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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Turkey, by Julius R. Van Millingen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Turkey
+       Peeps at Many Lands
+
+Author: Julius R. Van Millingen
+
+Illustrator: Warwick Goble
+
+Release Date: September 19, 2011 [EBook #37475]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TURKEY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Mary Meehan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A KAFEDJI]
+
+
+
+
+                            PEEPS AT MANY LANDS
+
+                                  TURKEY
+
+                         BY JULIUS R. VAN MILLINGEN
+
+                WITH TWELVE FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
+
+                             BY WARWICK GOBLE
+
+
+    LONDON
+    ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
+    1911
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE BRIDGE FROM GALATA TO STAMBOUL.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+       I. GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY                              5
+
+      II. ALBANIANS, POMAKS, TARTARS, AND BULGARIANS        11
+
+     III. CIRCASSIANS, LAZES, AND KURDS                     22
+
+      IV. ARMENIANS                                         27
+
+       V. GREEKS AND VLACHS                                 36
+
+      VI. JEWS--SUPERSTITIONS                               48
+
+     VII. GIPSIES--SUPERSTITIONS                            54
+
+    VIII. SYRIANS, DRUSES, MARONITES, AND BEDOUINS          57
+
+      IX. TURKS                                             61
+
+       X. THE FAITH OF ISLAM                                72
+
+      XI. GAMES                                             78
+
+     XII. DOGS                                              85
+
+    XIII. THE GALATA BRIDGE AND THE BAZAARS                 90
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    THE BRIDGE FROM GALATA TO STAMBOUL          _Frontispiece_
+
+    ROUMELI HISSAR (BOSPHORUS)                               9
+
+    A SIMITDJI                                              16
+
+    A STAMBOUL BEGGAR                                       25
+
+    IN THE GRAND BAZAAR                                     32
+
+    A SHEKERDJI's SHOP                                      41
+
+    A CEMETERY BY THE BOSPHORUS                             48
+
+    A FORTUNE-TELLER                                        57
+
+    A TURKISH LADY IN OUTDOOR DRESS                         64
+
+    INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE OF SULTAN AHMED I.               73
+
+    A HOWLING DERVISH                                       80
+
+    A KAFEDJI                                   _On the cover_
+
+    Sketch-Map of Turkey                             _page iv_
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP OF TURKEY.]
+
+
+
+
+TURKEY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY
+
+
+The Empire of Turkey, through which I propose to conduct you, stretches
+over portions of Europe and Asia--the slender thread of the Bosphorus
+and the Dardanelles being the division between the two continents. A
+rapid current rushes through these channels, but in some places they are
+so narrow that you can shout across from Europe to Asia, and it is no
+uncommon thing to hear the dogs barking from the other side.
+
+Turkey in Europe spreads northwards from these points up to Bulgaria,
+and consists of a long strip of country extending from the Black Sea to
+the Adriatic.
+
+Turkey in Asia is more extensive, and stretches from the Black Sea to
+the Persian Gulf. Persia lies to its east, and the Red Sea and blue
+Mediterranean to its west.
+
+Turkey holds sway over some of earth's fairest lands, the homes of its
+most ancient civilizations and lands familiar to us through Holy Writ
+and profane history, and the sources of Jewish, Christian, Moslem, and
+other beliefs.
+
+The rulers of Turkey are the Turks, originally a nomadic tribe from
+Central Asia. Compelled to abandon their homes on account of the
+desiccation or drying up of large tracts of their country, which were
+converted into a desert, they swarmed into Armenia and Persia in quest
+of new pasture-lands for their flocks and cattle. Like the in-coming
+tide, they swept everything before them, and finally overwhelmed, not
+only Asia Minor, but also Egypt and Northern Africa.
+
+Converted at an early stage of their history to the Mahomedan faith,
+they propagated it wherever they went, and, under the leadership of the
+Sultans of the Seljuk dynasty, they established themselves in Konia, and
+advanced their rule to the gates of the Byzantine Empire. But it was
+reserved for a kindred tribe under Ertogrul to be the successors of the
+Seljuks and establish the Ottoman dynasty which still holds sway over
+Turkey.
+
+The events leading up to it were as follows: Ertogrul, with a band of
+400 followers, was wandering about Asia Minor, and accidentally came
+across a conflicting Mongolian and Seljuk army in the neighbourhood of
+Angora. He dashed into the fray in support of the latter, and changed
+impending defeat into a brilliant victory. In reward for this timely
+assistance the Seljuk Sultan awarded to Ertogrul the district of
+Anatolia, which bounded the Greek or Byzantine Empire, the capital of
+which Empire was then Constantinople.
+
+During the summer the new-comers drove their flocks to the mountains,
+and during the winter they withdrew them to the plains, but, growing
+bolder and more powerful, Ertogrul waged war against the Greeks. Success
+followed upon success, until at last, in 1326, under the leadership of
+Othman, the son of Ertogrul, Nicea, noted for its Council which drew up
+the Nicean Creed, fell to the sword of the Moslem. Brusa also was taken,
+and there Othman enthroned himself as Sultan of the dynasty thenceforth
+known as the Ottoman.
+
+Before proceeding further it might be interesting to relate an incident
+which pictures the primitive character and frugality of the founders of
+this dynasty. When the mighty Othman died, the only possessions he left
+behind were a salt-bowl, the symbol of hospitality, a spoon, his sword
+and standards, his cloak and white turban, a pair of horses, a yoke of
+oxen, and his flock of sheep. His sword is still preserved in
+Constantinople, and each successive Sultan is invested with it on his
+coronation. The descendants of his flock of sheep are still the heritage
+of the reigning Sultan, and still browse on the ranges of Bithynian
+Olympus, and supply butter and cheeses for the royal household.
+
+The victories of the Ottoman Turks were followed by the incorporation of
+the Seljuks, and drew into their ranks crowds of recruits thirsting for
+blood and plunder. The Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus were ravaged
+with sword and fire, and shortly afterward (in 1453) Constantinople was
+invested and stormed, and the last of the Byzantine Emperors slain.
+
+Driving everything before them, the victorious Turks marched northwards
+into Europe, devastating, burning, plundering, slaying, and making
+captives of women and children, until at last they reached the walls of
+Vienna, and at one moment it looked as if all Europe would fall to their
+sway.
+
+But this was the limit of their Northern conquests, and, like the tide
+which recedes after it has reached its fulness, so this assault on
+Vienna and its repulse marks the high tide and first ebb of Turkey's
+greatness.
+
+One by one they lost their possessions in Europe, such as Hungary,
+Roumania, Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria, and now only a comparatively
+small strip of country remains to them in Europe. In Asia also large
+tracts of country have been wrenched from Turkey by Russia; and in
+Africa, Egypt and Tunis are Turkish only in name.
+
+[Illustration: ROUMELI HISSAR.]
+
+The splendid conquests of the Turks were due to the hardihood of a race
+brought up in frugality and nomadic pursuits. Their strength and courage
+were amazing, and their religious zeal made them reckless of their
+lives. Their early Sultans, too, were men of extraordinary energy and
+sagacity, and were the first among the Turks to organize regular
+soldiers. A famous corps was that of the Janissaries, who were
+selected from the strongest and most beautiful Christian youth forced
+away from their parents or captured in battle. Confined all their lives
+in barracks, and daily drilled in the arts of war, they grew to be as
+invincible as Cromwell's Ironsides.
+
+But as discipline relaxed they became insubordinate, dethroning Sultans
+and nominating others, until one day, in 1826, Sultan Mahmoud IV. had
+them secretly surrounded in their barracks and annihilated. A venerable
+planetree may yet be seen in the old Palace grounds where the survivors
+were hanged. Its hollow trunk ultimately served as the shop of a
+shoemaker.
+
+The decline of the Ottoman Empire was due to the corruption of the Turks
+that followed acquisition of wealth. They lost their hardihood, and
+their Sultans became profligate and luxurious. They filled their harems
+with wives and numberless slaves, and addicted themselves to pleasure
+instead of duty. They became tyrants, and their jealousies and fears of
+being supplanted made them so cruel that it became customary for a
+Sultan ascending the throne to kill all his brothers or near male
+relatives. This was usually done by strangling them with a bow-string,
+or sewing them in bags and drowning them in the Bosphorus, as one would
+an undesirable litter of puppies.
+
+Recent Sultans, it is true, have not dared to commit such deeds openly
+in the face of growing public opinion, but, with few exceptions, they
+have been equally selfish and corrupt. Indeed, in the reign of the
+recent ex-Sultan Abdul Hamid, rightly styled "the Great Assassin" by Mr.
+Gladstone, corruption and villainy reached unheard-of enormity. He
+planned and carried out wholesale massacres against his Armenian
+subjects, and spirited away thousands of innocent Mussulmans and
+Christians at the instigation of the army of spies whom he employed, and
+who enriched themselves with the bribes he offered.
+
+At last matters reached such a pitch that life in Turkey became
+unbearable, and in sheer desperation he was dethroned in 1908 by his
+army, led by patriotic officers who styled themselves Young Turks.
+
+In his stead they appointed his brother, Murad V., to be Sultan, and
+proclaimed a Constitution; that is, a form of Government like our own,
+with a Parliament consisting of representatives of the people.
+
+Turkey is now doing its best to reform itself, and we wish it all
+success, but naturally, after so many years of misrule and corruption,
+it will take time before the Turks can set their house in proper order.
+
+For now more than twenty years Turkey has been connected with Western
+Europe by rail, trains starting from Vienna and crossing the Danube at
+Belgrade. Shortly after, the main line branches off and one portion
+proceeds through Bulgaria to Constantinople, while the other terminates
+at Salonica. The journey from London to Constantinople occupies three
+and a half days, but may be accelerated.
+
+There is no railway bridge over the Bosphorus, but a railway line, of
+recent construction, runs from its Asiatic entrance into Asia Minor as
+far as Konia, the Iconium of Scripture. This line is now being extended
+to reach Bagdad in Mesopotamia, and will be prolonged thence to the
+Persian Gulf, and doubtless, ultimately, to India, and will perhaps
+enable us to visit our friends there within a week's journey from
+London.
+
+Another railway crosses the Lebanon mountains from Beyrout, and proceeds
+to Damascus, and thence extends, keeping to the east of the Jordan, to
+Mecca, in Arabia, the Holy City of the Moslems. This line is called the
+Sacred or Pilgrim railway, because it conveys large numbers of pilgrims
+to their shrine. It was built nearly entirely out of the contributions
+of the faithful, both in money and in free labour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ALBANIANS, POMAKS, TARTARS, AND BULGARIANS
+
+
+Having briefly narrated the history of the rise and decline of the
+Ottoman Empire, it may be interesting to have a peep at the various
+races and nationalities which at present constitute it.
+
+Beginning with Turkey in Europe, we have the Albanians, who occupy the
+mountainous country north of Greece, and also Albania and Epirus on the
+eastern shore of the Adriatic. They are a brave, haughty,
+liberty-loving, but turbulent people, whom some maintain to be the
+descendants of the ancient Pelasgi, who originally occupied Greece. They
+boast of having given Alexander the Great to the world. The Albanians
+were never properly conquered by the Turks, and, excepting those
+inhabiting the lowlands, they do very much what they please, and even at
+this moment they are defying the Turkish troops sent to disarm them, and
+bring them under subjection. Some are Mahomedans, others are Roman
+Catholics, and others belong to the Greek Church. They have a language
+of their own, but until quite recently they had no alphabet for it, and
+it was only within the last forty years that a Scotsman, the agent of
+the British and Foreign Bible Society, endowed them with one, and
+printed the Scriptures in their tongue. It is this alphabet that the
+Turks are now trying to suppress by substituting the Arabic, and the
+Albanians are fighting to maintain. The national dress of the Albanians
+is a white kilted petticoat coming down to their knees, with a scarlet
+or purple embroidered vest, and a corresponding sleeveless jacket worn
+over a white shirt with wide sleeves. The waist is girded with a broad
+silken band folded many times round the body. Embroidered leggings,
+corresponding in colour with the jacket, protect the legs, and a red
+cap, called a _fez_, with a silken blue tassel, covers the head.
+
+So attached are they to their national costume that an attempt made by
+Sultan Mahmoud to forbid it led to an insurrection in the same way that
+the edict in 1747 to do away with the kilts and tartans in the Scottish
+Highlands created the troubles which followed the rebellion. Naturally,
+the peasants cannot afford costly material, and their dress consists of
+a closely-woven, home-spun tweed called _shayiak_, which is very warm
+and enduring. They wear a skull-cap of the same material, _shayiak_
+knickers and leggings, and sandals instead of shoes. Over this girdle
+they wear a broad cartridge-belt, which bristles with old-fashioned
+pistols and formidable daggers.
+
+The Albanians are a nation of clans, implacable in their hatred and
+constant in their friendships. Their covenant of friendship is cemented
+by tasting a drop of each other's blood, and from that moment they
+consider themselves blood kinsmen, and sworn to befriend, defend, or
+avenge each other.
+
+Like the Israelites of old, the blood avenger pursues the murderer of
+his friend or clansman until he finds him, and if he should fail to do
+so during his lifetime, his children are bound to act on his behalf. You
+can thus understand that in accordance with this law of "vendetta," as
+they call it, whole families become sometimes exterminated.
+
+Another peculiar method of establishing friendships is by securing the
+assent of an influential person to stand as godfather to children at
+baptism. It involves no spiritual obligations, as may be seen from the
+fact that these godfathers are frequently Mussulmans, but is recognized
+as a social rite whereby the two families become relations. Albania
+being a poor country, a large number of its Moslem population join the
+Turkish army as soldiers or officers, this vocation being congenial with
+their tastes. Others go to Constantinople or other large towns, and
+engage in an occupation very different from that of warriors--namely,
+that of manufacturing and selling cakes, called _simits_, and an
+Albanian speciality of confection called _halva_. It resembles nougat,
+and is prepared with walnuts or sesame seeds. These commodities are
+temptingly arranged on large circular trays, which they poise very
+adroitly on their heads by means of a small cushion resembling a quoit.
+You will see, under the heading of "Simitji," a picture of this kind of
+tray, and the tripod upon which it is rested. The seller in the picture
+is not, however, an Albanian, but a Turk from Anatolia.
+
+These _halvagis_, as they are called, are great favourites of boys and
+girls, and of grown-up persons too, and are to be met with at every
+gathering of people. Albanians also go out as vegetable-gardeners and
+fruit-sellers, and deal in the remarkably beautiful apple which grows so
+splendidly in their native country.
+
+The Turks call the Albanians _Arnaouts_, and many a village occupied by
+them has in consequence been named Arnaoutkioy, the village of the
+Albanian.
+
+Another occupation in which they engage is that of shepherds, and among
+some of this craft I may mention those of the Sultan's flock of sheep on
+Mount Olympus, to which I have already alluded. They keep huge fierce
+dogs, which are a terror not only to wolves and bears, but also to human
+beings whom they may encounter. So daring and powerful are shepherd-dogs
+of this description that they have been known to tear riders down from
+the saddle. The writer might once have undergone this fate were it not
+for the powerful dog-whip which he carried on the occasion of an attack,
+and to the fact that his horse finally bolted with him until he was some
+miles from the field of danger.
+
+To shoot one of these dogs is at the peril of your life, for the
+Albanian law of vendetta seems to extend to avenging their dogs. There
+is a strong suspicion that an Englishman, who made the ascent of Olympus
+some twenty years ago, was murdered by these shepherds for shooting one
+of these creatures in self-defence. On another occasion the captain of
+one of our ironclads, while shooting in that neighbourhood, had occasion
+to kill a dog which attacked him, whereupon he was himself felled to the
+ground by the axe of the shepherd.
+
+Turkish shepherd-dogs, though savage and powerful, have none of the
+finer instincts of our collies; they will not bring round the sheep in
+accordance with the shepherd's directions; they are only fighters, and
+often turn and rend their masters.
+
+It is interesting to watch, as I have done, the yearly migrations of the
+Albanian shepherds to and from Olympus. My home lay at the foot of the
+mountain, and one summer's night, when the moon was full, I was waked by
+the sound of sonorous voices, and the barking of dogs, and bleating of
+rams. Gradually the sounds became louder, and I could hear the tinkling
+of bells and finally the tramp of thousands of little feet pattering
+past my door. To the bleating of the rams was added the shriller cry of
+the ewes and the feebler notes of the lambs, and, rushing to the window,
+I could see the whole procession--sheep and shepherd--winding its way
+upwards. It was a weird sight, those shepherds in their heavy capotes of
+sheepskin, and their shadows reflected on the mountain, and gave one the
+impression of so many spectres gliding in the moonlight. The procession
+passed along, the bleating, the tinkling, the barking, the shouting
+became fainter, and finally the mountain returned to its silence
+primeval, and when I awoke in the morning I could not help wondering if
+it had not all been a dream.
+
+[Illustration: A SIMITDJI.]
+
+Bordering on Albania and Epirus, and east of them, you will find a
+district marked on the map as Macedonia. It is inhabited principally by
+Tartars, Bulgarians, and Greeks, with a large sprinkling of Jews in its
+seaport towns, specially in Salonica, the Thessalonica of Scripture. The
+Bulgarians belong to the Slav family, and are mostly Christians. Some,
+however, have turned Moslems, and are generally known under the name of
+Pomaks. The Pomaks have intermarried and fused with Tartars, who
+migrated to Macedonia, as well as to other parts of Turkey, in large
+numbers when their native lands--the Crimea, Bessarabia, Roumania, and
+Bulgaria--passed under the sovereignty of Christian rulers. They have
+high cheekbones, broad flat faces, globular noses, and sunken eyes. They
+are fanatical, ignorant, and naturally embittered against Christians,
+and many, as the authors of the so-called Bulgarian atrocities, have
+fled to escape the punishment they deserved.
+
+During the time of the Russo-Turkish War in 1879, I remember witnessing
+the wholesale flight of thousands of them to Constantinople. Many
+arrived in ox-drawn waggons laden with their families, their goods and
+chattels, and driving before them their cattle, which they disposed of
+for a mere song in the market. Others were conveyed in railway-trucks,
+packed close like sheep in a pen, and seemed as bewildered. A peculiar
+sight was a truck-load of children packed among sacks and bedding, from
+which they emerged on the arrival of the train, like ants issuing from
+an ant-hill. The city swarmed with these immigrants, the courts of the
+mosques were converted into refuge houses, and the utmost misery
+prevailed until Government had quartered them in different villages in
+Asiatic Turkey. There they still may be found, and their location
+recognized by their wretched wooden shanties and their squalor. But in
+many cases change of environment has not occasioned change of
+disposition, and I am assured that during the time of the Armenian
+massacres (1896) Pomaks quartered in Brusa sharpened their knives and
+armed themselves to a man to kill and plunder the Christians, and they
+were only prevented from carrying out this nefarious deed by the armed
+interposition of the humane Turkish Governor.
+
+In dress Pomaks differ but little from the ordinary Turk; in habits they
+are perhaps more industrious, and it may be put down to their credit
+that they introduced into Constantinople and elsewhere a new and light
+form of carriage which is now extensively used for picnics and
+excursions into the country.
+
+In addition to the half-caste Tartars of Macedonia there are the pure
+Tartars who for several centuries past have inhabited the highlands of
+Asia Minor, and who are credited with great trustworthiness. This
+quality, in addition to their capacity for long and rapid riding, has
+obtained for them the practical monopoly of the postal service in the
+interior of Turkey, and the word _tartar_ has come to be synonymous with
+postillion, or mounted postman. There are relays of horses at stated
+intervals, but the same rider travels over the whole distance. His
+saddle is capacious, with broad stirrups in the form of an open shoe.
+The saddle has, moreover, a hump on which the rider can support his
+arms, and an arrangement for fixing a short rod, with a crescent-shaped
+top or cushion, on which the rider rests his chin and sleeps during
+night travelling. Letters and parcels are placed in saddle-bags, which
+are thrown astride the saddle in the same way as paniers are with us.
+They are made of leather, of carpet, or camel's-hair, and the opening is
+closed through a series of loops running into each other. There is
+usually great excitement at the arrival of the Tartar, and the letters,
+where no post office exists, are strewn on the floor of a room of the
+_conak_, or Governor's house, and applicants asked to pick out any
+addressed to them.
+
+Money is also conveyed from province to province by these Tartars, when,
+if the amount is large, several horses are strung together, and are
+escorted by mounted police. The currency in the interior being silver
+coins of the size of our five-shilling pieces, the jolting and friction
+occasioned by the drive are likely to tear ordinary bags, so the latter
+are enclosed in a special rope-bag, which is neatly and compactly
+knitted over them. Gold coin is put up in leather, which is puckered up
+to form a bag, and tied and sealed on the top.
+
+The Christian Bulgarians of Macedonia, having been brought up more or
+less under servitude, are of a much meeker character than the Pomaks,
+but, judging from the strides which have been made by the other
+Bulgarian races in Turkey since their independence from Turkish rule, we
+may infer that their Macedonian brethren are also capable of great
+development. On the whole they are poor, and live in thatched hovels,
+plastered both within and without with a mixture of clay, cow-dung, and
+straw. The interior is divided into three rooms--a public room, a family
+bedroom, and one for keeping provisions. The floor is of clay, beaten
+hard, and is covered with coarse rugs and cushions large enough to serve
+as beds. A small oil-lamp burns in a corner under the _icon_, or
+picture, of some grim patron saint. Outside the house is an oven,
+resembling an ant-hill, and accommodation for hens, pigs, and cattle,
+and the whole is enclosed with a wall and guarded by dogs.
+
+The Bulgarians are frugal in their habits, and live principally on beans
+seasoned with vinegar and red pepper, and they have a great partiality
+for garlic. Their principal occupation is agriculture and sheep-farming.
+
+The men's dress somewhat resembles the Albanian, but their vests and
+jackets are generally made from sheepskins, with the wool turned
+inwards, and they wear on their heads the _calpak_, or low cap, made
+from black lamb-skins, with the wool turned outwards. This _calpak_ is
+as much the national characteristic of the Bulgarian as the fez is of
+the Turk. The women's dress is pleasing--green and red being very
+conspicuous--and when in gala dress their persons are weighted down with
+ponderous silver ornaments worn on the head, round the neck, waist, and
+wrists.
+
+Their national music is the bagpipe, but the music is very primitive,
+and does not soar to the heights of the pibrochs of Scotland, and their
+dance is heavy and uncouth, and apparently modelled from the bear.
+Indeed, in one of these dances the principal dancer puts on a real
+bearskin, and, led about by a young girl, performs all sorts of antics,
+much to the enjoyment of the spectators, who at the close of the
+performance all join in hooting and pursuing the dancer.
+
+Formerly large bands of Bulgarian dancers used to come to Constantinople
+during the Easter festivities, and march through the streets with
+inflated bagpipes, or resort to the field of sports. Their bear-dance
+ended, they would fling their caps heavily to the ground, then pick them
+up, and walk round with them to the crowd for the collection of coppers.
+
+But the Bulgar is no longer popular, either with the Turk or the Greek,
+and they now seldom grace the festivals in the capital with their
+presence and their antics.
+
+The Greek population of Macedonia is not large, but is inimical to the
+Bulgarian, both from feeling of racial antipathy and from religious
+discord. Both, it is true, belong to what is called the Greek or
+Orthodox Church, but a few years ago a dispute arose regarding the
+language in which services should be conducted in Bulgarian churches.
+The Patriarch and heads of the Greek Church insisted that it should be
+Greek, whereas the Bulgarians, who do not understand Greek, claimed that
+it should be Bulgarian, the language of the people. The dispute led to a
+disruption, and now the Bulgarian Church is governed by a Bulgarian
+Exarch, and the priests and language are Bulgarian, but the Greek Church
+considers them schismatics, and will have no ecclesiastical dealings
+with them.
+
+Further reference to Greeks will be made in Chapter V.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CIRCASSIANS, LAZES, AND KURDS
+
+
+Passing over to Asia Minor, we come across groups of a very interesting
+race called the Circassian.
+
+Inhabiting originally the belt of lofty mountains which run from the
+Black Sea to the Caspian, they were conquered in 1864 by the Russians,
+after nearly a century of resistance, and no less than half a million
+were expelled, and received hospitality in Turkey.
+
+This welcome was extended, not only because the exiles were Moslems, but
+also because that country, remarkable for the beauty of its women, had
+hitherto supplied the Turkish slave-market with wives for the Palace and
+the Grandees. The vendors were their own fathers or guardians, who by
+this method secured, not only a substantial profit for themselves, but
+also provided comfortable homes and even royalty for their daughters.
+
+With so much Circassian blood in their veins, it was natural that the
+Turks should show themselves sympathetic toward these poor fugitives,
+and find settlements for them in various parts of their dominion.
+Moreover, in doing so they kept up the market for wives; for although
+slavery is officially abolished in Turkey, there is still an underhand
+commerce with the Circassian colonists for the disposal of their
+daughters as aforesaid. However revolting this transaction may appear
+to us, it is consistent with the customs prevalent in Circassia itself,
+where a suitor is expected to buy his intended from her father. But
+there, at least, he must further arrange to run away with her, an
+undertaking which is not so easy if the young lady does not consent.
+
+The characteristics of Circassians are their small and beautifully
+shaped hands and feet, the grace and agility of their movements, and
+their clear complexion.
+
+They are temperate in their habits, and frugal, their national meal
+consisting of millet boiled in mutton fat.
+
+The Circassians are splendid horsemen, but are rather lax about their
+perception of what is mine or thine; indeed, their Tartar name,
+_tcherkes_, implies a "robber." They are entirely uneducated.
+
+The following pretty Circassian custom came under my personal notice. It
+was an application made by one of their chiefs to my father for
+intervention on his behalf with Government for the extension of a grant
+of land. The letter in question was addressed to "Pasta Baba"--_i.e._,
+the father of bread--a name by which my father was known through
+distributing charitable subscriptions raised in Great Britain; it was
+sent by a special messenger, and was attached to the wings of a
+snow-white pigeon. A gift of a few geese of spotless purity accompanied
+it. The petition was duly transmitted to Government, and the request
+granted.
+
+There is a Turkish saying that the Almighty assigned the sovereignty of
+the land to the Moslem, but that of the sea to the Giaours, or Infidels.
+
+But among the subject races of Turkey there is one which has
+distinguished itself for its intrepidity on the water and the
+fearlessness with which it navigates the Black Sea--a sea well deserving
+its sinister epithet. The Lazes occupy the eastern and south-eastern
+shores of the Black Sea, and their sailing-boats and ships do the
+coasting trade between these regions and Constantinople. Like all
+mariners of olden days, they cease navigating the seas during the
+winter, and draw up their lighter boats on the beach, and anchor their
+heavier ones in harbours. The lighter boats are styled _tchektermes_,
+and are from 30 to 50 feet in length, with sharp, beaky prow and stern.
+They carry a long bowsprit, with one or two jib-sails hoisted from a
+short mast, placed nearer the bows than the stern. A long boom, attached
+obliquely to the mast, serves to support an enormous sail, which, when
+the boat is on the tack, bellies out to such a remarkable extent that it
+resembles the section of a balloon. Yet notwithstanding this departure
+from the principles of sailing, _tchektermes_ can run close up to the
+eye of the wind, and are very swift in their movements. A faint idea of
+this sort of sail is given in the picture of the lighter in the
+illustration of "The Bridge from Galata" in the frontispiece.
+
+[Illustration: A STAMBOUL BEGGAR.]
+
+The _tchektermes_ are only partially decked, a covered stern and bow
+serving for cabins for the crew. The undecked sides are heightened by 2
+or 3 feet, with a tarred awning, which protects from surf and spray.
+
+The larger ships used by the Lazes are from 200 to 300 tons; they are
+very quaint, and resemble ancient galleons. There is very little
+discipline among the crew, and everyone has a say and advice to give to
+the captain, who is much on the same level as his men.
+
+A large number of Lazes come to Constantinople, and engage in the
+shipping trade or as stevedores, but others form into guilds for digging
+and carrying on operations in connection with housebuilding, and are
+very industrious and hard-working. Their hours of labour often extend
+during the summer season from five in the morning till eight at night.
+They, in common with all labourers in the East, are not engaged by time,
+as with us, but, like those labourers mentioned in Scripture, at a fixed
+charge for the day.
+
+Another people strongly resembling the Lazes in appearance, but
+inhabiting the mountainous regions to the south of them, all the way up
+to and into Persia, are the Kurds, of whom you have probably heard a
+good deal in connection with the Armenian massacres. Their country is
+called Kurdistan, and is drained by the tributaries of the Euphrates and
+the Tigris. Several of its mountains rise to the height of 6,000 to
+7,000 feet. Kurds are also to be found in all the hilly districts of
+Armenia and Mesopotamia. They are a sinewy, dark, well-formed race, with
+a fierce look which betrays an equally ferocious character. They owe
+but slight allegiance to the Turkish Empire, and are under the rule of
+chiefs, more or less independent, who organize robber bands to plunder
+or blackmail caravans.
+
+They possess remarkably fine horses, which are greatly in demand for the
+Turkish cavalry. The Kurds themselves are great riders, and with their
+long javelins, bows, or muskets, are a terror to their neighbours. They
+are also experts in the use of the sling. During the recent Armenian
+massacres they were allowed a free hand, and their cruelty and rapacity
+were such as to defy description. The ex-Sultan, Abdul Hamid,
+incorporated a number of them into a division of cavalry, commanded by
+their own officers, which constituted his bodyguard, and he paid them
+largely, and dressed them handsomely, but since his dethronement they
+have been disbanded as too insubordinate.
+
+It is the boast of the Kurds that their country gave birth to the great
+Saladdin, who in the twelfth century fought against our Richard Coeur
+de Lion in the Holy Land.
+
+Most of the Kurds are migratory in their habits, but others reside in
+villages, where they sow their fields with seed in spring-time, and then
+quit them in order to pasture their flocks in the mountains. In autumn
+they return to their villages, and reap their harvest. Those residing in
+the plains are of a more peaceful disposition, and exercise much
+ingenuity and show much taste in the manufacture of carpets. These are
+entirely of wool, and are of that light description known as _kilims_,
+used in this country for portieres. Occasionally some of the women
+working at them weave in locks or tresses of their own hair, which is
+supposed to add to the value of the carpet. It certainly adds to its
+quaintness.
+
+A peculiar product of the Kurdish forests is manna, a sweet exudation on
+the oak-leaf. These leaves are beaten down from the trees, and collected
+on sheets, and then pressed into lumps and eaten, either in their
+natural condition, or used as a sweetening ingredient. Manna has a
+sweet, pleasant taste, and is called by the Kurds the "divine
+sweetmeat." It is sold in the courts of the mosques in Constantinople
+during the sacred month of Ramazzan.
+
+Lake Van, on the confines of Kurdistan, is about 70 miles long and 28
+miles broad. Its waters are salt, but brackish near the streams, and
+when evaporated produce a kind of soap used in the country. The lake
+abounds in a peculiar kind of carp (_Cyprinus Tarachi_), locally known
+as _Dareg_, which is said to exist nowhere else, and which is dried and
+eaten extensively in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ARMENIANS
+
+
+Adjoining Kurdistan lies Armenia, but it is difficult to determine where
+the one begins and the other ends, as during the time of the Armenian
+troubles the Sultan decreed that no such place as Armenia should exist,
+and vast stretches of country inhabited by Armenians were officially
+incorporated in the villayets, or provinces, of Kurdistan and others.
+
+So determined was the Sultan to blot out the name he hated that the
+censors were ordered to prohibit or deface all books having reference to
+Armenia, and the writer of these lines had unpleasant experiences at the
+Custom-house where a number of his books were mutilated; Keith
+Johnston's book on "Geography," for instance, had ten pages torn out.
+
+But in spite of Imperial edicts, Armenia still exists, and will continue
+to do so as long as Mount Ararat stands as a monument in the land to
+proclaim an antiquity claimed to be coeval with Noah.
+
+The traditions of the Deluge are still cherished by the Armenians, who
+yearly celebrate the exit from the Ark, and symbolize it in their
+national pudding, called the _anoosh aboor_, or sweet pudding. This
+consists of as many varieties of dried fruits as they can collect, which
+they mix together and stew, in imitation, it is alleged, of Noah, who
+did the same with the remnants of the provisions he had stored in the
+Ark. On this occasion they also sprinkle water on each other's faces, to
+denote the flood, and liberate captive doves and make cakes to represent
+birds.
+
+Tradition also maintains that it was in Armenia, on the southern slopes
+of Ararat, still rich in vines and olive-yards, that Noah planted the
+first vineyard. A withered root of one of the plants is still exhibited
+to show the result of the Divine malediction on the vine which
+occasioned his drunkenness.
+
+Armenia has passed through a number of vicissitudes, and frequently
+changed masters, and, owing to its geographical position, has often been
+the highway for the passage of opposing armies. It was the first country
+that officially embraced Christianity, their Sovereign, Tigranes, having
+been converted at the end of the third century by Gregory the
+Illuminator, and the Armenian Church has since been called the
+Gregorian. Armenia fell under the sword of the Moslem powers, and many
+of its inhabitants were compelled to turn Mahomedans, but as a whole
+they bravely maintained their faith and worship, notwithstanding
+persecutions. They have a language and an alphabet of their own, the
+latter consisting of thirty-eight letters, and expressing so many sounds
+that it is often used with advantage in writing Turkish also. The
+language spoken by the people principally is Turkish, while that used in
+the Church services is Ancient Armenian, which is not understood by the
+illiterate, but efforts are now made to revive the use of Modern
+Armenian, and it is being taught in their schools, and spoken more
+extensively.
+
+Armenia is to-day portioned between Russia, Persia, and Turkey, the
+latter ruling over the largest share. The population of the Turkish
+section is probably about 1,000,000, but about as many, if not more,
+are spread about other portions of the Empire, and Constantinople holds
+150,000.
+
+The Armenians are of medium height, but broad-shouldered and of powerful
+build; their complexion is swarthy, their hair black, and they can grow
+magnificent beards. Their eyes are black, and their nose aquiline, or
+eagle-beaked. This latter characteristic is very marked, and can be
+traced back to the coins of Tigranes, and of their earliest sovereigns.
+Their habits are indolent, and years of servitude have made them timid,
+and until quite recently they appeared so infatuated with their masters
+that their highest ambition seemed to be to ape them. They have been
+described as "having no high feeling, no emulation, no enthusiasm, no
+longing for a place among nations, no aspirations after the bright and
+the beautiful." But now all this has changed--at least with the educated
+people--and ecclesiastically, as well as socially, they have aspirations
+for an improvement in their condition. They have great business
+capacities, and show some aptitude in the arts, especially in weaving
+and embroidery, but have little initiative. They are naturally devout
+and kind-hearted, especially to animals, and ill-treatment of the latter
+is considered as deserving ecclesiastical censure, a case being on
+record where a priest imposed a fast of twenty years upon a woman for
+killing her cat.
+
+Villagers and Armenians from the interior are remarkable for their
+honesty, and have been entrusted for generations with the guardianship
+of merchants' offices, banks, shops, and the surveillance of public
+establishments.
+
+Their inducements to faithfulness are strengthened by their conviction
+that honesty is the best policy, for as a result of their proverbial
+trustworthiness their functions have come to be regarded as hereditary,
+and when one servant dies or returns to his family, he is replaced by
+his son, or brother, or near relative. There is thus solidarity between
+the members of a family, and even between the citizens of a town, for
+there are some towns--Mush, for instance--that hold the palm for the
+integrity of its inhabitants.
+
+An occupation, akin to the previous one, held by Armenians, in common
+with Turks of Asia Minor, is that of porterage, an institution of the
+greatest importance, especially in Constantinople, where the narrowness
+or steepness of the streets often prevents wheeled conveyance.
+
+These porters, known under the name of _hamals_, carry their burden on
+their back by means of a leather cushion, which is strapped over their
+shoulders, and called a _semer_, or saddle (see illustration, "In the
+Grand Bazaar," Chapter IV.), and it is extraordinary what weight and
+bulk they can carry. The object to be carried, if heavy, is lifted by
+one or two companions, and rested on the _semer_, while the wearer
+stoops forward to receive it.
+
+Great care is necessary to poise and balance it properly, as the secret
+of lifting lies in the correct adjustment--an art which with the
+_hamals_ seems instinctive. A short rope is then thrown over the burden,
+and the ends are held by the porter so as to prevent the burden from
+slipping as he proceeds on his way with heavy but steady steps. Should
+the road be steep, he will generally find resting-stones, which have
+been placed at regular intervals, where he can lean his burden without
+removing it, and obtain a brief repose. The placing of these
+resting-stones is considered a meritorious act among Moslems, and finds
+its equivalent in the Rest-and-be-Thankful Stones to be met with in many
+places in this country, where the weary traveller sits and blesses the
+donor.
+
+It is an interesting study to watch the muscles of the _hamal's_ legs
+distend and his veins dilate as, nearly bent in two, he treads leisurely
+along, groaning under a weight which it would take two ordinary men to
+carry.
+
+Conveying a piano, for instance, is no unusual occurrence, and on one
+occasion the writer had coals conveyed to his house, situated on a hill,
+and about three miles from the ship, at the same price as they would
+have been conveyed by horses, each _hamal_ carrying half a horseload. A
+_hamal's_ carrying capacity may therefore be expressed, after this
+experience, as equal to a half horse-power.
+
+[Illustration: IN THE GRAND BAZAAR]
+
+If the object to be conveyed is a very heavy one, it is suspended on a
+long pole, and carried between two _hamals_, the rounded ends of the
+poles resting on their shoulders, with perhaps a leather pad between to
+protect the bone.
+
+Should the weight be heavier still, say a large bale of merchandise or a
+pig of lead, four, six, or eight _hamals_ combine, each pair carrying a
+separate pole. As they march swinging and staggering along, with their
+right hand resting on their neighbours' left shoulder, and occupying
+half the street, they shout _Varda!_ which means "Make room!" and
+everybody has to clear out and rush to the sidewalk, or run the risk of
+being thrown over.
+
+_Hamals_ form themselves into Guilds, allotting themselves special
+spheres of work or districts, and are very jealous of interference by
+outsiders in what they consider their monopoly.
+
+In addition to the porterage of goods they also undertake the hewing of
+wood, such as is used for warming purposes in the East. They begin by
+conveying it on their backs in lengths of 5 or 6 feet, in which it
+arrives from the forests, and, throwing it in a heap in front of your
+door, they proceed forthwith to chop it with their axes into lengths of
+12 to 14 inches, and then store it. In the meanwhile half the street is
+occupied by the hewers, and chips fly right and left, endangering the
+eyes and faces of passers-by.
+
+Up to the time of the Armenian massacres, Armenian _hamals_ had nearly
+the entire monopoly of the Constantinople Custom-house porterage, but
+the majority were slaughtered in cold blood or had to flee, and Kurds
+(many of whom were their murderers) were engaged in their place.
+
+But the latter had neither the experience, nor the skill, nor the
+obliging manners of the Armenians, and for a long time business was
+disorganized, and merchants were discontented.
+
+Before dismissing the subject of the _hamals_, reference may be made to
+a peculiar contrivance they adopt for preventing water conveyed in open
+barrels from spilling, through the vibration. It simply consists in
+floating a disc of wood on the surface, and this seems as effectual as
+the sailors' device of throwing oil over the troubled waters. Anyone may
+try it and see the result.
+
+It is difficult to depict the habits of a people in a country so
+widespread as Armenia, but I may briefly allude to the houses they
+inhabit in Erzerum, the principal town of Armenia, and one which,
+according to Armenian tradition, stands on the site of the Garden of
+Eden! In any case, the climate has changed since those blissful days,
+for owing to its high latitude of 5,000 feet above the sea, that
+district is bitterly cold during the winter and hot during the summer.
+Indeed, for six months of the year, and more, snow is said to lie in the
+streets of Erzerum. The houses are in consequence low and small,
+consisting generally of a ground-floor only, with a flat roof over it.
+They are built of stone against the sides of a hill, and each room
+stands with a separate roof. As these roofs or terraces are connected
+with steps, one can walk a very considerable way over them. During the
+summer they are overgrown with grass, and are the favourite resort of
+women and children, the latter taking with them their lambs to browse
+over the grass and flowers. Each room of these houses has a fireplace,
+where cow-dung fuel is consumed. The furniture is very simple, and
+consists of a raised divan round three sides of the room, on which the
+family sit during the day, and often sleep at night. Only few houses
+possess chairs and tables. Meals are served on a round tray placed on a
+stool, around which the family squat and partake from a common dish. The
+characteristic feature of the house is the stable for oxen, one portion
+of which has a raised platform, with divans and carpets, and is used as
+the men's reception-room. The breath of the cattle helps to keep it warm
+and cosy, and underneath the platform the dogs lie and sleep, while on
+the divan, resting along with the men, are lovely silken-haired cats,
+many of which have their tails dyed red with henna.
+
+In winter the houses can hardly be distinguished under the snow, and the
+town is described as a great rabbit-warren, with the passages leading to
+the doors of the houses like so many burrows.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+GREEKS AND VLACHS
+
+
+In our account of the races ruled over by the Turks we must not forget
+the Greeks, those enterprising colonists who, long before the Christian
+era, settled along the coast of the Black Sea, and all along the
+sea-line which now fringes the Ottoman Empire, as well as in its
+islands, and who also founded commercial stations in the interior. In
+earliest times we find them connected with such expeditions as the
+Argonautic, in quest of the Golden Fleece, and returning, not only with
+rich trophies, but with wonderful legends regarding the lands they
+visited. I could entertain you at great length on their adventures in
+the countries I am describing, but this is not the object of this book,
+and my reference to the past must only be to show you that the present
+Greeks in Turkey are much the same people as their ancestors, with the
+same love for commerce, the same love for the beautiful and the same
+glowing imagination. Yet they differ in this respect, that they are now
+a subject instead of an independent people. They also differ in not
+calling themselves Hellenes, but Romei--_i.e._, Romans--an appellation
+which, strange to say, applies only to members of the Greek Church.
+Roman Catholics contemptuously refuse to be called Romei, and style
+themselves Latins.
+
+Intermarriages have somewhat tainted the purity of their blood, and in
+many cases they have lost the use of their mother-tongue, and can only
+speak Turkish, but still they are Greeks to all intents and purposes,
+and mostly members of the Greek or Orthodox Church.
+
+The Greek type of face is much the same as what we see in the statuary
+in our museums. The forehead is broad but rather low, the nose and
+profile straight, the eyes large, the lips full, the chin firm, and the
+neck rounded. They are tall and stately, and graceful in their
+movements, and have small hands and feet.
+
+In character they are highly imaginative, superficial, and shrewd, but
+make excellent husbands and wives, and inspire their children with a
+love for home and respect for their parents.
+
+In education the wealthier classes are advanced, but the peasantry are
+still backward. The Greek spoken by the latter is very corrupt, and has
+a large admixture of Turkish and Italian, but the efforts of School
+Boards and of the local newspapers are tending to purify and elevate it.
+At present even the New Testament Greek is above the average man's
+comprehension.
+
+The Greeks, as of yore, have much of the heroic in their character, and
+their ballads are full of the noble deeds, both of men and of women, in
+their defence against their oppressors.
+
+Their usual method of vindicating their rights and protecting themselves
+consisted in forming bands of _Armatolae_, or _Kleptae_, and occupying
+strongholds in the mountains, from which they would sweep down
+unexpectedly and avenge themselves, or carry away some wealthy Pacha as
+captive until he was ransomed.
+
+These bands were looked up to by the people as heroes and
+deliverers--the Jephthas and Gideons of their captivity.
+
+But unfortunately their exploits were not resorted to for the cause of
+freedom and justice alone, and have often degenerated into sheer acts of
+brigandage. A series of them were recently enacted in Macedonia, and on
+one occasion an Englishman was surprised, surrounded, and carried to the
+mountains. A messenger was sent down with a demand for his ransom, and
+with a threat that unless this was produced within a stated time, or if
+pursuit was made, his life would be forfeited. The sum fixed upon was
+the captives' weight in gold, and as he unfortunately happened to be a
+heavy man, the amount represented L12,000. The ransom was duly paid,
+but the money afterwards recovered from the Turkish Government.
+
+As an instance of the strange mixture of superstition and depravity
+among some of these brigand bands, it is related that on one occasion a
+band plundered a church, and then, seizing the priest, the _Kleptae_ put
+a sword to his throat until he absolved them from the offence.
+
+Acts of brigandage are not, however, limited to Greeks, though they are
+the chief offenders, but are shared with Albanians and Turks. Nor have
+Macedonia and Greece had the monopoly, but Smyrna and the hill-country
+near Constantinople have given scope for their activities. Their spies
+and agents in these towns supplied them with information, and the
+villagers and shepherds about their districts being in full sympathy,
+kept them in supplies and ammunition.
+
+From the bandit it is pleasant to turn to the agricultural and pastoral
+life of the Greeks in Turkey, and describe the assistance that boys and
+girls give to their parents.
+
+When the wheat or barley has been harvested, the sheaves are spread on
+the threshing-floor, which has previously been carefully prepared with
+clay and stones beaten down into a smooth surface. A broad wooden sledge
+is then provided, with sharp flint-stones firmly embedded into the under
+portion. One or two horses are attached to the sledge and a boy or girl,
+seated on a stool on the sledge, seizes the reins, and whip in hand,
+drives the horses at full gallop round and round the threshing-floor.
+The sharp flints, acting as knives, soon cut up the long stalks into
+straw, and separate the grain. Then a windy day is selected, and with
+long wooden forks the straw is tossed up into the air, the wind carrying
+the chaff and straw to a short distance, and leaving the heavier grain
+at the winnower's feet. The winnowed grain is then shovelled up into a
+heap, and there it must remain until the tax-gatherer has come and
+removed one-tenth on behalf of the Government. The harvest-festival
+follows, when, attired in their best clothes and with flowers on their
+heads and sheaves of golden grain in their hands, the harvesters proceed
+to the towns, and dance and sing before the doors of their patrons.
+
+One of their favourite dances is the old classical _syrto_, or
+long-drawn dance, performed on the village green. The youths and maidens
+don their picturesque gala costumes, and prepare for the dance, while
+the elderly men group themselves round the coffee-house, smoking their
+pipes and sipping coffee, and the matrons, with little ones, sit under
+the trees and gossip. A musician, with fiddle, pipe, or viol, sits on a
+barrel, while each youth produces his coloured handkerchief, and,
+holding it by one corner, presents the other to the girl at his side.
+She in her turn presents her own to the dancer next to her; a long line
+or circle is formed, and the dance is proceeded with, the youths and
+maidens responding to each other in the words of a song.
+
+The dress of the girls differs very much according to the locality where
+they reside. That of the villages near Constantinople consists of a
+loose, bright-coloured bodice, worn over a blouse open at the neck, and
+a coloured kerchief twisted round the head, from under the folds of
+which the hair hangs down the back in rich plaited tresses. The trousers
+are loose, baggy, and voluminous, and are fastened with a cord round the
+waist.
+
+[Illustration: A SHEKERDJIS' SHOP.]
+
+Over the bodice a bright zouave is worn, richly embroidered in gold or
+silver, and strings of gold or silver coins hang round the head, or as a
+necklace round the throat, while on the wrists are heavy bracelets.
+
+In other places it is described as consisting of "a skirt woven in
+stripes of silk and woollen, reaching to the ankles, with a
+tight-fitting bodice of the same, a cloth jacket braided or embroidered
+round the borders in gold thread and lined with fur, and in some
+districts a bright-coloured apron ornamented with needlework" (L.
+Garnett, "Women in Turkey").
+
+The same writer reports that in the islands a favourite amusement on
+these occasions is for the girls to suspend a rope across a narrow
+street from the wall of their own house to that of a neighbour, and
+every youth who wishes to pass by must pay toll in the form of a small
+coin, and give one of the girls a swing, while he sings the following
+verse:
+
+    "O swing the clove-carnation red,
+      The gold and silver shining:
+    And swing the girl with golden hair,
+      For love of her I'm pining."
+
+To which the maiden replies:
+
+    "O say what youth is swinging me,
+      What do you call him, girls?
+    For I a fez will broider him,
+      With fairest, whitest pearls."
+
+The Vlachs that inhabit Macedonia follow principally pastoral and
+agricultural pursuits. They spend the winter in their mountain
+villages, but during the summer they lead a nomadic life in quest of
+pastures, and move about, gipsy-like, in caravans.
+
+The care of their father's flock is committed to the charge of the
+daughters, whose beauty has often been extolled in many an amorous
+folklore song. Their duties are to milk the sheep and goats, churn the
+milk into butter, or convert it into cheese, bleach and spin the wool,
+and weave garments for the use of the family. A loom occupies the corner
+of every dwelling, and every spare moment is given to twisting thread
+with a spindle.
+
+There is considerable dislike among the Greeks to let their daughters go
+out to service, but this feeling is not shared by the inhabitants of the
+Greek islands. On the contrary, they supply the main stock of domestic
+servants, and recognized agents sail to and from the islands to find
+them occupation and attend to their interests. These Greek servants are
+generally very ignorant, can seldom write, and depend on the agent or
+some kind friend both for reading and writing their letters. They do not
+draw their pay monthly or quarterly, but prefer to allow it to
+accumulate with their masters, and withdraw it in a lump sum. After
+having stayed for some years in service, the girls are greatly in demand
+with their countrymen, and return to their islands and marry, but only
+to go back to service when their lazy husbands have expended their
+savings. Many of them return in the capacity of wet-nurses, a vocation
+greatly in demand in the East, where children are seldom brought up on
+the bottle. They are highly paid, and, moreover, receive presents on
+such important occasions as the child's cutting its first tooth and the
+like.
+
+Their social position is also different from that of other servants, for
+as foster-mothers they have a say in the child's upbringing, and their
+own children can claim kinship as foster-brothers or foster-sisters.
+Strange and incongruous connections are often the result, as, for
+instance, in the case of an acquaintance of mine in Smyrna, a British
+subject and manager of a bank. His foster-brother, a Greek, took to the
+mountains, and was known as the famous brigand, Caterdjee Yiani, and
+many a time the latter escaped detection and arrest by hiding in the
+house of his British milk-kinsman.
+
+Wet-nurses in the Sultan's palace are, it is stated, invariably
+Circassians, and their own children become playmates with the Crown
+Princes, and are not forgotten in after life. The foster-mother enjoys a
+title of courtesy, and often her influence in the palace comes next to
+that of the reigning Sultan's mother. In the case of the wet-nurse of
+Sultan Abdul Aziz, her power was such that frequently the appointment or
+dismissal of Governors and other State officials depended on her
+good-will.
+
+Greek servants are as a rule honest, but very slovenly, and at first
+very raw and unused to the ways of civilized life. They love to go
+about barefooted, or shuffle in slippers. Their hair is seldom combed,
+and their garments hang loosely about them. Their head-dress is a
+printed kerchief, called a _fakiol_, which they wear both indoors and
+out of doors, but the more advanced wear hats, and consider it such a
+distinction, that a man-servant of mine, who wanted to get married,
+could not describe his intended to me in more flattering terms than by
+saying that "she wears the _capello_" (hat).
+
+On Sundays they put on their finery and are very keen to go to church,
+and gossip with their fellow-servants in the women's gallery. It was
+probably to similar tittle-tattling, so common in Eastern churches, that
+St. Paul referred when forbidding women to "speak in the churches."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Factories are so seldom to be seen in Turkey that women have few
+opportunities of employment as factory-girls, but in the silk-spinning
+factories in Brusa Greek, Armenian, and Turkish girls work side by side.
+Their great ambition is to be possessed of and wear gold coins about
+their persons, but specially a five-lira piece, representing about L4
+10s. of our money. Too eager to wait until their savings enable them to
+buy that coin, they go to a money-changer and receive one immediately on
+credit, paying him weekly a stipulated instalment, and interest at 12
+per cent. a year in addition. The result is that when they have paid off
+the debt they find that the coin has cost them at least L6 or L7; but
+in the meanwhile their feminine vanity has been gratified, and the coin
+displayed three or four years earlier than otherwise.
+
+A curious class of people to be found in nearly every village in Turkey,
+and even in the interior of Arabia, Egypt, and Khartoum, is that of the
+_bakals_, or grocers, who are Greeks from Kaisarieh, in Karamania (Asia
+Minor). Fat, dumpy, and oily, with dirty, baggy trousers, greasy vests
+and shining countenances, they are as like one another as two peas. They
+have practically the monopoly of the retail grocery business, and their
+shops contain everything you can imagine in the way of Eastern articles
+of diet--bread, cheese, black olives, salted anchovies, sardines,
+curdled milk called _yiaourt_, oil, vinegar, salt, sugar, rice,
+sausages, and dried meats, honey, butter, dried fruits, tallow candles,
+matches, etc.
+
+Their little boys--chips of the old block--go round every house, calling
+out "_Bakalis_" and catering for orders, or bringing them back in
+conical bags of brown paper. Nearly everybody buys on credit, and an
+account is run up (not always too honestly) which, after a short time,
+becomes formidable, and credit is stopped till an instalment is paid.
+
+The _bakals'_ book-keeping is of the most primitive type, and will
+baffle the sharpest chartered accountant; but mistakes are seldom on the
+wrong side.
+
+A peculiar method for recording the number of loaves of bread
+distributed in each house is that of the _tchetoula_, and consists in
+cutting a notch on a piece of stick for every loaf taken. The
+householder retains the stick, and receives a new one when the amount is
+paid. Another method is to make a chalk-mark on the door, and efface it
+on payment.
+
+With a community living from hand to mouth like the Eastern, it is
+difficult to know what they would do without the ubiquitous _bakal_.
+Besides making himself useful in the catering-line, he frequently is the
+only man in his village who can read, and is resorted to both for
+reading and writing letters. His correspondence is carried on in Turkish
+words, but with Greek characters, full of conventional signs and
+contractions, and is next to impossible to decipher.
+
+Stray newspapers sometimes reach him, and the news of the day is
+conveyed by him to clients; and should there be a Christian church in
+his village, he is sure to be one of its dignitaries, and as _psaltis_,
+or precentor, preside over the singing.
+
+Another curious product, if I may so call it, of the Greek market is a
+class of beggars known as the _Volitziani_. They come from villages in
+Thessaly, and are young women who put aside their best garments, and don
+an old black skirt and black jacket, so as to assume an air of abject
+poverty. When about to start they receive from their community a
+beggar's staff, as a badge or passport of their functions, and they
+proceed to Constantinople, or any other town where begging offers
+advantageous prospects. On their arrival they borrow or hire two or
+three children, one of which is an infant, and which they drug and cause
+to sleep on a handkerchief spread out in a corner of the street. The
+beggar sits beside it, putting on her most tearful looks, and when any
+likely passer-by approaches, she raises her voice in supplication, and
+sends the other children to pull at his coat-tails. These _Volitziani_
+frequent the neighbourhood of churches, and their appeal is: "Give for
+the sake of the souls of the departed." The result is a plentiful
+harvest of coins, which enables them to return with a bagful to their
+country. The beggar's staff is then hung behind the door as a trophy.
+Should they desire to proceed on another begging expedition, a second
+staff is given them, and so on, and at each successive return the staff
+that has done service is deposited behind the door. Sometimes as many as
+seven make up the trophy. Young men desiring to find wives with money
+pry behind the door, and form an approximate idea of the fortune of the
+owner, the one with seven staffs taking, of course, the palm.
+
+Constantinople was once the great resort of beggars of all descriptions,
+and lines of them used to exhibit on the Galata Bridge (see
+frontispiece) all manners of deformities to elicit sympathy, but one of
+the reforming measures of the Young Turks was to expel them from the
+city. In illustration facing Chapter III. you will see one of these
+wayside beggars.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+JEWS--SUPERSTITIONS
+
+
+We read in the New Testament of Jews scattered all over the Roman
+Empire. The same is true of them to-day in Turkey. Their principal
+resorts are Constantinople, Smyrna, Salonica, and the other great towns.
+
+Some are original colonists, principally from Palestine; others are
+exiles from Spain in 1493. Common vicissitudes with the Moors, who had
+also been ejected from Spain, created sympathy for them in the Moslem
+world, and, to the honour of the Turk let it be told, they were offered
+a shelter and a home. These immigrants introduced with them the jargon
+which they had employed in Spain, and which consists of a mixture of
+Hebrew and Spanish, and is known as Judeo-Spanish. To it have been
+grafted a number of Italian and Turkish words, and it has been adopted
+as the common vernacular of both classes of Jews above mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: A CEMETERY BY THE BOSPHORUS.]
+
+Another division is that of Hebrews from Russia, Poland, and Austria.
+These do not understand Judeo-Spanish, but speak corrupt Russian and
+German, and differ from their southern brethren in features and customs;
+they all adhere to the law of Moses, and accept the teaching of the
+Prophets. There exists also a sect of Jews called _Dunmes_, or
+turncoats, who are both Mahomedans and Jews. Ostensibly they are the
+former, and observe all Moslem rites, but secretly they practise those
+of the Hebrews also.
+
+The Dunmes give their children two names, one a Turkish, such as
+Mustapha, and the other a Hebrew, such as Jacob.
+
+They reside chiefly in Salonica, and are very fanatical, and were the
+ringleaders of a riot against the Christians in 1870. On the other hand,
+several have distinguished themselves recently by joining the Reform
+Party in Turkey, known as Young Turks, who overthrew Sultan Hamid, and
+introduced the Constitution.
+
+Perhaps they are the only class of Jews who are seamen, and it is
+interesting to watch their flotilla of small boats board the steamers
+that arrive in Salonica. From their screams and shouts, you would think
+yourself in pandemonium. The originator of the sect was a certain
+Sabbatai Levy, who proclaimed himself the Messiah in 1648, but
+afterwards accepted Mahomedanism to save his life. His adherents believe
+in his return, and it is stated that one of their number always awaits
+the arrival of the railway-train in Salonica to offer him a welcome.
+
+Jews in Turkey are not relegated to ghettos, as in several European
+cities, but all the same they live in separate quarters, as, indeed, do
+all the other nationalities. Their quarters may be recognized by their
+malodorous smells, their filth, and the numerous families residing in
+the houses, and also from the babel of tongues, and the shrill,
+discordant voices of women or children shouting to each other or
+quarrelling.
+
+Jews in the East engage principally in commerce, banking,
+money-changing, pawnbrokerage, dealings on the Stock Exchange,
+watchmaking, and shopkeeping.
+
+A feature among them is the early age at which boys commence earning
+their daily bread. As young as six or seven you may see them going about
+with trays containing cigarette-papers, pins, matches, and similar cheap
+articles. Boys in this country will marvel at the ease and rapidity with
+which mere tots can work calculations mentally in the course of their
+business.
+
+When they grow up to manhood many engage in window-cleaning, an
+occupation which has come to be a Jewish speciality, and which an
+Eastern servant will resent if called upon to undertake. Others go about
+riveting or cementing broken china, or, with a small charcoal brazier
+and soldering irons, as tinkers; others sell a special kind of sand for
+cleaning pots and pans, which they hawk about under its Latin name of
+_arena_. Some make a speciality of buying, washing, and sorting empty
+bottles, which they afterwards re-sell with profit; others, of course,
+buy up old clothes, or, with a capacious wooden box slung over their
+back, go about selling all those little articles which are indispensable
+to ladies. When called to a house they spread out all their
+paraphernalia, and the bargaining, which Easterns take such a delight
+in, begins--buyer and seller trying to outwit and deceive each
+other--the housewife feeling happy and virtuous all day if she has
+beaten down the Jew to one-third of his demands, and the Jew unhappy
+because he had not charged more.
+
+Hebrew marriages in the East occur at an early period of life, fifteen
+with girls and eighteen with boys, and even earlier in Palestine. The
+result is large families and much destitution, but with all that one
+seldom sees any Jewish beggars, their system for relief of poverty being
+so admirable. They are frugal in their habits, living largely on bread,
+salt-fish, leeks, and onions, and, during the season, on fruits. The
+produce sold in their shambles is, moreover, of the cheapest and most
+inferior quality, yet, notwithstanding all this, the Jews are the
+longest lived and healthiest of the Eastern races.
+
+The dress of those in Constantinople consists of two or three long
+gowns, open below the knees; the sleeves are long. Their head-dress is
+the Turkish fez. In winter they wear long furs over their gowns. Married
+women cover their hair with a sort of bag-like embroidered kerchief,
+called _yemeni_, which is painted with flowers and ornamented with lace
+and seed-pearls.
+
+Within recent years much has been done, both by the Jewish Alliance and
+the Scottish and English Mission Schools, to educate boys and girls, and
+there is certainly a great improvement.
+
+Jews are fatalists, and are convinced that the decrees of fate are
+unalterable, yet they imagine that Providence may be cheated and thus
+deterred from its purposes. Accordingly, if Joseph happens to fall ill,
+and there is a likelihood of his dying, they forthwith change his name
+into, we will say, Benjamin, and they expect that when the Angel of
+Death arrives to fulfil his mission he will think he has made a mistake,
+and gone to the wrong house. So everyone in the room keeps addressing
+the invalid as Benjamin, and, should he recover, they all congratulate
+themselves on their masterly deception.
+
+Another expedient, but principally connected with children's ailments,
+is to trap the malevolent demon who has induced the sickness, and this
+they profess to do by laying a trail of sugar from the child's sick-bed
+to a well. The greedy demon follows the track, and gets drowned!
+
+Dread of the evil-eye is as prevalent with the Jews as with the other
+races in Turkey. They believe that there are certain malignant spirits
+in existence who are envious of men's happiness and do all they can to
+destroy it, especially when any self-praise or praise by others has been
+expressed by the lips. This power, it is further believed, is not
+restricted to demons, but is also shared by individuals, especially
+those possessing blue eyes. Quite an elaborate series of antidotes or
+prophylactics are adopted as a preservative against such influence, the
+most potent of which is to prefix to each commendation the magic
+spell-word _Mashalla_--_i.e._, "In the name of God." To this may be
+added the power of the blue bead, the evil spirit having a great
+predilection for that colour. Hence, if you praise a child for its
+beauty, and it happens to wear blue beads, the spirit's attention will
+be so absorbed with the bead that it will not hear your remarks. Another
+preservative is garlic, which has a repellent effect on the evil spirit.
+
+As a consequence, everything in Turkey that has to be protected from the
+evil-eye is decorated either with the one or the other, and you seldom
+see a horse, a draught ox, or even a donkey, that has not a string of
+blue beads about its neck. Children wear these charms on their caps; and
+the prows of boats, the roofs of houses, cages of birds, and even hovels
+have a bunch of garlic suspended with strings. It is even stated that
+bouquets of flowers formed of spices, and in the centre of which garlic
+is nestled, are sent as a present to the mother of a new-born infant, as
+a safeguard both to herself and the child.
+
+Suspended along with the garlic on the gables of Turkish houses framed
+texts from the Koran are often to be seen, and on the doorposts of
+Hebrew houses a small tablet with the word _Shadai_ (the Almighty).
+Jewish houses have also imprinted on the walls the impress of a man's
+hand, with the five fingers outstretched. In Christian houses the
+prophylactic takes the form of a cross, which frequently is nailed on
+the eaves during the process of building.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+GIPSIES--SUPERSTITIONS
+
+
+A people resembling the Jews in that, like them, they are "found
+scattered toward all the four winds of heaven, and there is no nation
+whither these outcasts have not come," are the gipsies. They are to be
+met with in every part of the Sultan's dominions, and in physical
+appearance, manners, and character they are very similar to those in our
+country.
+
+Moslems and Christians vie with each other in holding them in
+execration, and they are branded by the former as the _Kitabsis_, or
+"bookless" nation, because of the unwritten form of their beliefs and
+worship. Yet the presence of gipsy-girls at weddings and other
+ceremonies is much in demand, in order to amuse the guests with their
+dancing and singing, to the accompaniment of the tambourine or the
+flute.
+
+The men are frequently blacksmiths, or they rear horses and donkeys
+(besides stealing them), and frequently earn something by the sale of
+asses' milk, which is considered beneficial for chest complaints. The
+she-ass is led early in the morning to the patient's door, and the
+newly-drawn milk taken while quite warm and frothy.
+
+The children, of course, beg and steal, but the most fruitful occupation
+of the women is that of fortune-telling, the usual methods employed
+being the reading of the palm of the hand and cards. A little mirror
+placed in the bottom of a small box is also consulted.
+
+But divination and fortune-telling is not limited to gipsies; tall
+negro-women, with great rolling eyes, may be seen seated on the ground
+in public squares, with groups of inquirers of both sexes around them.
+They divine by means of beans or black pebbles (see illustration facing
+Chapter VII.).
+
+There is another class of soothsayers who profess to recover lost
+property, and see or show the face of the thief reflected in the water
+of a deep well. A valuable ring was once lost in a house, and no clue or
+evidence could be obtained as to the culprit, so the services of a
+diviner were requisitioned. He arrived at night, bringing in a bag a red
+cock, which he professed would crow the instant the guilty party touched
+it. The inmates of the house were all ordered to squat in a circle on
+the ground; the cock was placed in their midst, and all lights were
+extinguished. "Now," said the diviner, "let everybody rest their hands
+on the cock." They all apparently did so, and lights were called for,
+and an exhibition of hands was demanded. A red stain was visible on
+every hand except one--that of the guilty maid-servant, who had not
+touched the cock for fear of being betrayed.
+
+Residents in Turkey have inherited many of the superstitions of the
+Greeks and Romans, such as augury from the flight of birds, and the
+entrails of newly-slaughtered animals, and faith in astrology. The
+Sultan keeps a royal astrologer, who publishes yearly a list of the
+lucky and unlucky days, and no one will think of undertaking a journey,
+marrying a wife, or commencing business without consulting it.
+
+At the birth of a child a horoscope is made out for his benefit,
+indicating under what constellation he was born, and laying down rules
+accordingly for his guidance.
+
+On a certain day in March a peculiar kind of sweet, resembling and
+tasting like spiced toffy, but coloured red and with a sheet of
+gold-leaf stuck on it, is sent round to all palace officials. The
+elegant bowl that contains it is fastened in bright muslin, and is tied
+with coloured ribbons and sealed, and has to be opened and the contents
+eaten at the specified moment indicated by the astrologer, in order to
+secure wealth and felicity during the year.
+
+When troubled with dreams or otherwise apprehensive of impending
+misfortune, Turks believe that by hanging shreds of rags on the railings
+of the tomb of an old saint the danger may be averted. The consequence
+is that some of these shrines are literally covered and disfigured with
+rags.
+
+Dogs are also considered excellent subjects to which disease may be
+transferred. The patient can effect this by feeding them.
+
+[Illustration: A FORTUNE-TELLER]
+
+A popular remedy for illness of any kind is to obtain from the _imam_,
+or priest, a written text of the Koran and swallow it, and I have known
+of doctors' prescriptions being taken the same way, and doubtless
+with similar effect.
+
+Another superstition is that, if a person has had a fall, water poured
+on the spot will prevent its repetition.
+
+A curious method for arresting the spread of infectious disease is to
+surround the patient with a circle of some disinfectant, and during a
+cholera scare I saw it applied to a man on the Galata bridge who had an
+apoplectic stroke. The case was considered suspicious, and his body was
+removed, but a circle of whitewash, like the markings of a tennis-court,
+was drawn round the place where he had fallen, and the infection thus
+imprisoned!
+
+Scraps of paper thrown in the street are held in reverence and removed
+by pious Moslems, because the Name of God may be written on them and
+profaned if trodden upon; but another version is that all scraps not
+thus collected by the Moslem will be scattered over the burning soil
+through which he is to pass, after death, on the way to Paradise, and
+will make his passage more painful.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+SYRIANS, DRUSES, MARONITES, AND BEDOUINS
+
+
+An account of Palestine having been given in "Peeps at the Holy Land," I
+will not allude specially to it, although it belongs to Turkey. Arabic
+is the language also spoken in Syria, which lies north of Palestine,
+and in Mesopotamia, which is to the east.
+
+Of the ancient towns of Tyre and Sidon, once famous as the capitals of
+Phoenicia, nothing now remains but ruins on which fishermen dry their
+nets. The inhabitants in the surrounding regions, however, still keep up
+many of their ancient customs and superstitions, and, in a modified way,
+Baal and Astarte are still worshipped.
+
+The slopes of the Lebanon adjoining Beyrout are inhabited by the Druses
+and the Maronites, who, since the year 1860, have obtained
+semi-independence, and are ruled by a Christian Governor appointed by
+the Sultan.
+
+The Lebanon Ranges are very beautiful; they abound in aromatic flowers,
+and bees yield an enormous production of excellent honey. They are also
+the home of the cedar.
+
+As already stated, a railway, starting from Beyrout, crosses the Lebanon
+and connects it with Damascus, one of the most ancient cities of the
+world. Damascus is also one of the most beautiful, the plain on which it
+stands being a continuous garden, over fifty miles in circuit, rich in
+oranges, lemons, pomegranates, mulberries, figs, plums, apricots,
+walnuts, pears, quinces, etc. The town, through which flows a river,
+contains several magnificent structures, including a splendid mosque,
+which was once a Christian church, but the streets of the city are
+squalid and dirty. One of the most interesting is that called Straight,
+which St. Paul traversed.
+
+Damascus has a large manufacturing industry, and among other articles
+produces beautiful silks. It formerly produced those remarkable Damascus
+swords, inimitable for hardness, elasticity, sharpness, and tenacity, as
+well as for the beauty of their ornamentation. It gives its name to the
+plums which we call "damsons."
+
+Damascus is a great centre for the conveyance of merchandise to Bagdad
+and Persia by means of camel caravans--those fleets of the desert. They
+are accompanied by armed escorts, as their journey lies through a long
+stretch of desert, inhabited by numerous Bedouins or Arab tribes, ever
+ready to blackmail the caravan.
+
+These tribes inhabit the Hauran during the spring, and move to the
+desert in autumn. They own camels, asses, and sheep, and rear
+magnificent horses, which are justly considered the most beautiful in
+the world.
+
+The Bedouins live in tents made of black goat's-hair, and their camp
+looks from a distance like a number of grazing cattle. The tent of their
+_sheik_, or chief, is distinguished by its greater size, and round it
+are those of the members of the family. Before the tent-doors the horses
+are tethered.
+
+Family life among them is patriarchal, the sheik being priest, judge,
+and ruler. With some tribes women occupy a high social position, and
+menial work is done mostly by the men.
+
+The Arabs subsist chiefly on dates, which they gather and store in
+October, but when in the desert they live to some extent on the produce
+of the chase, which comprises an abundance of gazelles, hares, and
+quails.
+
+These they hunt with greyhounds or with trained hawks. The latter, when
+they see their quarry, swoop upon it, and pick at its eyes until the
+hunter arrives.
+
+The Bedouins live also on bread, which they bake in thin flat cakes, and
+on milk, specially in its fermented condition, which they call _leben_.
+Their butter they have to keep in summer in jars, as, owing to the heat,
+it is then as liquid as oil.
+
+The great province of Mesopotamia, where formerly stood Babylon and
+Nineveh, forms the south-eastern limit of the Turkish Empire. Watered by
+the Euphrates and the Tigris, it was once a magnificent agricultural
+district, but the incompetency of its rulers has allowed the network of
+canals, which distributed the waters of these rivers, to dry up, and the
+country is now largely a wilderness.
+
+Its population, the remnant of the Chaldeans, has also decreased, and is
+poor. The houses are made with sun-dried bricks, cemented with bitumen.
+The roofs are flat, and the lower rooms are underground, and are used
+during the summer months as bedrooms, owing to the excessive heat.
+
+The navigation of the upper reaches of the Euphrates is by means of
+rafts, underneath which are inflated skins of oxen. On this raft the
+traveller's tent is pitched, and he drifts leisurely down the river,
+while the boatmen help it along with long poles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TURKS
+
+
+Having summarized the customs of some of the people under Ottoman rule,
+I must say something of the Turks themselves.
+
+When a Turkish baby comes to this world no dainty embroidered linen and
+warm bath await it, but it is dressed in a plain cotton shirt and a
+cotton, quilted dressing-gown. Its limbs are then tightly wrapped in a
+long shroud, so that it cannot move them. Frequently a cushion is put
+between its legs before shrouding, and this probably accounts for so
+many children being bandy-legged. The child is then rolled into a
+quilted blanket, which is strapped up into a shapeless bundle, from
+which a little head appears, wearing a red cap, copiously studded with
+blue beads and seed pearls, as a protection from the evil-eye. The baby
+is then laid in a wooden rocking-cradle, which has a bar connecting its
+two raised ends, by means of which the cradle is lifted. Some of these
+cradles are very beautiful, and are inlaid with ivory and
+mother-of-pearl, and they bear appropriate inscriptions, carved in
+Arabic characters on the woodwork, such as "Under the Shadow of the
+Almighty," etc.
+
+Among poorer people a canvas hammock takes the place of the cradle, and
+in it the baby is carried out of doors, and the hammock swung between
+two trees, while the mother attends to her duties.
+
+On the third day after birth it is washed and presented to its father,
+who shouts thrice in its ear the name by which it is to be known.
+
+A festive reception is then held by the mother in her room, and streams
+of women-visitors come to compliment her and peep at the infant. But the
+poor little thing does not receive the baby-worship and adulation
+bestowed in this country. On the contrary, it is addressed in insulting
+language, and called ugly, and a wretch, and a monster, and is
+deliberately spat upon--and all this in order to ward off the influence
+of the evil-eye.
+
+It is quite exceptional for a babe to be brought up in the East on the
+bottle; should its mother be unable to nurse it a wet-nurse is procured.
+
+Both mothers and nurses are singularly ignorant in the question of
+upbringing, and many an infant dies through injudicious feeding after it
+is weaned.
+
+The love of Turkish parents for their children is excessive to a fault.
+A characteristic story is related of a Turk who was so distressed at the
+indisposition of his grandchild that he would neglect his business and
+hasten constantly to the patient's room to inquire as to his condition;
+and when the doctor ordered strict diet for a fortnight the anxious
+grandfather compelled his whole household, including himself, to submit
+to the same fare, for fear that the patient might be disappointed in not
+sharing the food of the family.
+
+To such extent do Turks carry their love for children that they will
+adopt those of others, and bring them up with the same tenderness as
+their own, and will provide for them in after-life.
+
+Children, on the other hand, are exemplary in their respect for their
+parents, and kiss their hands, and will not sit down, unless invited, in
+their presence. Even when they have reached mature age their mother is
+consulted, confided in, and listened to with respect. "My wives die,"
+says the Osmanlee, "and I replace them; my children perish, and others
+are born to me; but who shall restore to me the mother who has passed
+away?"
+
+Nor is this regard limited to the humbler classes; it is conspicuous in
+the case of the Sultan, who, on his accession to the throne, elevates
+his mother to the rank of Valide Sultana, or Queen-Mother, and requires
+all persons belonging to his harem to swear allegiance to her. Her rule
+is absolute, and even the Sultan's wives cannot leave their apartments,
+or go out for drives, or shopping, without her permission.
+
+The early childhood of both boys and girls among Turks is spent in the
+harem--that is, the section of the house reserved for the women--but
+until the age of twelve, girls are not subject to the restraints of
+grown-up women, nor required to wear the veil, and they often accompany
+their fathers in excursions or join the boys in their play. They even
+attend the same elementary school, and, sitting cross-legged with them
+on a mat, repeat the alphabet, or recite texts from the Koran given out
+to them by the _imam_, or priest, of the mosque with which the school is
+connected. These recitations are carried on in a monotonous drawling
+tone, and the body is swung forwards and backwards, the _imam_ himself
+setting the time by his own rhythmical nodding.
+
+On their return home they frequently join their mothers and other
+inmates of the harem in an afternoon's stroll. The Turks are great
+lovers of Nature, and have a keen appreciation of the beautiful, but
+prefer sitting down to walking, and generally spend their afternoons
+resting under the shade of a great tree, or near the water's edge,
+making _kef_, or, in other words, doing nothing.
+
+They invariably carry with them a _boktcha_, or bundle, containing a rug
+and picnic requisites, while one of the party carries a red clay
+pitcher, with water. Water is an indispensable requisite with Turks, and
+they will enjoy drinking it from the pitcher as much as from a glass.
+
+[Illustration: A TURKISH LADY IN OUTDOOR DRESS.]
+
+The rug spread out, the party will all sit cross-legged upon it, and as
+other groups of women also congregate in the same place, dressed in
+garments of variegated colours, you would imagine yourself amid beds
+of many-coloured tulips, while the boys and girls playing around suggest
+fluttering butterflies.
+
+The enjoyment of the women consists in smoking cigarettes, and gazing
+between each puff at the glorious scenery. Vendors of all sorts of
+eatables surround them, and, we will say, a _shekerdgi_, or dealer in
+sweeties, answers to their call, and places his circular tray, which he
+carries on his head, on the tripod-stand which he rests on the ground.
+The children flock around him, puzzled what to choose in that array of
+Turkish delight and _shekers_ of every kind and colour. At last a choice
+is made, and the sweets are placed in a brown-paper bag shaped like a
+cone, and shared by the party. Shortly afterwards an Albanian selling
+_halva_ as described in Chapter II., is called to contribute his wares.
+Then walnuts, pistachios, and peanuts come in for their turn, then ices,
+maybe, and something more solid in the shape of _simits_, or ring-cakes,
+as shown in the illustration in Chapter II. At sunset the _boktchas_ are
+made up, and the party wends its way home to partake of a more
+substantial meal.
+
+But should the night be bright, with moonlight, the party often start
+out again, and prolong their enjoyment until late hours, or until a
+policeman or old Turk passing by reminds them it is time to retire. It
+is amusing, in connection with these moonlight promenades, to see the
+women walking about or sitting with open sunshades to protect
+themselves from the lunar rays, imagining, no doubt, that they occasion
+lunacy.
+
+Sometimes a too close proximity to the Bosphorus is selected for
+spreading the family rug, and an unusually large wash from a steamer
+passing by breaks unexpectedly on the shore, showering clouds of spray
+over the women's heads. The cold douche sets them all on their feet,
+screaming, and the bed of tulips now looks like one dashed by a storm.
+
+But sometimes the ladies are more enterprising; a picnic to some distant
+part is decided upon, and _arabas_, or carts, drawn by oxen or
+buffaloes, are engaged. These conveyances are springless, and about 9
+feet long by 4 feet wide. Those intended for excursion purposes have
+highly ornamented boards of carved, gilt, and painted wood on the two
+long sides, and an arched awning overhead, made usually of crimson
+cloth, with gilt or silver fringes.
+
+The yoke attached to the oxen's necks has also an arched projection over
+it, on which tassels of various colours, and sometimes bells, are
+suspended in two or more tiers.
+
+The driver, in baggy trousers, short jacket (often dispensed with), and
+a red fez, walks leisurely alongside the oxen, with a goad in his hand
+to direct them.
+
+The cart has no seats, but the occupants provide themselves with carpets
+and cushions. The jolting on bad roads is, of course, tremendous, but
+this is considered part of the fun of the excursion.
+
+Packed as closely as possible, with the children to fill up odd corners,
+the cart proceeds on its way groaning and creaking, while its inmates
+roar with continued laughter, especially when an unusually big jolt has
+jostled them together.
+
+Having arrived at their destination, the carpets are spread out, and
+while some prepare and lay out the appetizing viands, others disport
+themselves in the fields, and return laden with flowers and with great
+yellow marigolds stuck in their hair.
+
+The repast may consist of such _hors-d'oeuvres_ as salted sardines,
+black olives, caviar, and salad of _tchiros_, or dried mackerel. This
+mackerel is the fish that in spring-time migrates from the
+Mediterranean, where it has spawned, into the Black Sea, and is in such
+an emaciated condition that the expression "thin as a _tchiros_" is used
+in Turkey to designate a person of extreme leanness. Nevertheless, it is
+caught and dried in the sun in such large quantities that the fields
+over which they are suspended look blue from a distance. They are sold
+by the pair, or "married couples," as the vendors cry out, and are
+grilled, shredded, and prepared into salad with oil and vinegar, and the
+tender leaves of the cummin (_tereot_).
+
+Next to the _hors-d'oeuvres_ follow _dolmaz_ or rissoles of rice,
+raisins, and pine-nuts, seasoned with oil, and wrapped and boiled in
+vine-leaves. _Keftez_ or meat rissoles come next, and then the fruits of
+the season, such as strawberries, cherries, and plums, or, should it be
+autumn, grapes, peaches, melons, water-melons, figs, etc. Cheese is
+frequently eaten with these fruits. _Hoshaf_, or the sweetened water in
+which fruit has been stewed, is generally drunk during meals, and when
+the humble repast is over, coffee is prepared, and served round in
+little cups which will barely hold an ounce.
+
+Turkish coffee owes its excellence to the beans being newly roasted and
+newly ground. The grinding is done with a small machine, which
+pulverizes the beans very finely. The coffee is prepared in a special
+brass pot, the bottom of which is wider than the top. A teaspoonful is
+put in for every cup required, and the water is gently brought to a
+simmer over a slow fire. The coffee is allowed to rise thrice, and after
+resting the pot for a minute for the grounds to settle, it is poured out
+into the cups and drunk while quite hot, with or without sugar. The cups
+containing a creamy foam are the most recherche. The dregs are not
+drunk. The illustration on the cover of this book shows a Kafedji in the
+act of preparing coffee.
+
+Before and after partaking of food, hands are washed, and this is all
+the more necessary, as meals are eaten with the fingers, the party
+sitting round a low tray, and dipping into a common dish. Should the
+hostess desire to confer a special attention on a guest, she takes up a
+dainty morsel in her fingers, and exclaiming _Buyrum_ (Welcome), places
+it gently into the guest's mouth. It would be the grossest insult to
+refuse. Cigarettes invariably follow, and then comes the lounging and
+the sleeping, and the return home with the lingering rays of the setting
+sun.
+
+Accompanying the _Arabas_ large parties of Turkish women and children
+may often be seen riding astride on donkeys, with donkey-drivers at
+their heels. No Oriental or Turkish lady would think of riding
+otherwise, and it is reported that quite a sensation was created when a
+European lady was first seen riding on a side-saddle. The conclusion was
+that the unfortunate creature had lost a leg, and people wondered how
+she could keep on with only the other.
+
+But perhaps the pleasantest method of locomotion is by _caik_--that
+daintiest of all boats that float on the surface of the waters. Slender
+and tapering, its side view may be compared to a half-bent long-bow, and
+when looked upon from above to two such bows lying opposite each other,
+string to string. A picture of a heavy sort of _caik_, used for ferrying
+passengers across the Golden Horn, may be seen in the frontispiece. A
+_caik_ is about 20 feet long by 4 feet broad in the middle; it is
+constructed with slender boards, and is only decked at the bows and the
+stern. The boatman sits on a seat in the middle of the boat, and its two
+to four passengers on cushions in the bottom, while a servant sits
+cross-legged on the raised stern. The oars are long and slender, with a
+peculiar bulge at the upper extremity to balance them. They are fixed to
+the rowlock peg by leather thongs, which the boatman continually
+greases. He is clad in a shirt of transparent gauze, with long hanging
+sleeves, and bordered round the open chest with a scalloping of
+needlework. His feet are bare, his ample trousers are of white cotton,
+and his shaven head is only partially covered by a red fez with tassels
+of purple silk. At each stroke of the oars the arrowy boat flies and
+skims the waters like a thing of life. Yet, though swift and graceful,
+the _caik_ is not so safe nor commodious as an ordinary boat, and in
+this practical age the _barka_ is rapidly replacing it.
+
+Friday, the Turkish Sunday, is _par excellence_ the day for excursions
+during the summer to Geuk-sou or the Heavenly Waters, a lovely spot on
+the Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus. A rivulet there discharges itself
+into the latter, and hundreds of boats may be seen shooting towards it
+from all directions. A vast concourse of people meet and sit on rugs or
+low stools, making _kef_ under the shade of superb Oriental plane-trees
+which abound on that spot, and while sipping coffee or smoking
+hubble-bubbles, they watch the various performances going on for their
+benefit. Here is a Punch and Judy show, called _cara-geuz_, or the black
+eye, closely resembling our own, and equally popular with the children.
+There goes a _Pomak_ with a huge Olympian bear, fastened through the
+nose with a ring; it has been trained to dance at the sound of a
+tambourine played by its master, and then to go round with it for
+coppers. Children are always delighted with the bear-show, but the
+street-dogs set up a tremendous barking, and their cry of alarm is so
+peculiar and distinctive that one can always tell from the sound when a
+bear is in sight.
+
+There is frequently also on these occasions an open-air theatrical
+performance on an improvised stage, but the acting is coarse and vulgar,
+and admission is generally limited to men.
+
+Of course at this, as at every open-air gathering, vendors of eatables
+and temperance drinks abound.
+
+Among them I may enumerate _yiaourtgis_ or sellers of that curdled milk,
+resembling curds, which is now so largely advocated in this country for
+promoting longevity. It is sold in little bowls, carried in two wooden
+trays, which are suspended like a pair of scales on either side of a
+yoke thrown over the shoulders. _Dondulmagis_ or ice-cream vendors, who
+also carry their burden over the shoulders, one side containing the
+ice-cream box wrapped in folds and folds of snow-white sheeting, and the
+other a polished brass receptacle for spoons, cups, and saucers, and
+water to wash them after use.
+
+A brazier with live coal may also be seen, on which heads of Indian corn
+are roasted, and greedily munched by the purchasers. _Hoshaf_ and
+_sherbet_, or syrup vendors, are also there, with a stand for bottles
+and glasses, and an ingenious contrivance for revolving, by means of
+dropping water, a small wheel or paddle, the flaps of which strike
+against a glass and produce a merry jingling sound which draws
+attention.
+
+The charm of this concourse of people is the primitive orderly enjoyment
+of outdoor life, without the disgraceful accompaniments of drunkenness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE FAITH OF ISLAM
+
+
+A peep at Turkey cannot be complete without a passing reference to the
+religious beliefs of its people, but space will only allow me to mention
+those of Mahomedans.
+
+Broadly speaking, without counting Arabia, there are 13,000,000
+Mahomedans or Moslems, as they are also called; 12,000,000 Christians;
+and 1,000,000 Jews and members of other persuasions. In Asiatic Turkey,
+Mahomedans form the majority, but only the minority in European Turkey.
+
+Moslems are the followers of Mahomet, who was born in Mecca, Arabia, in
+the year 569 of our era, and declared himself to be the Prophet of God,
+sent to introduce a fuller revelation of Him, which was to supersede
+Judaism and Christianity.
+
+The Koran, which was the great book of his faith, was declared to have
+been revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel. The Koran claims to be
+the completion of the Law and the Gospel, and it proclaims Mahomet to be
+the last and greatest of the line of prophets, among whom is included
+Jesus Christ, but whose divinity is denied.
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE OF SULTAN AHMED I.]
+
+The new faith, which received the name of Islam, implying submission to
+God, was a protest against the heathenish practices of his countrymen in
+Arabia, and the worship of the Saints and the Virgin Mary among the
+Christians. The corner-stone was the unity of God, and its leading dogma
+was expressed in the formula, "_La illah il Allah_" ("There is no God
+but God"), to which was added, "_Mohamet Resoul Allah_" ("Mahomet is the
+Prophet of God").
+
+In addition to the unity of God, Moslems believe in the existence of
+good and evil spirits, in the efficacy of prayer, and in a future life
+with its rewards or punishments.
+
+Prayer with them is homage which the worshippers are required to offer
+five times a day, according to a fixed ritual, with prescribed
+genuflections, prostrations, and touching of the ground with the
+forehead.
+
+When the hour of prayer arrives they will suspend their occupations,
+spread a rug facing Mecca, and pray wherever they happen to be, shaming
+Christians by their disregard of ridicule.
+
+The summons to pray or to attend the mosque is made by the _muezzim_ or
+crier, who ascends the minaret or tower, attached to the mosque (see
+frontispiece), and from its balcony proclaims the Unity of God, and
+invites believers to prayer, as follows: "Come to prayers, come to
+prayers. God is great. There is no God but God." To which, at dawn of
+day, the exhortation is added: "Prayer is better than sleep, prayer is
+better than sleep."
+
+Before prayer Turks wash their hands, feet, and faces, and remove the
+shoes from off their feet. Lines of fountains are found outside the
+mosques for these ablutions. The head of the worshipper remains covered.
+
+Among the observances enjoined upon Moslems are those of charity,
+fasting, and pilgrimage.
+
+They are bidden to lay aside one-tenth of their income for religious or
+charitable purposes. Their fasting takes place during the holy month of
+Ramazan, and lasts from morning twilight to sunset. Abstinence from
+food, drink, and smoking must be total. At sunset a gun announces that
+the day is over, and feasting commences and lasts all night. The day is
+thus transformed to night, and the night to day.
+
+The pilgrimage enjoined is to Mecca, and has to be performed by every
+Moslem at least once in his lifetime, either in person or by proxy. He
+then acquires the title of _Hadji_, or Pilgrim, which he prefixes to his
+name. The shrine or temple visited at Mecca is called the _Caaba_, and
+tradition records that it was there Hagar discovered the well Zem Zem,
+which saved Ishmael's life, and that the latter, assisted by Abraham,
+built a tabernacle. An angel brought the corner-stone, which all
+pilgrims go and kiss. It was originally of crystalline whiteness, but is
+now coal-black, owing to its absorption of the sins of worshipping
+pilgrims. On the Day of Judgment it will testify in favour of those who
+kissed it, whether men or women.
+
+The first mosque was built by Mahomet in Medina, and was of a very
+simple structure. But as his successors grew wealthier and more
+powerful, they vied with one another in the magnificence of the
+buildings erected for God's worship. They were more or less on the model
+of the Greek churches around them, lofty, and surmounted with a circular
+dome imitating the canopy of the sky. The dome is covered with lead and
+on the spike that crowns it is a gilt crescent. The apex of each minaret
+is also covered with lead and tipped with gold. The dome and the
+minarets standing side by side remind one of the umbrella pine-tree and
+the cypress--so characteristic of an Eastern landscape.
+
+The interior of a mosque is a mixture of simplicity and grandeur. The
+dome is supported by columns, which, in the case of the mosque of Sultan
+Achmet, represented in the illustration facing this chapter, are inlaid
+with coloured tiles, and decorated with verses from the Koran. The
+sunlight streams in from the numerous windows encircling the dome, or
+from those on the walls of the mosque, many of which are of beautiful
+stained glass, but without figures of any kind, as Moslems consider this
+would be breaking the commandment relating to images.
+
+All mosques point toward Mecca, and at the Mecca end stands a _mihrab_,
+or niche, from which the _imam_ conducts the devotions. Beside it,
+supported by pillars, is a terrace for the choir, which consists
+entirely of men. They chant, seated cross-legged on rugs. South of the
+_mihrab_ is the _minber_, or pulpit, from which prayers and addresses
+are delivered on Fridays. The pulpit in Sultan Achmet's mosque (see
+illustration) is a masterpiece in marble, and a copy of that in Mecca.
+Stands for Korans, shaped like the letter X, and inlaid with
+tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl, are placed about the building for
+public reading, and from the roof hang chandeliers on which are attached
+numerous lamps fed with olive oil. Interspersed among the lamps are
+ostrich-eggs and glass-ball ornaments.
+
+Mosques are not seated, but mats and carpets are laid on the stone floor
+for the use of the faithful. "The luxurious inhabitant of the East, who
+in his _selamlik_ is wont to recline on cushions, does not pass into the
+House of God to tenant a crimson-lined and well-padded pew; he takes his
+place among the crowd--the _effendi_ stands beside the water-carrier,
+the _bey_ near the charcoal-vendor--he is but one item among many; he
+arrogates to himself no honour in the temple where all men are as one
+family."
+
+There is a mistaken idea that Moslems consider that women have no souls,
+and need not perform devotions. The Koran is explicit to the contrary.
+They may not worship in the mosques with the men, but groups of them are
+met, worshipping apart, and during the Ramazan special services are held
+for women.
+
+Among the various Orders of Dervishes, or Moslem Monks, are those of the
+Ruffai Order, or Howlers, illustrated in Chapter XI. They are the most
+fanatical, and meet in a rectangular building to perform their
+devotions, the idea being to produce such an ecstasy of the soul as will
+separate it from the body and enable it to contemplate God.
+
+Their sheik, or chief, takes his seat on a carpet, while his followers
+sit in front of him and repeat passages from the Koran. They then stand
+and repeat their formula of faith, "_La illah_," etc., bending forward
+and backward at each syllable. This recital, which is at first slow,
+becomes more and more rapid, until you can only distinguish the
+syllables _il_ and _lah_. The sheik then stamps his foot, and the
+Dervishes, growing frantic, quicken their swinging motion, shouting
+_lah_, and interposing every now and then the exclamation _Hu yia hu_,
+implying "He, O He" (is God). The ninety-nine names or attributes of God
+are then recited, while the sheik counts the ninety-nine beads of his
+chaplet.
+
+When the last bead is reached their fury knows no bounds, and, holding
+each other's hands in a circle, they swing forwards and backwards until
+they foam at the mouth, and, falling exhausted to the ground, lie in an
+apparent trance. This they claim to be spiritual ecstasy!
+
+Another sect, the Mevlevis, find this ecstasy in whirling until they
+sink exhausted. The third Order the Bektashis, who are the most
+tolerant, maintain that the contemplation of God can be best attained by
+their carrying out their motto, "Keep thy tongue, thy hand, and thy
+heart," and by the observance of His precepts.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GAMES
+
+
+The Turk is too indolent by nature to care for any sports requiring
+physical exertion, and he would rather be a spectator than take an
+active part in them. There is, besides, a feeling among those that have
+reached the age of manhood, especially if they are holding some
+Government office, that their dignity would be lowered if they were seen
+engaged at play.
+
+A very interesting and pretty sport is the _djirat_. Two companies of
+horsemen, armed with muffled lances, or in some places the stalks of
+palm-leaves, give each other chase. The pursuers hurl their missiles
+when at full speed, and those assailed endeavour to avoid the stroke or
+to capture the weapon.
+
+Watching ram-fights is a favourite recreation, and crowds gather round
+the village green to witness these huge creatures, with their long
+crumpled horns, dashing at each other at full speed. Their heads strike
+with a resounding thud, and you expect that a skull or two will be
+broken, but no, it is only fun, and the rams caper gracefully back, to
+return again to the charge.
+
+Cock-fights are likewise in repute, and in Cyprus a spur is grafted on
+to the crest of the bird, giving it the appearance of a sort of winged
+unicorn.
+
+Professional wrestling is much enjoyed. The two contending parties or
+_pehlivans_, as they are called, are frequently a negro and a white man;
+their attire is nothing but a leather pair of drawers. Their bodies are
+smeared over and made slippery with abundance of olive-oil. The struggle
+commences by their measuring distances and touching each other's
+shoulders; then they manoeuvre about and dodge each other, and finally
+come to grips, until the stronger forces his opponent to the ground.
+Turkish wrestlers are so celebrated that they often find their way to
+this country.
+
+Another entertainment is the "Shadow Pantomime." This performance
+consists in throwing shadows of little cardboard figures against a
+curtain, on the other side of which the spectators are seated. The
+exhibitors, carefully hidden from sight, work their marionettes with
+strings and wires, and are clever in making them move and bow, strike
+each other, and perform all sorts of feats and somersaults, while a
+ventriloquist makes them carry on the most animated conversation.
+
+Horse-racing is seldom indulged in in Turkey, except among European
+residents. An effort made several years ago to introduce racing failed,
+because, it is alleged, foreign jockeys dared to allow their horses to
+beat the Sultan's stud. Occasionally, however, Turks get up children's
+races; they strap the youngsters to the saddle, give them the reins, and
+speed the horses off with a tremendous swipe.
+
+Fox-hunting is not only unheard of, but is prohibited as cruel, and a
+Spanish bull-fight was attempted last year for the first time, only on
+the understanding that no blood would be shed.
+
+Football has recently come somewhat into fashion, but it is only
+occasionally that the real game is played. Departure from rule is
+preferred to its observance, and often the game consists of mere kicking
+of the ball from one to another. This is done with great swagger and
+conceit, but without any of the true sporting dash.
+
+Tennis is played to some extent, and bicycling is fairly popular, but
+principally because it allows the rider to show off.
+
+There are some keen sportsmen among the Turks; and hunting the wild boar
+offers lively sport coupled with a zest of danger, as these savage
+animals, if not killed outright, often turn and rip their assailants
+with their powerful tusks.
+
+The "gentle art" of fishing is largely indulged in as a recreation, and
+the Bosphorus yields excellent sport. The favourite fishing there is
+that of the _lufer_, which weighs from 1 to 3 pounds, and is caught by
+night, with bright lamps throwing down a beam of light from the boat
+into the water. A peculiar hook, soldered to a sinker, which is
+brightened with mercury, is used. Gourmet fishers often take a brazier,
+with live coals, in the boat, and grill and eat the fish as soon as
+it is secured.
+
+[Illustration: A HOWLING DERVISH.]
+
+Chess--that most antiquated of games--is known under the name of
+_satrach_, and differs somewhat from our own, but is as highly
+scientific. However sceptical we may be about the story in the "Arabian
+Nights" of the monkey which played chess with a Grand Vizier, I can
+vouch for the accuracy of one regarding an Armenian banker who played it
+with Sultan Aziz. The stakes were properties belonging to the Crown, and
+so successful was the banker that, finally, his landed possessions
+extended from the Bosphorus to the Black Sea.
+
+Backgammon is a favourite game; draughts differs slightly from our own,
+and there is a peculiar form of it played with pebbles, on a checkered
+board traced on a stone.
+
+Cards are played to some extent, but as gambling and games of chance are
+forbidden by the Koran, cards are looked upon with suspicion, and their
+use discouraged. So also is betting, which ensnares young and old in our
+own country.
+
+Among games for boys I may mention top-spinning. Turkish tops are made
+from hard wood, turned in a lathe, and painted with bands of various
+colours. They are spun with the thumb and the finger, or with a string,
+and then kept in motion with a whip and cord. A point in the game is to
+direct the top so that it should bump against the opponent's, and topple
+it over.
+
+Kite-flying is popular, and in early spring hundreds of kites may be
+seen flying from the terraces over the house-tops. They are shaped like
+our own, and are made with bright-coloured paper, with long tails of
+paper strips. Little splints of wood or cane are attached to the tail
+for the purpose of entangling and capturing other kites. This is done by
+manoeuvring them about, letting them drop momentarily or rise
+suddenly, so as to swoop over their adversary and capture it. When these
+air-ships have boarded, both the fliers pull in the string as rapidly as
+possible, and it sometimes happens that the vanquished kite is after all
+the victor.
+
+Hop-scotch is as ancient as the hills, and is played in Turkey in much
+the same way as with us. So also are marbles and tip-cat, with the same
+risks, in the case of tip-cat, to the eyes of beholders as in this
+country.
+
+Walnuts enter largely into the composition of boys' games. One of these
+consists in rolling them down a sloping board, each boy playing in turn.
+The person who hits any of the nuts on the floor appropriates all he can
+gather. The game goes on, each player retiring when his stock of walnuts
+is exhausted. Another game is that of placing the walnuts in a ring, and
+throwing (not rolling) other nuts at them from a distance. All displaced
+walnuts belong to the displacer.
+
+Knifey, or _bitchak_, as it is called in Turkey, is popular among girls
+as well as boys. They sit in a circle on the village green, and, placing
+an open pocket-knife on the back of their hand, throw it up in the air
+so that it shall on descending stick in the ground. Knuckle-bones is
+allied to the above, and is played with five bones, as with us, and with
+much the same variations.
+
+_Pendavola_, or five pebbles, is the Greek name of knuckle-bones, when
+played with stones instead of bones. Both the above games date back to
+remote antiquity, and exist in some form with every nation.
+
+A practice indulged in by boys and young men is that of bird-catching by
+means of nets, snares, or bird-lime twigs.
+
+In autumn, when Nature shows the first hectic flushes of decay, and
+birds know that winter will soon be upon them, innumerable flocks
+traverse the regions around Constantinople on their way south. Quails
+arrive by scores of thousands, and, exhausted with their flight over the
+Black Sea, they alight near the mouth of the Bosphorus, and are easily
+caught in nets, and served on the tables of even the poorest
+inhabitants.
+
+Smaller birds also, such as bullfinches, goldfinches, and other finches,
+linnets and the like, are on the wing, and to secure them bird-lime
+twigs are placed on an isolated tree, or one improvised for the
+occasion, and a booth is constructed near it, in which boys hide and
+watch unobserved. Some half-dozen birds of various kinds are tied by the
+leg to a long string, one end of which is held by the occupants of the
+booth, and when a flock of birds is seen in the air these decoys are
+made to rise. Their chirping attracts the attention of the birds
+overhead, and, alighting on the tree, the great majority are glued to
+the twigs. The best are put in cages and sold as song-birds; the
+remainder are killed, and strung with twine through their bills, they
+are sold for food. Roasted and mixed with _pillaf_, the national rice
+dish, they are most savoury.
+
+In contrast to this inhospitable reception of Nature's winged songsters
+while travelling through the land, it it pleasant to visit the
+bird-market, and there see venerable Turks opening their purses and
+buying as many of these captives as they can afford. They then throw
+open the prison-doors, and as the birds fly skyward with chirps of
+delight, the faces of the liberators grow radiant with satisfaction.
+
+My list of games and sports is by no means exhausted, but I must close
+it by referring to stone-throwing, which, although not exactly a game,
+is in universal practice among boys, and even girls. To such an extent
+is it carried that dogs attacking you will often disregard a stick, but,
+remembering their sad experiences with stones, will take to their heels
+when you stoop to pick up one.
+
+The writer himself still carries a lively impression of a fight carried
+on with these missiles. The scene of this skirmish, which took place
+when he was a boy, was near the seashore of a village on the Bosphorus,
+where he and one or two English boys met a squad of Turkish children.
+The latter took refuge behind a row of Turkish houses, and stones were
+thrown by both parties over the roofs. They fell fast and thick from the
+unseen foe, until at last one, doubtless thrown "at a venture," hit the
+writer on the head, and made the impression already referred to.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+DOGS
+
+
+Everybody has heard of Turkish dogs, and I am sure you will consider
+this book incomplete if I pass them over in silence.
+
+Their origin is shrouded in mystery, but naturalists would probably find
+them allied to the wolf and the jackal.
+
+Tradition, however, has it that they originated in Tartary, and followed
+the Mongolians and Turks across the steppes, gorging themselves on the
+carnage of a thousand battle-fields, and finally settling down with the
+conquerors.
+
+How much truth there is in this gruesome legend it is impossible to say,
+but the fact remains that wherever the Turk is found, there, too, the
+ubiquitous _kiopek_, or _skilo_, is seen. Nor does it seem to exist
+north of Vienna--that outermost ring of Turkish invasion. Dogs, very
+like _skilos_, are to be met in Hungary; you have no doubt of their
+existence when you cross the Danube into Servia; they are numerous in
+Bulgaria, and you fall into the thick of them when you reach
+Constantinople, where until recently they were supposed to number
+80,000.
+
+In size and appearance they resemble the short-haired Scotch collie, but
+without the sharpness of nose, and their ears are shorter. With all the
+instincts of the nomad--unkempt, unkept, and owning no master--their
+home is the street, where they are born and die, a boon and a bane to
+mankind. They are the former because they are the scavengers--sometimes
+the only scavengers--that clean the streets of the refuse thrown into
+them, and which would otherwise putrefy and breed disease. They are the
+latter because they collect at night over refuse-heaps, and fight, bark,
+and yell over the disputed possession of coveted morsels. Their noise
+disturbs your slumbers and irritates your nerves. Then, lying as they do
+in the street, you might in the darkness stumble against one, and
+experience in return something hard and sharp, which would send you
+howling in your turn.
+
+But _skilos_ do not thrive on refuse alone; they hang about butchers'
+shops, and are plentiful near the Sultan's palace-kitchens and soldiers'
+barracks, where remains of food are dispensed to them. At the Ministry
+of War, in Stamboul, a special man is employed to give them fragments of
+the soldiers' bread. These he carries in a capacious hamper on his back,
+and, holding a thick stick in his hand, he proceeds to the public
+square, where hundreds of dogs await and surround him. His first action
+is to clear a wide circle with his stick around him, and then he
+suddenly empties the contents of his hamper. A rush and charge of
+_skilos_ follows. They tumble over one another in that hissing sea of
+dogs, but do not seem to mind, provided they can seize a fragment of
+bread and bolt away. There is strategy, however, even in dogdom, and
+some, more cunning and fleet-footed than others, do not join in the
+scrimmage, but quietly await the result at some point of vantage, and,
+spotting any dog that retires laden with spoil, pursue it, and snatch
+away its prize.
+
+Yet, with all their habits of the tramp, they seem imbued with a sense
+of order, and come to an agreement among themselves as to what streets
+groups of them are to occupy. Woe to the dog that dares to overstep the
+assigned boundaries. On one condition alone is he allowed to cross
+through another district--that of lowering his flag--_i.e._, that he
+puts his tail under his legs, keeps his head submissively low, and walks
+in the middle of the street, while all the dogs of the quarter rend the
+air with their barking.
+
+You must not conclude from what precedes that _skilos_ are devoid of
+finer feelings and even chivalry. The following incident, related by a
+friend, regarding one with which I was acquainted, proves the contrary.
+When a pup, Carabash (black head), as he was called, was picked up in
+the street, and coddled in a comfortable home. On growing up, he was
+provided with a kennel in the garden. One frosty morning, when the snow
+was lying thick on the ground, Carabash was discovered sleeping outside
+the kennel, which he had surrendered to an emaciated bitch. The intruder
+was driven away, but next morning was again found in occupancy, and was
+gruffly expelled. Carabash seemed vexed, and refused to eat his food. On
+the third morning the strange dog was again found in the kennel, and was
+this time thrashed out of the premises. She went, like Eve from
+Paradise, but her Adam followed, took up his residence with her under
+the shelter of an old tombstone in the Turkish Cemetery, and never again
+returned to his comfortable home. Their descendants live in the cemetery
+to this day.
+
+Such romantic incidents would doubtless have met with recognition on
+behalf of the whole race of dogs in the days of Haroun-al-Raschid, or
+other heroes of the "Arabian Nights," but the Young Turkey party of
+to-day are not to be moved by such considerations. They are practical
+men, and, desiring to cleanse the streets of Constantinople of a
+recognized nuisance, they decreed the extermination of _skilos_. But,
+taking into consideration the Moslem abhorrence of taking away animal
+life, a curious compromise was made. They were to be banished to a large
+enclosure at the city walls. A special forceps was invented for the
+purpose of trapping them, and at dead of night municipal officers
+gripped the sleeping dogs by the neck or the body, and pitched them into
+a cart, which conveyed them to their so-called "hotel." Terrible fights
+occurred there between dogs already in residency and new arrivals, but
+it frequently happened that kind-hearted Turks waylaid the carts and
+liberated the captives.
+
+Within their enclosure the dogs were fed and received water at the
+expense of the State, a grant of L5,000 a year having been voted in
+Parliament for their maintenance; but soon the space allotted them
+proved inadequate, and their cries and smells became so horrible that it
+was decided to move them to another locality.
+
+A little uninhabited island, called Oxya, about fifteen miles from the
+city, was selected for the purpose, and 30,000 were transported to it.
+But the island had no water, and the supply of bread was difficult and
+irregular, and the result was that six months after their transportation
+only one solitary dog, of which I have the photograph, survived to tell
+the tale.
+
+Discouraged by their want of success, Government has, I understand, now
+given up the attempt to exterminate the _skilos_, and any of my readers
+who happen to visit Constantinople will probably have the pleasure of
+forming their acquaintance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE GALATA BRIDGE AND THE BAZAARS
+
+
+An attempt has been made in these pages to conduct the reader over the
+domains of the Sultan of Turkey, and to introduce him to some of his
+subjects, but there is perhaps no better place in the world for getting
+a panoramic view of the various races depicted than on the bridge which
+spans the Golden Horn, and joins Stamboul with the Galata quarter of
+Constantinople (see frontispiece). Nor can you find the various products
+of the Empire exhibited within a more suitable compass than in the
+bazaars of Stamboul.
+
+It is computed that no less than twenty million persons pass over the
+bridge in the course of a year--_i.e._, about 50,000 daily. The races
+there represented are too numerous to mention. Each wears its
+distinctive dress, and foot and head gear, and the contrast of design
+and colour is wonderful, and not limited to women, as in a European
+crowd. Here comes an Albanian in white petticoats and crimson sash
+bristling with pistols; there goes an Embassy _cavass_ resplendent in
+scarlet; there is an _Ulema_, or high ecclesiastic, with green turban
+and flowing robes of white, and another dressed in magenta and a white
+turban; soldiers in khaki or in pale blue come next, and Young Turk
+officers all spick and span in new uniforms. A Whirling Dervish, with
+tall, conical, brown head-dress then moves majestically along, followed
+by a Bedouin, with camel-hair mantle over his shoulders, and silken
+kerchief over his head. Alongside him is an M.P. from Arabia, with
+flowing green coat, and white cap with green turban around it,
+indicating consanguinity with Mahomet. As for representatives of the
+other sex, you see groups shuffling along in soft yellow boots, and
+dragging loose overshoes--overshoes which often prove serviceable
+weapons of attack to any Turkish woman who has been insulted.
+
+The Turkish ladies' dress is frequently bright-coloured, and a white
+veil is thrown over the head and face, but sometimes the dress itself is
+used for that purpose. The fashion, however, is prevailing that black
+should be used, and the women look like silhouettes flitting along.
+
+Should it happen to be a Friday, sounds of military music greet your
+ear, and you hear the tramp of infantry as the Sultan's soldiers march
+along to line the streets through which he must pass on his way to
+mosque.
+
+Nothing can rival the physical appearance, dogged perseverance, and
+power of endurance of the soldiers streaming before you, and the
+prancing steeds ridden by the officers excite your admiration.
+
+But another sound, less musical, may disturb your ear, and a horde of
+half-naked savages appear, carrying on poles what you would call a
+garden-pump, but which is really a fire-engine. A man carrying the
+hose-nozzle precedes, and as they tear along, shouting "_Sagh ol!_"
+("Clear out"; literally, "Keep yourself uninjured!"), you imagine a band
+of maniacs has been let loose.
+
+There is now a regular fire-brigade in Constantinople, available where
+the streets are wide enough to permit its use, but you will not wonder
+that under the old system conflagrations sometimes destroyed thousands
+of houses at a time, and still do so in quarters where the streets are
+too narrow and the houses of wood.
+
+Ambulating vendors of all sorts are also to be found on the bridge,
+advertising their goods in loud falsetto notes, or sometimes singing
+metrical eulogies over them. _Hamals_, and porters, too, of every
+description, are there, conveying their burdens, and Turkish sailors,
+whose duty it is to police the bridge, while at either end are men clad
+in long white shirts, without pockets, to collect the toll, and not
+pocket it. And as if to connect the new with the old order of
+administration, a motorbus, with the words "Progres" emblazoned upon it,
+traverses the bridge with passengers, while British-built steamers moor
+on pontoons attached to the bridge, and convey travellers to the
+villages of the Bosphorus and other suburbs.
+
+Crossing the bridge, you arrive at Stamboul, the Turkish quarter, and
+enter into a long street, arched over, and with numerous windows. It is
+called the _Missir Tcharchi_, or Egyptian Spice Bazaar, owing to the
+drugs and spices sold in it. It is dark and badly ventilated; its
+odours overpower you, but you see there a display of drugs and perfumes
+never dreamt of before, and gathered from all parts of the empire. Each
+shop within the bazaar is known by its special sign--a ship, a broom, a
+bird's-cage, the model of a mosque, a flag, bows and arrows, and so
+on--while its occupant sits, like a spider in his den, inviting you into
+his parlour.
+
+Among the articles offered are musk and seraglio pastilles,
+frankincense, cedar-wood, and other perfume-emitting substances which
+Turks delight in throwing on the brazier to scent their apartments; otto
+of roses, produced in Bulgaria, rose-water, patchuli, jessamine, and
+other native fragrant oils, with which to perfume their person. Rouge,
+native hair-dyes, and henna for improving the complexion, painting the
+eyebrows until they meet, or staining the nails and finger-tips;
+corrosive sublimate, that deadly poison, for giving a flash to the eye;
+red and black pepper, and all sorts of condiments; seeds of the
+"love-in-the-mist" to protect _yiaourt_ and pastry from the evil-eye;
+gum mastic from the island of Chio, which women love to chew and chew
+for hours, and children to blow into bubbles; herbal and quack medicines
+of all kinds, and even gall-stones from an ass to renew the vigour of
+youth. Nearer the sea are several streets, roofed with glass, called the
+_Yemish_, or fruit-bazaar, where dried fruits and nuts of every
+description are to be found. Among its peculiarities are fruit-pastes of
+plum, apricot, quince, mulberry, etc., which have been mashed,
+sun-dried, and rolled into thin long sheets; grape-juice, thickened with
+flour; unfermented grape-treacle; and honey from Angora, unrivalled for
+the whiteness of its comb.
+
+The Wood-turners' bazaar gives you an insight into the native method of
+turning, which is performed with a bow in one hand and a chisel in the
+other, while the big toe supplies a third hand for holding the object in
+position. The Brass-turners' bazaar provides you with _samovars_, or
+special brass urns, for boiling water and preparing tea, and _mangals_,
+or braziers, for holding ignited charcoal to warm houses.
+
+The main bazaars consist of a labyrinth of streets and alleys, arched
+over with masonry, and pierced with numerous domes from which the light
+enters. They extend over a surface of more than a mile, and their
+windings are so intricate that a traveller may easily lose his way.
+
+Articles of every description, new and old, may be found there. Whole
+streets, for instance, are reserved for boots, shoes, and slippers of
+all kinds, shapes, and colours: soft yellow ones for Turkish women;
+patent-leather ones, with overshoes, for men; red shoes with turned-up
+points for Anatolians; sandals for Albanians; Parisian ones for those
+dressed _a la Francaise_; slippers of softest native tanned leather;
+slippers embroidered with seed-pearls and jewels, etc. Another street is
+reserved for silks from Brusa, Damascus, Syria, etc., another for pipes,
+hubble-bubbles, amber mouthpieces etc. Another, styled Manchester
+Street, is stocked with cotton prints, of flashy colours and designs,
+made specially for the East.
+
+In the heart of the bazaar is the _bezesten_, an inner bazaar, with
+gorgeous carpets from all parts of the land, diamonds, pearls,
+turquoises, and all manner of precious stones; old armour, antiquities,
+curios, and relics of all kinds.
+
+But the _muezzim's_ cry now reverberates through the bazaar; the sun is
+setting, and the gates are to be closed. You rise to depart, but the
+crowds, the sights, the colours, the noises, the smells, the various
+costumes around--these will be there on the morrow as they have been in
+the past, and they will still in the future allure and charm all those
+who come in contact with the bewitching East.
+
+BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LIST OF VOLUMES IN THE PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES SERIES
+
+EACH CONTAINING 12 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
+
+    BELGIUM
+    BURMA
+    CANADA
+    CEYLON
+    CHINA
+    CORSICA
+    DENMARK
+    EDINBURGH
+    EGYPT
+    ENGLAND
+    FINLAND
+    FRANCE
+    GERMANY
+    GREECE
+    HOLLAND
+    HOLY LAND
+    ICELAND
+    INDIA
+    IRELAND
+    ITALY
+    JAMAICA
+    JAPAN
+    KOREA
+    MOROCCO
+    NEW ZEALAND
+    NORWAY
+    PARIS
+    PORTUGAL
+    RUSSIA
+    SCOTLAND
+    SIAM
+    SOUTH AFRICA
+    SOUTH SEAS
+    SPAIN
+    SWITZERLAND
+
+
+A LARGER VOLUME IN THE SAME STYLE
+
+    THE WORLD
+
+Containing 37 full-page illustrations in colour
+
+    PUBLISHED BY ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
+    SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.
+
+    AGENTS
+
+    AMERICA      THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+                   64 & 66 FIFTH AVENUE,, NEW YORK
+
+    AUSTRALASIA  OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+                   205 FLINDERS LANE, MELBOURNE
+
+    CANADA       THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD.
+                   ST. MARTIN'S HOUSE, 70 BOND STREET, TORONTO
+
+    INDIA        MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LTD.
+                   MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY
+                   309 BOW BAZAAR STREET, CALCUTTA
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Turkey, by Julius R. Van Millingen
+
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