather than forwards; he saw himself as the belated follower +of a great literary age rather than as the pioneer of a new one. The +bankruptcy of Romanticism and the poetically arid era of "Young Germany" +left him little confidence in the future. Platen, on the other hand, +went his own way; he, too, was the antagonist both of Romanticism and +"Young Germany," and with Immermann himself he came into sharp conflict. +But in his poetry he showed himself indifferent to the strife of +contending literary schools. He began as an imitator of the German +oriental poets--the only Romanticists with whom he had any personal +sympathy--and with his matchless _Sonette aus Venedig_ (1825) he stands +out as a master in the art of verse-writing and as the least subjective +of all German lyric poets. In the imitation of Romance metres he sought +a refuge from the extravagances and excesses of the Romantic decadence. + +Meanwhile the political side of the "Young German" movement, which the +German Bund aimed at stamping out, gained rapidly in importance under +the influence of the unsettled political conditions between the +revolutions of 1830 and 1848. The early 'forties were in German +literature marked by an extraordinary outburst of political poetry, +which may be aptly compared with the national and patriotic lyric evoked +by the year 1813. The principles which triumphed in France at the +revolution of 1848 were, to a great extent, fought out by the German +singers of 1841 and 1842. Begun by mediocre talents like N. Becker +(1809-1845) and R.E. Prutz (1816-1872), the movement found a vigorous +champion in Georg Herwegh (1817-1875), who in his turn succeeded in +winning Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) for the revolutionary cause. +Others joined in the cry for freedom--F. Dingelstedt (1814-1881), A.H. +Hoffmann von Fallersleben (1798-1874), and a number of Austrians, who +had even more reason for rebellion and discontent than the north +Germans. But the best Austrian political poetry, the _Spaziergänge eines +Wiener Poeten_, 1831, by "Anastasius Grün" (Graf A.A. von Auersperg, +1806-1876), belonged to a decade earlier. The political lyric culminated +in and ended with the year 1848; the revolutionists of the 'forties +were, if not appeased, at least silenced by the revolution which in +their eyes had effected so little. If Freiligrath be excepted, the chief +lyric poets of this epoch stood aside from the revolutionary movement; +even E. Geibel (1815-1884), the representative poet of the succeeding +age, was only temporarily interested in the political movement, and his +best work is of a purely lyric character. M. von Strachwitz's +(1822-1847) promising talent did not flourish in the political +atmosphere; Annette von Droste-Hülshoff (1797-1848), and the Austrian, +Nikolaus Lenau (1802-1850), both stand far removed from the world of +politics; they are imbued with that pessimistic resignation which is, +more or less, characteristic of all German literature between 1850 and +1870. + +(b) _Mid-Century Literature._--When once the revolution of 1848 was +over, a spirit of tranquillity came over German letters; but it was due +rather to the absence of confidence in the future than to any +hopefulness or real content. The literature of the middle of the century +was not wanting in achievement, but there was nothing buoyant or +youthful about it; most significant of all, the generation between 1848 +and 1880 was either oblivious or indifferent to the good work and to the +new and germinating ideas which it produced. Hegel, who held the earlier +half of the 19th century in his ban, was still all-powerful in the +universities, but his power was on the wane in literature and public +life. The so-called "Hegelian Left" had advanced so far as to have +become incompatible with the original Hegelianism; the new social and +economic theories did not fit into the scheme of Hegelian collectivism; +the interest in natural science--fostered by the popular books of J. +Moleschott (1822-1893), Karl Vogt (1817-1895) and Ludwig Büchner +(1824-1899)--created a healthy antidote to the Hegelian metaphysics. In +literature and art, on which Hegel, as we have seen, had exerted so +blighting an influence, his place was taken by the chief exponent of +philosophic pessimism, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Schopenhauer's +antagonism to Hegelianism was of old standing, for his chief work, _Die +Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_, had appeared as far back as 1819; but +the century was more than half over before the movement of ideas had, as +it were, caught up with him, before pessimism became a dominant force in +intellectual life. + +The literature produced between 1850 and 1870 was preeminently one of +prose fiction. The beginnings which the "Young German" school had made +to a type of novel dealing with social problems--the best example is +Gutzkow's _Ritter vom Geiste_--developed rapidly in this succeeding +epoch. Friedrich Spielhagen (born 1829) followed immediately in +Gutzkow's footsteps, and in a series of romances from _Problematische +Naturen_ (1860) to _Sturmflut_ (1876), discussed in a militant spirit +that recalls Laube and Gutzkow the social problems which agitated German +life in these decades. Gustav Freytag (1816-1895), although an older +man, freed himself more successfully from the "Young German" tradition; +his romance of German commercialism, _Soll und Haben_ (1855), is the +masterpiece of mid-century fiction of this class. Less successful was +Freytag's subsequent attempt to transfer his method to the _milieu_ of +German academic life in _Die verlorene Handschrift_ (1864). As was +perhaps only natural in an age of social and political interests, the +historical novel occupies a subordinate place. The influence of Scott, +which in the earlier period had been strong, produced only one writer, +Wilhelm Häring ("Willibald Alexis," 1798-1871), who was more than a mere +imitator of the Scottish master. In the series of six novels, from _Der +Roland von Berlin_ to _Dorothe_, which Alexis published between 1840 and +1856, he gave Germany, and more particularly Prussia, a historical +fiction which might not unworthily be compared with the _Waverley +Novels_. But Alexis had no successor, and the historical novel soon made +way for a type of fiction in which the accurate reproduction of remote +conditions was held of more account than poetic inspiration or artistic +power. Such are the "antiquarian" novels of ancient Egyptian life by +Georg Ebers (1837-1898), and those from primitive German history by +Felix Dahn (born 1834). The vogue of historical fiction was also +transferred to some extent, as in English literature, to novels of +American life and adventure, of which the chief German cultivators were +K.A. Postl, who wrote under the pseudonym of Charles Sealsfield +(1793-1864) and Friedrich Gerstäcker (1816-1872). + +Of greater importance was the fiction which owed its inspiration to the +Romantic traditions that survived the "Young German" age. To this group +belongs the novel of peasant and provincial life, of which Immermann had +given an excellent example in _Der Oberhof_, a story included in the +arabesque of _Münchhausen_. A Swiss pastor, Albrecht Bitzius, better +known by his pseudonym "Jeremias Gotthelf" (1797-1854), was, however, +the real founder of this class of romance; and his simple, unvarnished +and naïvely didactic stories of the Swiss peasant were followed not long +afterwards by the more famous _Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten_ +(1843-1854) of Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882). Auerbach is not by any +means so naïve and realistic as Gotthelf, nor is his work free from +tendencies and ideas which recall "Young German" rationalism rather than +the unsophisticated life of the Black Forest; but the _Schwarzwälder +Dorfgeschichten_ exerted a decisive influence; they were the forerunners +of a large body of peasant literature which described with affectionate +sympathy and with a liberal admixture of dialect, south German village +life. With this group of writers may also be associated the German +Bohemian, A. Stifter (1805-1868), who has called up unforgettable +pictures and impressions of the life and scenery of his home. + +Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the revival of an +interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the credit of Fritz +Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour to the Plattdeutsch of the +north, the dialects of which had played a fitful, but by no means +negligible rôle in the earlier history of German letters. His +Mecklenburg novels, especially _Ut de Franzosentid_ (1860), _Ut mine +Festungstid_ (1863) and _Ut mine Stromtid_ (1862-1864), are a faithful +reflection of Mecklenburg life and temperament, and hold their place +beside the best German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for +Plattdeutsch prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1819-1899), the +author of _Quickborn_ (1852), did for its verse. We owe, however, the +best German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity +with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German, Theodor Storm +(1817-1888) is the author of a series of short stories of delicate, +lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac Romanticism which harmonized +so well with mid-century pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller +(1819-1890), on the other hand, a native of Zürich, was a modern +Romanticist of a robuster type; his magnificent autobiographical novel, +_Der grüne Heinrich_ (1854-1855), might be described as the last in the +great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with _Wilhelm Meister_, +and the short stories, _Die Leute von Seldwyla_ (1856-1874) and +_Züricher Novellen_ (1878) are masterpieces of the first rank. + +In the dramatic literature of these decades, at least as it was +reflected in the repertories of the German theatres, there was little +promise. French influence was, in general, predominant; French +translations formed the mainstay of the theatre-directors, while +successful German playwrights, such as R. Benedix (1811-1873) and +Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-1868), have little claim to consideration +in a literary survey. Gustav Freytag's admirable comedy, _Die +Journalisten_ (1852), was one of the rare exceptions. But the German +drama of this epoch is not to be judged solely by the theatres. At the +middle of the century Germany could point to two writers who, each in +his way, contributed very materially to the development of the modern +drama. These were Friedrich Hebbel (1813-1863) and Otto Ludwig +(1813-1865). Both of these men, as a later generation discovered, were +the pioneers of that dramatic literature which at the close of the +century accepted the canons of realism and aimed at superseding outward +effects by psychological conflicts and problems of social life. Hebbel, +especially, must be regarded as the most original and revolutionary +German dramatist of the 19th century. Unlike his contemporary +Grillparzer, whose aim had been to reconcile the "classic" and the +"romantic" drama with the help of Spanish models, Hebbel laid the +foundations of a psychological and social drama, of which the most +modern interpreter has been Henrik Ibsen. Hebbel's first tragedy, +_Judith_, appeared in 1840, his masterpieces, _Herodes und Marianne_, +_Agnes Bernauer_, _Gyges und sein Ring_, and the trilogy of _Die +Nibelungen_ between 1850 and 1862. + +In this period of somewhat confused literary striving, there is, +however, one body of writers who might be grouped together as a school, +although the designation must be regarded rather as an outward accident +of union than as implying conformity of aims. This is the group which +Maximilian II. of Bavaria gathered round him in Munich between 1852 and +1860. A leading spirit of the group was Emanuel Geibel, who, as we have +seen, set a model to the German lyric in this age; F. von Bodenstedt +(1819-1892), the popular author of _Mirza Schaffy_; and J.V. von +Scheffel (1826-1886), who, in his verse-romance, _Der Trompeter von +Säckingen_ (1854), broke a lance for a type of literature which had been +cultivated somewhat earlier, but with no very conspicuous success, by +men like O. von Redwitz (1823-1891) and G. Kinkel (1815-1882). The +romance was, in fact, one of the favourite vehicles of poetic expression +of the Munich school, its most successful exponents being J. Wolff (b. +1834) and R. Baumbach (1840-1905); while others, such as H. Lingg +(1820-1905) and R. Hamerling (1830-1889) devoted themselves to the more +ambitious epic. The general tone of the literary movement was +pessimistic, the hopelessness of the spiritual outlook being most deeply +engrained in the verse of H. Lorm (pseudonym for Heinrich Landesmann, +1821-1902) and H. Leuthold (1827-1879). On the whole, the most important +member of the Munich group is Paul Heyse (b. 1830), who, as a writer of +"Novellen" or short stories, may be classed with Storm and Keller. An +essentially Latin genius, Heyse excels in stories of Italian life, where +his lightness of touch and sense of form are shown to best advantage; +but he has also written several long novels. Of these, _Kinder der Welt_ +(1873) and, in a lesser degree, _Im Paradiese_ (1875), sum up the spirit +and tendency of their time, just as, in earlier decades, _Die Ritter vom +Geiste_, _Problematische Naturen_ and _Soll und Haben_ were +characteristic of the periods which produced them. + +(c) _German Literature after 1870._--In the years immediately following +the Franco-German War, the prevailing conditions were unfavourable to +literary production in Germany, and the re-establishment of the empire +left comparatively little trace on the national literature. All minds +were for a time engrossed by the _Kulturkampf_, by the financial +difficulties--the so-called _Gründertum_--due to unscrupulous +speculation, and, finally, by the rapid rise of social democracy as a +political force. The intellectual basis of the latter movement was laid +by Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864) and Karl Marx (1818-1883), author of +_Das Kapital_ (vol. i, 1867). But even had such disturbing elements been +wanting, the general tone of German intellectual life at that time was +not buoyant enough to inspire a vigorous literary revival. The influence +of Hegel was still strong, and the "historical" method, as enunciated in +_Der alte und der neue Glaube_ (1872) by the Hegelian D.F. Strauss, was +generally accepted at the German universities. To many the compromise +which H. Lotze (1817-1881) had attempted to establish between science +and metaphysics, came as a relief from the Hegelian tradition, but in +literature and art the dominant force was still, as before the war, the +philosophy of Schopenhauer. In his _Philosophie des Unbewussten_ (1869), +E. von Hartmann (1842-1906) endeavoured to bring pessimism into harmony +with idealism. In lyric poetry, the dull monotony was broken by the +excitement of the war, and the singers of the revolution of 1848 were +among the first to welcome the triumph and unification of Germany. At +the same time, men of the older generation, like Herwegh, Freiligrath +and Geibel could ill conceal a certain disappointment with the new +régime; the united Germany of 1871 was not what they had dreamed of in +their youth, when all hopes were set on the Frankfort parliament. + +The novel continued to be what it was before 1870, the most vigorous +form of German literature, but the novelists who were popular in the +early 'seventies were all older men. Laube, Gutzkow and Auerbach were +still writing; Fritz Reuter was a universal favourite; while among the +writers of short stories, Storm, who, between 1877 and 1888, put the +crown to his work with his _Chroniknovellen_, and Paul Heyse were the +acknowledged masters. It was not until at least a decade later that the +genius of Gottfried Keller was generally recognized. The historical +novel seemed, in those days, beyond hope of revival. Gustav Freytag, it +is true, had made the attempt in _Die Ahnen_ (1872-1881), a number of +independent historical romances linked together to form an ambitious +prose epic; but there was more of the spirit of Ebers and Dahn in +Freytag's work than of the spacious art of Scott, or of Scott's +disciple, Willibald Alexis. + +The drama of the 'seventies was in an even less hopeful condition than +during the preceding period. The classical iambic tragedy was cultivated +by the Munich school, by A. Wilbrandt (b. 1837), A. Lindner (1831-1888), +H. Kruse (1815-1902), by the Austrian F. Nissel (1831-1893), and A. +Fitger (b. 1840); but it was characteristic of the time that Halm was +popular, while Hebbel and Grillparzer were neglected, it might even be +said ignored. The most gifted German dramatist belonging exclusively to +the decade between 1870 and 1880 was an Austrian, Ludwig Anzengruber +(1839-1889), whose _Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_ (1870) recalled the +controversies of the _Kulturkampf_. This was Anzengruber's first drama, +and it was followed by a series of powerful plays dealing with the life +of the Austrian peasant; Anzengruber was, indeed, one of the ablest +exponents of that village life, which had attracted so many gifted +writers since the days of Gotthelf and Auerbach. But the really popular +dramatists of this epoch were either writers who, like Benedix in the +older generation, cultivated the _bourgeoise_ comedy--A. L'Arronge (b. +1838), G. von Moser (1825-1903), F. von Schönthan (b. 1849) and O. +Blumenthal (b. 1852)--or playwrights, of whom P. Lindau (b. 1839) may be +regarded as representative, who imitated French models. The only sign of +progress in the dramatic history of this period was the marked +improvement of the German stage, an improvement due, on the one hand, to +the artistic reforms introduced by the duke of Meiningen in the Court +theatre at Meiningen, and, on the other hand, to the ideals of a +national theatre realized at Bayreuth by Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The +greatest composer of the later 19th century is also one of Germany's +leading dramatists; and the first performance of the trilogy _Der Ring +der Nibelungen_ at Bayreuth in the summer of 1876 may be said to have +inaugurated the latest epoch in the history of the German drama. + +The last fifteen or twenty years of the 19th century were distinguished +in Germany by a remarkable literary activity. Among the younger +generation, which was growing up as citizens of the united German +empire, a more hopeful and optimistic spirit prevailed. The influence of +Schopenhauer was on the wane, and at the universities Hegelianism had +lost its former hold. The sponsor of the new philosophic movement was +Kant, the master of 18th-century "enlightenment," and under the +influence of the "neo-Kantian" movement, not merely German school +philosophy, but theology also, was imbued with a healthier spirit. L. +von Ranke (1795-1886) was still the dominant force in German historical +science, and between 1881 and 1888 nine volumes appeared of his last +great work, _Weltgeschichte_. Other historians of the period were H. von +Sybel (1817-1895) and H. von Treitschke (1834-1896), the latter a +vigorous and inspiring spokesman of the new political conditions; while +J. Burckhardt (1818-1897), author of the masterly _Kultur der +Renaissance in Italien_ (1860) and the friend of Nietzsche, exerted an +influence on German thought which was not confined to academic circles. +Literary criticism perhaps benefited most of all by the dethronement of +Hegel and the more objective attitude towards Schopenhauer; it seemed as +if in this epoch the Germans first formed definite ideas--and ideas +which were acceptable and accepted outside Germany--as to the rank and +merits of their great poets. A marked change came over the nation's +attitude towards Goethe, a poet to whom, as we have seen, neither the +era of Hegel nor that of Schopenhauer had been favourable; Schiller was +regarded with less national prejudice, and--most important of +all--amends were made by the new generation for the earlier neglect of +Kleist, Grillparzer, Hebbel and Keller. + +The thinker and poet who most completely embodies the spirit of this +period--who dealt the Hegelian metaphysics its death-blow as far as its +wider influence was concerned--was Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). +Nietzsche had begun as a disciple of Schopenhauer and a friend of +Wagner, and he ultimately became the champion of an individualistic and +optimistic philosophy which formed the sharpest possible contrast to +mid-century pessimism. The individual, not the race, the _Herrenmensch_, +not the slave, self-assertion, not self-denying renunciation--these are +some of the ideas round which this new optimistic ethics turns. +Nietzsche looked forward to the human race emerging from an effete +culture, burdened and clogged by tradition, and re-establishing itself +on a basis that is in harmony with man's primitive instincts. Like +Schopenhauer before him, Nietzsche was a stylist of the first rank, and +his literary masterpiece, _Also sprach Zarathustra_ (1883-1891), is to +be regarded as the most important imaginative work of its epoch. + +Nietzschean individualism was only one of many factors which contributed +to the new literary development. The realistic movement, as it had +manifested itself in France under Flaubert, the Goncourts, Zola and +Maupassant, in Russia under Dostoievsky and Tolstoi, and in Norway under +Ibsen and Björnson, was, for a time, the dominant force in Germany, and +the younger generation of critics hailed it with undisguised +satisfaction; most characteristic and significant of all, the centre of +this revival was Berlin, which, since it had become the imperial +capital, was rapidly establishing its claim to be also the literary +metropolis. It was the best testimony to the vitality of the movement +that it rarely descended to slavish imitation of the realistic +masterpieces of other literatures; realism in Germany was, in fact, only +an episode of the 'eighties, a stimulating influence rather than an +accepted principle or dogma. And its suggestive character is to be seen +not merely in the writings of the young _Stürmer und Dränger_ of this +time, but also in those of the older generation who, in temperament, +were naturally more inclined to the ideals of a past age. + +Of the novelists of the latter class, A. Wilbrandt, who has already been +mentioned as a dramatist, has shown, since about 1890, a remarkable +power of adapting himself, if not to the style and artistic methods of +the younger school, at least to the ideas by which it was agitated; F. +Spielhagen's attitude towards the realistic movement has been invariably +sympathetic, while a still older writer, Theodor Fontane (1819-1898), +wrote between 1880 and 1898 a series of works in which the finer +elements of French realism were grafted on the German novel. To the +older school belong Wilhelm Jensen (b. 1837), and that fine humorist, +Wilhelm Raabe (b. 1831), with whom may be associated as other humorists +of this period, H. Seidel (1842-1906) and W. Busch (1832-1908). Some of +the most interesting examples of recent German fiction come, however, +from Austria and Switzerland. The two most eminent Austrian authors, +Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach (b. 1830), and Ferdinand, von Saar +(1833-1906), both excel as writers of Novellen or short stories--the +latter especially being an exponent of that pessimism which is Austria's +peculiar heritage from the previous generation of her poets. Austrians +too, are Peter Rosegger (b. 1843), who has won popularity with his +novels of peasant life, K.E. Franzos (1848-1904) and L. von +Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895). German prose fiction is, in Switzerland, +represented by two writers of the first rank: one of these, Gottfried +Keller, has already been mentioned; the other, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer +(1825-1898), turned to literature or, at least, made his reputation, +comparatively late in life. Although, like Keller, a writer of virile, +original verse, Meyer is best known as a novelist; he, too, was a master +of the short story. His themes are drawn by preference from the epoch of +the Renaissance, and his method is characterized by an objectivity of +standpoint and a purity of style exceptional in German writers. + +The realistic novels of the period were written by H. Conradi +(1862-1890), Max Kretzer (b. 1854), M.G. Conrad (b. 1846), H. Heiberg +(b. 1840), K. Bleibtreu (b. 1859), K. Alberti (pseudonym for Konrad +Sittenfeld, b. 1862) and Hermann Sudermann (b. 1857). A want of +stability was, however, as has been already indicated, characteristic +of the realistic movement in Germany; the idealistic trend of the German +mind proved itself ill-adapted to the uncompromising realism of the +French school, and the German realists, whether in fiction or in drama, +ultimately sought to escape from the logical consequences of their +theories. Even Sudermann, whose _Frau Sorge_ (1887), _Der Katzensteg_ +(1889), and the brilliant, if somewhat sensational romance, _Es war_ +(1894), are among the best novels of this period, has never been a +consistent realist. It is consequently not surprising to find that, +before long, German fiction returned to psychological and emotional +problems, to the poetical or symbolical presentation of life, which was +more in harmony with the German temperament than was the robuster +realism of Flaubert or Zola. This trend is noticeable in the work of +Gustav Frenssen (b. 1863), whose novel _Jörn Uhl_ (1901) was +extraordinarily popular; it is also to be seen in the studies of child +life and educational problems which have proved so attractive to the +younger writers of the present day, such as Hermann Hesse (b. 1877), +Emil Strauss (b. 1866), Rudolf Huch (b. 1862) and Friedrich Huch (b. +1873). One might say, indeed, that at the beginning of the 20th century +the traditional form of German fiction, the _Bildungsroman_, had come +into its ancient rights again. Mention ought also to be made of J.J. +David (1859-1907), E. von Keyserling (b. 1858), W. Hegeler (b. 1870), G. +von Ompteda (b. 1863), J. Wassermann (b. 1873), Heinrich Mann (b. 1871) +and Thomas Mann (b. 1875). _Buddenbrooks_ (1902) by the last mentioned +is one of the outstanding novels of the period. Some of the best fiction +of the most recent period is the work of women, the most distinguished +being Helene Böhlau (b. 1859), Gabriele Reuter (b. 1859), Clara Viebig +(C. Cohn-Viebig, b. 1860) and Ricarda Huch (b. 1864). Whether the latest +movement in German poetry and fiction, which, under the catchword +_Heimatkunst_, has favoured the province rather than the city, the +dialect in preference to the language of the educated classes, will +prove a permanent gain, it is still too soon to say, but the movement is +at least a protest against the decadent tendencies of naturalism. + +At no period of German letters were literature and the theatre in closer +touch than at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th +centuries; more than at any previous time has the theatre become the +arena in which the literary battles of the day are fought out. The +general improvement in the artistic, technical and economic conditions +of the German stage have already been indicated; but it was not until +1889 that the effects of these improvements became apparent in dramatic +literature. Before that date, it is true, Ernst von Wildenbruch +(1845-1909) had attempted to revive the historical tragedy, but the +purely literary qualities of his work were handicapped by a too effusive +patriotism and a Schillerian pathos; nor did the talent of Richard Voss +(b. 1851) prove strong enough to effect any lasting reform. In October +1889, however, Gerhart Hauptmann's play, _Vor Sonnenaufgang_, was +produced on the then recently founded _Freie Bühne_ in Berlin; and a +month later, _Die Ehre_ by Hermann Sudermann met with a more +enthusiastic reception in Berlin than had fallen to the lot of any +German play for more than a generation. + +Hauptmann (b. 1862), the most original of contemporary German writers, +stands, more or less, alone. His early plays, the most powerful of which +is _Die Weber_ (1892), were written under the influence either of an +uncompromising realism, or of that modified form of realism introduced +from Scandinavia; but in _Hanneles Himmelfahrt_ (1893) he combined +realism with the poetic mysticism of a child's dream, in _Florian Geyer_ +(1895) he adapted the methods of realism to an historical subject, and +in the year 1896 he, to all appearance, abandoned realism to write an +allegorical dramatic poem, _Die versunkene Glocke_. Hauptmann's +subsequent work has oscillated between the extremes marked out by these +works--from the frank naturalism of _Fuhrmann Henschel_ (1898) and _Rose +Berndt_ (1903), to the fantastic mysticism of _Der arme Heinrich_ (1902) +and _Und Pippa tanzt!_ (1906). + +The dramatic talent of Hermann Sudermann has developed on more even +lines; the success of _Die Ehre_ was due in the first instance to the +ability which Sudermann had shown in adapting the ideas of his time and +the new methods of dramatic presentation to the traditional German +_bürgerliches Drama_. This is the characteristic of the majority of the +many plays which followed of which _Heimat_ (1893), _Das Glück im +Winkel_ (1896) and _Es lebe das Leben!_ (1902) may be mentioned as +typical. With less success Sudermann attempted in _Johannes_ (1898) a +tragedy on lines suggested by Hebbel. A keen observer, a writer of +brilliant and suggestive ideas, Sudermann is, above all, the practical +playwright; but it is unfortunate that the theatrical element in his +work too often overshadows its literary qualities. + +Since 1889, the drama has occupied the foreground of interest in +Germany. The permanent repertory of the German theatre has not, it is +true, been much enriched, but it is at least to the credit of +contemporary German playwrights that they are unwilling to rest content +with their successes and are constantly experimenting with new forms. +Besides Hauptmann and Sudermann, the most talented dramatists of the day +are Max Halbe (b. 1865), O.E. Hartleben (1864-1905), G. Hirschfeld (b. +1873), E. Rosmer (pseudonym for Elsa Bernstein, b. 1866), Ludwig Fulda +(b. 1862), Max Dreyer (b. 1862), Otto Ernst (pseudonym for O.E. Schmidt, +b. 1862) and Frank Wedekind (b. 1864). In Austria, notwithstanding the +preponderant influence of Berlin, the drama has retained its national +characteristics, and writers like Arthur Schnitzler (b. 1862), Hermann +Bahr (b. 1863), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874) and R. Beer-Hofmann (b. +1866) have introduced symbolistic elements and peculiarly Austrian +problems, which are foreign to the theatre of north Germany. + +The German lyric of recent years shows a remarkable variety of new tones +and pregnant poetic ideas; it has, as is natural, been more influenced +by the optimism of Nietzsche--himself a lyric poet of considerable +gifts--than has either novel or drama. Detlev von Liliencron (1844-1909) +was one of the first to break with the traditions of the lyric as handed +down from the Romantic epoch and cultivated with such facility by the +Munich poets. An anthology of specifically modern lyrics, _Moderne +Dichtercharaktere_ (1885) by W. Arent (b. 1864), may be regarded as the +manifesto of the movement in lyric poetry corresponding to the period of +realism in fiction and the drama. Representative poets of this movement +are Richard Dehmel (b. 1863), K. Henckell (b. 1864), J.H. Mackay (b. +1864 at Greenock), G. Falke (b. 1853), F. Avenarius (b. 1856), F. Evers +(b. 1871), F. Dörmann (b. 1870) and K. Busse (b. 1872). A later +development of the lyric--a return to mysticism and symbolism--is to be +seen in the poetry of Hofmannsthal, already mentioned as a dramatist, +and especially in Stefan George (b. 1868). Epic poetry, although little +in harmony with the spirit of a realistic age, has not been altogether +neglected. Heinrich Hart (1855-1906), one of the leading critics of the +most advanced school, is also the author of an ambitious _Lied der +Menschheit_ (vols. 1-3, 1888-1896); more conservative, on the other +hand, is _Robespierre_ (1894), an epic in the style of Hamerling by an +Austrian, Marie delle Grazie (b. 1864). Attention may also be drawn to +the popularity which, for a few years, the so-called _Überbrettl_ or +cabaret enjoyed, a popularity which has left its mark on the latest +developments of the lyric. Associated with this movement are O.J. +Bierbaum (1865-1910), whose lyrics, collected in _Der Irrgarten der +Liebe_ (1901), have been extraordinarily popular, E. von Wolzogen (b. +1855) and the dramatist F. Wedekind, who has been already mentioned. + +Whether or not the work that has been produced in such rich measure +since the year 1889--or however much of it--is to be regarded as a +permanent addition to the storehouse of German national literature, +there can be no question of the serious artistic earnestness of the +writers; the conditions for the production of literature in the German +empire in the early years of the 20th century were eminently healthy, +and herein lies the best promise for the future. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) _General Histories_, _Anthologies_, &c.: A. + Koberstein, _Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_ + (1827; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 5 vols., 1872-1874; 6th ed., vol. i., + 1884); G.G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der poetischen Nationalliteratur + der Deutschen_ (5 vols., 1835-1842; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874); + A.F.C. Vilmar, _Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_ (1848; + 25th ed., 2 vols., 1900, with a continuation by A. Stern); W. + Wackernagel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ (1851-1855; 2nd ed. + by E. Martin, 1879-1894); K. Goedeke, _Grundriss zur Geschichte der + deutschen Dichtung_ (3 vols., 1857-1881; 2nd ed. by E. Goetze and + others, in 9 vols., 1884 ff.); W. Menzel, _Deutsche Dichtung von der + ältesten bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1858-1859); H. Kurz, _Geschichte + der deutschen Literatur mit ausgewählten Stücken_ (3 vols., 1857-1859; + 7th ed., 4 vols., 1876-1882); O. Roquette, _Geschichte der deutschen + Dichtung_ (2 vols., 1862; 3rd ed., 1878-1879); W. Scherer, _Geschichte + der deutschen Literatur_ (1883; 10th ed., 1905). English translation + by Mrs F.C. Conybeare (2 vols., 1885; new ed., 1906); Kuno Francke, + _German Literature as determined by Social Forces_ (1896; 6th ed., + 1903); F. Vogt and M. Koch, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ + (1897; 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1903); J.G. Robertson, _History of German + Literature_ (1902); A. Bartels, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ + (2 vols., 1901-1902), with the accompanying bibliographical summary, + _Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ (1906). There are + also histories of the literature of separate countries and districts, + such as J. Bächtold, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in der + Schweiz_ (1887); R. Krauss, _Schwäbische Literaturgeschichte_ (2 + vols., 1897-1899); J.W. Nagl and J. Zeidler, _Deutsch-Österreichische + Literaturgeschichte_ (2 vols., 1899 ff.). The most comprehensive + collection of German literature in selections is J. Kürschner, + _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (222 vols., 1882-1898). Of general + anthologies mention may be made of W. Wackernagel, _Deutsches + Lesebuch_ (4 vols., 1835-1872; new ed., 1882 ff.), and F. Max Müller, + _The German Classics from the Fourth to the Nineteenth Century_ (1858; + ed. by F. Lichtenstein, 2 vols., 1886; new ed., 1906). For + illustrations to the history of German literature, see G. Könnecke, + _Bilderatlas zur Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_ (1887; + 2nd ed., 1895). + + (b) _Special Periods_: i. _Old High German and Middle High German + Periods_: R. Kögel and W. Bruckner, "Geschichte der althochdeutschen + Literatur," and F. Vogt, "Geschichte der mittelhochdeutschen + Literatur," in H. Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd + ed., vol. ii. pt. i., 1901); F. Khull, _Geschichte der altdeutschen + Dichtung_ (1886); J. Kelle, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_, + i.-ii. (1892-1896); R. Kögel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis + zum Ausgang des Mittelalters_, i. (1894-1897); W. Golther, _Geschichte + der deutschen Literatur von den ersten Anfängen bis zum Ausgang des + Mittelalters_ (in Kürschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 163, + pt. i., 1892); W. Scherer, _Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im 11. + und 12. Jahrhundert_, and by the same author, _Geistliche Poeten der + deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (both works in _Quellen und Forschungen_, + 1874-1875); O. Lyon, _Minne- und Meistersang_ (1882). There are + numerous series of editions of medieval texts: K. Müllenhoff and W. + Scherer, _Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus den 8.-12. + Jahrhundert_ (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1892); M. Heyne, _Bibliothek der + ältesten deutschen Literaturdenkmäler_ (14 vols., begun 1858); F. + Pfeiffer, _Deutsche Klassiker des Mittelalters_ (12 vols., begun + 1865), with the supplementary _Deutsche Dichtungen des Mittelalters_, + edited by K. Bartsch (7 vols., 1872 ff.); K. Goedeke, _Deutsche + Dichtung im Mittelalter_ (2nd ed., 1871); J. Zacher, _Germanistische + Handbibliothek_ (9 vols., begun 1869); H. Paul, _Altdeutsche + Textbibliothek_ (16 vols., begun 1882); _Deutsche Texte des + Mittelalters_, ed. by the Berlin Academy (1904 ff.). Convenient + editions of the Minnesang are K. Lachmann and M. Haupt, _Des + Minnesangs Frühling_ (4th ed. by F. Vogt, 1888), and K. Bartsch, + _Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrh._ (4th ed. by W. + Golther, 1903). + + ii. _From 1350-1700._--L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in + Italien und Deutschland_ (1882; 2nd ed. 1899); K. Borinski, + _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ + (in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. 163, ii., 1898); H. + Palm, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 16. und 17. + Jahrhunderts_ (1877); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations + of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_ (1886); C. Lemcke, + _Von Opitz bis Klopstock_, i. (1871; 2nd ed. 1882); M. von Waldberg, + _Deutsche Renaissance-Lyrik_ (1888), and _Die galante Lyrik_ (1885); + F. Bobertag, _Geschichte des Romans in Deutschland_, i. (to 1700) + (1877-1884); K. Borinski, _Die Poetik der Renaissance und die Anfänge + der literarischen Kritik in Deutschland_ (1886). A vast quantity of + the literature of these centuries has been republished by the + Stuttgarter literarischer Verein (founded in 1839), whose publications + now number considerably over two hundred volumes; further, W. Braune, + _Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts_ + (begun 1882); K. Goedeke and J. Tittmann, _Deutsche Dichter des 16. + Jahrhunderts_ (18 vols., 1867 ff.), and _Deutsche Dichter des 17. + Jahrhunderts_ (15 vols., 1869 ff.). A valuable anthology is K. + Goedeke's _Elf Bücher deutscher Dichtung von Sebastian Brant bis auf + die Gegenwart_ (2 vols., 1849). Since 1890 the _Jahresberichte für + neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte_ have provided an exhaustive + survey of all publications dealing with modern German literature. A + useful practical bibliography for English readers, covering this and + the succeeding periods, is J.S. Nollen, _A Chronology and Practical + Bibliography of Modern German Literature_ (1903). + + iii. _The Eighteenth Century._--J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der deutschen + Literatur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit_ (4 vols., 1862-1867; 2nd + ed. 1886-1890); J. Hillebrand, _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur im 18. + und 19. Jahrhundert_ (3 vols., 1845-1846; 3rd ed. 1875); H. Hettner, + _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert_ (4 vols., + 1862-1870; 4th ed. by O. Harnack, 1893-1895); J.W. Schäfer, + _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1855-1860; + 2nd ed. by F. Muncker, 1881); J.K. Mörikofer, _Die schweizerische + Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1861); J.W. Löbell, _Entwickelung der + deutschen Poesie von Klopstock bis zu Goethes Tod_ (3 vols., + 1856-1865). There are also innumerable more special treatises, such as + A. Eloesser, _Das bürgerliche Drama_ (1898); O. Brahm, _Das deutsche + Ritterdrama des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1880), &c. Of collections of the + literature of this and the following century, reference need only be + made to the _Bibliothek der deutschen Nationalliteratur des 18. und + 19. Jahrhunderts_, published by Brockhaus (44 vols., 1868-1891), and + _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_, edited + first by B. Seuffert (1882-1894), and subsequently by A. Sauer. + + iv. _The Nineteenth Century._--Th. Ziegler, _Die geistigen und + sozialen Strömungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1899; 2nd ed. + 1901); R. von Gottschall, _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. + Jahrhunderts_ (1854; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1900-1902); R.M. Meyer, _Die + deutsche Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1899; 4th ed. 1910); R.M. + Meyer, _Grundriss der neueren deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ (1902); + C. Busse, _Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im neunzehnten + Jahrhundert_ (1901); R. Haym, _Die romantische Schule_ (1870; 2nd ed. + 1906); G. Brandes, "Den romantiske Skole i Tyskland" (1873), and "Det + unge Tyskland" (1890), in _Hovedströmninger i det 19de Aarhundredes + Litteratur_, vols. ii. and vi. (German translations, 1887 and 1891; + several subsequent editions, Danish and German; English translations, + ii. 1903, and vi. 1905); R. Huch, _Die Blütezeit der Romantik (2nd ed. + 1901), and Ausbreitung und Verfall der Romantik_ (1902); F. Wehl, _Das + junge Deutschland_ (1886); J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892); + A. Bartels, _Die deutsche Dichtung der Gegenwart_ (7th ed., 1907); A. + von Hanstein, _Das jüngste Deutschland_ (2nd ed., 1901); J.F. Coar, + _Studies in German Literature in the Nineteenth Century_ (1903); Ch. + Petzet, _Die Blütezeit der deutschen politischen Lyrik_ (1903); H. + Mielke, _Der deutsche Roman des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (4th ed., 1900); S. + Friedmann, _Das deutsche Drama des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., + 1900-1903); B. Litzmann, _Das deutsche Drama in den literarischen + Bewegungen der Gegenwart_ (4th ed., 1898). (J. G. R.) + + + + +GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT. The dramatic and musical entertainment which +for many years was known in London by the title of "German Reed" was a +form of theatrical enterprise deserving of commemoration in connexion +with those who made it successful. Mr THOMAS GERMAN REED (born in +Bristol in 1817, died 1888) married in 1844 Miss PRISCILLA HORTON +(1818-1895), and in 1855 they started their entertainment at the +"Gallery of Illustration," in Waterloo Place, London. From 1860 to 1877 +they were assisted by JOHN ORLANDO PARRY (1810-1879), an accomplished +pianoforte player, mimic, parodist and humorous singer; and the latter +created a new type of musical and dramatic monologue which became very +popular. His tradition was carried on after 1870 by MR CORNEY GRAIN +(1844-1895), who, as a clever, refined, and yet highly humorous society +entertainer (originally a barrister), was one of the best-known figures +of his day. After the retirement of the elder German Reeds, their son, +ALFRED GERMAN REED (1846-1895), himself a capital actor, carried on the +business in partnership with Corney Grain. The "German Reed +Entertainment"--which was always patronized by a large class of people, +many of whom objected on principle to going or taking their children to +a regular theatre or a music-hall--retained its vogue for forty years at +Waterloo Place and at the St George's Hall, Regent Street. But the death +of Mr Corney Grain almost simultaneously with Mr Alfred German Reed, in +1895, together with the changed public attitude towards the regular +theatre, ended its career. + + + + +GERMAN SILVER or NICKEL SILVER, an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc, +prepared either by melting the copper and nickel together in a crucible, +and adding piece by piece the previously heated zinc, or by heating the +finely divided metals under a layer of charcoal. To destroy its +crystalline structure and so render it fit for working, it is heated to +dull redness, and then allowed to cool. German silver is harder than +silver; it resembles that metal in colour, but is of a greyer tinge. +Exposed to the air it tarnishes slightly yellow, and with vinegar +affords a crust of verdigris. At a bright red heat it melts, losing its +zinc by oxidation unless protected from the atmosphere. At a heat above +dull redness it becomes exceedingly brittle. German silver in various +modifications of composition is much used in the arts. Alloys, of which +about 50% is copper and the residue zinc and nickel in about equal +proportions take a fine polish, and are used as imitation silver for +knives and forks. With a somewhat higher proportion of copper an alloy +is formed suitable for rolling and for wire. In Chinese _white silver_ +or _packfong_ (paktong) the amount of copper is smaller, about 40%, with +about 32% of nickel, 25 of zinc, and 2 or 3 of iron. German silver for +casting contains 2 or 3% of lead, which like iron increases the +whiteness of the alloy. German silver, having a high specific resistance +and a low temperature coefficient, has been used for electrical +resistance coils, and these qualities are possessed in a still greater +degree in _manganin_, which contains manganese in place of zinc, its +composition being 84% of copper, 12 of manganese and 4 of nickel. The +addition of a trace of tungsten to German silver, as in _platinoid_, +also largely increases the resistance. + + + + +GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA. This German possession is bounded W. by the +Atlantic, N. by Angola, S. by the Cape province, E. by Bechuanaland and +Rhodesia, and is the only German dependency in Africa suited to white +colonization. It has an area of about 322,450 sq. m., and a population +of Bantu Negroes and Hottentots estimated in 1903 at 200,000.[1] The +European inhabitants, in addition to the military, numbered 7110 in +1907, of whom the majority were German. + + _Area and Boundaries._--The boundary separating the German + protectorate from the Portuguese possessions of Angola is the lower + Kunene, from its mouth in 17° 18' S., 11° 40' E. to the limit of + navigability from the sea, thence in a direct line, corresponding + roughly to the lat. of 17° 20' S., to the river Okavango, which it + follows eastwards until the stream turns abruptly south (towards Lake + Ngami). From this point a strip of German territory 300 m. long and + about 50 m. broad, projects eastward until it reaches the Zambezi a + little above the Victoria Falls. On the south this narrow strip of + land (known as the Caprivi enclave) is separated from southern + Rhodesia by the Kwando or Chobe river. On the east the frontier + between British and German territory is in its northern half the 21st + degree of E. longitude, in its southern half the 20th degree. This + frontier is drawn through desert country. The southern frontier is the + Orange river from its mouth to the 20° E. The coast-line between the + Kunene and Orange rivers is not wholly German. Just north of the + tropic of Capricorn is the British enclave of Walfish Bay (q.v.). The + northern part of the protectorate is known as Ovampoland, the central + portion as Damara (or Herero) land; the southern regions as Great + Namaqualand. These names are derived from those of the dominant native + races inhabiting the country. + + _Physical Features._--The coast-line is generally low and little + broken by bays or promontories. In its entire length of about 800 m. + it has no good natural harbour, and its bays--Angra Pequena, otherwise + Lüderitz Bay, Sierra Bay, Sandwich Harbour--are in danger of being + filled with sand by the strong, cold, northerly coast current. + Swakopmund is an artificial harbour at the mouth of the river Swakop. + The small islands which stud the coast north and south of Angra + Pequena belong to Great Britain. The coast-line is bordered by a belt + of sand-dunes and desert, which, about 35 m. wide in the south, + narrows towards the north. This coast belt is flanked by a mountain + range, which attains its highest elevation in Mount Omatako (8972 + ft.), in about 21° 15' S., 16° 40' E. N. E. of Omatako is the Omboroko + range, otherwise known as the Waterberg. South of Omboroko, occupying + the centre of the country, the range attains its highest average + altitude. The following massifs with their highest points may be + distinguished: Gans (7664 ft.), Nu-uibeb (7480 ft.), Onyati (7201 + ft.), Awas (6988 ft.), Komas (5331 ft.) and Ganab (4002 ft.). In the + S.E. are the Karas mountains, which attain an elevation of 6570 ft. + The mountains for the main part form the escarpment of the great + Kalahari plateau, which, gently rising from the interior towards the + west, slopes again towards the south and north from the point of its + highest elevation. The Kalahari plateau changes the undulating + character it has in the west to a perfect plain in the far east, where + the watered and habitable country merges into the sterile Kalahari + desert. In the northern half of the country the central plateau + contains much rich grass-land, while in the north-eastern region the + Omaheke desert has all the characteristics of the Kalahari. + + There are no rivers of importance wholly within German South-West + Africa. The Kunene (q.v.) has but a small portion of the southern bank + in the colony, and similarly only part of the northern bank of the + Orange river (q.v.) is in German territory. Several streams run south + into the Orange; of those the chief is the Great Fish river, which has + a course of nearly 500 m. Both the Kunene and the Orange carry water + all the year round, but are not navigable. Neither is the Great Fish + river, which, however, is rarely dry. The Okavango, which comes from + the north and runs towards Ngami (q.v.), is perennial, but like the + Kunene and Orange, belongs only partly to the hydrographic system of + the country. From the inner slopes of the coast chain many streams go + N.E. to join the Okavango. They cross the Omaheke waste and are + usually dry. Ovampoland has a hydrographic system connected with the + Kunene, and, in seasons of great flood, with that of Ngami. Before the + Kunene breaks through the outer edge of the plateau, it sends + divergent channels south-east to a large marsh or lake called Etosha, + which is cut by 17° E. and 19° S. Of these channels the Kwamatuo or + Okipoko, which is perennial, enters Etosha at its N.W. corner. The + lake when full extends about 80 m. W. to E. and 50 m. N. to S. From + its S.E. corner issues the Omuramba, which divides into two branches, + known respectively as the Omaheke and the Ovampo. These streams have + an easterly direction, their beds, often dry, joining the Okavango. + The other rivers of the protectorate have as a rule plenty of water in + their upper courses in the rainy season, though some river beds are + dry for years together. After a heavy thunderstorm such a river bed + will be suddenly filled with a turbid current half a mile wide. The + water is, however, before long absorbed by the thirsty land. Only in + exceptionally rainy years do the streams which cross the sand belt + carry water to the ocean. But in the sand which fills the river beds + water may be obtained by digging. Of rivers running direct to the + Atlantic the Little Fish river enters the sea at Angra Pequena and the + Kuisip in Walfish Bay. The Swakop rises in the hills near the + Waterberg, and north of it is the Omaruru, which carries water for the + greater part of the year. Hot springs are numerous, and it is + remarkable that those of Windhoek flow more copiously during the dry + than the rainy season. There are also many cold springs, and wells + which contain water all the year. + + _Geology._--Gneiss and schist, with intrusive granites and porphyries, + overlain to a great extent by sand and lateritic deposits, occupy the + coast belt, coast mountains and the plateau of Damaraland. In the Huib + and Han-ami plateaus of Great Namaqualand the crystalline rocks are + overlain by sandstones, slates, quartzites and jasper rocks, and these + in turn by dolomites. They are probably equivalent to the Transvaal + and Pretoria series (see TRANSVAAL: _Geology_). The next oldest rocks + are of recent geological date. The Kalahari Kalk, which extends over + large areas to the south-east of Ovampoland, may be of Miocene age, + but it has not yielded fossils. Extensive tracts of alluvium occur in + the basin of the Ovampo, while the dunes and sand-tracts of the + Kalahari occupy the eastern regions. + + _Climate._--On the coast the mean temperature is low, and there is + little rainfall. Moisture is supplied by dense fogs, which rise almost + daily. South-west winds prevail. Inland the climate is temperate + rather than tropical, with bracing, clear atmosphere. There are + considerable differences of temperature between day and night, and two + well-marked seasons, one cold and dry from May to September, the other + hot and rainy from October to April. In winter ice frequently forms + during the night on open water on the plateau, but it never remains + all day. The yearly rainfall is about 20 in. in the Damara Hills; + there is more rain in the north than in the south, and in the east + than in the west. In the greater part of the colony the climate is + favourable for European settlement. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation corresponds exactly with the + climate. In the dry littoral region are plants able to exist with the + minimum of moisture they derive from the daily fog--_Amarantaceae_, + _Sarcocaula_, _Aloe dichotoma_, _Aristida subacaulis_ and the + wonderful _Welwitschia_. Farther inland are plants which spring up and + disappear with the rain, and others whose roots reach permanent water. + The former are chiefly grasses, the latter exist almost solely in or + near river-beds. Amongst the fine trees often seen here, the ana tree + (_Acacia albida_) is the most noteworthy, its seeds being favourite + fodder for all domestic animals. _Acacia giraffae_, _Ac. horrida_, + _Adansonia sterculia_, near the Kunene the _Hyphaene ventricosa_, + deserve special notice. The vegetation in the mountain valleys is + luxuriant, and towards the north is of a tropical character. The palm + zone extends a considerable distance south of the Kunene, and here + vegetation spreads over the sand-dunes of the coast plain, which are + covered with grasses. + + Large game, formerly abundant, especially pachyderms, is scarce. Of + antelopes the following species are plentiful in parts: springbok, + steenbok, kudu, rietbok, pallah; of monkeys, the _Cynocephalus + porcarius_ is frequent. Various kinds of hyenas and jackals with fine + fur (_Canis mesomelas_), also _Felis caracal_, abound. The spring-hare + (_Pedestea caffer_) and rock-rabbit (_Hyrax capensis_) may often be + observed. Of birds there are 728 species. Crocodiles, turtles and + snakes are numerous. + +_Inhabitants._--Among the natives of German South-West Africa three +classes may be distinguished. In the first class are the Namaqua +(Hottentots) and Bushmen. The Namaqua probably came from the south, +while the Bushmen may be looked upon as an indigenous race. The +Hottentots, the purest existing types of that race, are divided into +numerous tribes, independent of one another, such as the Witbois, +Swartzbois, Bondelzwarts. The Bushmen are found scattered over the +eastern parts of the country (see HOTTENTOTS and BUSHMEN). The second +class consists of the mountain Damara (Hau-Khoin), a race of doubtful +affinities, probably of Bantu-Negro origin, but speaking the Hottentot +language. The third class belongs to the Bantu-Negro stock, and came +from the north-east, expelling and enslaving the mountain Damara, and +settling in various parts of the country under different names. The most +prominent are the Herero, thorough nomads and cattle-breeders; while the +Ovampo (Ovambo or Ambo), in the northern part of the protectorate, are +agriculturists. The Herero (q.v.) are also known by the Hottentot name +Damara, and by this name their country is generally called. The +Bastaards, who live in Namaqualand, are a small tribe originating from a +mingling of Cape Boers with Hottentots. They are Christians, and able to +read and write. The other natives are spirit-worshippers, save for the +comparatively few converts of the Protestant missions established in the +country. Of white races represented the chief are Germans and Boers. In +the S.E. Boer settlers form the bulk of the white population. There are +also numbers of British colonists in this region--emigrants from the +Cape. The immigration of Germans is encouraged by subsidies and in other +ways. + + _Towns._--The chief port is Swakopmund, built on the northern bank of + the Swakop river (the southern bank belonging to the British territory + of Walfish Bay). The harbour is partially protected by a breakwater. + There are also settlements at Lüderitz Bay (white pop. 1909, over + 1000) and at Sandwich Harbour. Swakopmund is connected by a narrow + gauge railway with Windhoek, the administrative capital of the colony, + situated in a hilly district 180 m. due east of the port, but 237 m. + by the railway. Karibib is the only place of consequence on the line. + Otyimbingue is a government station 70 m. W.N.W. of Windhoek, and + Tsumeb a mining centre 240 m. N.N.E. of the same place. Olukonda is a + government post in Ovampoland. In the S.E. corner of the colony, 30 m. + N. of the Orange river, is the town of Warmbad. Keetmanshoop, 100 m. + N. of Warmbad and 180 m. E. of Lüderitz Bay, is the centre of a small + mining industry. Gibeon is a government station and missionary + settlement about midway between Keetmanshoop and Windhoek. Besides + these places there are numbers of small native towns at which live a + few white traders and missionaries. The missionaries have given + Biblical names to several of their stations, such as Bethany and + Beersheba in Namaqualand, and Rehoboth in Damaraland. In the Caprivi + enclave are a German residency and the site of the town of Linyante, + once the capital of the Makololo dynasty of Barotseland (see BAROTSE). + + _Industries._--Agriculture is followed by the natives in the northern + districts, but the chief industry is stock-raising. The scarcity of + water in the southern parts is not favourable for agricultural + pursuits, while the good grazing lands offer splendid pasturage for + cattle, which the Herero raise in numbers amounting to many hundred + thousands. Sheep and goats thrive well. Horses have been imported from + the Cape. Unfortunately the climate does not suit them everywhere, and + they are subject to a virulent distemper. Cattle and sheep also suffer + from the diseases which are common in the Cape Colony. Camels have + been imported, and are doing well. Wheat, maize and sorghum are the + chief crops raised, though not enough is grown to meet even local + requirements. Near the coast the natives collect the kernels of the + nara, a wild-growing pumpkin which, in the words of an early + traveller, C.J. Andersson, "are eaten by oxen, mice, men, ostriches + and lions." About half the European settlers are engaged in + agriculture. They raise maize, wheat, tobacco, fruit and vegetables. + Cotton cultivation and viticulture are carried on in some districts. + + Minerals, especially copper, are plentiful in the country. The chief + copper deposits are at Tsumeb, which is 4230 ft. above the sea, in the + Otavi district. Diamonds are found on and near the surface of the soil + in the Lüderitz Bay district, and diamonds have also been found in the + neighbourhood of Gibeon. A little pottery is made, and the Hottentot + women are clever in making fur cloths. In the north the Ovampo do a + little smith-work and grass-plaiting. The external trade of the + country was of slow growth. The exports, previous to the opening up of + the Otavi mines, consisted chiefly of live stock--sent mainly to Cape + Colony--guano, ivory, horns, hides and ostrich feathers. The chief + imports are food stuffs, textiles and metals, and hardware. In 1903 + the value of the exports was £168,560, that of the imports £388,210. + The war which followed (see below, _History_) led to a great shrinking + of exports, rendering the figures for the period 1904-1907 useless for + purposes of comparison. About 85% of the imports are from Germany. + + _Communications._--The economic development of the country is largely + dependent on transport facilities. The railway from Swakopmund to + Windhoek, mentioned above, was begun in 1897, and was opened for + traffic in July 1902. It cost nearly £700,000 to build. Another narrow + gauge railway, to serve the Otavi copper mines, was begun in 1904 and + completed in 1908. It starts from Swakopmund and is 400 m. long, the + terminus being at Grootfontein, 40 m. S.E. of Tsumeb. The highest + point on this line is 5213 ft. above the sea. In 1906-1908 a railway, + 180 m. long, was built from Lüderitz Bay to Keetmanshoop. This line is + of the standard South African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), that gauge being + adopted in view of the eventual linking up of the line with the + British railway systems at Kimberley. A branch from Seeheim on the + Keetmanshoop line runs S.E. to Kalkfontein. + + Besides railways, roads have been made between the chief centres of + population. Along these, in the desert districts, wells have been dug. + Across the Awas Mountains, separating Windhoek from the central + plateau, a wide road has been cut. In 1903 the colony was placed in + telegraphic communication with Europe and Cape Colony by the laying of + submarine cables having their terminus at Swakopmund. There is a + fairly complete inland telegraphic service. + + There is regular steamship communication between Hamburg and + Swakopmund, Walfish Bay and Lüderitz Bay. Regular communication is + also maintained between Cape Town and the ports of the colony. + + _Administration._--At the head of the administration is an imperial + governor, responsible to the colonial office in Berlin, who is + assisted by a council consisting of chiefs of departments. The country + is divided into various administrative districts. In each of these + there is a _Bezirksamtmann_, with his staff of officials and police + force. In each district is a law court, to whose jurisdiction not + alone the whites, but also the Bastaards are subject. As in all German + colonies, there is a court of appeal at the residence of the governor. + The government maintains schools at the chief towns, but education is + principally in the hands of missionaries. The armed force consists of + regular troops from Germany and a militia formed of Bastaards. The + local revenue for some years before 1903 was about £130,000 per annum, + the expenditure about £400,000, the difference between local receipts + and expenditure being made good by imperial subsidies. In 1908 local + revenue had risen to £250,000, but the imperial authorities incurred + an expenditure of over £2,000,000, largely for military purposes. On + articles of export, such as feathers and hides, 5% _ad valorem_ duty + has to be paid; on cattle and horses an export tax per head. There is + a 10% _ad valorem_ duty on all imports, no difference being made + between German and foreign goods. The sale of spirituous liquors is + subject to a licence. + +_History._--The coast of south-west Africa was discovered by Bartholomew +Diaz in 1487, whilst endeavouring to find his way to the Indies. He +anchored in a bay which by reason of its smallness he named Angra +Pequena. Portugal, however, took no steps to acquire possession of this +inhospitable region, which remained almost unvisited by Europeans until +the early years of the 19th century. At this time the country was +devastated by a Hottentot chief known as Afrikander, who had fled +thither with a band of outlaws after murdering his master, a Boer farmer +by whom he had been ill-treated, in 1796. In 1805 some missionaries (of +German nationality) went into Namaqualand in the service of the London +Missionary Society, which society subsequently transferred its missions +in this region to the Rhenish mission, which had had agents in the +country since about 1840. The chief station of the missionaries was at a +Hottentot settlement renamed Bethany (1820), a place 125 m. E. by Angra +Pequena. The missionaries had the satisfaction of stopping Afrikander's +career of bloodshed. He became a convert, a great friend of the mission, +and took the name of Christian. The proximity of Great Namaqualand to +Cape Colony led to visits from British and Dutch farmers and hunters, a +few of whom settled in the country, which thus became in some sense a +dependency of the Cape. + +In 1867 the islands along the coast north and south of Angra Pequena, on +which were valuable guano deposits, were annexed to Great Britain. At +this time a small trade between the natives and the outside world was +developed at Angra Pequena, the merchants engaged in it being British +and German. The political influence of the Cape spread meantime +northward to the land of the Herero (Damara). The Herero had been +subjugated by Jonker Afrikander, a son of Christian Afrikander, who +followed the early footsteps of his sire and had renounced Christianity, +but in 1865 they had recovered their independence. The Rhenish +missionaries appealed (1868) to the British government for protection, +and asked for the annexation of the country. This request, although +supported by the Prussian government, was refused. In 1876, however, a +special commissioner (W. Coates Palgrave) was sent by the Cape +government "to the tribes north of the Orange river." The commissioner +concluded treaties with the Namaqua and Damara which fixed the limits of +the territories of the two races and placed the whole country now +forming German South-West Africa within the sphere of British influence. +In the central part of Damaraland an area of some 35,000 sq. m. was +marked out as a British reservation. The instrument by which this +arrangement was made was known as the treaty of Okahandya. Neither it +nor the treaty relating to Great Namaqualand was ratified by the British +government, but at the request of Sir Bartle Frere, then high +commissioner for South Africa, Walfish Bay (the best harbour along the +coast) was in 1878 annexed to Great Britain. + + + German rule established. + +In 1880 fighting between the Namaqua, who were led by Jan Afrikander, +son of Jonker and grandson of Christian Afrikander, and the Damara broke +out afresh, and was not ended until the establishment of European rule. +In 1883 F.A.E. Lüderitz (1834-1886), a Bremen merchant, with the +approval of Prince Bismarck, established a trading station at Angra +Pequena. This step led to the annexation of the whole country to Germany +(see AFRICA, § 5) with the exception of Walfish Bay and the islands +actually British territory. On the establishment of German rule Jonker +Afrikander's old headquarters were made the seat of administration and +renamed Windhoek. The Hottentots, under a chieftain named Hendrik +Witboi, offered a determined opposition to the Germans, but after a +protracted war peace was concluded in 1894 and Hendrik became the ally +of the Germans. Thereafter, notwithstanding various local risings, the +country enjoyed a measure of prosperity, although, largely owing to +economic conditions, its development was very slow. + + + Herero war. + +In October 1903 the Bondelzwarts, who occupy the district immediately +north of the Orange river, rose in revolt. This act was the beginning of +a struggle between the Germans and the natives which lasted over four +years, and cost Germany the lives of some 5000 soldiers and settlers, +and entailed an expenditure of £15,000,000. Abuses committed by white +traders, the brutal methods of certain officials and the occupation of +tribal lands were among the causes of the war, but impatience of white +rule was believed to be the chief reason for the revolt of the Herero, +the most formidable of the opponents of the Germans. The Herero had +accepted the German protectorate by treaty--without fully comprehending +that to which they had agreed. To crush the Bondelzwarts, an object +attained by January 1904, the governor, Colonel Theodor Leutwein, had +denuded Damaraland of troops, and advantage was taken of this fact by +the Herero to begin a long-planned and well-prepared revolt. On the 12th +of January 1904 most of the German farmers in Damaraland were attacked, +and settlers and their families murdered and the farms devastated. +Reinforcements were sent from Germany, and in June General von Trotha +arrived and took command of the troops. On the 11th of August von Trotha +attacked the Herero in their stronghold, the Waterberg, about 200 m. N. +of Windhoek, and inflicted upon them a severe defeat. The main body of +the enemy escaped, however, from the encircling columns of the Germans, +and thereafter the Herero, who were under the leadership of Samuel +Maherero, maintained a guerrilla warfare, rendering the whole +countryside unsafe. The Germans found pursuit almost hopeless, being +crippled by the lack of water and the absence of means of transport. To +add to their troubles a Herero bastard named Morenga, with a following +of Hottentots, had, in July, recommenced hostilities in the south. On +the 2nd of October 1904 von Trotha, exasperated at his want of success +in crushing the enemy, issued a proclamation in which he said: "Within +the German frontier every Herero with or without a rifle, with or +without cattle, will be shot. I will not take over any more women and +children. But I will either drive them back to your people or have them +fired on." In a later order von Trotha instructed his soldiers not to +fire into, but to fire over the heads of the women and children, and +Prince Bülow ordered the general to repeal the whole proclamation. +Whenever they had the chance, however, the Germans hunted down the +Herero, and thousands perished in the Omaheke desert, across which +numbers succeeded in passing to British territory near Ngami. + +On the day following the issue of von Trotha's proclamation to the +Herero, i.e. on the 3rd of October 1904, Hendrik Witboi sent a formal +declaration of war to the Germans. Hendrik had helped to suppress the +Bondelzwarts rising, and had received a German decoration for his +services, and his hostility is said to have been kindled by the +supersession of Colonel Leutwein, for whom he entertained a great +admiration. The Witbois were joined by other Hottentot tribes, and their +first act was to murder some sixty German settlers in the Gibeon +district. Both British and Boer farmers were spared--the Hottentots in +this matter following the example of the Herero. In November, +considerable reinforcements having come from Germany, the Witbois were +attacked, and Hendrik's headquarters, Reitmont, captured. Another defeat +was inflicted on Hendrik in January 1905, but, lacking ammunition and +water, the Germans could not follow up their victory. As in Damaraland, +the warfare in Namaqualand now assumed a guerrilla character, and the +Germans found it almost impossible to meet their elusive enemy, while +small detachments were often surprised and sometimes annihilated. In May +1905 von Trotha tried the effect on the Hottentots of another of his +proclamations. He invited them to surrender, adding that in the contrary +event all rebels would be exterminated. A price was at the same time put +on the heads of Hendrik Witboi and other chiefs. This proclamation was +unheeded by the Hottentots, who were in fact continuing the war with +rifles and ammunition seized from the Germans, and replenishing their +stock with cattle taken from the same source. In the north, however, +Samuel Maherero had fled to British territory, and the resistance of the +Herero was beginning to collapse. Concentration camps were established +in which some thousands of Herero women and children were cared for. +Meanwhile, the administration of von Trotha, who had assumed the +governorship as well as the command of the troops, was severely +criticized by the civilian population, and the non-success of the +operations against the Hottentots provoked strong military criticism. In +August 1905 Colonel (afterwards General) Leutwein, who had returned to +Germany, formally resigned the governorship of the protectorate, and +Herr von Lindequist, late German consul-general at Cape Town, was +nominated as his successor. Von Trotha, who had publicly criticized +Prince Bülow's order to repeal the Herero proclamation, was superseded. +He had in the summer of 1905 instituted a series of "drives" against the +Witbois, with no particular results. Hendrik always evaded the columns +and frequently attacked them in the rear. + +In November 1905 von Lindequist arrived at Windhoek. The new governor +issued a general amnesty to the Herero, and set aside two large reserves +for those who surrendered. His conciliatory policy was in the end +successful, and the Ovampo, who threatened to give trouble, were kept in +hand. The task of pacifying Damaraland was continued throughout 1906, +and by the close of that year about 16,000 Herero had been established +in the reserves. Some 3000 had sought refuge in British territory, while +the number who had perished may be estimated at between 20,000 and +30,000. + + + The Hottentots subdued. + +In Namaqualand von Lindequist found an enemy still unbroken. On the 3rd +of November, however, Hendrik Witboi died, aged seventy-five, and his +son and successor Samuel Isaac Witboi shortly afterwards surrendered, +and the hostility of the tribe ceased. Morenga now became the chief of +the rebel Hottentots, and "drives" against him were organized. Early in +May 1906 an encounter between Morenga and a German column was fought +close to the British frontier of the Bechuanaland protectorate. Morenga +fled, was pursued across the frontier, and wounded, but escaped. On the +16th of May he was found hiding by British patrols and interned. Other +Hottentot chiefs continued the conflict, greatly aided by the immense +difficulty the Germans had in transporting supplies; to remedy which +defect the building of a railway from Lüderitz Bay to Kubub was begun +early in 1906. A camel transport corps was also organized, and Boer +auxiliaries engaged. Throughout the later half of 1906 the Hottentots +maintained the struggle, the Karas mountains forming a stronghold from +which their dislodgment was extremely difficult. Many of their leaders +and numbers of the tribesmen had a considerable strain of white (chiefly +Dutch) blood and were fairly educated men, with a knowledge not only of +native, but European ways; facts which helped to make them formidable +opponents. Gradually the resistance of the Hottentots was overcome, and +in December 1906 the Bondelzwarts again surrendered. Other tribes +continued the fight for months longer, but by March 1907 it was found +possible to reduce the troops in the protectorate to about 5000 men. At +the height of the campaign the Germans had 19,000 men in the field. + +In August 1907 renewed alarm was created by the escape of Morenga from +British territory. The Cape government, regarding the chief as a +political refugee, had refused to extradite him and he had been assigned +a residence near Upington. This place he left early in August and, +eluding the frontier guards, re-entered German territory. In September, +however, he was again on the British side of the border. Meantime a +force of the Cape Mounted Police under Major F.A.H. Eliott had been +organized to effect his arrest. Summoned to surrender, Morenga fled into +the Kalahari Desert. Eliott's force of sixty men pursued him through a +waterless country, covering 80 m. in 24 hours. When overtaken (September +21st), Morenga, with ten followers, was holding a kopje and fired on the +advancing troops. After a sharp engagement the chief and five of his men +were killed, the British casualties being one killed and one wounded. +The death of Morenga removed a serious obstacle to the complete +pacification of the protectorate. Military operations continued, +however, during 1908. Herr von Lindequist, being recalled to Berlin to +become under-secretary in the colonial office, was succeeded as governor +(May 1907) by Herr von Schuckmann. In 1908 steps were taken to establish +German authority in the Caprivi enclave, which up to that time had been +neglected by the colonial authorities. + + + Discovery of diamonds. + +The discovery of diamonds in the Lüderitz Bay district in July 1908 +caused a rush of treasure-seekers. The diamonds were found mostly on the +surface in a sandy soil and were of small size. The stones resemble +Brazilian diamonds. By the end of the year the total yield was over +39,000 carats. One of the difficulties encountered in developing the +field was the great scarcity of fresh water. During 1909 various +companies were formed to exploit the diamondiferous area. The first +considerable packet of diamonds from the colony reached Germany in April +1909. The output for the year was valued at over £1,000,000. + + AUTHORITIES.--Karl Dove, _Deutsch-Südwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1903); W. + Külz, _Deutsch-Südafrika_ ... (Berlin, 1909); T. Leutwein, _Elf Jahre + Gouverneur in Deutsch-Südwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1908), an authoritative + work, largely historical; P. Rohrbach, _Deutsche Kolonialwirtschaft_, + Band 1: _Südwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1907), a comprehensive economic + study; I. Irle, _Die Herero, ein Beitrag zur Landes-, Volks- und + Missionskunde_ (Gütersloh, 1906), a valuable summary of information + concerning Damaraland; Major K. Schwabe, _Im deutschen Diamantenlande_ + (Berlin, 1909); T. Rehbock, _Deutsch-Südwestafrika, seine + wirtschaftliche Erschliessung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der + Nutzbarmachung des Wassers_ (Berlin, 1898); C. von François, + _Deutsch-Südwestafrika: Geschichte der Kolonisation bis zum Ausbruch + des Krieges mit Witbooi_, April 1893 (Berlin, 1899), a history of the + protectorate up to 1893; H. Schintz, _Deutsch-Südwestafrika, + Forschungsreisen durch die deutschen Schutzgebiete Gross-Nama und + Hereroland, nach dem Kunene, &c., 1884-1887_ (Oldenburg, N.D. [1891]); + H. von François, _Nama und Damara_ (Magdeburg, N.D. [1896]). See also + for Ethnology, "Die Eingeborenen Deutsch-Südwestafrikas nach + Geschichte, Charakter, Sitten, Gebräuchen und Sprachen," in + _Mitteilungen des Seminars für orientalische Sprachen_ (Berlin and + Stuttgart) for 1899 and 1900; and G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of + South Africa_ (London, 1905); ch. xvii. contains an account of the + Afrikander family. For geology consult A. Schenk, "Die geologische + Entwicklung Südafrikas (mit Karte)," _Peterm. Mitt._ (1888); Stromer + von Reichenbach, _Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika_ + (Munich and Leipzig, 1896). Of early books of travel the most valuable + are: F. Galton, _Tropical South Africa_ (1853; new ed. 1889); Charles + J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_ (1856), _The Okavango River_ (1861) and + _Notes of Travel_ (1875). See also Sir J.E. Alexander, _An Expedition + of Discovery into the Interior of Africa_ (London, 1838). Reports on + the German colonies are published by the British foreign office. The + _Kriegskarte von Deutsch-Südwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1904), in nine sheets + on a scale of 1 : 800,000, will be found useful. (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] As the result of wars with the natives, the population greatly + decreased. The number of adult (native) males in the colony at the + beginning of 1908 was officially estimated at 19,900, a figure + indicating a total population of little more than 100,000. + + + + +GERMANTOWN, a residential district and former suburb, now the +Twenty-second Ward, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on +Wissahickon Creek, in the N. part of the city. It is served by the +Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. There are many old +colonial houses and handsome modern residences along Main Street (the +old Germantown Road or Avenue). Prominent among the historic houses is +Cliveden, or the "Chew House," built about 1761 by Benjamin Chew +(1722-1810), who was chief-justice of Pennsylvania in 1774-1777 and was +imprisoned as a Loyalist in 1777, and whose home during the battle of +Germantown (see below) was occupied by British troops. The +well-preserved Morris House (1772) was the headquarters of General Howe +at the close of the battle, and in 1793, when Germantown, owing to the +yellow fever in Philadelphia, was the temporary capital of the United +States, it was occupied by President Washington. Three doors above stood +until 1904 the Ashmead House, used for a time by Count Nicholas Lewis +Zinzendorf and his daughters for their Moravian school, which was +removed to Bethlehem. In the same street, opposite Indian Queen Lane, is +the old Wister Mansion, built as a country-seat in 1744 and occupied by +British officers during the War of Independence. In another old house +(now Nos. 5275-5277), John Fanning Watson (1779-1860), the annalist of +Philadelphia, did most of his literary work. Just outside the ward +limits, in what has since become a part of Fairmont Park, is the house +in which David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, was born; it stands on +Monoshore Creek or Paper Mill Run, in what was long called Roxborough +(now the 21st ward of Philadelphia). In this vicinity the first paper +mill in America was erected in 1690 by a company of which William +Rittenhouse, David's great-grandfather, was the leading member. The King +of Prussia Inn, built about 1740, and the Mermaid Hotel, as old or +older, are interesting survivals of the inns and taverns of old +Germantown. The Germantown Academy was built in 1760, and after the +battle of Germantown was used by the British as a hospital. In +Germantown are also a Friends' (orthodox) school, a Friends' free +library, and the Germantown branch of the Philadelphia public library. +The first school in Germantown was established about 1701, and for the +first eighteen years was under the mastership of Francis Daniel +Pastorius (1651-1719), the leader in founding the town, who lived in a +house that stood on the site of the present First Methodist Episcopal +church, High Street and Main Street. He compiled a primer which was the +first school book produced in the state; with three others he drafted +and signed in 1688 what seems to have been the first public protest made +in America against slavery; and he is celebrated in Whittier's +_Pennsylvania Pilgrim_. Later the same school passed to Christopher Dock +(d. 1771), who in 1770 published an essay on teaching (written in 1750), +which is said to have been the first book on pedagogy published in +America. The first Bible printed in America in any European language was +published in Germantown in 1743 by Christopher Sauer (d. 1758), a +preacher of the German Baptist Brethren, who in 1739 established +Germantown's first newspaper, _The High German Pennsylvania Historian, +or Collection of Important News from the Kingdom of Nature and of the +Church_. His grandsons are said to have cast about 1772 the first +American printing type. The Friends were the first sect to erect a +meeting-house of their own (about 1693). The Mennonites built a log +meeting-house in 1709, and their present stone church was built in 1770. +The town hall of Germantown was used as a hospital during the last three +years of the Civil War. In Market Square a soldiers' monument was +erected in 1883. The Site and Relic Society of Germantown maintains a +museum of relics. Many of the early settlers were linen weavers, and +Germantown still manufactures textiles, knit goods and yarns. + +Germantown was founded in October 1683 by thirteen families from +Crefeld, Germany, under the leadership of Francis Daniel Pastorius. The +township, as originally laid out, contained four distinct villages known +as Germantown, Cresheim, Sommerhousen and Crefield. Cresheim was later +known as Mount Airy, and Sommerhousen and Crefield became known as +Chestnut Hill. The borough of Germantown was incorporated in 1689. For +many years it was a straggling village extending about 2 m. along Main +Street. Its growth was more rapid from the middle of the 18th century. +In 1789 a motion for the permanent location of the national capital at +Germantown was carried in the Senate, and the same measure passed the +House, amended only with respect to the temporary government of the +ceded district; but the Senate killed the bill by voting to postpone +further consideration of it until the next session. Germantown was +annexed to Philadelphia in 1854. + +_Battle of Germantown._--This famous encounter in the American War of +Independence was fought on the 4th of October 1777. After the battle of +Brandywine (q.v.) and the occupation of Philadelphia, the British force +commanded by Sir W. Howe encamped at Germantown, where Washington +determined to attack them. The Americans advanced by two roads, General +Sullivan leading the column on the right and General Greene that on the +left. Washington himself accompanied Sullivan, with whom were Stirling +(an officer who claimed to be earl of that name) and Anthony Wayne. The +right at first met with success, driving the British advanced troops +back on the main body near the Chew House. Colonel Musgrave, of the 40th +Foot, threw a portion of his regiment into this house, and General Agnew +came up with his command. The Americans under Stirling attempted to +dislodge Musgrave, thus losing time and alarming part of Sullivan's +advance who had pushed farther forward in the fog. General Greene on the +left was even less fortunate. Meeting with unexpected opposition at the +first point of attack his troops were thrown into confusion and +compelled to retreat. One of his brigades extended itself to the right +wing, and by opening fire on the Chew House caused Wayne to retreat, and +presently both of the American columns retired rapidly in the direction +of their camp. The surprise had failed, with the loss to Washington's +army of 673 men as against 500 on the side of the British. The British +General Agnew and the American General Nash were both mortally wounded. +In December Washington went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, 40 m. +west of Philadelphia. The British wintered in and around the city. + + See N.H. Keyser, "Old Historic Germantown," in the _Proceedings and + Addresses of the Pennsylvania-German Society_ (Lancaster, 1906); S.W. + Pennypacker, _The Settlement of Germantown, Pennsylvania, and the + Beginning of German Emigration to North America_ (Philadelphia, 1899), + and S.F. Hotchkin, _Ancient and Modern Germantown, Mount Airy and + Chestnut Hill_ (Philadelphia, 1889). + + + + +GERMANY (Ger. _Deutschland_), or, more properly, THE GERMAN EMPIRE +(_Deutsches Reich_), a country of central Europe. The territories +occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race and language are +commonly designated as German, and in this sense may be taken to +include, besides Germany proper (the subject of the present article), +the German-speaking sections of Austria, Switzerland and Holland. But +Germany, or the German empire, as it is now understood, was formed in +1871 by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederation and +the South German states, and by the acquisition, in the peace of +Frankfort (May 10, 1871), of Alsace-Lorraine, and embraces all the +countries of the former German Confederation, with the exception of +Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liechtenstein. The sole addition to the +empire proper since that date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by +Great Britain in 1890, but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in +Africa and the Pacific (see below, _Colonies_). + +The German empire extends from 47° 16' to 55° 53' N., and from 5° 52' to +22° 52' E. The eastern provinces project so far that the extent of +German territory is much greater from south-west to north-east than in +any other direction. Tilsit is 815 m. from Metz, whereas Hadersleben, in +Schleswig, is only 540 m. from the Lake of Constance. The actual +difference in time between the eastern and western points is 1 hour and +8 minutes, but the empire observes but one time--1 hour E. of +Greenwich. The empire is bounded on the S.E. and S. by Austria and +Switzerland (for 1659 m.), on the S.W. by France (242 m.), on the W. by +Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland (together 558 m.). The length of German +coast on the North Sea or German Ocean is 293 m., and on the Baltic 927 +m., the intervening land boundary on the north of Schleswig being only +47 m. The eastern boundary is with Russia 843 m. The total length of the +frontiers is thus 4569 m. The area, including rivers and lakes but not +the _haffs_ or lagoons on the Baltic coast, is 208,830 sq. m., and the +population (1905) 60,641,278. In respect of its area, the German empire +occupied in 1909 the third place among European countries, and in point +of population the second, coming in point of area immediately after +Russia and Austria-Hungary, and in population next to Russia. + +_Political Divisions._--The empire is composed of the following +twenty-six states and divisions: the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, +Saxony and Württemberg; the grand-duchies of Baden, Hesse, +Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar; +the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and +Saxe-Meiningen; the principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss-Greiz, +Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, +Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and Waldeck-Pyrmont; the free towns of Bremen, +Hamburg and Lübeck, and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. + +Besides these political divisions there are certain parts of Germany +which, not conterminous with political boundaries, retain appellations +derived either from former tribal settlements or from divisions of the +old Holy Roman Empire. These are Franconia (Franken), which embraces the +districts of Bamberg, Schweinfurt and Würzburg on the upper Main; Swabia +(Schwaben), in which is included Württemberg, parts of Bavaria and Baden +and Hohenzollern; the Palatinate (Pfalz), embracing Bavaria west of the +Rhine and the contiguous portion of Baden; Rhineland, applied to Rhenish +Prussia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt and parts of Bavaria and Baden; +Vogtland,[1] the mountainous country lying in the south-west corner of +the kingdom of Saxony; Lusatia (Lausitz), the eastern portion of the +kingdom of Saxony and the adjacent portion of Prussia watered by the +upper Spree; Thuringia (Thüringen), the country lying south of the Harz +Mountains and including the Saxon duchies; East Friesland (Ost +Friesland), the country lying between the lower course of the Weser and +the Ems, and Westphalia (Westfalen), the fertile plain lying north and +west of the Harz Mountains and extending to the North Sea and the Dutch +frontier. + +_Coast and Islands._--The length of the coast-line is considerably less +than the third part of the whole frontier. The coasts are shallow, and +deficient in natural ports, except on the east of Schleswig-Holstein, +where wide bays encroach upon the land, giving access to the largest +vessels, so that the great naval harbour could be constructed at Kiel. +With the exception of those on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein, all +the important trading ports of Germany are river ports, such as Emden, +Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Stettin, Danzig, Königsberg, Memel. A great +difference, however, is to be remarked between the coasts of the North +Sea and those of the Baltic. On the former, where the sea has broken up +the ranges of dunes formed in bygone times, and divided them into +separate islands, the mainland has to be protected by massive dikes, +while the Frisian Islands are being gradually washed away by the waters. +On the coast of East Friesland there are now only seven of these +islands, of which Norderney is best known, while of the North Frisian +Islands, on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt is the most +considerable. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there have been +extensive inundations by the sea within the historic period, the gulf of +the Dollart having been so caused in the year 1276. Sands surround the +whole coast of the North Sea to such an extent that the entrance to the +ports is not practicable without the aid of pilots. Heligoland is a +rocky island, but it also has been considerably reduced by the sea. The +tides rise to the height of 12 or 13 ft. in the Jade Bay and at +Bremerhaven, and 6 or 7 ft. at Hamburg. The coast of the Baltic, on the +other hand, possesses few islands, the chief being Alsen and Fehmarn off +the coast of Schleswig-Holstein, and Rügen off Pomerania. It has no +extensive sands, though on the whole very flat. The Baltic has no +perceptible tides; and a great part of its coast-line is in winter +covered with ice, which also so blocks up the harbours that navigation +is interrupted for several months every year. Its _haffs_ fronting the +mouths of the large rivers must be regarded as lagoons or extensions of +the river beds, not as bays. The Pommersche or Oder Haff is separated +from the sea by two islands, so that the river flows out by three +mouths, the middle one (Swine) being the most considerable. The Frische +Haff is formed by the Nogat, a branch of the Vistula, and by the Pregel, +and communicates with the sea by means of the Pillauer Tief. The +Kurische Haff receives the Memel, called Niemen in Russia, and has its +outlet in the extreme north at Memel. Long narrow alluvial strips called +_Nehrungen_, lie between the last two haffs and the Baltic. The Baltic +coast is further marked by large indentations, the Gulf of Lübeck, that +of Pomerania, east of Rügen, and the semicircular Bay of Danzig between +the promontories of Rixhöft and Brüsterort. The German coasts are well +provided with lighthouses. + + _Surface._--In respect of physical structure Germany is divided into + two entirely distinct portions, which bear to one another a ratio of + about 3 to 4. The northern and larger part may be described as a + uniform plain. South and central Germany, on the other hand, is very + much diversified in scenery. It possesses large plateaus, such as that + of Bavaria, which stretches away from the foot of the Alps, fertile + low plains like that intersected by the Rhine, mountain chains and + isolated groups of mountains, comparatively low in height, and so + situated as not seriously to interfere with communication either by + road or by railway. + + + Mountains and plateaus. + + Bavaria is the only division of the country that includes within it + any part of the Alps, the Austro-Bavarian frontier running along the + ridge of the Northern Tirolese or Bavarian Alps. The loftiest peak of + this group, the Zugspitze (57 m. S. of Munich), is 9738 ft. in height, + being the highest summit in the empire. The upper German plain sloping + northwards from the Bavarian Alps is watered by the Lech, the Isar and + the Inn, tributaries of the Danube, all three rising beyond the limits + of German territory. This plain is separated on the west from the + Swiss plain by the Lake of Constance (Bodensee, 1306 ft. above + sea-level), and on the east from the undulating grounds of Austria by + the Inn. The average height of the plain may be estimated at about + 1800 ft., the valley of the Danube on its north border being from 1540 + ft. (at Ulm) to 920 ft. (at Passau). The plain is not very fertile. In + the upper part of the plain, towards the Alps, there are several + lakes, the largest being the Ammersee, the Würmsee or Starnberger See + and the Chiemsee. Many portions of the plain are covered by moors and + swamps of large extent, called _Moose_. The left or northern bank of + the Danube from Regensburg downwards presents a series of granitic + rocks called the Bavarian Forest (Bayrischer Wald), which must be + regarded as a branch of the Bohemian Forest (Böhmer Wald). The latter + is a range of wooded heights on the frontier of Bavaria and Bohemia, + occupying the least known and least frequented regions of Germany. The + summits of the Bayrischer Wald rise to the height of about 4000 ft., + and those of the Böhmer Wald to 4800 ft., Arber being 4872 ft. The + valley of the Danube above Regensburg is flanked by plateaus sloping + gently to the Danube, but precipitous towards the valley of the + Neckar. The centre of this elevated tract is the Rauhe Alb, so named + on account of the harshness of the climate. The plateau continuing to + the north-east and then to the north, under the name of the Franconian + Jura, is crossed by the valley of the winding Altmühl, and extends to + the Main. To the west extensive undulating grounds or low plateaus + occupy the area between the Main and the Neckar. + + The south-western corner of the empire contains a series of better + defined hill-ranges. Beginning with the Black Forest (Schwarzwald), we + find its southern heights decline to the valley of the Rhine, above + Basel, and to the Jura. The summits are rounded and covered with wood, + the highest being the Feldberg (10 m. S.E. of Freiburg, 4898 ft.). + Northwards the Black Forest passes into the plateau of the + Neckarbergland (average height, 1000 ft.). The heights between the + lower Neckar and the Main form the Odenwald (about 1700 ft.); and the + Spessart, which is watered by the Main on three sides, is nothing but + a continuation of the Odenwald. West of this range of hills lies the + valley of the upper Rhine, extending about 180 m. from south to north, + and with a width of only 20 to 25 m. In the upper parts the Rhine is + rapid, and therefore navigable with difficulty; this explains why the + towns there are not along the banks of the river, but some 5 to 10 m. + off. But from Spires (Speyer) town succeeds town as far down as + Düsseldorf. The western boundary of this valley is formed in the first + instance by the Vosges, where granite summits rise from under the + surrounding red Triassic rocks (Sulzer Belchen, 4669 ft.). To the + south the range is not continuous with the Swiss Jura, the valley of + the Rhine being connected here with the Rhone system by low ground + known as the Gate of Mülhausen. The crest of the Vosges is pretty high + and unbroken, the first convenient pass being near Zabern, which is + followed by the railway from Strassburg to Paris. On the northern side + the Vosges are connected with the Hardt sandstone plateau (Kalmit, + 2241 ft.), which rises abruptly from the plain of the Rhine. The + mountains south of Mainz, which are mostly covered by vineyards, are + lower, the Donnersberg, however, raising its head to 2254 ft. These + hills are bordered on the west by the high plain of Lorraine and the + coal-fields of Saarbrücken, the former being traversed by the river + Mosel. The larger part of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German + part possesses great mineral wealth in its rich layers of ironstone + (siderite) and in the coal-fields of the Saar. The tract of the + Hunsrück, Taunus and Eifel is an extended plateau, divided into + separate sections by the river valleys. Among these the Rhine valley + from Bingen to Bonn, and that of the Mosel from Trier to Coblenz, are + winding gorges excavated by the rivers. The Eifel presents a sterile, + thinly-peopled plateau, covered by extensive moors in several places. + It passes westwards imperceptibly into the Ardennes. The hills on the + right bank of the Rhine also are in part of a like barren character, + without wood; the Westerwald (about 2000 ft.), which separates the + valleys of the Sieg and Lahn, is particularly so. The northern and + southern limits of the Niederrheinische Gebirge present a striking + contrast to the central region. In the south the declivities of the + Taunus (2890 ft.) are marked by the occurrence of mineral springs, as + at Ems on the Lahn, Nauheim, Homburg, Soden, Wiesbaden, &c., and by + the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines. To the north of this + system, on the other hand, lies the great coal basin of Westphalia, + the largest in Germany. In the south of the hilly duchy of Hesse rise + the isolated mountain groups of the Vogelsberg (2530 ft.) and the Rhön + (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the Fulda, which uniting + farther north with the Werra forms the Weser. To the east of Hesse + lies Thuringia, a province consisting of the far-stretching wooded + ridge of the Thuringian Forest (Thüringerwald; with three peaks + upwards of 3000 ft. high), and an extensive elevated plain to the + north. Its rivers are the Saale and Unstrut. The plateau is bounded on + the north by the Harz, an isolated group of mountains, rich in + minerals, with its highest elevation in the bare summit of the Brocken + (3747 ft.). To the west of the Harz a series of hilly tracts is + comprised under the name of the Weser Mountains, out of which above + Minden the river Weser bursts by the Porta Westphalica. A narrow + ridge, the Teutoburger Wald (1300 ft.), extends between the Weser and + the Ems as far as the neighbourhood of Osnabrück. + + To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of the + Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains, + occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of + Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows + southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger + eastward to the Elbe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe. In + the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with the + Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia. The southern + sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the north it slopes + gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected by the deep + valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no means fertile, the + Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various branches of industry + have taken root there in numerous small places. Around Zwickau there + are productive coal-fields, and mining for metals is carried on near + Freiberg. In the east a tableland of sandstone, called Saxon + Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines into which it has been + eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its most notable features is + the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes from it. Numerous quarries, + which supply the North German cities with stone for buildings and + monuments, have been opened along the valley. The sandstone range of + the Elbe unites in the east with the low Lusatian group, along the + east of which runs the best road from northern Germany to Bohemia. + Then comes a range of lesser hills clustering together to form the + frontier between Silesia and Bohemia. The most western group is the + Isergebirge, and the next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about + 20 miles' length, with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the + Schneekoppe (5266 ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the + southern declivities of this range contain the sources of the Elbe. + The hills north and north-east of it are termed the Silesian + Mountains. Here one of the minor coal-fields gives employment to a + population grouped round a number of comparatively small centres. One + of the main roads into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the + eastern base of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the + mountains are grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse + forces its way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the east + by the Sudetic group, in which the Altvater rises to almost 4900 ft. + The eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently + away to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the + international traffic, like that through the Mülhausen Gate in Alsace. + Geographers style this the Moravian Gate. + + The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not absolutely + uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the mountain + ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 30 m. to the north. To + these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which occupies a + considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the middle + districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the Fläming + hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the Lüneburger + Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of Hanover. A second + tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the Baltic, without, + however, approaching its shores. This plateau contains a considerable + number of lakes, and is divided into three portions by the Vistula and + the Oder. The most eastward is the so-called Prussian Seenplatte. + Spirdingsee (430 ft. above sea-level and 46 sq. m. in area) and + Mauersee are the largest lakes; they are situated in the centre of the + plateau, and give rise to the Pregel. Some peaks near the Russian + frontier attain to 1000 ft. The Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the + Vistula and the Oder, extends from S.W. to N.E., its greatest + elevation being in the neighbourhood of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.). + The Seenplatte of Mecklenburg, on the other hand, stretches from S.E. + to N.W., and most of its lakes, of which the Müritz is the largest, + send their waters towards the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which + surround the bays of the east coast of Holstein and Schleswig may be + regarded as a continuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest + parts, therefore, of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, + are the central districts from about 52° to 53° N. lat., where the + Vistula, Netze, Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy + lowlands (in German called _Brüche_), which have been considerably + reduced by the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements + due in large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the + S.E. of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As + the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing + thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication. + West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the Havel lakes, + to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general the soil + of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the cultivation + nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labour. Long stretches + of ground are covered by moors, and there turf-cutting forms the + principal occupation of the inhabitants. The greatest extent of + moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the plain, in Oldenburg + and East Frisia. The plain contains, however, a few districts of the + utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the central Elbe, and the + marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and the north coast of + Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which, within the last two + centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from the sea by means of + immense dikes. + + _Rivers._--Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished: those + of the Memel, Pregel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser, Ems, + Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems belong entirely, + and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The Danube has its sources + on German soil; but only a fifth part of its course is German. Its + total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian frontier at Passau, where + the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant from its sources. It is + navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above Passau; and its tributaries the + Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmühl are also navigable. The Rhine is the most + important river of Germany, although neither its sources nor its + mouths are within the limits of the empire. From the Lake of Constance + to Basel (122 m.) the Rhine forms the boundary between the German + empire and Switzerland; the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is + situated on the northern bank of the river. From Basel to below + Emmerich the Rhine belongs to the German empire--about 470 m. or + four-sevenths of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance + as are also the Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg, the + Lahn, the Lippe, the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the + Saar and Sauer. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and + river craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely + branching system of canals, as the Ems-Jade and Dortmund-Ems canals. + The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m., above the point + where they unite, form by their junction the Weser, which has a course + of 271 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the Aller, the Leine + from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Ocean-going steamers, however, + cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at Bremerhaven. The Elbe, + after a course of 250 m., enters German territory near Bodenbach, 490 + m. from its mouth. It is navigable above this point through its + tributary, the Moldau, to Prague. Hamburg may be reached by vessels of + 17 ft. draught. The navigable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale + (below Naumburg), the Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The + Oder begins to be navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m. + from its mouth, receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse + and the Warthe. Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the + German empire, within which it is a broad, navigable stream of + considerable volume. On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach + Königsberg, and river barges reach Insterburg; the Alle, its + tributary, may also be navigated. The Memel is navigable in its course + of 113 m. from the Russian frontier. Germany is thus a country + abounding in natural waterways, the total length of them being + estimated at 7000 m. But it is only the Rhine, in its middle course, + that has at all times sufficient volume of water to meet the + requirements of a good navigable river. + + _Lakes._--The regions which abound in lakes have already been pointed + out. The Lake of Constance or Bodensee (204¾ sq. m.) is on the + frontier of the empire, portions of the northern banks belonging + severally to Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden. In the south the largest + lakes are the Chiemsee (33 sq. m.); the Ammersee and the Würmsee. A + good many smaller lakes are to be found in the Bavarian Alps. The + North German plain is dotted with upwards of 500 lakes, covering an + area of about 2500 sq. m. The largest of these are the three + Haffs--the Oder Haff covering 370 sq. m., the Frische Haff, 332, and + the Kurische Haff, 626. The lakes in the Prussian and Pomeranian + provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein, and those of the Havel, + have already been mentioned. In the west the only lakes of importance + are the Steinhuder Meer, 14 m. north-west of Hanover, and the + Dümmersee on the southern frontier of Oldenburg. (P. A. A.) + + _Geology._--Germany consists of a floor of folded Palaeozoic rocks + upon which rest unconformably the comparatively little disturbed beds + of the Mesozoic system, while in the North German plain a covering of + modern deposits conceals the whole of the older strata from view, + excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of Cretaceous and + Tertiary beds. The rocks which compose the ancient floor are thrown + into folds which run approximately from W.S.W. to E.N.E. They are + exposed on the one hand in the neighbourhood of the Rhine and on the + other hand in the Bohemian _massif_. With the latter must be included + the Frankenwald, the Thüringerwald, and even the Harz. The oldest + rocks, belonging to the Archaean system, occur in the south, forming + the Vosges and the Black Forest in the west, and the greater part of + the Bohemian _massif_, including the Erzgebirge, in the east. They + consist chiefly of gneiss and schist, with granite and other eruptive + rocks. Farther north, in the Hunsrück, the Taunus, the Eifel and + Westerwald, the Harz and the Frankenwald, the ancient floor is + composed mainly of Devonian beds. Other Palaeozoic systems are, + however, included in the folds. The Cambrian, for example, is exposed + at Leimitz near Hof in the Frankenwald, and the important coal-field + of the Saar lies on the southern side of the Hunsrück, while + Ordovician and Silurian beds have been found in several localities. + Along the northern border of the folded belt lies the coal basin of + the Ruhr in Westphalia, which is the continuation of the Belgian + coal-field, and bears much the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian + area that the coal basin of Liége bears to the Ardennes. Carboniferous + and Devonian beds are also found south-east of the Bohemian _massif_, + where lies the extensive coal-field of Silesia. The Permian, as in + England, is not involved in the folds which have affected the older + beds, and in general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly + around the masses of ancient rock, and one of the largest areas is + that of the Saar. + + Between the old rocks of the Rhine on the west and the ancient + _massif_ of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic beds extends + from Hanover to Basel and from Metz to Bayreuth. Over the greater part + of this region the Triassic beds are free from folding and are nearly + horizontal, but faulting is by no means absent, especially along the + margins of the Bohemian and Rhenish hills. The Triassic beds must + indeed have covered a large part of these old rock masses, but they + have been preserved only where they were faulted down to a lower + level. Along the southern margin of the Triassic area there is a long + band of Jurassic beds dipping towards the Danube; and at its eastern + extremity this band is continuous with a synclinal of Jurassic beds, + running parallel to the western border of the Bohemian _massif_, but + separated from it by a narrow strip of Triassic beds. Towards the + north, in Hanover and Westphalia, the Triassic beds are followed by + Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, the latter being here the more + important. As in the south of England, the lower beds of the + Cretaceous are of estuarine origin and the Upper Cretaceous overlaps + the Lower, lying in the valley of the Ruhr directly upon the + Palaeozoic rocks. In Saxony also the upper Cretaceous beds rest + directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks. Still more to the + east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and Cretaceous beds + are again met with, but they are to a large extent concealed by the + recent accumulations of the great plain. The Eocene system is unknown + in Germany except in the foothills of the Alps; but the Oligocene and + Miocene are widely spread, especially in the great plain and in the + depression of the Danube. The Oligocene is generally marine. Marine + Miocene occurs in N.W. Germany and the Miocene of the Danube valley is + also in part marine, but in central Germany it is of fluviatile or + lacustrine origin. The lignites of Hesse, Cassel, &c., are + interstratified with basaltic lava-flows which form the greater part + of the Vogelsberg and other hills. The trachytes of the Siebengebirge + are probably of slightly earlier date. The precise age of the + volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a very perfect state of + preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly Tertiary or + Post-tertiary. Leucite and nepheline lavas are here abundant. In the + Siebengebirge the little crater of Roderberg, with its lavas and + scoriae of leucite-basalt, is posterior to some of the Pleistocene + river deposits. + + A glance at a geological map of Germany will show that the greater + part of Prussia and of German Poland is covered by Quaternary + deposits. These are in part of glacial origin, and contain + Scandinavian boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur. + Quaternary beds also cover the floor of the broad depression through + which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz, and occupy a large part + of the plain of the Danube. The depression of the Rhine is a trough + lying between two faults or system of faults. The very much broader + depression of the Danube is associated with the formation of the Alps, + and was flooded by the sea during a part of the Miocene period. + (P. La.) + + [Illustration: Goelogic Map.] + + _Climate._--The climate of Germany is to be regarded as intermediate + between the oceanic and continental climates of western and eastern + Europe respectively. It has nothing in common with the Mediterranean + climate of southern Europe, Germany being separated from that region + by the lofty barrier of the Alps. Although there are very considerable + differences in the range of temperature and the amount of rainfall + throughout Germany, these are not so great as they would be were it + not that the elevated plateaus and mountain chains are in the south, + while the north is occupied by low-lying plains. In the west no chain + of hills intercepts the warmer and moister winds which blow from the + Atlantic, and these accordingly influence at times even the eastern + regions of Germany. The mean annual temperature of south-western + Germany, or the Rhine and Danube basins, is about 52° to 54° F., that + of central Germany 48° to 50°, and that of the northern plain 46° to + 48°. In Pomerania and West Prussia it is only 44° to 45°, and in East + Prussia 42° to 44°. The mean January temperature varies between 22° + and 34° (in Masuren and Cologne respectively); the mean July + temperature, between 61° in north Schleswig and 68° at Cologne. The + extremes of cold and heat are, as recorded in the ten years 1895-1905, + 7° in Königsberg and 93° in Heidelberg (the hottest place in Germany). + The difference in the mean annual temperature between the south-west + and north-west of Germany amounts to about 3°. The contrasts of heat + and cold are furnished by the valley of the Rhine above Mainz, which + has the greatest mean heat, the mildest winter and the highest summer + temperature, and the lake plateau of East Prussia, where Arys on the + Spirdingsee has a like winter temperature to the Brocken at 3200 ft. + The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the autumn there is + also not characterized by an appreciably higher degree of warmth. In + central Germany the high plateaus of the Erz and Fichtelgebirge are + the coldest regions. In south Germany the upper Bavarian plain + experiences an inclement winter and a cold summer. In Alsace-Lorraine + the Vosges and the plateau of Lorraine are also remarkable for low + temperatures. The warmest districts of the German empire are the + northern parts of the Rhine plain, from Karlsruhe downwards, + especially the Rheintal; these are scarcely 300 ft. above the + sea-level, and are protected by mountainous tracts of land. The same + holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and Mosel. Hence the + vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts. The mean summer + temperature there is 66° and upwards, while the average temperature of + January does not descend to the freezing point (32°). The climate of + north-western Germany (west of the Elbe) shows a predominating oceanic + character, the summers not being too hot (mean summer temperature 60° + to 62°), and snow in winter remaining but a short time on the ground. + West of the Weser the average temperature of January exceeds 32°; to + the east it sinks to 30°, and therefore the Elbe is generally covered + with ice for some months of the year, as are also its tributaries. The + farther one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of + summer and winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60° + to 62°, the January temperature falls as low as 26° to 28° in West + Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22° to 26° in East Prussia and upper + Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by + frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the Bavarian plain, + has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for January + being 25° to 26°. + + As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where + precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of + summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes a + middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe and the + aridity of the east. There are considerable differences between + particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian tableland + and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel, Sauerland, + Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhön, Vogelsberg, Spessart, the Black Forest, + the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated at 34 in. or more, + while in the lower terraces of south-western Germany, as in the + Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated at 30 to 32 in. + only. The same average obtains also on the humid north-west coast of + Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In the remaining parts of + western Germany, on the shores of farther Pomerania, and in East + Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in. In western Germany there is a + district famous for the scarcity of rain and for producing the best + kind of wine: in the valley of the Rhine below Strassburg, in the + Palatinate, and also in the valley of the Main, no more than from 16 + to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg, Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the + plateau of Thuringia, West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also + to be classed among the more arid regions of Germany, the annual + rainfall being 16 to 20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July, + and vary between fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, + descending in the eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually. + + _Flora._--The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanerogamic + and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section of the + central European zone, and its flora is largely under the influence of + the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree here coalesce. + All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound. Wheat, rye, barley + and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt only in the south and + buckwheat in the north and north-west. Maize only ripens in the south. + Potatoes grow in every part of the country, those of the sandy plains + in the north being of excellent quality. All the commoner sorts of + fruit--apples, pears, cherries, &c.--grow everywhere, but the more + delicate kinds, such as figs, apricots and peaches, are confined to + the warmer districts. The vine flourishes as far as the 51° N., but + only yields good wine in the districts of the Rhine and Danube. Flax + is grown in the north, and hemp more particularly in the central + districts. Rape can be produced everywhere when the soil permits. + Tobacco is cultivated on the upper Rhine and in the valley of the + Oder. The northern plain, especially in the province of Saxony, + produces beet (for sugar), and hops are largely grown in Bavaria, + Württemberg, Alsace, Baden and the Prussian province of Posen. + + + Forests. + + Speaking generally, northern Germany is not nearly so well wooded as + central and southern Germany, where indeed most of the lower mountains + are covered with timber, as is indicated by the frequent use of the + termination _wald_ affixed to the names of the mountain ranges (as + Schwarzwald, Thüringerwald, &c.). The "Seenplatten" are less wooded + than the hill country, but the eastern portion of the northern + lowlands is well provided with timber. A narrow strip along the shores + of the Baltic is covered with oaks and beeches; farther inland, and + especially east of the Elbe, coniferous trees are the most prevalent, + particularly the Scotch fir; birches are also abundant. The mountain + forests consist chiefly of firs, pines and larches, but contain also + silver firs, beeches and oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts appear on the + terraces of the Rhine valley and in Swabia and Franconia. The whole + north-west of Germany is destitute of wood, but to compensate for + this the people have ample supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches + of turf. + + _Fauna._--The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great. + Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found + everywhere; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they + find their way sometimes from French territory to the western + provinces, or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the + hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game + there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the wild + rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests of East + Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in the fields, + woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse, partridges, snipe, + woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful all over the + country, and in recent years preserves have been largely stocked with + pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage remain in Germany + differs considerably with the different species. The stork is seen for + about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, the snow-goose 260, the snipe + 220. In northern Germany these birds arrive from twenty to thirty days + later than in the south. + + The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and species are + few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant; after them rank + the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch and the lamprey. The + Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe abound in crayfish, and + in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches are bred. In addition to + frogs, Germany has few varieties of Amphibia. Of serpents there are + only two poisonous kinds, the common viper and the adder + (_Kreuzotter_). + +_Population._--Until comparatively recent times no estimate of the +population of Germany was precise enough to be of any value. At the +beginning of the 19th century the country was divided into some hundred +states, but there was no central agency for instituting an exact census +on a uniform plan. The formation of the German Confederation in 1815 +effected but little change in this respect, and it was left to the +different states to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. +On the foundation, however, of the German customs union, or +_Zollverein_, between certain German states, the necessity for accurate +statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile trustworthy +tables. Researches show the population of the German empire, as at +present constituted, to have been: (1816) 24,833,396; (1855) 36,113,644; +and (1871) 41,058,792. The following table shows the population and area +of each of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875, +1900 and 1905:-- + + _Area and Population of the German States._ + + +-----------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------------+-------+ + | | Area | Population. |Density| + | States of the Empire. |English +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ per | + | | Sq. m. | 1871. | 1875. | 1900. | 1905. | Sq. m.| + +-----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + | Kingdoms-- | | | | | | | + | Prussia |134,616 |24,691,433 |25,742,404 |34,472,509 |37,293,324 | 277.3 | + | Bavaria | 29,292 | 4,863,450 | 5,022,390 | 6,176,057 | 6,524,372 | 222.7 | + | Saxony | 5,789 | 2,556,244 | 2,760,586 | 4,202,216 | 4,508,601 | 778.8 | + | Württemberg | 7,534 | 1,818,539 | 1,881,505 | 2,169,480 | 2,302,179 | 305.5 | + | Grand-Duchies-- | | | | | | | + | Baden | 5,823 | 1,461,562 | 1,507,179 | 1,867,944 | 2,010,728 | 345.3 | + | Hesse | 2,966 | 852,894 | 884,218 | 1,119,893 | 1,209,175 | 407.6 | + | Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 5,068 | 557,897 | 553,785 | 607,770 | 625,045 | 123.3 | + | Saxe-Weimar | 1,397 | 286,183 | 292,933 | 362,873 | 388,095 | 277.8 | + | Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 1,131 | 96,982 | 95,673 | 102,602 | 103,451 | 91.5 | + | Oldenburg | 2,482 | 314,459 | 319,314 | 399,180 | 438,856 | 176.8 | + | Duchies-- | | | | | | | + | Brunswick | 1,418 | 311,764 | 327,493 | 464,333 | 485,958 | 342.5 | + | Saxe-Meiningen | 953 | 187,957 | 194,494 | 250,731 | 268,916 | 282.2 | + | Saxe-Altenburg | 511 | 142,122 | 145,844 | 194,914 | 206,508 | 404.1 | + | Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 764 | 174,339 | 182,599 | 229,550 | 242,432 | 317.3 | + | Anhalt | 888 | 203,437 | 213,565 | 316,085 | 328,029 | 369.4 | + | Principalities-- | | | | | | | + | Schwartzburg-Sondershausen| 333 | 75,523 | 76,676 | 80,898 | 85,152 | 255.7 | + | Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt | 363 | 67,191 | 67,480 | 93,059 | 96,835 | 266.7 | + | Waldeck | 433 | 56,224 | 54,743 | 57,918 | 59,127 | 136.5 | + | Reuss-Greiz | 122 | 45,094 | 46,985 | 68,396 | 70,603 | 578.7 | + | Reuss-Schleiz | 319 | 89,032 | 92,375 | 139,210 | 144,584 | 453.2 | + | Schaumburg-Lippe | 131 | 32,059 | 33,133 | 43,132 | 44,992 | 343.4 | + | Lippe | 469 | 111,135 | 112,452 | 138,952 | 145,577 | 310.4 | + | Free Towns-- | | | | | | | + | Lübeck | 115 | 52,158 | 56,912 | 96,775 | 105,857 | 920.5 | + | Bremen | 99 | 122,402 | 142,200 | 224,882 | 263,440 |2661.0 | + | Hamburg | 160 | 338,974 | 388,618 | 768,349 | 874,878 |5467.9 | + | Imperial Territory-- | | | | | | | + | Alsace-Lorraine | 5,604 | 1,549,738 | 1,531,804 | 1,719,470 | 1,814,564 | 323.8 | + | +--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + | German Empire |208,780 |41,058,792 |42,727,360 |56,367,178 |60,641,278 | 290.4 | + +-----------------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + + [Illustration: German Empire.] + + The population of the empire has thus increased, since 1871, by + 19,582,486 or 47.6%. The increase of population during 1895-1900 was + greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Saxony, Prussia and Baden, and + least in Mecklenburg-Strelitz and Waldeck. Of the total population in + 1900, 54.3% was urban (i.e. living in towns of 2000 inhabitants and + above), leaving 45.7% to be classified as rural. On the 1st of + December 1905, of the total population 29,884,681 were males and + 30,756,597 females; and it is noticeable that the male population + shows of late years a larger relative increase than the female, the + male population having in five years increased by 2,147,434 and the + female by only 2,126,666. The greater increase in the male population + is attributable to diminished emigration and to the large increase in + immigrants, who are mostly males. In 1905, 485,906 marriages were + contracted in Germany, being at the rate of 8.0 per thousand + inhabitants. In the same year the total number of births was + 2,048,453. Of these, 61,300 were stillborn and 174,494 illegitimate, + being at the rate, respectively, of 3% and 8.5% of the total. + Illegitimacy is highest in Bavaria (about 15%), Berlin (14%), and over + 12% in Saxony, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Saxe-Meiningen. It is lowest + in the Rhine Province and Westphalia (3.9 and 2.6 respectively). + Divorce is steadily on the increase, being in 1904, 11.1 per 10,000 + marriages, as against 8.1, 8.1, 9.3 and 10.1 for the four preceding + years. The average deaths for the years 1901-1905 amounted to + 1,227,903; the rate was thus 20.2 per thousand inhabitants, but the + death-rate has materially decreased, the total number of deaths in + 1907 standing at 1,178,349; the births for the same year were + 2,060,974. In connexion with suicides, it is interesting to observe + that the highest rates prevail in some of the smaller and more + prosperous states of the empire--for example, in Saxe-Weimar, + Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg (on a three years' average of + figures), while the Roman Catholic country Bavaria, and the + impoverished Prussian province of Posen show the most favourable + statistics. For Prussia the rate is 20, and for Saxony it is as high + as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants. The large cities, notably Berlin, + Hamburg, Breslau and Dresden, show, however, relatively the largest + proportion. + + In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted to + 51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there were: + Polish, 3,086,489; French (mostly in Lorraine), 211,679; Masurian, + 142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305; Cassubian, 100,213; + Wendish, 93,032; Dutch, 80,361; Italian, 65,961; Moravian, 64,382; + Czech, 43,016; Frisian, 20,677; English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. In + 1905 there were resident within the empire 1,028,560 subjects of + foreign states, as compared with 778,698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were + subjects of Great Britain and Ireland, 17,184 of the United States of + America and 20,584 of France. The bulk of the other foreigners + residing in the country belonged to countries lying contiguous, such + as Austria, which claimed nearly the half, Russia and Italy. + + _Languages._--The German-speaking nations in their various branches + and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons, extend in a + compact mass along the shores of the Baltic and of the North Sea, from + Memel in the east to a point between Gravelines and Calais near the + Straits of Dover. On this northern line the Germans come in contact + with the Danes who inhabit the northern parts of Schleswig within the + limits of the German empire. A line from Flensburg south-westward to + Joldelund and thence northwestward to Hoyer will nearly give the + boundary between the two idioms.[2] The German-French frontier + traverses Belgium from west to east, touching the towns of St Omer, + Courtrai and Maastricht. Near Eupen, south of Aix-la-Chapelle, it + turns southward, and near Arlon south-east as far as the crest of the + Vosges mountains, which it follows up to Belfort, traversing there the + watershed of the Rhine and the Doubs. In the Swiss territory the line + of demarcation passes through Bienne, Fribourg, Saanen, Leuk and Monte + Rosa. In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhaeto-Romans + and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein and + the Engadine, while the latter have settled on the southern slopes of + the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the Adige. + Carinthia and Styria are inhabited by German people, except the valley + of the Drave towards Klagenfurt. Their eastern neighbours there are + first the Magyars, then the northern Slavs and the Poles. The whole + eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot be described in a few + words. Besides detached German colonies in Hungary proper, there is a + considerable and compact German (Saxon) population in Transylvania. + The river March is the frontier north of the Danube from Pressburg as + far as Brünn, to the north of which the German regions begin near + Olmütz, the interior of Bohemia and Moravia being occupied by Czechs + and Moravians. In these countries the Slav language has been steadily + superseding the German. In the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen + the eastern parts are mixed territories, the German language + progressing very slowly among the Poles. In Bromberg and Thorn, in the + valley of the Vistula, German is prevalent. In West Prussia some parts + of the interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian + frontier, are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia, Masurians + in East Prussia). The total number of German-speaking people, within + the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mass of the + population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be included, + at 65 millions. + + The geographical limits of the German language thus do not quite + coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about 3-1/3 + millions of persons who do not make use of German in everyday life, + not counting the resident foreigners. + + Apart from the foreigners above mentioned, German subjects speaking a + tongue other than German are found only in Prussia, Saxony and + Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly the distribution of + German-speaking people in the world outside the German empire:-- + + Austria-Hungary 12,000,000 | Other European + Netherlands (Dutch) 5,200,000 | Countries 2,300,000 + Belgium (Walloon) 4,000,000 | America 13,000,000 + Luxemburg 200,000 | Asia 100,000 + Switzerland 2,300,000 | Africa 600,000 + France 500,000 | Australia 150,000 + + According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were + 51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374 speaking + two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to the census of + 1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lusatia. With respect to + Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census) gave the number of + French in the territory of Lorraine at about 170,000, and in that of + Alsace at about 46,000. + + The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of + births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces + of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polonization of + many Germans through clerical and other influences (see _History_). + The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district of + Oppeln; 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are numerous in + West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14%). + + The Wends are decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians on the + eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs are only found in Silesia on + the confines of Bohemia. + + Russians flocked to Germany in thousands after the Russo-Japanese War + and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900 had + been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various + nationalities, with the exception of the British, the larger + proportion of whom are females either in domestic service or engaged + in tuition. + + _Chief Towns._--According to the results of the census of the 1st of + December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with populations + exceeding 100,000, viz.:-- + + +--------------------+----------------+-----------+ + | | State. |Population.| + +--------------------+----------------+-----------+ + | Berlin | Prussia |2,040,148 | + | Hamburg | Hamburg | 802,793 | + | Munich | Bavaria | 538,393 | + | Dresden | Saxony | 516,996 | + | Leipzig | " | 502,570 | + | Breslau | Prussia | 470,751 | + | Cologne | " | 428,503 | + | Frankfort-on-Main | " | 334,951 | + | Nuremberg | Bavaria | 294,344 | + | Düsseldorf | Prussia | 253,099 | + | Hanover | " | 250,032 | + | Stuttgart | Württemberg | 249,443 | + | Chemnitz | Saxony | 244,405 | + | Magdeburg | Prussia | 240,661 | + | Charlottenburg | " | 239,512 | + | Essen | " | 231,396 | + | Stettin | " | 224,078 | + | Königsberg | " | 219,862 | + | Bremen | Bremen | 214,953 | + | Duisburg | Prussia | 192,227 | + | Dortmund | " | 175,575 | + | Halle | " | 169,899 | + | Altona | " | 168,301 | + | Strassburg | Alsace-Lorraine| 167,342 | + | Kiel | Prussia | 163,710 | + | Elberfeld | " | 162,682 | + | Mannheim | Baden | 162,607 | + | Danzig | Prussia | 159,685 | + | Barmen | " | 156,148 | + | Rixdorf | " | 153,650 | + | Gelsenkirchen | " | 147,037 | + | Aix-la-Chapelle | " | 143,906 | + | Schöneberg | " | 140,992 | + | Brunswick | Brunswick | 136,423 | + | Posen | Prussia | 137,067 | + | Cassel | " | 120,446 | + | Bochum | " | 118,455 | + | Karlsruhe | Baden | 111,200 | + | Crefeld | Prussia | 110,347 | + | Plauen | Saxony | 105,182 | + | Wiesbaden | Prussia | 100,953 | + +--------------------+----------------+-----------+ + + _Density of Population._--In respect of density of population, + Germany with (1900) 269.9 and (1905) 290.4 inhabitants to the + square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and + England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and + Lübeck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and Mecklenburg-Strelitz + the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most + thinly populated districts are found, not as might be expected in + the mountain regions, but in some parts of the plains. Leaving out + of account the small centres, Germany may be roughly divided into + two thinly and two densely populated parts. In the former division + has to be classed all the North German plain. There it is only in the + valleys of the larger navigable rivers and on the southern border + of the plain that the density exceeds 200 inhabitants per square mile. + In some places, indeed, it is far greater, e.g. at the mouths of the + Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein, in the delta of the Memel and + the environs of Hamburg. This region is bordered on the south by + a densely peopled district, the northern boundary of which may be + defined by a line from Coburg via Cassel to Münster, for in this part + there are not only very fertile districts, such as the _Goldene Aue_ in + Thuringia, but also centres of industry. The population is thickest + in upper Silesia around Beuthen (coal-fields), around Ratibor, Neisse + and Waldenburg (coal-fields), around Zittau (kingdom of Saxony), + in the Elbe valley around Dresden, in the districts of Zwickau and + Leipzig as far as the Saale, on the northern slopes of the Harz and + around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds + 400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises + to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the + Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and + Würzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division + embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Neckar and the district + of Düsseldorf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion exceeds + 1200 inhabitants to the square mile. + + _Emigration._--There have been great oscillations in the actual + emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the Franco-German + War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years + 1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than + 1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those + who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated + at more than 4,500,000. The number of German emigrants to + Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52,000. The greater + number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural + provinces of northern Germany--West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, + Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the + emigration reached 1% of the total population of these provinces. + In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly + decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But to this + number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were + shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to + distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German + emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to + Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674 to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other + parts of America; 57 to Africa; and 84 to Australia. + +_Agriculture._--Despite the enormous development of industries and +commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent in Germany a +considerable portion of its economic wealth. Almost two-thirds of the +soil is occupied by arable land, pastures and meadows, and of the whole +area, in 1900, 91% was classed as productive. Of the total area 47.67% +was occupied by land under tillage, 0.89% by gardens, 11.02% by +meadow-land, 5.01% by pastures, and 0.25% by vineyards. The largest +estates are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and +Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine +province, in Baden and Württemberg small farms are the rule. + + The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the + empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the + north and east rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts are + added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice-wheat, lesser spelt and maize. + In general the soil is remarkably well cultivated. The three years' + rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and + fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in + some districts, where the system has been modified and improved. + In south Germany the so-called _Fruchtwechsel_ is practised, the fields + being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or + beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c., in the intermediate years. + In north Germany the mixed _Koppelwirthschaft_ is the rule, by which + system, after several years of grain crops, the ground is for two or + three seasons in pasture. + + Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat + amounted to 3,550,033 tons (metric), rye to 9,296,616 tons, barley to + 3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7,160,883 tons. But, in spite of this + considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot cover her home + consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900-1905 + about 4½ million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency. The potato + is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for distillation into + spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially in eastern Germany. + The number of distilleries throughout the German empire was, in + 1905-1906, 68,405. The common beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is largely grown + in some districts for the production of sugar, which has greatly + increased of recent years. There are two centres of the beet sugar + production: Magdeburg for the districts Prussian Saxony, Hanover, + Brunswick, Anhalt and Thuringia, and Frankfort-on-Oder at the centre + of the group Silesia, Brandenburg and Pomerania. Flax and hemp are + cultivated, though not so much as formerly, for manufacture into linen + and canvas, and also rape seed for the production of oil. The home + supply of the former no longer suffices for the native demand. The + cultivation of hops is in a very thriving condition in the southern + states of Germany. The soil occupied by hops was estimated in 1905 at + 98,000 acres--a larger area than in Great Britain, which had in the + same year about 48,000 acres. The total production of hops was 29,000 + tons in 1905, and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria, + Württemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops + is consumed in the country by the great breweries. + + Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable object of culture in + many districts. The total extent under this crop in 1905 was about + 35,000 acres, of which 45% was in Baden, 12% in Bavaria, 30% in + Prussia, and the rest in Alsace and Hesse-Darmstadt. In the north the + plant is cultivated principally in Pomerania, Brandenburg and East and + West Prussia. Of late years the production has somewhat diminished, + owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturing industries of Bremen and + Hamburg, which import almost exclusively foreign leaves. + + Ulm, Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Guben are famed + for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for its flower + nurseries, the Rhine valley, Württemberg and the Elbe valley below + Dresden for fruit, and Frankfort-on-main for cider. + + + Vine. + + The culture of the vine is almost confined to southern and western + Germany, and especially to the Rhine district. The northern limits of + its growth extend from Bonn in a north-easterly direction through + Cassel to the southern foot of the Harz, crossing 52° N. on the Elbe, + running then east some miles to the north of that parallel, and + finally turning sharply towards the south-west on the Warthe. In the + valley of the Saale and Elbe (near Dresden), and in lower Silesia + (between Guben and Grünberg), the number of vineyards is small, and + the wines of inferior quality; but along the Rhine from Basel to + Coblenz, in Alsace, Baden, the Palatinate and Hesse, and above all in + the province of Nassau, the lower slopes of the hills are literally + covered with vines. Here are produced the celebrated Rüdesheimer, + Hochheimer and Johannisberger. The vines of the lower Main, + particularly those of Würzburg, are the best kinds; those of the upper + Main and the valley of the Neckar are rather inferior. The Moselle + wines are lighter and more acid than those of the Rhine. The total + amount produced in Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a + value of £4,000,000; Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden, + 175; Bavaria, Württemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the + remainder, which though small in quantity is in quality the best, is + produced by Prussia. + + + Live stock. + + The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly improved + in recent times and is in a highly prosperous condition. The provinces + of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Hanover (especially the marsh-lands + near the sea) and the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are + particularly remarkable in this respect. The best meadow-lands of + Bavaria are in the province of Franconia and in the outer range of the + Alps, and those of Saxony in the Erzgebirge. Württemberg, Hesse and + Thuringia also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large + cattle-rearing centres not only supply the home markets but export + live stock in considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is + also largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from + Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has + attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West + Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some + parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia, lower + Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnen in East + Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy a + European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shown a + considerable falling off, and the rearing of them is mostly carried on + only on large estates, the number showing only 9,692,501 in 1900, and + 7,907,200 in 1904, as against 28,000,000 in 1860. As a rule, + sheep-farming is resorted to where the soil is of inferior quality and + unsuitable for tillage and the breeding of cattle. Far more attention + is accordingly given to sheep-farming in northern and north-eastern + Germany than in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, the Rhineland and + south Germany. The native demand for wool is not covered by the home + production, and in this article the export from the United Kingdom to + Germany is steadily rising, having amounted in 1905 to a value of + £1,691,035, as against £742,632 in 1900. The largest stock of pigs is + in central Germany and Saxony, in Westphalia, on the lower Rhine, in + Lorraine and Hesse. Central Germany (especially Gotha and Brunswick) + exports sausages and hams largely, as well as Westphalia, but here + again considerable importation takes place from other countries. Goats + are found everywhere, but especially in the hilly districts. Poultry + farming is a considerable industry, the geese of Pomerania and the + fowls of Thuringia and Lorraine being in especial favour. Bee-keeping + is of considerable importance, particularly in north Germany and + Silesia. + + On the whole, despite the prosperous condition of the German + live-stock farming, the consumption of meat exceeds the amount + rendered available by home production, and prices can only be kept + down by a steady increase in the imports from abroad. + + _Fisheries._--The German fisheries, long of little importance, have + been carefully fostered within recent years. The deep-sea fishing in + the North Sea, thanks to the exertions of the German fishing league + (_Deutscher Fischereiverein_) and to government support, is extremely + active. Trawlers are extensively employed, and steamers bring the + catches directly to the large fish markets at Geestemünde and Altona, + whence facilities are afforded by the railways for the rapid transport + of fish to Berlin and other centres. The fish mostly caught are cod, + haddock and herrings, while Heligoland yields lobsters, and the + islands of Föhr, Amrum and Sylt oysters of good quality. The German + North Sea fishing fleet numbered in 1905 618 boats, with an aggregate + crew of 5441 hands. Equally well developed are the Baltic fisheries, + the chief ports engaged in which are Danzig, Eckernförde, Kolberg and + Travemünde. The principal catch is haddock and herrings. The catch of + the North Sea and Baltic fisheries in 1906 was valued at over + £700,000, exclusive of herrings for salting. The fisheries do not, + however, supply the demand for fish, and fresh, salt and dried fish is + imported largely in excess of the home yield. + + _Mines and Minerals._--Germany abounds in minerals, and the + extraordinary industrial development of the country since 1870 is + largely due to its mineral wealth. Having left France much behind in + this respect, it now rivals Great Britain and the United States. + + Germany produces more silver than any other European state, and the + quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the ores in the + mines of Freiburg (Saxony), the Harz Mountains, upper Silesia, + Merseburg, Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden and Arnsberg. Gold is found in + the sand of the rivers Isar, Inn and Rhine, and also, to a limited + extent, on the Harz. The quantity yielded in 1905 was, of silver, + about 400 tons of a value of £1,600,000, and gold, about 4 tons, + valued at about £548,000. + + Lead is produced in considerable quantities in upper Silesia, the Harz + Mountains, in the Prussian province of Nassau, in the Saxon Erzgebirge + and in the Sauerland. The yield in 1905 amounted to about 153,000 + tons; of which 20,000 tons were exported. + + Copper is found principally in the Mansfeld district of the Prussian + province of Saxony and near Arnsberg in the Sauerland, the ore + yielding 31,713 tons in 1905, of which 5000 tons were exported. + + About 90% of the zinc produced in Europe is yielded by Belgium and + Germany. It is mostly found in upper Silesia, around Beuthen, and in + the districts of Wiesbaden and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1905 no less than + 198,000 tons of block zinc were produced, of which 16,500 tons were + exported. + + Of other minerals (with the exceptions of coal, iron and salt treated + below) nickel and antimony are found in the upper Harz; cobalt in the + hilly districts of Hesse and the Saxon Erzgebirge; arsenic in the + Riesengebirge; quicksilver in the Sauerland and in the spurs of the + Saarbrücken coal hills; graphite in Bavaria; porcelain clay in Saxony + and Silesia; amber along the whole Baltic coast; and lime and gypsum + in almost all parts. + + + Coal. + + Coal-mining appears to have been first practised in the 14th century + at Zwickau (Saxony) and on the Ruhr. There are six large coal-fields, + occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which the most important + occupies the basin of the Ruhr, its extent being estimated at 2800 sq. + m. Here there are more than 60 beds, of a total thickness of 150 to + 200 ft. of coal; and the amount in the pits has been estimated at + 45,000 millions of tons. Smaller fields are found near Osnabrück, + Ibbenbüren and Minden, and a larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar + coal-field, within the area enclosed by the rivers Saar, Nahe and + Blies (460 sq. m.), is of great importance. The thickness of 80 beds + amounts to 250 ft., and the total mass of coal is estimated at 45,400 + million tons. The greater part of the basin belongs to Prussia, the + rest to Lorraine. A still larger field exists in the upper Silesian + basin, on the borderland between Austria and Poland, containing about + 50,000 million tons. Beuthen is the chief centre. The Silesian + coal-fields have a second centre in Waldenburg, east of the + Riesengebirge. The Saxon coal-fields stretch eastwards for some miles + from Zwickau. Deposits of less consequence are found in upper Bavaria, + upper Franconia, Baden, the Harz and elsewhere. + + The following table shows the rapidly increasing development of the + coal production. That of lignite is added, the provinces of Saxony and + Brandenburg being rich in this product:-- + + _Production of Coal and Lignite._ + + +------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | | Coal. | Lignite. | + | Year.+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+ + | |Quantities.| Value. | Hands. |Quantities.| Value. | Hands. | + +------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+ + | |Mill. Tons.|Mill. Mks.| |Mill. Tons.|Mill. Mks.| | + | 1871 | 29.4 | 218.4 | .. | 8.5 | 26.2 | | + | 1881 | 48.7 | 252.3 | 180,000 | 12.8 | 38.1 | 25,600 | + | 1891 | 73.7 | 589.5 | 283,000 | 20.5 | 54.2 | 35,700 | + | 1899 | 101.6 | 789.6 | 379,000 | 34.2 | 78.4 | 44,700 | + | 1900 | 109.3 | 966.1 | 414,000 | 40.5 | 98.5 | 50,900 | + | 1905 | 121.2 | 1049.9 | 490,000 | 52.5 | 122.2 | 52,800 | + +------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+----------+--------+ + + This production permits a considerable export of coal to the west and + south of the empire, but the distance from the coal-fields to the + German coast is such that the import of British coal cannot yet be + dispensed with (1905, over 7,000,000 tons). Besides this, from + 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons of lignite come annually from Bohemia. In + north Germany peat is also of importance as a fuel; the area of the + peat moors in Prussia is estimated at 8000 sq. m., of which 2000 are + in the north of Hanover. + + The iron-fields of Germany fall into three main groups: those of the + lower Rhine and Westphalia, of which Dortmund and Düsseldorf are the + centres; those of Lorraine and the Saar; and those of upper Silesia. + The output of the ore has enormously increased of recent years, and + the production of pig iron, as given for 1905, amounted to 10,875,000 + tons of a value of £28,900,000. + + Germany possesses abundant salt deposits. The actual production not + only covers the home consumption, but also allows a yearly increasing + exportation, especially to Russia, Austria and Scandinavia. The + provinces of Saxony and Hanover, with Thuringia and Anhalt, produce + half the whole amount. A large salt-work is found at Strzalkowo + (Posen), and smaller ones near Dortmund, Lippstadt and Minden + (Westphalia). In south Germany salt abounds most in Württemberg (Hall, + Heilbronn, Rottweil); the principal Bavarian works are at the foot of + the Alps near Freilassing and Rosenheim. Hesse and Baden, Lorraine and + the upper Palatinate have also salt-works. The total yield of mined + salt amounted in 1905 to 6,209,000 tons, including 1,165,000 tons of + rock salt. The production has made great advance, having in 1850 been + only 5 million cwts. + +_Manufactures._--In no other country of the world has the manufacturing +industry made such rapid strides within recent years as in Germany. This +extraordinary development of industrial energy embraces practically all +classes of manufactured articles. In a general way the chief +manufactures may be geographically distributed as follows. Prussia, +Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron +manufacture. Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predominant +in the production of textiles, though Silesia and Westphalia manufacture +linen. Cotton goods are largely produced in Baden, Bavaria, +Alsace-Lorraine and Württemberg, woollens and worsteds in Saxony and the +Rhine province, silk in Rhenish Prussia (Elberfeld), Alsace and Baden. +Glass and porcelain are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Saxony; +tobacco in Bremen and Hamburg; chemicals in the Prussian province of +Saxony; watches in Saxony (Glashütte) and Nuremberg; toys in Bavaria; +gold and silver filagree in Berlin and Aschaffenburg; and beer in +Bavaria and Prussia. + + + Iron industry. + + It is perhaps more in respect of its iron industry than of its other + manufactures that Germany has attained a leading position in the + markets of the world. Its chief centres are in Westphalia and the + Rhine province (_auf roter Erde_), in upper Silesia, in + Alsace-Lorraine and in Saxony. Of the total production of pig iron in + 1905 amounting to over 10,000,000 tons, more than the half was + produced in the Rhineland and Westphalia. Huge blast furnaces are in + constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and steel is + constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance has been + made. The greater part of it is produced at or around Essen, where are + the famous Krupp works, and Bochum. Many states have been for a + considerable time supplied by Krupp with steel guns and battleship + plates. The export of steel (railway) rails and bridges from this part + is steadily on the increase. + + Hardware also, the production of which is centred in Solingen, + Heilbronn, Esslingen, &c., is largely exported. Germany stands second + to Great Britain in the manufacture of machines and engines. There are + in many large cities of north Germany extensive establishments for + this purpose, but the industry is not limited to the large cities. In + agricultural machinery Germany is a serious competitor with England. + The locomotives and wagons for the German railways are almost + exclusively built in Germany; and Russia, as well as Austria, receives + large supplies of railway plant from German works. In shipbuilding, + likewise, Germany is practically independent, yards having been + established for the construction of the largest vessels. + + + Cotton and textiles. + + Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France exceeded that + in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture is pursued largely in + Alsace, the balance is now against the former country. In 1905 there + were about 9,000,000 spindles in Germany. The export of the goods + manufactured amounted in this year to an estimated value of + £19,600,000. Cotton spinning and weaving are not confined to one + district, but are prosecuted in upper Alsace (Mülhausen, Gebweiler, + Colmar), in Saxony (Zwickau, Chemnitz, Annaberg), in Silesia (Breslau, + Liegnitz), in the Rhine province (Düsseldorf, Münster, Cologne), in + Erfurt and Hanover, in Württemberg (Reutlingen, Cannstatt), in Baden, + Bavaria (Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth) and in the Palatinate. + + Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home production of + these materials is not sufficient to meet the demand of manufactures, + and large quantities of them have to be imported. In 1895 almost a + million persons (half of them women) were employed in this branch of + industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin and flannel + manufacture was estimated at £18,000,000. The chief seats of this + manufacture are the Rhenish districts of Aix-la-Chapelle, Düren, Eupen + and Lennep, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower Lusatia, the chief + centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Spremberg, Sagan and + Sommerfeld. + + The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials centres + mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace. Furniture + covers, table covers and plush are made in Elberfeld and Chemnitz, in + Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elberfeld and Barmen); + shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland; carpets in Berlin, Barmen + and Silesia. In the town of Schmiedeberg in the last district, as also + in Cottbus (Lusatia), oriental patterns are successfully imitated. The + chief seats of the stocking manufacture are Chemnitz and Zwickau in + Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia. The export of woollen goods from + Germany in 1905 amounted to a value of £13,000,000. + + Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of + manufacture, Germany is now left far behind in this industry by Great + Britain, France and Austria-Hungary. This branch of textile + manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia, Saxony + and Württemberg, while Hirschberg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia + and Zittau in Saxony are noted for the excellence of their + productions. The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly, + coarse in texture, vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of + Belfast. In the textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in + 1905, 276,000 fine spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms + in operation, and, in 1905, linen and jute materials were exported of + an estimated value of over £2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the + principal centres of which are Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg, + has of late attained considerable dimensions. + + Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the empire, + and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by importation. The + main centre of the silk industry is Crefeld and its neighbourhood; + then come Elberfeld and Barmen, Aix-la-Chapelle, as well as Berlin, + Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district around Mülhausen in + Alsace. + + + Paper. + + The manufacture of paper is prosecuted almost everywhere in the + empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895, and the exports in + 1905 amounted to more than £3,700,000 sterling, as against imports of + a value of over £700,000. The manufacture is carried on to the largest + extent in the Rhine province, in Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers + are produced chiefly in Rhenish Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer + sorts of letter-paper in Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg; and + printing-paper (especially for books) in Leipzig, Berlin and + Frankfort-on-Main. + + + Leather. + + The chief seat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in which + Mainz and Worms produce excellent material. In Prussia large factories + are in operation in the Rhine province, in Westphalia and Silesia + (Brieg). Boot and shoe manufactures are carried on everywhere; but the + best goods are produced by Mainz and Pirmasens. Gloves for export are + extensively made in Württemberg, and Offenbach and Aschaffenburg are + renowned for fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the + like. + + Berlin and Mainz are celebrated for the manufacture of furniture; + Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for pencils; + Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes; and Cologne for the + famous eau-de-Cologne. + + + Sugar. + + The beetroot sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres mainly + in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the chief + market for the whole of Germany, in Anhalt, Brunswick and Silesia. The + number of factories was, in 1905, 376, and the amount of raw sugar and + molasses produced amounted to 2,643,531 metric tons, and of refined + sugar 1,711,063 tons. + + + Beer. + + Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The production is + relatively greatest in Bavaria. The _Brausteuergebiet_ (beer excise + district) embraces all the states forming the Zollverein, with the + exception of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which + countries the excise duties are separately collected. The total number + of breweries in the beer excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995, + which produced 1017 million gallons; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries + with 392 million gallons; in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million + gallons; in Württemberg over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons; + and in Alsace-Lorraine 95 breweries with about 29 million gallons. The + amount brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly to + 160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 in + Württemberg; 260 in Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It may be + remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darker colour + than that produced in other states, and extra strong brews are + exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad. + +_Commerce._--The rapid development of German trade dates from the +_Zollverein_ (customs union), under the special rules and regulations of +which it is administered. The Zollverein emanates from a convention +originally entered into, in 1828, between Prussia and Hesse, which, +subsequently joined by the Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of +Saxony and the Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the +countries concerned, on the 1st of January 1834. With progressive +territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embracing the +grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the German empire was +founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m., with a population of +40,678,000. The last important addition was in October 1888, when +Hamburg and Bremen were incorporated. Included within it, besides the +grand-duchy of Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and +Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories of +Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven and Geestemünde, Heligoland, and small +portions of the districts of Constance and Waldshut, lying on the Baden +Swiss frontier. Down to 1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade +country. In this year, however, a rigid protective system was introduced +by the _Zolltarifgesetz_, since modified by the commercial treaties +between Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium, of +the 1st of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the 25th of +December 1902. The foreign commercial relations of Germany were again +altered by the general and conventional customs tariff, which came into +force on the 1st of March 1906. The Zolltarifgesetz of the 15th of July +1879, while restricting the former free import, imposed considerable +duties. Exempt from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific +instruments, ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four +articles--notably beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish +oils, ether, alum and soda--were unaffected by the change, while duties +were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles which had +previously been admitted duty free, such as pig iron, machines and +locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow, horses, cattle and sheep; +and, again, the tariff law further increased the duties leviable upon +numerous other articles. Export duties were abolished in 1865 and +transit dues in 1861. The law under which Great Britain enjoyed the +"most favoured nation treatment" expired on the 31st of December 1905, +but its provisions were continued by the _Bundesrat_ until further +notice. The average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany +under the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission +of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce and other +sources. There are separate valuations for imports and exports. The +price fixed is that of the goods at the moment of crossing the frontier. +For imports the price does not include customs duties, cost of +transport, insurance, warehousing, &c., incurred after the frontier is +passed. For exports, the price includes all charges within the +territory, but drawbacks and bounties are not taken into account. The +quantities are determined according to obligatory declarations, and, for +imports, the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For +packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence goods are +imported and the ultimate destination of exports are registered. The +import dues amounted in the year 1906, the first year of the revised +tariff, to about £31,639,000, or about 10s. 5d. per head of population. + + Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire are necessarily + confined to comparatively recent times. The quantities of such + imported articles as are liable to duty have, indeed, been known for + many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing the + value both of imports and of exports. But when the results of these + tables proved the importation to be very much greater than the + exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of the exports + was erroneous and below the reality. In 1872 the value of the imports + was placed at £173,400,000 and that of the exports at £124,700,000. In + 1905 the figures were--imports, £371,000,000, and exports, + £292,000,000, including precious metals. + +Table A following shows the classification of goods adopted before the +tariff revision of 1906. From 1907 a new classification has been +adopted, and the change thus introduced is so great that it is +impossible to make any comparisons between the statistics of years +subsequent to and preceding the year 1906. Table B shows imports and +exports for 1907 and 1908 according to the new classification adopted. + + TABLE A.--_Classes of Imports and Exports, 1905._ + + +-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | | Import. | Export. | + +-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Refuse. | £6,866,250 | £1,170,200 | + | Cotton and cottons. | 23,488,750 | 22,949,600 | + | Lead and by-products. | 996,300 | 979,400 | + | Brush and sieve makers' goods. | 102,400 | 515,450 | + | Drugs, chemists' and oilmen's | | | + | colours. | 15,896,900 | 23,196,250 | + | Iron and iron goods. | 3,156,500 | 33,126,400 | + | Ores, precious metals, asbestos, &c.| 28,834,050 | 9,899,450 | + | Flax and other vegetable spinning | | | + | materials except cotton. | 6,794,100 | 1,235,700 | + | Grain and agricultural produce. | 59,136,200 | 7,496,500 | + | Glass. | 538,050 | 2,743,900 | + | Hair, feathers, bristles. | 3,218,600 | 1,848,150 | + | Skins. | 18,965,500 | 9,548,450 | + | Wood and wooden wares. | 16,940,850 | 6,056,150 | + | Hops. | 913,150 | 2,135,600 | + | Instruments, machines, &c. | 4,351,500 | 17,898,250 | + | Calendars. | 34,300 | 74,700 | + | Caoutchouc, &c. | 7,379,600 | 4,616,400 | + | Clothes, body linen, millinery. | 739,900 | 7,321,050 | + | Copper and copper goods. | 8,273,400 | 10,307,050 | + | Hardware, &c. | 2,042,400 | 12,610,550 | + | Leather and leather goods. | 3,567,950 | 9,665,300 | + | Linens. | 1,750,100 | 1,904,950 | + | Candles. | 11,150 | 42,350 | + | Literary and works of art. | 3,066,050 | 9,025,500 | + | Groceries and confectionery. | 41,446,400 | 17,585,000 | + | Fats and oils. | 12,510,600 | 2,631,600 | + | Paper goods. | 1,086,800 | 7,158,800 | + | Furs. | 265,700 | 720,200 | + | Petroleum. | 5,036,600 | 132,300 | + | Silks and silk goods. | 9,523,300 | 8,889,000 | + | Soap and perfumes. | 151,600 | 768,200 | + | Playing cards. | 400 | 18,950 | + | Stone goods. | 2,822,000 | 2,110,550 | + | Coal, lignite, coke and peat. | 10,136,800 | 15,096,450 | + | Straw and hemp goods. | 561,650 | 262,100 | + | Tar, pitch, resin. | 2,504,400 | 834,100 | + | Animals, and animal products. | 9,926,200 | 590,700 | + | Earthenware goods. | 391,650 | 5,076,350 | + | Cattle. | 11,366,200 | 725,100 | + | Oilcloth. | 43,150 | 177,300 | + | Wools and woollen textiles. | 25,290,200 | 21,562,900 | + | Zinc and zinc goods. | 682,250 | 2,413,600 | + | Tin and japanned goods. | 1,770,550 | 744,100 | + | Goods insufficiently declared. | . . | 806,300 | + | +-------------+-------------+ + | Total. |£352,317,250 |£284,626,900 | + +-------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + + TABLE B.--_Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908._ + + +-----------------------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | | Imports. | Exports. | + | +-----------------+-----------------+ + | Groups of Articles. | Value in £1000. | Value in £1000. | + | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | 1907. | 1908.* | 1907. | 1908.* | + +-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + |Agricultural and forest | | | | | + | produce** |215,532 |205,512 | 45,796 | 50,324 | + | Agricultural produce*** | 93,253 |102,954 | 10,369 | 15,168 | + | Colonial produce and | | | | | + | substitutes for the same | 12,151 | 12,328 | 84 | 108 | + | Southern fruit and fruit | | | | | + | peel | 3,214 | 3,262 | 20 | 23 | + | Forest produce | 28,166 | 26,299 | 4,066 | 3,967 | + | Resins | 8,216 | 8,209 | 2,500 | 2,325 | + | Animals and animal | | | | | + | products** | 63,283 | 61,794 | 9,607 | 9,676 | + | Hides and skins | 16,920 | 17,699 | 5,383 | 5,453 | + | Meat, oil, sugar, beverages| 21,523 | 20,404 | 20,284 | 20,048 | + |Mineral and fossil raw | | | | | + | materials, mineral oils | 47,575 | 45,540 | 26,166 | 26,208 | + | Earths and stones | 6,541 | 7,542 | 3,250 | 3,006 | + | Ores, slag, cinders | 16,465 | 15,451 | 1,407 | 1,206 | + | Mineral fuel | 16,895 | 14,910 | 19,445 | 20,020 | + | Mineral oils and other | | | | | + | fossil raw materials | 7,168 | 7,209 | 558 | 491 | + | Coal-tar, coal-tar oils | 506 | 428 | 1,506 | 1,485 | + |Chemical and pharmaceutical | | | | | + | products, colours | 14,784 | 14,850 | 28,116 | 26,845 | + | Chemical primary materials,| | | | | + | acids, salts | 9,226 | 9,550 | 9,661 | 9,832 | + | Colours and dyeing | | | | | + | materials | 951 | 879 | 11,630 | 10,518 | + | Varnish, lacquer | 189 | 158 | 206 | 221 | + | Ether, alcohol not included| | | | | + | elsewhere, essential | | | | | + | oils, perfumery and | | | | | + | cosmetics | 1,979 | 1,918 | 1,118 | 1,004 | + | Artificial manures | 992 | 1,001 | 1,303 | 1,236 | + | Explosives of all kinds | 86 | 74 | 1,612 | 1,269 | + | Other chemical and | | | | | + | pharmaceutical products | 1,361 | 1,270 | 2,586 | 2,765 | + |Animal and vegetable textile | | | | | + | materials and wares | | | | | + | thereof | 98,540 | 92,105 | 78,086 | 70,343 | + | Silk and silk goods | 13,533 | 13,704 | 13,324 | 11,364 | + | Wool | 33,260 | 31,195 | 27,114 | 24,918 | + | Unworked wool | 19,975 | 19,309 | 2,647 | 2,561 | + | Worked wool | 4,625 | 4,961 | 3,799 | 3,393 | + | Wares of spun wool | 8,660 | 6,925 | 20,668 | 18,964 | + | Cotton | 38,543 | 34,456 | 29,004 | 26,201 | + | Unworked cotton | 27,705 | 26,167 | 3,264 | 2,987 | + | Worked cotton | 980 | 950 | 912 | 891 | + | Cotton wares | 9,858 | 7,338 | 24,828 | 22,324 | + | Other vegetable textile | | | | | + | materials | 10,783 | 10,411 | 3,777 | 3,471 | + | Unworked | 7,923 | 7,819 | 1,125 | 1,211 | + | Worked | 166 | 168 | 122 | 137 | + | Wares thereof | 2,685 | 2,423 | 2,531 | 2,124 | + |Leather and leather wares, | | | | | + | furriers' wares | 6,695 | 6,657 | 16,778 | 17,835 | + | Leather | 2,658 | 2,804 | 7,503 | 8,328 | + | Leather wares | 1,332 | 1,176 | 4,016 | 3,867 | + | Furriers' wares | 2,698 | 2,672 | 5,237 | 5,616 | + |Caoutchouc wares | 694 | 754 | 2,328 | 2,325 | + | Wares of soft caoutchouc | 670 | 735 | 1,694 | 1,723 | + | Hardened caoutchouc and | | | | | + | wares thereof | 24 | 19 | 634 | 602 | + |Wares of animal or vegetable | | | | | + | material for carving or | | | | | + | moulding | 2,448 | 2,068 | 4,260 | 4,131 | + |Wooden wares | 859 | 769 | 1,707 | 1,666 | + |Paper, cardboard and wares | | | | | + | thereof | 1,349 | 1,205 | 9,342 | 9,111 | + |Books, pictures, paintings | 1,992 | 2,036 | 4,667 | 4,765 | + |Earthenware | 467 | 377 | 5,224 | 4,612 | + |Glass and glassware | 747 | 728 | 5,671 | 5,149 | + |Precious metals and wares | | | | | + | thereof | 13,281 | 21,243 | 18,629 | 6,858 | + | Gold | 11,616 | 19,295 | 15,898 | 6,151 | + | Gold | 11,184 | 18,873 | 11,071 | 2,897 | + | Gold wares | 432 | 422 | 4,827 | 3,254 | + | Silver | 1,665 | 1,948 | 2,731 | 2,707 | + | Silver | 1,434 | 1,716 | 1,206 | 1,418 | + | Silver wares | 231 | 232 | 1,525 | 1,289 | + |Base metals and wares | | | | | + | thereof | 26,035 | 26,398 | 57,146 | 58,895 | + | Iron and iron wares | 5,903 | 4,472 | 38,899 | 40,162 | + | Pig iron (including | | | | | + | non-malleable alloys) | 1,601 | 912 | 966 | 905 | + | Iron wares | 4,302 | 3,560 | 37,933 | 39,257 | + | Aluminium and aluminium | | | | | + | wares | 546 | 453 | 368 | 273 | + | Raw aluminium | 529 | 433 | 152 | 77 | + | Aluminium wares | 17 | 20 | 216 | 196 | + | Lead and lead wares | 1,438 | 1,484 | 945 | 985 | + | Raw lead (including | | | | | + | waste) | 1,427 | 1,470 | 525 | 568 | + | Lead wares | 11 | 14 | 420 | 417 | + | Zinc and zinc wares | 727 | 847 | 2,433 | 2,489 | + | Raw zinc (including | | | | | + | waste) | 706 | 825 | 1,631 | 1,784 | + | Zinc wares | 21 | 22 | 802 | 705 | + | Tin and tin wares | 2,405 | 2,629 | 1,380 | 1,236 | + | Raw tin (including | | | | | + | waste) | 2,357 | 2,581 | 787 | 688 | + | Tin wares | 48 | 48 | 593 | 548 | + | Nickel and nickel wares | 400 | 540 | 246 | 298 | + | Raw nickel | 375 | 527 | 160 | 233 | + | Nickel wares | 25 | 13 | 86 | 65 | + | Copper and copper wares | 13,803 | 15,088 | 7,998 | 8,470 | + | Raw copper (including | | | | | + | copper coin, brass, | | | | | + | tombac, &c.) | 12,995 | 14,192 | 2,204 | 2,014 | + | Copper wares | 808 | 896 | 5,794 | 6,456 | + | Instruments of precision | 813 | 885 | 4,877 | 4,982 | + |Machinery, vehicles | 7,093 | 5,489 | 33,117 | 34,653 | + | Machinery | 4,090 | 3,451 | 19,041 | 20,684 | + | Electro-technical products | 411 | 451 | 8,227 | 9,107 | + | Vehicles and vessels | 2,562 | 1,587 | 5,849 | 4,862 | + |Firearms, clocks, musical | | | | | + | instruments, toys | 1,732 | 1,424 | 8,704 | 7,505 | + | Clocks and watches | 1,382 | 1,134 | 1,296 | 1,210 | + | Musical instruments | 223 | 170 | 3,176 | 2,780 | + | Toys | 39 | 35 | 3,949 | 3,273 | + | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Total |442,663 |429,636 |349,114 |336,347 | + +-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + + * Provisional figures only. + ** Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials. + *** Excluding vegetable textile materials. + + + The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and + exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany and the chief + countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907. + + _Imports._ + + +---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. | + | +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+ + | Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of | + | | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's| + | | £1000. | Total | £1000. | Total | £1000. | Total | + | | | Imports.| | Imports.| | Imports.| + +---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+ + | Belgium | 13,439 | 3.8 | 14,315 | 3.6 | 14,586 | 3.4 | + | Denmark | 5,986 | 1.7 | 6,302 | 1.6 | 6,050 | 1.4 | + | France | 19,772 | 5.6 | 21,306 | 5.4 | 22,302 | 5.2 | + | United Kingdom | 35,320 | 10.1 | 40,531 | 10.3 | 48,014 | 11.2 | + | Italy | 10,350 | 3 | 11,851 | 3 | 14,030 | 3.3 | + | Netherlands | 12,077 | 3 | 11,864 | 3 | 11,187 | 2.6 | + | Austria-Hungary | 36,974 | 10.6 | 39,814 | 10.1 | 39,939 | 9.3 | + | Rumania | 4,568 | 1.3 | 5,774 | 1.5 | 7,365 | 1.7 | + | Russia | 47,816 | 13.6 | 52,528 | 13.4 | 54,447 | 12.7 | + | Sweden | 5,887 | 1.7 | 7,359 | 1.9 | 8,457 | 2 | + | Switzerland | 8,980 | 2.6 | 10,659 | 2.9 | 10,366 | 2.4 | + | Spain | 5,742 | 1.6 | 7,410 | 1.9 | 6,878 | 1.6 | + | British South Africa| 1,769 | 0.5 | 1,766 | 0.4 | 2,258 | 0.5 | + | Dominion of Canada | 481 | 0.1 | 463 | 0.1 | 483 | 0.1 | + | New Zealand | 75 | .. | 87 | .. | 94 | .. | + | British West Africa | 2,562 | 0.7 | 2,731 | 0.7 | 3,601 | 0.8 | + | British India | 13,657 | 3.9 | 15,842 | 4 | 20,016 | 4.7 | + | Dutch Indies | 5,848 | 1.7 | 7,002 | 1.8 | 9,199 | 2.1 | + | Argentine Republic | 18,150 | 5.2 | 18,302 | 4.7 | 21,756 | 5.1 | + | Brazil | 8,454 | 2.4 | 9,246 | 2.4 | 9,636 | 2.2 | + | Chile | 6,536 | 1.9 | 7,131 | 1.8 | 7,074 | 1.6 | + | United States | 48,770 | 13.9 | 60,787 | 15.4 | 64,864 | 15.1 | + | Commonwealth of | | | | | | | + | Australia | 7,690 | 2.2 | 8,619 | 2.2 | 11,209 | 2.6 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+ + + _Exports._ + + +---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. | + | +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------=----------+ + | Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of | + | | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's| + | | £1000. | Total | £1000. | Total | £1000. | Total | + | | | Exports.| | Exports.| | Exports.| + +---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+ + | Belgium | 15,364 | 5.5 | 17,509 | 5.6 | 16,861 | 5 | + | Denmark | 8,668 | 3.1 | 9,699 | 3.1 | 10,182 | 3 | + | France | 14,420 | 5.1 | 18,815 | 6 | 22,080 | 6.6 | + | United Kingdom | 51,253 | 18.2 | 52,473 | 16.8 | 52,135 | 15.5 | + | Italy | 8,045 | 2.9 | 11,354 | 3.6 | 14,893 | 4.4 | + | Netherlands | 21,295 | 7.6 | 21,799 | 7 | 22,232 | 6.6 | + | Norway | 3,447 | 1.2 | 3,573 | 1.2 | 4,211 | 1.3 | + | Austria-Hungary | 28,526 | 10.1 | 31,926 | 10.2 | 35,231 | 10.5 | + | Rumania | 2,144 | 0.8 | 3,140 | 1 | 3,372 | 1 | + | Russia | 17,027 | 6 | 19,962 | 6.4 | 21,531 | 6.4 | + | Sweden | 7,653 | 2.7 | 8,675 | 2.8 | 9,177 | 2.7 | + | Switzerland | 17,649 | 6.3 | 18,367 | 5.9 | 21,948 | 6.5 | + | Spain | 2,609 | 0.9 | 2,838 | 0.9 | 3,228 | 1 | + | British South Africa| 1,687 | 0.6 | 1,607 | 0.5 | 1,422 | 0.4 | + | Dominion of Canada | 1,071 | 0.4 | 1,203 | 0.4 | 1,456 | 0.4 | + | New Zealand | 227 | 0.1 | 244 | 0.1 | 263 | 0.1 | + | Turkey | 3,484 | 1.3 | 3,357 | 1.1 | 4,011 | 1.2 | + | British India | 4,226 | 1.5 | 5,011 | 1.6 | 4,868 | 1.4 | + | China | 3,727 | 1.3 | 3,331 | 1.1 | 3,105 | 0.9 | + | Japan | 4,158 | 1.5 | 4,328 | 1.4 | 5,036 | 1.5 | + | Argentine Republic | 6,463 | 2.3 | 8,367 | 2.7 | 8,810 | 2.6 | + | Brazil | 3,525 | 1.3 | 4,364 | 1.4 | 5,118 | 1.5 | + | United States | 26,660 | 9.5 | 31,281 | 10 | 32,070 | 9.5 | + | Commonwealth of | | | | | | | + | Australia | 2,264 | 0.8 | 2,863 | 0.9 | 3,004 | 0.9 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+ + + The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which progresses + _pari passu_ with its greatly increased production. The export of + ships from the United Kingdom to the empire decreased during two + years, 1903 (£305,682) and 1904 (£365,062), almost to a vanishing + point, German yards being able to cope with the demands made upon them + for the supply of vessels of all classes, including mercantile vessels + and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years, however, the degree of + employment in German yards increased to such an extent, principally + owing to the placing of the Admiralty contracts with private builders, + that the more urgent orders for mercantile vessels were placed abroad. + + The following tables give the value of trade between the United + Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:-- + + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + | Staple Imports into the United | | | + | Kingdom from Germany. | 1900. | 1905. | + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + | | £ | £ | + | Sugar | 9,164,573 |10,488,085 | + | Glass and manufactures | 1,078,648 | 1,108,117 | + | Eggs | 1,017,119 | 764,966 | + | Cottons and yarn | 992,244 | 1,476,385 | + | Woollens and yarn | 1,312,671 | 1,984,475 | + | Iron and steel and manufactures| 1,012,376 | 379,479 | + | Machinery | 411,178 | 735,536 | + | Paper | 523,544 | 528,946 | + | Musical instruments | 660,777 | 676,391 | + | Toys | 644,690 | 714,628 | + | Zinc and manufactures | 461,023 | 673,602 | + | Wood and manufactures | 1,470,839 | 1,109,584 | + | Chemicals | 513,200 | 735,830 | + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + | Principal Articles exported by | | | + | Great Britain to Germany. | 1900. | 1905. | + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + | | £ | £ | + | Cottons and yarn | 3,843,917 | 4,941,917 | + | Woollens and yarn | 3,743,842 | 3,795,591 | + | Alpaca, &c., yarn | 1,022,259 | 1,325,519 | + | Wool | 742,632 | 1,691,035 | + | Ironwork | 2,937,055 | 1,500,414 | + | Herrings | 1,651,441 | 2,042,483 | + | Machinery | 2,040,797 | 2,102,835 | + | Coals, cinders | 4,267,172 | 3,406,535 | + | New ships | 1,592,865 | 1,377,081 | + +--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+ + +_Navigation._--The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the world, and +the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a respected name long before +a German mercantile marine, properly so called, was heard of. Many +Hamburg vessels sailed under charter of English and other houses in +foreign, especially Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have +carried a common flag--black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg, +Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia had each its +own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed under the Danish flag. +The German mercantile fleet occupies, in respect of the number of +vessels, the fourth place--after Great Britain, the United States of +America and Norway; but in respect of tonnage it stands third--after +Great Britain and the United States only. + +The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January of the +two years 1905 and 1908:-- + + +-----------------+-----------------+------------------+------------------+ + | | Baltic Ports. | North Sea Ports. | Total Shipping. | + | +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + | |Number.| Tonnage.|Number.| Tonnage. |Number.| Tonnage. | + |-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + |1905-- | | | | | | | + | Sailing vessels| 386 | 19,067 | 2181 | 559,436 | 2567 | 578,503 | + | Steamers | 486 | 236,509 | 1171 |1,537,563 | 1657 |1,774,072 | + |-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + | Totals | 872 | 255,576 | 3352 |2,096,999 | 4224 |2,352,575 | + | +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + |1908-- | | | | | | | + | Sailing vessels| 394 | 17,472 | 2255 | 516,180 | 2649 | 533,652 | + | Steamers | 521 | 274,952 | 140l |1,981,831 | 1922 |2,256,783 | + | +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + | Totals | 915 | 292,424 | 3656 |2,498,011 | 4571 |2,790,435 | + +-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+ + +In 1905, 2136 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of +284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors of +the mercantile marine was 60,616 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908. + +The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Lübeck, Flensburg, +Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), Geestemünde and Emden; and the +number and tonnage of vessels of foreign nationality entering and +clearing the ports of the empire, as compared with national shipping, +were in 1906:-- + + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + | | Number | | Number | | + | Foreign Ships.| entered | Tonnage. | cleared | Tonnage. | + | |in Cargo.| |in Cargo.| | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Danish | 5917 |1,589,346 | 5059 |1,219,388 | + | British | 5327 |5,129,017 | 3211 |2,552,268 | + | Swedish | 4891 |1,164,431 | 3317 | 747,656 | + | Dutch | 2181 | 458,401 | 1973 | 316,562 | + | Norwegian | 1565 | 817,483 | 720 | 347,811 | + | Russian | 720 | 250,564 | 439 | 143,983 | + +---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + +The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for +emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast commercial +trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the main gates +of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom and Germany. + +The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and +coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000. + +_Railways._--The period of railway construction was inaugurated in +Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from Nuremberg to +Fürth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.) between Leipzig and +Dresden, opened throughout in 1839. The development of the railway +system was slow and was not conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a +central government operated injuriously, for it often happened that +intricate negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign +states were required before a line could be constructed; and, moreover, +the course it was to take was often determined less by the general +exigencies of commerce than by many trifling interests or desires of +neighbouring states. The state which was most self-seeking in its +railway politics was Hanover, which separated the eastern and western +parts of the kingdom of Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia +from this source were experienced in a still greater degree by the +seaports of Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the +particularism displayed by Hanover. + +The making of railways was from the outset regarded by some German +states as exclusively a function of the government. The South German +states, for example, have only possessed state railways. In Prussia +numerous private companies, in the first instance, constructed their +systems, and the state contented itself for the most part with laying +lines in such districts only as were not likely to attract private +capital. + +The development of the German railway system falls conveniently into +four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces the beginnings of +railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848, shows the linking-up of +various existing lines and the establishment of inter-connexion between +the chief towns. The third, down to 1881, shows the gradual +establishment of state control in Prussia, and the formation of direct +trunk lines. The fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of +practically all the railways in Prussia by the government, and the +introduction of a uniform system of interworking between the various +state systems. The purchase of the railways by the Prussian government +was on the whole equably carried out, but there were several hard cases +in the expropriation of some of the smaller private lines. + +The majority of the German railways are now owned by the state +governments. Out of 34,470 m. of railway completed and open for traffic +in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property of private undertakings, and of +these about 150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the railways are +of the normal 4 ft. 8½ in. gauge. Narrow-gauge (2½ ft.) lines--or light +railways--extended over 1218 m. in 1903, and of these 537 m. were worked +by the state. + +The board responsible for the imperial control over the whole railway +system in Germany is the _Reichseisenbahnamt_ in Berlin, the +administration of the various state systems residing, in Prussia, in the +ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the ministry of the royal house +and of the exterior; in Württemberg in the ministry of the exterior; in +Saxony in the ministry of the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in +commissions of the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the +imperial ministry of railways. + + The management of the Prussian railway system is committed to the + charge of twenty "directions," into which the whole network of lines + is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, Danzig, + Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main, Halle a.d. + Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Königsberg, Magdeburg, + Münster, Posen, Saarbrücken and Stettin. The entire length of the + system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about 950 m. to + each "direction." The smallest mileage controlled by a "direction" is + Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Königsberg, with 1200 m. + + The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and managed, + apart from the "general direction" in Munich, by ten traffic boards, + in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich, Nuremberg, + Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Würzburg. + + The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and is + controlled by the general direction in Dresden. + + The length of the Württemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed by a + general direction in Stuttgart. + + Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382, + Mecklenburg-Schwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Railways + lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by Prussia. + + Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked by + the imperial general direction in Strassburg. + + By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk + line routes have been developed--notably the lines + Berlin-Vienna-Budapest; Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris; + Berlin-Halle-Frankfort-on-Main-Basel; Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and + Verona; and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform + system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining its + own fares--a condition that led to much confusion. From the 1st of May + 1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary trains the + rate for first class was fixed at 1¼d. a mile; for second class at + .7d.; for third class at ½d., and for fourth class at ¼d. a mile. For + express trains an extra charge is made of 2s. for distances exceeding + 93 m. (150 kils.) in the two superior classes, and 1s. for a lesser + distance, and of 1s. and 6d. respectively in the case of third class + tickets. Fourth class passengers are not conveyed by express trains. + The above rates include government duty; but the privilege of free + luggage (as up to 56 lb.) has been withdrawn, and all luggage other + than hand baggage taken into the carriages is charged for. In 1903 + 371,084,000 metric tons of goods, including animals, were conveyed by + the German railways, yielding £68,085,000 sterling, and the number of + passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding £29,300,000. + + The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications to + distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Bremerhaven) and Hamburg + (Cuxhaven) both of which are situate on the North Sea. From them great + steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg-American, + the Hamburg South American and the German East African steamship + companies, maintain express mail and other services with North and + South America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope and the Far East. + London and other English ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns + are also served by passenger steamboat sailings from the two great + North Sea ports. The Baltic ports, such as Lübeck, Stettin, Danzig + (Neufahrwasser) and Königsberg, principally provide communication with + the coast towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden. + +_Waterways._--In Germany the waterways are almost solely in the +possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the Kaiser Wilhelm +canal (1887-1895), 61 m. long, connecting the North Sea and the Baltic; +it was made with a breadth at bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213 +ft., and with a depth of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1908 work was begun for +doubling the bottom width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect +of internal navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are +the Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, constructed in +1892-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth of 8 ft. The latter, +constructed 1895-1900, has a length of 43 m. and a mean depth of about +7½ ft. A project was sanctioned in 1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels +up to 600 tons, from the Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a +portion of the Dortmund-Ems canal; for a channel accommodating vessels +of similar size between Berlin and Stettin; for improving the waterway +between the Oder and the Vistula, so as to render it capable of +accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the canalization of the upper +Oder. + + On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. In South + Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of + Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by + King Louis I. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and the + Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to Kelheim on the + Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine with the + Rhone and the Marne, a branch serving the collieries of the Saar + valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal by which + Russian grain is conveyed to Königsberg, joining the Pregel to the + Memel, and the upper Silesian coalfield is in communication with the + Oder by means of the Klodnitz canal. The greatest number of canals is + found around Berlin; they serve to join the Spree to the Oder and + Elbe, and include the Teltow canal opened in 1906. The canals in + Germany (including ship canals through lakes) have a total length of + about 2600 m. Navigable and canalized rivers, to which belong the + great water-systems of the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length + of about 6000 m. + +_Roads._--The construction of good highways has been well attended to in +Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The separation of the empire +into small states was favourable to road-making, inasmuch as it was +principally the smaller governments that expended large sums for their +network of roads. Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for +the excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still from +the want of good highways. The introduction of railways for a time +diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect has of late been +to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts (_Kreise_) have +undertaken the charge of the construction of the roads; but they receive +a subsidy from the public funds of the several provinces. Turnpikes were +abolished in Prussia in 1874 and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of +the public roads is estimated at 80,000 m. + +_Posts and Telegraphs._--With the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg, +which have administrations of their own, all the German states belong to +the imperial postal district (_Reichspostgebiet_). Since 1874 the postal +and telegraphic departments have been combined. Both branches of +administration have undergone a surprising development, especially since +the reduction of the postal rates. Germany, including Bavaria and +Württemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal union +(Deutsch-Österreichischer Postverband), besides forming part of the +international postal union. There are no statistics of posts and +telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the North German union was +formed that the lesser states resigned their right of carrying mails in +favour of the central authority. Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis +was postmaster-general of Germany, but only some of the central states +belonged to his postal territory. The seat of management was +Frankfort-on-Main. + + The following table shows the growth in the number of post offices for + the whole empire:-- + + +------+-------------+-------------+ + | Year.|Post Offices.|Men employed.| + +------+-------------+-------------+ + | 1872 | 7,518 | .. | + | 1880 | 9,460 | .. | + | 1890 | 24,952 | 128,687 | + | 1899 | 36,388 | 206,945 | + | 1904 | 38,658 | 261,985 | + | 1907 | 40,083 | 319,026 | + +------+-------------+-------------+ + + In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1890, + 17,200; and in 1907, 37,309. There were 188 places provided with + telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts + amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to £33,789,460, and the + expenditure to £31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of £2,692,516. + +_Constitution._--The constitution of the German empire is, in all +essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which came into +force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the presidency (_Praesidium_) +of the confederation was vested in the king of Prussia and his heirs. As +a result of the Franco-German war of 1870 the South German states joined +the confederation; on the 9th of December 1870 the diet of the +confederation accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation +the name of German Empire (_Deutsche Reich_), and on the 18th of January +1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor (_Deutscher +Kaiser_) at Versailles. This was a change of style, not of functions and +powers. The title is "German emperor," not "emperor of Germany," being +intended to show that the Kaiser is but _primus inter pares_ in a +confederation of territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial +sovereign (_Landesherr_) extends over Prussia, not over Germany. + +The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzollern, and +follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises the imperial +power in the name of the confederated states. In his office he is +assisted by a federal council (_Bundesrat_), which represents the +governments of the individual states of Germany. The members of this +council, 58 in number, are appointed for each session by the governments +of the individual states. The legislative functions of the empire are +vested in the emperor, the Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial +Diet. The members of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space +of five years by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member +is elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants. + +As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme and +independent control in matters relating to military affairs and the +navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce, to posts and +telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these affect the common +defence of the country. Bavaria and Württemberg, however, have preserved +their own postal and telegraphic administration. The legislative power +of the empire also takes precedence of that of the separate states in +the regulation of matters affecting freedom of migration +(_Freizügigkeit_), domicile, settlement and the rights of German +subjects generally, as well as in all that relates to banking, patents, +protection of intellectual property, navigation of rivers and canals, +civil and criminal legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and +control of the press and of associations. + +The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents the empire +internationally, and can declare war if defensive, and make peace as +well as enter into treaties with other nations; he also appoints and +receives ambassadors. For declaring offensive war the consent of the +federal council must be obtained. The separate states have the privilege +of sending ambassadors to the other courts; but all consuls abroad are +officials of the empire and are named by the emperor. + +Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions convoked by +the emperor who has the right of proroguing and dissolving the Diet; but +the prorogation must not exceed 60 days, and in case of dissolution new +elections must be ordered within 60 days, and the new session opened +within 90 days. All laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order +to pass, receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal +council and the Reichstag. + + Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrat by four commissioners + (_Kommissäre_), without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter + (imperial lieutenant). + + The fifty-eight members of the Bundesrat are nominated by the + governments of the individual states for each session; while the + members of the Reichstag are elected by universal suffrage and ballot + for the term of five years. Every German who has completed his + twenty-fifth year is prima facie entitled to the suffrage in the state + within which he has resided for one year. Soldiers and those in the + navy are not thus entitled, so long as they are serving under the + colours. Excluded, further, are persons under tutelage, bankrupts and + paupers, as also such persons who have been deprived of civil rights, + during the time of such deprivation. Every German citizen who has + completed his twenty-fifth year and has resided for a year in one of + the federal states is eligible for election in any part of the empire, + provided he has not been, as in the cases above, excluded from the + right of suffrage. The secrecy of the ballot is ensured by special + regulations passed on the 28th of April 1903. The voting-paper, + furnished with an official stamp, must be placed in an envelope by the + elector in a compartment set apart for the purpose in the polling + room, and, thus enclosed, be handed by him to the presiding officer. + An absolute majority of votes decides the election. If (as in the case + of several candidates) an absolute majority over all the others has + not been declared, a test election (_Stichwahl_) takes place between + the two candidates who have received the greatest number of votes. In + case of an equal number of votes being cast for both candidates, the + decision is by lot. + + The subjoined table gives the names of the various states composing + the empire and the number of votes which the separate states have in + the federal council. Each state may appoint as many members to the + federal council as it has votes. The table also gives the number of + the deputies in the Reichstag. + + +-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+ + | | No. of | No. of | + | States of the Empire. |Members in|Members in| + | |Bundesrat.|Reichstag.| + +-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+ + |Kingdom of Prussia | 17 | 236 | + | " Bavaria | 6 | 48 | + | " Saxony | 4 | 23 | + | " Württemberg | 4 | 17 | + |Grand duchy of Baden | 3 | 14 | + | " Hesse | 3 | 9 | + | " Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 2 | 6 | + | " Saxe-Weimar | 1 | 3 | + | " Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 1 | 1 | + | " Oldenburg | 1 | 3 | + |Duchy of Brunswick | 2 | 3 | + | " Saxe-Meiningen | 1 | 2 | + | " Saxe-Altenburg | 1 | 1 | + | " Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 1 | 2 | + | " Anhalt | 1 | 2 | + |Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen| 1 | 1 | + | " Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | 1 | 1 | + | " Waldeck | 1 | 1 | + | " Reuss-Greiz | 1 | 1 | + | " Reuss-Schleiz | 1 | 1 | + | " Schaumburg-Lippe | 1 | 1 | + | " Lippe | 1 | 1 | + |Free town of Lübeck | 1 | 1 | + | " Bremen | 1 | 1 | + | " Hamburg | 1 | 3 | + |Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine | .. | 15 | + | +----------+----------+ + | Total | 58 | 397 | + +-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+ + + The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since November + 1906 its members have been paid (see PAYMENT OF MEMBERS). + + The following table shows its composition after the elections of 1903 + and 1907:-- + + +--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+ + | Parties. |1903.|1907.| + +--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+ + | Centre | 100 | 108 | + | Social Democrats | 81 | 43 | + | Conservatives | 51 | 60 | + | National Liberals | 49 | 57 | + | Freisinnige Volkspartei | 27 | 33 | + | Reichspartei | 19 | 22 | + | Alsatians, Guelphs and Danes | 18 | 5 | + | Poles | 16 | 20 | + | Wirtschaftliche Vereinigung (Reform Partei)| 12 | 21 | + | Freisinnige Vereinigung | 9 | 16 | + | Wilde (no party) | 9 | 5 | + | Bund der Landwirte | 3 | 6 | + | Bauernbund | 3 | 1 | + +--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+ + +All the German states have separate representative assemblies, except +Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. The six larger +states have adopted the two-chamber system, but in the composition of +the houses great differences are found. The lesser states also have +chambers of representatives numbering from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz) +to 48 members (in Brunswick), and in most states the different classes, +as well as the cities and the rural districts, are separately +represented. The free towns have legislative assemblies, numbering from +120 to 200 members. + +Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the Reichstag, must +obtain the sanction of the emperor in order to become law, and must be +countersigned, when promulgated, by the chancellor of the empire +(_Reichskanzler_). All members of the federal council are entitled to be +present at the deliberations of the Reichstag. The Bundesrat, acting +under the direction of the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme +administrative and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing +committees, viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes; for +tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for railways, posts +and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for financial accounts; for +foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine. Each committee includes +representatives of at least four states of the empire. + +For the several branches of administration a considerable number of +imperial offices have been gradually created. All of them, however, +either are under the immediate authority of the chancellor of the +empire, or are separately managed under his responsibility. The most +important are the chancery office, the foreign office and the general +post and telegraph office. But the heads of these do not form a cabinet. + + _The Chancellor of the Empire (Reichskanzler)._--The Prussian + plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat is the president of that assembly; he + is appointed by the emperor, and bears the title Reichskanzler. This + head official can be represented by any other member of the Bundesrat + named in a document of substitution. The Reichskanzler is the sole + responsible official, and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with + the exception of such as are of a purely military character, and is + the intermediary between the emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. + All imperial rescripts require the counter-signature of the chancellor + before attaining validity. All measures passed by the Reichstag + require the sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and only become + binding on being proclaimed on behalf of the empire by the chancellor, + which publication takes place through the _Reichsgesetzblatt_ (the + official organ of the chancellor). + + _Government Offices._--The following imperial offices are directly + responsible to the chancellor and stand under his control:-- + + 1. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments: (i.) + the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial; + (iii.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of + state, taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor. + + 2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state) + is divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department; + (iii.) a disciplinary court. + + 3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct of a + secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments, + dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the + elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval + matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.) + purely social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance, + migration, settlement, poor law administration, &c.; (iii.) sanitary + matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures; and + (iv.) commercial and economic relations--such as agriculture, + industry, commercial treaties and statistics. + + 4. The imperial admiralty (_Reichsmarineamt_), which is the chief + board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance and + development. + + 5. The imperial ministry of justice (_Reichsjustizamt_), presided over + by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the + _Reichsgericht_ (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig, + deals principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted + to the Reichstag. + + 6. The imperial treasury (_Reichsschatzamt_), or exchequer, is the + head financial office of the empire. Presided over by a secretary of + state, its functions are principally those appertaining to the control + of the national debt and its administration, together with such as in + the United Kingdom are delegated to the board of inland revenue. + + 7. The imperial railway board (_Reichseisenbahnamt_), the chief + official of which has the title of "president," deals exclusively with + the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far as + they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect of + laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and the + safety of passengers conveyed. + + 8. The imperial post office (_Reichspostamt_), under a secretary of + state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire + (with the exception of Bavaria and Württemberg), as also those in the + colonies and dependencies. + + 9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial railways + in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian minister of + public works. + + 10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire + (_Rechnungshof_), which controls and supervises the expenditure of the + sums voted by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the + imperial bank (_Reichsbank_). + + 11. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, i.e. of the fund + set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war of + 1870-71; and + + 12. The imperial bank (_Reichsbank_), supervised by a committee of + four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth + and permanent member of such committee. + + The heads of the various departments of state do not form, as in + England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries + of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who + represents all the offices in his person, and, as has been said, is + the medium of communication between the emperor and the Bundesrat and + Reichstag. + + _Colonies._--The following table gives some particulars of the + dependencies of the empire:-- + + +------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | | Area | | + | Name. | Date of |(estimated)| Pop. | + | |Acquisition.| sq. m. |(estimated).| + +------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + |In Africa-- | | | | + | Togoland | 1884 | 33,700 | 1,000,000 | + | Cameroon | 1884 | 190,000 | 3,500,000 | + | S.W. Africa | 1884 | 322,450 | 200,000 | + | East Africa | 1885 | 364,000 | 7,000,000 | + | +------------+-----------+------------+ + | Total in Africa | | 910,150 | 11,700,000 | + |In the Pacific-- | | | | + | German New Guinea | 1884 | 70,000 | 110,000(?)| + | Bismarck Archipelago | 1884 | 20,000 | 188,000 | + | Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands| 1899 | 800 | 41,600 | + | Solomon Islands | 1886 | 4,200 | 45,000 | + | Marshall Islands | 1885 | 160 | 15,000 | + | Samoan Islands | 1899 | 985 | 33,000 | + | | +-----------+------------+ + | Total in Pacific | | 96,145 | 432,600 | + |In Asia-- | | | | + | Kiao-chow | 1897 | 117 | 60,000 | + | | +-----------+------------+ + | Total dependencies | 1884-1899 |1,006,412 | 12,192,600 | + +------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + + Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the + dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial + office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department + of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial + affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in 1906 + was: imports into Germany, £1,028,000; exports from Germany, + £2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies was £849,000; + the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in the same year being + £4,362,000. (See the articles on the various colonies.) + +_Local Government._--In the details of its organization local +self-government differs considerably in the various states of the German +empire. The general principle on which it is based, however, is that +which has received its most complete expression in the Prussian system: +government by experts, checked by lay criticism and the power of the +purse, and effective control by the central authorities. In Prussia at +least the medieval system of local self-government had succumbed +completely to the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was +revived it was at the will and for the purposes of the central +authorities, as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact +determined its general characteristics. In England the powers of the +local authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the +limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general powers +are granted by law, subject to the approval of the central authorities, +with the result that it is the government departments that determine +what the local elected authorities may do, and that the latter regard +themselves as commissioned to carry out, not so much the will of the +locality by which they are elected, as that of the central government. +This attitude is, indeed, inevitable from the double relation in which +they stand. A _Bürgermeister_, once elected, becomes a member of the +bureaucracy and is responsible to the central administration; even the +headman of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his +functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful +classification of affairs into local and central, many things which in +England are regarded as local (e.g. education, sanitary administration, +police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the central +government, which either administers them directly or by means of +territorial delegations consisting either of individuals or of groups of +individuals. These may be purely official (e.g. the Prussian +_Regierung_), a mixture of officials and of elected non-official members +approved by the government (e.g. the _Bezirksausschuss_), or may consist +wholly of authorities elected for another purpose, but made to act as +the agents of the central departments (e.g. the _Kreisausschuss_). That +this system works without friction is due to the German habit of +discipline; that it is, on the whole, singularly effective is a result +of the peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German +bureaucracy.[3] + +The unit of the German system of local government is the commune +(_Gemeinde_, or more strictly _Ortsgemeinde_). These are divided into +rural communes (_Landgemeinden_) and urban communes (_Stadtgemeinden_), +the powers and functions of which, though differing widely, are based +upon the same general principle of representative local self-government. +The higher organs of local government, so far as these are +representative, are based on the principle of a group or union of +communes (_Gemeindeverband_). Thus, in Prussia, the representative +assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_) is composed of delegates of the +rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the towns, while +the members of the provincial diet (_Provinziallandtag_) are chosen by +the _Kreistage_ and by such towns as form separate _Kreise_. + +In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows: (1) the +province, (2) the government district (_Regierungsbezirk_), (3) the +rural circle (_Landkreis_) and urban circle (_Stadtkreis_), (4) the +official district (_Amtsbezirk_), (5) the town commune (_Stadtgemeinde_) +and rural commune (_Landgemeinde_). Of these areas the provinces, +circles and communes are for the purposes both of the central +administration and of local self-government, and the bodies by which +they are governed are corporations. The _Regierungsbezirke_ and +_Amtsbezirke_, on the other hand, are for the purposes of the central +administration only and are not incorporated. The Prussian system is +explained in greater detail in the article PRUSSIA (q.v.). Here it must +suffice to indicate briefly the general features of local government in +the other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The province, +which usually covers the area of a formerly independent state (e.g. +Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The _Regierungsbezirk_, however, is +common to the larger states under various names, _Regierungsbezirk_ in +Bavaria, _Kreishauptmannschaft_ in Saxony, _Kreis_ in Württemberg. +Common to all is the president (_Regierungspräsident_, _Kreishauptmann_ +in Saxony), an official who, with a committee of advisers, is +responsible for the oversight of the administration of the circles and +communes within his jurisdiction. Whereas in Prussia, however, the +_Regierung_ is purely official, with no representative element, the +_Regierungsbezirk_ in Bavaria has a representative body, the _Landrat_, +consisting of delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large +landowners, clergy and--in certain cases--the universities; the +president is assisted by a committee (_Landratsausschuss_) of six +members elected by the _Landrat_. In Saxony the _Kreishauptmann_ is +assisted by a committee (_Kreisausschuss_). + +Below the _Regierungsbezirk_ is the _Kreis_, or Circle, in Prussia, +Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the _Distrikt_ in Bavaria, the +_Oberamt_ in Württemberg[4] and the _Amtshauptmannschaft_ in Saxony. The +representative assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_, _Distriktsrat_ in +Bavaria, _Amtsversammlung_ in Württemberg, _Bezirksversammlung_ in +Saxony) is elected by the communes, and is presided over by an official, +either elected or, as in the case of the Prussian _Landrat_, nominated +from a list submitted by the assembly. So far as their administrative +and legislative functions are concerned the German _Kreistage_ have been +compared to the English county councils or the Hungarian _comitatus_. +Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their official +chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee (_Kreisausschuss_, +_Distriktsausschuss_, &c.) is elected subject to official approval. The +official district (_Amtsbezirk_), a subdivision of the circle for +certain administrative purposes (notably police), is peculiar to +Prussia. + + _Rural Communes._--As stated above, the lowest administrative area is + the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the constitution + and powers of the rural communes vary much in the different states. In + general the commune is a body corporate, its assembly consisting + either (in small villages) of the whole body of the qualified + inhabitants (_Gemeindeversammlung_), or of a representative assembly + (_Gemeindevertretung_) elected by them (in communes where there are + more than forty qualified inhabitants). At its head is an elected + headman (_Schulze_, _Dorfvorsteher_, &c.), with a small body of + assistants (_Schöffen_, &c.). He is a government official responsible, + _inter alia_, for the policing of the commune. Where there are large + estates these sometimes constitute communes of themselves. For common + purposes several communes may combine, such combinations being termed + in Württemberg _Bürgermeistereien_, in the Rhine province + _Amtsverbände_. In general the communes are of slight importance. + Where the land is held by small peasant proprietors, they display a + certain activity; where there are large ground landlords, these + usually control them absolutely. + + _Towns._--The constitution of the towns (_Städteverfassung_) varies + more greatly in the several states than that of the rural communes. + According to the so-called _Stein'sche Städteverfassung_ (the system + introduced in Prussia by Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate + between it and other systems, is called the _Magistratsverfassung_ (or + magisterial constitution), the municipal communes enjoy a greater + degree of self-government than do the rural. In the magisterial + constitution of larger towns and cities, the members of the + _Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called _Stadtrat_, + _Gemeinderat_), are elected by the representative assembly of the + citizens (_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_) out of their own body. + + In those parts of Germany which come under the influence of French + legislation, the constitution of the towns and that of the rural + communes (the so-called _Bürgermeistereiverfassung_) is identical, in + that the members of the communal executive body are, in the same way + as those of the communal assembly, elected to office immediately by + the whole body of municipal electors. + + The government of the towns is regulated in the main by municipal + codes (_Städteordnungen_), largely based upon Stein's reform of 1808. + This, superseding the autonomy severally enjoyed by the towns and + cities since the middle ages (see COMMUNE), aimed at welding the + citizens, who had hitherto been divided into classes and gilds, into + one corporate whole, and giving them all an active share in the + administration of public affairs, while reserving to the central + authorities the power of effective control. + + The system which obtains in all the old Prussian provinces (with the + exception of Rügen and Vorpommern or Hither Pomerania) and in + Westphalia is that of Stein, modified by subsequent laws--notably + those of 1853 and 1856--which gave the state a greater influence, + while extending the powers of the _Magistrat_. In Vorpommern and + Rügen, and thus in the towns of Greifswald, Stralsund and Bergen, + among others, the old civic constitutions remain unchanged. In the new + Prussian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main received a special municipal + constitution in 1867 and the towns of Schleswig-Holstein in 1869. The + province of Hanover retains its system as emended in 1858, and + Hesse-Nassau, with the exception of Frankfort-on-Main, received a + special corporate system in 1897. The municipal systems of Bavaria, + Württemberg and Saxony are more or less based on that of Stein, but + with a wider sphere of self-government. In Mecklenburg there is no + uniform system. In Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and Neustadt have + separate and peculiar municipal constitutions. In almost all the other + states the system is uniform. The free cities of Lübeck, Hamburg and + Bremen, as sovereign states, form a separate class. Their + constitutions are described in the articles on them. + + Where the "magisterial" constitution prevails, the members of the + _Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called variously + _Stadtrat_, _Gemeindevorstand_, &c.), are as a rule elected by the + representative assembly of the burgesses + (_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_; also _Gemeinderat_, _städtischer + Ausschuss_, _Kollegium der Bürgervorsteher_, _Stadtältesten_, &c.). + The _Magistrat_ consists of the chief burgomaster (_Erster + Bürgermeister_ or _Stadtschultheiss_, and in the large cities + Oberbürgermeister), a second burgomaster or assessor, and in large + towns of a number of paid and unpaid town councillors (_Ratsherren_, + _Senatoren_, _Schöffen_, _Ratsmänner_, _Magistratsräte_), together + with certain salaried members selected for specific purposes (e.g. + _Baurat_, for building). Over this executive body the + _Stadtverordneten_, who are elected by the whole body of citizens and + unpaid, exercise a general control, their assent being necessary to + any measures of importance, especially those involving any + considerable outlay. They are elected for from three to six years; the + members of the _Magistrat_ are chosen for six, nine or twelve years, + sometimes even for life. In the large towns the burgomasters must be + jurists, and are paid. The police are under the control of the + _Magistrat_, except in certain large cities, where they are under a + separate state department. + + The second system mentioned above (_Bürgermeistereiverfassung_) + prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse, + Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldeck and the principalities of Reuss and + Schwarzburg. In Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the system is a + compromise between the two; both the town and rural communes have a + mayor (_Bürgermeister_ or _Schultheiss_, as the case may be) and a + _Gemeinderat_ for administrative purposes, the citizens exercising + control through a representative _Gemeindeausschuss_ (communal + committee). + +_Justice._--By the Judicature Act--_Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz_--of 1879, +the so-called "regular litigious" jurisdiction of the courts of law was +rendered uniform throughout the empire, and the courts are now +everywhere alike in character and composition; and with the exception of +the _Reichsgericht_ (supreme court of the empire), immediately subject +to the government of the state in which they exercise jurisdiction, and +not to the imperial government. The courts, from the lowest to the +highest, are _Amtsgericht_, _Landgericht_, _Oberlandesgericht_ and +_Reichsgericht_. There are, further, _Verwaltungsgerichte_ +(administrative courts) for the adjustment of disputes between the +various organs of local government, and other special courts, such as +military, consular and arbitration courts (_Schiedsgericht_). In +addition to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious +matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship and +the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions, all which are +almost entirely within the province of the _Amtsgerichte_. There are +uniform codes of criminal law (_Strafgesetzbuch_), commercial law and +civil law (_Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch_), the last of which came into force +on the 1st of January 1900. The criminal code, based on that of Prussia +anterior to 1870, was gradually adopted by all the other states and was +generally in force by 1872. It has, however, been frequently emended and +supplemented. + + The lowest courts of first instance are the _Amtsgerichte_, each + presided over by a single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty + criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks (£15). They are also + competent to deal with all disputes as to wages, and letting and + hiring, without regard to the value of the object in dispute. Petty + criminal cases are heard by the judge (_Amtsrichter_) sitting with two + _Schöffen_--assessors--selected by lot from the jury lists, who are + competent to try prisoners for offences punishable with a fine, not + exceeding 600 marks (£30) or corresponding confinement, or with + imprisonment not exceeding three months. The _Landgerichte_ revise the + decisions of the _Amtsgerichte_, and have also an original + jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases and in divorce proceedings. + The criminal chamber of the _Landgericht_ is composed of five judges, + and a majority of four is required for a conviction. These courts are + competent to try cases of felony punishable with a term of + imprisonment not exceeding five years. The preliminary examination is + conducted by a judge, who does not sit on the bench at the trial. Jury + courts (_Schwurgerichte_) are not permanent institutions, but are + periodically held. They are formed of three judges of the + _Landgericht_ and a jury of twelve; and a two-thirds majority is + necessary to convict. There are 173 _Landgerichte_ in the empire, + being one court for every 325,822 inhabitants. The first court of + second instance is the _Oberlandesgericht_, which has an original + jurisdiction in grave offences and is composed of seven judges. There + are twenty-eight such courts in the empire. Bavaria alone has an + _Oberstes Landesgericht_, which exercises a revising jurisdiction over + the _Oberlandesgerichte_ in the state. The supreme court of the German + empire is the _Reichsgericht_, having its seat at Leipzig. The judges, + numbering ninety-two, are appointed by the emperor on the advice of + the federal council (_Bundesrat_). This court exercises an appellate + jurisdiction in civil cases remitted, for the decision of questions of + law, by the inferior courts and also in all criminal cases referred to + it. It sits in four criminal and six civil senates, each consisting of + seven judges, one of whom is the president. The judges are styled + _Reichsgerichtsräte_ (counsellors of the imperial court). + + In the _Amtsgericht_ a private litigant may conduct his own case; but + where the object of the litigation exceeds 300 marks (£15), and in + appeals from the _Amtsgericht_ to the _Landgericht_, the plaintiff + (and also the defendant) must be represented by an + advocate--_Rechtsanwalt_. + + A _Rechtsanwalt_, having studied law at a university for four years + and having passed two state examinations, if desiring to practise must + be admitted as "defending counsel" by the _Amtsgericht_ or + _Landgericht_, or by both. These advocates are not state officials, + but are sworn to the due execution of their duties. In case a client + has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the + latter can be made responsible. In every district of the + _Oberlandesgericht_, the _Rechtsanwälte_ are formed into an + _Anwaltkammer_ (chamber of advocates), and the council of each + chamber, sitting as a court of honour, deals with and determines + matters affecting the honour of the profession. An appeal lies from + this to a second court of honour, consisting of the president, three + judges of the _Reichsgericht_ and of three lawyers admitted to + practice before that court. + + Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by the + _Staatsanwälte_ (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the + judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence + as being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the + courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are + cases heard _in camera_. + + Military offences come before the military court and serious offences + before the _Kriegsgericht_. The court-martial is, in every case, + composed of the commander of the district as president, and four + officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (_Kriegsgerichtsrat_), who + conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the most + serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates are the + judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he may himself + appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority, but only be + condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are also _Kaufmanns-_ and + _Gewerbegerichte_ (commercial and industrial courts), composed of + persons belonging to the classes of employers and employees, under the + presidency of a judge of the court. Their aim is the effecting of a + reconciliation between the parties. From the decision of these courts + an appeal lies to the _Landgericht_ where the amount of the object in + dispute exceeds 100 marks (£5). + + The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before + the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted + persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil + population over twelve years of age:-- + + +------+-------------------------+-------------------+---------+------------+ + | | Cases tried. | Persons convicted.| |Convictions | + | Year.|-------------------------+-------------------| Total. | per 10,000 | + | |Amtsgericht.|Landgericht.| Males. |Females. | |Inhabitants.| + +------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+ + | 1900 | 1,143,687 | 94,241 | 396,975 | 72,844 | 469,819 | 119.5 | + | 1901 | 1,205,558 | 101,471 | 419,592 | 77,718 | 497,310 | 125.6 | + | 1902 | 1,221,080 | 104,434 | 431,257 | 81,072 | 512,329 | 127.3 | + | 1903 | 1,251,662 | 105,241 | 424,813 | 80,540 | 505,353 | 123.4 | + | 1904 | 1,287,686 | 105,457 | 435,191 | 81,785 | 516,976 | 124.2 | + +------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+ + + Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted. + +_Poor Law._--A law passed by the North German Confederation of the 6th +of June 1870, and subsequently amended by an imperial law of the 12th of +March 1894, laid down rules for the relief of the destitute in all the +states composing the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and +Alsace-Lorraine. According to the system adopted, the public relief of +the poor is committed to the care of local unions (_Ortsarmenverbände_) +and provincial unions (_Landarmenverbände_), the former corresponding, +generally, to the commune, and the latter to a far wider area, a circle +or a province. Any person of eighteen years, who has continuously +resided with a local union for the space of two years, there acquires +his domicile. But any destitute German subject must be relieved by the +local union in which he happens to be at the time, the cost of the +relief being defrayed by the local or provincial union in which he has +his domicile. The wife and children have also their domicile in the +place where the husband or father has his.[5] + + Relief of the poor is one of the chief duties of the organs of local + self-government. The moneys for the purpose are mainly derived from + general taxation (poor rates per se being but rarely directly levied), + special funds and voluntary contributions. In some German states and + communes certain dues (such as the dog tax in Saxony), death duties + and particularly dues payable in respect of public entertainments and + police court fines, are assigned to the poor-relief chest. In some + large towns the Elberfeld system of unpaid district visitors and the + interworking of public and private charity is in force. The imperial + laws which introduced the compulsory insurance of all the humbler + workers within the empire, and gave them, when incapacitated by + sickness, accident and old age, an absolute right to pecuniary + assistance, have greatly reduced pauperism and crime. + +_Workmen's Insurance._--On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as the result +of the policy announced by the emperor William I. in his speech from the +throne in 1881, passed an act making insurance against sickness, +accident, and incapacity compulsory on all workers in industrial +pursuits. By further laws, in 1885 and 1892, this obligation was +extended to certain other classes of workers, and the system was further +modified by acts passed in 1900 and 1903. Under this system every person +insured has a right to assistance in case of sickness, accident, or +incapacity, while in case of death his widow and children receive an +annuity. + + 1. Insurance against sickness is provided for under these laws partly + by the machinery already existing, i.e. the sick benefit societies, + partly by new machinery devised to meet the new obligation imposed. + The sick-funds (_Krankenkassen_) are thus of seven kinds: (1) free + assistance funds (_Freie Hilfskassen_), either registered under the + law of 1876, as modified in 1884 (_Eingeschriebene Hilfskassen_), or + established under the law of the separate states (_landesrechtliche + Hilfskassen_); (2) _Betriebs-_ or _Fabrikkrankenkassen_, funds + established by individual factory-owners; (3) _Baukrankenkasse_, a + fund established for workmen engaged on the construction (_Bau_) of + particular engineering works (canal-digging, &c.), by individual + contractors; (4) gild sick funds (_Innungskrankenkassen_), established + by the gilds for the workmen and apprentices of their members; (5) + miners' sick fund (_Knappschaftskasse_); (6) local sick fund + (_Ortskrankenkasse_), established by the commune for particular crafts + or classes of workmen; (7) _Gemeindekrankenversicherung_, i.e. + insurance of members of the commune as such, in the event of their not + subscribing to any of the other funds. Of these, 2, 3, 6 and 7 were + created under the above-mentioned laws. + + The number of such funds amounted in 1903 to 23,271, and included + 10,224,297 workmen. The _Ortskrankenkassen_, with 4,975,322 members, + had the greatest, and the _Baukrankenkassen_, with 16,459, the + smallest number of members. The _Ortskrankenkassen_, which endeavour + to include workmen of a like trade, have to a great extent, especially + in Saxony, fallen under the control of the Social Democrats. The + appointment of permanent doctors (_Kassenärzte_) at a fixed salary has + given rise to much difference between the medical profession and this + local sick fund; and the insistence on "freedom of choice" in doctors, + which has been made by the members and threatens to militate against + the interest of the profession, has been met on the part of the + medical body by the appointment of a commission to investigate cases + of undue influence in the selection. + + According to the statistics furnished in the _Vierteljahreshefte zur + Statistik des deutschen Reiches_ for 1905, the receipts amounted to + upwards of £10,000,000 for 1903, and the expenditure to somewhat less + than this sum. Administrative changes were credited with nearly + £600,000, and the invested funds totalled £9,000,000. The workmen + contribute at the rate of two-thirds and the employers at the rate of + one-third; the sum payable in respect of each worker varying from + 1½-3% of the earnings in the "communal sick fund" to at most l½-4% in + the others. + + 2. Insurance against old age and invalidity comprehends all persons + who have entered upon their 17th year, and who belong to one of the + following classes of wage-earners: artisans, apprentices, domestic + servants, dressmakers, charwomen, laundresses, seamstresses, + housekeepers, foremen, engineers, journeymen, clerks and apprentices + in shops (excepting assistants and apprentices in chemists' shops), + schoolmasters, schoolmistresses, teachers and governesses, provided + the earnings do not exceed £100 per annum. The insured are arranged in + five classes, according to the amount of their yearly earnings: viz. + £17, 10s.; £27, 10s.; £47, 10s.; £57, 10s.; and £100. The + contributions, affixed to a "pension book" in stamps, are payable each + week, and amount, in English money, to 1.45d., 2.34d., 2.82d., 3.30d. + and 4.23d. Of the contribution one half is paid by the employer and + the other by the employee, whose duty it is to see that the amount has + been properly entered in the pension book. The pensions, in case of + invalidity, amount (including a state subsidy of £2, 10s. for each) + respectively to £8, 8s.; £11, 5s.; £13, 10s.; £15, 15s.; and £18. The + old-age pensions (beginning at 70 years) amount to £5, 10s.; £7; £8, + 10s.; £10; and £11, 10s. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried + out by thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added + nine special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in + 1903, £8,500,000 (including £1,700,000 imperial subsidy). The capital + collected was upwards of £50,000,000. + + It may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses, who + have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is below £150, + are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this insurance. + + 3. _Accident Insurance (Unfallversicherung)._--The insurance of + workmen and the lesser officials against the risks of accident is + effected not through the state or the commune, but through + associations formed _ad hoc_. These associations are composed of + members following the same or allied occupations (e.g. foresters, + seamen, smiths, &c.), and hence are called "professional associations" + (_Berufsgenossenschaften_). They are empowered, subject to the limits + set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a general + meeting and of elected committees. The greater number of these + associations cover a very wide field, generally the whole empire; in + such cases they are empowered to divide their spheres into sections, + and to establish agents in different centres to inquire into cases of + accident, and to see to the carrying out of the rules prescribed by + the association for the avoidance of accidents. Those associations, of + which the area of operations extends beyond any single state, are + subordinate to the control of the imperial insurance bureau + (_Reichsversicherungsamt_) at Berlin; those that are confined to a + single state (as generally in the case of foresters and husbandmen) + are under the control of the state insurance bureau + (_Landesversicherungsamt_). + + So far as their earnings do not exceed £150 per annum, the following + classes are under the legal obligation to insure: labourers in mines, + quarries, dockyards, wharves, manufactories and breweries; + bricklayers and navvies; post-office, railway, and naval and military + servants and officials; carters, raftsmen and canal hands; cellarmen, + warehousemen; stevedores; and agricultural labourers. Each of these + groups forms an association, which within a certain district embraces + all the industries with which it is connected. The funds for covering + the compensation payable in respect of accidents are raised by + payments based, in agriculture, on the taxable capital, and in other + trades and industries on the earnings of the insured. Compensation in + respect of injury or death is not paid if the accident was brought + about through the culpable negligence or other delict of the insured. + In case of injury, involving incapacity for more than thirteen weeks + (for the earlier period the _Krankenkassen_ provide), the weekly sum + payable during complete or permanent incapacity is fixed at the ratio + of two-thirds of the earnings during the year preceding the accident, + and in case of partial disablement, at such a proportion of the + earnings as corresponds to the loss through disablement. In certain + circumstances (e.g. need for paid nursing) the sum may be increased to + the full rate of the previous earnings. In case of death, as a + consequence of injury, the following payments are made: (1) a sum of + at least £2, 10s. to defray the expenses of interment; (2) a monthly + allowance of one-fifth of the annual earnings as above to the widow + and each child up to the age of 15. + + _Life Insurance._--There were forty-six companies in 1900 for the + insurance of life. The number of persons insured was 1,446,249 at the + end of that year, the insurances amounting to roughly £320,000,000. + Besides these are sixty-one companies--of which forty-six are + comprised in the above life insurance companies--paying subsidies in + case of death or of military service, endowments, &c. Some of these + companies are industrial. The transactions of all these companies + included in 1900 over 4,179,000 persons, and the amount of insurances + effected was £80,000,000. + +_Religion._--So far as the empire as a whole is concerned there is no +state religion, each state being left free to maintain its own +establishment. Thus while the emperor, as king of Prussia, is _summus +episcopus_ of the Prussian Evangelical Church, as emperor he enjoys no +such ecclesiastical headship. In the several states the relations of +church and state differ fundamentally according as these states are +Protestant or Catholic. In the latter these relations are regulated +either by concordats between the governments and the Holy See, or by +bulls of circumscription issued by the pope after negotiation. The +effects of concordats and bulls alike are tempered by the exercise by +the civil power of certain traditional reserved rights, e.g. the +_placetum regium_, _recursus ab abusu_, _nominatio regia_, and that of +vetoing the nomination of _personae minus gratae_. In the Protestant +states the ecclesiastical authority remains purely territorial, and the +sovereign remains effective head of the established church. During the +19th century, however, a large measure of ecclesiastical self-government +(by means of general synods, &c.) was introduced, _pari passu_ with the +growth of constitutional government in the state; and in effect, though +the theoretical supremacy of the sovereign survives in the church as in +the state, he cannot exercise it save through the general synod, which +is the state parliament for ecclesiastical purposes. Where a sovereign +rules over a state containing a large proportion of both Catholics and +Protestants, which is usually the case, both systems coexist. Thus in +Prussia the relations of the Roman Catholic community to the Protestant +state are regulated by arrangement between the Prussian government and +Rome; while in Bavaria the king, though a Catholic, is legally _summus +episcopus_ of the Evangelical Church. + + According to the religious census of 1900 there were in the German + empire 35,231,104 Evangelical Protestants, 20,327,913 Roman Catholics, + 6472 Greek Orthodox, 203,678 Christians belonging to other + confessions, 586,948 Jews, 11,597 members of other sects and 5938 + unclassified. The Christians belonging to other confessions include + Moravian Brethren, Mennonites, Baptists, Methodists and Quakers, + German Catholics, Old Catholics, &c. The table on following page shows + the distribution of the population according to religious beliefs as + furnished by the census of 1900. + + Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical Church, + and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the actual figures + (based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evangelical Protestants, 62.5; + Roman Catholics, 36.1; Dissenters and others, .043, and Jews, 1.0. The + Protestants have not increased proportionately in number since 1890, + while the Roman Catholics show a small relative increase. Three states + in Germany have a decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population, + viz. Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the + Protestant element prevails, but with from 24 to 34% of Roman + Catholics; viz. Prussia, Württemberg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony + and the eighteen minor states the number of Roman Catholics is only + from 0.3 to 3.3% of the population. + + +--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | States. |Evangelicals.| Catholics.| Other | Jews. | + | | | |Christians.| | + +--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | Prussia | 21,817,577 |12,113,670 | 139,127 |392,322 | + | Bavaria | 1,749,206 | 4,363,178 | 7,607 | 54,928 | + | Saxony | 3,972,063 | 198,265 | 19,103 | 12,416 | + | Württemberg | 1,497,299 | 650,392 | 9,426 | 11,916 | + | Baden | 704,058 | 1,131,639 | 5,563 | 26,132 | + | Hesse | 746,201 | 341,570 | 7,368 | 24,486 | + | Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 597,268 | 8,182 | 487 | 1,763 | + | Saxe-Weimar | 347,144 | 14,158 | 361 | 1,188 | + | Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 100,568 | 1,612 | 62 | 331 | + | Oldenburg | 309,510 | 86,920 | 1,334 | 1,359 | + | Brunswick | 436,976 | 24,175 | 1,271 | 1,824 | + | Saxe-Meiningen | 244,810 | 4,170 | 395 | 1,351 | + | Saxe-Altenburg | 189,885 | 4,723 | 206 | 99 | + | Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 225,074 | 3,330 | 515 | 608 | + | Anhalt | 301,953 | 11,699 | 794 | 1,605 | + | Schwarzburg-Sondershausen| 79,593 | 1,110 | 27 | 166 | + | Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | 92,298 | 676 | 37 | 48 | + | Waldeck | 55,285 | 1,831 | 164 | 637 | + | Reuss-Greiz | 66,860 | 1,043 | 444 | 48 | + | Reuss-Schleiz | 135,958 | 2,579 | 466 | 178 | + | Schaumburg-Lippe | 41,908 | 785 | 177 | 257 | + | Lippe | 132,708 | 5,157 | 205 | 879 | + | Lübeck | 93,671 | 2,190 | 213 | 670 | + | Bremen | 208,815 | 13,506 | 876 | 1,409 | + | Hamburg | 712,338 | 30,903 | 3,149 | 17,949 | + | Alsace-Lorraine | 372,078 | 1,310,450 | 4,301 | 32,379 | + +--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + | Total | 35,231,104 |20,327,913 | 203,678 |586,948 | + +--------------------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------+ + + From the above table little can be inferred as to the geographical + distribution of the two chief confessions. On this point it must be + borne in mind that the population of the larger towns, on account of + the greater mobility of the population since the introduction of + railways and the abolition of restrictions upon free settlement, has + become more mixed--Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg, &c., showing + proportionally more Roman Catholics, and Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, + Munich more Protestants than formerly. Otherwise the geographical + limits of the confessions have been but little altered since the + Thirty Years' War. In the mixed territories those places which + formerly belonged to Roman Catholic princes are Roman Catholic still, + and _vice versa_. Hence a religious map of South Germany looks like an + historical map of the 17th century. The number of localities where the + two confessions exist side by side is small. Generally speaking, South + Germany is predominantly Roman Catholic. Some districts along the + Danube (province of Bavaria, Upper Palatinate, Swabia), southern + Württemberg and Baden, and in Alsace-Lorraine are entirely so. These + territories are bordered by a broad stretch of country on the north, + where Protestantism has maintained its hold since the time of the + Reformation, including Bayreuth or eastern upper Franconia, middle + Franconia, the northern half of Württemberg and Baden, with Hesse and + the Palatinate. Here the average proportion of Protestants to Roman + Catholics is two to one. The basin of the Main is again Roman Catholic + from Bamberg to Aschaffenburg (western upper Franconia and lower + Franconia). In Prussia the western and south-eastern provinces are + mostly Roman Catholic, especially the Rhine province, together with + the government districts of Münster and Arnsberg. The territories of + the former principality of Cleves and of the countship of Mark + (comprising very nearly the basin of the Ruhr), which went to + Brandenburg in 1609, must, however, be excepted. North of Münster, + Roman Catholicism is still prevalent in the territory of the former + bishopric of Osnabrück. In the east, East Prussia (Ermeland excepted) + is purely Protestant. Roman Catholicism was predominant a hundred + years ago in all the frontier provinces acquired by Prussia in the + days of Frederick the Great, but since then the German immigrants have + widely propagated the Protestant faith in these districts. A + prevailingly Roman Catholic population is still found in the district + of Oppeln and the countship of Glatz, in the province of Posen, in the + Polish-speaking _Kreise_ of West Prussia, and in Ermeland (East + Prussia). In all the remaining territory the Roman Catholic creed is + professed only in the Eichsfeld on the southern border of the province + of Hanover and around Hildesheim. + + + Protestant Church. + + The adherents of Protestantism are divided by their confessions into + Reformed and Lutheran. To unite these the "church union" has been + introduced in several Protestant states, as for example in Prussia and + Nassau in 1817, in the Palatinate in 1818 and in Baden in 1822. Since + 1817 the distinction has accordingly been ignored in Prussia, and + Christians are there enumerated only as Evangelical or Roman Catholic. + The union, however, has not remained wholly unopposed--a section of + the more rigid Lutherans who separated themselves from the state + church being now known as Old Lutherans. In 1866 Prussia annexed + Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein, where the Protestants were Lutherans, + and Hesse, where the Reformed Church had the preponderance. The + inhabitants of these countries opposed the introduction of the union, + but could not prevent their being subordinated to the Prussian + _Oberkirchenrat_ (high church-council), the supreme court of the state + church. A synodal constitution for the Evangelical State Church was + introduced in Prussia in 1875. The _Oberkirchenrat_ retains the right + of supreme management. The ecclesiastical affairs of the separate + provinces are directed by consistorial boards. The parishes + (_Pfarreien_) are grouped into dioceses (_Sprengel_), presided over by + superintendents, who are subordinate to the superintendent-general of + the province. Prussia has sixteen superintendents-general. The + ecclesiastical administration is similarly regulated in the other + countries of the Protestant creed. Regarding the number of churches + and chapels Germany has no exact statistics. + + + Roman Catholic Church. + + There are five archbishoprics within the German empire: Gnesen-Posen, + Cologne, Freiburg (Baden), Munich-Freising and Bamberg. The twenty + bishoprics are: Breslau (where the bishop has the title of + "prince-bishop"), Ermeland (seat at Frauenburg, East Prussia), Kulm + (seat at Pelplin, West Prussia), Fulda, Hildesheim, Osnabrück, + Paderborn, Münster, Limburg, Trier, Metz, Strassburg, Spires, + Würzburg, Regensburg, Passau, Eichstätt, Augsburg, Rottenburg + (Württemberg) and Mainz. Apostolic vicariates exist in Dresden (for + Saxony), and others for Anhalt and the northern missions. + + The Old Catholics (q.v.), who seceded from the Roman Church in + consequence of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, + number roughly 50,000, with 54 clergy. + + + Jews. + + It is in the towns that the Jewish element is chiefly to be found. + They belong principally to the mercantile class, and are to a very + large extent dealers in money. Their wealth has grown to an + extraordinary degree. They are increasingly numerous in Hamburg, + Berlin, Frankfort-on-Main, Breslau, Königsberg, Posen, Cologne, + Nuremberg and Fürth. As a rule their numbers are proportionately + greater in Prussia than elsewhere within the empire. But, since 1871, + the Jewish population of Germany shows a far smaller increase than + that of the Christian confessions, and even in the parts of the + country where the Jewish population is densest it has shown a tendency + to diminish. It is relatively greatest in the province of Posen, where + the numbers have fallen from 61,982 (39.1 per thousand) in 1871 to + 35,327 (18.7 per thousand) in 1900. The explanation is twofold--the + extraordinary increase (1) in their numbers in Berlin and the province + of Brandenburg, and (2) in the number of conversions to the Christian + faith. In this last regard it may be remarked that the impulse is less + from religious conviction than from a desire to associate on more + equal terms with their neighbours. Though still, in fact at least, if + not by law, excluded from many public offices, especially from + commands in the army, they nevertheless are very powerful in Germany, + the press being for the most part in their hands, and they furnish in + many cities fully one-half of the lawyers and the members of the + corporation. It should be mentioned, as a curious fact, that the + numbers of the Jewish persuasion in the kingdom of Saxony increased + from 3358 (1.3 per thousand) in 1871 to 12,416 (3 per thousand) in + 1900. + +_Education._--In point of educational culture Germany ranks high among +all the civilized great nations of the world (see EDUCATION: +_Germany_). Education is general and compulsory throughout the empire, +and all the states composing it have, with minor modifications, adopted +the Prussian system providing for the establishment of elementary +schools--_Volksschulen_--in every town and village. The school age is +from six to fourteen, and parents can be compelled to send their +children to a _Volksschule_, unless, to the satisfaction of the +authorities, they are receiving adequate instruction in some other +recognized school or institution. + + The total number of primary schools was 60,584 in 1906-1907; teachers, + 166,597; pupils, 9,737,262--an average of about one _Volksschule_ to + every 900 inhabitants. The annual expenditure was over £26,000,000, of + which sum £7,500,000 was provided by state subvention. There were also + in Germany in the same year 643 private schools, giving instruction + similar to that of the elementary schools, with 41,000 pupils. A good + criterion of the progress of education is obtained from the + diminishing number of illiterate army recruits, as shown by the + following: + + +-----------+---------+------------------------+ + | | |Unable to Read or Write.| + | |Number of+--------+---------------+ + | Years. |Recruits.| Total. | Per 1000 | + | | | | Recruits. | + +-----------+---------+--------+---------------+ + | 1875-1876 | 139,855 | 3331 | 23.7 | + | 1880-1881 | 151,180 | 2406 | 15.9 | + | 1885-1886 | 152,933 | 1657 | 10.8 | + | 1890-1891 | 193,318 | 1035 | 5.4 | + | 1895-1896 | 250,287 | 374 | 1.5 | + | 1898-1899 | 252,382 | 173 | 0.7 | + | 1900-1901 | 253,000 | 131 | 0.45 | + +-----------+---------+--------+---------------+ + + Of the above 131 illiterates in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and West + Prussia, Posen and Silesia. + +_Universities and Higher Technical Schools._--Germany owes its large +number of universities, and its widely diffused higher education to its +former subdivision into many separate states. Only a few of the +universities date their existence from the 19th century; the majority of +them are very much older. Each of the larger provinces, except Posen, +has at least one university, the entire number being 21. All have four +faculties except Münster, which has no faculty of medicine. As regards +theology, Bonn, Breslau and Tübingen have both a Protestant and a +Catholic faculty; Freiburg, Munich, Münster and Würzburg are exclusively +Catholic; and all the rest are Protestant. + + The following table gives the names of the 21 universities, the dates + of their respective foundations, the number of their professors and + other teachers for the winter half-year 1908-1909, and of the students + attending their lectures during the winter half-year of 1907-1908: + + +------------+-----------+----------+--------------------------------------+-------+ + | | Date of |Professors| Students. | | + | |Foundation.| and +---------+------+---------+-----------+ Total.| + | | | Teachers.|Theology.| Law. |Medicine.|Philosophy.| | + +------------+-----------+----------+---------+------+---------+-----------+-------+ + | Berlin | 1809 | 493 | 326 | 2747 | 1153 | 3934 | 8220 | + | Bonn | 1818 | 190 | 395 | 833 | 282 | 1699 | 3209 | + | Breslau | 1811 | 189 | 330 | 617 | 284 | 840 | 2071 | + | Erlangen | 1743 | 77 | 155 | 323 | 355 | 225 | 1058 | + | Freiburg | 1457 | 150 | 219 | 373 | 580 | 642 | 1814 | + | Giessen | 1607 | 100 | 63 | 204 | 331 | 546 | 1144 | + | Göttingen | 1737 | 161 | 102 | 441 | 188 | 1126 | 1857 | + | Greifswald | 1456 | 105 | 68 | 188 | 186 | 361 | 803 | + | Halle | 1694 | 174 | 331 | 450 | 217 | 1239 | 2237 | + | Heidelberg | 1385 | 177 | 55 | 357 | 385 | 879 | 1676 | + | Jena | 1558 | 116 | 48 | 267 | 265 | 795 | 1375 | + | Kiel | 1665 | 121 | 35 | 271 | 239 | 480 | 1025 | + | Königsberg | 1544 | 152 | 68 | 317 | 218 | 502 | 1105 | + | Leipzig | 1409 | 234 | 303 | 1013 | 606 | 2419 | 4341 | + | Marburg | 1527 | 117 | 133 | 400 | 261 | 876 | 1670 | + | Munich | 1826 | 239 | 169 | 1892 | 1903 | 1979 | 5943 | + | Münster | 1902 | 95 | 278 | 458 | .. | 870 | 1606 | + | Rostock | 1418 | 65 | 48 | 67 | 211 | 322 | 648 | + | Strassburg | 1872 | 167 | 241 | 369 | 255 | 844 | 1709 | + | Tübingen | 1477 | 111 | 464 | 467 | 263 | 384 | 1578 | + | Würzburg | 1582 | 102 | 106 | 331 | 625 | 320 | 1382 | + +------------+-----------+----------+---------+------+---------+-----------+-------+ + + Not included in the above list is the little academy--Lyceum + Hosianum--at Braunsberg in Prussia, having faculties of theology + (Roman Catholic) and philosophy, with 13 teachers and 150 students. In + all the universities the number of matriculated students in 1907-1908 + was 46,471, including 320 women, 2 of whom studied theology, 14 law, + 150 philosophy and 154 medicine. There were also, within the same + period, 5653 non-matriculated _Hörer_ (hearers), including 2486 women. + + Ten schools, technical high schools, or _Polytechnica_, rank with the + universities, and have the power of granting certain degrees. They + have departments of architecture, building, civil engineering, + chemistry, metallurgy and, in some cases, anatomy. These schools are + as follows: Berlin (Charlottenburg), Munich, Darmstadt, Karlsruhe, + Hanover, Dresden, Stuttgart, Aix-la-Chapelle, Brunswick and Danzig; in + 1908 they were attended by 14,149 students (2531 foreigners), and had + a teaching staff of 753. Among the remaining higher technical schools + may be mentioned the three mining academies of Berlin, Clausthal, in + the Harz, and Freiberg in Saxony. For instruction in agriculture there + are agricultural schools attached to several universities--notably + Berlin, Halle, Göttingen, Königsberg, Jena, Poppelsdorf near Bonn, + Munich and Leipzig. Noted academies of forestry are those of Tharandt + (in Saxony), Eberswalde, Münden on the Weser, Hohenheim near + Stuttgart, Brunswick, Eisenach, Giessen and Karlsruhe. Other technical + schools are again the five veterinary academies of Berlin, Hanover, + Munich, Dresden and Stuttgart, the commercial colleges + (_Handelshochschulen_) of Leipzig, Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, + Frankfort-on-Main and Cologne, in addition to 424 commercial schools + of a lesser degree, 100 schools for textile manufactures and numerous + schools for special metal industries, wood-working, ceramic + industries, naval architecture and engineering and navigation. For + military science there are the academies of war (_Kriegsakademien_) in + Berlin and Munich, a naval academy in Kiel, and various cadet and + non-commissioned officers' schools. + + _Libraries._--Mental culture and a general diffusion of knowledge are + extensively promoted by means of numerous public libraries established + in the capital, the university towns and other places. The most + celebrated public libraries are those of Berlin (1,000,000 volumes and + 30,000 MSS.); Munich (1,000,000 volumes, 40,000 MSS.); Heidelberg + (563,000 volumes, 8000 MSS.); Göttingen (503,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); + Strassburg (760,000 volumes); Dresden (500,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); + Hamburg (municipal library, 600,000 volumes, 5000 MSS.); Stuttgart + (400,000 volumes, 3500 MSS.); Leipzig (university library, 500,000 + volumes, 5000 MSS.); Würzburg (350,000 volumes); Tübingen (340,000 + volumes); Rostock (318,000 volumes); Breslau (university library, + 300,000 volumes, 7000 MSS.); Freiburg-im-Breisgau (250,000 volumes); + Bonn (265,000 volumes); and Königsberg (230,000 volumes, 1100 MSS.). + There are also famous libraries at Gotha, Wolfenbüttel and Celle. + + _Learned Societies._--There are numerous societies and unions, some of + an exclusively scientific character and others designed for the + popular diffusion of useful knowledge. Foremost among German academies + is the Academy of Sciences (_Akademie der Wissenschaften_) in Berlin, + founded in 1700 on Leibnitz's great plan and opened in 1711. After + undergoing various vicissitudes, it was reorganized by Frederick the + Great on the French model and received its present constitution in + 1812. It has four sections: physical, mathematical, philosophical and + historical. The members are (1) ordinary (50 in number, each receiving + a yearly dotation of £30), and (2) extraordinary, consisting of + honorary and corresponding (foreign) members. It has published since + 1811 a selection of treatises furnished by its most eminent men, among + whom must be reckoned Schleiermacher, the brothers Humboldt, Grimm, + Savigny, Böckh, Ritter and Lachmann, and has promoted philological and + historical research by helping the production of such works as _Corpus + inscriptionum Graecarum_; _Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum_; _Monumenta + Germaniae historica_, the works of Aristotle, Frederick the Great's + works and Kant's collected works. Next in order come (1) the Academy + of Sciences at Munich, founded in 1759, divided into three classes, + philosophical, historical and physical, and especially famous for its + historical research; (2) the Society of Sciences (_Gesellschaft der + Wissenschaften_) in Göttingen, founded in 1742; (3) that of Erfurt, + founded 1758; (4) Görlitz (1779) and (5) the "Royal Saxon Society of + Sciences" (_Königliche sächsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_), + founded in Leipzig in 1846. Ample provision is made for scientific + collections of all kinds in almost all places of any importance, + either at the public expense or through private munificence. + + _Observatories._--These have in recent years been considerably + augmented. There are 19 leading observatories in the empire, viz. at + Bamberg, Berlin (2), Bonn, Bothkamp in Schleswig, Breslau, Düsseldorf, + Gotha, Göttingen, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel, Königsberg, + Leipzig, Munich, Potsdam, Strassburg and Wilhelmshaven. + + _Book Trade._--This branch of industry, from the important position it + has gradually acquired since the time of the Reformation, is to be + regarded as at once a cause and a result of the mental culture of + Germany. Leipzig, Berlin and Stuttgart are the chief centres of the + trade. The number of booksellers in Germany was not less than 10,000 + in 1907, among whom were approximately 6000 publishers. The following + figures will show the recent progress of German literary production, + in so far as published works are concerned: + + Year 1570 1600 1618 1650 1700 1750 1800 1840 1884 1902 + Books 229 791 1293 725 951 1219 3335 6904 15,607 26,902 + + _Newspapers._--While in England a few important newspapers have an + immense circulation, the newspapers of Germany are much more numerous, + but on the whole command a more limited sale. Some large cities, + notably Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg, Dresden, Leipzig and Munich, have, + however, newspapers with a daily circulation of over 100,000 copies, + and in the case of some papers in Berlin a million copies is reached. + Most readers receive their newspapers through the post office or at + their clubs, which may help to explain the smaller number of copies + sold. + + _Fine Arts._--Perhaps the chief advantage which Germany has derived + from the survival of separate territorial sovereignties within the + empire has been the decentralization of culture. Patronage of art is + among the cherished traditions of the German princes; and even + where--as for instance at Cassel--there is no longer a court, the + artistic impetus given by the former sovereigns has survived their + fall. The result has been that there is in Germany no such + concentration of the institutions for the encouragement and study of + the fine arts as there is in France or England. Berlin has no + practical monopoly, such as is possessed by London or Paris, of the + celebrated museums and galleries of the country. The picture galleries + of Dresden, Munich and Cassel still rival that at Berlin, though the + latter is rapidly becoming one of the richest in the world in works of + the great masters, largely at the cost of the private collections of + England. For the same reason the country is very well provided with + excellent schools of painting and music. Of the art schools the most + famous are those of Munich, Düsseldorf, Dresden and Berlin, but there + are others, e.g. at Karlsruhe, Weimar and Königsberg. These schools + are in close touch with the sovereigns and the governments, and the + more promising pupils are thus from the first assured of a career, + especially in connexion with the decoration of public buildings and + monuments. To this fact is largely due the excellence of the Germans + in grandiose decorative painting and sculpture, a talent for the + exercise of which plenty of scope has been given them by the numerous + public buildings and memorials raised since the war of 1870. Perhaps + for this very reason, however, the German art schools have had no such + cosmopolitan influence as that exercised by the schools of Paris, the + number of foreign students attending them being comparatively small. + It is otherwise with the schools of music, which exercise a profound + influence far beyond the borders of Germany. Of these the most + important are the conservatoires of Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Munich + and Frankfort-on-Main. The fame of Weimar as a seat of musical + education, though it possesses an excellent conservatoire, is based + mainly on the tradition of the abbé Liszt, who gathered about him here + a number of distinguished pupils, some of whom have continued to make + it their centre. Music in Germany also receives a great stimulus from + the existence, in almost every important town, of opera-houses partly + supported by the sovereigns or by the civic authorities. Good music + being thus brought within the reach of all, appreciation of it is very + wide-spread in all classes of the population. The imperial government + maintains institutes at Rome and Athens which have done much for the + advancement of archaeology. (P. A. A.) + +_Army._--The system of the "nation in arms" owes its existence to the +reforms in the Prussian army that followed Jena. The "nation in arms" +itself was the product of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, +but it was in Prussia that was seen the systematization and the +economical and effective application of the immense forces of which the +revolutionary period had demonstrated the existence (see also ARMY; +CONSCRIPTION; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS, &c.). It was with an army and a +military system that fully represented the idea of the "nation in arms" +that Prussia created the powerful Germany of later days, and the same +system was extended by degrees over all the other states of the new +empire. But these very successes contained in themselves the germ of new +troubles. Increased prosperity, a still greater increase in population +and the social and economic disturbances incidental to the conversion of +an agricultural into a manufacturing community, led to the practical +abandonment of the principle of _universal_ service. More men came +before the recruiting officer than there was money to train; and in 1895 +the period of service with the colours was reduced from three to two +years--a step since followed by other military powers, the idea being +that with the same peace effective and financial grants half as many men +again could be passed through the ranks as before. + +In 1907 the recruiting statistics were as follows: + + Number of young men attaining service age (including + those who had voluntarily enlisted before their time) 556,772 + Men belonging to previous years who had been put back + for re-examination, &., still borne on the lists 657,753 + --------- + 1,214,525 + + _Deduct_--Physically unfit, &c. 35,802 + Struck off 860 + + Voluntarily enlisted in the army and navy, + on or before attaining service age 57,739 + Assigned as recruits to the navy 10,374 + Put back, &c. 684,193 + ------- + 788,968 + ------- + Available as army recruits, fit 425,557 + ------- + Of these, (a) Assigned to the active army for two or three + years' service with the colours _ _ 212,661 + (b) Assigned to the Ersatz-Reserve of the | | + army and navy |_untrained_| 89,877 + (c) Assigned to the 1st levy of Landsturm |_ _| 123,019 + ------- + 425,557 + +Thus only half the men on whom the government has an effective hold go +to the colours in the end. Moreover few of the men "put back, &c.," who +figure on both sides of the account for any one year, and seem to +average 660,000, are really "put back." They are in the main those who +have failed or fail to present themselves, and whose names are retained +on the liability lists against the day of their return. Many of these +have emigrated. + +By the constitution of the 16th of April 1871 every German is liable to +service and no substitution is allowed. Liability begins at the age of +seventeen, and actual service, as a rule, from the age of twenty. The +men serve in the active army and army reserve for seven years, of which +two years (three in the case of cavalry and horse artillery recruits) +are spent with the colours. During his four or five years in the +reserve, the soldier is called out for training with his corps twice, +for a maximum of eight weeks (in practice usually for six). After +quitting the reserve the soldier is drafted into the first ban of the +_Landwehr_ for five years more, in which (except in the cavalry, which +is not called out in peace time) he undergoes two trainings of from +eight to fourteen days. Thence he passes into the second ban and remains +in it until he has completed his thirty-ninth year--i.e. from six to +seven years more, the whole period of army and Landwehr service being +thus nineteen years. Finally, all soldiers are passed into the +_Landsturm_, in the first ban of which they remain until the completion +of their forty-fifth year. The second ban consists of untrained men +between the ages of thirty-nine and forty-five. Young men who reach a +certain standard of education, however, are only obliged to serve for +one year in the active army. They are called One-Year Volunteers +(_Einjährig-Freiwilligen_), defray their own expenses and are the chief +source of supply of reserve and Landwehr officers. That proportion of +the annual contingents which is dismissed untrained goes either to the +Ersatz-Reserve or to the 1st ban of the Landsturm (the Landwehr, it will +be observed, contains only men who have served with the colours). The +Ersatz consists exclusively of young men, who would in war time be +drafted to the regimental depots and thence sent, with what training +circumstances had in the meantime allowed, to the front. Some men of the +Ersatz receive a short preliminary training in peace time. + +In 1907 the average height of the private soldiers was 5 ft. 6 in., that +of the non-commissioned officers 5 ft. 6½ in., and that of the one-year +volunteers 5 ft. 9½ in. A much greater proportion of the country +recruits were accepted as "fit" than of those coming from the towns. +Voluntary enlistments of men who desired to become non-commissioned +officers were most frequent in the provinces of the old Prussian +monarchy, but in Berlin itself and in Westphalia the enlistments fell +far short of the number of non-commissioned officers required for the +territorial regiments of the respective districts. Above all, in +Alsace-Lorraine one-eighth only of the required numbers were obtained. + + _Peace and War Strengths._--German military policy is revised every + five years; thus a law of April 1905 fixes the strength and + establishments to be attained on March 31, 1910, the necessary + augmentations, &c., being carried out gradually in the intervening + years. The peace strength for the latter date was fixed at 505,839 men + (not including officers, non-commissioned officers and one-year + volunteers), forming-- + + 633 battalions infantry. + 510 squadrons cavalry. + 574 batteries field and horse artillery. + 40 battalions foot artillery. + 29 battalions pioneers. + 12 battalions communication troops. + 23 train battalions, &c. + + The addition of about 25,000 officers and 85,000 non-commissioned + officers, one-year men, &c., brings the peace footing of the German + army in 1910 to a total of about 615,000 of all ranks. + + As for war, the total fighting strength of the German nation + (including the navy) has been placed at as high a figure as + 11,000,000. Of these 7,000,000 have received little or no training, + owing to medical unfitness, residence abroad, failure to appear, + surplus of annual contingents, &c., as already explained, and not more + than 3,000,000 of these would be available in war. The real military + resources of Germany, untrained and trained, are thus about 7,000,000, + of whom 4,000,000 have at one time or another done a continuous period + of service with the colours.[6] This is of course for a war of defence + _à outrance_. For an offensive war, only the active army, the reserve, + the Ersatz and the 1st levy of the Landwehr would be really available. + + A rough calculation of the number of these who go to form or to + reinforce the field armies and the mobilized garrisons may be given: + + Cadres of officers and non-commissioned officers 100,000 + From 7 annual contingents of recruits (i.e. + active army and reserve) 1,200,000 + From 5 contingents of Landwehr (1st ban) 600,000 + From 7 classes of Ersatz reserve called to the + depots, able-bodied men 400,000 + One-year volunteers recalled to the colours or + serving as reserve and Landwehr officers 100,000 + --------- + 2,400,000 + + These again would divide into a first line army of 1,350,000 and a + second of 1,050,000. It is calculated that the field army would + consist, in the third week of a great war, of 633 battalions, 410 + squadrons and 574 batteries, with technical, departmental and medical + troops (say 630,000 bayonets, 60,000 sabres and 3444 guns, or 750,000 + men), and that these could be reinforced in three or four weeks by 350 + fresh battalions. Behind these forces there would shortly become + available for secondary operations about 460 battalions of the 1st ban + Landwehr, and 200 squadrons and about 220 batteries of the reserve and + Landwehr. In addition, each would leave behind depot troops to form + the nucleus on which the 2nd ban Landwehr and the Landsturm would + eventually be built up. The total number of units of the three arms in + all branches may be stated approximately at 2200 battalions, 780 + squadrons and 950 batteries. + + _Command and Organization._--By the articles of the constitution the + whole of the land forces of the empire form a united army in war and + peace under the orders of the emperor. The sovereigns of the chief + states are entitled to nominate the lower grades of officers, and the + king of Bavaria has reserved to himself the special privilege of + superintending the general administration of the three Bavarian army + corps; but all appointments are made subject to the emperor's + approval. The emperor is empowered to erect fortresses in any part of + the empire. It is the almost invariable practice of the kings of + Prussia to command their forces in person, and the army commands, too, + are generally held by leaders of royal or princely rank. The natural + corollary to this is the assignment of special advisory duties to a + responsible chief of staff. The officers are recruited either from the + Cadet Corps at Berlin or from amongst those men, of sufficient social + standing, who join the ranks as "avantageurs" with a view to obtaining + commissions. Reserve and Landwehr officers are drawn from among + officers and selected non-commissioned officers retired from the + active army, and one-year volunteers who have passed a special + examination. All candidates, from whatever source they come, are + subject to approval or rejection by their brother officers before + being definitively commissioned. Promotion in the German army is + excessively slow, the senior subalterns having eighteen to twenty + years' commissioned service and the senior captains sometimes thirty. + The number of officers on the active list is about 25,000. The + under-officers number about 84,000. + + The German army is organized in twenty-three army corps, stationed and + recruited in the various provinces and states as follows: Guard, + Berlin (general recruiting); I. Königsberg (East Prussia); II. Stettin + (Pomerania); III. Berlin (Brandenburg); IV. Magdeburg (Prussian + Saxony); V. Posen (Poland and part of Silesia); VI. Breslau (Silesia); + VII. Münster (Westphalia); VIII. Coblenz (Rhineland); IX. Altona + (Hanse Towns and Schleswig-Holstein); X. Hanover (Hanover); XI. Cassel + (Hesse-Cassel); XII. Dresden (Saxony); XIII. Stuttgart (Württemberg); + XIV. Karlsruhe (Baden); XV. Strassburg (Alsace); XVI. Metz (Lorraine); + XVII. Danzig (West Prussia); XVIII. Frankfurt-am-Main (Hesse + Darmstadt, Main country); XIX. Leipzig (Saxony); I. Bavarian Corps, + Munich; II. Bavarian Corps, Würzburg; III. Bavarian Corps, Nuremberg. + The formation of a XX. army corps out of the extra division of the + XIV. corps at Colmar in Alsace, with the addition of two regiments + from Westphalia and drafts of the XV. and XVI. corps, was announced in + 1908 as the final step of the programme for the period 1906-1910. The + normal composition of an army corps on war is (a) staff, (b) 2 + infantry divisions, each of 2 brigades (4 regiments or 12 + battalions), 2 regiments of field artillery (comprising 9 batteries of + field-guns and 3 of field howitzers, 72 pieces in all), 3 squadrons of + cavalry, 1 or 2 companies of pioneers, a bridge train and 1 or 2 + bearer companies; (c) corps troops, 1 battalion rifles, telegraph + troops, bridge train, ammunition columns, train (supply) battalion, + field bakeries, bearer companies and field hospitals, &c., with, as a + rule, one or two batteries of heavy field howitzers or mortars and a + machine-gun group. The remainder of the cavalry and horse artillery + attached to the army corps in peace goes in war to form the cavalry + divisions. Certain corps have an increased effective; thus the Guard + has a whole cavalry division, and the I. corps (Königsberg) has three + divisions. Several corps possess an extra infantry brigade of two + 2-battalion regiments, but these, unless stationed on the frontiers, + are gradually absorbed into new divisions and army corps. In war + several army corps, cavalry divisions and reserve divisions are + grouped in two or more "armies," and in peace the army corps are + divided for purposes of superior control amongst several "army + inspections." + + The cavalry is organized in regiments of cuirassiers, dragoons, + lancers, hussars and mounted rifles,[7] the regiments having four + service and one depot squadrons. Troopers are armed with lance, sword + and carbine (for which in 1908 the substitution of a short rifle with + bayonet was suggested). In peace time the highest permanent + organization is the brigade of two regiments or eight squadrons, but + in war and at manoeuvres divisions of three brigades, with horse + artillery attached, are formed. + + The infantry consists of 216 regiments, mostly of three battalions + each. These are numbered, apart from the eight Guard regiments and the + Bavarians, serially throughout the army. Certain regiments are styled + grenadiers and fusiliers. In addition there are eighteen chasseur or + rifle battalions (_Jäger_). The battalion has always four companies, + each, at war strength, 250 strong. The armament of the infantry is the + model 1898 magazine rifle and bayonet (see RIFLE). + + The field (including horse) artillery consists in peace of 94 + regiments subdivided into two or three groups (_Abteilungen_), each of + two or three 6-gun batteries. The field gun in use is the quick-firing + gun 96/N.A. (see ORDNANCE: _Field Equipments_). + + The foot artillery is intended for siege and fortress warfare, and to + furnish the heavy artillery of the field army. It consists of forty + battalions. Machine gun detachments, resembling 4-gun batteries and + horsed as artillery, were formed to the number of sixteen in + 1904-1906. These are intended to work with the cavalry divisions. + Afterwards it was decided to form additional small groups of two guns + each, less fully horsed, to assist the infantry, and a certain number + of these were created in 1906-1908. + + The engineers are a technical body, not concerned with field warfare + or with the command of troops. On the other hand, the pioneers (29 + battalions) are assigned to the field army, with duties corresponding + roughly to those of field companies R.E. in the British service. Other + branches represented in Great Britain by the Royal Engineers are known + in Germany by the title "communication troops," and comprise railway, + telegraph and airship and balloon battalions. The Train is charged + with the duties of supply and transport. There is one battalion to + each army corps. + + _Remounts._--The peace establishment in horses is approximately + 100,000. Horses serve eight to nine years in the artillery and nine to + ten in the cavalry, after which, in the autumn of each year, they are + sold, and their places taken by remounts. The latter are bought at + horse-fairs and private sales, unbroken, and sent to the 25 remount + depots, whence, when fit for the service, they are sent to the various + units, as a rule in the early summer. Most of the cavalry and + artillery riding horses come from Prussia proper. The Polish districts + produce swift Hussar horses of a semi-eastern type. Hanover is second + only to East Prussia in output of horses. Bavaria, Saxony and + Württemberg do not produce enough horses for their own armies and have + to draw on Prussia. Thirteen thousand four hundred and forty-five + young horses were bought by the army authorities during 1907. The + average price was about £51 for field artillery draught horses, £65 + for heavy draught horses, and £46 for riding horses. + + The military expenditure of Germany, according to a comparative table + furnished to the House of Commons by the British war office in 1907, + varied between £36,000,000 and £44,000,000 per annum in the period + 1899-1902, and between £42,000,000 and £51,000,000 per annum in that + of 1905-1909. + + _Colonial Troops._--In 1906 these, irrespective of the brigade of + occupation then maintained in north China and of special + reinforcements sent to S.W. Africa during the Herrero war, consisted + of the _German East Africa_ troops, 220 Europeans and 1470 natives; + the _Cameroon_ troops, 145 European and 1170 natives; _S.W. African + troops_, entirely European and normally consisting of 606 officers + and men active and a reserve of ex-soldier settlers; the Kiao-Chau + garrison (chiefly marines), numbering 2687 officers and men; and + various small police forces in Togo, New Guinea, Samoa, &c. + + _Fortresses._--The fixed defences maintained by the German empire + (apart from naval ports and coast defences) belong to two distinct + epochs in the military policy of the state. In the first period + (roughly 1871-1899), which is characterized by the development of the + offensive spirit, the fortresses, except on the French and Russian + frontiers, were reduced to a minimum. In the interior only Spandau, + Cüstrin, Magdeburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm were maintained as defensive + supporting points, and similarly on the Rhine, which was formerly + studded with fortresses from Basel to Emmerich, the defences were + limited to New Breisach, Germersheim, Mainz, Coblenz, Cologne and + Wesel, all of a "barrier" character and not organized specially as + centres of activity for field armies. The French frontier, and to a + less extent the Russian, were organized offensively. Metz, already + surrounded by the French with a girdle of forts, was extended and + completed (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT) as a great entrenched + camp, and Strassburg, which in 1870 possessed no outlying works, was + similarly expanded, though the latter was regarded an instrument of + defence more than of attack. On the Russian frontier Königsberg, + Danzig, Thorn, Posen, Glogau (and on a smaller scale Boyen in East + Prussia and Graudenz on the Vistula) were modernized and improved. + + From 1899, however, Germany began to pay more attention to her fixed + defences, and in the next years a long line of fortifications came + into existence on the French frontier, the positions and strength of + which were regulated with special regard to a new strategic + disposition of the field armies and to the number and sites of the + "strategic railway stations" which were constructed about the same + time. Thus, the creation of a new series of forts extending from + Thionville (Diedenhofen) to Metz and thence south-eastward was coupled + with the construction of twelve strategic railway stations between + Cologne and the Belgian frontier, and later--the so-called + "fundamental plan" of operations against France having apparently + undergone modification in consequence of changes in the foreign + relations of the German government--an immense strategic railway + station was undertaken at Saarburg, on the right rear of Thionville + and well away from the French frontier, and many important new works + both of fortification and of railway construction were begun in Upper + Alsace, between Colmar and Basel. + + The coast defences include, besides the great naval ports of + Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea and Kiel on the Baltic, Danzig, Pillau, + Memel, Friedrichsort, Cuxhaven, Geestemünde and Swinemünde. + (C. F. A.) + +_Navy._--The German navy is of recent origin. In 1848 the German people +urged the construction of a fleet. Money was collected, and a few +men-of-war were fitted out; but these were subsequently sold, the German +_Bundestag_ (federal council) not being in sympathy with the aspirations +of the nation. Prussia however, began laying the foundations of a small +navy. To meet the difficulty arising from the want of good harbours in +the Baltic, a small extent of territory near Jade Bay was bought from +Oldenburg in 1854, for the purpose of establishing a war-port there. Its +construction was completed at enormous expense, and it was opened for +ships by the emperor in June 1869 under the name of Wilhelmshaven. In +1864 Prussia, in annexing Holstein, obtained possession of the excellent +port of Kiel, which has since been strongly fortified. From the time of +the formation of the North German Confederation the navy has belonged to +the common federal interest. Since 1st October 1867 all its ships have +carried the same flag, of the national colours--black, white, red, with +the Prussian eagle and the iron cross. + +From 1848 to 1868 the increase of the navy was slow. In 1851 it +consisted of 51 vessels, including 36 small gunboats of 2 guns each. In +1868 it consisted of 45 steamers (including 2 ironclads) and 44 sailing +vessels, but during the various wars of the period 1848-1871, only a few +minor actions were fought at sea, and for many years after the French +War the development of the navy did not keep pace with that of the +empire's commercial interests beyond the seas, or compete seriously with +the naval power of possible rivals. But towards the end of the 19th +century Germany started on a new naval policy, by which her fleet was +largely and rapidly increased. Details of this development will be found +in the article NAVY (see also _History_ below, _ad fin._). It will be +sufficient here to give the statistics relating to the beginning of the +year 1909, reference being made only to ships effective at that date and +to ships authorized in the construction programme of 1907: + + Modern battleships 20 effective, 4 approaching completion. + Old battleships and coast + defence ships 11 effective (4 non-effective). + Armoured cruisers 9 effective, 1 approaching completion. + Protected cruisers 31 effective, 2 approaching completion. + Torpedo craft of modern + types 130 effective, 3 approaching completion. + + _Administration._--In 1889 the administration was transferred from the + ministry of war to the imperial admiralty (_Reichsmarineamt_), at the + head of which is the naval secretary of state. The chief command was + at the same time separated from the administration and vested in a + naval officer, who controls the movements of the fleet, its personnel + and training, while the maintenance of the arsenals and dockyards, + victualling and clothing and all matters immediately affecting the + _matériel_, fall within the province of the secretary of state. The + navy is divided between the Baltic (Kiel) and North Sea + (Wilhelmshaven) stations, which are strategically linked by the Kaiser + Wilhelm Canal (opened in 1895), across the Schleswig-Holstein + peninsula. Danzig, Cuxhaven and Sonderburg have also been made naval + bases. + + _Personnel._--The German navy is manned by the obligatory service of + the essentially maritime population--such as sailors, fishermen and + others, as well as by volunteers, who elect for naval service in + preference to that in the army. It is estimated that the total + seafaring population of Germany amounts to 80,000. The active naval + personnel was, in 1906, 2631 officers (including engineers, marines, + medical, &c.) and 51,138 under-officers and men, total 53,769. In + addition, there is a reserve of more than 100,000 officers and men. + (P. A. A.) + +_Finance._--The imperial budget is voted every year by the Reichstag. +The "extraordinary funds," from which considerable sums appear annually +in the budget, were created after the Franco-German War. Part of the +indemnity was invested for definite purposes. The largest of these +investments served for paying the pensions of the invalided, and +amounted originally to £28,000,000. Every year, not only the interest, +but part of the capital is expended in paying these pensions, and the +capital sum was thus reduced in 1903 to £15,100,000, and in 1904 to +£13,200,000. Another fund, of about £5,200,000, serves for the +construction and armament of fortresses; while £6,000,000, known as the +_Reichskriegsschatz_--or "war treasure fund"--is not laid out at +interest, but is stored in coined gold and bullion in the Juliusturm at +Spandau. In addition to these, the railways in Alsace-Lorraine, which +France bought of the Eastern Railway Company for £13,000,000, in order +to transfer them to the control of Germany, are also the property of the +empire. + +During the years 1908 and 1909 considerable public discussion and +political activity were devoted to the reorganization of German imperial +finance, and it is only possible here to deal historically with the +position up to that time, since further developments of an important +nature were already foreshadowed. + +In 1871 the system accepted was that the imperial budget should be +financed substantially by its reliance on the revenue from what were the +obvious imperial resources--customs and excise duties, stamp duties, +post and telegraph receipts, and among minor sources the receipts from +the Alsace-Lorraine railways. But it was also provided that, for the +purpose of deficits, the states should, in addition, if required by the +imperial minister of finance, contribute their quotas according to +population--_Matrikular Beiträge_. It was not expected that these would +become chronic, but in a few years, and emphatically by the early +'eighties, they were found to be an essential part of the financial +system, owing to regular deficits. It had been intended that, in return +for the _Matrikular Beiträge_, regular assignments (_Überweisungen_) +should be returned to the states, in relief of their own taxation, which +would practically wipe out the contribution; but instead of these the +_Überweisungen_ were considerably less. Certain reorganizations were +made in 1887 and 1902, but the excess of the _Matrikular Beiträge_ over +the _Überweisungen_ continued; the figures in 1905 and 1908 being as +follows (in millions of marks):-- + + +------+-------------+---------------+---------+ + | | Matrikular- | Überweisungen.| Excess. | + | | Beiträge. | | | + +------+-------------+---------------+---------+ + | 1905 | 213 | 189 | 24 | + | 1908 | 346 | 195 | 150 | + +------+-------------+---------------+---------+ + +These figures show how natural it was to desire to relieve the states by +increasing the direct imperial revenue. + +Meanwhile, in spite of the "matricular contributions," the calls on +imperial finance had steadily increased, and up to 1908 were continually +met to a large extent by loans, involving a continual growth of the +imperial debt, which in 1907 amounted to 3643 millions of marks. The +imperial budget, like that of most European nations, is divided into two +portions, the ordinary and the extraordinary; and the increase under +both heads (especially for army and navy) became a recurrent factor. A +typical situation is represented by the main figures for 1905 and 1906 +(in millions of marks): + + +------+-----------------------+----------+-----------+ + | | Expenditure. | | | + | +-----------+-----------+ Revenue. | Raised by | + | | Ordinary. | Extra- | | Loan. | + | | | ordinary. | | | + +------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+ + | 1905 | 2002 | 193 | 2053 | 341 | + | 1906 | 2157 | 235 | 2118 | 258 | + +------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+ + +The same process went on in 1907 and 1908, and it was necessarily +recognized that the method of balancing the imperial budget by a regular +increase of debt could not be satisfactory in a country where the +general increase of wealth and taxable capacity had meanwhile been +conspicuous. And though the main proposals made by the government for +new taxation, including new direct taxes, resulted in a parliamentary +deadlock in 1909, and led to Prince von Bülow's resignation as +chancellor, it was already evident that some important reorganization of +the imperial financial system was inevitable. + + _Currency._--The German empire adopted a gold currency by the law of + the 4th of December 1871. Subsequently the old local coinages + (_Landesmünzen_) began to be called in and replaced by new gold and + silver coins. The old gold coins, amounting to £4,550,000, had been + called in as early as 1873; and the old silver coins have since been + successively put out of circulation, so that none actually remains as + legal tender but the thaler (3s.). The currency reform was at first + facilitated by the French indemnity, a great part of which was paid in + gold. But later on that metal became scarcer; the London gold prices + ran higher and higher, while silver prices declined. The average rate + per ounce of standard silver in 1866-1870 was 60-5/8d., in January + 1875 only 57½d., in July 1876 as low as 49d. It rose in January 1877 + to 57½d., but again declined, and in September 1878 it was 50-5/8d. + While the proportion of like weights of fine gold and fine silver in + 1866-1870 averaged 1 to 15.55, it was 1 to 17.79 in 1876, 1 to 17.18 + in 1877, and, in 1902, in consequence of the heavy fall in silver, the + ratio became as much as 1 to 39. By the currency law of the 9th of + July 1873, the present coinage system was established and remains, + with certain minor modifications, now in force as then introduced. The + unit is the mark (1 shilling)--the tenth part of the imperial _gold + coin_ (Krone = crown), of which last 139½ are struck from a pound of + pure gold. Besides these ten-mark pieces, there are Doppelkronen + (double crowns), about equivalent in value to an English sovereign + (the average rate of exchange being 20 marks 40 pfennige per £1 + sterling), and, formerly, half-crowns (halbe Kronen = 5 marks) in gold + were also issued, but they have been withdrawn from circulation. + Silver coins are 5, 2 and 1 mark pieces, equivalent to 5, 2 and 1 + shillings respectively, and 50 pfennige pieces = 6d. Nickel coins are + 10 and 5 pfennige pieces, and there are bronze coins of 2 and 1 + pfennige. The system is decimal; thus 100 pfennige = 1 mark, 1000 + pfennige = the gold krone (or crown), and 1d. English amounts roughly + to 8 pfennige. + + _Banking._--A new banking law was promulgated for the whole empire on + the 14th of March 1875. Before that date there existed thirty-two + banks with the privilege of issuing notes, and on the 31st of December + 1872, £67,100,000 in all was in circulation, £25,100,000 of that sum + being uncovered. The banking law was designed to reduce this + circulation of notes; £19,250,000 was fixed as an aggregate maximum of + uncovered notes of the banks. The private banks were at the same time + obliged to erect branch offices in Berlin or Frankfort-on-Main for the + payment of their notes. In consequence of this regulation numerous + banks resigned the privilege of issuing notes, and at present there + are in Germany but the following private note banks, issuing private + notes, viz. the Bavarian, the Saxon, the Württemberg, the Baden and + the Brunswick, in addition to the Imperial Bank. The Imperial Bank + (Reichsbank) ranks far above the others in importance. It took the + place of the Prussian Bank in 1876, and is under the superintendence + and management of the empire, which shares in the profits. Its head + office is in Berlin, and it is entitled to erect branch offices in any + part of the empire. It has a capital of £9,000,000 divided into 40,000 + shares of £150 each, and 60,000 shares of £50 each. The Imperial Bank + is privileged to issue bank-notes, which must be covered to the extent + of 1s. 3d. in coined money, bullion or bank-notes, the remainder in + bills at short sight. Of the net profits, a dividend of 3½% is first + payable to the shareholders, 20% of the remainder is transferred to + the reserve until this has reached a total of £3,000,000, and of the + remainder again a quarter is apportioned to the shareholders and + three-quarters falls to the imperial exchequer. If the net profits do + not reach 3½%, the balance must be made good from the reserve. Private + note banks are not empowered to do business outside the state which + has conceded them the privilege to issue notes, except under certain + limitations. One of these is that they agree that their privilege to + issue private notes may be withdrawn at one year's notice without + compensation. But this condition has not been enforced in the case of + such banks as have agreed to accept as binding the official rate of + discount of the Reichsbank after this has reached or when it exceeds + 4%. At other times they are not to discount at more than ¼% below the + official rate of the Reichsbank, or in case the Reichsbank itself + discounts at a lower rate than the official rate, at more than 1/8% + below that rate. + + The following table shows the financial condition of the note-issuing + banks, in thousands of marks, over a term of years: + + _Liabilities._ + + +------+-------+----------+---------------+------------+------------------+ + | Year.| Banks.| Capital. | Reserve. | Notes in | Total, including | + | | | | |Circulation.|other Liabilities.| + +------+-------+----------+---------------+------------+------------------+ + | 1900 | 8 | 219,672 | 48,329 | 1,313,855 | 2,237,017 | + | 1901 | 7 | 231,672 | 54,901 | 1,345,436 | 2,360,453 | + | 1902 | 6 | 216,000 | 56,684 | 1,373,482 | 2,353,951 | + | 1903 | 6 | 216,000 | 60,131 | 1,394,336 | 2,365,256 | + | 1904 | 6 | 216,000 | 64,385 | 1,433,421 | 2,378,845 | + +------+-------+----------+---------------+------------+------------------+ + + _Assets._ + + +------+-------+----------+----------------+-----------+------------------+ + | Year.| Banks.| Coin and | Notes of State | Bills. | Total. | + | | | Bullion. |and other Banks.| | | + +------+-------+----------+----------------+-----------+------------------+ + | 1900 | 8 | 899,630 | 51,931 | 1,036,961 | 2,239,564 | + | 1901 | 7 | 990,262 | 60,770 | 990,950 | 2,360,355 | + | 1902 | 6 |1,052,391 | 54,389 | 901,408 | 2,354,253 | + | 1903 | 6 | 973,953 | 54,231 | 984,604 | 2,356,511 | + | 1904 | 6 | 996,601 | 66,372 | 947,358 | 2,379,234 | + +------+-------+----------+----------------+-----------+------------------+ + + The total turnover of the Imperial Bank was, in the first year of its + foundation, 1¾ milliards pounds sterling; and, in 1899, 90 milliards. + Eighty-five per cent of its bank-notes have been, on the average, + covered by metal reserve. + + The total value of silver coins is not to exceed 10 marks, and that of + copper and nickel 2½ marks per head of the population. While the + coinage of silver, nickel and copper is reserved to the state, the + coinage of gold pieces can be undertaken by the state for the account + of private individuals on payment of a fixed charge. The coinage takes + place in the six mints belonging to the various states--thus Berlin + (Prussia), Munich (Bavaria), Dresden (in the Muldenerhütte near + Freiberg, Saxony), Stuttgart (Württemberg), Karlsruhe (Baden) and + Hamburg (for the state of Hamburg). Of the thalers, the Vereinsthaler, + coined until 1867 in Austria, was by ordinance of the Bundesrat + declared illegal tender since the 1st of January 1903. No one can be + compelled to accept more than 20 marks in silver or more than 1 mark + in nickel and copper coin; but, on the other hand, the Imperial Bank + accepts imperial silver coin in payment to any amount. + + The total value of thalers, which, with the exception of the + Vereinsthaler, are legal tender, was estimated in 1894 at about + £20,000,000. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Cotta, _Deutschlands Boden_ (2 vols., 1853); H.A. + Daniel, _Deutschland_ (1896); J. Kutzen, _Das deutsche Land_ (Breslau, + 1900); Von Klöden, _Geographisches Handbuch_, vol. ii. (1875); G. + Neumann, _Das deutsche Reich_ (2 vols., 1874); O. Brunckow, _Die + Wohnplätze des deutschen Reiches--auf Grund der amtlichen Materialien + bearbeitet_ (new ed., Berlin, 1897); _Handbuch der Wirtschaftskunde + Deutschlands_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1901-1905); _Gothaischer + genealogischer Hofkalender auf das Jahr 1907_ (Gotha); A. von W. Keil, + _Neumanns Ortslexikon des deutschen Reiches_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1894); + Meyer, _Konversations-Lexikon_ (1902 seqq.); Brockhaus, + _Konversations-Lexikon_ (1900 seqq.); J. Kürschner, _Staats- Hof- und + Kommunal-handbuch des Reiches und der Einzelstaaten_ (Leipzig, 1900); + P. Hage, _Grundriss der deutschen Staats- und Rechtskunde_ (Stuttgart, + 1906), and for Statistical matter chiefly the following: _Centralblatt + für das deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben im Reichsamt der Innern_ + (Berlin, 1900); _Die deutsche Armee und die kaiserliche Marine_ + (Berlin, 1889); _Gewerbe und Handel im deutschen Reich nach der + gewerblichen Betriebszählung, vom 14. Juni 1895_ (Berlin, 1899); + _Handbuch für das deutsche Reich auf das Jahr 1900, bearbeitet im + Reichsamt der Innern_ (Berlin); _Handbuch für die deutsche + Handelsmarine auf das Jahr 1900; Statistik des deutschen Reichs_, + published by the _Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt_ (including trade, + navigation, criminal statistics, sick insurance, &c.); _Statistisches + Jahrbuch für das deutsche Reich_ (Berlin, 1906) and _Vierteljahrshefte + für Statistik des deutschen Reichs_ (including census returns, + commerce and railways). See also among English publications on + geographical and statistical matter: _Annual Statement of the Trade of + the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for + the Year 1899_ (London, 1900); and G.G. Chisholm, _Europe_, being + vols. i. and ii. of Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_ + (London, 1899 and 1900). The fullest general account of the geology of + Germany will be found in R. Lepsius, _Geologie von Deutschland und den + angrenzenden Gebieten_ (Stuttgart, first volume completed in 1892). + Shorter descriptions will be found in E. Kayser, _Lehrbuch der + geologischen Formationskunde_ (Stuttgart, English edition under the + title _Text-book of Comparative Geology_), and H. Credner, _Elemente + der Geologie_ (Leipzig). + + +ARCHAEOLOGY + +From an archaeological point of view Germany is very far from being a +homogeneous whole. Not only has the development of the south differed +from that of the north, and the west been subjected to other influences +than those affecting the east, but even where the same influences have +been at work the period of their operation has often varied widely in +the different districts, so that in a general sketch of the whole +country the chronology can only be a very rough approximation. In this +article the dates assigned to the various periods in south Germany are +those given by Sophus Müller, on the lines first laid down by Montelius. +As regards north Germany, Müller puts the Northern Bronze age 500 years +later than the Southern, but a recent find in Sweden bears out +Montelius's view that southern influence made itself rapidly felt in the +North. The conclusions of Montelius and Müller are disputed by W. +Ridgeway, who maintains that the Iron age originated in central Europe, +and that iron must consequently have been worked in those regions as far +back as c. 2000 B.C. + +_Older Palaeolithic Period._--The earliest traces of man's handiwork are +found either at the end of the pre-Glacial epoch, or in an inter-Glacial +period, but it is a disputed point whether the latter is the first of a +series of such periods. A typical German find is at Taubach, near +Weimar, where almond-shaped stone wedges, small flint knives, and +roughly-hacked pieces of porphyry and quartz are found, together with +the remains of elephants. There are also bone implements, which are not +found in the earliest periods in France. + +_Palaeolithic Transition Period_ (_Solutré_).--More highly developed +forms are found when the mammoth has succeeded the elephant. Implements +of chipped stone for the purposes of boring and scraping suggest that +man worked hides for clothing. Ornaments of perforated teeth and shells +are found. + +_Later Palaeolithic Period_ (_La Madeleine_).--The next period is marked +by the presence of reindeer. In the Hohlefels in the Swabian Achthal +there is still no trace of earthenware, and we find the skull of a +reindeer skilfully turned into a drinking-vessel. Saws, needles, awls +and bone harpoons are found. It is to be noticed that none of the German +finds (mostly in the south and west) show any traces of the highly +developed artistic sense so characteristic of the dwellers in France at +this period. + +The gap in our knowledge of the development of Palaeolithic into +Neolithic civilization has recently been partially filled in by +discoveries in north Germany and France of objects showing rather more +developed forms than those of the former period, but still unaccompanied +by earthenware. It is a disputed point whether the introduction of +Neolithic civilization is due to a new ethnological element. + +_Neolithic Age_ (in south Germany till c. 2000 B.C.).--Neolithic man +lived under the same climatic conditions as prevail to-day, but amidst +forests of fir. He shows advance in every direction, and by the end of +the later Neolithic period he is master of the arts of pottery and +spinning, is engaged in agricultural pursuits, owns domestic animals, +and makes weapons and tools of fine shape, either ground and polished or +beautifully chipped. Traces of Neolithic settlements have been found +chiefly in the neighbourhood of Worms, in the Main district and in +Thuringia. These dwellings are usually holes in the ground, and +presumably had thatched roofs. Our knowledge of the later Neolithic age, +as of the succeeding periods, is largely gained from the remains of +lake-dwellings, represented in Germany chiefly by Bavarian finds. The +lake-dwellings in Mecklenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia are of a +different type, and it is not certain that they date back to the Stone +age. Typical Neolithic cemeteries are found at Hinkelstein, Alzey and +other places in the neighbourhood of Worms. In these graves the +skeletons lie flat, while in other cemeteries, as at Flomborn in +Rhine-Hessen, and near Heilbronn, they are in a huddled position (hence +the name _Hockergräber_). Necklaces and bracelets of Mediterranean +shells point to a considerable amount of commerce. Other objects found +in the graves are small flint knives, stone axes, flint and lumps of +pyrites for obtaining fire, and, in the women's graves, hand-mills for +grinding corn. The earthenware vessels usually have rounded bottoms. The +earliest ornamentation consists of finger-imprints. Later we find two +periods of zigzag designs in south Germany with an intermediate stage of +spirals and wavy lines, while in north and east Germany the so-called +string-ornamentation predominates. Towards the end of the period the +inhabitants of north Germany erect megalithic graves, and in Hanover +especially the passage-graves. + +_Bronze Age_ (in south Germany from c. 2000-1000 B.C.).--In the later +Stone age we note the occasional use of copper, and then the gradual +appearance of bronze. The bronze civilization of the Aegean seems to +have had direct influence along the basins of the Danube and Elbe, while +the culture of the western parts of central Germany was transmitted +through Italy and France. No doubt the pre-eminence of the north, and +especially of Denmark, at this period, was due to the amber trade, +causing southern influence to penetrate up the basin of the Elbe to +Jutland. The earlier period is characterized by the practice of +inhumation in barrows made of clays, stones or sand, according to the +district. Bronze is cast, whereas at a later time it shows signs of the +hammer. From the finds in Bavarian graves it appears that the chief +weapons were the dagger and the long pointed _Palstab_ (palstave), while +a short dagger fixed like an axe on a long shaft is characteristic of +the North. The women wore two bronze pins, a bracelet on each arm, amber +ornaments and a necklace of bronze tubes in spirals. One or two vases +are found in each barrow, ornamented with finger-imprints, "string" +decoration, &c. The later period is characterized by the practice of +cremation, though the remains are still placed in barrows. Swords make +their appearance. The women wear more and more massive ornaments. The +vases are highly polished and of elegant form, with zigzag decoration. + +_Hallstatt Period_ (in Germany 8th-5th century B.C.).--The Hallstatt +stage of culture, named after the famous cemetery in upper Austria, is +marked by the introduction of iron (see HALLSTATT). In Germany its +centre is Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg, with the Thuringian forest as +the northern boundary. In Brandenburg, Lusatia, Silesia, Posen and +Saxony, where there was no strong Bronze age tradition, Hallstatt +influence is very noticeable. In west Prussia the urns with human faces +deserve notice. The dead are either buried in barrows or cremated, the +latter especially in north and east Germany. In Bavaria both practices +are resorted to, as at Hallstatt. The pottery develops beautiful form +and colour. Fibulae, often of the "kettle-drum" form, take the place of +the Bronze age pin. + +_La Tène Period_ (4th-1st century B.C.).--Down to this time there is +very little evidence concerning the racial affinities of the population. +When our records first begin the western and southern portions of +Germany seem to have been inhabited by Celtic peoples (see below +"Ethnography"). La Tène, in Switzerland, has given its name to the +period, of which the earlier part corresponds to the time of Celtic +supremacy. It is interesting to note how the Celts absorb Roman and +still more Greek culture, even imitating foreign coins, and pass on +their new arts to their Teutonic neighbours; but in spite of the strong +foreign influence the Celtic civilization can in some sort be termed +national. Later it has a less rich development, betraying the political +decay of the race. Its centres in Germany are the southern districts as +far as Thuringia, and the valleys of the Main and Saar. The +ornamentation is of the conventionalized plant type: gold is freely +used, and enamel, of a kind different from the Roman enamel used later +in Germany, is applied to weapons and ornaments. Chariots are used in +war, and fortified towns are built, though we must still suppose the +houses to have consisted of a wooden framework coated with clay. In +these districts La Tène influence is contemporary with the use of +tumuli, but in the (non-Celtic) coast districts it must be sought in +urn-cemeteries. + +_Roman Period_ (from the 1st century A.D.).--The period succeeding to La +Tène ought rather to be called Romano-Germanic, the relation of the +Teutonic races to the Roman civilization being much the same as that of +the Celts to classical culture in the preceding period. The Rhine lands +were of course the centre of Roman civilization, with Roman roads, +fortresses, stone and tiled houses and marble temples. By this time the +Teutonic peoples had probably acquired the art of writing, though the +origin of their national (Runic) alphabet is still disputed. The graves +of the period contain urns of earthenware or glass, cremation being the +prevalent practice, and the objects found include one or more coins in +accordance with Roman usage. + +_Period of National Migrations_ (A.D. 300-500).--The grave-finds do not +bear out the picture of a period of ceaseless war painted by the Roman +historians. On the contrary, weapons are seldom found, at any rate in +graves, the objects in which bear witness to a life of extraordinary +luxury. Magnificent drinking-vessels, beautifully ornamented dice and +draughtsmen, masses of gay beads, are among the commonest grave-finds. A +peculiarity of the period is the development of decoration inspired by +animal forms, but becoming more and more tortuous and fantastic. Only +those eastern parts of Germany which were now occupied by Slavonic +peoples remained uninfluenced by this rich civilization. + +_The Merovingian Period_ (A.D. 500-800) sees the completion of the work +of converting the German tribes to Christianity. _Reihengräber_, +containing objects of value, but otherwise like modern cemeteries, with +the dead buried in rows (_Reihen_), are found over all the Teutonic part +of Germany, but some tribes, notably the Alamanni, seem still to have +buried their dead in barrows. Among the Franks and Burgundians we find +monolithic sarcophagi in imitation of the Romans, and in other districts +sarcophagi were constructed out of several blocks of stone--the +so-called _Plattengräber_. The weapons are the _spatha_, or +double-bladed German sword, the _sax_ (a short sword, or long knife, +_semispathium_), the knife, shield, and the favourite German axe, though +this latter is not found in Bavaria. The ornaments are beads, earrings, +brooches, rings, bracelets, &c., thickly studded with precious stones. + + AUTHORITIES.--S. Müller, _Urgeschichte Europas_ (1905), and + _Tierornamentik_ (1881); O. Montelius, "Chronologie der Bronzezeit in + N. Deutschland und Skandinavien," in _Archiv für Anthropologie_, vols. + xxv. and xxvi.; M. Hoernes, _Urgeschichte des Menschen_ (1892), and + _Der diluviale Mensch in Europa_ (1903); M. Much, _Kupferzeit in + Europa_ (1893); R. Munro, _Lake-dwellings of Europe_ (1890); J. Naue, + _Bronzezeit in Ober-Bayern_ (1894); O. Tischler, _Ostpreussische + Altertümer_ (1902); R. Virchow, _Über Hünengräber und Pfahlbauten_ + (1866); J. Mestorf, _Urnenfriedhöfe in Schleswig-Holstein_ (1886); A. + Lissauer, _Prähistorische Denkmäler Preussens_ (1887); I. Undset, + _Erstes Auftreten des Eisens in N. Europa_ (1882); L. Lindenschmit, + _Handbuch der deutschen Altertumskunde_, i. (1880-1889); and W. + Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_, i. (1901). Also articles by the above + and others, chiefly in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ (Berlin); _Archiv + für Anthropologie_ (Brunswick); _Globus_ (Brunswick); _Westdeutsche + Zeitschrift_ (Trier); _Schriften der physikalisch-ökonomischen + Gesellschaft_ (Königsberg); _Nachrichten über deutsche Altertumskunde_ + (Berlin); _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie_, + &c.; _Beiträge zur Anthropologie Bayerns_ (Munich); and _Zeitschrift + für deutsches Altertum_ (Berlin). (B. S. P.) + + +ETHNOGRAPHY AND EARLY HISTORY + + Julius Caesar in Germany. + +Our direct knowledge of Germany begins with the appointment of Julius +Caesar as governor of Gaul in 59 B.C. Long before that time there is +evidence of German communication with southern civilization, as the +antiquities prove, and occasional travellers from the Mediterranean had +made their way into those regions (e.g. Pytheas, towards the end of the +4th century), but hardly any records of their journeys survive. The +first Teutonic peoples whom the Romans are said to have encountered are +the Cimbri and Teutoni, probably from Denmark, who invaded Illyria, Gaul +and Italy towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. When Caesar arrived in +Gaul the westernmost part of what is now Germany was in the possession +of Gaulish tribes. The Rhine practically formed the boundary between +Gauls and Germans, though one Gaulish tribe, the Menapii, is said to +have been living beyond the Rhine at its mouth, and shortly before the +arrival of Caesar an invading force of Germans had seized and settled +down in what is now Alsace, 72 B.C. At this time the Gauls were being +pressed by the Germans along the whole frontier, and several of Caesar's +campaigns were occupied with operations, either against the Germans, or +against Gaulish tribes set in motion by the Germans. Among these we may +mention the campaign of his first year of office, 58 B.C., against the +German king Ariovistus, who led the movement in Alsace, and that of 55 +B.C. in which he expelled the Usipetes and Tencteri who had crossed the +lower Rhine. During the period of Caesar's government he succeeded in +annexing the whole of Gaul as far as the Rhine. (For the campaigns see +CAESAR, JULIUS.) + + + The campaign of other Roman leaders. + +After peace had been established in Italy by Augustus, attempts were +made to extend the Roman frontier beyond the Rhine. The Roman prince +Nero Claudius Drusus (q.v.) in the year 12 B.C. annexed what is now the +kingdom of the Netherlands, and constructed a canal (Fossa Drusiana) +between the Rhine and the lake Flevo (Lacus Flevus), which partly +corresponded to the Zuyder Zee, though the topography of the district +has greatly altered. He also penetrated into regions beyond and crossed +the Weser, receiving the submission of the Bructeri, Chatti and +Cherusci. After Drusus' death in 9 B.C., while on his return from an +expedition which reached the Elbe, the German command was twice +undertaken by Tiberius, who in A.D. 5 received the submission of all the +tribes in this quarter, including the Chauci and the Langobardi. A Roman +garrison was left in the conquered districts between the Rhine and the +Elbe, but the reduction was not thoroughly completed. About the same +time the Roman fleet voyaged along the northern coast apparently as far +as the north of Jutland, and received the nominal submission of several +tribes in that region, including the Cimbri and the Charudes. In A.D. 9 +Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, was surprised in the +_Saltus Teutobergensis_ between the Lippe and the Weser by a force +raised by Arminius, a chief of the Cherusci, and his army consisting of +three legions was annihilated. Germanicus Caesar, during his tenure of +the command of the Roman armies on the Rhine, made repeated attempts to +recover the Roman position in northern Germany and exact vengeance for +the death of Varus, but without real success, and after his recall the +Rhine formed for the greater part of its course the boundary of the +Empire. A standing army was kept up on the Rhine, divided into two +commands, upper and lower Germany, the headquarters of the former being +at Mainz, those of the latter at Vetera, near Xanten. A number of +important towns grew up, among which we may mention Trier (Augusta +Trevirorum), Cologne (Colonia Agrippinensis), Bonn (Bonna), Worms +(Borbetomagus), Spires (Noviomagus), Strassburg (Argentoratum) and +Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum). + +At a later date, however, probably under the Flavian emperors, the +frontier of upper Germany was advanced somewhat beyond the Rhine, and a +fortification, the _Pfahlgraben_, constructed to protect it. It led from +Hönningen on the Rhine, about half-way between Bonn and Coblenz, to +Mittenberg above Aschaffenburg on the Main, thence southwards to Lorch +in Württemberg, whence it turned east to the junction of the Altmühl +with the Danube at Kelheim. + +During the wars of Drusus, Tiberius and Germanicus the Romans had ample +opportunity of getting to know the tribal geography of Germany, +especially the western part, and though most of our authorities lived at +a somewhat later period, it is probable that they derived their +information very largely from records of that time. It will be +convenient, therefore, to give an account of the tribal geography of +Germany in the time of Augustus, as our knowledge of the subject is much +more complete for his reign than for several centuries later. + + + The German tribes. + +Of the Gaulish tribes west of the Rhine, the most important was the +Treveri, inhabiting the basin of the Moselle, from whom the city of +Trier (Trèves) derives its name. The Rauraci probably occupied the south +of Alsace. To the south of the Treveri lay the Mediomatrici, and to the +west of them lay the important tribe of the Sequani, who had called in +Ariovistus. The Treveri claimed to be of German origin, and the same +claim was made by a number of tribes in Belgium, the most powerful of +which were the Nervii. The meaning of this claim is not quite clear, as +there is some obscurity concerning the origin of the name Germani. It +appears to be a Gaulish term, and there is no evidence that it was ever +used by the Germans themselves. According to Tacitus it was first +applied to the Tungri, whereas Caesar records that four Belgic tribes, +namely, the Condrusi, Eburones, Caeraesi and Paemani, were collectively +known as Germani. There is no doubt that these tribes were all +linguistically Celtic, and it is now the prevailing opinion that they +were not of German origin ethnologically, but that the ground for their +claim was that they had come from over the Rhine (cf. Caesar, _De Bello +Gallico_ ii. 4). It would therefore seem that the name Germani +originally denoted certain Celtic tribes to the east of the Rhine, and +that it was then transferred to the Teutonic tribes which subsequently +occupied the same territory. + + + Their movements. + +There is little doubt that during the last century before the Christian +era the Celtic peoples had been pushed considerably farther west by the +Teutonic peoples, a process which was still going on in Caesar's time, +when we hear of the overthrow of the Menapii, the last Gaulish tribe +beyond the Rhine. In the south the same process can be observed. The +Boii were expelled from their territories in Bohemia by the Marcomanni +in the time of Augustus, and the Helvetii are also recorded to have +occupied formerly lands east of the Rhine, in what is now Baden and +Württemberg. Caesar also mentions a Gaulish tribe named Volcae +Tectosages as living in Germany in his time. The Volcae Arecomici in the +south of France and the Tectosages of Galatia were in all probability +offshoots of this people. The name of the tribe was adopted in the +Teutonic languages as a generic term for all Celtic and Italian peoples +(O.H.G. _Walha_, A.S. _Wealas_), from which it is probably to be +inferred that they were the Celtic people with whom the Teutonic races +had the closest association in early times. It has been thought that +they inhabited the basin of the Weser, and a number of place-names in +this district are supposed to be of Celtic origin. Farther to the south +and west Ptolemy mentions a number of place-names which are certainly +Celtic, e.g. Mediolanion, Aregelia, Lougidounon, Lokoriton, Segodounon. +There is therefore great probability that a large part of western +Germany east of the Rhine had formerly been occupied by Celtic peoples. +In the east a Gaulish people named Cotini are mentioned, apparently in +the upper basin of the Oder, and Tacitus speaks of a tribe in the same +neighbourhood, the Osi, who he says spoke the Pannonian language. It is +probable, therefore, that in other directions also the Germans had +considerably advanced their frontier southwards at a comparatively +recent period. + + + Tribes in the west and north. + +Coming now to the Germans proper, the basin of the Rhine between +Strassburg and Mainz was inhabited by the Tribocci, Nemetes and +Vangiones, farther down by the Mattiaci about Wiesbaden, and the Ubii in +the neighbourhood of Cologne; beyond them were the Sugambri, and in the +Rhine delta the Batavi and other smaller tribes. All these tribes +remained in subjection to the Romans. Beyond them were the Tencteri, +probably about the basin of the Lahn, and the Usipetes about the basin +of the Ruhr. The basin of the Lippe and the upper basin of the Ems were +inhabited by the Bructeri, and in the same neighbourhood were the +Ampsivarii, who derive their name from the latter river. East of them +lay the Chasuarii, presumably in the basin of the Hase. The upper basin +of the Weser was inhabited by the Chatti, whose capital was Mattium, +supposed to be Maden on the Eder. To the north-west of them were +situated the Marsi, apparently between the Diemel and the Lippe, while +the central part of the basin of the Weser was inhabited by the +Cherusci, who seem to have extended considerably eastward. The lower +part of the river-basin was inhabited by the Angrivarii. The coastlands +north of the mouth of the Rhine were occupied by the Canninefates, +beyond them by the Frisii as far as the mouth of the Ems, thence onward +to the mouth of the Elbe by the Chauci. As to the affinities of all +these various tribes we have little definite information, but it is +worth noting that the Batavi in Holland are said to have been a branch +of the Chatti, from whom they had separated owing to a _seditio +domestica_. The basin of the Elbe was inhabited by Suebic tribes, the +chief of which were the Marcomanni, who seem to have been settled on the +Saale during the latter part of the 1st century B.C., but moved into +Bohemia before the beginning of the Christian era, where they at once +became a formidable power under their king Maroboduus. The Quadi were +settled somewhat farther east about the source of the Elbe. The +Hermunduri in the basin of the Saale were in alliance with the Romans +and occupied northern Bavaria with their consent. The Semnones +apparently dwelt below the junction of the Saale and Elbe. The +Langobardi (see LOMBARDS) possessed the land between the territory of +the Semnones and the mouth of the river. Their name is supposed to be +preserved in Bardengau, south of Hamburg. From later evidence it is +likely that another division of the Suebi inhabited western Holstein. +The province of Schleswig (perhaps only the west coast) and the islands +adjacent were inhabited by the Saxons, while the east coast, at least in +later times, was occupied by the Angli. The coast of Mecklenburg was +probably inhabited by the Varini (the later Warni). The eastern part of +Germany was much less known to the Romans, information being +particularly deficient as to the populations of the coast districts, +though it seems probable that the Rugii inhabited the eastern part of +Pomerania, where a trace of them is preserved in the name Rügenwalde. +The lower part of the basin of the Oder was probably occupied by the +Burgundiones, and the upper part by a number of tribes collectively +known as Lugii, who seem to correspond to the Vandals of later times, +though the early Roman writers apparently used the word Vandilii in a +wider sense, embracing all the tribes of eastern Germany. Among the +Lugii we may probably include the Silingae, who afterwards appear among +the Vandals in Spain, and whose name is preserved in Slavonic form in +that of the province Silesia. The Goths (Gotones) apparently inhabited +the basin of the Vistula about the middle of its course, but the lower +part of the basin was inhabited by non-Teutonic peoples, among whom we +may mention the Galindi, probably Prussians, and the Aestii, either +Prussian or Esthonian, in the coastlands at the mouth of the river, who +are known especially in connexion with the amber trade. To the east of +the Vistula were the Slavonic tribes (Veneti), and amongst them, perhaps +rather to the north, a Finnish population (Fenni), which disappeared in +later times. + + + Domestic wars of the Germans. + +In the time of Augustus by far the most powerful ruler in Germany was +Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. His supremacy extended over all the +Suebic tribes (except perhaps the Hermunduri), and most of the peoples +of eastern Germany, including apparently the Lugii and Goths. But in the +year A.D. 17 he became involved in an unsuccessful campaign against +Arminius, prince of the Cherusci, in which the Semnones and Langobardi +revolted against him, and two years later he was deprived of his throne +by a certain Catualda. The latter, however, was soon expelled by +Vibilius, king of the Hermunduri, and his power was transferred to +Vannius, who belonged to the Quadi. About the same time Arminius met his +death while trying to make himself king of the Cherusci. In the year 28 +the Frisians revolted from the Romans, and though they submitted again +in the year 47, Claudius immediately afterwards recalled the Roman +troops to the left bank of the Rhine. In the year 50 Vannius, king of +the Suebi, was driven from the throne by Vibilius, king of the +Hermunduri, and his nephews Vangio and Sido obtained his kingdom. In the +year 58 the Chatti suffered a serious disaster in a campaign against the +Hermunduri. They seem, however, to have recovered very soon, and at the +end of the 1st century had apparently extended their power at the +expense of the Cherusci. During the latter part of the 1st century the +Chauci seem to have been enlarging their territories: as early as the +year 47 we find them raiding the Roman lands on the lower Rhine, and in +58 they expelled the Ampsivarii, who after several vain attempts to +acquire new possessions were annihilated by the neighbouring tribes. +During the last years of the 1st century the Angrivarii are found moving +westwards, probably under pressure from the Chauci, and the power of the +Bructeri was almost destroyed by their attack. In 69 the Roman territory +on the lower Rhine was disturbed by the serious revolt of Claudius +Civilis, a prince of the Batavi who had served in the Roman army. He was +joined by the Bructeri and other neighbouring tribes, but being defeated +by Petilius Cerealis (afterwards consular legate in Britain) at Vetera +and in other engagements gave up the struggle and arranged a +capitulation in A.D. 70. By the end of the 1st century the Chauci and +Chatti seem to have become by far the most powerful tribes in western +Germany, though the former are seldom mentioned after this time. + +After the time of Tacitus our information regarding German affairs +becomes extremely meagre. The next important conflict with the Romans +was the Marcomannic War (166-180), in which all the Suebic tribes +together with the Vandals (apparently the ancient Lugii) and the +Sarmatian Iazyges seem to have taken part. Peace was made by the emperor +Commodus in A.D. 180 on payment of large sums of money. + + + The Alamanni, the Goths and the Franks. + +About the beginning of the 3rd century we find a forward movement in +south-west Germany among a group of tribes known collectively as +Alamanni (q.v.) who came in conflict with the emperor Caracalla in the +year 213. About the same time the Goths also made their first appearance +in the south-east and soon became the most formidable antagonists of +Rome. In the year 251 they defeated and slew the emperor Decius, and in +the reign of Gallienus their fleets setting out from the north of the +Black Sea worked great havoc on the coast of the Aegean (see GOTHS). It +is not to be supposed, however, that they had quitted their own lands on +the Vistula by this time. In this connexion we hear also of the Heruli +(q.v.), who some twenty years later, about 289, make their appearance in +the western seas. In 286 we hear for the first time of maritime raids by +the Saxons in the same quarter. About the middle of the 3rd century the +name Franks (q.v.) makes its first appearance, apparently a new +collective term for the tribes of north-west Germany from the Chatti to +the mouth of the Rhine. + + + Arrival of the Huns. + +In the 4th century the chief powers in western Germany were the Franks +and the Alamanni, both of whom were in constant conflict with the +Romans. The former were pressed in their rear by the Saxons, who at some +time before the middle of the 4th century appear to have invaded and +conquered a considerable part of north-west Germany. About the same time +great national movements seem to have been taking place farther east. +The Burgundians made their appearance in the west shortly before the end +of the 3rd century, settling in the basin of the Main, and it is +probable that some portions of the north Suebic peoples, perhaps the +ancient Semnones, had already moved westward. By the middle of the 4th +century the Goths had become the dominant power in eastern Germany, and +their King Hermanaric held a supremacy which seems to have stretched +from the Black Sea to Holstein. At his death, however, the supremacy of +eastern Germany passed to the Huns, an invading people from the east, +whose arrival seems to have produced a complete displacement of +population in this region. With regard to the course of events in +eastern Germany we have no knowledge, but during the 5th century several +of the peoples previously settled there appear to have made their way +into the lands south of the Carpathians and Riesengebirge, amongst whom +(besides the Goths) may be especially mentioned the Rugii and the +Gepides, the latter perhaps originally a branch of the Goths. According +to tradition the Vandals had been driven into Pannonia by the Goths in +the time of Constantine. We do not know how far northward the Hunnish +power reached in the time of Attila, but the invasion of this nation was +soon followed by a great westward movement of the Slavs. + + + The Burgundians and other tribes. + +In the west the Alamanni and the descendants of the Marcomanni, now +called Baiouarii (Bavarians), had broken through the frontiers of the +Roman provinces of Vindelicia and Noricum at the beginning of the 5th +century, while the Vandals together with some of the Suebi and the +non-Teutonic Alani from the east crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul in +406. About 435-440 the Burgundians were overthrown by Attila, and their +king Gunthacarius (Gundahar) killed. The remains of the nation shortly +afterwards settled in Gaul. About the same time the Franks overran and +occupied the modern Belgium, and in the course of the next half-century +their dominions were enormously extended towards the south (see FRANKS). +After the death of Attila in 453 the power of the Huns soon collapsed, +but the political divisions of Germany in the ensuing period are far +from clear. + + + The Franks and others in the 6th century. + +In the 6th century the predominant peoples are the Franks, Frisians, +Saxons, Alamanni, Bavarians, Langobardi, Heruli and Warni. By the +beginning of this century the Saxons seem to have penetrated almost, if +not quite, to the Rhine in the Netherlands. Farther south, however, the +old land of the Chatti was included in the kingdom of Clovis. Northern +Bavaria was occupied by the Franks, whose king Clovis subdued the +Alamanni in 495. To the east of the Franks between the Harz, the Elbe +and the Saale lay the kingdom of the Thuringi, the origin of whom is not +clear. The Heruli also had a powerful kingdom, probably in the basin of +the Elbe, and to the east of them were the Langobardi. The Warni +apparently now dwelt in the regions about the mouth of the Elbe, while +the whole coast from the mouth of the Weser to the west Scheldt was in +the hands of the Frisians. By this time all the country east of the +lower Elbe seems to have been Slavonic. In the north, perhaps in the +province of Schleswig, we hear now for the first time of the Danes. +Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, endeavoured to form a confederacy +with the Thuringi, Heruli and Warni against Clovis in order to protect +the Visigoths in the early years of the 6th century, but very shortly +afterwards the king of the Heruli was slain by the Langobardi and their +existence as an independent power came to an end. In 531 the Thuringian +kingdom was destroyed by the Frankish king Theodoric, son of Clovis, +with whom the Saxons were in alliance. + + + The Saxons and the Franks. + +During the 6th and 7th centuries the Saxons were intermittently under +Frankish supremacy, but their conquest was not complete until the time +of Charlemagne. Shortly after the middle of the 6th century the Franks +were threatened with a new invasion by the Avars. In 567-568 the +Langobardi, who by this time had moved into the Danube basin, invaded +Italy and were followed by those of the Saxons who had settled in +Thuringia. Their lands were given by the Frankish king Sigeberht to the +north Suebi and other tribes who had come either from the Elbe basin or +possibly from the Netherlands. About the same time Sigeberht was +defeated by the Avars, and though the latter soon withdrew from the +Frankish frontiers, their course was followed by a movement of the +Slavs, who occupied the basin of the Elster and penetrated to that of +the Main. + +By the end of the 6th century the whole basin of the Elbe except the +Saxon territory near the mouth had probably become Slavonic. To the east +of the Saale were the Sorbs (Sorabi), and beyond them the Daleminci and +Siusli. To the east of the Saxons were the Polabs (Polabi) in the basin +of the Elbe, and beyond them the Hevelli about the Havel. Farther north +in Mecklenburg were the Warnabi, and in eastern Holstein the Obotriti +and the Wagri. To the east of the Warnabi were the Liutici as far as the +Oder, and beyond that river the Pomerani. To the south of the Oder were +the Milcieni and the Lusici, and farther east the Poloni with their +centre in the basin of the Vistula. The lower part of the Vistula basin, +however, was in possession of Prussian tribes, the Prussi and Lithuani. + +The Warni now disappear from history, and from this time the Teutonic +peoples of the north as far as the Danish boundary about the Eider are +called Saxons. The conquest of the Frisians by the Franks was begun by +Pippin (Pepin) of Heristal in 689 and practically completed by Charles +Martel, though they were not entirely brought into subjection until the +time of Charlemagne. The great overthrow of the Saxons took place about +772-773 and by the end of the century Charlemagne had extended his +conquests to the border of the Danes. By this time the whole of the +Teutonic part of Germany had been finally brought under his government. + + AUTHORITIES.--Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, especially i. 31 ff., iv. + 1-19, vi. 21 ff.; Velleius Paterculus, especially ii. 105 ff.; Strabo, + especially pp. 193 ff., 290 ff.; Pliny, _Natural History_, iv. §§ 99 + ff., 106; Tacitus, Annales, i. 38 ff., ii. 5 ff., 44 ff., 62 f., 88; + _Germania_, passim; _Histories_, iv.; Ptolemy ii. 9, §§ 2 ff., 11, + iii. 5, §§ 19 ff.; Dio Cassius, passim; Julius Capitolinus; Claudius + Mamertinus; Ammianus Marcellinus, passim; Zosimus; Jordanes, _De + origine Getarum_; Procopius, _De bello Gothico_; K. Zeuss, _Die + Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme_; O. Bremer in Paul's _Grundriss d. + germ. Philologie_ (2nd ed.), vol. iii. pp. 735 ff. (F. G. M. B.) + + +MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY + + Divisions of Germany. + +When Clovis, or Chlodovech, became king of a tribe of the Salian Franks +in 481, five years after the fall of the Western empire, the region +afterwards called Germany was divided into five main districts, and its +history for the succeeding three centuries is mainly the history of the +tribes inhabiting these districts. In the north-east, dwelling between +the Rhine and the Elbe, were the Saxons (q.v.), to the east and south of +whom stretched the extensive kingdom of Thuringia (q.v.). In the +south-west the Alamanni occupied the territory afterwards called Swabia +(q.v.), and extended along the middle Rhine until they met the Ripuarian +Franks, then living in the northern part of the district which at a +later period was called after them, Franconia (q.v.); and in the +south-east were the Bavarians, although it was some time before their +country came to be known as Bavaria (q.v.). + + + The wars of Clovis. + +Clovis was descended from Chlogio, or Clodion, who had ruled over a +branch of the Salian Franks from 427 to 447, and whose successors, +following his example, had secured an influential position for their +tribe. Having obtained possession of that part of Gaul which lay between +the Seine and the Loire, Clovis turned his attention to his eastern +neighbours, and was soon engaged in a struggle with the Alamanni which +probably arose out of a quarrel between them and the Ripuarian Franks +for the possession of the middle Rhine. When in 496, or soon afterwards, +the Alamanni were defeated, they were confined to what was afterwards +known as Swabia, and the northern part of their territory was +incorporated with the kingdom of the Franks. Clovis had united the +Salian Franks under his rule, and he persuaded, or compelled, the +Ripuarian Franks also to accept him as their king; but on his death in +511 his kingdom was divided, and the Ripuarian, or Rhenish, Franks as +they are sometimes called, together with some of the Alamanni, came +under the rule of his eldest son Theuderich or Theodoric I. This was the +first of the many partitions which effectually divided the kingdom of +the Franks into an eastern and a western portion, that is to say, into +divisions which eventually became Germany and France respectively, and +the district ruled by Theuderich was almost identical with that which +afterwards bore the name of Austrasia. In 531 Theuderich killed +Hermannfried, king of the Thuringians, a former ally, with whom he had +quarrelled, conquered his kingdom, and added its southern portion to his +own possessions. His son and successor, Theudebert I., exercised a +certain supremacy over the Alamanni and the Bavarians, and even claimed +authority over various Saxon tribes between whom and the Franks there +had been some fighting. After his death in 548, however, the Frankish +power in Germany sank to very minute proportions, a result due partly to +the spirit of tribal independence which lingered among the German races, +but principally to the paralysing effect of the unceasing rivalry +between Austrasia and Neustria. From 548 the Alamanni were ruled by a +succession of dukes who soon made themselves independent; and in 555 a +duke of the Bavarians, who exercised his authority without regard for +the Frankish supremacy, is first mentioned. In Thuringia, which now only +consisted of the central part of the former kingdom, King Dagobert I. +set up in 634 a duke named Radulf who soon asserted his independence of +Dagobert and of his successor, Sigebert III. The Saxons for their part +did not own even a nominal allegiance to the Frankish kings, whose +authority on the right bank of the Rhine was confined to the district +actually occupied by men of their own name, which at a later date became +the duchy of Franconia. During these years the eastern border of Germany +was constantly ravaged by various Slavonic tribes. King Dagobert sent +troops to repel these marauders from time to time, but the main burden +of defence fell upon the Saxons, Bavarians and Thuringians. The virtual +independence of these German tribes lasted until the union of Austrasia +and Neustria in 687, an achievement mainly due to the efforts of Pippin +of Heristal, who soon became the actual, though not the nominal, ruler +of the Frankish realm. Pippin and his son Charles Martel, who was mayor +of the palace from 717 to 741, renewed the struggle with the Germans and +were soon successful in re-establishing the central power which the +Merovingian kings had allowed to slip from their grasp. The ducal office +was abolished in Thuringia, a series of wars reduced the Alamanni to +strict dependence, and both countries were governed by Frankish +officials. Bavaria was brought into subjection about the same time; the +Bavarian law, committed to writing between 739 and 748, strongly +emphasizes the supremacy of the Frankish king, whose authority it +recognizes as including the right to appoint and even to depose the duke +of Bavaria. The Saxons, on the other hand, succeeded in retaining their +independence as a race, although their country was ravaged in various +campaigns and some tribes were compelled from time to time to pay +tribute. The rule of Pippin the Short, both before and after his +coronation as king, was troubled by constant risings on the part of his +East Frankish or German subjects, but aided by his brother Carloman, who +for a time administered this part of the Frankish kingdom, Pippin was +generally able to deal with the rebels. + + + The Saxons remain independent. + +After all, however, even these powerful Frankish conquerors had but +imperfect success in Germany. When they were present with their +formidable armies, they could command obedience; when engaged, as they +often were, in distant parts of the vast Frankish territory, they could +not trust to the fulfilment of the fair promises they had exacted. One +of the chief causes of their ill-success was the continued independence +of the Saxons. Ever since they had acquired the northern half of +Thuringia, this warlike race had been extending its power. They were +still heathens, cherishing bitter hatred towards the Franks, whom they +regarded as the enemies both of their liberties and of their religion; +and their hatred found expression, not only in expeditions into Frankish +territory, but in help willingly rendered to every German confederation +which wished to throw off the Frankish yoke. Hardly any rebellion +against the dukes of the Franks, or against King Pippin, took place in +Germany without the Saxons coming forward to aid the rebels. This was +perfectly understood by the Frankish rulers, who tried again and again +to put an end to the evil by subduing the Saxons. They could not, +however, attain their object. An occasional victory was gained, and some +border tribes were from time to time compelled to pay tribute; but the +mass of the Saxons remained unconquered. This was partly due to the fact +that the Saxons had not, like the other German confederations, a duke +who, when beaten, could be held responsible for the engagements forced +upon him as the representative of his subjects. A Saxon chief who made +peace with the Franks could undertake nothing for the whole people. As a +conquering race, they were firmly compact; conquered, they were in the +hands of the victor a rope of sand. + + + Christianity in Germany. + +It was during the time of Pippin of Heristal and his son and grandson +that the conversion of the Germans to Christianity was mainly effected. +Some traces of Roman Christianity still lingered in the Rhine valley and +in southern Germany, but the bulk of the people were heathen, in spite +of the efforts of Frank and Irish missionaries and the command of King +Dagobert I. that all his subjects should be baptized. Rupert, bishop of +Worms, had already made some progress in the work of converting the +Bavarians and Alamanni, as had Willibrord among the Thuringians when St +Boniface appeared in Germany in 717. Appointed bishop of the Germans by +Pope Gregory II., and supported by Charles Martel, he preached with much +success in Bavaria and Thuringia, notwithstanding some hostility from +the clergy who disliked the influence of Rome. He founded or restored +bishoprics in Bavaria, Thuringia and elsewhere, and in 742 presided over +the first German council. When he was martyred in 755 Christianity was +professed by all the German races except the Saxons, and the church, +organized and wealthy, had been to a large extent brought under the +control of the papacy. The old pagan faith was not yet entirely +destroyed, and traces of its influence may still be detected in popular +beliefs and customs. But still Christianity was dominant, and soon +became an important factor in the process of civilization, while the +close alliance of the German church with the papacy was followed by +results of the utmost consequence for Germany. + + + The work of Charlemagne. + +The reign of Charlemagne is a period of great importance in the history +of Germany. Under his rule the first signs of national unity and a +serious advance in the progress of order and civilization may be seen. +The long struggle, which ended in 804 with the submission of the Saxons +to the emperor, together with the extension of a real Frankish authority +over the Bavarians, brought the German races for the first time under a +single ruler; while war and government, law and religion, alike tended +to weld them into one people. The armies of Charlemagne contained +warriors from all parts of Germany; and although tribal law was +respected and codified, legislation common to the whole empire was also +introduced. The general establishment of the Frankish system of +government and the presence of Frankish officials helped to break down +the barriers of race, and the influence of Christianity was in the same +direction. With the conversion of the Saxons the whole German race +became nominally Christian; and their ruler was lavish in granting lands +and privileges to prelates, and untiring in founding bishoprics, +monasteries and schools. Measures were also taken for the security and +good government of the country. Campaigns against the Slavonic tribes, +if sometimes failing in their immediate object, taught those peoples to +respect the power of the Frankish monarch; and the establishment of a +series of marches along the eastern frontier gave a sense of safety to +the neighbouring districts. The tribal dukes had all disappeared, and +their duchies were split up into districts ruled by counts (q.v.), whose +tendencies to independence the emperor tried to check by the visits of +the _missi dominici_ (q.v.). Some of the results of the government of +Charlemagne were, however, less beneficial. His coronation as Roman +emperor in 800, although it did not produce at the time so powerful an +impression in Germany as in France, was fraught with consequences not +always favourable for the former country. The tendencies of the tribe to +independence were crushed as their ancient popular assemblies were +discouraged; and the liberty of the freemen was curtailed owing to the +exigencies of military service, while the power of the church was rarely +directed to the highest ends. + + + Louis I. and his sons. + +The reign of the emperor Louis I. was marked by a number of abortive +schemes for the partition of his dominions among his sons, which +provoked a state of strife that was largely responsible for the +increasing weakness of the Empire. The mild nature of his rule, +however, made Louis popular with his German subjects, to whose support +mainly he owed his restoration to power on two occasions. When in 825 +his son Louis, afterwards called "the German," was entrusted with the +government of Bavaria and from this centre gradually extended his +authority over the Carolingian dominions east of the Rhine, a step was +taken in the process by which East Francia, or Germany, was becoming a +unit distinguishable from other portions of the Empire; a process which +was carried further by the treaty of Verdun in August 843, when, after a +struggle between Louis the German and his brothers for their father's +inheritance, an arrangement was made by which Louis obtained the bulk of +the lands east of the Rhine together with the districts around Mainz, +Worms and Spires on the left bank. Although not yet a single people, the +German tribes had now for the first time a ruler whose authority was +confined to their own lands, and from this time the beginnings of +national life may be traced. For fifty years the main efforts of Louis +were directed to defending his kingdom from the inroads of his Slavonic +neighbours, and his detachment from the rest of the Empire necessitated +by these constant engagements towards the east, gradually gave both him +and his subjects a distinctive character, which was displayed and +emphasized when, in ratifying an alliance with his half-brother, the +West-Frankish king, Charles the Bald, the oath was sworn in different +tongues. The East and West Franks were unable to understand each other's +speech, so Charles took the oath in a Romance, and Louis in a German +dialect. + + + Louis the German and his successors. + +Important as is the treaty of Verdun in German history, that of Mersen, +by which Louis and Charles the Bald settled in 870 their dispute over +the kingdom of Lothair, second son of the emperor Lothair I., is still +more important. The additional territory which Louis then obtained gave +to his dominions almost the proportions which Germany maintained +throughout the middle ages. They were bounded on the east by the Elbe +and the Bohemian mountains, and on the west beyond the Rhine they +included the districts known afterwards as Alsace and Lorraine. His +jurisdiction embraced the territories occupied by the five ancient +German tribes, and included the five archbishoprics of Mainz, Treves +(Trier), Cologne, Salzburg and Bremen. When Louis died in 876 his +kingdom was divided among his three sons, but as the two elder of these +soon died without heirs, Germany was again united in 882 under his +remaining son Charles, called "the Fat," who soon became ruler of almost +the whole of the extensive domains of Charlemagne. There was, however, +no cohesion in the restored empire, the disintegration of which, +moreover, was hastened by the ravages of the Northmen, who plundered the +cities in the valley of the Rhine. Charles attempted to buy off these +redoubtable invaders, a policy which aroused the anger of his German +subjects, whose resentment was accentuated by the king's indifference to +their condition, and found expression in 887 when Arnulf, an +illegitimate son of Carloman, the eldest son of Louis the German, led an +army of Bavarians against him. Arnulf himself was recognized as German +or East-Frankish king, although his actual authority was confined to +Bavaria and its neighbourhood. He was successful in freeing his kingdom +for a time from the ravages of the Northmen, but was not equally +fortunate in his contests with the Moravians. After his death in 899 his +kingdom came under the nominal rule of his young son Louis "the Child," +and in the absence of firm rule and a central authority became the prey +of the Magyars and other hordes of invaders. + + + Feudalism in Germany. + +During these wars feudalism made rapid advance in Germany. The different +peoples compelled to attend to their own defence appointed dukes for +special military services (see DUKE); and these dukes, chosen often from +members of the old ducal families, succeeded without much difficulty in +securing a more permanent position for themselves and their descendants. +In Saxony, for example, we hear of Duke Otto the Illustrious, who also +ruled over Thuringia; and during the early years of the 10th century +dukes appear in Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. These dukes +acquired large tracts of land of which they gave grants on conditions of +military service to persons on whom they could rely; while many +independent landowners sought their protection on terms of vassalage. +The same process took place in the case of great numbers of freemen of a +lower class, who put themselves at the service of their more powerful +neighbours in return for protection. In this manner the feudal tenure of +land began to prevail in almost all parts of Germany, and the elaborate +social system which became known as feudalism was gradually built up. +The dukes became virtually independent, and when Louis the Child died in +911, the royal authority existed in name only. + + + Conrad I. + +While Louis the Child lived the German dukes were virtually kings in +their duchies, and their natural tendency was to make themselves +absolute rulers. But, threatened as they were by the Magyars, with the +Slavs and Northmen always ready to take advantage of their weakness, +they could not afford to do without a central government. Accordingly +the nobles assembled at Forchheim, and by the advice of Otto the +Illustrious, duke of Saxony, Conrad of Franconia was chosen German king. +The dukes of Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine were displeased at this +election, probably because Conrad was likely to prove considerably more +powerful than they wished. Rather than acknowledge him, the duke of +Lotharingia, or Lorraine, transferred his allegiance to Charles the +Simple of France; and it was in vain that Conrad protested and +despatched armies into Lorraine. With the help of the French king the +duke maintained his ground, and for the time his country was lost to +Germany. Bavaria and Swabia yielded, but, mainly through the fault of +the king himself, their submission was of brief duration. The rise of +the dukes had been watched with extreme jealousy by the leading +prelates. They saw that the independence they had hitherto enjoyed would +be much more imperilled by powerful local governors than by a sovereign +who necessarily regarded it as part of his duty to protect the church. +Hence they had done everything they could to prevent the dukes from +extending their authority, and as the government was carried on during +the reign of Louis the Child mainly by Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz, +they had been able to throw considerable obstacles in the way of their +rivals. They had now induced Conrad to quarrel with both Swabia and +Bavaria, and also with Henry, duke of Saxony, son of the duke to whom he +chiefly owed his crown. In these contests the German king met with +indifferent success, but the struggle with Saxony was not very serious, +and when dying in December 919 Conrad recommended the Franconian nobles +to offer the crown to Henry, the only man who could cope with the +anarchy by which he had himself been baffled. + + + Henry the Fowler. + +The nobles of Franconia acted upon the advice of their king, and the +Saxons were very willing that their duke should rise to still higher +honours. Henry I., called "the Fowler," who was chosen German king in +May 919, was one of the best of German kings, and was a born statesman +and warrior. His ambition was of the noblest order, for he sank his +personal interests in the cause of his country, and he knew exactly when +to attain his objects by force, and when by concession and moderation. +Almost immediately he overcame the opposition of the dukes of Swabia and +Bavaria; some time later, taking advantage of the troubled state of +France, he accepted the homage of the duke of Lorraine, which for many +centuries afterwards remained a part of the German kingdom. + + + Henry and the Magyars. + +Having established internal order, Henry was able to turn to matters of +more pressing moment. In the first year of his reign the Magyars, who +had continued to scourge Germany during the reign of Conrad, broke into +Saxony and plundered the land almost without hindrance. In 924 they +returned, and this time by good fortune one of their greatest princes +fell into the hands of the Germans. Henry restored him to his countrymen +on condition that they made a truce for nine years; and he promised to +pay yearly tribute during this period. The barbarians accepted his +terms, and faithfully kept their word in regard to Henry's own lands, +although Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia they occasionally invaded as +before. The king made admirable use of the opportunity he had secured, +confining his efforts, however, to Saxony and Thuringia, the only parts +of Germany over which he had any control. + + + Henry's work in Saxony. + +In the southern and western German lands towns and fortified places had +long existed; but in the north, where Roman influence had only been +feeble, and where even the Franks had not exercised much authority until +the time of Charlemagne, the people still lived as in ancient times, +either on solitary farms or in exposed villages. Henry saw that, while +this state of things lasted, the population could never be safe, and +began the construction of fortresses and walled towns. Of every group of +nine men one was compelled to devote himself to this work, while the +remaining eight cultivated his fields and allowed a third of their +produce to be stored against times of trouble. The necessities of +military discipline were also a subject of attention. Hitherto the +Germans had fought mainly on foot, and, as the Magyars came on +horseback, the nation was placed at an immense disadvantage. A powerful +force of cavalry was now raised, while at the same time the infantry +were drilled in new and more effective modes of fighting. Although these +preparations were carried on directly under Henry's supervision, only in +Saxony and Thuringia the neighbouring dukes were stimulated to follow +his example. When he was ready he used his new troops, before turning +them against their chief enemy, the Magyars, to punish refractory +Slavonic tribes; and he brought under temporary subjection nearly all +the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder. He proceeded also against the +Bohemians, whose duke was compelled to do homage. + + + The Magyars return. + +The truce with the Magyars was not renewed, whereupon in 933 a body of +invaders crossed, as in former years, the frontier of Thuringia. Henry +prudently waited until dearth of provisions forced the enemy to divide +into two bands. He then swept down upon the weaker force, annihilated +it, and rapidly advanced against the remaining portion of the army. The +second battle was more severe than the first, but not less decisive. The +Magyars, unable to cope with a disciplined army, were cut down in great +numbers, and those who survived rode in terror from the field. The exact +scenes of these conflicts are not known, although the date of the second +encounter was the 15th of March 933; but few more important battles have +ever been fought. The power of the Magyars was not indeed destroyed, but +it was crippled, and the way was prepared for the effective liberation +of Germany from an intolerable plague. While the Magyars had been +troubling Germany on the east and south, the Danes had been irritating +her on the north. Charlemagne had established a march between the Eider +and the Schlei; but in course of time the Danes had not only seized this +territory, but had driven the German population beyond the Elbe. The +Saxons had been slowly reconquering the lost ground, and now Henry, +advancing with his victorious army into Jutland, forced Gorm, the Danish +king, to become his vassal and regained the land between the Eider and +the Schlei. But Henry's work concerned the duchy of Saxony rather than +the kingdom of Germany. He concentrated all his energies on the +government and defence of northern and eastern Germany, leaving the +southern and western districts to profit by his example, while his +policy of refraining from interference in the affairs of the other +duchies tended to diminish the ill-feeling which existed between the +various German tribes and to bring peace to the country as a whole. It +is in these directions that the reign of Henry the Fowler marks a stage +in the history of Germany. + + + The growth of towns. + +When this great king died in July 936 every land inhabited by a German +population formed part of the German kingdom, and none of the duchies +were at war either with him or among themselves. Along the northern and +eastern frontier were tributary races, and the country was for the time +rid of an enemy which, for nearly a generation, had kept it in perpetual +fear. Great as were these results, perhaps Henry did even greater +service in beginning the growth of towns throughout north Germany. Not +content with merely making them places of defence, he decreed that they +should be centres for the administration of justice, and that in them +should be held all public festivities and ceremonies; he also instituted +markets, and encouraged traders to take advantage of the opportunities +provided for them. A strong check was thus imposed upon the tendency of +freemen to become the vassals of great lords. This movement had become +so powerful by the troubles of the epoch that, had no other current of +influence set in, the entire class of freemen must soon have +disappeared. As they now knew that they could find protection without +looking to a superior, they had less temptation to give up their +independence, and many of them settled in the towns where they could be +safe and free. Besides maintaining a manly spirit in the population, the +towns rapidly added to their importance by the stimulus they gave to all +kinds of industry and trade. + + + Otto the Great. + +Before his death Henry obtained the promise of the nobles at a national +assembly, or diet, at Erfurt to recognize his son Otto as his successor, +and the promise was kept, Otto being chosen German king in July 936. +Otto I. the Great began his reign under the most favourable +circumstances. He was twenty-four years of age, and at the coronation +festival, which was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, the dukes performed for the +first time the nominally menial offices known as the arch-offices of the +German kingdom. But these peaceful relations soon came to an end. +Reversing his father's policy, Otto resolved that the dukes should act +in the strictest sense as his vassals, or lose their dignities. At the +time of his coronation Germany was virtually a federal state; he wished +to transform it into a firm and compact monarchy. This policy speedily +led to a formidable rebellion, headed by Thankmar, the king's +half-brother, a fierce warrior, who fancied that he had a prior claim to +the crown, and who secured a number of followers in Saxony. He was +joined by Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and it was only by the aid of the +duke of Swabia, whom the duke of Franconia had offended, that the rising +was put down. This happened in 938, and in 939 a second rebellion, led +by Otto's brother Henry, was supported by the duke of Franconia and by +Giselbert, duke of Lorraine. Otto again triumphed, and derived immense +advantages from his success. The duchy of Franconia he kept in his own +hands, and in 944 he granted Lorraine to Conrad the Red, an energetic +and honourable count, whom he still further attached to himself by +giving him his daughter for his wife. Bavaria, on the death of its duke +in 947, was placed under his brother Henry, who, having been pardoned, +had become a loyal subject. The duchy of Swabia was also brought into +Otto's family by the marriage of his son Ludolf with Duke Hermann's +daughter, and by these means Otto made himself master of the kingdom. +For the time, feudalism in truth meant that lands and offices were held +on condition of service; the king was the genuine ruler, not only of +freemen, but of the highest vassals in the nation. + + + Otto's wars with France and with the Slavs. + +In the midst of these internal troubles Otto was attacked by the French +king, Louis IV., who sought to regain Lorraine. However, the German king +was soon able to turn his arms against his new enemy; he marched into +France and made peace with Louis in 942. Otto's subsequent interventions +in the affairs of France were mainly directed towards making peace +between Louis and his powerful and rebellious vassal, Hugh the Great, +duke of the Franks, both of whom were married to sisters of the German +king. Much more important than Otto's doings in France were his wars +with his northern and eastern neighbours. The duke of Bohemia, after a +long struggle, was brought to submission in 950. Among the Slavs between +the Elbe and the Oder the king was represented by Margrave Gero, a +warrior well fitted for the rough work he had to do, loyal to his +sovereign, but capable of any treachery towards his enemies, who +conquered much of the country north of Bohemia between the Oder and the +upper and middle Elbe. Margrave Billung, who looked after the Abotrites +on the lower Elbe, was less fortunate, mainly because of the +neighbourhood of the Danes, who, after the death of King Henry, often +attacked the hated Germans, but some progress was made in bringing this +district under German influence. Otto, having profound faith in the +power of the church to reconcile conquered peoples to his rule, provided +for the benefit of the Danes the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ripen and +Aarhus; and among those which he established for the Slavs were the +important bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg. In his later years he +set up the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which took in the sees of +Meissen, Zeitz and Merseburg. + + + Otto in Italy. + +Having secured peace in Germany and begun the real conquest of the +border races, Otto was by far the greatest sovereign in Europe; and, had +he refused to go beyond the limits within which he had hitherto acted, +it is probable that he would have established a united monarchy. But a +decision to which he soon came deprived posterity of the results which +might have sprung from the policy of his earlier years. About 951 +Adelaide, widow of Lothair, son of Hugh, king of Italy, having refused +to marry the son of Berengar, margrave of Ivrea, was cast into prison +and cruelly treated. She appealed to Otto; other reasons called him in +the same direction, and in 951 he crossed the Alps and descended into +Lombardy. He displaced Berengar, and was so fascinated by Queen Adelaide +that within a few weeks he was married to her at Pavia. But Otto's son, +Ludolf, who had received a promise of the German crown, saw his rights +threatened by this marriage. He went to an old enemy of his father, +Frederick, archbishop of Mainz, and the two plotted together against the +king, who, hearing of their proceedings, returned to Germany in 952, +leaving Duke Conrad of Lorraine as his representative in Italy. Otto, +who did not suspect how deep were the designs of the conspirators, paid +a visit to Mainz, where he was seized and was compelled to take certain +solemn pledges which, after his escape, he repudiated. + + + The civil war. + + Defeat of Magyars. + +War broke out in 953, and the struggle was the most serious in which he +had been engaged. In Lorraine, of which duchy Otto made his brother +Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, administrator, his cause was triumphant; +but everywhere else dark clouds gathered over his head. Conrad the Red +hurried from Italy and joined the rebels; in Swabia, in Bavaria, in +Franconia and even in Saxony, the native land of the king, many sided +with them. It is extremely remarkable that this movement acquired so +quickly such force and volume. The explanation, according to some +historians, is that the people looked forward with alarm to the union of +Germany with Italy. There were still traditions of the hardships +inflicted upon the common folk by the expeditions of Charlemagne, and it +is supposed that they anticipated similar evils in the event of his +empire being restored. Whether or not this be the true explanation, the +power of Otto was shaken to its foundations. At last he was saved by the +presence of an immense external peril. The Magyars were as usual +stimulated to action by the disunion of their enemies; and Conrad and +Ludolf made the blunder of inviting their help, a proceeding which +disgusted the Germans, many of whom fell away from their side and +rallied to the head and protector of the nation. In a very short time +Conrad and the archbishop of Mainz submitted, and although Ludolf held +out a little longer he soon asked for pardon. Lorraine was given to +Bruno; but Conrad, its former duke, although thus punished, was not +disgraced, for Otto needed his services in the war with the Magyars. The +great battle against these foes was fought on the 10th of August 955 on +the Lechfeld near Augsburg. After a fierce and obstinate fight, in which +Conrad and many other nobles fell, the Germans were victorious; the +Magyars were even more thoroughly scourged than in the battles in which +Otto's father had given them their first real check. The deliverance of +Germany was complete, and from this time, notwithstanding certain wild +raids towards the east, the Magyars began to settle in the land they +still occupy, and to adapt themselves to the conditions of civilized +life. + + + Otto crowned emperor. + +Entreated by Pope John XII., who needed a helper against Berengar, Otto +went a second time to Italy, in 961; and on this occasion he received +from the pope at Rome the imperial crown. In 966 he was again in Italy, +where he remained six years, exercising to the full his imperial rights +in regard to the papacy, but occupied mainly in an attempt to make +himself master of the southern, as well as of the northern half of the +peninsula. + + + Connexion of Germany with the Empire. + +By far the most important act of Otto's eventful life was his assumption +of the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His successors steadily followed +his example, and the sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle claimed as his +right coronation by the pope in Rome. Thus grew up the Holy Roman +Empire, that strange state which, directly descending through the empire +of Charlemagne from the empire of the Caesars, contained so many +elements foreign to ancient life. We are here concerned with it only as +it affected Germany. Germany itself never until our own day became an +empire. It is true that at last the Holy Roman Empire was in reality +confined to Germany; but in theory it was something quite different. +Like France, Germany was a kingdom, but it differed from France in this, +that its king was also king in Italy and Roman emperor. As the latter +title made him nominally the secular lord of the world, it might have +been expected to excite the pride of his German subjects; and doubtless, +after a time, they did learn to think highly of themselves as the +imperial race. But the evidence tends to show that at first at least +they had no wish for this honour, and would have preferred their ruler +to devote himself entirely to his own people. + +There are signs that during Otto's reign they began to have a distinct +consciousness of national life, their use of the word "deutsch" to +indicate the whole people being one of these symptoms. Their common +sufferings, struggles and triumphs, however, account far more readily +for this feeling than the supposition that they were elated by their +king undertaking obligations which took him for years together away from +his native land. So solemn were the associations of the imperial title +that, after acquiring it, Otto probably looked for more intimate +obedience from his subjects. They were willing enough to admit the +abstract claims of the Empire; but in the world of feudalism there was a +multitude of established customs and rights which rudely conflicted with +these claims, and in action, remote and abstract considerations gave way +before concrete and present realities. Instead of strengthening the +allegiance of the Germans towards their sovereign, the imperial title +was the means of steadily undermining it. To the connexion of their +kingdom with the Empire they owe the fact that for centuries they were +the most divided of European nations, and that they have only recently +begun to create a genuinely united state. France was made up of a number +of loosely connected lands, each with its own lord, when Germany, under +Otto, was to a large extent moved by a single will, well organized and +strong. But the attention of the French kings was concentrated on their +immediate interests, and in course of time they brought their unruly +vassals to order. The German kings, as emperors, had duties which often +took them away for long periods from Germany. This alone would have +shaken their authority, for, during their absence, the great vassals +seized rights which were afterwards difficult to recover. But the +emperors were not merely absent, they had to engage in struggles in +which they exhausted the energies necessary to enforce obedience at +home; and, in order to obtain help, they were sometimes glad to concede +advantages to which, under other conditions, they would have tenaciously +clung. Moreover, the greatest of all their struggles was with the +papacy; so that a power outside their kingdom, but exercising immense +influence within it, was in the end always prepared to weaken them by +exciting dissension among their people. Thus the imperial crown was the +most fatal gift that could have been offered to the German kings; +apparently giving them all things, it deprived them of nearly +everything. And in doing this it inflicted on many generations +incalculable and needless suffering. + + + Otto and the duchies. + +By the policy of his later years Otto did much to prepare the way for +the process of disintegration which he rendered inevitable by restoring +the Empire. With the kingdom divided into five great duchies, the +sovereign could always have maintained at least so much unity as Henry +the Fowler secured; and, as the experience of Otto himself showed, there +would have been chances of much greater centralization. Yet he threw +away this advantage. Lorraine was divided into two duchies, Upper +Lorraine and Lower Lorraine. In each duchy of the kingdom he appointed a +count palatine, whose duty was to maintain the royal rights; and after +Margrave Gero died in 965 his territory was divided into three marches, +and placed under margraves, each with the same powers as Gero. Otto gave +up the practice of retaining the duchies either in his own hands or in +those of relatives. Even Saxony, his native duchy and the chief source +of his strength, was given to Margrave Billung, whose family kept it for +many years. To combat the power of the princes, Otto, especially after +he became emperor and looked upon himself as the protector of the +church, immensely increased the importance of the prelates. They +received great gifts of land, were endowed with jurisdiction in criminal +as well as civil cases, and obtained several other valuable sovereign +rights. The emperor's idea was that, as church lands and offices could +not be hereditary, their holders would necessarily favour the crown. But +he forgot that the church had a head outside Germany, and that the +passion for the rights of an order may be not less intense than that for +the rights of a family. While the Empire was at peace with the popes the +prelates did strongly uphold it, and their influence was unquestionably, +on the whole, higher than that of rude secular nobles. But with the +Empire and the Papacy in conflict, they could not but abide, as a rule, +by the authority which had the most sacred claims to their loyalty. From +all these circumstances it curiously happened that the sovereign who did +more than almost any other to raise the royal power, was also the +sovereign who, more than any other, wrought its decay. + + + Otto II. + +Otto II. had been crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle and emperor at +Rome during his father's lifetime. Becoming sole ruler in May 973, his +troubles began in Lorraine, but were more serious in Bavaria, which was +now a very important duchy. Its duke, Henry, the brother of Otto I., had +died in 955 and had been succeeded by a young son, Henry, whose +turbulent career subsequently induced the Bavarian historian Aventinus +to describe him as _rixosus_, or the Quarrelsome. In 973 Burchard II., +duke of Swabia, died, and the new emperor refused to give this duchy to +Henry, further irritating this duke by bestowing it upon his enemy, +Otto, a grandson of the emperor Otto I. Having collected allies Henry +rebelled, and in 976 the emperor himself marched against him and drove +him into Bohemia. Bavaria was taken from him and given to Otto of +Swabia, but it was deprived of some of its importance. The southern +part, Carinthia, which had hitherto been a march district, was separated +from it and made into a duchy, and the church in Bavaria was made +dependent upon the king and not upon the duke. Having arrived at this +settlement Otto marched against the Bohemians, but while he was away +from Germany war was begun against him by Henry, the new duke of +Carinthia, who, forgetting the benefits he had just received, rose to +avenge the wrongs of his friend, the deposed duke Henry of Bavaria. The +emperor made peace with the Bohemians and quickly put down the rising. +Henry of Bavaria was handed over to the keeping of the bishop of Utrecht +and Carinthia received another duke. + + + Otto and France. + +In his anxiety to obtain possession of southern Italy, Otto I. had +secured as a wife for his son and successor Theophano, daughter of the +East Roman emperor, Romanus II., the ruler of much of southern Italy. +Otto II., having all his father's ambition with much of his strength and +haughtiness, longed to get away from Germany and to claim these remoter +districts. But he was detained for some time owing to the sudden +invasion of Lower Lorraine by Lothair, king of France, in 978. So +stealthily did the invader advance that the emperor had only just time +to escape from Aix-la-Chapelle before the town was seized and plundered. +As quickly as possible Otto placed himself at the head of a great army +and marched to Paris, but he was compelled to retreat without taking the +city, and in 980 peace was made. + + + Otto in Italy. + +At last, after an expedition against the Poles, Otto was able to fulfil +the wish of his heart; he went to Italy in 980 and never returned to +Germany. His claims to southern Italy were vehemently opposed, and in +July 982 he suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the East Roman +emperor's subjects and their Saracen allies. The news of this crushing +blow cast a gloom over Germany, which was again suffering from the +attacks of her unruly neighbours. The Saxons were able to cope with the +Danes and the German boundary was pushed forward in the south-east; but +the Slavs fought with such courage and success that during the reigns of +the emperors Otto II. and Otto III. much of the work effected by the +margraves Hermann Billung and Gero was undone, and nearly two centuries +passed before they were driven back to the position which they had +perforce occupied under Otto the Great. Such were the first-fruits of +the assumption of the imperial crown. + + + Otto III. + +About six months before his death in Rome, in December 983, Otto held a +diet at Verona which was attended by many of the German princes, who +recognized his infant son Otto as his successor. Otto was then taken to +Germany, and after his father's death he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle +on Christmas Day 983. Henry of Bavaria was released from his confinement +and became his guardian; but as this restless prince showed an +inclination to secure the crown for himself, the young king was taken +from him and placed in the care of his mother Theophano. Henry, however, +gained a good deal of support both within and without Germany and caused +much anxiety to Otto's friends, but in 985 peace was made and he was +restored to Bavaria. While Theophano acted as regent, the chief +functions of government were discharged by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz +(d. 1011), a vigorous prelate who had risen from a humble rank to the +highest position in the German Church. He was aided by the princes, each +of whom claimed a voice in the administration, and, during the lifetime +of Theophano at least, a stubborn and sometimes a successful resistance +was offered to the attacks of the Slavs. But under the prevalent +conditions a vigorous rule was impossible, and during Otto's minority +the royal authority was greatly weakened. In Saxony the people were +quickly forgetting their hereditary connexion with the successors of +Henry the Fowler; in Bavaria, after the death of Duke Henry in 995, the +nobles, heedless of the royal power, returned to the ancient German +custom and chose Henry's son Henry as their ruler. + + + The character of Otto. + +In 995 Otto III. was declared to have reached his majority. He had been +so carefully trained in all the learning of the time that he was called +the "wonder of the world," and a certain fascination still belongs to +his imaginative and fantastic nature. Imbued by his mother with the +extravagant ideas of the East Roman emperors he introduced into his +court an amount of splendour and ceremonial hitherto unknown in western +Europe. The heir of the western emperors and the grandson of an eastern +emperor, he spent most of his time in Rome, and fancied he could unite +the world under his rule. In this vague design he was encouraged by +Gerbert, the greatest scholar of the day, whom, as Silvester II., he +raised to the papal throne. Meanwhile Germany was suffering severely +from internal disorders and from the inroads of her rude neighbours; and +when in the year 1000 Otto visited his northern kingdom there were hopes +that he would smite these enemies with the vigour of his predecessors. +But these hopes were disappointed; on the contrary, Otto seems to have +released Boleslaus, duke of the Poles, from his vague allegiance to the +German kings, and he founded an archbishopric at Gnesen, thus freeing +the Polish sees from the authority of the archbishop of Magdeburg. + + + Henry II. + +When Otto III. died in January 1002 there remained no representative of +the elder branch of the imperial family, and several candidates came +forward for the vacant throne. Among these candidates was Henry of +Bavaria, son of Duke Henry the Quarrelsome and a great-grandson of Henry +the Fowler, and at Mainz in June 1002 this prince was chosen German king +as Henry II. Having been recognized as king by the Saxons, the +Thuringians and the nobles of Lorraine, the new king was able to turn +his attention to the affairs of government, but on the whole his reign +was an unfortunate one for Germany. For ten years civil war raged in +Lorraine; in Saxony much blood was shed in petty quarrels; and Henry +made expeditions against his turbulent vassals in Flanders and +Friesland. He also interfered in the affairs of Burgundy, but the +acquisition of this kingdom was the work of his successor, Conrad II. +During nearly the whole of this reign the Germans were fighting the +Poles. Boleslaus of Poland, who was now a very powerful sovereign, +having conquered Lusatia and Silesia, brought Bohemia also under his +rule and was soon at variance with the German king. Anxious to regain +these lands Henry allied himself with some Slavonic tribes, promising +not to interfere with the exercise of their heathen religion, while +Boleslaus found supporters among the discontented German nobles. The +honours of the ensuing war were with Henry, and when peace was made in +1006 Boleslaus gave up Bohemia, but the struggle was soon renewed and +neither side had gained any serious advantage when peace was again made +in 1013. A third Polish war broke out in 1015. Henry led his troops in +person and obtained assistance from the Russians and the Hungarians; +peace was concluded in 1018, the Elbe remaining the north-east boundary +of Germany. Henry made three journeys to Italy, being crowned king of +the Lombards at Pavia in 1004 and emperor at Rome ten years later. +Before the latter event, in order to assert his right of sovereignty +over Rome, he called himself king of the Romans, a designation which +henceforth was borne by his successors until they received the higher +title from the pope. Hitherto a sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle had +been "king of the West Franks," or "king of the Franks and Saxons." +Henry was generous to the church, to which he looked for support, but he +maintained the royal authority over the clergy. Although generally +unsuccessful he strove hard for peace, and during this reign the +principle of inheritance was virtually established with regard to German +fiefs. + + + Conrad II. + +After Henry's death the nobles met at Kamba, near Oppenheim, and in +September 1024 elected Conrad, a Franconian count, to the vacant throne. +Although favoured by the German clergy the new king, Conrad II., had to +face some opposition; this, however, quickly vanished and he received +the homage of the nobles in the various duchies and seemed to have no +reason to dread internal enemies. Nevertheless, he had soon to battle +with a conspiracy headed by his stepson, Ernest II., duke of Swabia. +This was caused primarily by Conrad's avowed desire to acquire the +kingdom of Burgundy, but other reasons for dissatisfaction existed, and +the revolting duke found it easy to gather around him the scattered +forces of discontent. However, the king was quite able to deal with the +rising, which, indeed, never attained serious proportions, although +Ernest gave continual trouble until his death in 1030. With regard to +the German duchies Conrad followed the policy of Otto the Great. He +wished to control, not to abolish them. In 1026, when Duke Henry of +Bavaria died, he obtained the duchy for his son Henry, afterwards the +emperor Henry III.; later, despite the opposition of the nobles, he +invested the same prince with Swabia, where the ducal family had died +out. Franconia was in the hands of Conrad himself; thus Saxony, +Thuringia, Carinthia and Lorraine were the only duchies not completely +dependent upon the king. + + + The neighbouring countries. + +When Conrad ascended the throne the safety of Germany was endangered +from three different points. On the north was Denmark ruled by Canute +the Great; on the east was the wide Polish state whose ruler, Boleslaus, +had just taken the title of king; and on the south-east was Hungary, +which under its king, St Stephen, was rapidly becoming an organized and +formidable power. Peace was maintained with Canute, and in 1035 a treaty +was concluded and the land between the Eider and the Schlei was ceded to +Denmark. In 1030 Conrad waged a short war against Hungary, but here also +he was obliged to assent to a cession of territory. In Poland he was +more fortunate. After the death of Boleslaus in 1025 the Poles plunged +into a civil war, and Conrad was able to turn this to his own advantage. +In 1031 he recovered Lusatia and other districts, and in 1033 the Polish +duke of Mesislaus did homage to him at Merseburg. His authority was +recognized by the Bohemians, and two expeditions taught the Slavonic +tribes between the Elbe and the Oder to respect his power. + + + Conrad in Italy. + +In Italy, whither he journeyed in 1026 and 1036, Conrad was not +welcomed. Although as emperor and as king of the Lombards he was the +lawful sovereign of that country, the Germans were still regarded as +intruders and could only maintain their rights by force. The event which +threw the greatest lustre upon this reign was the acquisition of the +kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles, which was bequeathed to Conrad by its +king, Rudolph III., the uncle of his wife, Gisela. Rudolph died in 1032, +and in 1033 Conrad was crowned king at Peterlingen, being at once +recognized by the German-speaking population. For about two years his +rival, Odo, count of Champagne, who was supported by the +Romance-speaking inhabitants, kept up the struggle against him, but +eventually all opposition was overcome and the possession of Burgundy +was assured to the German king. + + + The nobles and the land. + +This reign is important in the history of Germany because it marks the +beginning of the great imperial age, but it has other features of +interest. In dealing with the revolt of Ernest of Swabia Conrad was +aided by the reluctance of the vassals of the great lords to follow them +against the king. This reluctance was due largely to the increasing +independence of this class of landholders, who were beginning to learn +that the sovereign, and not their immediate lord, was the protector of +their liberties; the independence in its turn arose from the growth of +the principle of heredity. In Germany Conrad did not definitely decree +that fiefs should pass from father to son, but he encouraged and took +advantage of the tendency in this direction, a tendency which was, +obviously, a serious blow at the power of the great lords over their +vassals. In 1037 he issued from Milan his famous edict for the kingdom +of Italy which decreed that upon the death of a landholder his fief +should descend to his son, or grandson, and that no fiefholder should be +deprived of his fief without the judgment of his peers. In another +direction Conrad's policy was to free himself as king from dependence +upon the church. He sought to regain lands granted to the church by his +predecessors; prelates were employed on public business much less +frequently than heretofore. He kept a firm hand over the church, but his +rule was purely secular; he took little or no interest in ecclesiastical +affairs. During this reign the centre and basis of the imperial power in +Germany was moved southwards. Saxony, the home of the Ottos, became less +prominent in German politics, while Bavaria and the south were gradually +gaining in importance. + + + Henry III. + +Henry III., who had been crowned German king and also king of Burgundy +during his father's lifetime, took possession of his great inheritance +without the slightest sign of opposition in June 1039. He was without +the impulsiveness which marred Conrad's great qualities, but he had the +same decisive judgment, wide ambition and irresistible will as his +father. During the late king's concluding years a certain Bretislaus, +who had served Conrad with distinction in Lusatia, became duke of +Bohemia and made war upon the disunited Poles, easily bringing them into +subjection. Thus Germany was again threatened with the establishment of +a great and independent Slavonic state upon her eastern frontier. To +combat this danger Henry invaded Bohemia, and after two reverses +compelled Bretislaus to appear before him as a suppliant at Regensburg. +The German king treated his foe generously and was rewarded by receiving +to the end of his reign the service of a loyal vassal; he also gained +the goodwill of the Poles by helping to bring about the return of their +duke, Casimir I., who willingly did homage for his land. The king of +Denmark, too, acknowledged Henry as his feudal lord. Moreover, by +several campaigns in Hungary the German king brought that country into +the position of a fief of the German crown. This war was occasioned by +the violence of the Hungarian usurper, Aba Samuel, and formed Henry's +principal occupation from 1041 to 1045. + + + Henry's internal policy. + +In Germany itself Henry acquired, during the first ten years of his +rule, an authority which had been unknown since the days of Otto the +Great. Early in his reign he had made a determined enemy of Godfrey the +Bearded, duke of upper Lorraine, who, in 1044, conspired against him and +who found powerful allies in Henry I., king of France, in the counts of +Flanders and Holland, and in certain Burgundian nobles. However, Godfrey +and his friends were easily worsted, and when the dispossessed duke +again tried the fortune of war he found that the German king had +detached Henry of France from his side and was also in alliance with the +English king, Edward the Confessor. While thus maintaining his authority +in the north-east corner of the country by alliances and expeditions, +Henry was strong enough to put the laws in motion against the most +powerful princes and to force them to keep the public peace. Under his +severe but beneficent rule, Germany enjoyed a period of internal quiet +such as she had probably never experienced before, but even Henry could +not permanently divert from its course the main political tendency of +the age, the desire of the great feudal lords for independence. + + + Henry's wars. + +Cowed, but unpacified and discontented, the princes awaited their +opportunity, while the king played into their hands by allowing the +southern duchies, Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia, to pass from under his +own immediate control. His position was becoming gradually weaker when +in 1051 he invaded Hungary, where a reaction against German influence +was taking place. After a second campaign in 1052 the Hungarian king, +Andrew, was compelled to make peace and to own himself the vassal of the +German king. Meanwhile Saxony and Bavaria were permeated by the spirit +of unrest, and Henry returned from Hungary just in time to frustrate a +widespread conspiracy against him in southern Germany. Encouraged by the +support of the German rebels, Andrew of Hungary repudiated the treaty of +peace and the German supremacy in that country came to a sudden end. +Among the causes which undermined Henry's strength was the fact that the +mediate nobles, who had stood loyally by his father, Conrad, were not +his friends; probably his wars made serious demands upon them, and his +strict administration of justice, especially his insistence upon the +maintenance of the public peace, was displeasing to them. + + + Henry and the church. + +At the beginning of Henry's reign the church all over Europe was in a +deplorable condition. Simony was universally practised and the morality +of the clergy was very low. The Papacy, too, had sunk to a degraded +condition and its authority was annihilated, not only by the character +of successive popes, but by the fact that there were at the same time +three claimants for the papal throne. Henry, a man of deep, sincere and +even rigorous piety, regarded these evils with sorrow; he associated +himself definitely with the movement for reform which proceeded from +Cluny, and commanded his prelates to put an end to simony and other +abuses. Then moving farther in the same direction he resolved to strike +at the root of the evil by the exercise of his imperial authority. In +1046 he entered Italy at the head of an army which secured for him +greater respect than had been given to any German ruler since +Charlemagne, and at Sutri and in Rome he deposed the three rival popes. +He then raised to the papal see Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who, as Pope +Clement II., crowned him emperor; after Clement three other German +popes--Damasus II., Leo IX. and Victor II.--owed their elevation to +Henry. Under these popes a new era began for the church, and in thus +reforming the Papacy Henry III. fulfilled what was regarded as the +noblest duty of his imperial office, but he also sharpened a weapon +whose keen edge was first tried against his son. + +The last years of Henry III. form a turning-point in German history. +Great kings and emperors came after him, but none of them possessed the +direct, absolute authority which he freely wielded; even in the case of +the strongest the forms of feudalism more and more interposed themselves +between the monarch and the nation, and at last the royal authority +virtually disappeared. During this reign the towns entered upon an age +of prosperity, and the Rhine and the Weser became great avenues of +trade. + + + The minority of Henry IV. + +When Henry died in October 1056 the decline of the royal authority was +accelerated by the fact that his successor was a child. Henry IV., who +had been crowned king in 1054, was at first in charge of his mother, the +empress Agnes, whose weak and inefficient rule was closely watched by +Anno, archbishop of Cologne. In 1062, however, Anno and other prominent +prelates and laymen, perhaps jealous of the influence exercised at court +by Henry, bishop of Augsburg (d. 1063), managed by a clever trick to get +possession of the king's person. Deserted by her friends Agnes retired, +and forthwith Anno began to rule the state. But soon he was compelled to +share his duties with Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, and a year or two +later Adalbert became virtually the ruler of Germany, leaving Anno to +attend to affairs in Italy. Adalbert's rule was very successful. +Compelling King Solomon to own Henry's supremacy he restored the +influence of Germany in Hungary; in internal affairs he restrained the +turbulence of the princes, but he made many enemies, especially in +Saxony, and in 1066 Henry, who had just been declared of age, was +compelled to dismiss him. The ambitious prelate, however, had gained +great influence over Henry, who had grown up under the most diverse +influences. The young king was generous and was endowed with +considerable intellectual gifts; but passing as he did from Anno's +gloomy palace at Cologne to Adalbert's residence in Bremen, where he was +petted and flattered, he became wayward and wilful. + + + Henry's personal rule. + +Henry IV. assumed the duties of government soon after the fall of +Adalbert and quickly made enemies of many of the chief princes, +including Otto of Nordheim, the powerful duke of Bavaria, Rudolph, duke +of Swabia, and Berthold of Zähringen, duke of Carinthia. In Saxony, +where, like his father, he frequently held his court, he excited intense +hostility by a series of injudicious proceedings. While the three Ottos +were pursuing the shadow of imperial greatness in Italy, much of the +crown land in this duchy had been seized by the nobles and was now held +by their descendants. Henry IV. insisted on the restoration of these +estates and encroached upon the rights of the peasants. Moreover, he +built a number of forts which the people thought were intended for +prisons; he filled the land with riotous and overbearing Swabians; he +kept in prison Magnus, the heir to the duchy; and is said to have spoken +of the Saxons in a tone of great contempt. All classes were thus +combined against him, and when he ordered his forces to assemble for a +campaign against the Poles the Saxons refused to join the host. In 1073 +the universal discontent found expression in a great assembly at +Wormesleben, in which the leading part was taken by Otto of Nordheim, by +Werner, archbishop of Magdeburg, and by Burkhard II., bishop of +Halberstadt. Under Otto's leadership the Thuringians joined the rising, +which soon spread far and wide. Henry was surprised by a band of rebels +in his fortress at the Harzburg; he fled to Hersfeld and appealed to the +princes for support, but he could not compel them to aid him and they +would grant him nothing. After tedious negotiations he was obliged to +yield to the demands of his enemies, and peace was made at Gerstungen in +1074. Zealously carrying out the conditions of the peace, the peasants +not only battered down the detested forts, they even destroyed the +chapel at the Harzburg and committed other acts of desecration. These +proceedings alarmed the princes, both spiritual and secular, and Henry, +who had gained support from the cities of the Rhineland, was able to +advance with a formidable army into Saxony in 1075. He gained a +decisive victory, rebuilt the forts and completely restored the +authority of the crown. + + + Pope Gregory VII. + +In 1073, while Germany was in this confused state, Hildebrand had become +pope as Gregory VII., and in 1075 he issued his famous decree against +the marriage of the clergy and against their investiture by laymen. To +the latter decree it was impossible for any sovereign to submit, and in +Germany there were stronger reasons than elsewhere for resistance. A +large part of the land of the country was held by the clergy, and most +of it had been granted to them because it was supposed that they would +be the king's most efficient helpers. Were the feudal tie broken, the +crown must soon vanish, and the constitution of medieval society undergo +a radical change. Henry, who hitherto had treated the new pope with +excessive respect, now announced his intention of going to Rome and +assuming the imperial title. The pope, to whom the Saxons had been +encouraged to complain, responded by sending back certain of Henry's +messengers, with the command that the king should do penance for the +crimes of which his subjects accused him. Enraged by this unexpected +arrogance, Henry summoned a synod of German bishops to Worms in January +1076, and Hildebrand was declared deposed. The papal answer was a bull +excommunicating the German king, dethroning him and liberating his +subjects from their oath of allegiance. + + + Effect of Henry's excommunication. + +Never before had a pope ventured to take so bold a step. It was within +the memory even of young men that a German king had dismissed three +popes, and had raised in turn four of his own prelates to the Roman see. +And now a pope attempted to drag from his throne the successor of this +very sovereign. The effect of the bull was tremendous; no other was ever +followed by equally important results. The princes had long been chafing +under the royal power; they had shaken even so stern an autocrat as +Henry III., and the authority of Henry IV. was already visibly weakened. +At this important stage in their contest with the crown a mighty ally +suddenly offered himself, and with indecent eagerness they hastened to +associate themselves with him. Their vassals and subjects, appalled by +the invisible powers wielded by the head of the church, supported them +in their rebellion. The Saxons again rose in arms and Otto of Nordheim +succeeded in uniting the North and South German supporters of the pope. +Henry had looked for no such result as this; he did not understand the +influences which lay beneath the surface and was horrified by his +unexpected isolation. At a diet in Tribur he humbled himself before the +princes, but in vain. They turned from him and decided that the pope +should be asked to judge Henry; that if, within a year, the sentence of +excommunication were not removed, the king should lose his crown; and +that in the meantime he should live in retirement. + + + Scene at Canossa. + +Next came the strange scene at Canossa which burned itself into the +memory of Europe. For three days the representative of the Caesars +entreated to be admitted into the pope's presence. No other mode of +escape than complete subjection to Gregory had suggested itself, or was +perhaps possible; but it did not save him. Although the pope forgave +him, the German princes, resolved not to miss the chance which fortune +had given them, met in March 1077, and deposed him, electing Rudolph, +duke of Swabia, as his successor. But Henry's bitter humiliations +transformed his character; they brought out all his latent capacities of +manliness. + + + The struggle over investitures. + +The war of investitures that followed was the opening of the tremendous +struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, which is the central fact of +medieval history and which, after two centuries of conflict, ended in +the exhaustion of both powers. Its details belong more to the history of +Italy than to that of Germany, where it took the form of a fight between +two rival kings, but in Germany its effects were more deeply felt. The +nation now plucked bitter fruit from the seed planted by Otto the Great +in assuming the imperial crown and by a long line of kings and emperors +in lavishing worldly power upon the church. In the ambition of the +spiritual and the secular princes the pope had an immensely powerful +engine of offence against the emperor, and without the slightest scruple +this was turned to the best advantage. + + + Henry IV. and the anti-kings. + +When this struggle began it may be said in general that Henry was +supported by the cities and the lower classes, while Rudolph relied upon +the princes and the opponents of a united Germany; or, to make another +division, Henry's strength lay in the duchies of Franconia and Bavaria, +Rudolph's in Swabia and Saxony. In the Rhineland and in southern Germany +the cities had been steadily growing in wealth and power, and they could +not fail to realize that they had more to fear from the princes than +from the crown. Hence when Henry returned to Germany in 1078 Worms, +Spires and many other places opened their gates to him and contributed +freely to his cause; nevertheless his troops were beaten in three +encounters and Pope Gregory thundered anew against him in March 1080. +However, the fortune of war soon turned, and in October 1080 Rudolph of +Swabia was defeated and slain. Henry then carried the war into Italy; in +1084 he was crowned emperor in Rome by Wibert, archbishop of Ravenna, +whom, as Clement III., he had set up as an anti-pope, and in 1085 +Gregory died an exile from Rome. Meanwhile in Germany Henry's opponents +had chosen Hermann, count of Luxemburg, king in succession to Rudolph of +Swabia. Hermann, however, was not very successful, and when Henry +returned to Germany in 1084 he found that his most doughty opponent, +Otto of Nordheim, was dead, and that the anti-king had few friends +outside Saxony. This duchy was soon reduced to obedience and was treated +with consideration, and when the third anti-king, Egbert, margrave of +Meissen, was murdered in 1090 there would have been peace if Germany had +followed her own impulses. + + + Henry and the Papacy. + +In the Papacy, however, Henry had an implacable foe; and again and again +when he seemed on the point of a complete triumph the smouldering embers +of revolt were kindled once more into flame. In Italy his son, Conrad, +was stirred up against him and in 1093 was crowned king at Monza; then +ten years later, when Germany was more peaceful than it had been for +years and when the emperor's authority was generally acknowledged, his +second son, Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry V., was induced to head +a dangerous rebellion. The Saxons and the Thuringians were soon in arms, +and they were joined by those warlike spirits of Germany to whom an age +of peace brought no glory and an age of prosperity brought no gain. +After some desultory fighting Henry IV. was taken prisoner and compelled +to abdicate; he had, however, escaped and had renewed the contest when +he died in August 1106. + + + The First Crusade. + +During this reign the first crusade took place, and the German king +suffered severely from the pious zeal which it expressed and +intensified. The movement was not in the end favourable to papal +supremacy, but the early crusaders, and those who sympathized with them, +regarded the enemies of the pope as the enemies of religion. + + + Henry V. in Germany. + +The early years of Henry V.'s reign were spent in campaigns in Flanders, +Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, but the new king was soon reminded that the +dispute over investitures was unsettled. Pope Paschal II. did not doubt, +now that Henry IV. was dead, that he would speedily triumph; but he was +soon undeceived. Henry V., who with unconscious irony had promised to +treat the pope as a father, continued, like his predecessors, to invest +prelates with the ring and the staff, and met the expostulations of +Paschal by declaring that he would not surrender a right which had +belonged to all former kings. Lengthened negotiations took place but +they led to no satisfactory result, while the king's enemies in Germany, +taking advantage of the deadlock, showed signs of revolt. One of the +most ardent of these enemies was Lothair of Supplinburg, whom Henry +himself had made duke of Saxony upon the extinction of the Billung +family in 1106. Lothair was humbled in 1112, but he took advantage of +the emperor's difficulties to rise again and again, the twin pillars of +his strength being the Saxon hatred of the Franconian emperors and an +informal alliance with the papal see. Henry's chief friends were his +nephews, the two Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick and Conrad, to whose +father Frederick the emperor Henry IV. had given the duchy of Swabia +when its duke Rudolph became his rival. The younger Frederick succeeded +to this duchy in 1105, while ten years later Conrad was made duke of +Franconia, a country which for nearly a century had been under the +immediate government of the crown. The two brothers were enthusiastic +imperialists, and with persistent courage they upheld the cause of their +sovereign during his two absences in Italy. + + + The concordat of Worms. + +At last, in September 1122, the investiture question was settled by the +concordat of Worms. By this compromise, which exhaustion forced upon +both parties, the right of electing prelates was granted to the clergy, +and the emperor surrendered the privilege of investing them with the +ring and the staff. On the other hand it was arranged that these +elections should take place in the presence of the emperor or his +representative, and that he should invest the new prelate with the +sceptre, thus signifying that the bishop, or abbot, held his temporal +fiefs from him and not from the pope. In Germany the victory remained +with the emperor, but it was by no means decisive. The Papacy was far +from realizing Hildebrand's great schemes; yet in regard to the question +in dispute it gained solid advantage, and its general authority was +incomparably more important than it had been half a century before. +During this period it had waged war upon the emperor himself. Instead of +acknowledging its inferiority as in former times it had claimed to be +the higher power; it had even attempted to dispose of the imperial crown +as if the Empire were a papal fief; and it had found out that it could +at any time tamper, and perhaps paralyse, the imperial authority by +exciting internal strife in Germany. Having thus settled this momentous +dispute Henry spent his later years in restoring order in Germany, and +in planning to assist his father-in-law, Henry I. of England, in France. +During this reign under the lead of Otto, bishop of Bamberg (c. +1063-1139), Pomerania began to come under the influence of Germany and +of Christianity. + + + The reign of Lothair the Saxon. + +The Franconian dynasty died out with Henry V. in May 1125, and after a +protracted contest Lothair, duke of Saxony, the candidate of the clergy, +was chosen in the following August to succeed him. The new king's first +enterprise was a disastrous campaign in Bohemia, but before this +occurrence he had aroused the enmity of the Hohenstaufen princes by +demanding that they should surrender certain lands which had formerly +been the property of the crown. Lothair's rebuff in Bohemia stiffened +the backs of Frederick and Conrad, and in order to contend with them the +king secured a powerful ally by marrying his daughter Gertrude to Henry +the Proud, a grandson of Welf, whom Henry IV. had made duke of Bavaria, +a duchy to which Henry himself had succeeded in 1126. Henry was perhaps +the most powerful of the king's subjects, nevertheless the dukes of +Swabia and Franconia withstood him, and a long war desolated South +Germany. This was ended by the submission of Frederick in 1134 and of +Conrad in the following year. Lothair's position, which before 1130 was +very weak, had gradually become stronger. He had put down the disorder +in Bavaria, in Saxony and in Lorraine; a diet held at Magdeburg in 1135 +was attended by representatives from the vassal states of Denmark, +Hungary, Bohemia and Poland; and in 1136, when he visited Italy for the +second time, Germany was in a very peaceful condition. In June 1133 +during the king's first visit to Italy he had received from Pope +Innocent II. the imperial crown and also the investiture of the +extensive territories left by Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany; and at +this time the pope seems to have claimed the emperor as his vassal, a +statement to this effect (_post homo fit papae, sumit quo dante +coronam_) being inscribed in the audience hall of the Lateran at Rome. + + (_Continued in volume 11 slice 8._) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] i.e. the territory once under the jurisdiction of an imperial + _Vogt_ or _advocatus_ (see ADVOCATE). + + [2] The question, much disputed between Germans and Danes, is + exhaustively treated by P. Lauridsen in F. de Jessen's _La Question + de Sleswig_ (Copenhagen, 1906), pp. 114 et seq. + + [3] See the comparative study in Percy Ashley's _Local and Central + Government_ (London, 1906). + + [4] The _Kreis_ in Württemberg corresponds to the _Regierungsbezirk_ + elsewhere. + + [5] The system of compulsory registration, which involves a + notification to the police of any change of address (even temporary), + of course makes it easy to determine the domicile in any given case. + + [6] Actually between 1883 and 1908 over five million recruits passed + through the drill sergeant's hands, as well as perhaps 210,000 + one-year volunteers. + + [7] These last have a curious history. They were formed from about + 1890 onwards, by individual squadrons, two or three being voted each + year. Ostensibly raised for the duties of mounted orderlies, at a + time when it would have been impolitic to ask openly for more + cavalry, they were little by little trained in real cavalry work, + then combined in provisional regiments for disciplinary purposes and + at last frankly classed as cavalry. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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