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diff --git a/old/20110911-37404.txt b/old/20110911-37404.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fc930fe --- /dev/null +++ b/old/20110911-37404.txt @@ -0,0 +1,29392 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Church History, Vol. 3 of 3 by J. H. Kurtz + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Church History, Vol. 3 of 3 + +Author: J. H. Kurtz + +Release Date: September 11, 2011 [Ebook #37404] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH HISTORY, VOL. 3 OF 3*** + + + + + + Church History + + By + + Professor J. H. Kurtz + + Authorized Translation From Latest Revised Edition by the + + Rev. John MacPherson, M.A. + + In Three Volumes. Vol. III. + + Second Edition + + London: Hodder and Stoughton + + 1893 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Second Section. Church History Of The Seventeenth Century. + I. Relations between the Different Churches. + § 152. East and West. + § 153. Catholicism and Protestantism. + § 154. Lutheranism and Calvinism. + § 155. Anglicanism and Puritanism. + II. The Roman Catholic Church. + § 156. The Papacy, Monkery, and Foreign Missions. + § 157. Quietism and Jansenism. + § 158. Science and Art in the Catholic Church. + III. The Lutheran Church. + § 159. Orthodoxy and its Battles. + § 160. The Religious Life. + IV. The Reformed Church. + § 161. Theology and its Battles. + § 162. The Religious Life. + V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties. + § 163. Sects and Fanatics. + § 164. Philosophers and Freethinkers. +Third Section. Church History Of The Eighteenth Century. + I. The Catholic Church in East and West. + § 165. The Roman Catholic Church. + § 166. The Oriental Churches. + II. The Protestant Churches. + § 167. The Lutheran Church before "the Illumination." + § 168. The Church of the Moravian Brethren. + § 169. The Reformed Church before the "Illumination." + § 170. New Sects and Fanatics. + § 171. Religion, Theology, and Literature of the "Illumination." + § 172. Church Life in the Period of the "Illumination." +Fourth Section. Church History Of The Nineteenth Century. + I. General and Introductory. + § 173. Survey of Religious Movements of Nineteenth Century. + § 174. Nineteenth Century Culture in Relation to Christianity and + the Church. + § 175. Intercourse and Negotiations between the Churches. + II. Protestantism in General. + § 176. Rationalism and Pietism + § 177. Evangelical Union and Lutheran Separation. + § 178. Evangelical Confederation. + § 179. Lutheranism, Melanchthonianism, and Calvinism. + § 180. The "Protestantenverein." + § 181. Disputes about Forms of Worship. + § 182. Protestant Theology in Germany. + § 183. Home Missions. + § 184. Foreign Missions. + III. Catholicism in General. + § 185. The Papacy and the States of the Church. + § 186. Various Orders and Associations. + § 187. Liberal Catholic Movements. + § 188. Catholic Ultramontanism. + § 189. The Vatican Council. + § 190. The Old Catholics. + § 191. Catholic Theology, especially in Germany. + IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States. + § 192. The German Confederation. + § 193. Prussia. + § 194. The North German smaller States. + § 195. Bavaria. + § 196. The South German Smaller States and Rhenish Alsace and + Lorraine. + § 197. The so-called Kulturkampf in the German Empire. + § 198. Austria-Hungary. + § 199. Switzerland. + § 200. Holland and Belgium. + § 201. The Scandinavian Countries. + § 202. Great Britain and Ireland. + § 203. France. + § 204. Italy. + § 205. Spain and Portugal. + § 206. Russia. + § 207. Greece and Turkey. + § 208. The United States of America. + § 209. The Roman Catholic States of South America. + V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity. + § 210. Sectarians and Enthusiasts in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox + Russian Domains. + § 211. Sectaries and Enthusiasts in the Protestant Domain. + § 212. Antichristian Socialism and Communism. +Chronological Tables. +Index. +Footnotes + + + + + + +SECOND SECTION. CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + + + +I. Relations between the Different Churches. + + + +§ 152. East and West. + + +The papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern +church, but with at most only transient success. Still more illusory were +the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard to the +Calvinizing of the Greek church. + +1. _Roman Catholic Hopes._--The Jesuit missions among the Turks and +schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssinians some progress was +made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit Paez succeeded, in A.D. 1621, +in inducing the Sultan Segued to abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was +made Abyssinian patriarch by Urban VIII. in A.D. 1626, but the clergy and +people repeatedly rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In A.D. 1642 the +next sultan drove the Jesuits out of his kingdom, and in it henceforth no +traces of Catholicism were to be found.--In Russia the false Demetrius, in +A.D. 1605, working in Polish Catholic interests, sought to catholicize the +empire; but this only convinced the Russians that he was no true czar's +son. When his Catholic Polish bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot +ensued, in which Demetrius lost his life.(1) + +2. _Calvinistic Hopes._--_Cyril Lucar_, a native of Crete, then under +Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come to entertain a strong +liking to the Reformed church. Expelled from his situation as rector of a +Greek seminary at Ostrog by Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of +Alexandria in A.D. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained +a regular correspondence with Reformed divines in Holland, Switzerland, +and England. In A.D. 1628 he sent the famous Codex Alexandrinus as a +present to James I. He wrought expressly for a union of the Greek and +Reformed churches, and for this end sent, in A.D. 1629, to Geneva an +almost purely Calvinistic confession. But the other Greek bishops opposed +his union schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused him +of political faults. Four times the sultan deposed and banished him, and +at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as a traitor and cast into the +sea.--One of his Alexandrian clergy, Metrophanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. +1616 he had sent for his education to England, studied several years at +Oxford, then at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, +where, in A.D. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith of the +Greek Orthodox Church. It was pointedly antagonistic to the Romish +doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, while abandoning nothing +essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and showing signs of the possession +of independent speculative power. Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch +of Alexandria, and in the synod, presided over by Lucar's successor, Cyril +of Berrhoe, at Constantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal +condemnation of the man who had been already executed.(2) + +3. _Orthodox Constancy._--The Russian Orthodox church, after its +emancipation from Constantinople and the erection of an independent +patriarchate at Moscow in A.D. 1589 (§ 73, 4), had decidedly the +pre-eminence over the Greek Orthodox church, and the Russian czar took the +place formerly occupied by the East Roman emperor as protector of the +whole Orthodox church. The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by +schemes of union with Catholics and Protestants induced the learned +metropolitan, Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to compose a new confession in +catechetical form, which, in A.D. 1643, was formally authorized by the +Orthodox patriarchs as {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Thirty years later a controversy on the +eucharist broke out between the Jansenists Nicole and Arnauld, on the one +side, and the Calvinists Claude and Jurieu, on the other (§ 157, 1), in +which both claimed to be in agreement with the Greek church. A synod was +convened under _Dositheus of Jerusalem_ in A.D. 1672, at the instigation +of French diplomatists, where the questions raised by Cyril were again +taken into consideration. Maintaining a friendly attitude toward the +Romish church, it directed a violent polemic against Calvinism. In order +to save the character of the Constantinopolitan chair for constant +Orthodoxy, Cyril's confession of A.D. 1629 was pronounced a spurious, +heretical invention, and a confession composed by Dositheus, in which +Cyril's Calvinistic heresies were repudiated, was incorporated with the +synod's acts. + + + +§ 153. Catholicism and Protestantism. + + +The Jesuit counter-reformation (§ 151) was eminently successful during the +first decades of the century in Bohemia. The Westphalian Peace restrained +its violence, but did not prevent secret machinations and the open +exercise of all conceivable arts of seduction. Next to the conversion of +Bohemia, the greatest triumph of the restoration was won in France in the +Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Besides such victories the Catholics +were able to glory in the conversion of several Protestant princes. New +endeavours at union were repeatedly made, but these in every case proved +as fruitless as former attempts had done. + +1. _Conversions of Protestant Princes._--The first reigning prince who +became a convert to Romanism was the Margrave _James III. of Baden_. He +went over in A.D. 1590 (§ 144, 4), but as his death occurred soon after, +his conduct had little influence upon his people. Of greater consequence +was the conversion, in A.D. 1614, of the Count-palatine Wolfgang William +of Neuburg, as it prepared the way for the catholicizing of the whole +Palatinate, which followed in A.D. 1685. Much was made of the passing over +to the Catholic church of _Christina of Sweden_, the highly gifted but +eccentric daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. As she had resigned the crown, +the pope gained no political advantage from his new member, and Alexander +VII. had even to contribute to her support. The Elector of Saxony, +_Frederick Augustus II._, passed over to the Roman Catholic church in A.D. +1697, in order to qualify himself for the Polish crown; but the rights of +his Protestant subjects were carefully guarded. An awkwardness arose from +the fact that the prince was pledged by the directory of the Regensburg +Diet of A.D. 1653 to care for the interests of the evangelical church. Now +that he had become a Catholic, he still formally promised to do so, but +had his duties discharged by a commissioner. Subsequently this officer was +ordered to take his directions from the evangelical council of Dresden. + +2. _The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring States (§ 151, +1)._--Matthias having, in violation of the royal letter of his predecessor +Rudolph II. (§ 139, 19), refused to allow the Protestants of Bohemia to +build churches, was driven out; the Jesuits also were expelled, and the +Calvinistic Elector-palatine Frederick V. was chosen as prince in A.D. +1619. Ferdinand II. (A.D. 1619-1637) defeated him, tore up the royal +letter, restored the Jesuits, and expelled the Protestant pastors. Efforts +were made by Christian IV. of Denmark and other Protestant princes to save +Protestantism, but without success. Ferdinand now issued his _Restitution +Edict_ of A.D. 1629, which deprived Protestants of their privileges, and +gave to Catholic nobles unrestricted liberty to suppress the evangelical +faith in their dominions. It was then that Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in +religious not less than political interests, made his appearance as the +saviour of Protestantism.(3) The unhappy war was brought to an end in A.D. +1648 by the publication at Muenster and Osnabrueck of the _Peace of +Westphalia_, which Innocent X. in his bull "_Zelo Domus Dei_" of A.D. 1651 +pronounced "null and void, without influence on past, present, and +future." Germany lost several noble provinces, but its intellectual and +religious freedom was saved. Under Swedish and French guarantee the +Augsburg Religious Peace was confirmed and even extended to the Reformed, +as related to the Augsburg Confession. The church property was to be +restored on January 1st, A.D. 1624. The political equality of Protestants +and Catholics throughout Germany was distinctly secured. In _Bohemia_, +however, Protestantism was thoroughly extirpated, and in the other +Austrian states the oppression continued down to the time of Joseph II. In +_Silesia_, from the passing of the Restitution Edict, over a thousand +churches had been violently taken from the evangelicals. No compensation +was now thought of, but rather the persecution continued throughout the +whole century (§ 165, 4), and many thousands were compelled to migrate, +for the most part to Upper Lusatia. + +3. Also in _Livonia_, from A.D. 1561 under Polish rule, the Jesuits gained +a footing and began the restoration, but under Gustavus Adolphus from A.D. +1621 their machinations were brought to an end.--The ruthless _Valteline +Massacre_ of A.D. 1620 may be described as a Swiss St. Bartholomew on a +small scale. All Protestants were murdered in one day. The conspirators at +a signal from the clock tower in the early morning broke into the houses +of heretics, and put all to death, down to the very babe in the cradle. +Between four and five hundred were slaughtered.--In _Hungary_, at the close +of the preceding century only three noble families remained Catholic, and +the Protestant churches numbered 2,000; but the Jesuits, who had settled +there under the protection of Rudolph II. in 1579, resumed their +intrigues, and the Archbishop of Gran, Pazmany, wrought hard for the +restoration of Catholicism. Rakoczy of Transylvania, in the Treaty of Linz +of A.D. 1645, concluded a league offensive and defensive with Sweden and +France, which secured political and religious liberty for Hungary; but of +the 400 churches of which the Protestants had been robbed only ninety were +given back. The bigoted Leopold I., from A.D. 1655 king of Hungary, +inaugurated a yet more severe persecution, which continued until the +publication of the Toleration Edict of Joseph II. in A.D. 1781. The 2,000 +Protestant congregations were by this time reduced to 105. + +4. _The Huguenots in France (§ 139, 17)._--Henry IV. faithfully fulfilled +the promises which he made in the Edict of Nantes; but under Louis XIII., +A.D. 1610-1643, the oppressions of the Huguenots were renewed, and led to +fresh outbreaks. Richelieu withdrew their political privileges, but +granted them religious toleration in the Edict of Nismes, A.D. 1629. Louis +XIV., A.D. 1643-1715, at the instigation of his confessors, sought to +atone for his sins by purging his land of heretics. When bribery and court +favour had done all that they could do in the way of conversions, the +fearful dragonnades began, A.D. 1681. The formal _Revocation of the Edict +of Nantes_ followed in A.D. 1685, and persecution raged with the utmost +violence. Thousands of churches were torn down, vast numbers of confessors +were tortured, burnt, or sent to the galleys. In spite of the terrible +penal laws against emigrating, in spite of the watch kept over the +frontiers, hundreds of thousands escaped, and were received with open arms +as _refugees_ in Brandenburg, Holland, England, Denmark, and Switzerland. +Many fled into the wilds of the Cevennes, where under the name of +Camisards they maintained a heroic conflict for years, until at last +exterminated by an army at least ten times their strength. The struggle +reached the utmost intensity of bitterness on both sides in A.D. 1702, +when the fanatical and inhumanly cruel inquisitor, the Abbe du Chaila, was +slain. At the head of the Camisard army was a young peasant, Jean +Cavalier, who by his energetic and skilful conduct of the campaign +astonished the world. At last the famous Marshal Villars, by promising a +general amnesty, release of all prisoners, permission to emigrate with +possessions, and religious toleration to those who remained, succeeded in +persuading Cavalier to lay down his arms. The king ratified this bargain, +only refusing the right of religious freedom. Many, however, submitted; +while others emigrated, mostly to England. Cavalier entered the king's +service as colonel; but distrusting the arrangements fled to Holland, and +afterwards to England, where in A.D. 1740 he died as governor of Jersey. +In A.D. 1707 a new outbreak took place, accompanied by prophetic +fanaticism, in consequence of repeated dragonnades, but it was put down by +the stake, the gallows, the axe, and the wheel. France had lost half a +million of her most pious, industrious, and capable inhabitants, and yet +two millions of Huguenots deprived of all their rights remained in the +land.(4) + +5. _The Waldensians in Piedmont (§ 139, 25)._--Although in A.D. 1654 the +Duke of Savoy confirmed to the Waldensians their privileges, by Easter of +the following year a bloody persecution broke out, in which a Piedmontese +army, together with a horde of released prisoners and Irish refugees, +driven from their native land by Cromwell's severities, to whom the duke +had given shelter in the valleys, perpetrated the most horrible cruelties. +Yet in the desperate conflict the Waldensians held their ground. The +intervention of the Protestant Swiss cantons won for them again a measure +of toleration, and liberal gifts from abroad compensated them for their +loss of property. Cromwell too sent to the relief of the sufferers the +celebrated Lord Morland in A.D. 1658. While in the valleys he got +possession of a number of MSS. (§ 108, 11), which he took home with him +and deposited in the Cambridge Library. In A.D. 1685 the persecution and +civil war were again renewed at the instigation of Louis XIV. The soldiers +besieged the valleys, and more than 14,000 captives were consigned to +fortresses and prisons. But the rest of the Waldensians plucked up +courage, inflicted many defeats upon their enemy, and so moved the +government in A.D. 1686 to release the prisoners and send them out of the +country. Some found their way to Germany, others fled to Switzerland. +These last, aided by Swiss troops, and led by their own pastor, Henry +Arnaud, made an attack upon Piedmont in A.D. 1689, and conquered again +their own country. They continued in possession, notwithstanding all +attempts to dislodge them. + +6. _The Catholics in England and Ireland._--When James I., A.D. 1603-1625, +the son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne (§ 139, 11), the +Catholics expected from him nothing short of the complete restoration of +the old religion. But great as James' inclination towards Catholicism may +have been, his love of despotic authority was still greater. He therefore +rigorously suppressed the Jesuits, who disputed the royal supremacy over +the church; and the bitterness of the Catholics now reached its height. +They organized the so-called _Gunpowder Plot_, with the intention of +blowing up the royal family and the whole Parliament at the first meeting +of the house. At the head of the conspiracy stood Rob. Catesby, Thomas +Percy of Northumberland, and Guy Fawkes, an English officer in the Spanish +service. The plan was discovered shortly before the day appointed for its +execution. On November 5th, A.D. 1605, Fawkes, with lantern and matches, +was seized in the cellar. The rest of the conspirators fled, but, after a +desperate struggle, in which Catesby and Percy fell, were arrested, and, +together with two Jesuit accomplices, executed as traitors. Great +severities were then exercised toward the Catholics, not only in England, +but also in Ireland, where the bulk of the population was attached to the +Romish faith. James I. completed the transference of ecclesiastical +property to the Anglican church, and robbed the Irish nobles of almost all +their estates, and gifted them over to Scottish and English favourites. +All Catholics, because they refused to take the oath of supremacy, _i.e._ +to recognise the king as head of the church, were declared ineligible for +any civil office. These oppressions at last led to the fearful _Irish +massacre_. In October, A.D. 1641, a desperate outbreak of the Catholics +took place throughout the country. It aimed at the destruction of all +Protestants in Ireland. The conspirators rushed from all sides into the +houses of the Protestants, murdered the inhabitants, and drove them naked +and helpless from their homes. Many thousands died on the roadside of +hunger and cold. In other places they were driven in crowds into the +rivers and drowned, or into empty houses, which were burnt over them. The +number of those who suffered is variously estimated from 40,000 to +400,000. Charles I., A.D. 1625-1649, was suspected as instigator of this +terrible deed, and it may be regarded as his first step toward the +scaffold (§ 155, 1). After the execution of Charles, Oliver Cromwell, in +A.D. 1649, at the call of Parliament, took fearful revenge for the Irish +crime. In the two cities which he took by storm he had all the citizens +cut down without distinction. Panic-stricken, the inhabitants of the other +cities fled to the bogs. Within nine months the whole island was +reconquered. Hundreds of thousands, driven from their native soil, +wandered as homeless fugitives, and their lands were divided among English +soldiers and settlers. During the time of the English Commonwealth, A.D. +1649-1660, all moderate men, even those who had formerly demanded +religious toleration, not only for all Christian sects, but also for Jews +and Mohammedans, and even atheists, were now at one in excluding Catholics +from its benefit, because they all saw in the Catholics a party ready at +any moment to prove traitors to their country at the bidding of a foreign +sovereign.--The Restoration under Charles II. could not greatly ameliorate +the calamities of the Irish. Religious persecution indeed ceased, but the +property taken from the Catholic church and native owners still remained +in the hands of the Anglican church and the Protestant occupiers. To +counterbalance the Catholic proclivities of Charles II. (§ 155, 3), the +English Parliament of A.D. 1673 passed the _Test Act_, which required +every civil and military officer to take the test oaths, condemning +transubstantiation and the worship of the saints, and to receive the +communion according to the Anglican rite as members of the State church. +The statements of a certain Titus Oates, that the Jesuits had organized a +plot for murdering the king and restoring the papacy, led to fearful riots +in A.D. 1678 and many executions. But the reports were seemingly +unfounded, and were probably the fruit of an intrigue to deprive the +king's Catholic brother, James II., of the right of succession. When James +ascended the throne, in A.D. 1685, he immediately entered into +negotiations with Rome, and filled almost all offices with Catholics. At +the invitation of the Protestants, the king's son-in-law, William III. of +Orange, landed in England in A.D. 1688, and on James' flight was declared +king by the Parliament. The Act of Toleration, issued by him in A.D. 1689, +still withheld from Papists the privileges now extended to Protestant +dissenters (§ 155, 3).(5) + +7. _Union Efforts._--(1) Although _Hugo Grotius_ distinctly took the side +of the Remonstrants (§ 160, 2), his whole disposition was essentially +irenical. He attempted, but in vain, not only the reconciliation of the +Arminians and Calvinists, but also the union of all Protestant sects on a +common basis. Toward Catholicism he long maintained a decidedly hostile +attitude. But through intimate intercourse with distinguished Catholics, +especially during his exile in France, his feelings were completely +changed. He now invariably expressed himself more favourably in regard to +the faith and the institutions of the Catholic church. Its +semi-Pelagianism was acceptable to him as a decided Arminian. In his +"_Votum pro Pace_" he recommended as the only possible way to restore +ecclesiastical union, a return to Catholicism, on the understanding that a +thorough reform should be made. But that he was himself ready to pass +over, and was hindered only by his sudden death in A.D. 1645, is merely an +illusion of Romish imagination.(6)--(2) King Wladislaus IV. of Poland +thought a union of Protestants and Catholics in his dominions not +impossible, and with this end in view arranged the _Religious Conference +of Thorn_ in A.D. 1645. Prussia and Brandenburg were also invited to take +part in it. The elector sent his court preacher, John Berg, and asked from +the Duke of Brunswick the assistance of the Helmstadt theologian, George +Calixt. The chief representatives of the Lutheran side were Abraham Calov, +of Danzig, and John Huelsemann, of Wittenberg. That Calixt, a Lutheran, +took the part of the Reformed, intensified the bitterness of the Lutherans +at the outset. The result was to increase the split on all sides. The +Reformed set forth their opinions in the "_Declaratio Thorunensis_," which +in Brandenburg obtained symbolical rank.--(3) _J. B. Bossuet_, who died in +A.D. 1704, Bishop of Meaux, used all his eloquence to prepare a way for +the return of Protestants to the church in which alone is salvation. In +several treatises he gave an idealized exposition of the Catholic +doctrine, glossed over what was most offensive to Protestants, and sought +by subtlety and sophistry to represent the Protestant system as +contradictory and untenable.(7) During the same period the Spaniard +_Spinola_, Bishop of Neustadt, who had come into the country as father +confessor of the empress, proposed a scheme of union at the imperial +court. The controverted points were to be decided at a free council, but +the primacy of the pope and the hierarchical system, as founded _jure +humano_, were to be retained. In prosecuting his scheme, with the secret +support of Leopold I., Spinola, between A.D. 1676 and 1691, travelled +through all Protestant Germany. He found most success, out of respect for +the emperor, in Hanover, where the Abbot of Loccum, Molanus, zealously +advocated the proposed union, in which on the Catholic side Bossuet, on +the Protestant side the great philosopher _Leibnitz_, took part. But the +negotiations ended in no practical result. That Leibnitz had himself been +already secretly inclined to Catholicism, some think to have proved by a +manuscript, found after his death, entitled in another's hand, "_Systema +Theologicum Leibnitii_." Favourably disposed as Leibnitz was to +investigate and recognise what was profound and true even in Catholicism, +so that he reached the conviction that neither of the two churches had +given perfect and adequate expression to Christian truth, he has +apparently sought in this work to make clear to himself what and how much +of specifically Catholic doctrines were justifiable, and to sketch out a +system of doctrine occupying a place superior to both confessions. In this +treatise many doctrines are expressed in a manner quite divergent from +that of the Tridentine creed, while several expressions show how clearly +he perceived the contradiction between his own Protestant faith and the +Romish system, amid all his attempts to effect a reconciliation. + +8. _The Lehnin Prophecy._--The hope entertained, about the end of the +seventeenth century, by Catholics throughout Germany of the speedy +restoration of the mother church was expressed in the so called +_Vaticinium Lehninense_. Professedly composed in the thirteenth century by +a monk called Hermann, of the cloister of Lehnin in Brandenburg, it +characterized with historical accuracy in 100 Leonine verses the +Brandenburg princes down to Frederick III., of whose coronation in A.D. +1701 it is ignorant, and after this proceeds in a purely fanciful and +arbitrary manner. From Joachim II., who openly joined the Reformation, it +enumerates eleven members, so that the history is just brought down to +Frederick William III. With the eleventh the Hohenzollern dynasty ends, +Germany is united, the Catholic church restored, and Lehnin raised again +to its ancient glory. Under Frederick William IV., the Catholics +diligently sought to prove the genuineness of the prophecy, and by +arbitrary methods to extend it so as to include this prince. Lately "the +deadly sin of Israel" spoken of in it has been pointed to as a prophecy of +the _Kulturkampf_ of our own day (§ 197). The first certain trace of the +poem is in A.D. 1693. Hilgenfeld thinks that its author was a fanatical +pervert, Andr. Fromm, who was previously a Protestant pastor in Berlin, +and died in A.D. 1685 as canon of Leitmeritz, in Bohemia. + + + +§ 154. Lutheranism and Calvinism. + + +The Reformed church made its way into the heart of Lutheran Germany (§ +144) by the Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, and by the adherence of +the electoral house of Brandenburg. Renewed attempts to unite the two +churches were equally fruitless with the endeavours after a +Catholic-Protestant union. + +1. _Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, _A.D._ 1605-1646._--Philip the +Magnanimous, died 1567, left to his eldest son, William IV., one half of +his territories, comprising Lower Hesse and Schmalcald, with residence at +Cassel; to Louis IV. a fourth part, _viz._ Upper Hesse, with residence at +Marburg; while his two youngest sons, Philip and George, were made counts, +with their residence at Darmstadt. Philip died in 1583 and Louis in 1604, +both childless; in consequence of which the greater part of Philip's +territory and the northern half of Upper Hesse with Marburg fell to +Hesse-Cassel, and the southern half with Giessen to +Hesse-Darmstadt.--Landgrave _William IV._ of Hesse-Cassel sympathised with +his father's union and levelling tendencies, and by means of general +synods wrought eagerly to secure acceptance for them throughout Hesse by +setting aside the _ubiquitous_ Christology (§ 142, 9) and the Formula of +Concord, while firmly maintaining the _Corpus Doctrinae Philippicum_ (§ +142, 10). The fourth and last of those general synods was held in 1582. +Further procedure was meanwhile rendered impossible by the increase of +opposition. For, on the one hand, Louis IV., under the influence of the +acute and learned but contentious AEgidius Hunnius, professor of theology +at Marburg, 1576-1592, became more and more decidedly a representative of +exclusive Lutheranism; and, on the other hand, William's Calvinizing +schemes became from day to day more reckless. His son and successor +_Maurice_ went forward more energetically along the same lines as his +father, especially after the death of his uncle Louis in 1604, who +bequeathed to him the Marburg part of his territories. These had been +given him on condition that he should hold by the confession and its +apology as guaranteed by Charles V. in 1530. But in 1605 he forbad the +Marburg theologians to set forth the ubiquity theology; and when they +protested, issued a formal prohibition of the dogma with its +presuppositions and consequences, and insisted on the introduction of the +Reformed numbering of the commandments of the decalogue, and the breaking +of bread at the communion, and the removal of the remaining images from +the churches (§ 144, 2). The theologians again protested, and were +deprived of their offices. The result was the outbreak of a popular tumult +at Marburg, which Maurice suppressed by calling in the military. When in +several places in Upper and even in Lower Hesse opposition was persisted +in, and the resisting clergy could not be won over either by persuasion +and threatening or by persecution, Maurice in 1607 convened consultative +diocesan synods at Cassel, Eschwege, Marburg, St. Goar, and soon after a +general synod at Cassel, which, giving expression on all points to the +will of the landgrave, drew up, besides a new hymnbook and catechism, a +new "Christian and correct confession of faith," by which they openly and +decidedly declared their attachment to the Reformed church. Soon Hesse +accepted these conclusions, but not the rest of the state, where the +opposition of the nobles, clergy, and people, in spite of all attempts to +enforce this acceptance by military power, imprisonment, and deposition, +could not be altogether overcome.--Meanwhile George's son and successor, +_Louis V._, 1596-1626, had been eagerly seeking to make capital of those +troubles in his cousin's domains in favour of the Darmstadt dynasty. He +gave his protection to the professors expelled from Marburg in 1605, +founded in 1607 a Lutheran university at Giessen, and made accusations +against his cousin before the imperial supreme court, which in 1623, on +the basis of the will of Louis IV. and the Religious Peace of Augsburg (§ +137, 5), declared the inheritance forfeited, and entrusted the electors of +Cologne and Saxony with the execution of the sentence. These in +conjunction with the troops of the league under Tilly attacked Upper and +Lower Hesse; the Lutheran University of Giessen was transferred to +Marburg, and Upper Hesse, after the banishment of the Reformed pastors, +went over wholly to the Lutheran confession. Maurice, completely broken +down, resigned in favour of his son _William V._, who was obliged to make +an agreement, according to which he made over Upper Hesse, Schmalcald, and +Katzenelnbogen to _George II._ of Hesse-Darmstadt, the successor of Louis +V. In consequence of his attachment to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty +Years' War the ban of the empire was pronounced upon William. He died in +1637. His widow, _Amalie Elizabeth_, undertook the government on behalf of +her young son William VI., and in 1646, after repeated victories over +George's troops, made a new agreement with him, by which the territories +taken away in 1627 were restored to Hesse-Cassel, under a guarantee, +however, that the _status quo_ in matters of religion should be preserved, +and that they should continue predominantly Lutheran. The university +property was divided; Giessen obtained a Lutheran, Marburg a Reformed +institution, and Lower Hesse received a moderately but yet essentially +Reformed ecclesiastical constitution. + +2. _Calvinizing of Lippe, _A.D._ 1602._--Count Simon VI. of Lippe, in his +eventful life, was brought into close relations with the Reformed +Netherlands and with Maurice of Hesse. His dominions were thoroughly +Lutheran, but from A.D. 1602 Calvinism was gradually introduced under the +patronage of the prince. The chief promoter of this innovation was +Dreckmeyer, chosen general superintendent in A.D. 1599. At a visitation of +churches in A.D. 1602, the festivals of Mary and the apostles, exorcism, +the sign of the cross, the host, burning candles, and Luther's catechism +were rejected. Opposing pastors were deposed, and Calvinists put in their +place. The city Lemgo stood out longest, and persevered in its adherence +to the Lutheran confession during an eleven years' struggle with its +prince, from A.D. 1606 to 1617. After the death of Simon VI., his +successor, Simon VII., allowed the city the free exercise of its Lutheran +religion. + +3. _The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, _A.D._ 1613._--John +Sigismund, A.D. 1608-1619, had promised his grandfather, John George, to +maintain his connexion with the Lutheran church. But his own inclination, +which was strengthened by his son's marriage with a princess of the +Palatinate, and his connexion with the Netherlands, made him forget his +promise. Also his court preacher, the crypto-Calvinist Solomon Fink, +contributed to the same result. On Christmas Day, A.D. 1613, he went over +to the Reformed church. In order to share in the Augsburg Peace, he still +retained the Augsburg Confession, naturally in the form known as the +_Variata_. In A.D. 1624, he issued a Calvinist confession of his own, the +_Confessio Sigismundi_ or _Marchica_, which sought to reconcile the +universality of grace with the particularity of election (§ 168, 1). His +people, however, did not follow the prince, not even his consort, Anne of +Prussia. The court preacher, Gedicke, who would not retract his invectives +against the prince and the Reformed confession, was obliged to flee from +Berlin, as also another preacher, Mart. Willich. But when altars, images, +and baptismal fonts were thrown out of the Berlin churches, a tumult +arose, in A.D. 1615, which was not suppressed without bloodshed. In the +following year the elector forbade the teaching of the _communicatio +idiomatum_ and the _ubiquitas corporis_ (§ 141, 9) at the University of +Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In A.D. 1614, owing to the publication of a keen +controversial treatise of Hutter (§ 158, 5) he forbade any of his subjects +going to the University of Wittenberg, and soon afterwards struck out the +Formula of Concord from the collection of the symbolical books of the +Lutheran church of his realm.--Continuation, § 169, 1. + +4. _Union Attempts._--Hoe von Hoenegg, of an old Austrian family, was from +A.D. 1612 chief court preacher at Dresden, and as spiritual adviser of the +elector, John George, on the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, got +Lutheran Saxony to take the side of the Catholic emperor against the +Calvinist Frederick V. of the Palatinate, elected king of Bohemia. In A.D. +1621, he had proved that "on ninety-nine points the Calvinists were in +accord with the Arians and the Turks." At the Religious Conference of +Leipzig of A.D. 1631 a compromise was accepted on both sides; but no +practical result was secured. The Religious Conference of Cassel, in A.D. +1661, was a well meant endeavour by some Marburg Reformed theologians and +Lutherans of the school of Calixt (§ 158, 2); but owing to the agitation +caused by the Synergist controversy, no important advance toward union +could be accomplished. The union efforts of Duke William of Brandenburg, +A.D. 1640-1688, were opposed by Paul Gerhardt, preacher in the church of +St. Nicholas in Berlin. On refusing to abstain from attacks on the +Reformed doctrine he was deposed from his office. He was soon appointed +pastor at Luebben in Lusatia, where he died in A.D. 1676.--The most zealous +apostle of universal Protestant union, embracing even the Anglican church, +was the Scottish Presbyterian John Durie. From A.D. 1628 when he +officiated as pastor of an English colony at Elbing, till his death at +Cassel in A.D. 1640, he devoted his energies unweariedly to this one task. +He repeatedly travelled through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, and the +Netherlands, formed acquaintance with clerical and civil authorities, had +intercourse with them by word and letter, published a multitude of tracts +on this subject; but at last could only look back with bitter complaints +over the lost labours of a lifetime.(8)--Continuation, § 169, 1. + + + +§ 155. Anglicanism and Puritanism.(9) + + +On the outbreak of the English Revolution, occasioned by the despotism of +the first two Stuarts, crowds of Puritan exiles returned from Holland and +North America to their old home. They powerfully strengthened their secret +sympathisers in their successful struggle against the episcopacy of the +State church (§ 131, 6); but, breaking up into rival parties, as +Presbyterians and Independents (§ 143, 3, 4), gave way to fanatical +extravagances. The victorious party of Independents also split into two +divisions: the one, after the old Dutch style, simple and strict believers +in Scripture; the other, first in Cromwell's army, fanatical enthusiasts +and visionary saints (§ 161, 1). The Restoration, under the last two +Stuarts, sought to re-introduce Catholicism. It was William of Orange, by +his Act of Toleration of A.D. 1689, who first brought to a close the +Reformation struggles within the Anglican church. It guaranteed, indeed, +all the pre-eminent privileges of an establishment to the Anglican and +Episcopal church, but also granted toleration to dissenters, while +refusing it to Catholics. + +1. _The First Two Stuarts._--_James I._, dominated by the idea of the royal +supremacy, and so estranged from the Presbyterianism in which he was +brought up (§ 139, 11), as king of England, A.D. 1603-1625, attached +himself to the national Episcopal church, persecuted the English Puritans, +so that many of them again fled to Holland (§ 143, 4), and forced +Episcopacy upon the Scotch. _Charles I._, A.D. 1625-1649, went beyond his +father in theory and practice, and thus incurred the hatred of his +Protestant subjects. William Laud, from A.D. 1633 Archbishop of +Canterbury, was the recklessly zealous promoter of his despotic ideas, +representing the Episcopacy, by reason of its Divine institution and +apostolic succession, as the foundation of the church and the pillar of an +absolute monarchy. Laud used his position as primate to secure the +introduction of his own theory into the public church services, among +other things making the communion office an imitation as near as possible +of the Romish mass. But when he attempted to force upon the Scotch such +"Baal-worship" by the command of the king, they formed a league in A.D. +1638 for the defence of Presbyterianism, the so called Great Covenant, and +emphasised their demand by sending an army into England. The king, who had +ruled for eleven years without a Parliament, was obliged now to call +together the representatives of the people. Scarcely had the Long +Parliament, A.D. 1640-1653, in which the Puritan element was supreme, +pacified the Scotch, than oil was anew poured on the flames by the Irish +massacre of A.D. 1641 (§ 153, 6). The Lower House, in spite of the +persistent opposition of the court, resolved on excluding the bishops from +the Upper House and formally abolishing Episcopacy; and in A.D. 1643, +summoned the Westminster Assembly to remodel the organization of the +English church, at which Scotch representatives were to have a seat. After +long and violent debates with an Independent minority, till A.D. 1648, the +Assembly drew up a Presbyterian constitution with a Puritan service, and +in the Westminster Confession a strictly Calvinistic creed. But only in +Scotland were these decisions heartily accepted. In England, +notwithstanding their confirmation by the Parliament, they received only +partial and occasional acceptance, owing to the prevalence of Independent +opinions among the people.--Since A.D. 1642, the tension between court and +Parliament had brought about the Civil War between Cavaliers and +Roundheads. In A.D. 1645, the royal troops were cut to pieces at Naseby by +the parliamentary army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The king fled to the +Scotch, by whom he was surrendered to the English Parliament in A.D. 1647. +But when now the fanatical Independents, who formed a majority in the +army, began to terrorise the Parliament, it opened negotiations for peace +with the king. He was now ready to make almost any sacrifice, only on +religious and conscientious grounds he could not agree to the +unconditional abandonment of Episcopacy. Even the Scotch, whose +Presbyterianism was now threatened by the Independents, as before it had +been by the Episcopalians, longed for the restoration of royalty, and to +aid in this sent an army into England in A.D. 1648. But they were defeated +by Cromwell, who then dismissed the Parliament and had all its +Presbyterian members either imprisoned or driven into retirement. The +Independent remnant, known as the Rump Parliament, A.D. 1648-1653, tried +the king for high treason and sentenced him to death. On January 30th, +A.D. 1649, he mounted the scaffold, on which Archbishop Laud had preceded +him in A.D. 1645, and fell under the executioner's axe.(10) + +2. _The Commonwealth and the Protector._--Ireland had never yet atoned for +its crime of A.D. 1641 (§ 153, 6), and as it refused to acknowledge the +Commonwealth, Cromwell took terrible revenge in A.D. 1649. In A.D. 1650 at +Dunbar, and in A.D. 1651 at Worcester, he completely destroyed the army of +the Scots, who had crowned Charles II., son of the executed king, drove +out, in April A.D. 1653, the Rump of the Long Parliament, which had come +to regard itself as a permanent institution, and in July opened, with a +powerful speech, two hours in length, on God's ways and judgments, the +Short or Barebones' Parliament, composed of "pious and God-fearing men" +selected by himself. In this new Parliament which, with prayer and +psalm-singing, wrought hard at the re-organization of the executive, the +bench, and the church, the two parties of Independents were represented, +the fanatical enthusiasts indeed predominating, and so victorious in all +matters of debate. To this party Cromwell himself belonged. His attachment +to it, however, was considerably cooled in consequence of the excesses of +the Levellers (§ 161, 2), and the fantastic policy of the parliamentarian +Saints disgusted him more and more. When therefore, on December 12th, A.D. +1653, after five months' fruitless opposition to the radical demands of +the extravagant majority, all the most moderate members of the Parliament +had resigned their seats and returned their mandates into Cromwell's +hands, he burst in upon the psalm-singing remnant with his soldiers, and +entered upon his life-long office of the Protector of the Commonwealth +with a new constitution. He proclaimed toleration of all religious sects, +Catholics only being excepted on political grounds (§ 153, 6), giving +equal rights to Presbyterians, and offering no hindrance to the revival of +Episcopacy. He yet remained firmly attached to his early convictions. He +believed in a kingdom of the saints embracing the whole earth, and looked +on England as destined for the protection and spread of Protestantism. +Zuerich greeted him as the great Protestant champion, and he showed himself +in this _role_ in the valleys of Piedmont (§ 153, 5), in France, in +Poland, and in Silesia. He joined with all Protestant governments into a +league, offensive and defensive, against fanatical attempts of Papists to +recover their lost ground. When Spain and France sued for his alliance, he +made it a condition with the former that, besides allowing free trade with +the West Indies, it should abolish the Inquisition; and of France he +required an assurance that the rights of Huguenots should be respected. +And when in Germany a new election of emperor was to take place, he urged +the great electors that they should by no means allow the imperial throne +to continue with the Catholic house of Austria. Meanwhile his path at home +was a thorny one. He was obliged to suppress fifteen open rebellions +during five years of his reign, countless secret plots threatened his life +every day, and his bitterest foes were his former comrades in the camp of +the the saints. After refusing the crown offered him in A.D. 1657, without +being able thereby to quell the discontents of parties, he died on +September 3rd, A.D. 1658, the anniversary of his glorious victories of +Dunbar and Worcester.(11) + +3. _The Restoration and the Act of Toleration._--The Restoration of royalty +under _Charles II._, A.D. 1660-1685, began with the reinstating of the +Episcopal church in all the privileges granted to it under Elizabeth. The +Corporation Act of December, A.D. 1661, was the first of a series of +enactments for this purpose. It required of all magistrates and civil +officers that they should take an oath acknowledging the royal supremacy +and communicate in the Episcopal church. The Act of Uniformity of May, +A.D. 1662, was still more oppressive. It prohibited any clergyman entering +the English pulpit or discharging any ministerial function, unless he had +been ordained by a bishop, had signed the Thirty-nine Articles, and +undertook to conduct worship exactly in accordance with the newly revised +Book of Common Prayer. More than 2,000 Puritan ministers, who could not +conscientiously submit to those terms, were driven out of their churches. +Then in June, A.D. 1664, the Conventicle Act was renewed, enforcing +attendance at the Episcopal church, and threatening with imprisonment or +exile all found in any private religious meeting of more than five +persons. In the following year the Five Mile Act inflicted heavy fines on +all nonconformist ministers who should approach within five miles of their +former congregation or indeed of any city. All these laws, although +primarily directed against all Protestant dissenters, told equally against +the Catholics, whom the king's Catholic sympathies would willingly have +spared. When now his league with Catholic France against the Protestant +Netherlands made it necessary for him to appease his Protestant subjects, +he hoped to accomplish this and save the Catholics by his "Declaration of +Indulgence" of A.D. 1672, issued with the consent of Parliament, which +suspended all penal laws hitherto in force against dissenters. But the +Protestant nonconformists saw through this scheme, and the Parliament of +A.D. 1673 passed the anti-Catholic Test Act (§ 153, 6). Equally vain were +all later attempts to secure greater liberties and privileges to the +Catholics. They only served to develop the powers of Parliament and to +bring the Episcopalians and nonconformists more closely together. After +spending his whole life oscillating between frivolous unbelief and +Catholic superstition, Charles II., on his death-bed, formally went over +to the Romish church, and had the communion and extreme unction +administered by a Catholic priest. His brother and successor _James II._, +A.D. 1685-1688, who was from A.D. 1672 an avowed Catholic, sent a +declaration of obedience to Rome, received a papal nuncio in London, and +in the exercise of despotic power issued, in A.D. 1687, a "Declaration of +Freedom of Conscience," which, under the fair colour of universal +toleration and by the setting aside of the test oath, enabled him to fill +all civil and military offices with Catholics. This act proved equally +oppressive to the Episcopalians and to Protestant dissenters. This +intrigue cost him his throne. He had, as he himself said, staked three +kingdoms on a mass, and lost all the three. _William III._ of Orange, A.D. +1689-1702, grandson of Charles I. and son-in-law of James II., gave a +final decision to the rights of the national Episcopal church and the +position of dissenters in the _Act of Toleration_ of A.D. 1689, which he +passed with consent of the Parliament. All penal laws against the latter +were abrogated, and religious liberty was extended to all with the +exception of Catholics and Socinians. The retention of the Corporation and +Test Acts, however, still excluded them from the exercise of all political +rights. They were also still obliged to pay tithes and other church dues +to the Episcopal clergy of their dioceses, and their marriages and +baptisms had to be administered in the parish churches. Their ministers +were also obliged to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, with reservation +of those points opposed to their principles. The Act of Union of A.D. +1707, passed under Queen Anne, a daughter of James II., which united +England and Scotland into the one kingdom of Great Britain, gave +legitimate sanction to a separate ecclesiastical establishment for each +country. In Scotland the Presbyterian churches continued the established +church, while the Episcopal was tolerated as a dissenting body. +Congregationalism, however, has been practically limited to England and +North America,(12)--Continuation, § 202, 5. + + + + +II. The Roman Catholic Church. + + + +§ 156. The Papacy, Monkery, and Foreign Missions. + + +Notwithstanding the regeneration of papal Catholicism since the middle of +the sixteenth century, Hildebrand's politico-theocratic ideal was not +realized. Even Catholic princes would not be dictated to on political +matters by the vicar of Christ. The most powerful of them, France, +Austria, and Spain, during the sixteenth century, and subsequently also +Portugal, had succeeded in the claim to the right of excluding +objectionable candidates in papal elections. Ban and interdict had lost +their power. The popes, however, still clung to the idea after they had +been obliged to surrender the reality, and issued from time to time +powerless protestations against disagreeable facts of history. Several new +monkish orders were instituted during this century, mostly for teaching +the young and tending the sick, but some also expressly for the promoting +of theological science. Of all the orders, new and old, the Jesuits were +by far the most powerful. They were regarded with jealousy and suspicion +by the other orders. In respect of doctrine the Dominicans were as far +removed from them as possible within the limits of the Tridentine Creed. +But notwithstanding any such mutual jealousies, they were all animated by +one yearning desire to oppose, restrict, and, where that was possible, to +uproot Protestantism. With similar zeal they devoted themselves with +wonderful success to the work of foreign missions. + +1. _The Papacy._--_Paul V._, A.D. 1605-1621, equally energetic in his civil +and in his ecclesiastical policy, in a struggle with Venice, was obliged +to behold the powerlessness of the papal interdict. His successor, +_Gregory XV._, A.D. 1621-1623, founded the Propaganda, prescribed a secret +scrutiny in papal elections, and canonized Loyola, Xavier, and Neri. He +enriched the Vatican Library by the addition of the valuable treasures of +the Heidelberg Library, which Maximilian I. of Bavaria sent him on his +conquest of the Palatinate. _Urban VIII._, A.D. 1623-1644, increased the +Propaganda, improved the Roman "Breviary" (§ 56, 2), condemned Jansen's +_Augustinus_ (§ 156, 5), and compelled Galileo to recant. But on the other +hand, through his onesided ecclesiastical policy he was led into +sacrificing the interests of the imperial house of Austria. Not only did +he fail to give support to the emperor, but quite openly hailed Gustavus +Adolphus, the saviour of German Protestantism, as the God-sent saviour +from the Spanish-Austrian tyranny. For this he was pronounced a heretic at +the imperial court, and threatened with a second edition of the sack of +Rome (§ 132, 2). At the same time his soul was so filled with fanatical +hatred against Protestantism, that in a letter of 1631 he congratulated +the Emperor Ferdinand II. on the destruction of Magdeburg as an act most +pleasing to heaven and reflecting the highest credit upon Germany, and +expressed the hope that the glory of so great a victory should not be +restricted to the ruins of a single city. On receiving the news of the +death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 he broke out into loud jubilation, +saying that now "the serpent was slain which with its poison had sought to +destroy the whole world." His successor, _Innocent X._, A.D. 1644-1655, +though vigorously protesting against the Peace of Westphalia (§ 153, 2), +was, owing to his abject subserviency to a woman, his own sister-in-law, +reproached with the title of a new _Johanna Papissa_. _Alexander VII._, +A.D. 1655-1667, had the expensive guardianship of his godchild Christina +of Sweden (§ 153, 1), and fanned into a flame the spark kindled by his +predecessor in the Jansenist controversy (§ 156, 5), so that his +successor, _Clement IX._, A.D. 1667-1670, could only gradually extinguish +it. _Clement X._, A.D. 1670-1676, by his preference for Spain roused the +French king Louis XIV., who avenged himself by various encroachments on +the ecclesiastical administration in his dominions. _Innocent XI._, A.D. +1676-1689, was a powerful pope, zealously promoting the weal of the church +and the Papal States by introducing discipline among the clergy and +attacking the immorality that prevailed among all classes of society. He +unhesitatingly condemned sixty-five propositions from the lax Jesuit code +of morals. Against the arrogant ambassador of Louis XIV., he energetically +maintained his sovereign rights in his own domains, while he unreservedly +refused the claims of the French clergy, urged by the king on the ground +of the exceptional constitution of the Gallican church. _Alexander VIII._, +A.D. 1689-1691, continued the fight against Gallicanism, and condemned the +Jesuit distinction between theological and philosophical sin (§ 149, 10). +_Innocent XII._, A.D. 1691-1700, could boast of having secured the +complete subjugation of the Gallican clergy after a hard struggle. He too +wrought earnestly for the reform of abuses in the curia. Specially +creditable to him is the stringent bull "_Romanum decet pontificem_" +against nepotism, which extirpated the evil disease, so that it was never +again openly practised as an acknowledged right.--Continuation, § 165, 1. + +2. _The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice._--Venice was one of the first +of the Italian cities to receive the Jesuits with open arms, A.D. 1530. +But the influence obtained by them over public affairs through school and +confessional, and their vast wealth accumulated from bequests and +donations, led the government, in A.D. 1605, to forbid their receiving +legacies or erecting new cloisters. In vain did Paul V. remonstrate. He +then put Venice under an interdict. The Jesuits sought to excite the +people against the government, and for this were banished in A.D. 1606. +The pious and learned historian of the Council of Trent and adviser of the +State, Paul Sarpi, proved a vigorous supporter of civil rights against the +assumptions of the curia and the Jesuits. When in A.D. 1607 he refused a +citation of Inquisition, he was dangerously wounded by three dagger stabs, +inflicted by hired bandits, in whose stilettos he recognised the _stilum +curiae_. He died in A.D. 1623. After a ten months' vain endeavour to +enforce the interdict, the pope at last, through French mediation, +concluded a peace with the republic, without, however, being able to +obtain either the abolition of the objectionable ecclesiastico-political +laws or permission for the return of the Jesuits. Only after the republic +had been weakened through the unfortunate Turkish war of A.D. 1645 was it +found willing to submit. Even in A.D. 1653 it refused the offer of 150,000 +ducats from the Jesuit general for the Turkish campaign; but when +Alexander VII. suppressed several rich cloisters, their revenues were +thankfully accepted for this purpose. In A.D. 1657, on the pope's promise +of further pecuniary aid, the decree of banishment was withdrawn. The +Jesuit fathers now returned in crowds, and soon regained much of their +former influence and wealth. No pope has ever since issued an interdict +against any country.(13) + +3. _The Gallican Liberties._--Although _Louis XIV._ of France, A.D. +1643-1715, as a good Catholic king, powerfully supported the claims of +papal dogmatics against the Jansenists (§§ 156, 5; 164, 7), he was by no +means unfaithful to the traditional ecclesiastical polity of his house (§§ +96, 21; 110, 1, 9, 13, 14), and was often irritated to the utmost pitch by +the pope's opposition to his political interests. He rigorously insisted +upon the old customary right of the Crown to the income of certain vacant +ecclesiastical offices, the _jus regaliae_, and extended it to all +bishoprics, burdened church revenues with military pensions, confiscated +ecclesiastical property, etc. Innocent XI. energetically protested against +such exactions. The king then had an assembly of the French called +together in Paris on March 19th, A.D. 1682, which issued the famous _Four +Propositions of the Gallican Clergy_, drawn up by Bishop Bossuet of Meaux. +These set forth the fundamental rights of the French church: (1) In +secular affairs the pope has no jurisdiction over princes and kings, and +cannot release their subjects from their allegiance; (2) The spiritual +power of the pope is subject to the higher authority of the general +councils; (3) For France it is further limited by the old French +ecclesiastical laws; and, (4) Even in matters of faith the judgment of the +pope without the approval of a general assembly of the church is not +unalterable. Innocent consequently refused to institute any of the newly +appointed bishops. He was not even appeased by the Revocation of the Edict +of Nantes in A.D. 1685. He was pleased indeed, and praised the deed, and +celebrated it by a _Te Deum_, but objected to the violent measures for the +conversion of Protestants as contrary to the teaching of Christ. Then also +there arose a keen struggle against the mischievous extension of the right +of asylum on the part of foreign embassies at Rome. On the pope's +representation all the powers but France agreed to a restriction of the +custom. The pope tolerated the nuisance till the death of the French +ambassador in A.D. 1687, but then insisted on its abolition under pain of +the ban. In consequence of this Louis sent his new ambassador into Rome +with two companies of cavaliers, threw the papal nuntio in France into +prison, and laid siege to the papal state of Avignon (§ 110, 4). But +Innocent was not thus to be terrorized, and the French ambassador was +obliged, after eighteen months' vain demonstrations, to quit Rome. +Alexander VIII. repeated the condemnation of the Four Propositions, and +Innocent XIII. also stood firm. The French episcopate, on the pope's +persistent refusal to install bishops nominated by the king, was at last +constrained to submit. "Lying at the feet of his holiness," the bishops +declared that everything concluded in that assembly was null and void; and +even Louis XIV., under the influence of Madame de Maintenon (§ 157, 3), +wrote to the pope in A.D. 1693, saying that he recalled the order that the +Four Propositions should be taught in all the schools. There still, +however, survived among the French clergy a firm conviction of the +Gallican Liberties, and the _droit de regale_ continued to have the force +of law.(14)--Continuation, § 197, 1. + +4. _Galileo and the Inquisition._--Galileo Galilei, professor of +mathematics at Pisa and Padua, who died in A.D. 1642, among his many +distinguished services to the physical, mathematical, and astronomical +sciences, has the honour of being the pioneer champion of the Copernican +system. On this account he was charged by the monks with contradicting +Scripture. In A.D. 1616 Paul V., through Cardinal Bellarmine, threatened +him with the Inquisition and prison unless he agreed to cease from +vindicating and lecturing upon his heretical doctrine. He gave the +required promise. But in A.D. 1632 he published a dialogue, in which three +friends discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, without any formal +conclusion, but giving overwhelming reasons in favour of the latter. Urban +VIII., in A.D. 1636, called upon the Inquisition to institute a process +against him. He was forced to recant, was condemned to prison for an +indefinite period, but was soon liberated through powerful influence. How +far the old man of seventy-two years of age was compelled by torture to +retract is still a matter of controversy. It is, however, quite evident +that it was forced from him by threats. But that Galileo went out after +his recantation, gnashing his teeth and stamping his feet, muttering, +"Nevertheless it moves!" is a legend of a romancing age. This, however, is +the fact, that the Congregation of the Index declared the Copernican +theory to be false, irrational, and directly contrary to Scripture; and +that even in A.D. 1660 Alexander VII., with apostolic authority, formally +confirmed this decree and pronounced it _ex cathedra_ (§ 149, 4) +irrevocable. It was only in A.D. 1822 that the curia set it aside, and in +a new edition of the Index (§ 149, 14) in A.D. 1835 omitted the works of +Galileo as well as those of Copernicus.(15) + +5. _The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception_ (§ 112, 4) received a +new impulse from the nun _Mary of Jesus, died 1665, of Agreda_, in Old +Castile, superior of the cloister there of the Immaculate Conception, +writer of the "Mystical City of God." This book professed to give an +inspired account of the life of the Virgin, full of the strangest +absurdities about the immaculate conception. The Sorbonne pronounced it +offensive and silly; the Inquisition in Spain, Portugal, and Rome forbad +the reading of it; but the Franciscans defended it as a divine revelation. +A violent controversy ensued, which Alexander VII. silenced in A.D. 1661 +by expressing approval of the doctrine of the immaculate conception set +forth in the book.--Continuation, § 185, 2. + +6. _The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus._--The nun _Margaret +Alacoque_, in the Burgundian cloister of _Paray le Monial_, born A.D. +1647, recovering from a painful illness when but three years old, vowed to +the mother of God, who frequently appeared to her, perpetual chastity, and +in gratitude for her recovery adopted the name of Mary, and when grown up +resisted temptations by inflicting on herself the severest discipline, +such as long fasts, sharp flagellations, lying on thorns, etc. Visions of +the Virgin no longer satisfied her. She longed to lavish her affections on +the Redeemer himself, which she expressed in the most extravagant terms. +She took the Jesuit _La Colombiere_ as her spiritual adviser in A.D. 1675. +In a new vision she beheld the side of her Beloved opened, and saw his +heart glowing like a sun, into which her own was absorbed. Down to her +death in A.D. 1690 she felt the most violent burning pains in her side. In +a second vision she saw her Beloved's heart burning like a furnace, into +which were taken her own heart and that of her spiritual adviser. In a +third vision he enjoined the observance of a special "Devotion of the +Sacred Heart" by all Christendom on the Friday after the octave of the +_Corpus Christi_ festival and on the first Friday of every month. La +Colombiere, being made director, put forth every effort to get this +celebration introduced throughout the church, and on his death the idea +was taken up by the whole Jesuit order. Their efforts, however, for fully +a century proved unavailing. At this point, too, their most bitter +opponents were the Dominicans. But even without papal authority the +Jesuits so far succeeded in introducing the absurdities of this cult, and +giving expression to it in word and by images, that by the beginning of +the eighteenth century there were more than 300 male and female societies +engaged in this devotion, and at last, in A.D. 1765, _Clement XIII._, the +great friend of the Jesuits, gave formal sanction to this special +celebration.--Continuation, § 188, 12. + +7. _New Congregations and Orders._--(1) At the head of the new orders of +this century stands the _Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne_ at Verdun, +founded by Didier de la Cour. Elected Abbot of St. Banne in A.D. 1596, he +gave his whole strength to the reforming of this cloister, which had +fallen into luxurious and immoral habits. By a papal bull of A.D. 1604 all +cloisters combining with St. Banne into a congregation were endowed with +rich privileges. Gradually all the Benedictine monasteries of Lorraine and +Alsace joined the union. Didier's reforms were mostly in the direction of +moral discipline and asceticism; but in the new congregation scholarship +was represented by Calmet, Ceillier, etc., and many gave themselves to +work as teachers in the schools.--(2) Much more important for the promotion +of theological science, especially for patristics and church history, was +another Benedictine congregation founded in France in A.D. 1618 by +Laurence Bernard, that of _St. Maur_, named after a disciple of St. +Benedict. The members of this order devoted themselves exclusively to +science and literary pursuits. To them belonged the distinguished names, +Mabillon, Montfaucon, Reinart, Martene, D'Achery, Le Nourry, Durand, +Surius, etc. They showed unwearied diligence in research and a noble +liberality of judgment. The editions of the most celebrated Fathers issued +by them are the best of the kind, and this may also be said of the great +historical collections which we owe to their diligence.--(3) _The Fathers +of the Oratory of Jesus_ are an imitation of the Priests of the Oratory +founded by Philip Neri (§ 149, 7). Peter of Barylla, son of a member of +parliament, founded it in A.D. 1611 by building an oratory at Paris. He +was more of a mystic than of a scholar, but his order sent out many +distinguished and brilliant theologians; _e.g._ Malebranche, Morinus, +Thomassinus, Rich, Simon, Houbigant.--(4) _The Piarists_, _Patres scholarum +piarum_, were founded in Rome in A.D. 1607 by the Spaniard Joseph +Calasanza. The order adopted as a fourth vow the obligation of gratuitous +tuition. They were hated by the Obscurantist Jesuits for their successful +labours for the improvement of Catholic education, especially in Poland +and Austria, and also because they objected to all participation in +political schemes.--(5) _The Order of the Visitation of Mary_, or _Salesian +Nuns_, instituted in A.D. 1610 by the mystic Francis de Sales and +Francisca Chantal (§ 157, 1). They visited the poor and sick in imitation +of Elizabeth's visit to the Virgin (Luke i. 39); but the papal rescript of +A.D. 1618 gave prominence to the education of children. + +8.--(6) _The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity_ were both +founded by Vincent de Paul. Born of poor parents, he was, after completing +his education, captured by pirates, and as a slave converted his renegade +master to Christianity. As domestic chaplain to the noble family of Gondy +he was characterized in a remarkable degree for unassuming humility, and +he wrought earnestly and successfully as a home missionary. In A.D. 1618 +he founded the order of Sisters of Mercy, who became devoted nurses of the +sick throughout all France, and in A.D. 1627 that of the Priests of the +Missions, or Lazarists, who travelled the country attending to the +spiritual and bodily wants of men. After the death of the Countess Gondy +in A.D. 1625, he placed at the head of the Sisters of Mercy the widow +Louise le Gras, distinguished equally for qualities of head and heart. +Vincent died in A.D. 1660, and was subsequently canonized.(16)--(7) _The +Trappists_, founded by De Rance, a distinguished canon, who in A.D. 1664 +passed from the extreme of worldliness to the extreme of fanatical +asceticism. The order got its name from the Cistercian abbey La Trappe in +Normandy, of which Rance was commendatory abbot. Amid many difficulties he +succeeded, in A.D. 1665, in thoroughly reforming the wild monks, who were +called "the bandits of La Trappe." His rule enjoined on the monks +perpetual silence, only broken in public prayer and singing and in +uttering the greeting as they met, _Memento mori_. Their bed was a hard +board with some straw; their only food was bread and water, roots, herbs, +some fruit and vegetables, without butter, fat, or oil. Study was +forbidden, and they occupied themselves with hard field labour. Their +clothing was a dark-brown cloak worn on the naked body, with wooden shoes. +Very few cloisters besides La Trappe submitted to such severities (§ 185, +2).--(8) _The English Nuns_, founded at St. Omer, in France, by Mary Ward, +the daughter of an English Catholic nobleman, for the education of girls. +Originally composed of English maidens, it was afterwards enlarged by +receiving those of other nationalities, with establishments in Germany, +Italy, and the Netherlands. It did not obtain papal confirmation, and in +A.D. 1630 Urban VIII., giving heed to the calumnies of enemies, formally +dissolved it on account of arrogance, insubordination, and heresy. All its +institutions and schools were then closed, while Mary herself was +imprisoned and given over to the Inquisition in Rome. Urban was soon +convinced of her innocence and set her free. Her scattered nuns were now +collected again, but succeeded only in A.D. 1703 in obtaining confirmation +from Clement XI. Their chief tasks were the education of youth and care of +the sick. They were arranged in three classes, according to their rank in +life, and were bound by their vows for a year or at the most three years, +after which they might return to the world and marry. Their chief centre +was Bavaria with the mother cloister in Munich.--Continuation, § 165, 2. + +9. _The Propaganda._--Gregory XV. gave unity and strength to the efforts +for conversion of heretics and heathens by instituting, in A.D. 1662, the +_Congregatio de Propaganda Fide_. Urban VIII. in A.D. 1627 attached to it +a missionary training school, recruited as far as possible from natives of +the respective countries, like Loyola's _Collegium Germanicum_ founded in +A.D. 1552 (§ 151, 1). He was thus able every Epiphany to astonish Romans +and foreigners by what seemed a repetition of the pentecostal miracle of +tongues. At this institute training in all languages was given, and +breviaries, mass and devotional books, and handbooks were printed for the +use of the missions. It was also the centre from which all missionary +enterprises originated.--Continuation, § 204, 2. + +10. _Foreign Missions._--Even during this century the Jesuits excelled all +others in missionary zeal. In A.D. 1608 they sent out from Madrid mission +colonies among the wandering Indians of South America, and no Spaniard +could settle there without their permission. The most thoroughly organized +of these was that of _Paraguay_, in which, according to their own reports, +over 100,000 converted savages lived happily and contented under the mild, +patriarchal rule of the Jesuits for 140 years, A.D. 1610-1750; but +according to another well informed, though perhaps not altogether +impartial, account, that of Ibagnez, a member of the mission, expelled for +advising submission to the decree depriving it of political independence, +the paternal government was flavoured by a liberal dose of slave-driver +despotism. It was at least an undoubted fact, notwithstanding the boasted +patriarchal idyllic character of the Jesuit state, that the order amassed +great wealth from the proceeds of the industry of their +_proteges_.--Continuation, § 165, 3. + +11. _In the East Indies_ (§ 150, 1) the Jesuits had uninterrupted success. +In A.D. 1606, in order to make way among the Brahmans, the Jesuit Rob. +Nobili assumed their dress, avoided all contact with even the converts of +low caste, giving them the communion elements not directly, but by an +instrument, or laying them down for them outside the door, and as a +Christian Brahman made a considerable impression upon the most exclusive +classes.--In _Japan_ the mission prospects were dark (§ 150, 2). Mendicants +and Jesuits opposed and mutually excommunicated one another. The Catholic +Spaniards and Portuguese were at feud among themselves, and only agreed in +intriguing against Dutch and English Protestants. When the land was opened +to foreign trade, it became the gathering point of the moral scum of all +European countries, and the traffic in Japanese slaves, especially by the +Portuguese, brought discredit on the Christian cause. The idea gained +ground that the efforts at Christianization were but a prelude to conquest +by the Spaniards and Portuguese. In the new organization of the country by +the _shiogun_ Ijejasu all governors were to vow hostility to Christians +and foreigners. In A.D. 1606 he forbad the observance of the Christian +religion anywhere in the land. When the conspiracy of a Christian daimio +was discovered, he caused, in A.D. 1614, whole shiploads of Jesuits, +mendicants, and native priests to be sent out of the country. But as many +of the banished returned, death was threatened against all who might be +found, and in A.D. 1624 all foreigners, with the exception of Chinese and +Dutch, were rigorously driven out. And now a bloody persecution of native +Christians began. Many thousands fled to China and the neighbouring +islands; crowds of those remaining were buried alive or burnt on piles +made up of the wood of Christian crosses. The victims displayed a martyr +spirit like those of the early days. Those who escaped organized in A.D. +1637 an armed resistance, and held the fortress of Arima in face of the +_shiogun's_ army sent against them. After a three months' siege the +fortress was conquered by the help of Dutch cannon; 37,000 were massacred +in the fort, and the rest were hurled down from high rocks. The most +severe enactments were passed against Christians, and the edicts filled +with fearful curses against "the wicked sect" and "the vile God" of the +Christians were posted on all the bridges, street corners, and squares. +Christianity now seemed to be completely stamped out. The recollection of +this work, however, was still retained down to the nineteenth century. For +when French missionaries went in A.D. 1860 to Nagasaki, they found to +their surprise in the villages around thousands (?) who greeted them +joyfully as the successors of the first Christian missionaries. + +12. _In China_, after Ricci's death (§ 150, 1), the success of the mission +continued uninterrupted. In A.D. 1628 a German Jesuit, Adam Schell, went +out from Cologne, who gained great fame at court for his mathematical +skill. Louis XIV. founded at Paris a missionary college, which sent out +Jesuits thoroughly trained in mathematics. But Dominicans and Franciscans +over and over again complained to Rome of the Jesuits. They never allowed +missionaries of other orders to come near their own establishments, and +actually drove them away from places where they had begun to work. They +even opposed priests, bishops, and vicars-apostolic sent by the +Propaganda, declared their papal briefs forgeries, forbad their +congregations to have any intercourse with those "heretics," and under +suspicion of Jansenism brought them before the Inquisition of Goa. Clement +X. issued a firm-toned bull against such proceedings; but the Jesuits gave +no heed to it, and attended only to their own general. The papal +condemnation a century later of the Jesuits' accommodation scheme, and +their permission of heathen rites and beliefs to the new converts, +complained against by the Dominicans, was equally fruitless. In A.D. 1645 +Innocent X. forbad this practice on pain of excommunication; but still +they continued it till the decree was modified by Alexander VII. in A.D. +1656. After persistent complaints by the Dominicans, Innocent XII. +appointed a new congregation in Rome to investigate the question, but +their deliberations yielded no result for ten years. At last Clement XI. +confirmed the first decree of Innocent X., condemned anew the so called +Chinese rites, and sent the legate Thomas of Tournon in A.D. 1703 to +enforce his decision. Tournon, received at first by the emperor at Pekin +with great consideration, fell into disfavour through Jesuit intrigues, +was banished from the capital, and returned to Nankin. But as he continued +his efforts from this point, and an attempt to poison him failed in A.D. +1707, he went to Macao, where he was put in prison by the Portuguese, in +which he died in A.D. 1710. Clement XI., in A.D. 1715, issued his decree +against the Chinese rites in a yet severer form; but the Franciscan who +proclaimed the papal bull was put in prison as an offender against the +laws of the country, and, after being maltreated for seventeen months, was +banished. So proudly confident had the Jesuits become, that in A.D. 1720 +they treated with scorn and contempt the papal legate Mezzabarba, +Patriarch of Alexandria, who tried by certain concessions to move them to +submit. A more severe decree of Clement XII. of A.D. 1735 was scoffed at +by being proclaimed only in the Latin original. Benedict XIV. succeeded +for the first time, in A.D. 1742, in breaking down their opposition, after +the charges had been renewed by the Capuchin Norbert. All the Jesuit +missionaries were now obliged by oath to exclude all pagan customs and +rites; but with this all the glory and wonderful success of their Asiatic +missions came to an end.--Continuation, § 165, 3. + +13. _Trade and Industry of the Jesuits._--As Christian missions generally +deserve credit, not only for introducing civilization and culture along +with the preaching of the gospel into far distant heathen lands, but also +for having greatly promoted the knowledge of countries, peoples, and +languages among their fellow countrymen at home, opening up new fields for +colonization and trade, these ends were also served by the world-wide +missionary enterprises of the Jesuits, and were in perfect accordance with +the character and intention of this order, which aimed at universal +dominion. In carrying out these schemes the Jesuits abandoned the +ascetical principles of their founder and their vow of poverty, amassing +enormous wealth by securing in many parts a practical monopoly of trade. +Their fifth general, Aquaviva (§ 149, 8), secured from Gregory XIII., +avowedly in favour of the mission, exclusive right to trade with both +Indies. They soon erected great factories in all parts of the world, and +had ships laden with valuable merchandise on all seas. They had mines, +farms, sugar plantations, apothecary shops, bakeries, etc., founded banks, +sold relics, miracle-working amulets, rosaries, healing Ignatius- and +Xavier-water (§ 149, 11), etc., and in successful legacy-hunting excelled +all other orders. Urban VIII. and Clement XI. issued severe bulls against +such abuses, but only succeeded in restricting them to some +extent.--Continuation, § 165, 9. + +14. _An Apostate to Judaism._--Gabriel, or as he was called after +circumcision, _Uriel Acosta_, was sprung from a noble Portuguese family, +originally Jewish. Doubting Christianity in consequence of the traffic in +indulgences, he at last repudiated the New Testament in favour of the Old. +He refused rich ecclesiastical appointments, fled to Amsterdam, and there +formally went over to Judaism. Instead of the biblical Mosaism, however, +he was disappointed to find only Pharisaic pride and Talmudic +traditionalism, against which he wrote a treatise in A.D. 1623. The Jews +now denounced him to the civil authorities as a denier of God and +immortality. The whole issue of his book was burnt. Twice the synagogue +thundered its ban against him. The first was withdrawn on his recantation, +and the second, seven years after, upon his submitting to a severe +flagellation. In spite of all he held to his Sadducean standpoint to his +end in A.D. 1647, when he died by his own hand from a pistol shot, driven +to despair by the unceasing persecution of the Jews. + + + +§ 157. Quietism and Jansenism. + + +Down to the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Spanish Mystics (§ +149, 16), and especially those attached to Francis de Sales, were +recognised as thoroughly orthodox. But now the Jesuits appeared as the +determined opponents of all mysticism that savoured of enthusiasm. By +means of vile intrigues they succeeded in getting Molinos, Guyon, and +Fenelon condemned, as "Quietist" heretics, although the founder of their +party had been canonized and his doctrine solemnly sanctioned by the pope. +Yet more objectionable to the Jesuits was that reaction toward +Augustinianism which, hitherto limited to the Dominicans (§ 149, 13), and +treated by them as a theological theory, was now spreading among other +orders in the form of French Jansenism, accompanied by deep moral +earnestness and a revival of the whole Christian life. + +1. _Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal._--Francis Count de Sales, from +A.D. 1602 Bishop of Geneva, _i.e._ _in partibus_, with Annecy as his +residence, had shown himself a good Catholic by his zeal in rooting out +Protestantism in Chablais, on the south of the Genevan lake. In A.D. 1604 +meeting the young widowed Baroness de Chantal, along with whom at a later +period he founded the Order of the Visitation of Mary (§ 156, 7), he +proved a good physician to her amid her sorrow, doubts, and temptations. +He sought to qualify himself for this task by reading the writings of St. +Theresa. Teacher and scholar so profited by their mystical studies, that +in A.D. 1665 Alexander VII. deemed the one worthy of canonization and the +other of beatification. In A.D. 1877 Pius IX. raised Francis to the +dignity of _doctor ecclesiae_. His "Introduction to the Devout Life" +affords a guide to laymen to the life of the soul, amid all the +disturbances of the world resting in calm contemplation and unselfish love +of God. In the Catholic Church, next to A Kempis' "Imitation of Christ," +it is the most appreciated and most widely used book of devotion. In his +"_Theotime_" he leads the reader deeper into the yearnings of the soul +after fellowship with God, and describes the perfect peace which the soul +reaches in God.(17) + +2. _Michael Molinos._--After Francis de Sales a great multitude of male and +female apostles of the new mystical gospel sprang up, and were favourably +received by all the more moderate church leaders. The reactionaries, +headed by the Jesuits, sought therefore all the more eagerly to deal +severely with the Spaniard Michael Molinos. Having settled in Rome in A.D. +1669, he soon became the most popular of father confessors. His "Spiritual +Guide" in A.D. 1675 received the approval of the Holy Office, and was +introduced into Protestant Germany through a Latin translation by Francke +in A.D. 1687, and a German translation in A.D. 1699 by Arnold. In it he +taught those who came to the confessional that the way to the perfection +of the Christian life, which consists in peaceful rest in the most +intimate communion with God, is to be found in spiritual conference, +secret prayer, active and passive contemplation, in rigorous destruction +of all self-will, and in disinterested love of God, fortified, wherever +that is possible, by daily communion. The success of the book was +astonishing. It promptly influenced all ranks and classes, both men and +women, lay and clerical, not only in Italy, but also by means of +translations in France and Spain. But soon a reaction set in. As early as +A.D. 1681 the famous Jesuit _Segneri_ issued a treatise, in which he +charged Molinos' contemplative mysticism with onesidedness and +exaggeration. He was answered by the pious and learned Oratorian +_Petrucci_. A commission, appointed by the Inquisition to examine the +writings of both parties, pronounced the views of Molinos and Petrucci to +be in accordance with church doctrine and Segneri's objections to be +unfounded. All that Jesuitism reckoned as foundation, means, and end of +piety was characterized as purely elementary. No hope could be entertained +of winning over Innocent XI., the bitter enemy of the Jesuits. But Louis +XIV. of France, at the instigation of his Jesuit father confessor, +Lachaise, expressed through his ambassador his surprise that his holiness +should, not only tolerate, but even encourage and support so dangerous a +heretic, who taught all Christendom to undervalue the public services of +the Church. In A.D. 1685 Innocent referred the matter to the tribunal of +the Inquisition. Throughout the two years during which the investigation +proceeded all arts were used to secure condemnation. Extreme statements of +fanatical adherents of Molinos were not rarely met with, depreciating the +public ordinances and ceremonies, confession, hearing of mass, church +prayers, rosaries, etc. The pope, facile with age, amid groans and +lamentations, allowed things to take their course, and at last confirmed +the decree of the Inquisition of August 28th, A.D. 1687, by which Molinos +was found guilty of spreading godless doctrine, and sixty-eight +propositions, partly from his own writings, partly from the utterances of +his adherents, were condemned as heretical and blasphemous. The heretic +was to abjure his heresies publicly, clad in penitential garments, and was +then consigned to lifelong solitary confinement in a Dominican cloister, +where he died in A.D. 1697.(18) + +3. _Madame Guyon and Fenelon._--After her husband's death, _Madame Guyon_, +in company with her father confessor, the Barnabite _Lacombe_, who had +been initiated during a long residence at Rome into the mysteries of +Molinist mysticism, spent five years travelling through France, +Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont. Though already much suspected, she won +the hearts of many men and women among the clergy and laity, and enkindled +in them by personal conference, correspondence, and her literary work, the +ardour of mystical love. Her brilliant writings are indeed disfigured by +traces of foolish exaggeration, fanaticism and spiritual pride. She calls +herself the woman of Revelation xii. 1, and the _mere de la grace_ of her +adherents. The following are the main distinguishing characteristics of +her mysticism: The necessity of turning away from everything creaturely, +rejecting all earthly pleasure and destroying every selfish interest, as +well as of turning to God in passive contemplation, silent devotion, naked +faith, which dispensed with all intellectual evidence, and pure +disinterested love, which loves God for Himself alone, not for the eternal +salvation obtained through Him. On her return to Paris with Lacombe in +A.D. 1686 the proper martyrdom of her life began. Her chief persecutor was +her step-brother, the Parisian superior of the Barnabites, La Mothe, who +spread the most scandalous reports about his half-sister and Lacombe, and +had them both imprisoned by a royal decree in A.D. 1688. Lacombe never +regained his liberty. Taken from one prison to another, he lost his +reason, and died in an asylum in A.D. 1699. Madame Guyon, however, by the +influence of Madame de Maintenon, was released after ten months' +confinement. The favour of this royal dame was not of long continuance. +Warned on all sides of the dangerous heretic, she broke off all +intercourse with her in A.D. 1693, and persuaded the king to appoint a new +commission, in A.D. 1694, with Bishop _Bossuet_ of Meaux at its head, to +examine her suspected writings. This commission meeting at Issy, had +already, in February, A.D. 1695, drawn up thirty test articles, when +_Fenelon_, tutor of the king's grandson, and now nominated to the +archbishopric of Cambray, was ordered by the king to take part in the +proceedings. He signed the articles, though he objected to much in them, +and had four articles of his own added. Madame Guyon also did so, and +Bossuet at last testified for her that he had found her moral character +stainless and her doctrine free from Molinist heresy. But the bigot +Maintenon was not satisfied with this. Bossuet demanded the surrender of +this certificate that he might draw up another; and when Madame Guyon +refused, on the basis of a statement by the crazed Lacombe, she was sent +to the Bastile in A.D. 1696. In A.D. 1697 Fenelon had written in her +defence his "_Explication des Maximes des Saintes sur la Vie Interieur_," +showing that the condemned doctrines of passive contemplation, secret +prayer, naked faith, and disinterested love, had all been previously +taught by St. Theresa, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and other +saints. He sent this treatise for an opinion to Rome. A violent +controversy then arose between Bossuet and Fenelon. The pious, +well-meaning pope, _Innocent XII._, endeavoured vainly to bring about a +good understanding. Bossuet and the all-powerful Maintenon wished no +reconciliation, but condemnation, and gave the king and pope no rest till +very reluctantly he prohibited the objectionable book by a brief in A.D. +1699, and condemned twenty-three propositions from it as heretical. +Fenelon, strongly attached to the church, and a bitter persecutor of +Protestants, made an unconditional surrender, as guilty of a defective +exposition of the truth. But Madame Guyon continued in the Bastile till +A.D. 1701, when she retired to Blois, where she died in A.D. 1717. Bossuet +had died in A.D. 1704, and Fenelon in A.D. 1715. She published only two of +her writings: "An Exposition of the Song," and the "_Moyen Court et tres +Facile de faire Oraison_." Many others, including her translation and +expositions of the Bible, were during her lifetime edited in twenty +volumes by her friend, the Reformed preacher of the Palatinate, Peter +Poiret.(19) + +4. _Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and Pantheism._--_Antoinette +Bourignon_, the daughter of a rich merchant of Lille, in France, while +matron of a hospital in her native city, had in A.D. 1662 gathered around +her a party of believers in her theosophic and fantastic revelations. She +was obliged to flee to the Netherlands, and there, by the force of her +eloquence in speech and writing, spread her views among the Protestants. +Among them she attracted the great scientist Swammerdam. But when she +introduced politics, she escaped imprisonment only by flight. Down to her +death in A.D. 1680 she earnestly and successfully prosecuted her mission +in north-west Germany. Peter Poiret collected her writings and published +them in twenty-one volumes at Amsterdam, in A.D. 1679.--Quite of another +sort was the pantheistic mysticism of _Angelus Silesius_. Originally a +Protestant physician at Breslau, he went over to the Romish church in A.D. +1653, and in consequence received from Vienna the honorary title of +physician to the emperor. He was made priest in A.D. 1661, and till his +death in A.D. 1677 maintained a keen polemic against the Protestant church +with all a pervert's zeal. Most of his hymns belong to his Protestant +period. As a Catholic he wrote his "_Cherubinischer Wandersmann_," a +collection of rhymes in which, with childish _naivete_ and hearty, gushing +ardour, he merges self into the abyss of the universal Deity, and develops +a system of the most pronounced pantheism. + +5. _Jansenism in its first Stage._--Bishop Cornelius Jansen, of Ypres, who +died in A.D. 1638, gave the fruits of his lifelong studies of Augustine in +his learned work, "_Augustinus s. doctr. Aug. de humanae Naturae Sanitate, +AEgritudine, et Medicina adv. Pelagianos et Massilienses_," which was +published after his death in three volumes, Louvain, 1640. The Jesuits +induced Urban VIII., in A.D. 1642, to prohibit it in his bull _In +eminenti_. Augustine's numerous followers in France felt themselves hit by +this decree. Jansen's pupil at Port Royal from A.D. 1635, Duvergier de +Hauranne, usually called St. Cyran, from the Benedictine monastery of +which he was abbot, was the bitter foe of the Jesuits and Richelieu, who +had him cast into prison in A.D. 1638, from which he was liberated after +the death of the cardinal in A.D. 1643, and shortly before his own. +Another distinguished member of the party was Antoine Arnauld, doctor of +the Sorbonne, who died in A.D. 1694, the youngest of twenty children of a +parliamentary advocate, whose powerful defence of the University of Paris +against the Jesuits called forth their hatred and lifelong persecution. +His mantle, as a vigorous polemist, had fallen upon his youngest son. Very +important too was the influence of his much older sister, Angelica +Arnauld, Abbess of the Cistercian cloister of Port Royal des Champs, six +miles from Paris, which under her became the centre of religious life and +effort for all France. Around her gathered some of the noblest, most +pious, and talented men of the time: the poet Racine, the mathematician +and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Sacy, the church historian +Tillemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine and determined opponents of +the lax morality of the Jesuits. Arnauld's book, "_De la frequente +Communion_," was approved by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most +distinguished of the French clergy; but in A.D. 1653 Innocent X. condemned +five Jansenist propositions in it as heretical. The Augustinians now +maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the sense attributed to +them by the pope. Arnauld distinguished the _question du fait_ from the +_question du droit_, maintaining that the latter only were subject to the +judgment of the Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition +and character, expelled him on account of this position from its +corporation in A.D. 1656. About this time, at Arnauld's instigation, +Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of "_Pensees sur la Religion_," +began, under the name of Louis de Montalte to publish his famous +"Provincial Letters," which in an admirable style exposed and lashed with +deep earnestness and biting wit the base moral principles of Jesuit +casuistry. The truly annihilating effect of these letters upon the +reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by their being burnt +by order of Parliament by the hangman at Aix in A.D. 1657, and at Paris in +A.D. 1660. But meanwhile the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon +a new phase of its development. Alexander VII. had issued in A.D. 1656 a +bull which denounced the application of the distinction _du fait_ and _du +droit_ to the papal decrees as derogatory to the holy see, and affirmed +that Jansen taught the five propositions in the sense they had been +condemned. In order to enforce the sentence, Annal, the Jesuit father +confessor of Louis XIV., obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all +French clergy, monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula unconditionally +accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and fled mostly to +the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of Port Royal at last +reluctantly agreed to sign it; but they were still persecuted, and in A.D. +1664 the new archbishop, Perefixe, inaugurated a more severe persecution, +placed this cloister under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to +other convents. In A.D. 1669, Alexander's successor, Clement IX., secured +the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Nicole, and many of the nuns by a +policy of mild connivance. But the hatred of the Jesuits was still +directed against their cloister. In A.D. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded +full and unconditioned acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and +when the nuns refused, the pope, in A.D. 1708, declared this convent an +irredeemable nest of heresy, and ordered its suppression, which was +carried out in A.D. 1709. In A.D. 1710 cloister and church were levelled +to the ground, and the very corpses taken out of their +graves.(20)--Continuation, § 165, 7. + + + +§ 158. Science and Art in the Catholic Church. + + +Catholic theology flourished during the seventeenth century as it had +never done since the twelfth and thirteenth. Especially in the liberal +Gallican church there was a vigorous scientific life. The Parisian +Sorbonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the Oratorians, +excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and historical, +learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed theology in France +afforded a powerful stimulus. But the best days of art, especially Italian +painting, were now past. Sacred music was diligently cultivated, though in +a secularized style, and many gifted hymn-writers made their appearance in +Spain and Germany. + +1. _Theological Science (§ 149, 14)._--The parliamentary advocate, Mich. le +Jay, published at his own expense the Parisian Polyglott in ten folio +vols., A.D. 1629-1645, which, besides complete Syriac and Arabic +translations, included also the Samaritan. The chief contributor was the +Oratorian _Morinus_, who edited the LXX. and the Samaritan texts, which he +regarded as incomparably superior to the Masoretic text corrupted by the +Jews. The Jansenists produced a French translation of the Bible with +practical notes, condemned by the pope, but much read by the people. It +was mainly the work of the brothers _De Sacy_. The New Testament was +issued in A.D. 1667 and the Old Testament somewhat later, called the Bible +of Mons from the fictitious name of the place of publication. _Richard +Simon_, the Oratorian, who died in A.D. 1712, treated Scripture with a +boldness of criticism never before heard of within the church. While +opposed by many on the Catholic side, the curia favoured his work as +undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture. _Cornelius a Lapide_, +who died A.D. 1637, expounded Scripture according to the fourfold +sense.--In systematic theology the old scholastic method still held sway. +Moral theology was wrought out in the form of casuistry with unexampled +lasciviousness, especially by the Jesuits (§ 149, 10). The work of the +Spaniard _Escobar_, who died in A.D. 1669, ran through fifty editions, and +that of _Busembaum_, professor in Cologne and afterwards rector of +Muenster, who died A.D. 1668, went through seventy editions. On account of +the attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens in A.D. 1757, with +which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were charged, the +Parliament of Toulouse in A.D. 1757, and of Paris in A.D. 1761, had +Busembaum's book publicly burnt, and several popes, Alexander VII., VIII., +and Innocent XI., condemned a number of propositions from the moral +writings of these and other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most +distinguished were _Becanus_, who died in A.D. 1624, and _Bossuet_ (§ 153, +7). Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were +_Nicole_ and _Arnauld_, who, in order to escape the reproach of Calvinism, +sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper to be the same as that +of the apostles, and were answered by the Reformed theologians Claude and +Jurieu. In apologetics the leading place is occupied by _Pascal_, with his +brilliant "_Pensees_." _Huetius_, a French bishop and editor of Origen, +who died in A.D. 1721, replied to Spinoza's attacks on the Pentateuch, and +applying to reason itself the Cartesian principle, that philosophy must +begin with doubt, pointed the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths +in the Catholic church as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit +_Dionysius Petavius_, who died in A.D. 1652, edited Epiphanius and wrote +gigantic chronological works and numerous violent polemics against +Calvinists and Jansenists. His chief work is the unfinished +patristic-dogmatic treatise in five vols. folio, A.D. 1680, "_De +theologicis Dogmatibus_." The Oratorian _Thomassinus_ wrote an able +archaeological work: "_Vetus et Nova Eccl. Disciplina circa Beneficia et +Beneficiarios_." + +2. In church history, besides those named in § 5, 2, we may mention Pagi, +the keen critic and corrector of Baronius. The study of sources was +vigorously pursued. We have collections of mediaeval writings and documents +by Sirmond, D'Achery, Mabillon, Martene, Baluzius; of acts of councils by +Labbe and Cossart, those of France by _Jac. Sirmond_, and of Spain by +Aguirre; acts of the martyrs by _Ruinart_; monastic rules by _Holstenius_, +a pervert, who became Vatican librarian, and died at Rome A.D. 1661. +_Dufresne Ducange_, an advocate, who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries +of the mediaeval and barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study +of documents belonging to those times. The greatest prodigy of learning +was _Mabillon_, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benedictine of St. Maur, and +historian of his order. _Pet. de Marca_, who died Archbishop of Paris A.D. +1662, wrote the famous work on the Gallican liberties "_De Concordia +Sacerdotii et Imperii_." The Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, _Elias du +Pin_, who died A.D. 1719, wrote "_Nouvelle Bibliotheque des Auteurs +Eccles._" in forty-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimbourg, died A.D. 1686, +compiled several party histories of Wiclifism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism; +but as a Gallican was deprived of office by the pope, and afterwards +supported by a royal pension. The Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, +Papebroch started, in A.D. 1643, the gigantic work "_Acta Sanctorum_," +carried on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known as +_Bollandists_. It was stopped by the French invasion of A.D. 1794, when it +had reached October 15th with the fifty-third folio vol. The Belgian +Jesuits continued the work from A.D. 1845-1867, reaching in six vols. the +end of October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their +predecessors. In Venice _Paul Sarpi_ (§ 155, 2) wrote a history of the +Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical works of any +period. _Leo Allatius_, a Greek convert at Rome, who died in A.D. 1669, +wrote a work to show the agreement of the Eastern and Western churches. +Cardinal _Bona_ distinguished himself as a liturgical writer.--In France +pulpit eloquence reached the highest pitch in such men as Flechier, +Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Fenelon, Massillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna _Abraham +a St. Clara_ inveighed in a humorous, grotesque way against the corruption +of manners, with an undercurrent of deep moral earnestness. Similar in +style and spirit, but much more deeply sunk in Catholic superstition, was +his contemporary the Capuchin _Martin of Cochem_, who missionarized the +Rhine Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issued a large +number of popular religious tracts.--Continuation, § 165, 14. + +3. _Art and Poetry (§ 149, 15)._--The greatest master of the musical school +founded by Palestrina was _Allegri_, whose _Miserere_ is performed yearly +on the Wednesday afternoon of Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. +The oratorio originated from the application of the lofty music of this +school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely musical and not +theatrical performance. Philip Neri patronized this music freely in his +oratory, from which it took the name. This new church music became +gradually more and more secularized and approximated to the ordinary opera +style.--In _ecclesiastical architecture_ the Renaissance style still +prevailed, but debased with senseless, tasteless ornamentation.--In the +Italian school of _painting_ the decline, both in creative power and +imitative skill, was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century. In +Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting reached a high +point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who died in A.D. 1682, a master +in representing calm meditation and entranced felicity.--The two greatest +_poets_ of Spain, the creators of the Spanish drama, _Lope de Vega_ (died +A.D. 1635) and _Pedro Calderon_ (died A.D. 1681), both at first soldiers +and afterwards priests, flourished during this century. The elder excelled +the younger, not only in fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 320 +autos, § 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism. +Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 73 festival plays, 200 preludes, etc., +excelled De Vega in artistic expression and beauty of imagery. Both alike +glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally subordinate Mary and the saints +to the great redemption of the cross.--Specially deserving of notice is the +noble German Jesuit _Friedr. von Spee_, died A.D. 1635. His spiritual +songs show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature, +approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical hymn-writers. +Spee was a keen but unsuccessful opponent of witch prosecution. Another +eminent poetic genius of the age was the Jesuit _Jac. Balde_ of Munich, +who died in A.D. 1688. He is at his best in lyrical poetry. A deep +religious vein runs through all his Latin odes, in which he +enthusiastically appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly +passions. To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion. + + + + +III. The Lutheran Church. + + + +§ 159. Orthodoxy and its Battles.(21) + + +The Formula of Concord commended itself to the hearts and intelligences of +Lutherans, and secured a hundred years' supremacy of orthodoxy, +notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Gradually, however, a +new dogmatic scholasticism arose, which had the defects as well as the +excellences of the mediaeval system. The orthodoxy of this school +deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on confessional +differences, and, on the other, into undue depreciation of outward forms +in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. These tendencies are +represented by the Syncretist and Pietist controversies. + +1. _Christological Controversies._--(1) _The Cryptist and Kenotist +Controversy_ between the Giessen and Tuebingen theologians, in A.D. 1619, +about Christ's state of humiliation, led to the publication of many +violent treatises down to A.D. 1626. The Kenotists of Giessen, with +Mentzer and Feuerborn at their head, assigned the humiliation only to the +human nature, and explained it as an actual {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, _i.e._ a complete but +voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omnipotence immanent in His +divinity ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, but not {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}), yet so that He could have them at His +command at any moment, _e.g._ in His miracles. The Cryptists of Tuebingen, +with Luc. Osiander and Thumm at their head, ascribed humiliation to both +natures, and taught that all the while Christ, even _secundum carnem_, was +omnipresent and ruled both in heaven and earth, but in a hidden way; the +humiliation is no {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, but only a {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. After repeated unsuccessful +attempts to bring about a reconciliation, John George, Elector of Saxony, +in A.D. 1623, accepted the Kenotic doctrine. But the two parties still +continued their strife.(22)--2. _The Luetkemann Controversy_ on the humanity +of Christ in death was of far less importance. Luetkemann, a professor of +philosophy at Rostock, affirmed that in death, because the unity of soul +and body was broken, Christ was not true man, and that to deny this was to +destroy the reality and the saving power of his death. He held that the +incarnation of Christ lasted through death, because the divine nature was +connected, not only with the soul, but also with the body. Luetkemann was +obliged to quit Rostock, but got an honourable call to Brunswick as +superintendent and court preacher, and there died in A.D. 1655. Later +Lutherans treated the controversy as a useless logomachy. + +2. _The Syncretist Controversy._--Since the Hofmann controversy (§ 141, 15) +the University of Helmstadt had shown a decided humanistic tendency, and +gave even greater freedom in the treatment of doctrines than the Formula +of Concord, which it declined to adopt. To this school belonged _George +Calixt_, and from A.D. 1614 for forty years he laboured in promoting its +interests. He was a man of wide culture and experience, who had obtained a +thorough knowledge of church history, and acquaintance with the most +distinguished theologians of all churches, during his extensive foreign +travels, and therewith a geniality and breadth of view not by any means +common in those days. He did not indeed desire any formal union between +the different churches, but rather a mutual recognition, love, and +tolerance. For this purpose he set, as a secondary principle of Christian +theology, besides Scripture, as the primary principle, the consensus of +the first five centuries as the common basis of all churches, and sought +to represent later ecclesiastical differences as unessential or of less +consequence. This was denounced by strict Lutherans as Syncretism and +Cryptocatholicism. In A.D. 1639 the Hanoverian preacher Buscher charged +him with being a secret Papist. After the Thorn Conference of A.D. 1645, a +violent controversy arose, which divided Lutherans into two camps. On the +one side were the universities of Helmstadt and Koenigsberg; on the other +hand, the theologians of the electorate of Saxony, Huelsemann of Leipzig, +Waller of Dresden, and Abr. Calov, who died professor in Wittenberg in +A.D. 1686. Calov wrote twenty-six controversial treatises on this subject. +Jena vainly sought to mediate between the parties. In the _Theologorum +Sax. Consensus repetitus Fidei vera Lutheranae_ of A.D. 1655, for which the +Wittenberg divines failed to secure symbolical authority, the following +sentiments were branded as Syncretist errors: That in the Apostles' Creed +everything is taught that is necessary to salvation; that the Catholic and +Reformed systems retain hold of fundamental truths; that original sin is +of a merely privative nature; that God _indirecte, improprie, et per +accidens_ is the cause of sin; that the doctrine of the Trinity was first +clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixt died A.D. 1656 in the +midst of most violent controversies. His son Ulrich continued these, but +had neither the ability nor moderation of his father. Even the peaceably +disposed Conference of Cassel of A.D. 1661 (§ 154, 4) only poured oil on +the flames. The strife lost itself at last in actions for damages between +the younger Calixt and his bitter opponent Strauch of Wittenberg. Wearied +of these fruitless discussions, theologians now turned their attention to +the rising movement of Pietism.(23) + +3. _The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage._--_Philip Jacob Spener_ +born in Alsace in A.D. 1635, was in his thirty-first year, on account of +his spirituality, distinguished gifts, and singularly wide scholarship, +made president of a clerical seminary at Frankfort-on-Main. In A.D. 1686 +he became chief court preacher at Dresden, and provost of Berlin in A.D. +1691, when, on account of his intense earnestness in pastoral work, he had +been expelled from Dresden. He died in Berlin in A.D. 1705. His year's +attendance at Geneva after the completion of his curriculum at Strassburg +had an important influence on his whole future career. He there learned to +value discipline for securing purity of life as well as of doctrine, and +was also powerfully impressed by the practical lectures of Labadie (§ 163, +7) and the reading of the "Practice of Piety" and other ascetical writings +of the English Puritans (§ 162, 3). Though strongly attached to the +Lutheran church, he believed that in the restoration of evangelical +doctrine by the Wittenberg Reformation, "not by any means had all been +accomplished that needed to be done," and that Lutheranism in the form of +the orthodoxy of the age had lost the living power of the reformers, and +was in danger of burying its talent in dead and barren service of the +letter. There was therefore a pressing need of a new and wider +reformation. In the Lutheran church, as the depository of sound doctrine, +he recognised the fittest field for the development of a genuinely +Christian life; but he heartily appreciated any true spiritual movement in +whatsoever church it arose. He went back from scholastic dogmatics to Holy +Scripture as the living source of saving knowledge, substituted for the +external orthodox theology the theology of the heart, demanded evidence of +this in a pious Christian walk: these were the means by which he sought to +promote his reformation. A whole series of Lutheran theologians of the +seventeenth century (§ 159) had indeed contributed to this same end by +their devotional works, hymns, and sermons. What was new in Spener was the +conviction of the insufficiency of the hitherto used means and the undue +prominence given to doctrine, and his consequent effort vigorously made to +raise the tone of the Christian life. In his childlike, pious humility he +regarded himself as by no means called to carry out this work, but felt it +his duty to insist upon the necessity of it, and indicate the means that +should be used to realize it. This he did in his work of A.D. 1675, "_Pia +Desideria_." As it was his aim to recommend biblical practical +Christianity to the heart of the individual Christian, he revived the +almost forgotten doctrine "Of Spiritual Priesthood" in a separate +treatise. In A.D. 1670 he began to have meetings in his own house for +encouraging Christian piety in the community, which soon were imitated in +other places. Spener's influence on the Lutheran church became greater and +wider through his position at Dresden. Stirred up by his spirit, three +young graduates of Leipzig. A. H. Francke, Paul Anton, and J. K. Schade, +formed in A.D. 1686 a private _Collegia Philobiblica_ for practical +exposition of Scripture and the delivery of public exegetical lectures at +the university in the German language. But the Leipzig theological +faculty, with J. B. Carpzov II. at its head, charged them with despising +the public ordinances as well as theological science, and with favouring +the views of separatists. The _Collegia Philobiblica_ was suppressed, and +the three friends obliged to leave Leipzig in A.D. 1690. This marked the +beginning of the Pietist controversies. Soon afterwards Spener was +expelled from Dresden; but in his new position at Berlin he secured great +influence in the appointments to the theological faculty of the new +university founded at Halle by the peace-loving elector Frederick III. of +Brandenburg, in opposition to the contentious universities of Wittenberg +and Leipzig. Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt were made professors of +theology. Halle now won the position which Wittenberg and Geneva had held +during the Reformation period, and the Pietist controversy thus entered +upon a second, more general, and more critical epoch of its +history.(24)--Continuation, § 166, 1. + +4. _Theological Literature (§ 142, 6)._--The "_Philologia Sacra_" of _Sol. +Glassius_ of Jena, published in A.D. 1623, has ranked as a classical work +for almost two centuries. From A.D. 1620 till the end of the century, a +lively controversy was carried on about the Greek style of the New +Testament, in which Lutherans, and especially the Reformed, took part. The +purists maintained that the New Testament idiom was pure and classical, +thinking that its inspiration would otherwise be endangered. The first +historico-critical introduction to the Scriptures was the "_Officina +Biblica_" of Walther in A.D. 1636. _Pfeiffer_ of Leipzig gained +distinction in biblical criticism and hermeneutics by his "_Critica +Sacra_" of A.D. 1680 and "_Hermeneutica_" of A.D. 1684. Exegesis now made +progress, notwithstanding its dependence on traditional interpretations of +doctrinal proof passages and its mechanical theory of inspiration. The +most distinguished exegetes were _Erasmus Schmidt_ of Wittenberg, who died +in A.D. 1637: he wrote a Latin translation of New Testament with admirable +notes, and a very useful concordance of the Greek New Testament, under the +title {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, which has been revised and improved by Bruder; _Seb. +Schmidt_ of Strassburg, who wrote commentaries on several Old Testament +books and on the Pauline epistles; and _Abr. Calov_ of Wittenberg, who +died in A.D. 1686, in his 74th year, whose "_Biblia Illustrata_" in four +vols., is a work of amazing research and learning, but composed wholly in +the interests of dogmatics.--Little was done in the department of church +history. Calixt awakened a new enthusiasm for historical studies, and +_Gottfried Arnold_ (§ 159, 2), pietist, chiliast, and theosophist, +bitterly opposed to every form of orthodoxy, and finding true Christianity +only in sects, separatists, and heretics, set the whole theological world +astir by his "_Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzer-historie_," in A.D. 1699 +(§ 5, 3). + +5. The orthodox school applied itself most diligently to dogmatics in a +strictly scholastic form. _Hutter_ of Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1616, +wrote "_Loci communes theologici_" and "_Compendium Loc. Theol._" _John +Gerhard_ of Jena, who died in A.D. 1637, published in A.D. 1610 his "_Loc. +Theologici_" in nine folio vols., the standard of Lutheran orthodoxy. _J. +Andr. Quenstedt_ of Wittenberg, who died A.D. 1688, exhibited the best and +worst of Lutheran scholasticism in his "_Theol. didactico-polemica_." The +most important dogmatist of the Calixtine school was Conrad Horneius. +Calixt himself is known as a dogmatist only by his lectures; but to him we +owe the generally adopted distinction between morals and dogmatics as set +forth in his "_Epitome theol. Moralis_."--Polemics were carried on +vigorously. _Hoe von Hoenegg_ of Dresden (§ 154, 3, 4) and _Hutter_ of +Wittenberg were bitter opponents of Calvinism and Romanism. Hutter was +styled by his friends _Malleus Calvinistorum_ and _Redonatus Lutherus_. +The ablest and most dignified polemic against Romanism was that of _John +Gerhard_ in his "_Confessio Catholica_." _Nich. Hunnius_, son of AEgid. +Hunnius, and Hutter's successor at Wittenberg, from A.D. 1623 +superintendent at Luebeck, distinguished himself as an able +controversialist against the papacy by his "_Demonstratio Ministerii +Lutherani Divini atque Legitimi_." Against the Socinians he wrote his +"_Examen Errorum Photinianorum_," and against the fanatics a "Chr. +Examination of the new Paracelsist and Weigelian Theology." His principal +work is his "_{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} de Fundamentali Dissensu Doctrinae Luth. et +Calvin_." His "_Epitome Credendorum_" went through nineteen editions. The +most incessant controversialist was _Abr. Calov_, who wrote against +Syncretists, Papists, Socinians, Arminians, etc.--Continuation, § 167, 4. + + + +§ 160. The Religious Life. + + +The attachment of the Lutheran church of this age to pure doctrine led to +a one-sided over-estimation of it, often ending in dead orthodoxy. But a +succession of able and learned theologians, who recognised the importance +of heart theology as well as sound doctrine, corrected this evil tendency +by Scripture study, preaching, and faithful pastoral work. A noble and +moderate mysticism, which was thoroughly orthodox in its beliefs, and +opposing orthodoxy only where that had become external and mechanical, had +many influential representatives throughout the whole country, especially +during the first half of it. But also separatists, mystics, and +theosophists made their appearance, who were decidedly hostile to the +church. Sacred song flourished afresh amid the troubles of the Thirty +Years' War; but gradually lost its sublime objective church character, +which was poorly compensated by a more flowing versification, polished +language, and elegant form. A corresponding advance was also made in +church music. + +1. _Mysticism and Asceticism._--At the head of the orthodox mystics stands +_John Arndt_. His "True Christianity" and his "_Paradiesgaertlein_" are the +most widely read Lutheran devotional books, but called forth the bitter +hostility of those devoted to the maintenance of a barren orthodoxy. He +died in A.D. 1621, as general superintendent at Celle. He had been +expelled from Anhalt because he would not condemn exorcism as godless +superstition, and was afterwards in Brunswick publicly charged by his +colleague Denecke and other Lutheran zealots with Papacy, Calvinism, +Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenckfeldism, Paracelsism, Alchemism, etc. +As men of a similar spirit, anticipators of the school of Spener, may be +named _John Gerhard_ of Jena, with his "_Meditationes Sacrae_" and "_Schola +pietatis_" and _Christian Scriver_, whose "Gotthold's Emblems" is well +known to English readers. _Rahtmann_ of Danzig maintained that the word of +God in Scripture has not in itself the power to enlighten and convert men +except through the gracious influence of God's Spirit. He was supported, +after a long delay, in A.D. 1626 by the University of Rostock, but opposed +by Koenigsberg, Jena, and Wittenberg. In A.D. 1628, the Elector of Saxony +obtained the opinion of the most famous theologians of his realm against +Rahtmann; but his death, which soon followed, brought the controversy to a +close.--The Wuerttemberg theologian, _John Valentine Andreae_, grandson of +one of the authors of the Formula of Concord, was a man of striking +originality, famous for his satires on the corruptions of the age. His +"Order of Rosicrucians," published at Cassel in A.D. 1614, ridiculed the +absurdities of astrology and alchemy in the form of a satirical romance. +His influence on the church of his times was great and wholesome, so that +even Spener exclaimed: "Had I the power to call any one from the dead for +the good of the church, it would be J. V. Andreae." His later devotional +work was almost completely forgotten until attention was called to it by +Herder.(25) + +2. _Mysticism and Theosophy._--A mystico-theosophical tendency, partly in +outward connexion with the church, partly without and in open opposition +to it, was fostered by the alchemist writings of Agrippa and Paracelsus, +the theosophical works of Weigel (§ 146, 2) and by the profound +revelations of the inspired shoemaker of Goerlitz, _Jacob Boehme_, +_philosophus teutonicus_, the most talented of all the theosophists. In a +remarkable degree he combined a genius for speculation with the most +unfeigned piety that held firmly by the old Lutheran faith. Even when an +itinerant tradesman, he felt himself for a period of seven days in calm +repose, surrounded by the divine light. But he dates his profound +theosophical enlightenment from a moment in A.D. 1594, when as a young +journeyman and married, thrown into an ecstasy, he obtained a knowledge of +the divine mysteries down to the ultimate principles of all things and +their inmost quality. His theosophy, too, like that of the ancient +gnostics, springs out of the question about the origin of evil. He solves +it by assuming an emanation of all things from God, in whom fire and +light, bitter and sweet qualities, are thoroughly tempered and perfectly +combined, while in the creature derived by emanation from him they are in +disharmony, but are reconciled and reduced to godlike harmony through +regeneration in Christ. Though opposed by Calov, he was befriended by the +Dresden consistory. Boehme died in A.D. 1624, in retirement at Goerlitz, in +the arms of his family.(26)--In close connexion with Boehmists, +separatists, and Pietists, yet differing from them all, _Gottfried Arnold_ +abused orthodoxy and canonized the heretics of all ages. In A.D. 1700 he +wrote "The Mystery of the Divine Sophia." When Adam, originally man and +woman, fell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, was taken from him, +and in his place a woman of flesh was made for him out of a rib; in order +again to restore the paradisiacal perfection Christ brought again the male +part into a virgin's womb, so that the new creature, the regenerate, +stands before God as a "male-virgin"; but carnal love destroys again the +connexion thus secured with the heavenly Sophia. But the very next year he +reached a turning-point in his life. He not only married, but in +consequence accepted several appointments in the Lutheran church, without, +however, signing the Formula of Concord, and applied his literary skill to +the production of devotional tracts. + +3. _Sacred Song (§ 142, 3)._--The first epoch of the development of sacred +song in this century corresponds to the period of the Thirty Years' War, +A.D. 1618-1648. The Psalms of David were the model and pattern of the +sacred poets, and the profoundest songs of the cross and consolation bear +the evident impress of the times, and so individual feeling comes more +into prominence. The influence of Opitz was also felt in the church song, +in the greater attention given to correctness and purity of language and +to the careful construction of verse and rhyme. Instead of the rugged +terseness and vigour of earlier days, we now find often diffuse and +overflowing utterances of the heart. _John Hermann_ of Glogau, who died in +A.D. 1647, composed 400 songs, embracing these: "Alas! dear Lord, what +evil hast Thou done?"; "O Christ, our true and only Light"; "Ere yet the +dawn hath filled the skies"; "O God, thou faithful God." _Paul Flemming_, +a physician in Holstein, who died in A.D. 1640, wrote on his journey to +Persia, "Where'er I go, whate'er my task." _Matthew Meyffart_, professor +and pastor at Erfurt, who died in A.D. 1642, wrote "Jerusalem, thou city +fair and high." _Martin Rinkart_, pastor at Eilenburg in Saxony, who died +A.D. 1648, wrote, "Now thank we all our God." _Appelles von Loewenstern_, +who died A.D. 1648, composed, "When anguished and perplexed, with many a +sigh and tear." _Joshua Stegmann_, superintendent in Rinteln, who died +A.D. 1632, wrote, "Abide among us with thy grace." _Joshua Wegelin_, +pastor in Augsburg and Pressburg, wrote, "Since Christ is gone to heaven, +his home." _Justus Gesenius_, superintendent in Hanover, who died in A.D. +1673, wrote, "When sorrow and remorse." _Tob. Clausnitzer_, pastor in the +Palatinate, who died A.D. 1648, wrote, "Blessed Jesus, at thy word." The +poets named mostly belong to the first Silesian school gathered round +Opitz. A more independent position, though not uninfluenced by Opitz, is +taken up by _John Rist_, who died in A.D. 1667. He composed 658 sacred +songs, of which many are remarkable for their vigour, solemnity, and +elevation; _e.g._ "Arise, the kingdom is at hand"; "Sink not yet, my soul, +to slumber"; "O living Bread from heaven"; "Praise and thanks to Thee be +sung." At the head of the Koenigsberg school of the same age stood _Simon +Dach_, professor of poetry at Koenigsberg, who died in A.D. 1659. He +composed 150 spiritual songs, among which the best known are, "O how +blessed, faithful souls, are ye!" "Wouldest thou inherit life with Christ +on high?" The most distinguished members of this school are: _Henry +Alberti_, organist at Koenigsberg, author of "God who madest earth and +heaven"; and _George Weissel_, pastor in Koenigsberg, who died in A.D. +1655, author of "Lift up your heads, ye mighty gates." + +4. From the middle of the seventeenth century sacred song became more +subjective, and so tended to fall into a diversity of groups. No longer +does the church sing through its poets, but the poets give direct +expression to their individual feelings. Confessional songs are less +frequent, and their place is taken by hymns of edification with reference +to various conditions of life; songs of death, the cross and consolation, +and hymns for the family become more numerous. With objectivity special +features of the church song disappear in the hymns of the period; but some +of its essential characteristics remain, especially the popular form and +contents, the freshness, liveliness, and simplicity of diction, the truths +of personal experience, the fulness of faith, etc. We distinguish three +groups: (1) _The Transition Group_, passing from objectivity to +subjectivity. Its greatest masters, indeed after Luther the greatest +sacred poet of the evangelical church, is undoubtedly _Paul Gerhardt_, who +died A.D. 1676, the faith witness of the Lutheran faith under the wars and +in persecution (§ 154, 4). In him we find the new subjective tendency in +its noblest form; but there is also present the old objective style, +giving immediate expression to the consciousness of the church, adhering +tenaciously to the confession, and a grand popular ring that reminds us of +the fulness and power of Luther. His 131 songs, if not all church songs in +the narrower sense, are almost all genuine poems: _e.g._ "All my heart +this night rejoices"; "Cometh sunshine after rain"; "Go forth, my heart, +and seek delight"; "Be thou content: be still before"; "O world, behold +upon the tree"; "Now all the woods are sleeping"; and "Ah, wounded head, +must thou?" based on Bernard's _Salve, caput cruentatum_. To this school +also belongs _George Neumark_, librarian at Weimar, who died in A.D. 1681, +author of "Leave God to order all thy ways." Also _John Franck_, +burgomaster at Guben in Lusatia, who died A.D. 1677, next to Gerhardt the +greatest poet of his age. His 110 songs are less popular and hearty, but +more melodious than Gerhardt's; _e.g._ "Redeemer of the nations, come"; +"Ye heavens, oh haste your dews to shed"; "Deck thyself, my soul, with +gladness." _George Albinus_, pastor at Naumburg, died A.D. 1679, wrote: +"Not in anger smite us, Lord"; "World, farewell! Of thee I'm tired."--(2) +The _next stage_ of the sacred song took the Canticles instead of the +Psalter as its model. The spiritual marriage of the soul is its main +theme. Feeling and fancy are predominant, and often degenerate into +sentimentality and trifling. It obtained a new impulse from the addition +of a mystical element. _Angelus Silesius_ (§ 156, 4) was the most +distinguished representative of this school, and while Protestant he +composed several beautiful songs; _e.g._ "O Love, who formedst me to +wear"; "Thou holiest Love, whom most I love"; "Loving Shepherd, kind and +true." _Christian Knorr v. Rosenroth_, who died at Sulzbach A.D. 1689, +wrote "Dayspring of eternity." _Ludaemilie Elizabeth_, Countess of +Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, who died in A.D. 1672, wrote 215 "Songs of Jesus." +_Caspar Neumann_, professor and pastor at Breslau, died A.D. 1715, wrote, +"Lord, on earth I dwell in pain."--(3) _Those of Spener's Time and Spirit_, +men who longed for the regeneration of the church by practical +Christianity. Their hymns are for the most part characterized by healthy +piety and deep godliness. Spener's own poems are of slight importance. _J. +Jac. Schuetz_, Spener's friend, a lawyer in Frankfort, who died A.D. 1690, +composed only one, but that a very beautiful hymn: "All praise and thanks +to God most high." _Samuel Rodigast_, rector in Berlin, died A.D. 1708, +wrote, "Whate'er my God ordains is right." _Laurentius Laurentii_, musical +director at Bremen, died A.D. 1722, wrote, "Is my heart athirst to know?" +"O thou essential Word."--_Gottfried Arnold_, died A.D. 1714, wrote, "Thou +who breakest every chain"; "How blest to all thy followers, Lord, the +road!"--In Denmark, where previously translations of German hymns were +used, _Thomas Kingo_, from A.D. 1677 Bishop of Fuenen, died A.D. 1703, was +the much-honoured founder of Danish national hymnology.(27)--Continuation, +§ 166, 6. + +5. _Sacred Music (§ 142, 5)._--The church music in the beginning of the +seventeenth century was affected by the Italian school, just as church +song was by the influence of Opitz. The greatest master during the +transition stage was _John Crueger_, precentor in the church of St. +Nicholas in Berlin, died A.D. 1662. He was to the chorale what Gerhardt +was to the church song. We have seventy-one new melodies of his, admirably +adapted to Gerhardt's, Hunnius's, Franck's, Dach's, and Rinkart's songs, +and used in the church till the present time. With the second half of the +century we enter on a new period, in which expression and musical +declamation perish. Choir singing now, to a great extent, supersedes +congregational singing. _Henry Schuetz_, organist to the Elector of Saxony, +died A.D. 1672, is the great master of this Italian sacred concert style. +He introduced musical compositions on passages selected from the Psalms, +Canticles, and prophets, in his "_Symphoniae Sacrae_" of A.D. 1629. After a +short time a radical reform was made by _John Rosenmueller_, organist of +Wolfenbuettel, died A.D. 1686. A reaction against the exclusive adoption of +the Italian style was made by _Andr. Hammerschmidt_, organist at Zittau, +died A.D. 1675, one of the noblest and most pious of German musicians. By +working up the old church melodies in the modern style, he brought the old +hymns again into favour, and set hymns of contemporary poets to bright +airs suited to modern standards of taste. The accomplished musician _Rud. +Ahle_, organist and burgomaster at Muehlhausen, died A.D. 1673, introduced +his own beautiful airs into the church music for Sundays and festivals. +His sacred airs are distinguished for youthful freshness and power, +penetrated by a holy earnestness, and quite free from that secularity and +frivolousness which soon became unpleasantly conspicuous in such +music.--Continuation, § 167, 7. + +6. _The Christian Life of the People._--The rich development of sacred +poetry proves the wonderful fulness and spirituality of the religious life +of this age, notwithstanding the many chilling separatistic controversies +that prevailed during the terrible upheaval of the Thirty Years' War. The +abundance of devotional literature of permanent worth witnesses to the +diligence and piety of the Lutheran pastors. Ernest the Pious of +Saxe-Gotha, who died A.D. 1675, stands forth as the ideal of a Christian +prince. For the Christian instruction of his people he issued, in the +midst of the confusion and horrors of the war, the famous Weimar or +Ernestine exposition of the Bible, upon which John Gerhard wrought +diligently, along with other distinguished Jena theologians. It appeared +first in A.D. 1641, and by A.D. 1768 had gone through fourteen large +editions. A like service was done for South Germany by the "Wuerttemberg +Summaries," composed by three Wuerttemberg theologians at the request of +Duke Eberhard III., a concise, practical exposition of all the books of +Scripture, which for a century and a half formed the basis of the weekly +services (_Bibelstunden_) at Wuerttemberg.--Continuation, § 167, 8. + +7. _Missions._--In the Lutheran church, missionary enterprise had rather +fallen behind (§ 142, 8). Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden carried on the Lapp +mission with new zeal, and Denmark, too, gave ready assistance. A +Norwegian pastor, Thomas Westen, deserves special mention as the apostle +of the mission. A German, Peter Heyling of Luebeck, went on his own account +as a missionary to Abyssinia in A.D. 1635, while several of his friends at +the same time went to other eastern lands. Of these others no trace +whatever has been found. An Abyssinian abbot who came to Europe brought +news of Heyling. At first he was hindered by the machinations of the +Jesuits; but when these were expelled, he found favour at court, became +minister to the king, and married one of the royal family. What finally +came of him and his work is unknown. Toward the end of the century two +great men, the philosopher Leibnitz and the founder of the Halle +Orphanage, A. H. Francke, warmly espoused the cause of foreign missions. +The ambitious and pretentious schemes of the philosopher ended in nothing, +but Francke made his orphanages, training colleges and centres from which +the German Lutheran missions to the heathens were vigorously organized and +successfully wrought.--Continuation, § 167, 9. + + + + +IV. The Reformed Church. + + + +§ 161. Theology and its Battles. + + +The Reformed scholars of France vied with those of St. Maur and the +Oratory, and the Reformed theologians of the Netherlands, England, and +Switzerland were not a whit behind. But an attempt made at a general synod +at Dort to unite all the Reformed national churches under one confession +failed. Opposition to Calvin's extreme theory of predestination introduced +a Pelagianizing current into the Reformed church, which was by no means +confined to professed Arminians. In the Anglican church this tendency +appeared in the forms of latitudinarianism and deism (§ 164, 3); while in +France it took a more moderate course, and approximated rather to the +Lutheran doctrine. It was a reaction of latent Zwinglianism against the +dominant Calvinism. The Voetian school successfully opposed the +introduction of the Cartesian philosophy, and secured supremacy to a +scholasticism which held its own alongside of that of the Lutherans. In +opposition to it, the Cocceian federal school undertook to produce a +purely biblical system of theology in all its departments. + +1. _Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy._--In the _Confessio Belgica_ +of A.D. 1562 the Protestant Netherlands had already a strictly Calvinistic +symbol, but Calvinism had not thoroughly permeated the church doctrine and +constitution. There were more opponents than supporters of the doctrine of +predestination, and a Melanchthonian-synergistic (§ 141, 7), or even an +Erasmian-semipelagian, (§ 125, 3) doctrine, of the freedom of the will and +the efficacy of grace, was more frequently taught and preached than the +Augustinian-Calvinistic doctrine. So also Zwingli's view of the relation +of church and state was in much greater favour than the Calvinistic +Presbyterial church government with its terrorist discipline. But the +return of the exiles in A.D. 1572, who had adopted strict Calvinistic +views in East Friesland and on the Lower German Rhine, led to the adoption +of a purely Calvinistic creed and constitution. The keenest opponent of +this movement was Coornhert, notary and secretary for the city of Haarlem, +who combated Calvinism in numerous writings, and depreciated doctrine +generally in the interests of practical living Christianity. Political as +well as religious sympathies were enlisted in favour of this freer +ecclesiastical tendency. The Dutch War of Independence was a struggle for +religious freedom against Spanish Catholic fanaticism. The young republic +therefore became the first home of religious toleration, which was +scarcely reconcilable with a strict and exclusive Calvinism.--Meanwhile +within the Calvinistic church a controversy arose, which divided its +adherents in the Netherlands into two parties. In opposition to the strict +Calvinists, who as supralapsarians held that the fall itself was included +in the eternal counsels of God, there arose the milder infralapsarians, +who made predestination come in after the fall, which was not +predestinated but only foreseen by God. + +2. _The Arminian Controversy._--In A.D. 1588, James Arminius (born A.D. +1560), a pupil of Beza, but a declared adherent of the Ramist philosophy +(§ 143, 6), was appointed pastor in Amsterdam, and ordered by the +magistrates to controvert Coornhert's universalism and the +infralapsarianism of the ministers of Delft. He therefore studied +Coornhert's writings, and by them was shaken in his earlier beliefs. This +was shown first in certain sermons on passages from Romans, which made him +suspected of Pelagianism. In A.D. 1603 he was made theological professor +of Leyden, where he found a bitter opponent in his supralapsarian +colleague, Francis Gomarus. From the class-rooms the controversy spread to +the pulpits, and even into domestic circles. A public disputation in A.D. +1608, led to no pacific result, and Arminius continued involved in +controversies till his death in A.D. 1609. Although decidedly inclined +toward universalism, he had directed his polemic mainly against +supralapsarianism, as making God himself the author of sin. But his +followers went beyond these limits. When denounced by the Gomarists as +Pelagians, they addressed to the provincial parliament of Holland and West +Friesland, in A.D. 1610, a remonstrance, which in five articles repudiates +supralapsarianism and infralapsarianism, and the doctrines of the +irresistibility of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally +falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of grace. They +were hence called Remonstrants and their opponents Contraremonstrants. +Parliament, favourably inclined toward the Arminians, pronounced the +difference non-fundamental, and enjoined peace. When Vorstius, who was +practically a Socinian, was appointed successor to Arminius, Gomarus +charged the Remonstrants with Socinianism. Their ablest theological +representative was Simon Episcopius, who succeeded Gomarus at Leyden in +A.D. 1612, supported by the distinguished statesman, Oldenbarneveldt, and +the great jurist, humanist, and theologian, Hugo Grotius of Rotterdam. +Maurice of Orange, too, for a long time sided with them, but in A.D. 1617 +formally went over to the other party, whose well-knit unity, strict +discipline, and rigorous energy commended them to him as the fittest +associates in his struggle for absolute monarchy. The republican-Arminian +party was conquered, Oldenbarneveldt being executed in 1619, Grotius +escaping by his wife's strategem. _The Synod of Dort_ was convened for the +purpose of settling doctrinal disputes. It held 154 sessions, from Nov. +13th, 1618, to May 9th, 1619. Invitations were accepted by twenty-eight +theologians from England, Scotland, Germany, and Switzerland. Brandenburg +took no part in it (§ 154, 3), and French theologians were refused +permission to go. Episcopius presented a clear and comprehensive apology +for the Remonstrants, and bravely defended their cause before the synod. +Refusing to submit to the decisions of the synod, they were at the +fifty-seventh session expelled, and then excommunicated and deprived of +all ecclesiastical offices. The Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic +Confession were unanimously adopted as the creed and manual of orthodox +teaching. In the discussion of the five controverted points, the +opposition of the Anglican and German delegates prevented any open and +manifest insertion of supralapsarian theses, so that the synodal canons +set forth only an essentially infralapsarian theory of +predestination.--Remonstrant teachers were now expelled from most of the +states of the union. Only after Maurice's death in A.D. 1625 did they +venture to return, and in A.D. 1630 they were allowed by statute to erect +churches and schools in all the states. A theological seminary at +Amsterdam, presided over by Episcopius till his death, in A.D. 1643, rose +to be a famous seat of learning and nursery of liberal studies. The number +of congregations, however, remained small, and their importance in church +history consists rather in the development of an independent church life +than in the revival of a semipelagian and rationalistic type of +doctrine.(28) + +3. _Consequences of the Arminian Controversy._--The Dort decrees were not +accepted in Brandenburg, Hesse, and Bremen, where a moderate Calvinism +continued to prevail. In England and Scotland the Presbyterians +enthusiastically approved of the decrees, whereas the Episcopalians +repudiated them, and, rushing to the other extreme of latitudinarianism, +often showed lukewarm indifferentism in the way in which they +distinguished articles of faith as essential and non-essential. The +worthiest of the latitudinarians of this age was Chillingworth, who sought +an escape from the contentions of theologians in the Catholic church, but +soon returned to Protestantism, seeking and finding peace in God's word +alone. Archbishop Tillotson was a famous pulpit orator, and Gilbert +Burnet, who died A.D. 1715, was author of a "History of the English +Reformation." In the French Reformed church, where generally strict +Calvinism prevailed, _Amyrault_ of Saumur, who died A.D. 1664, taught a +_universalismus hypotheticus_, according to which God by a _decretum +universale et hypotheticum_ destined all men to salvation through Jesus +Christ, even the heathen, on the ground of a _fides implicita_. The only +condition is that they believe, and for this all the means are afforded in +_gratia resistibilis_, while by a _decretum absolutum et speciale_ only to +elect persons is granted the _gratia irresistibilis_. The synods of +Alencon, A.D. 1637, and Charenton, A.D. 1644, supported by Blondel, +Daille, and Claude, declared these doctrines allowable; but Du Moulin of +Sedan, Rivetus and Spanheim of Leyden, Maresius of Groningen, and others, +offered violent opposition. Amyrault's colleague, _De la Place_, or +_Placaeus_, who died A.D. 1655, went still further, repudiating the +unconditional imputation of Adam's sin, and representing original sin +simply as an evil which becomes guilt only as our own actual +transgression. The synods just named condemned this doctrine. Somewhat +later Claude _Pajon_ of Saumur, who died A.D. 1685, roused a bitter +discussion about the universality of grace, by maintaining that in +conversion divine providence wrought only through the circumstances of the +life, and the Holy Spirit through the word of God. Several French synods +condemned this doctrine, and affirmed an immediate as well as a mediate +operation of the Spirit and providence.--Genuine Calvinism was best +represented in Switzerland, as finally expressed in the _Formula +Consensus_ _Helvetica_ of Heidegger of Zuerich, adopted in A.D. 1675 by +most of the cantons. It was, like the _Formula Concordiae_, a manual of +doctrine rather than a confession. In opposition to Amyrault and De la +Place, it set forth a strict theory of predestination and original sin, +and maintained with the Buxtorfs, against Cappellus of Saumur, the +inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points. + +4. _The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies._--If not the founder, +certainly the most distinguished representative in the Netherlands of that +scholasticism which sought to expound and defend orthodoxy, was _Voetius_, +who died A.D. 1676, from A.D. 1607 pastor in various places, and from A.D. +1634 professor at Utrecht. A completely different course was pursued by +_Cocceius_ of Bremen, who died A.D. 1669, professor at Franeker in A.D. +1636, and at Leyden in A.D. 1650. The famous Zuerich theologian, Bullinger +(§ 138, 7), had in his "_Compend. Rel. Chr._" of A.D. 1556, viewed the +whole doctrine of saving truth from the point of view of a covenant of +grace between God and man; and this idea was afterwards carried out by +Olevianus of Heidelberg (§ 144, 1) in his "_De Substantia Foederis_," of +A.D. 1585. This became the favourite method of distribution of doctrine in +the whole German Reformed church. In the Dutch church it was regarded as +quite unobjectionable. In England it was adopted in the Westminster +Confession of A.D. 1648 (§ 155, 1), and in Switzerland in A.D. 1675, in +the _Formula Consensus_. Cocceius is therefore not the founder of the +federal theology. He simply gave it a new and independent development, and +freed it from the trammels of scholastic dogmatics. He distinguished a +twofold covenant of God with man: the _foedus operum s. naturae_ before, and +the _foedus gratiae_ after the fall. He then subdivided the covenant of +grace into three economies: before the law until Moses; under the law +until Christ; and after the law in the Christian church. The history of +the kingdom of God in the Christian era was arranged in seven periods, +corresponding to the seven apocalyptic epistles, trumpets, and seals. In +his treatment of his theme, he repudiated philosophy, scholasticism, and +tradition, and held simply by Scripture. He is thus the founder of a +purely biblical theology. He attached himself as closely as possible to +the prevailing predestinationist orthodoxy, but only externally. In his +view the sacred history in its various epochs adjusted itself to the needs +of human personality, and to the growing capacity for appropriating it. +Hence it was not the idea of election, but that of grace, that prevailed +in his system. Christ is the centre of all history, spiritual, +ecclesiastical, and civil; and so everything in Scripture, history, +doctrine, and prophecy, necessarily and immediately stands related to him. +The O.T. prophecies and types point to the Christ that was to come in the +flesh, and all history after Christ points to his second coming; and O. +and N.T. give an outline of ecclesiastical and civil history down to the +end of time. Thus typology formed the basis of the Cocceian theology. In +exegesis, however, Cocceius avoided all arbitrary allegorizing. It was +with him an axiom in hermeneutics, _Id significan verba, quod significare +possunt in integra oratione, sic ut omnino inter se conveniant_. Yet his +typology led him, and still more many of his adherents, into fantastic +exegetical errors in the prophetic treatment of the seven apocalyptic +periods. + +5. A controversy, occasioned by Cocceius' statement, in his commentary on +Hebrews in A.D. 1658, that the Sabbath, as enjoined by the O.T. ceremonial +law, was no longer binding, was stopped in A.D. 1659 by a State +prohibition. Voetius had not taken part in it. But when Cocceius, in A.D. +1665, taught from Romans iii. 25, that believers under the law had not +full "{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}," only a "{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}," he felt obliged to enter the lists +against this "Socinian" heresy. The controversy soon spread to other +doctrines of Cocceius and his followers, and soon the whole populace +seemed divided into Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5). The one hurled +offensive epithets at the other. The Orange political party sought and +obtained the favour of the Voetians, as before they had that of the +Gomarists; while the liberal republican party coalesced with the +Cocceians. Philosophical questions next came to be mixed up in the +discussion. The philosophy of the French Catholic _Descartes_ (§ 164, 1), +settled in A.D. 1629 in Amsterdam, had gained ground in the Netherlands. +It had indeed no connexion with Christianity or church, and its +theological friends wished only to have it recognised as a formal branch +of study. But its fundamental principle, that all true knowledge starts +from doubt, appeared to the representatives of orthodoxy as threatening +the church with serious danger. Even in A.D. 1643 Voetius opposed it, and +mainly in consequence of his polemic, the States General, in A.D. 1656, +forbad it being taught in the universities. Their common opposition to +scholasticism, however, brought Cocceians and Cartesians more closely to +one another. Theology now became influenced by Cartesianism. Roell, +professor at Franeker and Utrecht, who died A.D. 1718, taught that the +divinity of the Scriptures must be proved to the reason, since the +_testimonium Spir. s. internum_ is limited to those who already believe, +rejected the doctrine of the imputation of original sin, the doctrine that +death is for believers the punishment of sin, and the application of the +idea of eternal "generation" to the Logos, to whom the predicate of +sonship belongs only in regard to the decree of redemption and +incarnation. Another zealous Cartesian, Balth. Bekker, not only repudiated +the superstitions of the age about witchcraft (§ 117, 4), but also denied +the existence of the devil and demons. The Cocceians were in no way +responsible for such extravagances, but their opponents sought to make +them chargeable for these. The stadtholder, William III., at last issued +an order, in A.D. 1694, which checked for a time the violence of the +strife. + +6. _Theological Literature._--Biblical oriental philology flourished in the +Reformed church of this age. _Drusius_ of Franeker, who died A.D. 1616, +was the greatest Old Testament exegete of his day. The two _Buxtorfs_ of +Basel, the father died A.D. 1629, the son A.D. 1664, the greatest +Christian rabbinical scholars, wrote Hebrew and Chaldee grammars, +lexicons, and concordances, and maintained the antiquity and even +inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points against Cappellus of Saumur. +_Hottinger_ of Zuerich, who died A.D. 1667, vied with both in his knowledge +of oriental literature and languages, and wrote extensively on biblical +philology, and besides found time to write a comprehensive and learned +church history. _Cocceius_, too, occupies a respectable place among Hebrew +lexicographers. In England, both before and after the Restoration, +scholarship was found, not among the controversial Puritans, but among the +Episcopal clergy. _Brian Walton_, who died A.D. 1661, aided by the English +scholars, issued an edition of the "London Polyglott" in six vols., in +A.D. 1657, which, in completeness of material and apparatus, as well as in +careful textual criticism, leaves earlier editions far behind. _Edm. +Castellus_ of Cambridge in A.D. 1669 published his celebrated "_Lexicon +Heptaglottum_." The Elzevir printing-house at Amsterdam and Leyden, boldly +assuming the prerogatives of the whole body of theological scholars, +issued a _textus receptus_ of the N.T. in A.D. 1624. The best established +exegetical results of earlier times were collected by Pearson in his great +compendium, the "_Critici Sacri_," nine vols. fol., London, 1660; and +Matthew Pool in his "_Synopsis Criticorum_," five vols. fol., London, +1669. Among the exegetes of this time the brothers, J. Cappellus of Sedan, +who died A.D. 1624, and Louis Cappellus II. of Saumur, who died A.D. 1658, +were distinguished for their linguistic knowledge and liberal criticism. +_Pococke_ of Oxford and _Lightfoot_ of Cambridge were specially eminent +orientalists. _Cocceius_ wrote commentaries on almost all the books of +Scripture, and his scholar _Vitringa_ of Franeker, who died A.D. 1716, +gained great reputation by his expositions of Isaiah and the Apocalypse. +Among the Arminians the famous statesman _Grotius_, who died A.D. 1645, +was the greatest master of grammatico-historical exposition in the +century, and illustrated Scripture from classical literature and +philology. The Reformed church too gave brilliant contributions to +biblical archaeology and history. _John Selden_ wrote "_De Syndriis Vett. +Heb._," "_De diis Syris_," etc. _Goodwin_ wrote "Moses and Aaron." +_Ussher_ wrote "_Annales V. et N.T._" _Spencer_ wrote "_De Legibus Heb._" +The Frenchman _Bochart_, in his "_Hierozoicon_" and "_Phaleg_," made +admirable contributions to the natural history and geography of the Bible. + +7. Dogmatic theology was cultivated mainly in the Netherlands. +_Maccovius_, a Pole, who died A.D. 1644, a professor at Franeker, +introduced the scholastic method into Reformed dogmatics. The Synod of +Dort cleared him of the charge of heresy made against him by Amesius, but +condemned his method. Yet it soon came into very general use. Its chief +representatives were Maresius of Groningen, Voetius and Mastricht of +Utrecht, Hoornbeck of Leyden, and the German Wendelin, rector of Zerbst. +Among the Cocceians the most distinguished were Heidanus of Leyden, Alting +of Groningen, and, above all, Hermann Witsius of Franeker, whose "Economy +of the Covenants" is written in a conciliatory spirit. The most +distinguished Arminian dogmatist after Episcopius was _Phil. Limborch_ of +Amsterdam, who died A.D. 1712, in high repute also as an apologist, +exegete, and historian. The greatest dogmatist of the Anglican church was +_Pearson_, who died A.D. 1686, author of "An Exposition of the Creed." The +Frenchman _Peyrerius_ obtained great notoriety from his statement, founded +on Romans v. 12, that Adam was merely the ancestor of the Jews (Gen. ii. +7), while the Gentiles were of pre-Adamite origin (Gen. i. 26), and also +by maintaining that the flood had been only partial. He gained release +from prison by joining the Catholic church and recanted, but still held by +his earlier views.--Ethics, consisting hitherto of little more than an +exposition of the decalogue, was raised by _Amyrault_ into an independent +science. Amesius dealt with cases of conscience. _Grotius_, in his "_De +Veritate Relig. Chr._" and _Abbadie_, French pastor at Berlin, and +afterwards in London, who died A.D. 1727, in his "_Verite de la Rel. +Chret._," distinguished themselves as apologists. _Claude_ and _Jurieu_ +gained high reputation as controversialists against Catholicism and its +persecution of the Huguenots.--The Reformed church also in the interests of +polemics pursued historical studies. Hottinger of Zuerich, Spanheim of +Leyden, Sam. Basnage of Zuetpfen, and Jac. Basnage of the Hague, produced +general church histories. Among the numerous historical monographs the +most important are _Hospinian's_ "_De Templis_," "_De Monachis_," "_De +Festis_," "_Hist. Sacramentaria_," "_Historia Jesuitica_"; _Blondel's_ +"_Ps.-Isidorus_," "_De la Primaute de l'Egl._," "_Question si une Femme a +ete Assisse au Siege Papal_" (§ 82, 6), "_Apologia sent. Hieron. de +Presbyt._" Also _Daille_ of Saumur on the non-genuineness of the +"Apostolic Constitutions" and the Ps.-Dionysian writings, and his "_De Usu +Patrum_" in opposition to Cave's Catholicizing over-estimation of the +Fathers. We have also the English scholar _Ussher_, who died A.D. 1656, +"_Brit. Ecclesiarum Antiquitates_"; H. Dodwell, who died A.D. 1711, +"_Diss. Cyprianicae_," etc.; Wm. Cave, who died A.D. 1713, "Hist. of App. +and Fathers," "_Scriptorum Ecclst. Hist. Literaria_," etc.--Special mention +should be made of _Eisenmenger_, professor of oriental languages at +Heidelberg. In his "_Entdecktes Judenthum_," two vols. quarto, moved by +the over-bearing arrogance of the Jews of his day, he made an immense +collection of absurdities and blasphemies of rabbinical theology from +Jewish writings. At his own expense he printed 2,000 copies; for these the +Jews offered him 12,000 florins, but he demanded 30,000. They now +persuaded the court at Venice to confiscate them before a single copy was +sold. Eisenmenger died in A.D. 1704, and his heirs vainly sought to have +the copies of his work given up to them. Even the appeal of Frederick I. +of Prussia was refused. Only when the king had resolved, in A.D. 1711, at +his own expense to publish an edition from one copy that had escaped +confiscation, was the Frankfort edition at last given back. + +8. _The Apocrypha Controversy (§ 136, 4)._--In A.D. 1520 Carlstadt raised +the question of the books found only in the LXX., and answered it in the +style of Jerome (§ 59, 1). Luther gave them in his translation as an +appendix to the O.T. with the title "Apocrypha, _i.e._ Books, not indeed +of Holy Scripture, but useful and worthy to be read." Reformed confessions +took up the same position. The Belgic Confession agreed indeed that these +books should be read in church, and proof passages taken from them, in so +far as they were in accord with the canonical Scriptures. The Anglican +Book of Common Prayer gives readings from these books. On the other hand, +although at the Synod of Dort the proposal to remove at least the +apocryphal books of Ezra or Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Bel and the Dragon, was +indeed rejected, it was ordered that in future all apocryphal books should +be printed in smaller type than the canonical books, should be separately +paged, with a special title, and with a preface and marginal notes where +necessary. Their exclusion from all editions of the Bible was first +insisted on by English and Scotch Puritans. This example was followed by +the French, but not by the German, Swiss, and Dutch Reformed +churches.--Continuation, § 182, 4. + + + +§ 162. The Religious Life.(29) + + +The religious life in the Reformed church is characterized generally by +harsh legalism, rigorous renunciation of the world, and a thorough +earnestness, coupled with decision and energy of will, which nothing in +the world can break or bend. It is the spirit of Calvin which impresses on +it this character, and determines its doctrine. Only where Calvin's +influence was less potent, _e.g._ in the Lutheranized German Reformed, the +catholicized Anglican Episcopal Church, and among the Cocceians, is this +tendency less apparent or altogether wanting. On the other hand, often +carried to the utmost extreme, it appears among the English Puritans (§§ +143, 3; 155, 1) and the French Huguenots (§ 153, 4), where it was fostered +by persecution and oppression. + +1. _England and Scotland._--During the period of the English Revolution (§ +155, 1, 2), after the overthrow of Episcopacy, Puritanism became dominant; +and the incongruous and contradictory elements already existing within it +assumed exaggerated proportions (§ 143, 3, 4), until at last the opposing +parties broke out into violent contentions with one another. The ideal of +Scottish and English _Presbyterianism_ was the setting up of the kingdom +of Christ as a theocracy, in which church and state were blended after the +O.T. pattern. Hence all the institutions of church and state were to be +founded on Scripture models, while all later developments were set aside +as deteriorations from that standard. The ecclesiastical side of this +ideal was to be realized by the establishment of a spiritual aristocracy +represented in presbyteries and synods, which, ruling the presbyteries +through the synods, and the congregations through the presbyteries, +regarded itself as called and under obligation to inspect and supervise +all the details of the private as well as public life of church members, +and all this too by Divine right. Regarding their system as alone having +divine institution, Presbyterians could not recognise any other religious +or ecclesiastical party, and must demand uniformity, not only in regard to +doctrine and creed, but also in regard to constitution, discipline, and +worship.(30)--On the other hand, _Independent Congregationalism_, inasmuch +as it made prominent the N.T. ideas of the priesthood of all believers and +spiritual freedom, demanded unlimited liberty to each separate +congregation, and unconditional equality for all individual church +members. It thus rejected the theocratic ideal of Presbyterianism, strove +after a purely democratic constitution, and recognised toleration of all +religious views as a fundamental principle of Christianity. Every attempt +to secure uniformity and stability of forms of worship was regarded as a +repressing of the Spirit of God operating in the church, and so alongside +of the public services private conventicles abounded, in which believers +sought to promote mutual edification. But soon amid the upheavals of this +agitated period a fanatical spirit spread among the various sects of the +Independents. The persecutions under Elizabeth and the Stuarts had +awakened a longing for the return of the Lord, and the irresistible +advance of Cromwell's army, composed mostly of Independents, made it +appear as if the millennium was close at hand. Thus chiliasm came to be a +fundamental principle of Independency, and soon too prophecy made its +appearance to interpret and prepare the way for that which was coming. +From the _Believers_ of the old Dutch times we now come to the _Saints_ of +the early Cromwell period. These regarded themselves as called, in +consequence of their being inspired by God's Spirit, to form the "kingdom +of the saints" on earth promised in the last days, and hence also, from +Daniel ii. and vii., they were called Fifth Monarchy Men. The so called +Short Parliament of A.D. 1653, in which these Saints were in a majority, +had already laid the first stones of this structure by introducing civil +marriage, with the strict enforcement, however, of Matthew v. 32, as well +as by the abolition of all rights of patronage and all sorts of +ecclesiastical taxes, when Cromwell dissolved it. The Saints had not and +would not have any fixed, formulated theological system. They had, +however, a most lively interest in doctrine, and produced a great +diversity of Scripture expositions and dogmatic views, so that their +deadly foes, the Presbyterians, could hurl against them old and new +heretical designations by the hundred. The fundamental doctrine of +predestination, common to all Puritans, was, even with them, for the most +part, a presupposition of all theological speculation. + +2. At the same time with the _Saints_ there appeared among the +Independents the _Levellers_, political and social revolutionists, rather +than an ecclesiastical and religious sect. They were unjustly charged with +claiming an equal distribution of goods. Over against the absolutist +theories of the Stuarts, all the Independents maintained that the king, +like all other civil magistrates, is answerable at all times and in all +circumstances to the people, to whom all sovereignty originally and +inalienably belongs. This principle was taken by the Levellers as the +starting-point of their reforms. As their first regulative principle in +reconstructing the commonwealth and determining the position of the church +therein they did not take the theocratic constitution of the O.T., as the +Presbyterians did, nor the biblical revelation of the N.T., as the +moderate Independents did, nor even the modern professed prophecy of the +"Saints," but the law of nature as the basis of all revelation, and +already grounded in creation, with the sovereignty of the people as its +ultimate foundation. While the rest of the Independents held by the idea +of a Christian state, and only claimed that all Christian denominations, +with the exception of the Catholics (§ 153, 6), should enjoy all political +rights, the Levellers demanded complete separation of church and state. +This therefore implied, on the one hand, the non-religiousness of the +state, and, on the other, again with the exception of Catholics, the +absolute freedom, independence, and equality of all religious parties, +even non-Christian sects and atheists. Yet all the while the Levellers +themselves were earnestly and warmly attached to Christian truth as held +by the other Independents.--Roger Williams (§ 163, 3), a Baptist minister, +in A.D. 1631 transplanted the first seeds of Levellerism from England to +North America, and by his writings helped again to spread those views in +England. When he returned home in A.D. 1651 he found the sect already +flourishing. The ablest leader of the English Levellers was John Lilburn. +In A.D. 1638, when scarcely twenty years old, he was flogged and sentenced +to imprisonment for life, because he had printed Puritan writings in +Holland and had them circulated in England. Released on the outbreak of +the Revolution, he joined the Parliamentary army, was taken prisoner by +the Royalists and sentenced to death, but escaped by flight. He was again +imprisoned for writing libels on the House of Lords. Set free by the Rump +Parliament, he became colonel in Cromwell's army, but was banished the +country when it was found that the spread of radicalism endangered +discipline. Till the dissolution of the Short Parliament his followers +were in thorough sympathy with the Saints. Afterwards their ways went more +and more apart; the Saints drifted into Quakerism (§ 163, 4), while the +Levellers degenerated into deism (§ 164, 3). + +3. Out of the religious commotion prevailing in England before, during, +and after the Revolution there sprang up a voluminous _devotional +literature_, intended to give guidance and directions for holy living. Its +influence was felt in foreign lands, especially in the Reformed churches +of the continent, and even German Lutheran Pietism was not unaffected by +it (§ 159, 3). That this movement was not confined to the Puritans, among +whom it had its origin, is seen from the fact that during the seventeenth +century many such treatises were issued from the University Press of +Cambridge. _Lewis Bayly_, Bishop of Bangor A.D. 1616-1632, wrote one of +the most popular books of this kind, "The Practice of Piety," which was in +A.D. 1635 in its thirty-second and in A.D. 1741 in its fifty-first +edition, and was also widely circulated in Dutch, French, German, +Hungarian, and Polish translations.--Out of the vast number of important +personages of the Revolution period we name the following three: (1) In +_John Milton_, the highly gifted poet as well as eloquent and powerful +politician, born A.D. 1608, died A.D. 1674, we find, on the basis of a +liberal classical training received in youth, all the motive powers of +Independency, from the original Puritan zeal for the faith and Reformation +to the politico-social radicalism of the Levellers, combined in full and +vigorous operation. From Italy, the beloved land of classical science and +artistic culture, he was called back to England in A.D. 1640 at the first +outburst of freedom-loving enthusiasm (§ 155, 1), and made the thunder of +his controversial treatises ring over the battlefield of parties. He +fought against the narrowness of Presbyterian control of conscience not +less energetically than against the hierarchism of the Episcopal church; +vindicates the permissibility of divorce (in view, no doubt, of his own +first unhappy marriage); advanced in his "_Areopagitica_" of A.D. 1644 a +plea for the unrestricted liberty of the press; pulverized in his +"_Iconoclastes_" of A.D. 1649 the {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, ascribed to Charles I.; +in several tracts, "_Defensio pro Populo Anglicano_" etc., justified the +execution of the king against Salmasius's "_Defensio Regia pro Carolo +I._"; and, even after he had in A.D. 1652 become incurably blind, he +continued unweariedly his polemics till silenced by the Restoration. The +"_Iconoclastes_" and "_Defensio_" were burned by the hangman, but he +himself was left unmolested. He now devoted himself to poetry. "Paradise +Lost" appeared in A.D. 1665, and "Paradise Regained" in A.D. 1671. To this +period, when he had probably turned his back on all existing religious +parties, belongs the composition of his "_De doctrina Christiana_," a +first attempt at a purely biblical theology, Arian in its Christology and +Arminian in its soteriology.(31)--(2) _Richard Baxter_, born A.D. 1615, +died A.D. 1691, was quite a different sort of man, and showed throughout a +decidedly ironical tendency. At once attracted and repelled by the +Independent movement in Cromwell's army, he joined the force in A.D. 1645 +as military chaplain, hoping to moderate, if not to check, their +extravagances. A severe illness obliged him to withdraw in A.D. 1647. +After his recovery he returned to his former post as assistant-minister at +Kidderminster in Worcestershire, and there remained till driven out by the +Act of Uniformity of A.D. 1662 (§ 155, 3). Those fourteen years formed the +period of his most successful labours. He then composed most of his +numerous devotional works, three of which, "The Saint's Everlasting Rest," +"The Reformed Pastor," "A Call to the Unconverted," are still widely read +in the original and in translations. At first he hoped much from the +Restoration; but when, on conscientious grounds, he refused a bishopric, +he met only with persecution, ill treatment, and imprisonment. Through +William's Act of Toleration of A.D. 1689, he was allowed to pass the last +year of his life in London. On the doctrine of predestination he took the +moderate position of Amyrault (§ 161, 3). His ideal church constitution +was a blending of Presbyterianism and Episcopacy, by restoring the +original episcopal constitution of the second century, when even the +smaller churches had each its own bishop with a presbytery by his +side.(32)--(3) _John Bunyan_, born A.D. 1628, died A.D. 1688, was in his +youth a tinker or brazier, and as such seems to have led a rough, wild +life. On the outbreak of the Civil War in A.D. 1642, he was drafted into +the Parliamentary army.(33) At the close of the war he married a poor girl +from a Puritan family, whose only marriage portion consisted in two +Puritan books of devotion. It was now that the birthday of a new spiritual +life began to dawn in him. He joined the Baptist Independents, the most +zealous of the Saints of that time, was baptized by them in A.D. 1655, and +travelled the country as a preacher, attracting thousands around him +everywhere by his glorious eloquence. In A.D. 1660 he was thrown into +prison, from which he was released by the Indulgence of A.D. 1672 (§ 155, +3). He now settled in Bedford, and from this time till his death, amid +persecution and oppression, continued his itinerant preaching with +ever-increasing zeal and success. "The Pilgrim's Progress" was written by +him in prison. It is an allegory of the freshest and most lively form, +worthy to rank alongside the "Imitation of Christ" (§ 114, 7). In it the +fanatical endeavour of the Saints to rear a millennial kingdom on earth is +transfigured into a struggle overcoming all hindrances to secure an +entrance into the heavenly Zion above. It has passed through numberless +editions, and has been translated into almost all known languages.(34) + +4. _The Netherlands._--From England the Reformed Pietism was transplanted +to the Netherlands, where _William Teellinck_ may be regarded as its +founder. After finishing his legal studies he resided for a while in +England, where he made the acquaintance of the Puritans and their +writings, and was deeply impressed with their earnest and pious family +life. He then went to Leyden to study theology, and in A.D. 1606 began a +ministry that soon bore fruit. He was specially blessed at Middelburg in +Zealand, where he died A.D. 1629. His writings, larger and smaller, more +than a hundred in number, in which a peculiar sweetness of mystical love +for the Redeemer is combined with stern Calvinistic views, after the style +of St. Bernard, were circulated widely in numerous editions, eagerly read +in many lands, and for fully a century exerted a powerful influence +throughout the whole Reformed church. Teellinck in no particular departed +from the prevailing orthodoxy, but unwittingly toned down its harshness in +his tracts, and with the gentleness characteristic of him counselled +brotherly forbearance amid the bitterness of the Arminian controversy. In +spite of much hostility, which his best efforts could not prevent, many +university theologians stood by his side as warm admirers of his writings. +It will not be wondered at that among these was the pious Amesius of +Franeker (§ 161, 7), the scholar of the able Perkins (§ 143, 5); but it is +more surprising to find here the powerful champion of scholastic +orthodoxy, Voetius of Utrecht, and his vigorous partisan, Hoornbeeck of +Leyden. _Voetius_ especially, who even in his preacademic career as a +pastor had pursued a peculiarly exemplary and godly life, styled Teellinck +the Reformed Thomas a Kempis, and owned his deep indebtedness to his +devout writings. He opened his academic course in A.D. 1634 with an +introductory discourse, "_De Pietate cum Scientia conjungenda_," and year +after year gave lectures on ascetical theology, out of which grew his +treatise published in A.D. 1664, "_{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} s. Exercita Pietatis in +usum Juventutis Acad._," which is a complete exposition of evangelical +practical divinity in a thoroughly scholastic form. + +5. During the controversy in the Dutch Reformed Church between _Voetians +and Cocceians_, beginning in A.D. 1658, the former favoured the pietistic +movement. In the German Pietist controversy the Cocceians were with the +Pietists in their biblical orthodoxy joined with confessional +indifferentism, but with the orthodox in their liberality and breadth on +matters of life and conduct. The earnest, practical piety of the Voetians, +again, made them sympathise with the Lutheran Pietists, and their zeal for +pure doctrine and the Church confession brought them into relation with +the orthodox Lutherans. As discord between the theologians arose over the +obligation of the Sabbath law, so the difference among the people arose +out of the question of Sabbath observance. The Voetians maintained that +the decalogue prohibition of any form of work on Sabbath was still fully +binding, while the Cocceians, on the ground of Mark ii. 27, Galatians iv. +9, Colossians ii. 16, etc., denied its continued obligation, their wives +often, to the annoyance of the Voetians, sitting in the windows after +Divine service with their knitting or sewing. But the opposition did not +stop there; it spread into all departments of life. The Voetians set great +value upon fasting and private meditation, avoided all public games and +plays, dressed plainly, and observed a simple, pious mode of life; their +pastors wore a clerical costume, etc. The Cocceians, again, fell in with +the customs of the time, mingled freely in the mirth and pastimes of the +people, went to public festivals and entertainments, their women dressed +in elegant, stylish attire, their pastors were not bound by hard and fast +symbols, but had full Scripture freedom, etc.--Continuation, § 169, 2. + +6. _France, Germany, and Switzerland._--The Reformed church of _France_ has +gained imperishable renown as a martyr-church. Fanatical excesses, +however, appeared among the prophets of the Cevennes (§ 153, 4), the +fruits of which continued down into the eighteenth century, and appeared +now and again in England, Holland, and Germany (§ 160, 2, 7).--In _Germany_ +the Reformed church, standing side by side with the numerically far larger +Lutheran church, had much of the sternness and severity that characterized +the Romanic-Calvinistic party in doctrine, worship, and life greatly +modified; but where the Reformed element was predominant, as in the Lower +Rhine, it was correspondingly affected by a contrary influence. The +Reformed church in Germany in its service of praise kept to the psalms of +Marot and Lobwasser (§ 143, 2). Maurice of Hesse published Lobwasser's in +A.D. 1612, accompanied by some new bright melodies, for the use of the +churches in the land. Lutheran hymns, however, gradually found their way +into the Reformed church, which also produced two gifted poets of its own. +_Louisa Henrietta_, Princess of Orange, wife of the great elector, and +Paul Gerhardt's sovereign, wrote "Jesus my Redeemer lives"; and _Joachim +Neander_, pastor in Bremen, wrote, "Thou most Highest! Guardian of +mankind," "To heaven and earth and sea and air," "Here behold me, as I +cast me."--In German _Switzerland_ the noble _Breitinger_ of Zuerich, who +died A.D. 1645, the greatest successor of Zwingli and Bullinger, wrought +successfully during a forty years' ministry, and did much to revive and +quicken the church life. That the spirit of Calvin and Beza still breathed +in the church of Geneva is proved by the reception given there to such men +as Andreae (§ 160, 1), Labadie (§ 163, 7), and Spener (§ 159, 3). + +7. _Foreign Missions._--From two sides the Reformed church had outlets for +its Christian love in the work of foreign missions; on the one side by the +cession of the Portuguese East Indian colonies to the Netherlands in the +beginning of the seventeenth century, and on the other side by the +continuous formation of English colonies in North America throughout the +whole century. In regard to missionary effort, the Dutch government +followed in the footsteps of her Portuguese predecessors. She insisted +that all natives, before getting a situation, should be baptized and have +signed the Belgic Confession, and many who fulfilled these conditions +remained as they had been before. But the English Puritans settled in +America showed a zeal for the conversion of the Indians more worthy of the +Protestant name. John Eliot, who is rightly styled the apostle of the +Indians, devoted himself with unwearied and self-denying love for half a +century to this task. He translated the Bible into their language, and +founded seventeen Indian stations, of which during his lifetime ten were +destroyed in a bloody war. Eliot's work was taken up by the Mayhew family, +who for five generations wrought among the Indians. The last of the noble +band, Zacharias Mayhew, died on the mission field in A.D. 1803, in his +87th year.(35)--Continuation, § 172, 5. + + + + +V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties. + + + +§ 163. Sects and Fanatics. + + +Socinianism during the first decades of the century made extraordinary +progress in Poland, but then collapsed under the persecution of the +Jesuits. Related to the continental Anabaptists were the English Baptists, +who rejected infant baptism; while the Quakers, who adopted the old +fanatical theory of an inner light, set baptism and the Lord's supper +entirely aside. In the sect of the Labadists we find a blending of +Catholic quietist mysticism and Calvinistic Augustinianism. Besides those +regular sects, there were various individual enthusiasts and separatists. +These were most rife in the Netherlands, where the free civil constitution +afforded a place of refuge for all exiles on account of their faith. Here +only was the press free enough to serve as a thoroughgoing propaganda of +mysticism and theosophy. Finally the Russian sects, hitherto little +studied, call for special attention. + +1. _The Socinians (§ 148, 4)._--The most important of the Socinian +congregations in _Poland_, for the most part small and composed almost +exclusively of the nobility, was that at Racau in the Sendomir Palatinate. +Founded in 1569, this city, since 1600 under James Sieninski, son of the +founder, recognised Socinianism as the established religion; and an +academy was formed there which soon occupied a distinguished position, and +gave such reputation to the place that it could be spoken of as "the +Sarmatian Athens." But the congregation at Lublin, next in importance to +that of Racau, was destroyed as early as 1627 by the mob under fanatical +excitement caused by the Jesuits. The same disaster befell Racau itself +eleven years later. A couple of idle schoolboys had thrown stones at a +wooden crucifix standing before the city gate, and had been for this +severely punished by their parents, and turned out of school. The +Catholics, however, made a complaint before the senate, where the Jesuits +secured a sentence that the school should be destroyed, the church taken +from "the Arians," the printing press closed, but the ministers and +teachers outlawed and branded with infamy. And the Jesuits did not rest +until the Reichstag at Warsaw in 1658 issued decrees of banishment against +"all Arians," and forbad the profession of "Arianism" under pain of +death.--The Davidist non-adoration party of _Transylvanian_ Unitarians (§ +148, 3) was finally overcome, and the endeavours after conformity with the +Polish Socinians prevailed at the Diet of Deesch in 1638, where all +Unitarian communities engaged to offer worship to Christ, and to accept +the baptismal formula of Matthew xxviii. 19. And under the standard of +this so called _Complanatio Deesiana_ 106 Unitarian congregations, with a +membership of 60,000 souls, exist in Transylvania to this day.--In +_Germany_ Socinianism had, even in the beginning of the century, a secret +nursery in the University of Altdorf, belonging to the territory of the +imperial city of Nuremberg. Soner, professor of medicine, had been won +over to this creed by Socinians residing at Leyden, where he had studied +in 1597, 1598, and now used his official position at Altdorf for, not only +instilling his Unitarian doctrines by means of private philosophical +conversations into the minds of his numerous students, who flocked to him +from Poland, Transylvania, and Hungary, but also for securing the adhesion +of several German students. Only after his death in 1612 did the Nuremberg +council come to know about this propaganda. A strict investigation was +then made, all Poles were expelled, and all the Socinian writings that +could be discovered were burned.--The later Polish Exultants sought and +found refuge in Germany, especially in Silesia, Prussia, and Brandenburg, +as well as in the Reformed Palatinate, and also founded some small +Unitarian congregations, which, however, after maintaining for a while a +miserable existence, gradually passed out of view. They had greater +success and spread more widely in the _Netherlands_, till the +states-general of 1653, in consequence of repeated synodal protests, and +on the ground of an opinion given by the University of Leyden, issued a +strict edict against the Unitarians, who now gradually passed over to the +ranks of the Remonstrants (§ 161, 2) and the Collegiants. Also in +_England_, since the time of Henry VIII., antitrinitarian confessors and +martyrs were to be found. Even in 1611, under James I., three of them had +been consigned to the flames. The Polish Socinians took occasion from this +to send the king a Racovian Catechism; but in 1614 it was, by order of +parliament, burned by the hands of the hangman. The Socinians were also +excluded from the benefit of the Act of Toleration of 1689, which was +granted to all other dissenters (§ 155, 3). The progress of deism, +however, among the upper classes (§§ 164, 3; 171, 1) did much to prevent +the extreme penal laws being carried into execution.--The following are the +most distinguished among the numerous learned theologians of the Augustan +age of Socinian scholarship, who contributed to the extending, +establishing, and vindicating of the system of their church by exegetical, +dogmatic, and polemical writings: John Crell, died 1631; Jonas +Schlichting, died 1661; Von Wolzogen, died 1661; and Andr. Wissowatius, a +grandson of Faustus Socinus, died 1678; and with these must also be ranked +the historian of Polish Socinianism, Stanislaus Lubienicki, died 1675, +whose "_Hist. Reformat. Polonicae_," etc., was published at Amsterdam in +1685. + +2. _The Baptists of the Continent._--(1) _The Dutch Baptists_ (§ 147, 2). +Even during Menno's lifetime the Mennonites had split into the _Coarse_ +and the _Fine_. The _Coarse_, who had abandoned much of the primitive +severity of the sect, and were by far the most numerous, were again +divided during the Arminian controversy into Remonstrants and +Predestinationists. The former, from their leader, were called Galenists, +and from having a lamb as the symbol of their Church, Lambists. The latter +were called Apostoolers from their leader, and Sunists because their +churches had the figure of the sun as a symbol. The Lambists, who +acknowledged no confession of faith, were most numerous. In A.D. 1800, +however, a union of the two parties was effected, the Sunists adopting the +doctrinal position of the Lambists.--During the time when Arminian pastors +were banished from the Netherlands, three brothers Van der Kodde founded a +sect of _Collegiants_, which repudiated the clerical office, assigned +preaching and dispensation of sacraments to laymen, and baptized only +adults by immersion. Their place of baptism was Rhynsburg on the Rhine, +and hence they were called Rhynsburgers. Their other name was given them +from their assemblies, which they styled _collegia_.--(2) _The Moravian +Baptists_ (§ 147, 3). The Thirty Years' War ruined the flourishing Baptist +congregations in Moravia, and the reaction against all non-Catholics that +followed the battle of the White Mountain near Prague, in A.D. 1620, told +sorely against them. In A.D. 1622 a decree for their banishment was +issued, and these quiet, inoffensive men were again homeless fugitives. +Remnants of them fled into Hungary and Transylvania, only to meet new +persecutions there. A letter of protection from Leopold I., A.D. 1659, +secured them the right of settling in three counties around Pressburg. But +soon these rigorous persecutions broke out afresh; they were beset by +Jesuits seeking to convert them, and when this failed they were driven out +or annihilated. At last, by A.D. 1757-1762, they were completely broken +up, and most of them had joined the Roman Catholic church. A few families +preserved their faith by flight into South Russia, where they settled in +Wirschenka. When the Toleration Edict of Joseph II., of A.D. 1781, secured +religious freedom to Protestants in Austria, several returned again to the +faith of their fathers, in the hope that the toleration would be extended +to them; but they were bitterly disappointed. They now betook themselves +to Russia, and together with their brethren already there, settled in the +Crimea, where they still constitute the colony of Hutersthal. + +3. _The English Baptists._--The notion that infant baptism is objectionable +also found favour among the English Independents. Owing to the slight +importance attached to the sacraments generally, and more particularly to +baptism, in the Reformed church, especially among the Independents, the +supporters of the practice of the church in regard to baptism to a large +extent occupied common ground with its opponents. The separation took +place only after the rise of the fanatical prophetic sects (§ 161, 1). We +must, however, distinguish from the continental Anabaptists the English +Baptists, who enjoyed the benefit of the Toleration Act of William III., +of A.D. 1689, along with the other dissenters, by maintaining their +Independent-Congregationalist constitution (§ 155, 3). In A.D. 1691, over +the Arminian question, they split up into Particular and General, or +Regular and Free Will, Baptists. The former, by far the more numerous, +held by the Calvinistic doctrine of _gratia particularis_, while the +latter rejected it. The Seventh-Day Baptists, who observed the seventh +instead of the first day of the week, were founded by Bampfield in A.D. +1665.(36)--From England the Baptists spread to North America, in A.D. 1630, +where Roger Williams (§ 162, 2), one of their first leaders, founded the +little state of Rhode Island, and organized it on thoroughly +Baptist-Independent principles.(37)--Continuation, § 170, 6. + +4. _The Quakers._--_George Fox_, born A.D. 1624, died A.D. 1691, was son of +a poor Presbyterian weaver in Drayton, Leicestershire. After scant +schooling he went to learn shoemaking at Nottingham, but in A.D. 1643 +abandoned the trade. Harassed by spiritual conflicts, he wandered about +seeking peace for his soul. Upon hearing an Independent preach on 2 Peter +i. 19, he was moved loudly to contradict the preacher. "What we have to do +with," he said, "is not the word, but the Spirit by which those men of God +spake and wrote." He was seized as a disturber of public worship, but was +soon after released. In A.D. 1649 he travelled the country preaching and +teaching, addressing every man as "thou," raising his hat to none, +greeting none, attracting thousands by his preaching, often imprisoned, +flogged, tortured, hunted like a wild beast. The core of his preaching +was, not Scripture, but the Spirit, not Christ without but Christ within, +not outward worship, not churches, "steeple-houses," and bells, not +doctrines and sacraments, but only the inner light, which is kindled by +God in the conscience of every man, renewed and quickened by the Spirit of +Christ, which suddenly lays hold upon it. The number of his followers +increased from day to day. In A.D. 1652 he found, along with his friends, +a kindly shelter in the house of Thomas Fell, of Smarthmore near Preston, +and in his wife Margaret a motherly counsellor, who devoted her whole life +to the cause. They called themselves "The Society of Friends." The name +Quaker was given as a term of reproach by a violent judge, whom Fox bad +"quake before the word of God." After the overthrow of the hopes of the +Saints through the dissolution of the Short Parliament and Cromwell's +apostasy (§ 155, 2), many of them joined the Quakers, and led them into +revolutionary and fanatical excesses. Confined hitherto to the northern +counties, they now spread in London and Bristol, and over all the south of +England. In January, A.D. 1655, they held a fortnight's general meeting at +Swannington, in Leicestershire. Crowds of apostles went over into Ireland, +to North America and the West Indies, to Holland, Germany, France, and +Italy, and even to Constantinople. They did not meet with great success. +In Italy they encountered the Inquisition, and in North America the +severest penal laws were passed against them. In A.D. 1656 James Naylor, +one of their most famous leaders, celebrated at Bristol the second coming +of Christ "in the Spirit," by enacting the scene of Christ's triumphal +entry into Jerusalem. But the king of the new Israel was scourged, branded +on the forehead with the letter B as a blasphemer, had his tongue pierced +with a redhot iron, and was then cast into prison. Many absurd +extravagances of this kind, which drew down upon them frequent +persecutions, as well as the failure of their foreign missionary +enterprises, brought most of the Quakers to adopt more sober views. The +great mother Quakeress, Margaret Fell, exercised a powerful influence in +this direction. George Fox, too, out of whose hands the movement had for a +long time gone, now lent his aid. Naylor himself, in A.D. 1659, issued a +recantation, addressed "to all the people of the Lord," in which he made +the confession, "My judgment was turned away, and I was a captive under +the power of darkness." + +5. The movement of Quakerism in the direction of sobriety and common sense +was carried out to its fullest extent during the Stuart Restoration, A.D. +1660-1688. Abandoning their revolutionary tendencies through dislike to +Cromwell's violence, and giving up most of their fanatical extravagances, +the Quakers became models of quiet, orderly living. Robert Barclay, by his +"_Catechesis et Fidei Confessio_," of A.D. 1673, gave a sort of symbolic +expression to their belief, and vindicated his doctrinal positions in his +"_Theologiae vere Christianae Apologia_" of A.D. 1676. During this period +many of them laid down their lives for their faith. On the other side of +the sea they formed powerful settlements, distinguished for religious +toleration and brotherly love. The chief promoter of this new departure +was _William Penn_, A.D. 1644-1718, son of an English admiral, who, while +a student at Oxford, was impressed by a Quaker's preaching, and led to +attend the prayer and fellowship meetings of the Friends. In order to +break his connexion with this party, his father sent him, in A.D. 1661, to +travel in France and Italy. The frivolity of the French court failed to +attract him, but for a long time he was spellbound by Amyrault's +theological lectures at Saumur. On his return home, in A.D. 1664, he +seemed to have completely come back to a worldly life, when once again he +was arrested by a Quaker's preaching. In A.D. 1668 he formally joined the +society. For a controversial tract, _The Sandy Foundation Shaken_, he was +sent for six months to the Tower, where he composed the famous tract, _No +Cross, no Crown_, and a treatise in his own vindication, "Innocency with +her Open Face." His father, who, shortly before his death in A.D. 1670, +was reconciled to his son, left him a yearly income of L1,500, with a +claim on Government for L16,000. In spite of continued persecution and +oppression he continued unweariedly to promote the cause of Quakerism by +speech and pen. In A.D. 1677, in company with Fox and Barclay, he made a +tour through Holland and Germany. In both countries he formed many +friendships, but did not succeed in establishing any societies. His hopes +now turned to North America, where Fox had already wrought with success +during the times of sorest persecution, A.D. 1671, 1672, In lieu of his +father's claim, he obtained from Government a large tract of land on the +Delaware, with the right of colonizing and organizing it under English +suzerainty. Twice he went out for this purpose himself, in A.D. 1682 and +1699, and formed the Quaker state of Pennsylvania, with Philadelphia as +its capital. The first principle of its constitution was universal +religious toleration, even to Catholics.(38) + +6. _The Quaker Constitution_, as fixed in Penn's time, was strictly +democratic and congregationalist, with complete exclusion of a clerical +order. At their services any man or woman, if moved by the Spirit, might +pray, teach, or exhort, or if no one felt so impelled they would sit on in +silence. Their meeting-houses had not the form or fittings of churches, +their devotional services had neither singing nor music. They repudiated +water baptism, alike of infants and adults, and recognised only baptism of +the Spirit. The Lord's supper, as a symbolical memorial, is no more needed +by those who are born again. Monthly gatherings of all independent +members, quarterly meetings of deputies of a circuit, and a yearly synod +of representatives of all the circuits, administered or drew up the +regulations for the several societies. _The Doctrinal Belief of the +Quakers_ is completely dominated by its central dogma of the "inner +light," which is identified with reason and conscience as the common +heritage of mankind. Darkened and weakened by the fall, it is requickened +in us by the Spirit of the glorified Christ, and possesses us as an inner +spiritual Christ, an inner Word of God. The Bible is recognised as the +outer word of God, but is useful only as a means of arousing the inner +word. The Calvinistic doctrine of election is decidedly rejected, and also +that of vicarious satisfaction. But also the doctrines of the fall, +original sin, justification by faith, as well as that of the Trinity, are +very much set aside in favour of an indefinite subjective theology of +feeling. The operation of the Holy Spirit in man's redemption and +salvation outside of Christendom is frankly admitted. On the other hand, +the ethical-practical element, as shown in works of benevolence, in the +battle for religious freedom, for the abolition of slavery, etc., is +brought to the front. In regard to _life and manners_, the Quakers have +distinguished themselves in all domestic, civil, industrial, and +mercantile movements by quiet, peaceful industry, strict integrity, and +simple habits, so that not only did they amass great wealth, but gained +the confidence and respect of those around. They refused to take oaths or +to serve as soldiers, or to engage in sports, or to indulge in any kind of +luxury. In social intercourse they declined to acknowledge any titles of +rank, would not bow or raise the hat to any, but addressed all by the +simple "thou." Their men wore broad-brimmed hats, a plain, simple coat, +without collar or buttons, fastened by hooks. Their women wore a simple +gray silk dress, with like coloured bonnet, without ribbon, flower, or +feathers, and a plain shawl. Wearing mourning dress was regarded as a +heathenish custom.(39)--Continuation, § 211, 3. + +7. _Labadie and the Labadists._--Jean de Labadie, the scion of an ancient +noble family, born A.D. 1610, was educated in the Jesuit school at +Bordeaux, entered the order, and became a priest, but was released from +office at his own wish in A.D. 1639, on account of delicate health. Even +in the Jesuit college the principles that manifested themselves in his +later life began to take root in him. By Scripture study he was led to +adopt almost Augustinian views of sin and grace, as well as the conviction +of the need of a revival of the church after the apostolic pattern. This +tendency was confirmed and deepened by the influence of Spanish Quietism, +which even the Jesuits had favoured to some extent. In the interest of +these views he wrought laboriously for eleven years as Catholic priest in +Amiens, Paris, and other places, amid the increasing hostility of the +Jesuits. Their persecution, together with a growing clearness in his +Augustinian convictions, led him formally to go over to the Reformed +church in A.D. 1650. He now laboured for seven years as Reformed pastor at +Montauban. In A.D. 1657, owing to political suspicions against him spread +by the Jesuits, he withdrew from Montauban, and, after two years' labour +at Orange, settled at Geneva, where his preaching and household +visitations bore abundant fruit. In A.D. 1666 he accepted a call to +Middelburg, in Zealand. There he was almost as successful as he had been +in Geneva; but there too it began to appear that in him there burned a +fire strange to the Reformed church. The French Reformed synod took great +offence at his refusal to sign the Belgic Confession. It was found that at +many points he was not in sympathy with the church standards, that he had +written in favour of chiliasm and the Apokatastasis, that in regard to the +nature and idea of the church and its need of a reformation he was not in +accord with the views of the Reformed church. The synod in 1668 suspended +him from office, and, as he did not confess his errors, in the following +year deposed him. Labadie then saw that what he regarded as his lifework, +the restoration of the apostolic church, was as little attainable within +the Reformed as within the Catholic church. He therefore organized his +followers into a separate denomination, and was, together with them, +banished by the magistrate. The neighbouring town of Veere received them +gladly, but Middelburg now persuaded the Zealand council to issue a decree +banishing them from that town also. The people of Veere were ready to defy +this order, but Labadie thought it better to avoid the risk of a civil war +by voluntary withdrawal; and so he went, in August, A.D. 1669, with about +forty followers, to Amsterdam, where he laid the foundations of an +apostolic church. This new society consisted of a sort of monastic +household consisting only of the regenerate. They hired a commodious +house, and from thence sent out spiritual workers as missionaries, to +spread the principles of the "new church" throughout the land. Within a +year they numbered 60,000 souls. They dispensed the sacrament according to +the Reformed rite, and preached the gospel in conventicles. The most +important gain to the party was the adhesion of Anna Maria von Schuerman, +born at Cologne A.D. 1607 of a Reformed family, but settled from A.D. 1623 +with her mother in Utrecht, celebrated for her unexampled attainment in +languages, science, and art. When in A.D. 1670, the government, urged by +the synod, forbad attendance on the Labadists' preaching, the accomplished +and pious Countess-palatine Elizabeth, sister of the elector-palatine, and +abbess of the rich cloister of Herford, whose intimate friend Schuerman had +been for forty years, gave them an asylum in the capital of her little +state. + +8. In Herford "the Hollanders" met with bitter opposition from the +Lutheran clergy, the magistracy, and populace, and were treated by the mob +with insult and scorn. They themselves also gave only too good occasion +for ridicule. At a sacramental celebration, the aged Labadie and still +older Schuerman embraced and kissed each other and began to dance for joy. +In his sermons and writings Labadie set forth the Quietist doctrines of +the limitation of Christ's life and sufferings in the mortification of the +flesh, the duty of silent prayer, the sinking of the soul into the depths +of the Godhead, the community of goods, etc. Special offence was given by +the private marriage of the three leaders, Labadie, Yvon, and Dulignon +with young wealthy ladies of society, and their views of marriage among +the regenerate as an institution for raising up a pure seed free from +original sin and brought forth without pain. The Elector of Brandenburg, +hitherto favourable, as guardian of the seminary was obliged, in answer to +the complaints of the Herford magistracy, to appoint a commission of +inquiry. Labadie wrote a defence, which was published in Latin, Dutch, and +German, in which he endeavoured to harmonize his mystical views with the +doctrines of the Reformed church. But in A.D. 1671 the magistrates +obtained a mandate from the imperial court at Spires, which threatened the +abbess with the ban if she continued to harbour the sectaries. In A.D. +1672 Labadie settled in Altona, where he died in A.D. 1674. His followers, +numbering 160, remained here undisturbed till the war between Denmark and +Sweden broke out in A.D. 1675. They then retired to the castle of Waltha +in West Friesland, the property of three sisters belonging to the party. +Schuerman died in A.D. 1678, Dulignon in A.D. 1679, and Yvon, who now had +sole charge, was obliged in A.D. 1688 to abolish the institution of the +community of goods, after a trial of eighteen years, being able to pay +back much less than he had received. After his death in A.D. 1707 the +community gradually fell off, and after the property had gone into other +hands on the death of the last of the sisters in A.D. 1725, the society +finally broke up. + +9. During this age various _fanatical sects_ sprang up. In Thuringia, +_Stiefel_ and his nephew _Meth_ caused much trouble to the Lutheran clergy +in the beginning of the century by their fanatical enthusiasm, till +convinced, after twenty years, of the errors of their ways. _Drabicius_, +who had left the Bohemian Brethren owing to differences of belief, and +then lived in Hungary as a weaver in poor circumstances, boasted in A.D. +1638 of having Divine revelations, prophesied the overthrow of the +Austrian dynasty in A.D. 1657, the election of the French king as emperor, +the speedy fall of the Papacy, and the final conversion of all heathens; +but was put to death at Pressburg in A.D. 1671 as a traitor with cruel +tortures. Even Comenius, the noble bishop of the Moravians, took the side +of the prophets, and published his own and others' prophecies under the +title "_Lux in Tenebris_."--_Jane Leade_ of Norfolk, influenced by the +writings of Boehme, had visions, in which the Divine Wisdom appeared to her +as a virgin. She spread her Gnostic revelations in numerous tracts, +founded in A.D. 1670 the Philadelphian Society in London, and died in A.D. +1704, at the age of eighty-one. The most important of her followers was +_John Pordage_, preacher and physician, whose theological speculation +closely resembles that of Jac. Boehme. To the Reformed church belonged also +_Peter Poiret_ of Metz, pastor from A.D. 1664 in Heidelburg, and +afterwards of a French congregation in the Palatine-Zweibruecken. +Influenced by the writings of Bourignon and Guyon, he resigned his +pastorate, and accompanied the former in his wanderings in north-west +Germany till his death in 1680. At Amsterdam in A.D. 1687 he wrote his +mystical work, "_L'Economie Divine_" in seven vols., which sets forth in +the Cocceian method the mysticism and theosophy of Bourignon. He died at +Rhynsburg in A.D. 1719.--From the Lutheran church proceeded Giftheil of +Wuerttemburg, Breckling of Holstein, and Kuhlmann, who went about +denouncing the clergy, proclaiming fanatical views, and calling for +impracticable reforms. Of much greater importance was _John George +Gichtel_, an eccentric disciple of Jac. Boehme, who in A.D. 1665 lost his +situation as law agent in his native town of Regensburg, his property, and +civil rights, and suffered imprisonment and exile from the city for his +fanatical ideas. He died in needy circumstances in Amsterdam in A.D. 1710. +He had revelations and visions, fought against the doctrine of +justification, and denounced marriage as fornication which nullifies the +spiritual marriage with the heavenly Sophia consummated in the new birth, +etc. His followers called themselves Angelic Brethren, from Matthew xxii. +20, strove after angelic sinlessness by emancipation from all earthly +lusts, toils, and care, regarded themselves as a priesthood after the +order of Melchizedec for propitiating the Divine wrath.--Continuation, § +170. + +10. _Russian Sects._--A vast number of sects sprang up within the Russian +church, which are all included under the general name _Raskolniks_ or +apostates. They fall into two great classes in their distinctive +character, diametrically opposed the one to the other. (1) The +_Starowerzi_, or Old Believers. They originated in A.D. 1652, in +consequence of the liturgical reform of the learned and powerful patriarch +Nikon, which called forth the violent opposition of a large body of the +peasantry, who loved the old forms. Besides stubborn adhesion to the old +liturgy, they rejected all modern customs and luxuries, held it sinful to +cut the beard, to smoke tobacco, to drink tea and coffee, etc. The +Starowerzi, numbering some ten millions, are to this day distinguished by +their pure and simple lives, and are split up into three parties: (i.) +_Jedinowerzi_, who are nearest to the orthodox church, recognise its +priesthood, and are different only in their religious ceremonies and the +habits of their social life; (ii.) The _Starovbradzi_, who do not +recognise the priesthood of the orthodox church; and (iii.) the +_Bespopowtschini_, who have no priests, but only elders, and are split up +into various smaller sects. Under the peasant Philip Pustosiwaet, a party +of Starowerzi, called from their leader Philippius, fled during the +persecution of A.D. 1700 from the government of Olonez, and settled in +Polish Lithuania and East Prussia, where to the number of 1,200 souls they +live to this day in villages in the district of Gumbinnen, engaged in +agricultural pursuits, and observing the rites of the old Russian +church.--(2) At the very opposite pole from the Starowerzi stand the +HERETICAL SECTS, which repudiate and condemn everything in the shape of +external church organization, and manifest a tendency in some cases toward +fanatical excess, and in other cases toward rationalistic spiritualism. As +the sects showing the latter tendency did not make their appearance till +the eighteenth century (§ 166, 2), we have here to do only with those of +the former class. The most important of these sects is that of the _Men of +God_, or Spiritual Christians, who trace their origin from a peasant, +Danila Filipow, of the province of Wladimir. In 1645, say they, the divine +Father, seated on a cloud of flame, surrounded by angels, descended from +heaven on Mount Gorodin in a chariot of fire, in order to restore true +Christianity in its original purity and spirituality. For this purpose he +incarnated himself in Filipow's pure body. He commanded his followers, who +in large numbers, mainly drawn from the peasant class, gathered around +him, not to marry, and if already married to put away their wives, to +abstain from all intoxicating drinks, to be present neither at marriages +nor baptisms, but above all things to believe that there is no other god +besides him. After some years he adopted as his son another peasant, Ivan +Suslow, who was said to have been born of a woman a hundred years old, by +communicating to him in his thirtieth year his own divine nature. Ivan, as +a new Christ, sent out twelve apostles to spread his doctrine. The Czar +Alexis put him and forty of his adherents into prison; but neither the +knout nor the rack could wring from them the mysteries of their faith and +worship. At last, on a Friday, the czar caused the new Christ to be +crucified; but on the following Sunday he appeared risen again among his +disciples. After some years the imprisoning, crucifying, and resurrection +were repeated. Imprisoned a third time in 1672, he owed his liberation to +an edict of grace on the occasion of the birth of the Prince Peter the +Great. He now lived at Moscow along with the divine father Filipow, who +had hitherto consulted his own safety by living in concealment in the +enjoyment of the adoration of his followers unmolested for thirty years, +supported by certain wealthy merchants. Filipow is said to have ascended +up in the presence of many witnesses, in 1700, into the seventh and +highest heaven, where he immediately seated himself on the throne as the +"Lord of Hosts," and the Christ, Suslow, also returned thither in 1716, +after both had reached the hundredth year of the human existence. As +Suslow's successor appeared a new Christ in Prokopi Lupkin, and, after his +death, in 1732, arose Andr. Petrow. The last Christ manifestation was +revealed in the person of the unfortunate Czar Peter III., dethroned by +his wife Catharine II. in 1762, who, living meanwhile in secret, shall +soon return, to the terrible confusion of all unbelievers. With this the +historical tradition of the earlier sect of the Men of God is brought to a +close, and in the Skopsen, or Eunuchs, who also venerate the Czar Peter +III. as the Christ that is to come again, a new development of the sect +has arisen, carrying out its principles more and more fully (§ 210, 4). +Other branches of the same party, among which, as also among the Skopsen, +the fanatical endeavour to mortify the flesh is carried to the most +extravagant length, are the Morelschiki or Self-Flagellators, the Dumbies, +who will not, even under the severest tortures, utter a sound, etc. The +ever-increasing development of this sect-forming craze, which found its +way into several monasteries and nunneries, led to repeated judicial +investigations, the penitent being sentenced for their fault to +confinement in remote convents, and the obdurate being visited with severe +corporal punishments and even with death. The chief sources of information +regarding the history, doctrine, and customs of the "Men of God" and the +Skopsen are their own numerous spiritual songs, collected by Prof. Ivan +Dobrotworski of Kasan, which were sung in their assemblies for worship +with musical accompaniment and solemn dances. On these occasions their +prophets and prophetesses were wont to prophesy, and a kind of sacramental +supper was celebrated with bread and water. The sacraments of the Lord's +supper and baptism, as administered by the orthodox church, are repudiated +and scorned, the latter as displaced by the only effectual baptism of the +Spirit. They have, indeed, in order to avoid persecution, been obliged to +take part in the services of the orthodox national church, and to confess +to its priests, avoiding, however, all reference to the sect.(40) + + + +§ 164. Philosophers and Freethinkers.(41) + + +The mediaeval scholastic philosophy had outlived itself, even in the +pre-Reformation age; yet it maintained a lingering existence side by side +with those new forms which the modern spirit in philosophy was preparing +for itself. We hear an echo of the philosophical ferment of the sixteenth +century in the Italian Dominican Campanella, and in the Englishman Bacon +of Verulam we meet the pioneer of that modern philosophy which had its +proper founder in Descartes. Spinoza, Locke, and Leibnitz were in +succession the leaders of this philosophical development. Alongside of +this philosophy, and deriving its weapons from it for attack upon theology +and the church, a number of freethinkers also make their appearance. +These, like their more radical disciples in the following century, +regarded Scripture as delusive, and nature and reason as alone trustworthy +sources of religious knowledge. + +1. _Philosophy._--_Campanella_ of Stilo in Calabria entered the Dominican +order, but soon lost taste for Aristotelian philosophy and scholastic +theology, and gave himself to the study of Plato, the Cabbala, astrology, +magic, etc. Suspected of republican tendencies, the Spanish government put +him in prison in A.D. 1599. Seven times was he put upon the rack for +twenty-four hours, and then confined for twenty-seven years in close +confinement. Finally, in A.D. 1626, Urban VIII. had him transferred to the +prison of the papal Inquisition. He was set free in A.D. 1629, and +received a papal pension; but further persecutions by the Spaniards +obliged him to fly to his protector Richelieu in France, where in A.D. +1639 he died. He composed eighty-two treatises, mostly in prison, the most +complete being "_Philosophia Rationalis_," in five vols. In his +"_Atheismus Triumphatus_" he appears as an apologist of the Romish system, +but so insufficiently, that many said _Atheismus Triumphans_ was the more +fitting title. His "_Monarchia Messiae_" too appeared, even to the +Catholics, an abortive apology for the Papacy. In his "_Civitas Solis_," +an imitation of the "Republic" of Plato, he proceeded upon communistic +principles.--_Francis Bacon of Verulam_, long chancellor of England, died +A.D. 1626, the great spiritual heir of his mediaeval namesake (§ 103, 8), +was the first successful reformer of the plan of study followed by the +schoolmen. With a prophet's marvellous grasp of mind he organized the +whole range of science, and gave a forecast of its future development in +his "_De Augmentis_" and "_Novum Organon_." He rigidly separated the +domain of _knowledge_, as that of philosophy and nature, grasped only by +experience, from the domain of _faith_, as that of theology and the +church, reached only through revelation. Yet he maintained the position: +_Philosophia obiter libata a Deo abducit, plene hausta ad Deum reducit_. +He is the real author of empiricism in philosophy and the realistic +methods of modern times. His public life, however, is clouded by +thanklessness, want of character, and the taking of bribes. In A.D. 1621 +he was convicted by his peers, deprived of his office, sentenced to +imprisonment for life in the Tower, and to pay a fine of L40,000; but was +pardoned by the king.(42)--The French Catholic _Descartes_ started not from +experience, but from self-consciousness, with his "_Cogito, ergo sum_" as +the only absolutely certain proposition. Beginning with doubt, he rose by +pure thinking to the knowledge of the true and certain in things. The +imperfection of the soul thus discovered suggests an absolutely perfect +Being, to whose perfection the attribute of being belongs. This is the +ontological proof for the being of God.--His philosophy was zealously taken +up by French Jansenists and Oratorians and the Reformed theologians of +Holland, while it was bitterly opposed by such Catholics as Huetius and +such Reformed theologians as Voetius.(43)--_Spinoza_, an apostate Jew in +Holland, died A.D. 1677, gained little influence over his own generation +by his profound pantheistic philosophy, which has powerfully affected +later ages. A violent controversy, however, was occasioned by his +"_Tractatus Theologico-politicus_," in which he attacked the Christian +doctrine of revelation and the authenticity of the O.T. books, especially +the Pentateuch, and advocated absolute freedom of thought.(44) + +2. _John Locke_, died A.D. 1704, with his sensationalism took up a +position midway between Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalism, on +the one hand, and English deism and French materialism, on the other. His +"Essay concerning Human Understanding" denies the existence of innate +ideas, and seeks to show that all our notions are only products of outer +or inner experience, of sensation or reflection. In this treatise, and +still more distinctly in his tract, "The Reasonableness of Christianity," +intended as an apology for Christianity, and even for biblical visions and +miracles, as well as for the messianic character of Christ, he openly +advocated pure Pelagianism that knows nothing of sin and +atonement.(45)--_Leibnitz_, a Hanoverian statesman, who died A.D. 1716, +introduced the new German philosophy in its first stage. The philosophy of +Leibnitz is opposed at once to the theosophy of Paracelsus and Boehme and +to the empiricism of Bacon and Locke, the pantheism of Spinoza, and the +scepticism and manichaeism of Bayle. It is indeed a Christian philosophy +not fully developed. But inasmuch as at the same time it adopted, improved +upon, and carried out the rationalism of Descartes, it also paved the way +for the later theological rationalism. The foundation of his philosophy is +the theory of monads wrought out in his "_Theodicee_" against Bayle and in +his "_Nouveaux Essais_," against Locke. In opposition to the atomic theory +of the materialists, he regarded all phenomena in the world as +eccentricities of so called monads, _i.e._ primary simple and indivisible +substances, each of which is a miniature of the whole universe. Out of +these monads that radiate out from God, the primary monad, the world is +formed into a harmony once for all admired of God: the theory of +pre-established harmony. This must be the best of worlds, otherwise it +would not have been. In opposition to Bayle, who had argued in a manichaean +fashion against God's goodness and wisdom from the existence of evil, +Leibnitz seeks to show that this does not contradict the idea of the best +of worlds, nor that of the Divine goodness and wisdom, since finity and +imperfection belong to the very notion of creature, a metaphysical evil +from which moral evil inevitably follows, yet not so as to destroy the +pre-established harmony. Against Locke he maintains the doctrine of innate +ideas, contests Clarke's theory of indeterminism, maintains the agreement +of philosophy with revelation, which indeed is above but not contrary to +reason, and hopes to prove his system by mathematical +demonstration.(46)--Continuation, § 171, 10. + +3. _Freethinkers._--The tendency of the age to throw off all positive +Christianity first showed itself openly in England as the final outcome of +Levellerism (§ 162, 2). This movement has been styled naturalism, because +it puts natural in place of revealed religion, and deism, because in place +of the redeeming work of the triune God it admits only a general +providence of the one God. On philosophic grounds the English deists +affirmed the impossibility of revelation, inspiration, prophecy, and +miracle, and on critical grounds rejected them from the Bible and history. +The simple religious system of deism embraced God, providence, freedom of +the will, virtue, and the immortality of the soul. The Christian doctrines +of the Trinity, original sin, satisfaction, justification, resurrection, +etc., were regarded as absurd and irrational. Deism in England spread +almost exclusively among upper-class laymen; the people and clergy stood +firmly to their positive beliefs. Theological controversial tracts were +numerous, but their polemical force was in great measure lost by the +latitudinarianism of their authors.--The principal English deists of the +century were (1) _Edward Herbert of Cherbury_, A.D. 1581-1648, a nobleman +and statesman. He reduced all religion to five points: Faith in God, the +duty of reverencing Him, especially by leading an upright life, atoning +for sin by genuine repentance, recompense in the life eternal.--(2) _Thomas +Hobbes_, A.D. 1588-1679, an acute philosophical and political writer, +looked on Christianity as an oriental phantom, and of value only as a +support of absolute monarchy and an antidote to revolution. The state of +nature is a _bellum omnium contra omnes_; religion is the means of +establishing order and civilization. The state should decide what religion +is to prevail. Every one may indeed believe what he will, but in regard to +churches and worship he must submit to the state as represented by the +king. His chief work is "Leviathan; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a +Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil."--(3) _Charles Blount_, who died a +suicide in A.D. 1693, a rabid opponent of all miracles as mere tricks of +priests, wrote "Oracles of Reason," "_Religio Laici_," "Great is Diana of +the Ephesians," that translated Philostratus' "Life of Apollonius of +Tyana."--(4) _Thomas Browne_, A.D. 1635-1682, a physician, who in his +"_Religio Medici_" sets forth a mystical supernaturalism, took up a purely +deistic ground in his "Vulgar Errors," published three years later.--Among +the opponents of deism in this age the most notable are Richard Baxter (§ +162, 3) and Ralph Cudworth, A.D. 1617-1688, a latitudinarian and +Platonist, who sought to prove the leading Christian doctrines by the +theory of innate ideas. He wrote "Intellectual System of the Universe" in +A.D. 1678. The pious Irish scientist, Robert Boyle, founded in London, in +A.D. 1691, a lectureship of L40 a year for eight discourses against +deistic and atheistic unbelief.(47)--Continuation, § 171, 1. + +4. A tendency similar to that of the English deists was represented in +Germany by _Matthias Knutzen_, who sought to found a freethinking sect. +The Christian "Coran" contains only lies; reason and conscience are the +true Bible; there is no God, nor hell nor heaven; priests and magistrates +should be driven out of the world, etc. The senate of Jena University on +investigation found that his pretension to 700 followers was a vain +boast.--In France the brilliant and learned sceptic _Peter Bayle_, A.D. +1647-1706, was the apostle of a light-hearted unbelief. Though son of a +Reformed pastor, the Jesuits got him over to the Romish church, but in a +year and a half he apostatised again. He now studied the Cartesian +philosophy, as Reformed professor at Sedan, vindicated Protestantism in +several controversial tracts, and as refugee in Holland composed his +famous "_Dictionnaire Historique et Critique_," in which he avoided indeed +open rejection of the facts of revelation, but did much to unsettle by his +easy treatment of them.--Continuation, § 171, 3. + + + + + +THIRD SECTION. CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.(48) + + + + +I. The Catholic Church in East and West. + + + +§ 165. The Roman Catholic Church. + + +During the first half of the century the Roman hierarchy suffered severely +at the hand of Catholic courts, while in the second half storms gathered +from all sides, threatening its very existence. Portugal, France, Spain, +and Italy rested not till they got the pope himself to strike the +deathblow to the Jesuits, who had been his chief supporters indeed, but +who had now become his masters. Soon after the German bishops threatened +to free themselves and their people from Rome, and what reforms they could +not effect by ecclesiastical measures the emperor undertook to effect by +civil measures. Scarcely had this danger been overcome when the horrors of +the French Revolution broke out, which sought, along with the Papacy, to +overthrow Christianity as well. But, on the other hand, during the early +decades of the century Catholicism had gained many victories in another +way by the counter-reformation and conversions. Its foreign missions, +however, begun with such promise of success, came to a sad end, and even +the home missions faded away, in spite of the founding of various new +orders. The Jansenist controversy in the beginning of the century entered +on a new stage, the Catholic church being driven into open +semi-Pelagianism, and Jansenism into fanatical excesses. The church +theology sank very low, and the Catholic supporters of "_Illumination_" +far exceeded in number those who had fallen away to it from Protestantism. + +1. _The Popes._--_Clement XI._, 1700-1721, protested in vain against the +Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg assuming the crown as King Frederick +I. of Prussia, on Jan. 18th, A.D. 1701. In the Spanish wars of succession +he sought to remain neutral, but force of circumstances led him to take up +a position adverse to German interests. The new German emperor, Joseph I., +A.D. 1705-1711, scorned to seek confirmation from the pope, and Clement +consequently had the usual prayer for the emperor omitted in the church +services. The relations became yet more strained, owing to a dispute about +the _jus primarum precum_, Joseph claiming the right to revenues of +vacancies as the patron. In A.D. 1707, the pope had the joy of seeing the +German army driven out, not only of northern Italy, but also of Naples by +the French. Again they came into direct conflict over Parma and Piacenza, +Clement claiming them as a papal, the emperor claiming them as an +imperial, fief. No pope since the time of Louis the Bavarian had issued +the ban against a German emperor, and Clement ventured not to do so now. +Refusing the invitation of Louis XIV. to go to Avignon, he was obliged +either unconditionally to grant the German claims or to try the fortune of +war. He chose the latter alternative. The miserable papal troops, however, +were easily routed, and Clement was obliged, in A.D. 1708, to acknowledge +the emperor's brother, the Grand-duke Charles, as king of Spain, and +generally to yield to Joseph's very moderate demands. Clement was the +author of the constitution _Unigenitus_, which introduced the second stage +in the history of Jansenism. After the short and peaceful pontificate of +_Innocent XIII._ A.D. 1721-1724, came _Benedict XIII._, A.D. 1724-1730, a +pious, well-meaning, narrow-minded man, ruled by a worthless favourite, +Cardinal Coscia. He wished to canonize Gregory VII., in the fond hope of +thereby securing new favour to his hierarchical views, but this was +protested against by almost all the courts. All the greater was the number +of monkish saints with which he enriched the heavenly firmament. He +promised to all who on their death-bed should say, "Blessed be Jesus +Christ," a 2,000 years' shortening of purgatorial pains. His successor +_Clement XII._, A.D. 1730-1740, deprived the wretched Coscia of his +offices, made him disgorge his robberies, imposed on him a severe fine and +ten years' imprisonment, but afterwards resigned the management of +everything to a greedy, grasping nephew. He was the first pope to condemn +freemasonry, A.D. 1736. _Benedict XIV._, A.D. 1740-1758, one of the +noblest, most pious, learned, and liberal of the popes, zealous for the +faith of his church, and yet patient with those who differed, moderate and +wise in his political procedure, mild and just in his government, +blameless in life. He had a special dislike of the Jesuits (§ 155, 12), +and jestingly he declared, if, as the curialists assert, "all law and all +truth" lie concealed in the shrine of his breast, he had not been able to +find the key. He wrote largely on theology and canon law, founded +seminaries for the training of the clergy, had many French and English +works translated into Italian, and was a liberal patron of art. To check +popular excesses he tried to reduce the number of festivals, but without +success.--Continuation, in Paragraphs 9, 10, 13. + +2. _Old and New Orders._--Among the old orders that of _Clugny_ had amassed +enormous wealth, and attempts made by its abbots at reformation led only +to endless quarrels and divisions. The abbots now squandered the revenues +of their cloisters at court, and these institutions were allowed to fall +into disorder and decay. When, in A.D. 1790, all cloisters in France were +suppressed, the city of Clugny bought the cloister and church for L4,000, +and had them both pulled down.--The most important new orders were: (1) +_The Mechitarist Congregation_, originated by Mechitar the Armenian, who, +at Constantinople in A.D. 1701, founded a society for the religious and +intellectual education of his countrymen; but when opposed by the Armenian +patriarch, fled to the Morea and joined the United Armenians (§ 72, 2). In +A.D. 1712 the pope confirmed the congregation, which, during the war with +the Turks was transferred to Venice, and in A.D. 1717 settled on the +island St. Lazaro. Its members spread Roman Catholic literature in Armenia +and Armenian literature in the West. At a later time there was a famous +Mechitarist college in Vienna, which did much by writing and publishing +for the education of the Catholic youth.--(2) _Freres Ignorantins_, or +Christian Brothers, founded in A.D. 1725 by De la Salle, canon of Rheims, +for the instruction of children, wrought in the spirit of the Jesuits +through France, Belgium, and North America. After the expulsion of the +Jesuits from France in A.D. 1724, they took their place there till +themselves driven out by the Revolution in A.D. 1790.(49)--(3) The +_Liguorians or Redemptorists_, founded in A.D. 1732 by Liguori, an +advocate, who became Bishop of Naples in A.D. 1762. He died in A.D. 1787 +in his ninety-first year, was beatified by Pius VII. in A.D. 1816, and +canonized by Gregory XVI. in A.D. 1839, and proclaimed _doctor ecclesiae_ +by Pius IX. in A.D. 1871 as a zealous defender of the immaculate +conception and papal infallibility. His devotional writings, which exalt +Mary by superstitious tales of miracles, were extremely popular in all +Catholic countries. His new order was to minister to the poor. He declared +the pope's will to be God's, and called for unquestioning obedience. Only +after the founder's death did it spread beyond Italy.--Continuation, § 186, +1. + +3. _Foreign Missions._--In the accommodation controversy (§ 156, 12), the +Dominicans prevailed in A.D. 1742; but the abolishing of native customs +led to a sore persecution in China, from which only a few remnants of the +church were saved. The Italian Jesuit Beschi, with linguistic talents of +the highest order, sought in India to make use of the native literature +for mission purposes and to place alongside of it a Christian literature. +Here the Capuchins opposed the Jesuits as successfully as the Dominicans +had in China. These strifes and persecutions destroyed the missions.--The +Jesuit state of Paraguay (§ 156, 10) was put an end to in A.D. 1750 by a +compact between Portugal and Spain. The revolt of the Indians that +followed, inspired and directed by the Jesuits, which kept the combined +powers at bay for a whole year, was at last quelled, and the Jesuits +expelled the country in A.D. 1758.--Continuation § 186, 7. + +4. _The Counter-Reformation_ (§ 153, 2).--Charles XII. of Sweden, in A.D. +1707, forced the Emperor Joseph I. to give the Protestants of _Silesia_ +the benefits of the Westphalian Peace and to restore their churches. But +in _Poland_ in A.D. 1717, the Protestants lost the right of building new +churches, and in A.D. 1733 were declared disqualified for civil offices +and places in the diet. In the Protestant city of Thorn the insolence of +the Jesuits roused a rebellion which led to a fearful massacre in A.D. +1724. The Dissenters sought and obtained protection in Russia from A.D. +1767, and the partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia in +A.D. 1772 secured for them religious toleration. In _Salzburg_ the +archbishop, Count Firmian, attempted in A.D. 1729 a conversion of the +evangelicals by force, who had, with intervals of persecution in the +seventeenth century, been tolerated for forty years as quiet and +inoffensive citizens. But in A.D. 1731 their elders swore on the host and +consecrated salt (2 Chron. xiii. 5) to be true to their faith. This +"covenant of salt" was interpreted as rebellion, and in spite of the +intervention of the Protestant princes, all the evangelicals, in the +severe winter of A.D. 1731, 1732, were driven, with inhuman cruelty, from +hearth and home. About 20,000 of them found shelter in Prussian Lithuania; +others emigrated to America. The pope praised highly "the noble" +archbishop, who otherwise distinguished himself only as a huntsman and a +drinker, and by maintaining a mistress in princely splendour. + +5. In _France_ the persecution of the Huguenots continued (§ 153, 4). The +"pastors of the desert" performed their duties at the risk of their lives, +and though many fell as martyrs, their places were quickly filled by +others equally heroic. The first rank belongs to Anton Court, pastor at +Nismes from A.D. 1715; he died at Lausanne A.D. 1760, where he had founded +a theological seminary. He laboured unweariedly and successfully in +gathering and organizing the scattered members of the Reformed church, and +in overcoming fanaticism by imparting sound instruction. Paul Rabaut, his +successor at Nismes, was from A.D. 1780 to 1785 the faithful and capable +leader of the martyr church. The judicial murder of _Jean Calas_ at +Toulouse in A.D. 1762 presents a hideous example of the fanaticism of +Catholic France. One of his sons had hanged himself in a fit of passion. +When the report spread that it was the act of his father, in order to +prevent the contemplated conversion of his son, the Dominicans canonized +the suicide as a martyr to the Catholic faith, roused the mob, and got the +Toulouse parliament to put the unhappy father to the torture of the wheel. +The other sons were forced to abjure their faith, and the daughters were +shut up in cloisters. Two years later Voltaire called attention to the +atrocity, and so wrought on public opinion that on the revision of the +proceedings by the Parisian parliament, the innocence of the ill-used +family was clearly proved. Louis XV. paid them a sum of 30,000 livres; but +the fanatical accusers, the false witnesses, and the corrupt judges were +left unpunished. This incident improved the position of the Protestants, +and in A.D. 1787 Louis XVI. issued the Edict of Versailles, by which not +only complete religious freedom but even a legal civil existence was +secured them, which was confirmed by a law of Napoleon in A.D. 1802. + +6. _Conversions._--Pecuniary interests and prospect of marriage with a rich +heiress led to the conversion, in A.D. 1712, of Charles Alexander while in +the Austrian service; but when he became Duke of Wuerttemburg he solemnly +undertook to keep things as they were, and to set up no Catholic services +in the country save in his own court chapel. Of other converts Winckelmann +and Stolberg are the most famous. While Winckelmann, the greatest of art +critics, not a religious but an artistic ultramontane, was led in A.D. +1754 through religious indifference into the Romish church, the warm heart +of Von Stolberg was induced, mainly by the Catholic Princess Gallitzin (§ +172, 2) and a French emigrant, Madame Montague, to escape the chill of +rationalism amid the incense fumes of the Catholic services.--Continuation, +§ 175, 7. + +7. _The Second Stage of Jansenism (_§ 157, 5_)._--_Pasquier Quesnel_, +priest of the Oratory at Paris, suspected in 1675 of Gallicanism, because +of notes in his edition of the works of Leo the Great, fled into the +Netherlands, where he continued his notes on the N.T. Used and recommended +by Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, and other French bishops, this +"Jansenist" book was hated by the Jesuits and condemned by a brief of +Clement XI. in A.D. 1708. The Jesuit confessor of Louis XIV., Le Tellier, +selected 101 propositions from the book, and induced the king to urge +their express condemnation by the pope. In the _Constitution Unigenitus_ +of A.D. 1713, Clement pronounced these heretical, and the king required +the expulsion from parliament and church of all who refused to adopt this +bull, which caused a division of the French church into _Acceptants_ and +_Appellants_. As many of the condemned propositions were quoted literally +by Quesnel from Augustine and other Fathers, or were in exact agreement +with biblical passages, Noailles and his party called for an explanation. +Instead of this the pope threatened them with excommunication. In A.D. +1715 the king died, and under the Duke of Orleans' regency in A.D. 1717, +four bishops, with solemn appeal to a general council, renounced the papal +constitution as irreconcilable with the Catholic faith. They were soon +joined by the Sorbonne and the universities of Rheims and Nantes, +Archbishop Noailles, and more than twenty bishops, all the congregations +of St. Maur and the Oratorians with large numbers of the secular clergy +and the monks, especially of the Lazarists, Dominicans, Cistercians, and +Camaldulensians. The pope, after vainly calling them to obey, thundered +the ban against the Appellants in A.D. 1718. But the parliament took the +matter up, and soon the aspect of affairs was completely changed. The +regent's favourite, Dubois, hoping to obtain a cardinal's hat, took the +side of the Acceptants and carried the duke with him, who got the +parliament in 1720 to acknowledge the bull, with express reservation, +however, of the Gallican liberties, and began a persecution of the +Appellants. Under Louis XV. the persecution became more severe, although +in many ways moderated by the influence of his former tutor, Cardinal +Fleury. Noailles, who died in 1729, was obliged in 1728 to submit +unconditionally, and in A.D. 1730 the parliament formally ratified the +bull. Amid daily increasing oppression, many of the more faithful +Jansenists, mostly of the orders of St. Maur and the Oratory, fled to the +Netherlands, where they gave way more and more to fanaticism. In 1727 a +young Jansenist priest, Francis of Paris, died with the original text of +the appeal in his hands. His adherents honoured him as a saint, and +numerous reports of miracles, which had been wrought at his grave in +Medardus churchyard at Paris, made this a daily place of pilgrimage to +thousands of fanatics. The excited enthusiasts, who fell into convulsions, +and uttered prophecies about the overthrow of church and state, grew in +numbers and, with that mesmeric power which fanaticism has been found in +all ages to possess powerfully influenced many who had been before +careless and profane. One of these was the member of parliament De +Montgeron, who, from being a frivolous scoffer, suddenly, in 1732, fell +into violent convulsions, and in a three-volumed work, "_La Verite des +Miracles Operes par l'Intercession de Francois de Paris_," 1737, came +forward as a zealous apologist of the party. The government, indeed, in +1732 ordered the churchyard to be closed, but portions of earth from the +grave of the saint continued to effect convulsions and miracles. Thousands +of convulsionists throughout France were thrown into prison, and in 1752, +Archbishop Beaumont of Paris, with many other bishops, refused the last +sacrament to those who could not prove that they had accepted the +constitution. The grave of "St. Francis," however, was the grave of +Jansenism, for fanatical excess contains the seeds of dissolution and +every manifestation of it hastens the catastrophe. Yet remnants of the +party lingered on in France till the outbreak of the Revolution, of which +they had prophesied. + +8. _The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands._--The first Jesuits +appeared in Holland in A.D. 1592. The form of piety fostered by superior +and inferior clergy in the Catholic church there, a heritage from the +times of the Brethren of the Common Life (§ 112, 9), was directed to the +deepening of Christian thought and feeling; and this, as well as the +liberal attitude of the Archbishop of Utrecht, awakened the bitter +opposition of the Jesuits. At the head of the local clergy was Sasbold +Vosmeer, vicar-general of the vacant archiepiscopal see of Utrecht. Most +energetically he set himself to thwart the Jesuit machinations, which +aimed at abolishing the Utrecht see and putting the church of Holland +under the jurisdiction of the papal nuncio at Cologne. On the ground of +suspicions of secret conspiracy Vosmeer was banished. But his successors +refused to be overruled or set aside by the Jesuits. Meanwhile in France +the first stage of the Jansenist controversy had been passed through. The +Dutch authorities had heartily welcomed the condemned book of their pious +and learned countryman; but when the five propositions were denounced, +they agreed in repudiating them, without, however, admitting that they had +been taught in the sense objected to by Jansen. The Jesuits, therefore, +charged them with the Jansenist heresy, and issued in A.D. 1697 an +anonymous pamphlet full of lying insinuations about the origin and +progress of Jansenism in Holland. Its beginning was traced back to a visit +of Arnauld to Holland in A.D. 1681, and its effects were seen in the +circulation of prayer-books, tracts, and sermons, urging diligent reading +of Scripture, in the depreciation of the worship of Mary, of indulgences, +of images of saints and relics, rosaries and scapularies (§ 188, 20), +processions and fraternities, in the rigoristic strictness of the +confessional, the use of the common language of the country in baptism, +marriage, and extreme unction, etc. The archbishop of that time, Peter +Codde, in order to isolate him, was decoyed to Rome, and there flattered +with hypocritical pretensions of goodwill, while behind his back his +deposition was carried out, and an apostolic vicar nominated for Utrecht +in the person of his deadly foe Theodore de Cock. But the chapter refused +him obedience, and the States of Holland forbad him to exercise any +official function, and under threat of banishment of all Jesuits demanded +the immediate return of the archbishop. Codde was now sent down with the +papal blessing, but a formal decree of deposition followed him. Meanwhile +the government pronounced on his rival De Cock, who avoided a trial for +high treason by flight, a sentence of perpetual exile. But Codde, though +persistently recognised by his chapter as the rightful archbishop, +withheld on conscientious grounds from discharging official duties down to +his death in A.D. 1710. Amid these disputes the Utrecht see remained +vacant for thirteen years. The flock were without a chief shepherd, the +inferior clergy without direction and support, the people were wrought +upon by Jesuit emissaries, and the vacant pastorates were filled by the +nuncio of Cologne. Thus it came about that of the 300,000 Catholics +remaining after the Reformation, only a few thousands continued faithful +to the national party, while the rest became bitter and extreme +ultramontanes, as the Catholic church of Holland still is. Finally, in +A.D. 1723, the Utrecht chapter took courage and chose a new archbishop in +the person of Cornelius Steenowen. Receiving no answer to their request +for papal confirmation, the chapter, after waiting a year and a half, had +him and also his three successors consecrated by a French missionary +bishop, Varlet, who had been driven away by the Jesuits. But in order to +prevent the threatened loss of legitimate consecration for future bishops +after Varlet's death in A.D. 1742, a bishop elected at Utrecht was in that +same year ordained to the chapter of Haarlem, and in A.D. 1758 the newly +founded bishopric of Deventer was so supplied. All these, like all +subsequent elections, were duly reported to Rome, and a strictly Catholic +confession from electors and elected sent up; but each time, instead of +confirmation, a frightful ban was thundered forth. This, however, did not +deter the Dutch government from formally recognising the +elections.--Meanwhile the second and last act of the Jansenist tragedy had +been played in France. Many of the persecuted Appellants sought refuge in +Holland, and the welcome accorded them seemed to justify the long +cherished suspicion of Jansenism against the people of Utrecht. They +repelled these charges, however, by condemning the five propositions and +the heresies of Quesnel's book; but they expressly refused the bull of +Alexander VII. and its doctrine of papal infallibility. This put a stop to +all attempts at reconciliation. The church of Utrecht meanwhile prospered. +At a council held at Utrecht in A.D. 1765 it styled itself "The Old Roman +Catholic Church of the Netherlands," acknowledged the pope, although under +his anathema, as the visible head of the Christian church, accepted the +Tridentine decrees as their creed, and sent this with all the acts of +council to Rome as proof of their orthodoxy. The Jesuits did all in their +power to overturn the formidable impression which this at first made +there; and they were successful. Clement XIII. declared the council null, +and those who took part in it hardened sons of Belial. But their church at +this day contains, under one archbishop and two bishops, twenty-six +congregations, numbering 6,000 souls.(50)--Continuation, § 200, 3. + +9. _Suppression of the Order of Jesuits, _A.D._ 1773._--The Jesuits had +striven with growing eagerness and success after worldly power, and +instead of absolute devotion to the interests of the papacy, their chief +aim was now the erection of an independent political and hierarchical +dominion. Their love of rule had sustained its first check in the +overthrow of the Jesuit state of Paraguay; but they had secured a great +part of the world's trade (§ 156, 13), and strove successfully to control +European politics. The Jansenist controversy, however, had called forth +against them much popular odium; Pascal had made them ridiculous to all +men of culture, the other monkish orders were hostile to them, their +success in trade roused the jealousy of other traders, and their +interference in politics made enemies on every hand. The Portuguese +government took the first decided step. A revolt in Paraguay and an +attempt on the king's life were attributed to them and the minister +Pombal, whose reforms they had opposed, had them banished from Portugal in +A.D. 1759, and their goods confiscated. _Clement XIII._, A.D. 1758-1769, +chosen by the Jesuits and under their influence, protected them by a bull; +but Portugal refused to let the bull be proclaimed, led the papal nuncio +over the frontier, broke off all relations with Rome, and sent whole +shiploads of Jesuits to the pope. France followed Portugal's example when +the general Ricci had answered the king's demand for a reform of his +orders: _Sint ut sunt, aut non sint_. For the enormous financial failure +of the Jesuit La Valette, the whole order was made responsible, and at +last, in A.D. 1764, banished from France as dangerous to the state. Spain, +Naples, and Parma, too, soon seized all the Jesuits and transported them +beyond the frontiers. The new papal election on the death of Clement XIII. +was a life and death question with the Jesuits, but courtly influences and +fears of a schism prevailed. The pious and liberal Minorite Ganganelli +mounted the papal throne as _Clement XIV._, A.D. 1769-1774. He began with +sweeping administrative reforms, forbad the reading of the bull _In coena +Domini_ (§ 117, 3), and, pressed by the Bourbon court, issued in A.D. 1773 +the bull _Dominus ac Redemtor Noster_ suppressing the Jesuit order. The +order numbered 22,600 members and the pope felt, in granting the bull, +that he endangered his own life. Next year he died, not without suspicion +of poisoning. All the Catholic courts, even Austria, put the decree in +force. But the heretic Frederick II. tolerated the order for a long time +in Silesia, and Catherine II. and Paul I. in their Polish provinces.--_Pius +VI._, A.D. 1775-1799, in many respects the antithesis of his predecessor, +was the secret friend of the exiled and imprisoned ex-Jesuits. After the +outbreak of the French Revolution, a proposal was made at Rome, in A.D. +1792, for the formal restoration of the order, as a means of saving the +seriously imperilled church, but it did not find sufficient encouragement. + +10. _Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy._--Even before Joseph +II. could carry out his reforms in ecclesiastical polity, the noble +elector _Maximilian Joseph III._, A.D. 1745-1777, with greater moderation +but complete success, effected a similar reform in the Jesuit-overrun +Bavaria. Himself a strict Catholic, he asserted the supremacy of the state +over a foreign hierarchy, and by reforming the churches, cloisters, and +schools of his country he sought to improve their position. But under his +successor, Charles Theodore, A.D. 1777-1799, everything was restored to +its old condition.--Meanwhile a powerful voice was raised from the midst of +the German prelates that aimed a direct blow at the hierarchical papal +system. _Nicholas von Hontheim_, the suffragan Bishop of Treves, had under +the name _Justinus Febronius_ published, in A.D. 1763, a treatise _De +Statu Ecclesiae_, in which he maintained the supreme authority of general +councils and the independence of bishops in opposition to the hierarchical +pretensions of the popes. It was soon translated into German, French, +Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. The book made a great impression, and +Clement XIII. could do nothing against the bold defender of the liberties +of the church. In A.D. 1778, indeed, Pius VI. had the poor satisfaction of +extorting a recantation from the old man of seventy-seven years, but he +lived to see yet more deadly storms burst upon the church. Urged by +Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, the pope, in A.D. 1785, had made +Munich the residence of a nuncio. The episcopal electors of Mainz, +Cologne, and Treves, and the Archbishop of Salzburg, seeing their +archiepiscopal rights in danger, met in congress at Ems in A.D. 1786, and +there, on the basis of the Febronian proofs, claimed, in the so called +_Punctation of Ems_, practical independence of the pope and the +restoration of an independent German national Catholic church. But the +German bishops found it easier to obey the distant pope than the near +archbishops. So they united their opposition with that of the pope, and +the undertaking of the archbishops came to nothing.--More threatening still +for the existence of the hierarchy was the reign of _Joseph II._ in +Austria. German emperor from A.D. 1765, and co-regent with his mother +Maria Theresa, he began, immediately on his succession to sole rule in +A.D. 1780, a radical reform of the whole ecclesiastical institutions +throughout his hereditary possessions. In A.D. 1781 he issued his _Edict +of Toleration_, by which, under various restrictions, the Protestants +obtained civil rights and liberty of worship. Protestant places of worship +were to have no bells or towers, were to pay stole dues to the Catholic +priests, in mixed marriages the Catholic father had the right of educating +all his children and the Catholic mother could claim the education at +least of her daughters. By stopping all episcopal communications with the +papal curia, and putting all papal bulls and ecclesiastical edicts under +strict civil control, the Catholic church was emancipated from Roman +influences, set under a native clergy, and made serviceable in the moral +and religious training of the people, and all her institutions that did +not serve this end were abolished. Of the 2,000 cloisters, 606 succumbed +before this decree, and those that remained were completely sundered from +all connexion with Rome. In vain the bishops and Pius VI. protested. The +pope even went to Vienna in A.D. 1782; but though received with great +respect, he could make nothing of the emperor. Joseph's procedure had been +somewhat hasty and inconsiderate, and a reaction set in, led by interested +parties, on the emperor's early death in A.D. 1790.--The Grand-duke +_Leopold of Tuscany_, Joseph's brother, with the aid of the pious Bishop +Scipio von Ricci, inclined to Jansenism, sought also in a similar way to +reform the church of his land at the Synod of Pistoia, in A.D. 1786. But +here too at last the hierarchy prevailed. + +11. _Theological Literature._--The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, A.D. +1685, gave the deathblow to the French Reformed theology, but it also +robbed Catholic theology in _France_ of its spur and incentive. The +Huguenot polemic against the papacy, and that of Jansenism against the +semi-pelagianism of the Catholic church, were silenced; but now the most +rabid naturalism, atheism, and materialism held the field and the church +theology was so lethargic that it could not attempt any serious +opposition. Yet even here some names are worthy of being recorded. Above +all, _Bernard de Montfaucon_ of St. Maur, the ablest antiquarian of +France, besides his classical works, issued admirable editions of +Athanasius, Chrysostom, Origen's "_Hexapla_," and the "_Collectio Nova +Patrum_." _E. Renaudot_, a learned expert in the oriental languages, wrote +several works in vindication of the "_Perpetuite de la Foi cath._," a +history of the Jacobite patriarchs of Alexandria, etc., and compiled a +"_Collectio liturgiarum Oriental_," in two vols. Of permanent worth is the +"_Bibliotheca Sacra_" of the Oratorian _Le Long_, which forms an admirable +literary-historical apparatus for the Bible. The learned Jesuit +_Hardouin_, who pronounced all Greek and Latin classics, with few +exceptions, to be monkish products of the thirteenth century, and denied +the existence of all pre-Tridentine general councils, edited a careful +collection of Acts of Councils in twelve vols. folio in Paris, 1715, and +compiled an elaborate chronology of the Old Testament. His pupil, the +Jesuit _Berruyer_, wrote a romancing "_Hist. du Peuple de Dieu_," which, +though much criticised, was widely read. Incomparably more important was +the Benedictine _Calmet_, died A.D. 1757, whose "_Dictionnaire de la +Bible_" and "_Commentaire Litteral et Critique_" on the whole Bible are +really most creditable for their time. And, finally, the Parisian +professor of medicine, _Jean Astruc_, deserves to be named as the founder +of the modern Pentateuch criticism, whose "_Conjectures sur les Memoires +Originaux_," etc., appeared in Brussels A.D. 1753.--Within the limits of +the French Revolution the noble theosophist _St. Martin_, died A.D. 1805, +a warm admirer of Boehme, wrote his brilliant and profound treatises. + +12. _In Italy_ the most important contributions were in the department of +history. _Mansi_, in his collection of Acts of Councils in thirty-one +vols. folio, A.D. 1759 ff., and _Muratori_, in his "_Scriptores Rer. +Italic._," in twenty-eight vols., and "_Antiquitt. Ital. Med. AEvi_," in +six vols., show brilliant learning and admirable impartiality. _Ugolino_, +in a gigantic work, "_Thesaurus Antiquitt. ss._," thirty-four folio vols., +A.D. 1744 ff., gathers together all that is most important for biblical +archaeology. The three _Assemani_, uncle and two nephews, cultured +Maronites in Rome, wrought in the hitherto unknown field of Syrian +literature and history. The uncle, Joseph Simon, librarian at the Vatican, +wrote "_Bibliotheca Orientalis_," in four vols., A.D. 1719 ff., and edited +Ephraem's works in six vols. The elder nephew, Stephen Evodius, edited the +"_Acta ss. Martyrum Orient. et Occid._," in two vols., and the younger, +Joseph Aloysius, a "_Codex Liturgicus Eccles. Univ._," in thirteen vols. +Among dogmatical works the "_Theologia hist.-dogm.-scholastica_," in eight +vols. folio, Rome, 1739, of the Augustinian _Berti_ deserves mention. +_Zaccaria_ of Venice, in some thirty vols., proved an indefatigable +opponent of Febronianism, Josephinism, and such-like movements, and a +careful editor of older Catholic works. The Augustinian _Florez_, died +A.D. 1773, did for _Spain_ what Muratori had done for Italy in making +collections of ancient writers, which, with the continuations of the +brethren of his order, extended to fifty folio volumes.--In _Germany_ the +greatest Catholic theologian of the century was _Amort_. Of his seventy +treatises the most comprehensive is the "_Theologia Eclectica, Moralis et +Scholastica_," in four vols. folio, A.D. 1752. He conducted a conciliatory +polemic against the Protestants, contested the mysticism of Maria von +Agreda (§ 156, 5), and vigorously controverted superstition, +miracle-mongering, and all manner of monkish extravagances. To the time of +Joseph II. belongs the liberal, latitudinarian supernaturalist _Jahn_ of +Vienna, whose "Introduction to the Old Testament," and "Biblical +Antiquities" did much to raise the standard of biblical learning. For his +anti-clericalism he was deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1805, and +died in A.D. 1816 a canon in Vienna. To this century also belongs the +greatly blessed literary labours of the accomplished mystic, _Sailer_, +beginning at Ingolstadt in A.D. 1777, and continued at Dillingen from A.D. +1784. Deprived in A.D. 1794 of his professorship on pretence of his +favouring the Illuminati, it was not till A.D. 1799 that he was allowed to +resume his academic work in Ingolstadt and Landshut. By numerous +theological, ascetical, and philosophical tracts, but far more powerfully +by his lectures and personal intercourse, he sowed the seeds of +rationalism, which bore fruit in the teachings of many Catholic +universities, and produced in the hearts of many pupils a warm and deep +and at the same time a gentle and conciliatory Catholicism, which heartily +greeted, even in pious Protestants, the foundations of a common faith and +life. Compare § 187, 1.--Continuation, § 191. + +13. _The German-Catholic Contribution to the Illumination._--The Catholic +church of Germany was also carried away with the current of "the +Illumination," which from the middle of the century had overrun Protestant +Germany. While the exorcisms and cures of Father Gassner in Regensburg +were securing signal triumphs to Catholicism, though these were of so +dubious a kind that the bishops, the emperor, and finally even the curia, +found it necessary to check the course of the miracle worker, _Weishaupt_, +professor of canon law in Ingolstadt, founded, in A.D. 1776, the secret +society of the _Illuminati_, which spread its deistic ideas of culture and +human perfectibility through Catholic South Germany. Though inspired by +deadly hatred of the Jesuits, Weishaupt imitated their methods, and so +excited the suspicion of the Bavarian government, which, in A.D. 1785, +suppressed the order and imprisoned and banished its leaders.--Catholic +theology too was affected by the rationalistic movement. But that the +power of the church to curse still survived was proved in the case of the +Mainz professor, _Laurence Isenbiehl_, who applied the passage about +Immanuel, in Isaiah vii. 14, not to the mother of Christ, but to the wife +of the prophet, for which he was deposed in A.D. 1774, and on account of +his defective knowledge of theology was sent back for two years to the +seminary. When in A.D. 1778 he published a learned treatise on the same +theme, he was put in prison. The pope too condemned his exposition as +pestilential, and Isenbiehl "as a good Catholic" retracted. _Steinbuehler_, +a young jurist of Salzburg, having been sentenced to death in A.D. 1781 +for some contemptuous words about the Catholic ceremonies, was pardoned, +but soon after died from the ill-treatment he had received. The +rationalistic movement got hold more and more of the Catholic +universities. In Mainz, _Dr. Blau_, professor of dogmatics, promulgated +with impunity the doctrine that in the course of centuries the church has +often made mistakes. In the Austrian universities, under the protection of +the Josephine edict, a whole series of Catholic theologians ventured to +make cynically free criticisms, especially in the field of church history. +At Bonn University, founded in A.D. 1786 by the Elector-archbishop of +Cologne, there were teachers like _Hedderich_, who sportively described +himself on the title page of a dissertation as "_jam quater Romae +damnatus_," _Dereser_, previously a Carmelite monk, who followed Eichhorn +in his exposition of the biblical miracles, and _Eulogius Schneider_, who, +after having made Bonn too hot for him by his theological and poetical +recklessness, threw himself into the French Revolution, for two years +marched through Alsace with the guillotine as one of the most dreaded +monsters, and finally, in A.D. 1794, was made to lay his own head on the +block.--At the Austrian universities, under the protection of the tolerant +Josephine legislation, a whole series of Catholic theologians, Royko, +Wolff, Dannenmayr, Michl, etc., criticised, often with cynical plainness, +the proceedings and condition of the Catholic church. To this class also, +in the first stage of his remarkably changeful and eventful career, +belongs Ign. Aur. _Fessler_. From 1773, a Capuchin in various cloisters, +last of all in Vienna, he brought down upon himself the bitter hatred of +his order by making secret reports to the emperor about the ongoings that +prevailed in these convents. He escaped their enmity by his appointment, +in 1784, as professor of the oriental languages and the Old Testament at +Lemberg, but was in 1787 dismissed from this office on account of various +charges against his life, teaching, and poetical writings. In Silesia, in +1791, he went over to the Protestant church, joined the freemasons, held +at Berlin the post of a councillor in ecclesiastical and educational +affairs for the newly won Catholic provinces of Poland, and, after losing +this position in consequence of the events of the war of 1806, found +employment in Russia in 1809; first, as professor of oriental languages at +St. Petersburg, and afterwards, when opposed and persecuted there also on +suspicion of entertaining atheistical views, as member of a legal +commission in South Russia. Meanwhile having gradually moved from a +deistical to a vague mystical standpoint, he was in 1819 made +superintendent and president of the evangelical consistory at Saratov, +with the title of an evangelical bishop, and after the abolition of that +office in 1833 he became general superintendent at St. Petersburg, where +he died in 1839. His romances and tragedies as well as his theological and +religious writings are now forgotten, but his "Reminiscences of his +Seventy Years' Pilgrimage," published in 1824, are still interesting, and +his "History of Hungary," in ten volumes, begun in 1812, is of permanent +value. + +14. _The French Contribution to the Illumination._--The age of Louis XIV., +with the morals of its Jesuit confessors, the lust, bigotry, and hypocrisy +of its court, its dragonnades and Bastille polemic against revivals of a +living Christianity among Huguenots, mystics, and Jansenists, its prophets +of the Cevennes and Jansenist convulsionists, etc., called forth a spirit +of freethinking to which Catholicism, Jansenism, and Protestantism +appeared equally ridiculous and absurd. This movement was essentially +different from English deism. The principle of the English movement was +_common sense_, the universal moral consciousness in man, with the +powerful weapon of rational criticism, maintaining the existence of an +ideal and moral element in men, and holding by the more general principles +of religion. French naturalism, on the other hand, was a philosophy of the +_esprit_, that essentially French lightheartedness which laughed away +everything of an ideal sort with scorn and wit. Yet there was an intimate +relationship between the two. The philosophy of common sense came to +France, and was there travestied into a philosophy _d'esprit_. The organ +of this French philosophy was the "_Encyclopedie_" of Diderot and +D'Alembert, and its most brilliant contributors, Montesquieu, Helvetius, +Voltaire, and Rousseau. _Montesquieu_, A.D. 1689-1755, whose "_Esprit des +Lois_" in two years passed through twenty-two editions, wrote the +"_Lettres Persanes_," in which with biting wit he ridiculed the political, +social, and ecclesiastical condition of France. _Helvetius_, A.D. +1715-1771, had his book, "_De l'Esprit_," burnt in A.D. 1759 by order of +parliament, and was made to retract, but this only increased his +influence. _Voltaire_, A.D. 1694-1778, although treating in his writings +of philosophical and theological matters, gives only a hash of English +deism spiced with frivolous wit, showing the same tendency in his +historical and poetical works, giving a certain eloquence to the commonest +and filthiest subjects, as in his "_Pucelle_" and "_Candide_." He +obtained, however, an immense influence that extended far past his own +days. To the same class belongs _Jean Jacques Rousseau_, A.D. 1712-1778, +belonging to the Roman Catholic church only as a pervert for seventeen +years in the middle of his life. Of a nobler nature than Voltaire, he yet +often sank into deep immorality, as he tells without reserve, but also +without any hearty penitence, in his _Confessions_. His whole life was +taken up with the conflict for his ideals of freedom, nature, human +rights, and human happiness. In his "_Contrat Social_" of A.D. 1762, he +commends a return to the natural condition of the savage as the ideal end +of man's endeavour. His "_Emile_" of A.D. 1761 is of epoch-making +importance in the history of education, and in it he eloquently sets forth +his ideal of a natural education of children, while he sent all his own +(natural) children to a foundling hospital.--The physician _De la Mettrie_, +who died at the court of Frederick the Great in A.D. 1751, carried +materialism to its most extreme consequences, and the German-Frenchman +Baron _Holbach_, A.D. 1723-1789, wrote the "_Systeme de la Nature_," which +in two years passed through eighteen editions.(51) + +15. These seeds bore fruit in the _French Revolution_. Voltaire's cry +"_Ecrasez l'infame_," was directed against the church of the Inquisition, +the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the dragonnades, and Diderot had +exclaimed that the world's salvation could only come when the last king +had been strangled with the entrails of the last priest. The +constitutional National Assembly, A.D. 1789-1791, wished to set aside, not +the faith of the people, but only the hierarchy, and to save the state +from a financial crisis by the goods of the church. All cloisters were +suppressed and their property sold. The number of bishops was reduced to +one half, all ecclesiastical offices without a pastoral sphere were +abolished, the clergy elected by the people paid by the state, and liberty +of belief recognised as an inalienable right of man. The legislative +National Assembly, A.D. 1791, 1792, made all the clergy take an oath to +the constitution on pain of deposition. The pope forbad it under the same +threat. Then arose a schism. Some 40,000 priests who refused the oath +mostly quitted the country. Avignon (§ 110, 4) had been incorporated in +the French territory. The terrorist National Convention, A.D. 1792-1795, +which brought the king to the scaffold on January 21st, A.D. 1793, and the +queen on October 16th, prohibited all Christian customs, on 5th October +abolished the Christian reckoning of time, and on November 7th +Christianity itself, laid waste 2,000 churches and converted _Notre Dame_ +into a _Temple de la Raison_, where a ballet-dancer represented the +goddess of reason. Stirred up by the fanatical baron, "Anacharsis" Cloots, +"the apostle of human freedom and the personal enemy of Jesus Christ," the +Archbishop Gobel, now in his sixtieth year, came forward, proclaiming his +whole past life a fraud, and owning no other religion than that of +freedom. On the other hand, the noble Bishop Gregoire of Blois, the first +priest to support the constitution, who voted for the abolition of +royalty, but not the execution of the king, was not driven by the +terrorism of the convention, of which he was a member, from a bold and +open profession of Christianity, appearing in his clerical dress and +unweariedly protesting against the vandalism of the Assembly. +Robespierre(52) himself said, "_Si Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait +l'inventer_," passed in A.D. 1794 the resolution, _Le peuple francais +reconnait l'Etre supreme et l'immortalite de l'ame_, and issued an order +to celebrate the _fete de l'Etre supreme_. The Directory, A.D. 1795-1799, +restored indeed Christian worship, but favoured the deistical sect of the +_Theophilanthropists_, whose high-swelling phrases soon called forth +public scorn, while in A.D. 1802 the first consul banished their worship +from all churches. But meanwhile, in A.D. 1798, in order to nullify the +opposition of the pope, French armies had overrun Italy and proclaimed the +Church States a Roman Republic. _Pius VI._ was taken prisoner to France, +and died in A.D. 1799 at Valence under the rough treatment of the French, +without having in the least compromised himself or his office.(53) + +16. _The Pseudo-Catholics._--(1) _The Abrahamites or Bohemian Deists._ When +Joseph II. issued his edict of toleration in A.D. 1781, a sect which had +hitherto kept itself secret under the mask of Catholicism made its +appearance in the Bohemian province of Pardubitz. The Abrahamites were +descended from the old Hussites, and professed to follow the faith of +Abraham before his circumcision. Their fundamental doctrine was deistic +monotheism, and of the Bible they accepted only the ten commandments and +the Lord's Prayer. But as they would neither attend the Jewish synagogue +nor the churches of any existing Christian sect, the emperor refused them +religious toleration, drove them from their homes, and settled them in +A.D. 1783 on the eastern frontiers. Many of them, in consequence of +persecution, returned to the Catholic church, and even those who remained +steadfast did not transmit their faith to their children. + +17. (2) _The Frankists._--Jacob Leibowicz, the son of a Jewish rabbi in +Galicia, attached himself in Turkey, where he assumed the name of _Frank_, +to the Jewish sect of the Sabbatarians, who, repudiating the Talmud, +adopted the cabbalistic book Sohar as the source of their more profound +religious teaching. Afterwards in Podolia, which was then still Polish, he +was esteemed among his numerous adherents as a Messiah sent of God. +Bitterly hated by the rabbinical Jews, and accused of indulging in vile +orgies in their assemblies, many of those Soharists were thrown into +prison at the instigation of Bishop Dembowski of Kaminetz. But when they +turned and accused their opponents of most serious crimes against +Christendom, and, at Frank's suggestion, pointing out what they alleged to +be an identity between the book Sohar and the Christian doctrine of the +Trinity and incarnation, made it known that they were inclined to become +converts, they won the favour of the bishop. He arranged a disputation +between the two parties, pronounced the Talmudists beaten, confiscated all +available copies of the Talmud, dragged them through the streets tied to +the tail of a horse, and then burnt them. Dembowski, however, died soon +after in A.D. 1757, and the cathedral chapter expelled the Soharists from +Kaminetz. They appealed to King Augustus III. and to Archbishop Lubienski +of Lemberg, renewing their profession of faith in the Trinity, and +promising to be subject to the pope. In a disputation with the Talmudists +lasting three days they sought to prove that the Talmudists used Christian +blood in their services, which afterwards led to the death of five of the +Jews thus accused. By Frank's advice, who took part neither in this nor in +the former disputation, but was the secret leader of the whole movement, +they now formally applied for admission into the Catholic church, and +their leader now entered Lemberg in great state. They actually submitted +to be thus driven by him, and 1,000 of his adherents were baptized at +Lemberg. Frank was baptized at Warsaw under the name of _Joseph_, the king +himself acting as sponsor. In all Catholic journals this event was +celebrated as a signal triumph for the Catholic church. But Frank among +his own disciples continued to play the _role_ of a miracle-working +Messiah. Hence in A.D. 1760 the Inquisition stepped in. Some of his +followers were imprisoned, others banished, and he himself as a heresiarch +condemned to confinement for life with hard labour, from which after +thirteen years he was liberated on the first partition of Poland in A.D. +1772, through the favour of Catherine II., who employed him as secret +political agent. Feeling that his life was insecure in Poland, he went to +Moravia, and at Bruenn reorganized his numerous and attached followers into +a well-knit society, by which he was revered as the incarnation of the +Deity, and his beautiful daughter Eva, brought up by her noble godmother, +as "the divine Emuna." How he was permitted, under the protection of the +Catholic church, to continue here for sixteen years, playing the _role_ of +a Messiah, and to amass such wealth as enabled him to purchase, in A.D. +1788, from the impoverished prince of Homburg-Birstein his castle at +Offenbach, with all the privileges attached to it, is an insoluble +mystery. He now called himself Baron von Frank, formed with his followers +from Moravia and Poland a brilliant establishment, which outwardly adhered +to the Roman Catholic church, although he very seldom attended the +Catholic services. Frank died in A.D. 1791, and was buried with great +pomp, but without the presence of the Catholic clergy. His daughter Eva +was able to maintain the extravagant establishment of her father for +twenty-six years, when the debt resting on the castle reached three +million florins. At last, in A.D. 1817, the long-threatened catastrophe +occurred. Eva died suddenly, and a coffin said to contain her body was +actually with all decorum laid in the grave. + + + +§ 166. The Oriental Churches. + + +The oppressed condition of the orthodox church in the Ottoman empire +continued unchanged. It had a more vigorous development in Russia, where +its ascendency was unchallenged. Although the Russian church, from the +time of its obtaining an independent patriarchate at Moscow, in A.D. 1589, +was constitutionally emancipated from the mother church of Constantinople, +it yet continued in close religious affinity with it. This was intensified +by the adoption of the common confession, drawn up shortly before by Peter +Mogilas (§ 152, 3). The patriarchal constitution in Russia, however, was +but short-lived, for Peter I., in 1702, after the death of the Patriarch +Hadrian, abolished the patriarchate, arrogated to himself as emperor the +highest ecclesiastical office, and in A.D. 1721 constituted "the Holy +Synod," to which, under the supervision of a procurator guarding the +rights of the state, he assigned the supreme direction of spiritual and +ecclesiastical affairs. To these proposals the Patriarch of Constantinople +gave his approval. In this reform of the church constitution Theophanes +Procopowicz, Metropolitan of Novgorod, was the emperor's right hand.--The +monophysite church of Abyssinia was again during this period the scene of +Christological controversies. + +1. _The Russian State Church._--From the time of the liturgical reformation +of the Patriarch Nikon (§ 163, 10) a new and peculiar service of song took +the place of the old unison style that had previously prevailed in the +Russian church. Without instrumental accompaniment, it was sustained +simply by powerful male voices, and was executed, at least in the chief +cities, with musical taste and charming simplicity. Among the +_theologians_, the above-named Procopowicz, who died in A.D. 1736, +occupied a prominent position. His "Handbook of Dogmatics," without +departing from the doctrines of his church, is characterized by learning, +clearness of exposition, and moderation. From the middle of the century, +however, especially among the superior clergy, there crept in a Protestant +tendency, which indeed held quite firmly by the old theology of the +oecumenical synods of the Greek Church, but set aside or laid little stress +upon later doctrinal developments. Even the celebrated and widely used +catechism, drawn up originally for the use of the Grand-duke Paul +Petrovich, by his tutor, the learned Platon, afterwards Metropolitan of +Moscow, was not quite free from this tendency. It found yet more decided +expression in the dogmatic handbook of Theophylact, archimandrite of +Moscow, published in A.D. 1773.--Continuation, § 206, 1. + +2. _Russian Sects._--To the sects of the seventeenth century (§ 163, 10) +are to be added spiritualistic gnostics of the eighteenth, in which we +find a blending of western ideas with the old oriental mysticism. Among +those were the _Malakanen_, or consumers of milk, because, in spite of the +orthodox prohibition, they used milk during the fasts. They rejected all +anointings, even chrism and priestly consecration, and acknowledged only +spiritual anointing by the doctrine of Christ. They also volatilized the +idea of baptism and the Lord's supper into that of a merely spiritual +cleansing and nourishing by the word of the gospel. Otherwise they led a +quiet and honourable life. More important still in regard to numbers and +influence were the _Duchoborzen_. Although belonging exclusively to the +peasant class, they had a richly developed theological system of a +speculative character, with a notable blending of theosophy, mysticism, +Protestantism, and rationalism. They idealized the doctrine of the +sacraments after the style of the Quakers, would have no special places of +worship or an ordained clergy, refused to take oaths or engage in military +service, and led peaceable and useful lives. They made their first +appearance in Moscow in the beginning of the eighteenth century under +Peter the Great, and spread through other cities of Old +Russia.--Continuation, § 210, 3. + +3. _The Abyssinian Church_ (§§ 64, 1; 73, 2).--About the middle of the +century a monk appeared, proclaiming that, besides the commonly admitted +twofold birth of Christ, the eternal generation of the Father and the +temporal birth of the Virgin Mary, there was a third birth through +anointing with the Holy Spirit in the baptism in Jordan. He thus convulsed +the whole Abyssinian church, which for centuries had been in a state of +spiritual lethargy. The _abuna_ with the majority of his church held by +the old doctrine, but the new also found many adherents. The split thus +occasioned has continued till the present time, and has played no +unimportant part in the politico-dynastic struggles of the last ten years +(§ 184, 9). + + + + +II. The Protestant Churches. + + + +§ 167. The Lutheran Church before "the Illumination." + + +By means of the founding of the University of Halle in A.D. 1694 a fresh +impulse was given to the pietist movement, and too often the whole German +Church was embroiled in violent party strifes, in which both sides failed +to keep the happy mean, and laid themselves open to the reproach of the +adversaries. Spener died in A.D. 1705, Francke in A.D. 1727, and +Breithaupt in A.D. 1732. After the loss of these leaders the Halle pietism +became more and more gross, narrow, unscientific, regardless of the Church +confession, frequently renouncing definite beliefs for hazy pious feeling, +and attaching undue importance to pious forms of expression and +methodistical modes of life. The conventionalism encouraged by it became a +very Pandora's box of sectarianism and fanaticism (§ 170, 1). But it had +also set up a ferment in the church and in theology which created a +wholesome influence for many years. More than 6,000 theologians from all +parts of Germany had down to Francke's death received their theological +training in Halle, and carried the leaven of his spirit into as many +churches and schools. A whole series of distinguished teachers of theology +now rose in almost all the Lutheran churches of the German states, who, +avoiding the onesidedness of the pietists and their opponents, taught and +preached pure doctrine and a pious life. From Calixt they had learnt to be +mild and fair towards the Reformed and Catholic churches, and by Spener +they had been roused to a genuine and hearty piety. Gottfried Arnold's +protest, onesided as it was, had taught them to discover, even among +heretics and sectaries, partial and distorted truths; and from Calov and +Loescher they had inherited a zeal for pure doctrine. Most eminent among +these were Albert Bengel, of Wuerttemberg, who died in A.D. 1752, and Chr. +Aug. Crusius of Leipzig, who died in A.D. 1775. But when the flood of "the +Illumination" came rushing in upon the German Lutheran Church about the +middle of the century, it overflowed even the fields sown by these noble +men. + +1. _The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the Halle University_ +(§ 159, 3).--Pietism, condemned by the orthodox universities of Leipzig and +Wittenberg, was protected and encouraged in Halle. The crowds of students +flocking to this new seminary roused the wrath of the orthodox. The +Wittenberg faculty, with Deutschmann at its head, issued a manifesto in +A.D. 1695, charging Spener with no less than 264 errors in doctrine. Nor +were those of Leipzig silent, Carpzov going so far as to style the mild +and peace-loving Spener a _procella ecclesiae_. Other leading opponents of +the pietists were Schelwig of Dantzig, Mayer of Wittenberg, and Fecht of +Rostock. When Spener died in A.D. 1705 his opponents gravely discussed +whether he could be thought of as in glory. Fecht of Rostock denied that +it could be. Among the later champions of pure doctrine the worthiest and +ablest was the learned Loescher, superintendent at Dresden, A.D. 1709-1747, +who at least cannot be reproached with dead orthodoxy. His "_Vollstaendiger +Timotheus Verinus_," two vols., 1718, 1721, is by far the most important +controversial work against pietism.(54) Francis Buddeus of Jena for a long +time sought ineffectually to bring about a reconciliation between Loescher +and the pietists of Halle. In A.D. 1710 Francke and Breithaupt obtained a +valorous colleague in Joachim Lange; but even he was no match for Loescher +in controversy. Meanwhile pietism had more and more permeated the life of +the people, and occasioned in many places violent popular tumults. In +several states conventicles were forbidden; in others, _e.g._ Wuerttemberg +and Denmark, they were allowed. + +2. The orthodox regarded the pietists as a new sect, with dangerous errors +that threatened the pure doctrine of the Lutheran Church; while the +pietists maintained that they held by pure Lutheran orthodoxy, and only +set aside its barren formalism and dead externalism for biblical practical +Christianity. The controversy gathered round the doctrines of the new +birth, justification, sanctification, the church, and the millennium. +(_a_) The new birth. The orthodox maintained that regeneration takes place +in baptism (§ 141, 13), every baptized person is regenerate; but the new +birth needs nursing, nourishment, and growth, and, where these are +wanting, reawakening. The pietists identified awakening or conversion with +regeneration, considered that it was effected in later life through the +word of God, mediated by a corporeal and spiritual penitential struggle, +and a consequent spiritual experience, and sealed by a sensible assurance +of God's favour in the believer's blessed consciousness. This inward +sealing marks the beginning, introduction into the condition of babes in +Christ. They distinguished a _theologia viatorum_, _i.e._ the symbolical +church doctrine, and a _theologia regenitorum_, which has to do with the +soul's inner condition after the new birth. They have consequently been +charged with maintaining that a true Christian who has arrived at the +stage of spiritual manhood may and must in this life become free from +sin.--(_b_) Justification and Sanctification. In opposition to an only too +prevalent externalizing of the doctrine of justification, Spener has +taught that only living faith justifies, and if genuine must be operative, +though not meritorious. Only in faith proved to be living by a pious life +and active Christianity, but not in faith in the external and objective +promises of God's word, lies the sure guarantee of justification obtained. +His opponents therefore accused him of confounding justification and +sanctification, and depreciating the former in favour of the latter. And, +though not by Spener, yet by many of his followers, justification was put +in the background, and in a onesided manner stress was laid upon practical +Christianity. Spener and Francke had expressly preached against worldly +dissipation and frivolity, and condemned dancing, the theatre, +card-playing, as detrimental to the progress of sanctification, and +therefore sinful; while the orthodox regarded them as matters of +indifference. Besides this, the pietists held the doctrine of a day of +grace, assigned to each one within the limit of his earthly life +(_terminism_).--(_c_) The Church and the Pastorate. Orthodoxy regarded word +and sacrament and the ministry which administered them as the basis and +foundation of the church; pietism held that the individual believers +determined the character and existence of the church. In the one case the +church was thought to beget, nurse, and nourish believers; in the other +believers, constituted, maintained, and renewed the church, accomplishing +this best by conventicles, in which living Christianity preserved itself +and diffused its influence abroad. The orthodox laid great stress upon +clerical ordination and the grace of office; pietists on the person and +his faith. Spener had taught that only he who has experienced in his own +heart the power of the gospel, _i.e._ he who has been born again, can be a +true preacher and pastor. Loescher maintained that the official acts of an +unconverted preacher, if only he be orthodox, may be blessed as well as +those of a converted man, because saving power lies not in the person of +the preacher, but in the word of God which he preaches, in its purity and +simplicity, and in the sacraments which he dispenses in accordance with +their institution. The pietists then went so far as absolutely to deny +that saving results could follow the preaching of an unconverted man. The +proclamation of forgiveness by the church without the inward sealing had +for them no meaning; yea, they regarded it as dangerous, because it +quieted conscience and made sinners secure. Hence they keenly opposed +private confession and churchly absolution. Of a special grace of office +they would know nothing: the true ordination is the new birth; each +regenerate one, and such a one only, is a true priest. The orthodox +insisted above all on pure doctrine and the church confession; the +pietists too regarded this as necessary, but not as the main thing. Spener +decidedly maintained the duty of accepting the church symbols; but later +pietists rejected them as man's work, and so containing errors. Among the +orthodox, again, some went so far as to claim for their symbols absolute +immunity from error. Spener's opposition to the compulsory use of fixed +Scripture portions, prescribed forms of prayer, and the exorcism formulary +occasioned the most violent contentions. On the other hand, his +reintroduction of the confirmation service before the first communion, +which had fallen into general desuetude, was imitated, and soon widely +prevailed, even among the orthodox.--(_d_) Eschatology. Spener had +interpreted the biblical doctrine of the 1,000 years' reign as meaning +that, after the overthrow of the papacy and the conversion of heathens and +Jews, a period of the most glorious and undisturbed tranquillity would +dawn for the kingdom of Christ on earth as prelude to the eternal sabbath. +His opponents denounced this as chiliasm and fanaticism.--(_e_) There was, +finally, a controversy about Divine providence occasioned by the founding +of Francke's orphan house at Halle. The pietists pointed to the +establishment and growth of this institution as an instance of immediate +divine providence; while Loescher, by indicating the common means employed +to secure success, reduced the whole affair to the domain of general and +daily providence, without denying the value of the strong faith in God and +the active love that characterized its founder, as well as the importance +of the Divine blessing which rested upon the work.(55) + +3. _Theology_ (§ 159, 4).--The last two important representatives of the +_Old Orthodox School_ were _Loescher_, who, besides his polemic against +pietism, made learned contributions to biblical philology and church +history; and his companion in arms, _Cyprian_ of Gotha, who died in A.D. +1745, the ablest combatant of Arnold's "_Ketzerhistorie_," and opponent of +union efforts and of the papacy.--The _Pietist School_, more fruitful in +practical than scientific theology, contributed to devotional literature +many works that will never be forgotten. The learned and voluminous writer +_Joachim Lange_, who died A.D. 1744, the most skilful controversialist +among the Halle pietists, author of the "Halle Latin Grammar," which +reached its sixtieth edition in A.D. 1809, published a commentary on the +whole Bible in seven folio vols. after the Cocceian method. Of importance +as a historian of the Reformation was _Salig_ of Wolfenbuettel, who died in +A.D. 1738. _Christian Thomasins_ at first attached himself to the pietists +as an opponent of the rigid adherence to the letter of the orthodox, but +was repudiated by them as an indifferentist. To him belongs the honour of +having turned public opinion against the persecution of witches (§ 117, +4). Out of the contentions of pietists and orthodox there now rose a +_third school_, in which Lutheran theology and learning were united with +genuine piety and profound thinking, decided confessionalism with +moderation and fairness. Its most distinguished representatives were +_Hollaz_ of Pomerania, died 1713 ("_Examen Theologicum Acroamaticum_"); +_Buddeus_ of Jena, died 1729 ("_Hist. Ecclst. V.T._," "_Instit. Theol. +Dogma_," "_Isagoge Hist. Theol. Univ._"); _J. Chr. Wolf_ of Homburg, died +1739 ("_Biblioth. Hebr._," "_Curae Philol. et Crit. in N.T._"); _Weismann_ +of Tuebingen, died 1747 ("_Hist. Ecclst._"); _Carpzov_ of Leipzig, died +A.D. 1767 as superintendent at Luebeck ("_Critica s. V.T._," "_Introductio +ad Libros cen. V.T._," "_Apparatus Antiquitt. s. Codicis_"); _J. H. +Michaelis_ of Halle, died 1731 ("_Biblia. Hebr. c. Variis Lectionibus et +Brev. Annott._," "_Uberiores Annott. in Hagiograph._"); assisted in both +by his learned nephew _Chr. Ben. Michaelis_ of Halle, died 1764; _J. G. +Walch_ of Jena, died 1755 ("_Einl. in die Religionsstreitigkeiten_," +"_Biblioth. Theol. Selecta_," "_Biblioth. Patristica_," "_Luther's +Werke_"); _Chr. Meth. Pfaff_ of Tuebingen, died 1760 ("_K. G., K. Recht, +Dogmatik, Moral_"); _L. von Mosheim_ of Helmstaedt and Goettingen, died +1755, the father of modern church history ("_Institt. Hist. Ecclst._," +"_Commentarii Rebus Christ. ante Constant. M._," "_Dissertationes_," +etc.); _J. Alb. Bengel_ of Stuttgart, died 1752 ("_Gnomon N.T._," a +commentary on the N.T. distinguished by pregnancy of expression and +profundity of thought; from his interpretation of Revelation he expected +the millennium to begin in A.D. 1836); and _Chr. A. Crusius_ of Leipzig, +died 1775 ("_Hypomnemata ad Theol. Propheticam._")--A _fourth_ theological +school arose out of the application of the mathematical method of +demonstration by the philosopher _Chr. von Wolff_ of Halle, who died A.D. +1754. Wolff attached himself to the philosophical system of Leibnitz, and +sought to unite philosophy and Christianity; but under the manipulation of +his logico-mathematical method of proof he took all vitality out of the +system, and the pre-established harmony of the world became a purely +mechanical clockwork. He looked merely to the logical accuracy of +Christian truths, without seeking to penetrate their inner meaning, gave +formal exercise to the understanding, while the heart was left empty and +cold; and thus inevitably revelation and mystery made way for a mere +natural theology. Hence the charge brought against the system of tending +to fatalism and atheism, not only by narrow pietists like Lange, but by +able and liberal theologians like Buddeus and Crusius, was quite +justifiable. By a cabinet order of Frederick William I. in A.D. 1723 Wolff +was deposed, and ordered within two days, on pain of death, to quit the +Prussian states. But so soon as Frederick II. ascended the throne, in A.D. +1740, he recalled the philosopher to Halle from Marburg, where he had +meanwhile taught with great success.(56) _Sig. Jac. Baumgarten_, the pious +and learned professor in Halle, who died in A.D. 1757, was the first to +introduce Wolff's method into theology. In respect of contents his +theology occupies essentially the old orthodox ground. The ablest promoter +of the system was _John Carpov_ of Weimar, who died in A.D. 1768 ("_Theol. +Revelata Meth. Scientifica Adornata_"). When applied to sermons, the +Wolffian method led to the most extreme insipidity and absurdity. + +4. _Unionist Efforts._--The distinguished theologian Chr. Matt. Pfaff, +chancellor of the University of Tuebingen, who, without being numbered +among the pietists, recognised in pietism a wholesome reaction against the +barren worship of the letter which had characterized orthodoxy, regarded a +union between the Lutheran and Reformed churches on their common beliefs, +which in importance far exceeded the points of difference, as both +practicable and desirable; and in A.D. 1720 expressed this opinion in his +"_Alloquium Irenicum ad Protestantes_," in which he answered the challenge +of the "_Corpus Evangelicorum_" at Regensburg (§ 153, 1). His proposal, +however, found little favour among Lutheran theologians. Not only Cyprian +of Gotha, but even such conciliatory theologians as Weismann of Tuebingen +and Mosheim of Helmstaedt, opposed it. But forty years later a Lutheran +theologian, Heumann of Goettingen, demonstrated that "the Reformed doctrine +of the supper is true," and proposed, in order to end the schism, that +Lutherans should drop their doctrine of the supper and the Reformed their +doctrine of predestination. This pamphlet, edited after the author's death +by Sack of Berlin, in A.D. 1764, produced a great sensation, and called +forth a multitude of replies on the Lutheran side, the best of which were +those of Walch of Jena and Ernesti of Leipzig. Even within the Lutheran +church, however, it found considerable favour. + +5. _Theories of Ecclesiastical Law._--Of necessity during the first century +of the Protestant church its government was placed in the hands of the +princes, who, because there were no others to do so, dispensed the _jura +episcopalia_ as _praecipua membra ecclesiae_. What was allowed at first in +the exigency of these times came gradually to be regarded as a legal +right. Orthodox theology and the juristic system associated with it, +especially that of Carpzov, justified this assumption in what is called +the _episcopal system_. This theory firmly maintains the mediaeval +distinction between the spiritual and civil powers as two independent +spheres ordained of God; but it installs the prince as _summus episcopus_, +combining in his person the highest spiritual with the highest civil +authority. In lands, however, where more than one confession held sway, or +where a prince belonging to a different section of the church succeeded, +the practical difficulties of this theory became very apparent; as, +_e.g._, when a Reformed or Romish prince had to be regarded as _summus +episcopus_ of a Lutheran church. Driven thus to seek another basis for the +claims of royal supremacy, a new theory, that of the _territorial system_, +was devised, according to which the prince possessed highest +ecclesiastical authority, not as _praecipuum membrum ecclesiae_, but as +sovereign ruler in the state. The headship of the church was therefore not +an independent prerogative over and above that of civil government, but an +inherent element in it: _cujus regio, illius et religio_. The historical +development of the German Reformation gave support to this theory (§ 126, +6), as seen in the proceedings of the Diet of Spires in A.D. 1526, in the +Augsburg and Westphalian Peace. A scientific basis was given it by +Puffendorf of Heidelberg, died A.D. 1694, in alliance with Hobbes (§ 163, +3). It was further developed and applied by Christian Thomasius of Halle, +died A.D. 1728, and by the famous J. H. Boehmer in his "_Jus Ecclesiasticum +Protestantium_." Thomasius' connexion with the pietists and his +indifference to confessions secured for the theory a favourable reception +in that party. Spener himself indeed preferred the Calvinistic +presbyterial constitution, because only in it could equality be given to +all the three orders, _ministerium ecclesiasticum_, _magistratus +politicus_, _status oeconomicus_. This protest by Spener against the two +systems was certainly not without influence upon the construction of a +third theory, the _collegial system_, proposed by Pfaff of Tuebingen, died +A.D. 1760. According to this scheme there belonged to the sovereign as +such only the headship of the church, _jus circa sacra_, while the _jura +in sacra_, matters pertaining to doctrine, worship, ecclesiastical law and +its administration, installation of clergy, and excommunication, as _jura +collegialia_, belonged to the whole body of church members. The normal +constitution therefore required the collective vote of all the members +through their synods. But outward circumstances during the Reformation age +had necessitated the relegating the discharge of these collegial rights to +the princes, which in itself was not unallowable, if only the position be +maintained that the prince acts _ex commisso_, and is under obligation to +render an account to those who have commissioned him. This system, on +account of its democratic character, found hearty supporters among the +later rationalists. But as a matter of fact nowhere was any of the three +systems consistently carried out. The constitution adopted in most of the +national churches was a weak vacillation between all the three.(57) + +6. _Church Song_ (§ 159, 3) received, during the first half of the +century, many valuable contributions. Two main groups of singers may be +distinguished: (1) The pietistic school, characterized by a biblical and +practical tendency. The spiritual life of believers, the work of grace in +conversion, growth in holiness, the varying conditions and experiences of +the religious life, were favourite themes. They were fitted, not so much +for use in the public services, as for private devotion, and few +comparatively have been retained in collections of church hymns. The later +productions of this school sank more and more into sentimentalism and +allegorical and fanciful play of words. We may distinguish among the Halle +pietists an older school, A.D. 1690-1720, and a younger, A.D. 1720-1750. +The former, coloured by the fervent piety of Francke, produced simple, +hearty, and often profound songs. The most distinguished representatives +were _Freylinghausen_, died A.D. 1739, Francke's son-in-law, and director +of the Halle Orphanage, editor in A.D. 1717 of a hymn-book widely used +among the pietists, was author of the hymns "Pure Essence, spotless Fount +of Light," "The day expires"; _Chr. Fr. Richter_, physician to the +Orphanage, died A.D. 1711, author of thirty-three beautiful hymns, +including "God, whom I as Love have known"; _Emilia Juliana_, Countess of +Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, died A.D. 1706, who wrote 586 hymns, including +"Who knows how near my end may be?" _Schroeder_, pastor in Magdeburg, died +A.D. 1728, wrote "One thing is needful: Let me deem"; _Winckler_, +cathedral preacher of Magdeburg, died A.D. 1722, author of "Strive, when +thou art called of God"; _Dessler_, rector of Nuremburg, died A.D. 1722, +composer of "I will not let Thee go, Thou help in time of need," "O Friend +of souls, how well is me;" _Gotter_, died A.D. 1735, who wrote, "O Cross, +we hail thy bitter reign"; _Cresselius_, pastor in Dusseldorf, author of +"Awake, O man, and from thee shake." The younger Halle school represents +pietism in its period of decay. Its best representatives are _J. J. +Rambach_, professor at Giessen, died A.D. 1735, who wrote "I am baptized +into thy name"; _Allendorf_, court preacher at Coethen, died A.D. 1773, +editor of a collection of poetic renderings from the Canticles.--(2) The +poets of the orthodox party, although opposed to the pietists, are all +more or less touched by the fervent piety of Spener. _Neumeister_, pastor +at Hamburg, died A.D. 1756, was an orthodox hymn-writer of thoroughly +conservative tendencies, zealously opposing the onesidedness of pietism, +with a strong, ardent faith in the orthodox creed, but without much +significance as a poet. _Schmolck_, pastor at Schweidnitz, died A.D. 1737, +wrote over 1,000 hymns, including "Blessed Jesus, here we stand," "Hosanna +to the Son of David! Raise," "Welcome, thou Victor in the strife." _Sol. +Franck_, secretary to the consistory at Weimar, died A.D. 1725, wrote over +300 hymns, including "Rest of the weary, thou thyself art resting now." +The mediating party between pietism and orthodoxy, represented by Bengel +and Crusius in theology, is represented among hymn-writers by _J. Andr. +Rothe_, died A.D. 1758, and by _Mentzer_, died A.D. 1784, composer of "Oh, +would I had a thousand tongues!" In A.D. 1750 J. Jac. von Moser collected +a list of 50,000 spiritual songs printed in the German +language.--Continuation, § 171, 1. + +7. _Sacred Music (_§ 159, 5_)._--Decadence of musical taste accompanied the +lowering of the poetic standard, and pietists went even further than the +orthodox in their imitation and adaptation of operatic airs. +_Freylinghausen_, not only himself composed many such melodies, but made a +collection from various sources in A.D. 1704, retaining some of the more +popular of the older tunes.--There now arose, amid all this depravation of +taste, a noble musician, who, like the good householder, could bring out +of his treasure things new and old. _J. Seb. Bach_, the most perfect +organist who ever lived, was musical director of the School of St. Thomas, +Leipzig, and died A.D. 1750. He turned enthusiastically to the old +chorale, which no one had ever understood and appreciated as he did. He +harmonized the old chorales for the organ, made them the basis for +elaborate organ studies, gave expression to his profoundest feelings in +his musical compositions and in his recitatives, duets, and airs, +reproduced at the sacred concerts many fine old chorales wedded to most +appropriate Scripture passages. He is for all times the unrivalled master +in fugue, harmony, and modulation. In his passion music we have expression +given to the profoundest ideas of German Protestantism in the noblest +music. After Bach comes a master in oratorio music hitherto unapproached, +_G. Fr. Handel_ of Halle, who, from A.D. 1710 till his death in A.D. 1759, +lived mostly in England. For twenty-five years he wrought for the +opera-house, and only in his later years gave himself to the composing of +oratorios. His operas are forgotten, but his oratorios will endure to the +end of time. His most perfect work is the "Messiah," which Herder +describes as a Christian epic in music. Of his other great compositions, +"Samson," "Judas Maccabaeus," and "Jephtha" may be mentioned.(58) + +8. _The Christian Life and Devotional Literature._--Pietism led to a +powerful revival of religious life among the people, which it sustained by +zealous preaching and the publication of devotional works. A similar +activity displayed itself among the orthodox. Francke began his charitable +labours with seven florins; but with undaunted faith he started his +Orphanage, writing over its door the words of Isaiah xl. 31. In faith and +benevolence Woltersdorff was a worthy successor of Francke; and Baron von +Canstein applied his whole means to the founding of the Bible Institute of +Halle. Missions too were now prosecuted with a zeal and success which +witnessed to the new life that had arisen in the Lutheran church.--A +remarkable manifestation of the pietistic spirit of this age is seen in +_The Praying Children in Silesia_, A.D. 1707. Children of four years old +and upward gathered in open fields for singing and prayer, and called for +the restoration of churches taken away by the Catholics. The movement +spread over the whole land. In vain was it denounced from the pulpits and +forbidden by the authorities. Opposition only excited more and more the +zeal of the children. At last the churches were opened for their services. +The excitement then gradually subsided. It was, however, long a subject of +discussion between the pietists and the orthodox; the latter denouncing it +as the work of the devil, the former regarding it as a wonderful awakening +of God's grace.--Best remembered of the many devotional writers of this +period are Bogatsky of Halle, died A.D. 1774, whose "Golden Treasury" is +still highly esteemed;(59) and Von Moser, died A.D. 1785, who lived a +noble and exemplary life at Stuttgart amid much sore persecution. The +great need of simple explanation of Scripture appears from the great sale +of such popular commentaries as those of Pfaff at Tuebingen, 1730, Starke +at Leipzig, 1741, and the Halle Bible of S. J. Baumgarten, 1748. + +9. _Missions to the Heathen._--The quickening of religious life by pietism +bore fruit in new missionary activity. Frederick IV. of Denmark founded in +his East Indian possessions the Tranquebar mission in A.D. 1706, under +Ziegenbalg and Plutschau. Ziegenbalg, who translated the New Testament +into Tamil, died in A.D. 1719. From the Danish possessions this mission +carried its work over into the English Indian territories. Able and +zealous workers were sent out from the Halle Institute, of whom the +greatest was Chr. Fr. Schwartz, who died in A.D. 1798, after nearly fifty +years of noble service in the mission field. In the last quarter of the +century, however, under the influence of rationalism, zeal for missions +declined, the Halle society broke up, and the English were allowed to reap +the harvest sown by the Lutherans. The Halle professor Callenberg founded +in A.D. 1728 a society for the conversion of the Jews, in the interests of +which Stephen Schultz travelled over Europe, Asia, and Africa, preaching +the Cross among the Jews. Christianity had been introduced among the +Eskimos in Greenland in the eleventh century (§ 93, 5), but the +Scandinavian colony there had been forgotten, and no trace of the religion +which it had taught any longer remained. This reproach to Christianity lay +sore on the heart of Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, and he found no rest +till, supported by a Danish-Norwegian trading house, he sailed with his +family in A.D. 1721 for these frozen and inhospitable shores. Amid almost +inconceivable hardships, and with at first but little success, he +continued to labour unweariedly, and even after the trading company +abandoned the field he remained. In A.D. 1733 he had the unexpected joy of +welcoming three Moravian missionaries, Christian David and the brothers +Stach. His joy was too soon dashed by the spiritual pride of the new +arrivals, who insisted on modelling everything after their own Moravian +principles, and separated themselves from the noble Egede, when he refused +to yield, as an unspiritual and unconverted man. Egede, on the other hand, +though deeply offended at their confounding justification and +sanctification, their contempt of pure doctrine, and their unscriptural +views and mode of speech, was ready to attribute all this to their +defective theological training. He rewarded their unkindness, when they +were stricken down in sore sickness, with unwearied, loving care. In A.D. +1736 he returned to Denmark, leaving his son Paul to carry on his work, +and continued director of the Greenland Mission Seminary in Copenhagen +till his death in A.D. 1758.(60)--Continuation, § 171, 5. + + + +§ 168. The Church of the Moravian Brethren.(61) + + +The highly gifted Count Zinzendorf, inspired even as a boy, out of fervent +love to the Saviour, with the idea of gathering together the lovers of +Jesus, took occasion of the visit of some Moravian Exultants to his estate +to realize his cherished project. On the Hutberg he dropped the mustard +seed of the dream of his youth into fertile soil, where, under his fervent +care, it soon grew into a stately tree, whose branches spread over all +European lands, and thence through all parts of the habitable globe. The +society which he founded was called "The Society of the United Brethren." +The fact that this society was not overwhelmed by the extravagances to +which for a time it gave way, that its fraternising with the fanatics, the +extravagant talk in which its members indulged about a special covenant +with the Saviour, and their not over-modest claims to a peculiar rank in +the kingdom of God, did not lead to its utter overthrow in the abyss of +fanaticism, and that on the slippery paths of its mystical marriage theory +it was able to keep its feet, presents a phenomenon, which stands alone in +church history, and more than anything else proves how deeply rooted +founder and followers were in the saving truths of the gospel. The count +himself laid aside many of his extravagances, and what still remained was +abandoned by his sensible and prudent successor Spangenberg, so far as it +was not necessarily involved in the fundamental idea of a special covenant +with the Saviour. The special service rendered by the society was the +protest which it raised against the generally prevailing apostasy. During +this period of declension it saved the faith of many pious souls, +affording them a welcome refuge, with rich spiritual nourishment and +nurture. With the reawakening of the religious life in the nineteenth +century, however, its adherents lost ground in Europe more and more, by +maintaining their old onesidedness in life and doctrine, their +depreciatory estimate of theological science, and the quarrelsome spirit +which they generally manifested. But in one province, that of missions to +the heathen, their energy and success have never yet been equalled. Their +thorough and well-organized system of education also deserves particular +mention. At present the Society of the Brethren numbers half a million, +distributed among 100 settlements or thereabout. + +1. _The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood_, Nic. Ludwig Count von +_Zinzendorf_ and Pottendorf, was born in Dresden in A.D. 1700. Spener was +one of his sponsors at baptism. His father dying early, and his mother +marrying a second time, the boy, richly endowed with gifts of head and +heart, was brought up by his godly pietistic grandmother, the Baroness von +Gersdorf. There in his earliest youth he learned to seek his happiness in +the closest personal fellowship with the Lord, and the tendency of his +whole future life to yield to the impulses of pious feeling already began +to assert itself. In his tenth year he entered the Halle Institute under +Francke, where the pietistic idea of the need of the _ecclesiolae in +ecclesia_ took firm possession of his heart. Even in his fifteenth year he +sought its realization by founding among his fellow students "The Order of +the Grain of Mustard Seed" (Matt. xiii. 31). After completing his school +course, his uncle and guardian, in order to put an end to his pietistic +extravagances, sent him to study law at the orthodox University of +Wittenberg. Here he had at first to suffer a sort of martyrdom as a rigid +pietist swimming against the orthodox current. His residence at +Wittenberg, however, was beneficial to him in freeing him unconsciously of +the Halle pietism, which had restrained his spiritual development. He did +indeed firmly maintain the fundamental idea of pietism, _ecclesiolae in +ecclesia_, but in his mind it gained a wider significance than pietism had +given it. His endeavours to secure a personal conference, and where +possible a union, between the Halle and Wittenberg leaders were +unsuccessful. In A.D. 1719 he left Wittenberg and travelled for two years, +visiting the most distinguished representatives of all confessions and +sects. This too fostered his idea of a grand gathering of all who love the +Lord Jesus. On his return home, in A.D. 1721, at the wish of his relatives +he entered the service of the Saxon government. But a religious genius +like Zinzendorf could find no satisfaction in such employment. And soon an +opportunity presented itself for carrying out the plan to which his +thoughts and longings were directed.(62) + +2. _The Founding of the Brotherhood_, A.D. 1722-1727. The Schmalcald, and +still more the Thirty Years' War, had brought frightful suffering and +persecution upon the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. Many of them sought +refuge in Poland and Prussia. One of the refugees was the famous +educationist J. Amos Comenius, who died in A.D. 1671, after having been +bishop of the Moravians at Lissa in Posen from 1648. Those who remained +behind were, even after the Peace of Westphalia, subjected to the +cruellest oppression! Only secretly in their houses and at the risk of +their lives could they worship God according to the faith of their +fathers; and they were obliged publicly to profess their adherence to the +Romish church. Thus gradually the light of the gospel was extinguished in +the homes of their descendants, and only a tradition, becoming ever more +and more faint, remained as a memory of their ancestral faith. A Moravian +carpenter, Christian David, born and reared in the Romish church, but +converted by evangelical preaching, succeeded in the beginning of the +eighteenth century in fanning into a flame again in some families the +light that had been quenched. This little band of believers, under David's +leading, went forth in A.D. 1722 and sought refuge on Zinzendorf's estate +in Lusatia. The count was then absent, but the steward, with the hearty +concurrence of the count's grandmother, gave them the Hutberg at +Berthelsdorf as a settlement. With the words of Psalm lxxxiv. 4 on his +lips, Christian David struck the axe into the tree for building the first +house. Soon the little town of Herrnhut had arisen, as the centre of that +Christian society which Zinzendorf now sought with all his heart and +strength to develop and promote. Gradually other Moravians dropped in, but +a yet greater number from far and near streamed in, of all sorts of +religious revivalists, pietists, separatists, followers of Schwenckfeld, +etc. Zinzendorf had no thought of separation from the Lutheran church. The +settlers were therefore put under the pastoral care of Rothe, the worthy +pastor of Berthelsdorf (§ 166, 6). To organize such a mixed multitude was +no easy task. Only Zinzendorf's glorious enthusiasm for the idea of a +congregation of saints, his eminent organizing talents, the wonderful +elasticity and tenacity of his will, the extraordinary prudence, +circumspection, and wisdom of his management, made it possible to cement +the incongruous elements and avoid an open breach. The Moravians insisted +upon restoring their old constitution and discipline, and of the others, +each wished to have prominence given to whatever he thought specially +important. Only on one point were they all agreed, the duty of refusing to +conform to the Lutheran church and its pastor Rothe. The count, therefore, +felt obliged to form a new and separatist society. Personally he had no +special liking for the old Moravian constitution; but the lot decided in +its favour, while the idea of continuing a pre-Reformation martyr church +was not without a certain charm. Thus Zinzendorf drew up a constitution +with old Moravian forms and names, on the basis of which the colony was +established, August 13th, A.D. 1727, under the name of the United +Brotherhood. + +3. _The Development of the Brotherhood down to Zinzendorf's Death_, A.D. +1727-1760.--With great energy the new society proceeded to found +settlements in Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and +North America, as well as among German residents in other lands. In A.D. +1734, Zinzendorf submitted to examination at Tuebingen as candidate for +license, and in A.D. 1737 received episcopal consecration from the Berlin +court preacher, Jablonsky, who was at the same time bishop of the Moravian +Brethren, which the same prelate had two years previously granted to Dr. +Nitschmann, another member of the society. The efforts of the Brethren to +spread their cause now attracted attention. The Saxon government in A.D. +1736 sent to Herrnhut a commission, of which Loescher was a member. But in +A.D. 1736, before it submitted its report, which on the whole was +favourable, Zinzendorf quitted the country, probably by the elector's +command at the instigation of the Austrian government, which objected to +the harbouring of so many Bohemian and Moravian emigrants. Like all those +at this time persecuted on account of religion he took refuge in Wetterau +(§ 170, 2). With his little family of pilgrims he settled at Ronneburg +near Buedingen, founded the prosperous churches of Marienborn and +Herrnhaag, and travelled extensively in Europe and America. This period of +exile was the period when the society was most successful in spreading +outwardly, but it was also the period when it suffered most from troubles +and dissensions within. It was bitterly attacked by Lutheran theologians, +and much more venomously by apostates from its own fold. The Brethren at +this time afforded only too much ground for misunderstanding and reproach. +To this period belongs the famous fiction of a special covenant, the +Pandora-box of all other absurdities; the development of the count's own +theological views and peculiar form of expression in his numerous works; +the composition and introduction of unsavoury spiritual songs, with their +silly conceits and many blasphemous and even obscene pictures and +analogies; the market-crier laudations of their church, the not always +pure methods of propaganda, the introduction of a marriage discipline +fitted to break down all modest restraints; and, finally, the so-called +_Niedlichkeiten_, or boisterous festivals. Even the pietists opposed these +antinomian excesses. Tersteegen, too (§ 169, 1), whose mystic tendency +inclined him strongly toward pietist views, reproached the Herrnhuters +with frivolity. This polemic, disagreeable as it was, exercised a +wholesome influence upon the society. The count became more guarded in his +language, and more prudent in his behaviour, while he set aside the most +objectionable excrescences of doctrine and practice that had begun to show +themselves in the community. At last, in A.D. 1747, the Saxon government +repeated the edict of banishment so far as the person of the founder was +concerned, and when, two years later, the society expressly accepted the +Augsburg Confession, it was formally recognised in Saxony. In this same +year, A.D. 1749, an English act of parliament recognised it as a church +with a pure episcopal succession on equal terms with the Anglican +episcopal church.--Zinzendorf continued down to his death to direct the +affairs of this church, which hung upon him with childlike affection, +reflecting his personality, not only in its excellences, but also in all +its extravagances. He died in A.D. 1760 in the full enjoyment of that +blessedness which his fervent love for the Saviour had brought him. + +4. _Zinzendorf's Plan and Work._--While Zinzendorf received his first +impulse from pietism, he soon perceived its onesidedness and narrowness. +He would have no conventicle, but one organized community; no ideal +invisible, but a real visible church; no narrow methodism, but a rich, +free administration of the Christian spirit. He did not, in the first +instance, aim at the conversion of the world, nor even at the reformation +of the church, but at gathering and preserving those belonging to the +Saviour. He hoped, however, to erect a reservoir in which he might collect +every little brooklet of living water, from which he might again water the +whole world. And when he succeeded in organizing a community, he was quite +convinced that it was the Philadelphia of the Apocalypse (iii. 7 ff.), +that it introduced "the Philadelphian period" of church history, of which +all prophets and apostles had prophesied. His plan had originally +reference to all Christendom, and he even took a step toward realizing +this universal idea. In order to build a bridge between the Catholic +church and his own community, he issued, in A.D. 1727, a Christo-Catholic +hymn-book and prayer-book, and had even sketched out a letter to the pope +to accompany a copy of his book. He also attempted, by a letter to the +patriarchs and then to Elizabeth, empress of Russia, to interest the Greek +church in his scheme, dwelling upon the Greek extraction of the church of +the Moravian Brethren (§ 79, 2). His gathering of members, however, was +practically limited to the Protestant churches. All confessions and sects +afforded him contingents. He was himself heartily attached to the +distinctive doctrines of the Lutheran church. But in a society whose +distinctive characteristic it was to be the gathering point for the pious +of all nationalities, doctrine and confession could not be the uniting +bond. It could be only a fellowship of love and not of creed, and the bond +a community of loving sentiment and loving deeds. The inmost principle of +Lutheranism, reconciliation by the blood of Christ, was saved, indeed was +made the characteristic and vital doctrine, the one point of union between +Moravians, Lutherans, and Reformed. Over the three parties stood the count +himself as _ordinarius_; but this gave an external and not a confessional +unity. The subsequent acceptance of the Augsburg Confession, in A.D. 1749, +was a political act, so as to receive a civil status, and had otherwise no +influence. Instead then of the confession, Zinzendorf made the +_constitution_ the bond of union. Its forms were borrowed from the old +Moravian church order, but dominated and inspired by Zinzendorf's own +spirit. The old Moravian constitution was episcopal and clerical, and +proceeded from the idea of the church; while the new constitution of +Herrnhut was essentially presbyterial, and proceeded from the idea of the +community, and that as a communion of saints. The Herrnhut bishops were +only titular bishops; they had no diocese, no jurisdiction, no power of +excommunication. All these prerogatives belonged to the united eldership, +in which the lay element was distinctly predominant. Herrnhut had no +pastors, but only preaching brothers; the pastoral care devolved upon the +elders and their assistants. But beside these half-Lutheran and +pseudo-Moravian peculiarities, there was also a Donatist element at the +basis of the constitution. This lay in the fundamental idea of absolutely +true and pure children of God, and reached full expression in the +concluding of a _special covenant_ with the Saviour at London on Sept. +16th, A.D. 1741. Leonard Dober for some years administered the office of +an elder-general. But at the London synod it was declared that he had not +the requisite gifts for that office. Dober now wished to resign. While in +confusion as to whom they could appoint, it flashed into the minds of all +to appoint the Saviour Himself. "Our feeling and heart conviction was, +that He made a special covenant with His little flock, taking us as His +peculiar treasure, watching over us in a special way, personally +interesting Himself in every member of our community, and doing that for +us perfectly which our previous elders could only do imperfectly." + +5. Among the _numerous extravagances_ which Zinzendorf countenanced for a +time, the following may be mentioned. (1) The notion of the motherhood of +the Holy Spirit. Zinzendorf described the holy Trinity as "man, woman, and +child." The Spirit is the mother in three respects: the eternal generation +of the Son of God, the conception of the Man Jesus, and the second birth +of believers. (2) The notion of the fatherhood of Jesus Christ (Isa. ix. +6). Creation is ascribed solely to the Son, hence Christ is our special, +direct Father. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is only, "in the +language of men, our father-in-law or grandfather." (3) In reference to +our Lord's life on earth, Zinzendorf delighted in using terms of contempt, +in order to emphasize the depths of His humiliation. (4) In like manner he +uses reproachful terms in speaking of the style of the sacred Scriptures, +and the inspired community prefers a living Bible. (5) The theory and +practice of mystical marriage, according to Ephesians v. 32. The community +and each member of it are spiritual brides of Christ, and the marriage +relation and begetting of children were set forth and spiritualized in a +singularly indelicate manner. + +6. _Zinzendorf's greatness_ lay in the fervency of his love of the +Saviour, and in the yearning desire to gather under the shadow of the +cross all who loved the Lord. His weakness consisted not so much in his +manifested extravagances, as in his idea that he had been called to found +a society. To the realizing of this idea he gave his life, talents, heart, +and means. The advantages of rank and culture he also gave to this one +task. He was personally convinced of his Divine call, and as he did not +recognise the authority of the written word, but only subjective +impressions, it is easily seen how he would drift into absurdities and +inconsistencies. The end contemplated seemed to him supremely important, +so that to realize it he did not scruple to depart from strict +truthfulness.--Zinzendorf's writings, over one hundred in number, are +characterized by originality, brilliancy, and peculiar forms of +expression. Of his 2,000 hymns, mostly improvised for public services, 700 +of the best were revised and published by Knapp. Two are still found in +most collections, and are more or less reproduced in our English hymns, +"Jesus still lead on," and "Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness." + +7. _The Brotherhood under Spangenberg's Administration._--For its present +form the Brotherhood is indebted to its wise and sensible bishop, _Aug. +Gottl. Spangenberg_, who died A.D. 1792. Born in 1704, he became +personally acquainted with Zinzendorf in 1727, after he had completed his +studies at Jena under Buddaeus, and continued ever after on terms of close +intimacy with him and his community. Through the good offices of G. A. +Francke, son and successor of A. H. Francke, he was called in Sept., 1732, +to the office of an assistantship in the theological faculty at Halle, and +appointed school inspector of the Orphanage; but very soon offence was +taken at the brotherly fellowship which he had, not only with the society +of Herrnhut, but also with other separatists. The misunderstanding that +thus arose led in April, 1733, to his deprivation under a royal cabinet +order, and his expulsion by military power from Halle. He now formally +joined the communion of the Brethren. The first half of his signally +blessed ministry of sixty years among the Moravians was chiefly devoted to +foreign mission work, both in their colonies abroad and in their stations +in heathen lands. In Holland in 1734, in England and Denmark in 1735, he +obtained official permission for the founding of Moravian colonies in +Surinam, in the American state of Georgia, and in Santa Cruz, the forming +and management of which he himself undertook, besides directing the +mission work in these places. Returning from America in 1762, he won, +after Zinzendorf's death, so complete an ascendency in the church in every +respect, that he may well be regarded as its second founder. At the Synod +of Marienborn, in A.D. 1764, the constitution was revised and perfected. +Zinzendorf's monarchical prerogative was surrendered to the eldership, and +Spangenberg prudently secured the withdrawal of all excrescences and +extravagances. But the central idea of a special covenant was not touched, +and Sept. 16th is still held as a grand pentecost festival. In the fifth +section of the statutes of the United Brethren at Gnaden, 1819, it +distinguishes itself from all the churches as a "society of true children +of God; as a family of God, with Jesus as its head." In the fourth section +of the "Historical Account of the Constitution of the United Brethren at +Gnaden, 1823," the society is described as "a company of living members of +the invisible body of Jesus Christ"; and in its litany for Easter morning, +it adds as a fourth particular to the article of the creed: "I believe +that our brothers _N. N._, and our sisters _N. N._ have joined the church +above, and have entered into the joy of the Lord." The synod of A.D. 1848 +modified this article, and generally the society's distinctive views are +not made so prominent. This liberal tendency had dogmatic expression given +to it in Spangenberg's "_Idea Fidei Fratrum_." Only a few new settlements +have been formed since Zinzendorf's death, and none of any importance; +while the hitherto flourishing Moravian settlements in Wetterau were +destroyed and their members banished, in A.D. 1750, by the reigning +prince, Count von Isenburg-Buedingen, on account of their refusing to take +the oath of allegiance.--After the first attempt to establish societies +among the German emigrants in Livonia and Esthonia in A.D. 1729-1743 had +ended in the expulsion of the Herrnhuters, these regions proved in the +second half of the century a more fruitful field than any other. They +secured there a relation to the national church such as they never +attained unto elsewhere. They had in these parts formally organized a +church within the church, whose members, mostly peasants, felt convinced +that they had been called by the Lord's own voice as His chosen little +flock, a proceeding which caused infinite trouble, especially in Livonia, +to the faithful pastors, who perceived the deadly mischief that was being +wrought, and witnessed against them from God's word. This protest was too +powerful and convincing to be disregarded, and now, not only too late, but +also in too half-hearted a way, Herrnhut began, in A.D. 1857, to turn +back, so as to save its Livonian institute by inward regeneration from +certain overthrow. + +8. _The doctrinal peculiarities of the Brotherhood_ cannot be quite +correctly described as un-Lutheran, or anti-Lutheran. Bengel smartly +characterized them in a single phrase: "They plucked up the stock of sound +doctrine, stripped oft what was most essential and vital, and retained the +half of it," which not only then, but even still retains its truth and +worth. Salvation is regarded as proceeding purely from the Son, the +God-Man, so that the relation of the Father and of the Holy Spirit to +redemption is scarcely even nominal; and the redemption of the God-Man +again is viewed one-sidedly as consisting only in His sufferings and +death, while the other side, that is grounded on His life and +resurrection, is either carefully passed over, or its fruit is represented +as borrowed from the atoning death. Thus not only justification, but +sanctification is derived exclusively from the death of Christ, and this, +not so much as a forensic substitutionary satisfaction, although that is +not expressly denied, but rather as a Divine love-sacrifice which awakens +an answering love in us. The whole of redemption is viewed as issuing from +Christ's blood and wounds; and since from this mode of viewing the subject +God's grace and love are made prominent rather than His righteousness, we +hear almost exclusively of the gospel, and little or nothing of the law. +All preaching and teaching were avowedly directed to the awakening of +pious feelings of love to God, and thus tended to foster a kind of +religious sentimentalism. + +9. _The peculiarities of worship among the Brethren_ were also directed to +the excitement of pious feeling; their sensuously sweet sacred music, +their church hymns, overcharged with emotion, their richly developed +liturgies, their restoration of the _agape_ with tea, biscuit, and +chorale-singing, the fraternal kiss at communion, in their earlier days +also washing of the feet, etc. The daily watchword from the O.T. and +doctrinal texts from the N.T. were regarded as oracles, and were intended +to give a special impress to the religious feelings of the day. As early +as A.D. 1727 they had a hymn-book containing 972 hymns. Most of these were +compositions of their own, a true reflection of their religious sentiments +at that period. It also contained Bohemian and Moravian hymns, translated +by Mich. Weiss, and also many old favourites of the evangelical church, +often sadly mutilated. By A.D. 1749 it had received twelve appendices and +four supplements. In these appendices, especially in the twelfth, the +one-sided tendency to give prominence to feeling was carried to the most +absurd lengths of caricature in the use of offensive and silly terms of +endearment as applied to the Saviour. Zinzendorf admitted the defects of +this production, and had it suppressed in 1751, and in London prepared a +new, expurgated edition of the hymn-book. Under Spangenberg's presidency +Christian Gregor issued, in A.D. 1778, a hymn-book, containing 542 from +Zinzendorf's book and 308 of his own pious rhymes. He also published a +chorale book in A.D. 1784. Among their sacred poets Zinzendorf stands +easily first. His only son, Christian Renatus, who died A.D. 1752, left +behind him a number of sacred songs. Their hymns were usually set to the +melodies of the Halle pietists. + +10. In regard to the _Christian life_, the Brotherhood withdrew from +politics and society, adopted stereotyped forms of speech and peculiar +usages, even in their dress. They sought to live undisturbed by +controversy, in personal communion with the Saviour. Their separatism as a +covenanted people may be excused in view of the unbelief prevailing in the +Protestant church, but it has not been overcome by the reawakening of +spiritual life in the Church. As to their _ecclesiastical constitution_, +Christ Himself, as the Chief Elder of the church, should have in it the +direct government. The leaders, founding upon Proverbs xvi. 33 and Acts i. +26, held that fit expression was given to this principle by the use of the +lot; but soon opposition to this practice arose, and with its abandonment +the "special covenant" theory lost all its significance. The lot was used +in election of office-bearers, sending of missionaries, admission to +membership, etc. But in regard to marriage, it was used only by consent of +the candidates for marriage, and an adverse result was not enforced. The +administration of the affairs of the society lay with the conference of +the united elders. From time to time general synods with legislative power +were summoned. The membership was divided into groups of married, widowed, +bachelors, maidens, and children, with special duties, separate +residences, and also special religious services in addition to those +common to all. The church officers were bishops, presbyters, deacons, +deaconesses, and acolytes. + +11. _Missions to the Heathen._--Zinzendorf's meeting with a West Indian +negro in Copenhagen awakened in him at an early period the missionary +zeal. He laid the matter before the church, and in A.D. 1732 the first +Herrnhut missionaries, Dober and Nitschmann, went out to St. Thomas, and +in the following year missions were established in Greenland, North +America, almost all the West Indian islands, South America, among the +Hottentots at the Cape, the East Indies, among the Eskimos of Labrador, +etc. Their missionary enterprise forms the most brilliant and attractive +part of the history of the Moravians. Their procedure was admirably suited +to uncultured races, and only for such. In the East Indies, therefore, +they were unsuccessful. They were never wanting in self-denying +missionaries, who resigned all from love to the Saviour. They were mostly +pious, capable artisans, who threw themselves with all their hearts into +their new work, and devoted themselves with affectionate tenderness to the +advancement of the bodily and spiritual interests of those among whom they +laboured. One of the noblest of them all was the missionary patriarch +Zeisberger, who died in A.D. 1808, after toiling among the North American +Indians for sixty-three years. These missions were conducted at a +surprisingly small outlay. The Brethren also interested themselves in the +conversion of the Jews. In A.D. 1738 Dober wrought among the Jews of +Amsterdam; and with greater success in A.D. 1739, Lieberkuehn, who also +visited the Jews in England and Bohemia, and was honoured by them with the +title of "rabbi."(63) + + + +§ 169. The Reformed Church before the "Illumination." + + +The sharpness of the contest between Calvinism and Lutheranism was +moderated on both sides. The union efforts prosecuted during the first +decades of the century in Germany and Switzerland were always defeated by +Lutheran opposition. In the Dutch and German Reformed Churches, even +during the eighteenth century, Cocceianism was still in high repute. After +it had modified strict Calvinism, the opposition between Reformed +orthodoxy and Arminian heterodoxy became less pronounced, and more and +more Arminian tendencies found their way into Reformed theology. What +pietism and Moravianism were for the Lutheran church of Germany, Methodism +was, in a much greater measure, and with a more enduring influence, for +the episcopal church of England. + +1. _The German Reformed Church._--The Brandenburg dynasty made unwearied +efforts to effect a union between the Lutheran and Reformed churches +throughout their territories (§ 154, 4). Frederick I. (III.) instituted +for this purpose in A.D. 1703 a _collegium caritativum_, under the +presidency of the Reformed court preacher Ursinus (ranked as bishop, that +he might officiate at the royal coronation), in which also, on the side of +the Reformed, Jablonsky, formerly a Moravian bishop, and, on the part of +the Lutherans, the cathedral preacher Winkler of Magdeburg and Luettke, +provost of Cologne-on-the-Spree, took part. Spener, who wanted not a made +union but one which he himself was making, gave expression to his opinion, +and soon passed over. Luettke after a few _sederunts_ withdrew, and when +Winkler in A.D. 1703 published a plan of union, _Arcanum regium_, which +the Lutheran church merely submitted for the approval of the Reformed +king, such a storm of opposition arose against the project, that it had to +be abandoned. In the following year the king took up the matter again in +another way. Jablonsky engaged in negotiations with England for the +introduction of the Anglican episcopal system into Prussia, in order by it +to build a bridge for the union with Lutheranism. But even this plan +failed, in consequence of the succession of Frederick William I. in A.D. +1713, whose shrewd sense strenuously opposed it.--The vacillating +statements of the _Confessio Sigismundi_ (§ 154, 3) regarding +_predestination_ made it possible for the Brandenburg Reformed theologians +to understand it as teaching the doctrine of particular as well as +universal grace, and so to make it correspond with Brandenburg Reformed +orthodoxy. The rector of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, Paul +Volkmann, in A.D. 1712, interpreted it as teaching universal grace, and so +in his _Theses theologicae_ he constructed a system of theology, in which +the divine foreknowledge of the result, as the reconciling middle term +between the particularism and universalism of the call, was set forth in a +manner favourable to the latter. The controversy that was aroused over +this, in which even Jablonsky argued for the more liberal view, while on +the other side Barckhausen, Volkmann's colleague, in his _Amica Collatio +Doctrinae de Gratia, quam vera ref. confitetur Ecclesia, cum Doctr. +Volkmanni_, etc., came forward under the name of _Pacificus Verinus_ as +his most determined opponent, was put a stop to in A.D. 1719 by an edict +of Frederick William I., which enjoined silence on both parties, without +any result having been reached.--One of the noblest mystics that ever lived +was _Gerhard Tersteegen_, died A.D. 1769. He takes a high rank as a sacred +poet. Anxious souls made pilgrimages to him from far and near for comfort, +counsel, and refreshment. Though not exactly a separatist, he had no +strong attachment to the church.(64)--The prayer-book of _Conrad Mel_, +pastor and rector at Hersfeld in Hesse, died A.D. 1733, continues to the +present day a favourite in pious families of the Reformed communion. + +2. _The Reformed Church in Switzerland._--_The Helvetic Confession_, with +its strict doctrine of predestination and its peculiar inspiration theory +(§ 161, 3), had been indeed accepted, in A.D. 1675, by all the Reformed +cantons as the absolute standard of doctrine in church and school; but +this obligation was soon felt to be oppressive to the conscience, and so +the Archbishop of Canterbury and the kings of England and Prussia +repeatedly interceded for its abrogation. In Geneva, though vigorously +opposed by a strictly orthodox minority, the _Venerable Compagnie_ +succeeded, in A.D. 1706, with the rector of the Academy at its head, J. A. +Turretin, whose father had been one of the principal authors of the +formula, in modifying the usual terms of subscription, _Sic sentio, sic +profiteor, sic docebo, et contrarium non docebo_, into _Sic docebo quoties +hoc argumentum tractandum suscipiam, contrarium non docebo, nec ore, nec +calamo, nec privatim, nec publice_; and afterwards, in A.D. 1725, it was +entirely set aside, and adhesion to the Scriptures of the O. and N.T., and +to the catechism of Calvin, made the only obligation. More persistent on +both sides was the struggle in Lausanne; yet even there it gradually lost +ground, and by the middle of the century it had no longer any authority in +Switzerland.--The _union efforts_ made by the Prussian dynasty found +zealous but unsuccessful advocates in the chancellor Pfaff of Lutheran +Wuerttemberg (§ 167, 4), and in Reformed Switzerland in J. A. Turretin of +Geneva. + +3. _The Dutch Reformed Church._--Toward the end of the seventeenth century, +in consequence of threats on the part of the magistrates, the passionate +violence of the _dispute between_ Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5) was +moderated; but in the beginning of the eighteenth century the flames burst +forth anew, reaching a height in 1712, when a marble bust of Cocceius was +erected in a Leyden church. An obstinate Voetian, Pastor Fruytier of +Rotterdam, was grievously offended at this proceeding, and published a +controversial pamphlet full of the most bitter reproaches and accusations +against the Cocceians, which, energetically replied to by the accused, was +much more hurtful than useful to the interests of the Voetians. At last a +favourable hearing was given to a word of peace which a highly respected +Voetian, the venerable preacher of eighty years of age, _J. Mor. Mommers_, +addressed to the parties engaged in the controversy. He published in A.D. +1738, under the title of "_Eubulus_," a tract in which he proved that +neither Cocceius himself nor his most distinguished adherents had in any +essential point departed from the faith of the Reformed church, and that +from them, therefore, in spite of all differences that had since arisen, +the hand of fellowship should not be withheld. In consequence of this, the +magistrates of Groeningen first of all decided, that forthwith, in filling +up vacant pastorates, a Cocceian and Voetian should be appointed +alternately; a principle which gradually became the practice throughout +the whole country. At the same time also care was now taken that in the +theological faculties both schools should have equal representation. But +meanwhile also new departures had been made in each of the two parties. +Among the Voetians, after the pattern formerly given them by Teellinck (§ +162, 4), followed up by the Frisian preacher Theod. Brakel, died A.D. +1669, and further developed by Jodocus von Lodenstein of Utrecht, died +A.D. 1677, mysticism had made considerable progress; and the Cocceians, in +the person of Hermann Witsius, drew more closely toward the pietism of the +Voetians and the Lutherans. The most distinguished representative of this +conciliatory party was F. A. Lampe of Detmold, afterwards professor in +Utrecht, previously and subsequently pastor in Bremen, in high repute in +his church as a hymn-writer, but best known by his commentary on +John.--These conciliatory measures were frustrated by the publication, in +A.D. 1740, of a work by _Schortinghuis_ of Groeningen, which pronounced the +Scriptures unintelligible and useless to the natural man, but made +fruitful to the regenerate and elect by the immediate enlightenment of the +Holy Spirit, evidenced by deep groanings and convulsive writhings. It was +condemned by all the orthodox. The author now confined himself to his +pastorate, where he was richly blessed. He died in A.D. 1750. His notions +spread like an epidemic, till stamped out by the united efforts of the +civil and ecclesiastical authorities in A.D. 1752. + +4. _Methodism._--_In the episcopal church of England_ the living power of +the gospel had evaporated into the formalism of scholastic learning and a +mechanical ritualism. A reaction was set on foot by _John Wesley_, born +A.D. 1703, a young man of deep religious earnestness and fervent zeal for +the salvation of souls. During his course at Oxford, in A.D. 1729, along +with some friends, including his brother Charles, he founded a society to +promote pious living.(65) Those thus leagued together were scornfully +called Methodists. From A.D. 1732, _George Whitefield_, born in A.D. 1714, +a youth burning with zeal for his own and his fellow men's salvation, +wrought enthusiastically along with them. In A.D. 1735 the brothers Wesley +went to America to labour for the conversion of the Indians in Georgia. On +board ship they met Nitschmann, and in Savannah Spangenberg, who exercised +a powerful influence over them. John Wesley accepted a pastorate in +Savannah, but encountered so many hindrances, that he decided to return to +England in A.D. 1738. Whitefield had just sailed for America, but returned +that same year. Meanwhile Wesley visited Marienborn and Herrnhut, and so +became personally acquainted with Zinzendorf. He did not feel thoroughly +satisfied, and so declined to join the society. On his return he began, +along with Whitefield, the great work of his life. In many cities they +founded religious societies, preached daily to immense crowds in Anglican +churches, and when the churches were refused, in the open air, often to +20,000 or even 30,000 hearers. They sought to arouse careless sinners by +all the terrors of the law and the horrors of hell, and by a thorough +repentance to bring about immediate conversion. An immense number of +hardened sinners, mostly of the lower orders, were thus awakened and +brought to repentance amid shrieks and convulsions. Whitefield, who +divided his attentions between England and America, delivered in +thirty-four years 18,000 sermons; Wesley, who survived his younger +companion by twenty-one years, dying in A.D. 1791, and was wont to say the +world was his parish, delivered still more. Their association with the +Moravians had been broken off in A.D. 1740. To the latter, not only was +the Methodists' style of preaching objectionable, but also their doctrine +of "Christian perfection," according to which the true, regenerate +Christian can and must reach a perfect holiness of life, not indeed free +from temptation and error, but from all sins of weakness and sinful lusts. +Wesley in turn accused the Herrnhuters of a dangerous tendency toward the +errors of the quietists and antinomians. Zinzendorf came himself to London +to remove the misunderstanding, but did not succeed. The great Methodist +leaders were themselves separated from one another in A.D. 1741. +Whitefield's doctrine of grace and election was Calvinistic; Wesley's +Arminian.--From A.D. 1748 the _Countess of Huntingdon_ attached herself to +the Methodists, and secured an entrance for their preaching into +aristocratic circles. With all her humility and self-sacrifice she +remained aristocrat enough to insist on being head and organizer. Seeing +she could not play this _role_ with Wesley, she attached herself closely +to Whitefield. He became her domestic chaplain, and with other clergymen +accompanied her on her travels. Wherever she went she posed as a "queen of +the Methodists," and was allowed to preach and carry on pastoral work. She +built sixty-six chapels, and in A.D. 1768 founded a seminary for training +preachers at Trevecca in Wales, under the oversight of the able and gentle +John Fletcher, reserving supreme control to herself. After Whitefield's +death, in A.D. 1770, the opposition between the Calvinistic followers of +Whitefield and the Arminian Wesleyans burst out in a much more violent +form. Fletcher and his likeminded fellow labourers were charged with +teaching the horrible heresy of the universality of grace, and were on +that account discharged by the countess from the seminary of Trevecca. +They now joined Wesley, around whom the great majority of the Methodists +had gathered. + +5. The Methodists did not wish to separate from the episcopal church, but +to work as a leaven within it. Whitefield was able to maintain this +connexion by the aid of his aristocratic countess and her relationship +with the higher clergy; but Wesley, spurning such aid, and trusting to his +great powers of organization, felt driven more and more to set up an +independent society. When the churches were closed against him and his +fellow workers, and preaching in the open air was forbidden, he built +chapels for himself.(66) The first was opened in Bristol, in A.D. 1739. +When his ordained associates were too few for the work, he obtained the +assistance of lay preachers. He founded two kinds of religious societies: +The _united societies_ embraced all, the _band societies_ only the tried +and proved of his followers. Then he divided the _united societies_ again +into _classes_ of from ten to twenty persons each, and the _class-leaders_ +were required to give accurate accounts of the spiritual condition and +progress of those under their care. Each member of the _united_ as well as +the _band societies_ held a _society ticket_, which had to be renewed +quarterly. The outward affairs of the societies were managed by +_stewards_, who also took care of the poor. A number of local societies +constituted a _circuit_ with a superintendent and several itinerant +preachers.(67) Wesley superintended all the departments of oversight, +administration, and arrangement, supported from A.D. 1744 by an annual +conference. Daily preaching and devotional exercises in the chapels, +weekly class-meetings, monthly watchnights, quarterly fasts and +lovefeasts, an annual service for the renewing of the covenant, and a +great multiplication of prayer-meetings, gave a special character to +Methodistic piety. Charles Wesley composed hymns for their services. They +carefully avoided collision with the services of the state church. The +American Methodists, who had been up to this time supplied by Wesley with +itinerant missionaries, in A.D. 1784, after the War of Independence, gave +vigorous expression to their wish for a more independent ecclesiastical +constitution, which led Wesley, in opposition to all right order, to +ordain for them by his own hand several preachers, and to appoint, in the +person of Thomas Coke, a superintendent, who assumed in America the title +of bishop. Coke became the founder of the Methodist Episcopal Church of +America, which soon outstripped all other denominations in its zeal for +the conversion of sinners, and in consequent success. The breach with the +mother church was completed by the adoption of a creed in which the +Thirty-nine Articles were reduced to twenty-five. At the last conference +presided over by Wesley, A.D. 1790, it was announced that they had in +Britain 119 circuits, 313 preachers, and in the United States 97 circuits +and 198 preachers. After Wesley's death, in A.D. 1791, his autocratic +supremacy devolved, in accordance with the Methodist "Magna Charta," the +_Deed of Declaration_ of A.D. 1784, upon a fixed conference of 100 +members, but its hierarchical organization has been the cause of many +subsequent splits and divisions.(68) + +6. _Theological Literature_--_Clericus_, of Amsterdam, died A.D. 1736, an +Arminian divine, distinguished himself in biblical criticism, +hermeneutics, exegesis, and church history. _J. J. Wettstein_ was in A.D. +1730 deposed for heresy, and died in A.D. 1754 as professor at the +Remonstrant seminary at Amsterdam. His critical edition of the N.T. of +A.D. 1751 had a great reputation. _Schultens_ of Leyden, died A.D. 1750, +introduced a new era for O.T. philology by the comparative study of +related dialects, especially Arabic. He wrote commentaries on Job and +Proverbs. Of the Cocceian exegetes we mention, _Lampe_ of Bremen, died +A.D. 1729. "Com. on John," three vols., etc., and _J. Marck_ of Leyden, +died A.D. 1731, "Com. on Minor Prophets." In biblical antiquity, _Reland_ +of Utrecht, died A.D. 1718, wrote "_Palaestina ex vett. __ monum. Illustr. +Antiquitt. ss._"; in ecclesiastical antiquity, Bingham, died A.D. 1723, +"Origines Ecclest.; or, Antiquities of the Christian Church," ten vols., +1724, a masterpiece not yet superseded. Of English apologists who wrote +against the deists, _Leland_, died A.D. 1766, "Advantage and Necessity of +the Christian Revelation"; _Stackhouse_, died A.D. 1752, "History of the +Bible." Of dogmatists, _Stapfer_ of Bern, died A.D. 1775, and _Wyttenbach_ +of Marburg, died A.D. 1779, who followed the Wolffian method. Among church +historians, _J. A. Turretin_ of Geneva, died A.D. 1757, and _Herm. Venema_ +of Franeker, died A.D. 1787.--The most celebrated of the writers of sacred +songs in the English language was the Congregationalist preacher _Isaac +Watts_, died A.D. 1748, whose "Hymns and Spiritual Songs," which first +appeared in A.D. 1707, still hold their place in the hymnbooks of all +denominations, and have largely contributed to overthrow the Reformed +prejudice against using any other than biblical psalms in the public +service of praise. + + + +§ 170. New Sects and Fanatics. + + +The pietism of the eighteenth century, like the Reformation of the +sixteenth, was followed by the appearance of all sorts of fanatics and +extremists. The converted were collected into little companies, which, as +_ecclesiolae in ecclesia_, preserved the living flame amid prevailing +darkness, and out of these arose separatists who spoke of the church as +Babylon, regarded its ordinances impure, and its preaching a mere jingle +of words. They obtained their spiritual nourishment from the mystical and +theosophical writings of Boehme, Gichtel, Guyon, Poiret, etc. Their chief +centre was Wetterau, where, in the house of Count Casimir von Berleburg, +all persecuted pietists, separatists, fanatics, and sectaries found +refuge. The count chose from them his court officials and personal +servants, although he himself belonged to the national Reformed church. +There was scarcely a district in Protestant Germany, Switzerland, and the +Netherlands where there were not groups of such separatists; some mere +harmless enthusiasts, others circulated pestiferous and immoral doctrines. +Quite apart from pietism Swedenborgianism made its appearance, claiming to +have a new revelation. Of the older sects the Baptists and the Quakers +sent off new swarms, and even predestinationism gave rise to a form of +mysticism allied to pantheism. + +1. _Fanatics and Separatists in Germany._--_Juliana von Asseburg_, a young +lady highly esteemed in Magdeburg for her piety, declared that from her +seventh year she had visions and revelations, especially about the +millennium. She found a zealous supporter in Dr. J. W. Petersen, +superintendent of Lueneburg. After his marriage with Eleonore von Merlau, +who had similar revelations, he proclaimed by word and writing a fantastic +chiliasm and the restitution of all things. He was deposed in A.D. 1692, +and died in A.D. 1727.(69) _Henry Horche_, professor of theology at +Herborn, was the originator of a similar movement in the Reformed church. +He founded several Philadelphian societies (§ 162, 9) in Hesse, and +composed a "mystical and prophetical bible," the so called "Marburg +Bible," A.D. 1712. Of other fanatical preachers of that period one of the +most prominent was _Hochmann_, a student of law expelled from Halle for +his extravagances, a man of ability and eloquence, and highly esteemed by +Tersteegen. Driven from place to place, he at last found refuge at +Berleburg, and died there in A.D. 1721. In Wuerttemberg the pious court +chaplain, _Hedinger_, of Stuttgart, died A.D. 1703, was the father of +pietism and separatism. The most famous of his followers were _Gruber_ and +_Rock_, who, driven from Wuerttemberg, settled with other separatists at +Wetterau, renouncing the use of the sacraments and public worship. Of +those gathered together in the court of Count Casimir, the most eminent +were _Dr. Carl_, his physician, the French mystic _Marsay_, and _J. H. +Haug_, who had been expelled from Strassburg, a proficient in the oriental +languages. They issued a great number of mystical works, chief of all the +Berleburg Bible, in eight vols., 1726-1742, of which Haug was the +principal author. Its exposition proceeded in accordance with the +threefold sense; it vehemently contended against the church doctrine of +justification, against the confessional writings, the clerical order, the +dead church, etc. It showed occasionally profound insight, and made +brilliant remarks, but contained also many trivialities and absurdities. +The mysticism which is prominent in this work lacks originality, and is +compiled from the mystico-theosophical writings of all ages from Origen +down to Madame Guyon. + +2. _The Inspired Societies in Wetterau._--After the unfortunate issue of +the Camisard War in A.D. 1705 (§ 153, 4) the chief of the prophets of the +Cevennes fled to England. They were at first well received, but were +afterwards excommunicated and cast into prison. In A.D. 1711 several of +them went to the Netherlands, and thence made their way into Germany. +Three brothers, students at Halle, named Pott, adopted their notion of the +gift of inspiration, and introduced it into Wetterau in A.D. 1714. +_Gruber_ and _Rock_, the leaders of the separatists there, were at first +opposed to the doctrine, but were overpowered by the Spirit, and soon +became its most enthusiastic champions. Prayer-meetings were organized, +immense lovefeasts were held, and by itinerant brethren an _ecclesia +ambulatoria_ was set on foot, by which spiritual nourishment was brought +to believers scattered over the land and the children of the prophets were +gathered from all countries. The "utterances" given forth in ecstasy were +calls to repentance, to prayer, to the imitation of Christ, revelations of +the divine will in matters affecting the communities, proclamations of the +near approach of the Divine judgment upon a depraved church and world, but +without fanatical-sensual chiliasm. Also, except in the contempt of the +sacraments, they held by the essentials of the church doctrine. In A.D. +1715 a split occurred between the _true_ and the _false_ among the +inspired. The true maintained a formal constitution, and in A.D. 1716 +excluded all who would not submit to that discipline. By A.D. 1719 only +Rock claimed the gift of inspiration, and did so till his death in A.D. +1749. Gruber died in A.D. 1728, and with him a pillar of the society fell. +Rock was the only remaining prop. A new era of their history begins with +their intercourse with the Herrnhuters. Zinzendorf sent them a deputation +in A.D. 1730, and paid them a visit in person at Berleberg. Rock's +profound Christian personality made a deep impression upon him. But he was +offended at their contempt of the sacraments, and at the convulsive +character of their utterances. This, however, did not hinder him from +expressing his reverence for their able leader, who in return visited +Zinzendorf at Herrnhut in A.D. 1732. In the interests of his own society +Zinzendorf shrank from identifying himself with those of Wetterau. Rock +denounced him as a new Babylon-botcher, and he retaliated by calling Rock +a false prophet. When the Herrnhuters were driven from Wetterau in A.D. +1750 (§ 168, 3, 7), the inspired communities entered on their inheritance. +But with Rock's death in A.D. 1749 prophecy had ceased among them. They +sank more and more into insignificance, until the revival of spiritual +life, A.D. 1816-1821, brought them into prominence again. Government +interference drove most of them to America. + +3. Quite a peculiar importance belongs to _J. C. Dippel_, theologian, +physician, alchemist, discoverer of Prussian blue and _oleum dippelii_, at +first an orthodox opponent of pietism, then, through Gottfr. Arnold's +influence, an adherent of the pietists, and ultimately of the separatists. +In A.D. 1697, under the name of _Christianus Democritus_, he began to +write in a scoffing tone of all orthodox Christianity, with a strange +blending of mysticism and rationalism, but without any trace profound +Christian experience. Persecuted on every hand, exiled or imprisoned, he +went hither and thither through Germany, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden, and +found a refuge at last at Berleberg in A.D. 1729. Here he came in contact +with the inspired, who did everything in their power to win him over; but +he declared that he would rather give himself to the devil than to this +Spirit of God. He was long intimate with Zinzendorf, but afterwards poured +out upon him the bitterest abuse. He died in the count's castle at +Berleberg in A.D. 1734.(70) + +4. _Separatists of Immoral Tendency._--One of the worst was the _Buttlar +sect_, founded by Eva von Buttlar, a native of Hesse, who had married a +French refugee, lived gaily for ten years at the court of Eisenach, and +then joined the pietists and became a rigid separatist. Separated from her +husband, she associated with the licentiate Winter, and founded a +Philadelphian society at Allendorf in A.D. 1702, where the foulest +immoralities were practised. Eva herself was reverenced as the door of +paradise, the new Jerusalem, the mother of all, Sophia come from heaven, +the new Eve, and the incarnation of the Spirit. Winter was the incarnation +of the Father, and their son Appenfeller the incarnation of the Son. They +pronounced marriage sinful; sensual lusts must be slain in spiritual +communion, then even carnal association is holy. Eva lived with all the +men of the sect in the most shameless adultery. So did also the other +women of the community. Expelled from Allendorf after a stay of six weeks, +they sought unsuccessfully to gain a footing in various places. At Cologne +they went over to the Catholic church. Their immoralities reached their +climax at Luede near Pyrmont. Winter was sentenced to death in A.D. 1706, +but was let off with scourging. Eva escaped the same punishment by flight, +and continued her evil practices unchecked for another year. She +afterwards returned to Altona, where with her followers leading outwardly +an honourable life, she attached herself to the Lutheran church, and died, +honoured and esteemed, in A.D. 1717.--In a similar way arose in A.D. 1789 +the _Bordelum sect_, founded at Bordelum by the licentiates Borsenius and +Baer; and the _Brueggeler sect_, at Brueggeler in Canton Bern, where in A.D. +1748 the brothers Kohler gave themselves out as the two witnesses (Rev. +xi.). Of a like nature too was the _sect of Zionites_ at Ronsdorf in the +Duchy of Berg. Elias Eller, a manufacturer at Elberfeld, excited by +mystical writings, married in A.D. 1725 a rich old widow, but soon found +more pleasure in a handsome young lady, Anna von Buchel, who by a nervous +sympathetic infection was driven into prophetic ecstasy. She proclaimed +the speedy arrival of the millennium; Eller identified her with the mother +of the man-child (Rev. xii. 1). When his wife had pined away through +jealousy and neglect and died, he married Buchel. The first child she bore +him was a girl, and the second, a boy, soon died. When a strong opposition +arose in Elberfeld against the sect, he, along with his followers, founded +Ronsdorf, as a New Zion, in A.D. 1737. The colony obtained civil rights, +and Eller was made burgomaster. Anna having died in A.D. 1744, Eller gave +his colony a new mother, and practised every manner of deceit and tyranny. +After the infatuation had lasted a long time, the eyes of the Reformed +pastor Schleiermacher, grandfather of the famous theologian, were at last +opened. By flight to the Netherlands he escaped the fate of another +revolter, whom Eller persuaded the authorities at Duesseldorf to put to +death as a sorcerer. Every complaint against himself was quashed by +Eller's bribery of the officials. After his death in A.D. 1750 his stepson +continued this Zion game for a long time. + +5. _Swedenborgianism._--_Emanuel von Swedenborg_ was born at Stockholm, in +A.D. 1688, son of the strict Lutheran bishop of West Gothland, Jasper +Swedberg. He was appointed assessor of the School of Mines at Stockholm, +and soon showed himself to be a man of encyclopaedic information and of +speculative ability. After long examination of the secrets of nature, in a +condition of magnetic ecstasy, in which he thought that he had intercourse +with spirits, sometimes in heaven, sometimes in hell, he became convinced, +in A.D. 1743, that he was called by these revelations to restore corrupted +Christianity by founding a church of the New Jerusalem as the finally +perfected church. He published the apocalyptic revelations as a new +gospel: "_Arcana Coelestia in Scr. s. Detecta_," in seven vols.; "_Vera +Chr. Rel._," two vols. After his death, in A.D. 1772, his "_Vera +Christiana Religio_" was translated into Swedish, but his views never got +much hold in his native country. They spread more widely in England, where +John Clowes, rector of St. John's Church, Manchester, translated his +writings, and himself wrote largely in their exposition and commendation. +Separate congregations with their own ministers, and forms of worship, +sprang up through England in A.D. 1788, and soon there were as many as +fifty throughout the country. From England the New Church spread to +America.--In Germany it was specially throughout Wuerttemberg that it found +adherents. There, in A.D. 1765, Oetinger (§ 171, 9) recognised +Swedenborg's revelations, and introduced many elements from them into his +theosophical system.--Swedenborg's religious system was speculative +mysticism, with a physical basis and rationalizing results. The aim of +religion with him is the opening of an intimate correspondence between the +spiritual world and man, and giving an insight into the mystery of the +connexion between the two. The Bible (excluding the apostolic epistles, as +merely expository), pre-eminently the Apocalypse, is recognised by him as +God's word; to be studied, however, not in its literal but in its +spiritual or inner sense. Of the church dogmas there is not one which he +did not either set aside or rationalistically explain away. He denounces +in the strongest terms the church doctrine of the Trinity. God is with him +only one Person, who manifests Himself in three different forms: the +Father is the principle of the manifesting God; the Son, the manifested +form; the Spirit, the manifested activity. The purpose of the +manifestation of Christ is the uniting of the human and Divine; redemption +is nothing more than the combating and overcoming of the evil spirits. But +angels and devils are spirits of dead men glorified and damned. He did not +believe in a resurrection of the flesh, but maintained that the spiritual +form of the body endures after death. The second coming of Christ will not +be personal and visible, but spiritual through a revelation of the +spiritual sense of Holy Scripture, and is realized by the founding of the +church of the New Jerusalem.(71) + +6. _New Baptist Sects (_§ 163, 3_)._--In Wetterau about A.D. 1708 an +anabaptist sect arose called _Dippers_, because they did not recognise +infant baptism and insisted upon the complete immersion of adult +believers. They appeared in Pennsylvania in A.D. 1719, and founded +settlements in other states. Of the "perfect" they required absolute +separation from all worldly practices and enjoyments and a simple, +apostolic style of dress. To baptism and the Lord's supper they added +washing the feet and the fraternal kiss and anointing the sick. The +_Seventh-day Baptists_ observe the seventh instead of the first day of the +week, and enjoin on the "perfect" celibacy and the community of goods. New +sects from England continued to spread over America. Of these were the +_Seed_ or _Sucker Baptists_, who identified the non-elect with the seed of +the serpent, and on account of their doctrine of predestination regarded +all instruction and care of children useless. A similar predestinarian +exaggeration is seen in the _Hard-shell Baptists_, who denounce all home +and foreign missions as running counter to the Divine sovereignty. Many, +sometimes called Campbellites from their founder, reject any party name, +claiming to be simply _Christians_, and acknowledge only so much in +Scripture as is expressly declared to be "the word of the Lord." The +_Six-Principles-Baptists_ limit their creed to the six articles of Hebrews +vi. 1, 2. The brothers Haldane, about the middle of the eighteenth +century, founded in Scotland the Baptist sect of _Haldanites_, which has +with great energy applied itself to the practical cultivation of the +Christian life.--Continuation, §§ 208, 1; 211, 3. + +7. _New Quaker Sects._--The _Jumpers_, who sprang up among the Methodists +of Cornwall about A.D. 1760, are in principle closely allied to the early +Quakers (§ 163, 4). They leaped and danced after the style of David before +the ark and uttered inarticulate howls. They settled in America, where +they have adherents still.--The _Shakers_ originated from the prophets of +the Cevennes who fled to England in A.D. 1705. They converted a Quaker +family at Bolton in Lancashire named Wardley, and the community soon grew. +In A.D. 1758 Anna Lee, wife of a farrier Stanley, joined the society, and, +as the apocalyptic bride, inaugurated the millennium. She taught that the +root of all sin was the relationship of the sexes. Maltreated by the mob, +she emigrated to America, along with thirty companions, in A.D. 1774. +Though persecuted here also, the sect increased and formed in the State of +New York the _Millennial Church_ or _United Society of Believers_. Anna +died in A.D. 1784; but her prophets declared that she had merely laid +aside the earthly garb and assumed the heavenly, so that only then the +veneration of "Mother Anna" came into force. As Christ is the Son of the +eternal Wisdom, Anna is the daughter; as Christ is the second Adam, she is +the second Eve, and spiritual mother of believers as Christ is their +father. Celibacy, community of goods, common labour (chiefly gardening), +as a pleasure, not a burden, common domestic life as brothers and sisters, +and constant intercourse with the spirit world, are the main points in her +doctrine. By the addition of voluntary proselytes and the adoption of poor +helpless children the sect has grown, till now it numbers 3,000 or 4,000 +souls in eighteen villages. The capital is New Lebanon in the State of New +York. The name Shakers was given them from the quivering motion of body in +their solemn dances. In their services they march about singing "On to +heaven we will be going," "March heavenward, yea, victorious band," etc. +Like the Quakers (§ 163, 6) they have neither a ministry nor sacraments, +and their whole manner of life is modelled on that of the Quakers. The +purity of the relation of brothers and sisters has always been free from +suspicion.(72) + +8. _Predestinarian-Mystical Sects._--The _Hebraeans_, founded by Verschoor, +a licentiate of the Reformed church of Holland deposed under suspicion of +Spinozist views, in the end of the seventeenth century, hold it +indispensably necessary to read the word of God in the original. They were +fatalists, and maintained that the elect could commit no sin. True faith +consisted in believing this doctrine of their own sinlessness. About the +same time sprang up the _Hattemists_, followers of _Pontiaan von Hattem_, +a preacher deposed for heresy, with fatalistic views like the Hebraeans, +but with a strong vein of pantheistic mysticism. True piety consisted in +the believer resting in God in a purely passive manner, and letting God +alone care for him. The two sects united under the name of Hattemists, and +continued to exist in Holland and Zealand till about A.D. 1760. + + + +§ 171. Religion, Theology, and Literature of the "Illumination."(73) + + +In England during the first half of the century deism had still several +active propagandists, and throughout the whole century efforts, not +altogether unsuccessful, were made to spread Unitarian views. From the +middle of the century, when the English deistic unbelief had died out, the +"Illumination," under the name of rationalism, found an entrance into +Germany. Arminian pelagianism, recommended by brilliant scholarship, +English deism, spread by translations and refutations, and French +naturalism, introduced by a great and much honoured king, were the outward +factors in securing this result. The freemason lodges, carried into +Germany from England, a relic of mediaevalism, aided the movement by their +endeavour after a universal religion of a moral and practical kind. The +inward factors were the Wolffian philosophy (§ 167, 3), the popular +philosophy, and the pietism, with its step-father separatism (§ 170), +which immediately prepared the soil for the sowing of rationalism. +Orthodoxy, too, with its formulas that had been outlived, contributed to +the same end. German rationalism is essentially distinguished from Deism +and Naturalism by not breaking completely with the Bible and the church, +but eviscerating both by its theories of accommodation and by its +exaggerated representations of the limitations of the age in which the +books of Scripture were written and the doctrines of Christianity were +formulated. It thus treats the Bible as an important document, and the +church as a useful religious institution. Over against rationalism arose +supernaturalism, appealing directly to revelation. It was a dilution of +the old church faith by the addition of more or less of the water of +rationalism. Its reaction was therefore weak and vacillating. The +temporary success of the vulgar rationalism lay, not in its own inherent +strength, but in the correspondence that existed between it and the +prevailing spirit of the age. The philosophy, however, as well as the +national literature of the Germans, now began a victorious struggle +against these tendencies, and though itself often indifferent and even +hostile to Christianity, it recognised in Christ a school-master. +Pestalozzi performed a similar service to popular education by his +attempts to reform effete systems. + +1. _Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church._--(1) _The +Deists_ (§ 164, 3). With Locke's philosophy (§ 164, 2) deism entered on a +new stage of its development. It is henceforth vindicated on the ground of +its reasonableness. The most notable deists of this age were _John +Toland_, an Irishman, first Catholic, then Arminian, died A.D. 1722, +author of "Christianity not Mysterious," "Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, +and Mohametan Christianity," etc. The Earl of _Shaftesbury_, died A.D. +1713, wrote "Characteristics of Men," etc. _Anthony Collins_, J.P. in +Essex, died A.D. 1729, author of "Priestcraft in Perfection," "Discourse +of Freethinking," etc. _Thomas Woolston_, fellow of Cambridge, died in +prison in A.D. 1733, author of "Discourse on the Miracles of the Saviour." +_Mandeville_ of Dort, physician in London, died A.D. 1733, wrote "Free +Thoughts on Religion." _Matthew Tindal_, professor of law in Oxford, died +A.D. 1733, wrote "Christianity as Old as the Creation." _Thomas Morgan_, +nonconformist minister, deposed as an Arian, then a physician, died A.D. +1743, wrote "The Moral Philosopher." _Thomas Chubb_, glover and +tallow-chandler in Salisbury, died A.D. 1747, author of popular +compilations, "The True Gospel of Jesus Christ." Viscount _Bolingbroke_, +statesman, charged with high treason and pardoned, died A.D. 1751, +writings entitled, "Philosophical Works."--Along with the deists as an +opponent of positive Christianity may be classed the famous historian and +sceptic _David Hume_, librarian in Edinburgh, died A.D. 1776, author of +"Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding," "Natural History of +Religion," "Dialogues concerning Natural Religion," etc.(74)--Deism never +made way among the people, and no attempt was made to form a sect. Among +the numerous opponents of deism these are chief: Samuel Clarke, died A.D. +1729; Thomas Sherlock, Bishop of London, died A.D. 1761; Chandler, Bishop +of Durham, died A.D. 1750; Leland, Presbyterian minister in Dublin, died +A.D. 1766, wrote "View of Principal Deistic Writers," three vols., 1754; +Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, died A.D. 1779; Nath. Lardner, dissenting +minister, died A.D. 1768, wrote "Credibility of the Gospel History," +seventeen vols., 1727-1757. With these may be ranked the famous pulpit +orator of the Reformed church of France, Saurin, died A.D. 1730, author of +_Discours hist., crit., theol., sur les Evenements les plus remarkables du +V. et N.T._--(2) _The So-called Arians._ In the beginning of the century +several distinguished theologians of the Anglican church sought to give +currency to an Arian doctrine of the Trinity. Most conspicuous was _Wm. +Whiston_, a distinguished mathematician, physicist, and astronomer of the +school of Sir Isaac Newton, and his successor in the mathematical chair at +Cambridge. Deprived of this office in A.D. 1708 for spreading his +heterodox views, he issued in A.D. 1711 a five-volume work, "Primitive +Christianity Revived," in which he justified his Arian doctrine of the +Trinity as primitive and as taught by the ante-Nicene Fathers, and +insisted upon augmenting the N.T. canon by the addition of twenty-nine +books of the apostolic and other Fathers, including the apostolic +"Constitutions" and "Recognitions" which he maintained were genuine works +of Clement. Subsequently he adopted Baptist views, and lost himself in +fantastic chiliastic speculations. He died A.D. 1752. More sensible and +moderate was _Samuel Clarke_, also distinguished as a mathematician of +Newton's school and as a classical philologist. As an opponent of deism in +sermons and treatises he had gained a high reputation as a theologian, +when his work, "The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity," in A.D. 1712, led +to his being accused of Arianism by convocation; but by conciliatory +explanations he succeeded in retaining his office till his death in A.D. +1729. But the excitement caused by the publication of his work continued +through several decades, and was everywhere the cause of division. His +ablest apologist was Dan. Whitby, and his keenest opponent Dan. +Waterland.--(3) _The Later Unitarians._ The anti-trinitarian movement +entered on a new stage in A.D. 1770. After Archdeacon Blackburne of +London, in A.D. 1766, had started the idea, at first anonymously, in his +"Confessional," he joined in A.D. 1772 with other freethinkers, among whom +was his son-in-law _Theophilus Lindsey_, in presenting to Parliament a +petition with 250 signatures, asking to have the clergy of the Anglican +church freed from the obligation of subscribing to the Thirty-nine +Articles and the Liturgy, and to have the requirement limited to assent to +the Scriptures. This prayer was rejected in the Lower House by 217 votes +against 71. Lindsey now resigned his clerical office, announced his +withdrawal from the Anglican church, founded and presided over a Unitarian +congregation in London from A.D. 1774, and published a large number of +controversial Unitarian tracts. He died in A.D. 1808. The celebrated +chemist and physicist _Joseph Priestley_, A.D. 1733-1806, who had been a +dissenting minister in Birmingham from A.D. 1780, joined the Unitarian +movement in 1782, giving it a new impetus by his high scientific +reputation. He wrote the "History of the Corruptions of Christianity," and +the "History of Early Opinions about Jesus Christ," denying that there is +any biblical foundation for the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, and +seeking to show that it had been forced upon the church against her will +from the Platonic philosophy. These and a whole series of other +controversial writings occasioned great excitement, not only among +theologians, but also among the English people of all ranks. At last the +mob rose against him in A.D. 1791. His house and all his scientific +collections and apparatus were burnt. He narrowly escaped with his life, +and soon after settled in America, where he wrote a church history in four +vols. Of his many English opponents the most eminent was Bishop Sam. +Horsley, a distinguished mathematician and commentator on the works of Sir +Isaac Newton. + +2. _Freemasons._--The mediaeval institution of freemasons (§ 104, 13) won +much favour in England, especially after the Great Fire of London in A.D. +1666. The first step toward the formation of freemason lodges of the +modern type was taken about the end of the sixteenth century, when men of +distinction in other callings sought admission as honorary members. After +the rebuilding of London and the completion of St. Paul's in A.D. 1710, +most of the lodges became defunct, and the four that continued to exist +united in A.D. 1717 into one grand lodge in London, which, renouncing +material masonry, assumed the task of rearing the temple of humanity. In +A.D. 1721 the Rev. Mr. Anderson prepared a constitution for this +reconstruction of a trade society into a universal brotherhood, according +to which all "free masons" faithfully observing the moral law as well as +all the claims of humanity and patriotism, came under obligation to +profess the religion common to all good men, transcending all confessional +differences, without any individual being thereby hindered from holding +his own particular views. Although, in imitation of the older institution, +all members by reason of their close connexion were bound to observe the +strictest secrecy in regard to their masonic signs, rites of initiation +and promotion, and forms of greeting, it is not properly a secret society, +since the constitution was published in A.D. 1723, and members publicly +acknowledge that they are such.--From London the new institute spread over +all England and the colonies. Lodges were founded in Paris in A.D. 1725, +in Hamburg in A.D. 1737, in Berlin in A.D. 1740. This last was raised in +A.D. 1744 into a grand lodge, with Frederick II. as grand master. But soon +troubles and disputes arose, which broke up the order about the end of the +century. Rosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and alchemists, pretending to hold the +secrets of occult science, Jesuits (§ 210, 1), with Catholic hierarchical +tendencies, and "Illuminati" (§ 165, 13), with rationalistic and infidel +tendencies, as well as adventurers of every sort, had made the lodges +centres of quackery, juggling, and plots.(75) + +3. _The German _"Illumination."--(1) _Its Precursors._ One of the first of +these, following in the footsteps of Kuntzen and Dippel, was _J. Chr. +Edelmann_ of Weissenfels, who died A.D. 1767. He began in A.D. 1735 the +publication of an immense series of writings in a rough but powerful +style, filled with bitter scorn for positive Christianity. He went from +one sect to another, but never found what he sought. In A.D. 1741 he +accepted Zinzendorf's invitation, and stayed with the count for a long +time. He next joined the Berleberg separatists, because they despised the +sacraments, and contributed to their Bible commentary, though Haug had to +alter much of his work before it could be used. This and his contempt for +prayer brought the connexion between him and the society to an end. He +then led a vagabond life up and down through Germany. Edelmann regarded +himself as a helper of providence, and at least a second Luther. +Christianity he pronounced the most irrational of all religions; church +history a conglomeration of immorality, lies, hypocrisy, and fanaticism; +prophets and apostles, bedlamites; and even Christ by no means a perfect +pattern and teacher. The world needs only one redemption--redemption from +Christianity. Providence, virtue, and immortality are the only elements in +religion. No less than 166 separate treatises came from his facile +pen.--_Laurence Schmidt_ of Wertheim in Baden, a scholar of Wolff, was +author of the notorious "Wertheimer Bible Version," which rendered +Scripture language into the dialect of the eighteenth century, and +eviscerated it of all positive doctrines of revelation. This book was +confiscated by the authorities, and its author cast into prison. + +4. (2) _The Age of Frederick the Great._ Hostility to all positive +Christianity spread from England and France into Germany. The writings of +the English deists were translated and refuted, but mostly in so weak a +style that the effect was the opposite of that intended. Whilst English +deism with its air of thoroughness made way among the learned, the poison +of frivolous French naturalism committed its ravages among the higher +circles. The great king of Prussia _Frederick II._, A.D. 1740-1786, +surrounded by French freethinkers Voltaire, D'Argens, La Metrie, etc., +wished every man in his kingdom to be saved after his own fashion. In this +he was quite earnest, although his personal animosity to all +ecclesiastical and pietistic religion made him sometimes act harshly and +unjustly. Thus, when Francke of Halle (son of the famous A. H. Francke) +had exhorted his theological students to avoid the theatre, the king, +designating him "hypocrite" Francke, ordered him to attend the theatre +himself and have his attendance attested by the manager. His bitter hatred +of all "priests" was directed mainly against their actual or supposed +intolerance, hypocrisy, and priestly arrogance; and where he met with +undoubted integrity, as in Gellert and Seb. Bach, or simple, earnest +piety, as in General Ziethen, he was not slow in paying to it the merited +tribute of hearty acknowledgment and respect. His own religion was a +philosophical deism, from which he could thoroughly refute Holbach's +materialistic "_Systeme de la Nature_."--Under the name of the German +popular philosophy (Moses Mendelssohn, Garve, Eberhard, Platner, +Steinbart, etc.), which started from the Wolffian philosophy, emptied of +its Christian contents, there arose a weak, vapoury, and self-satisfied +philosophizing on the part of the common human reason. Basedow was the +reformer of pedagogy in the sense of the "Illumination," after the style +of Rousseau, and crying up his wares in the market made a great noise for +a while, although Herder declared that he would not trust calves, far less +men, to be educated by such a pedagogue. The "Universal German Library" of +the Berlin publisher Nicolai, 106 vols. A.D. 1765-1792, was a literary +Inquisition tribunal against all faith in revelation or the church. The +"Illumination" in the domain of theology took the name of rationalism. +Pietistic Halle cast its skin, and along with Berlin took front rank among +the promoters of the "Illumination." In the other universities champions +of the new views soon appeared, and rationalistic pastors spread over all +Germany, to preach only of moral improvement, or to teach from the pulpit +about the laws of health, agriculture, gardening, natural science, etc. +The old liturgies were mutilated, hymn-books revised after the barbarous +tastes of the age, and songs of mere moral tendency substituted for those +that spoke of Christ's atonement. An ecclesiastical councillor, Lang of +Regensburg, dispensed the communion with the words: "Eat this bread! The +Spirit of devotion rest on you with His rich blessing! Drink a little +wine! The virtue lies not in this wine; it lies in you, in the divine +doctrine, and in God." The Berlin provost, W. Alb. Teller, declared +publicly: "The Jews ought on account of their faith in God, virtue, and +immortality, to be regarded as genuine Christians." C. Fr. Bahrdt, after +he had been deposed for immorality from various clerical and academical +offices, and was cast off by the theologians, sought to amuse the people +with his wit as a taphouse-keeper in Halle, and died there of an infamous +disease in A.D. 1792. + +5. (3) _The Woellner Reaction._--In vain did the Prussian government, after +the death of Frederick the Great, under Frederick William II., A.D. +1786-1797, endeavour to restore the church to the enjoyment of its old +exclusive rights by punishing every departure from its doctrines, and +insisting that preaching should be in accordance with the Confession. At +the instigation of the Rosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and of the minister Von +Woellner, a country pastor ennobled by the king, the _Religious Edict of +1788_ was issued, followed by a statement of severe penalties; then by a +_Schema Examinationis Candidatorum ss. Ministerii rite Instituendi_; and +in A.D. 1791, by a commission for examination under the Berlin chief +consistory and all the provincial consistories, with full powers, not only +over candidates, but also over all settled pastors. But notwithstanding +all the energy with which he sought to carry out his edict, the minister +could accomplish nothing in the face of public opinion, which favoured the +resistance of the chief consistory. Only one deposition, that of Schulz of +Gielsdorf, near Berlin, was effected, in A.D. 1792. Frederick William +III., A.D. 1797-1840, dismissed Woellner in A.D. 1798, and set aside the +edict as only fostering hypocrisy and sham piety. + +6. _The Transition Theology._--Four men, who endeavoured to maintain their +own belief in revelation, did more than all others to prepare the way for +rationalism: Ernesti of Leipzig, in the department of N.T. exegesis; +Michaelis of Goettingen, in O.T. exegesis; Semler of Halle, in biblical and +historical criticism; and Toellner of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in dogmatics. +_J. A. Ernesti_, A.D. 1707-1781, from A.D. 1734 rector of St. Thomas' +School, from A.D. 1742 professor at Leipzig, colleague to Chr. A. Crusius +(§ 167, 3), was specially eminent as a classical scholar, and maintained +his reputation in that department, even after becoming professor of +theology in A.D. 1758. His _Institutio Interpretis N.T._, of A.D. 1761, +made it an axiom of exegesis that the exposition of Scripture should be +conducted precisely as that of any other book. But even in the domain of +classical literature there must be an understanding of the author as a +whole, and the expositor must have appreciation of the writer's spirit, as +well as have acquaintance with his language and the customs of his age. +And just from Ernesti's want of this, his treatise on biblical +hermeneutics is rationalistic, and he became the father of rationalistic +exegesis, though himself intending to hold firmly by the doctrine of +inspiration and the creed of the church.--What Ernesti did for the N.T., +_J. D. Michaelis_, A.D. 1717-1791, son of the pious and orthodox Chr. +Bened. Michaelis, did for the O.T. He was from A.D. 1750 professor at +Goettingen, a man of varied learning and wide influence. He publicly +acknowledged that he had never experienced anything of the _testimonium +Sp. s. internum_, and rested his proofs of the divinity of the Scriptures +wholly on external evidences, _e.g._ miracles, prophecy, authenticity, +etc., a spider's web easily blown to pieces by the enemy. No one has ever +excelled him in the art of foisting his own notions on the sacred authors +and making them utter his favourite ideas. A conspicuous instance of this +is his "Laws of Moses," in six vols.--In a far greater measure than either +Ernesti or Michaelis did _J. Sol. Semler_, A.D. 1725-1791, pupil of +Baumgarten, and from A.D. 1751 professor at Halle, help on the cause of +rationalism. He had grown up under the influence of Halle pietism in the +profession of a customary Christianity, which he called his private +religion, which contributed to his life a basis of genuine personal piety. +But with a rare subtlety of reasoning as a man of science, endowed with +rich scholarship, and without any wish to sever himself from Christianity, +he undermined almost all the supports of the theology of the church. This +he did by casting doubt on the genuineness of the biblical writings, by +setting up a theory of inspiration and accommodation which admitted the +presence of error, misunderstanding, and pious fraud in the Scriptures, by +a style of exposition which put aside everything unattractive in the N.T. +as "remnants of Judaism," by a critical treatment of the history of the +church and its doctrines, which represented the doctrines of the church as +the result of blundering, misconception, and violence, etc. He was a +voluminous author, leaving behind him no less than 171 writings. He sowed +the wind, and reaped the whirlwind, by which he himself was driven along. +He firmly withstood the installation of Bahrdt at Halle, opposed Basedow's +endeavours, applied himself eagerly to refute the "Wolfenbuettel Fragments" +of Reimarus, edited by Lessing in 1774-1778, which represented +Christianity as founded upon pure deceit and fraud, and defended even the +edict of Woellner. But the current was not thus to be stemmed, and Semler +died broken-hearted at the sight of the heavy crop from his own sowing.--J. +Gr. Toellner, A.D. 1724-1774, from A.D. 1756 professor at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder, was in point of learning and influence by no means +equal to those now named; yet he deserves a place alongside of them, as +one who opened the door to rationalism in the department of dogmatics. He +himself held fast to the belief in revelation, miracles, and prophecy, but +he also regarded it as proved that God saves men by the revelation of +nature; the revelation of Scripture is only a more sure and perfect means. +He also examined the divine inspiration of Scripture, and found that the +language and thoughts were the authors' own, and that God was concerned in +it in a manner that could not be more precisely determined. Finally, in +treating of the active obedience of Christ, he gives such a representation +of it as sets aside the doctrine of the church. + +7. _The Rationalistic Theology._--From the school of these men, especially +from that of Semler, went forth crowds of rationalists, who for seventy +years held almost all the professorships and pastorates of Protestant +Germany. At their head stands _Bahrdt_, A.D. 1741-1792, writer at first of +orthodox handbooks, who, sinking deeper and deeper through vanity, want of +character, and immorality, and following in the steps of Edelmann, wrote +102 vols., mostly of a scurrilous and blasphemous character. The +rationalists, however, were generally of a nobler sort: _Griesbach_ of +Jena, A.D. 1745-1812, distinguished as textual critic of the N.T.; +_Teller_ of Berlin, published a lexicon to the N.T., which substituted +"leading another life" for regeneration, "improvement" for sanctification, +etc.; Koppe of Goettingen, and Rosenmueller of Leipzig wrote _scholia_ on +N.T., and Schulze and Bauer on the O.T. Of far greater value were the +performances of _J. E. Eichhorn_ of Goettingen, A.D. 1752-1827, and +_Bertholdt_ of Erlangen, A.D. 1774-1822, who wrote introductions to the +O.T. and commentaries. In the department of church history, _H. P. C. +Henke_ of Helmstadt and the talented statesman, _Von Spittler_ of +Wuerttemberg, wrote from the rationalistic standpoint. Steinbart and +Eberhardt wrote more in the style of the popular philosophy. The +subtle-minded _J. H. Tieftrunk_, A.D. 1760-1837, professor of philosophy +at Halle, introduced into theology the Kantian philosophy with its strict +categories. Jerusalem, Zollikofer, and others did much to spread +rationalistic views by their preaching.(76) + +8. _Supernaturalism._--Abandoning the old orthodoxy without surrendering to +rationalism, the supernaturalists sought to maintain their hold of the +Scripture revelation. Many of them did so in a very uncertain way: their +revelation had scarcely anything to reveal which was not already given by +reason. Others, however, eagerly sought to preserve all essentially vital +truths. Morus of Leipzig, Ernesti's ablest student, Less of Goettingen, +Doederlein of Jena, Seiler of Erlangen, and Noesselt of Halle, were all +representatives of this school. More powerful opponents of rationalism +appeared in _Storr_ of Tuebingen, A.D. 1746-1805, who could break a lance +even with the philosopher of Koenigsberg, _Knapp_ of Halle, and _Reinhard_ +of Dresden, the most famous preacher of his age. Reinhard's sermon on the +Reformation festival of A.D. 1800 created such enthusiasm in favour of the +Lutheran doctrine of justification, that government issued an edict +calling the attention of all pastors to it as a model. The most +distinguished apologists were the mathematician _Euler_ of St. Petersburg, +the physiologist, botanist, geologist, and poet _Haller_ of Zuerich and the +theologians _Lilienthal_ of Koenigsberg and _Kleuker_ of Kiel. The most +zealous defender of the faith was the much abused _Goeze_ of Hamburg, who +fought for the palladium of Lutheran orthodoxy against his rationalistic +colleagues, against the theatre, against Barth, Basedow, and such-like, +against the "Wolfenbuettel Fragments," against the "Sorrows of Werther," +etc. His polemic may have been over-violent, and he certainly was not a +match for such an antagonist as Lessing; he was, however, by no means an +obscurantist, ignoramus, fanatic, or hypocrite, but a man in solemn +earnest in all he did. In the field of church history important services +were rendered by _Schroeckh_ of Wittenberg and _Walch_ of Goettingen, +laborious investigators and compilers, _Staeudlin_ and _Planck_ of +Goettingen, and _Muenter_ of Copenhagen.--Among English theologians of this +tendency toward the end of the century, the most famous was _Paley_ of +Cambridge, A.D. 1743-1805, whose "Principles of Moral and Political +Philosophy" and "Evidences of Christianity" were obligatory text-books in +the university. His "_Horae Paulinae_" prove the credibility of the Acts of +the Apostles from the epistles, and his "Natural Theology" demonstrates +God's being and attributes from nature. + +9. _Mysticism and Theosophy._--_Oetinger_ of Wuerttemburg, the _Magus_ of +the South, A.D. 1702-1782, takes rank by himself. He was a pupil of Bengel +(§ 167, 3), well grounded in Scripture, but also an admirer of Boehme and +sympathising with the spiritualistic visions of Swedenborg. But amid all, +with his biblical realism and his theosophy, which held corporeity to be +the end of the ways of God, he was firmly rooted in the doctrines of +Lutheran orthodoxy.--The best mystic of the Reformed church was _J. Ph. +Dutoit_ of Lausanne, A.D. 1721-1793, an enthusiastic admirer of Madame +Guyon; he added to her quietist mysticism certain theosophical +speculations on the original nature of Adam, the creation of woman, the +fall, the necessity of the incarnation apart from the fall, the basing of +the sinlessness of Christ upon the immaculate conception of his mother, +etc. He gathered about him during his lifetime a large number of pious +adherents, but after his death his theories were soon forgotten. + +10. _The German Philosophy._--As Locke accomplished the descent from Bacon +to deism and materialism, so _Wolff_ effected the transition from Leibnitz +to the popular philosophy. _Kant_, A.D. 1724-1804, saved philosophy from +the baldness and self-sufficiency of Wolffianism, and pointed it to its +proper element in the spiritual domain. Kant's own philosophy stood wholly +outside of Christianity, on the same platform with rationalistic theology. +But by deeper digging in the soil it unearthed many a precious nugget, of +whose existence the vulgar rationalism had never dreamed, without any +intention of becoming a schoolmaster to lead to Christ. Kant showed the +impossibility of a knowledge of the supernatural by means of pure reason, +but admitted the ideas of God, freedom, and immortality as postulates of +the practical reason and as constituting the principle of all religion, +whose only content is the moral law. Christianity and the Bible are to +remain the basis of popular instruction, but are to be expounded only in +an ethical sense. While in sympathy with rationalism, he admits its +baldness and self-sufficiency. His keen criticism of the pure reason, the +profound knowledge of human weakness and corruption shown in his doctrine +of radical evil, his categorical imperative of the moral law, were well +fitted to awaken in more earnest minds a deep distrust of themselves, a +modest estimate of the boasted excellences of their age, and a feeling +that Christianity could alone meet their necessities.--_F. H. Jacobi_, A.D. +1743-1819, "with the heart a Christian, with the understanding a pagan," +as he characterized himself, took religion out of the region of mere +reason into the depths of the universal feelings of the soul, and so +awakened a positive aspiration.--_J. G. Fichte_, A.D. 1762-1814, +transformed Kantianism, to which he at first adhered, into an idealistic +science of knowledge, in which only the _ego_ that posits itself appears +as real, and the _non-ego_, only by its being posited by the _ego_; and +thus the world and nature are only a reflex of the mind. But when, accused +of atheism in A.D. 1798, he was expelled from his position in Jena, he +changed his views, rushing from the verge of atheism into a mysticism +approaching to Christianity. In his "Guide to a Blessed Life," A.D. 1806, +he delivered religion from being a mere servant to morals, and sought the +blessedness of life in the loving surrender of one's whole being to the +universal Spirit, the full expression of which he found in John's Gospel. +Pauline Christianity, on the other hand, with its doctrine of sin and +redemption, seemed to him a deterioration, and Christ Himself only the +most complete representative of the incarnation of God repeated in all +ages and in every pious man.--In the closing years of the century, +_Schelling_ brought forward his theory of _identity_, which was one of the +most powerful instruments in introducing a new era.(77) + +11. _The German National Literature._--When the powerful strain of the +evangelical church hymn had well-nigh expired in the feeble lispings of +_Gellert's_ sacred poetry, _Klopstock_ began to chant the praises of the +Messiah in a higher strain. But the pathos of his odes met with no +response, and his "Messiah," of which the first three cantos appeared in +A.D. 1748, though received with unexampled enthusiasm, could do nothing to +exorcise the spirit of unbelief, and was more praised than read. The +theological standpoint of _Lessing_, A.D. 1729-1781, is set forth in one +of his letters to his brother. "I despise the orthodox even more than you +do, only I despise the clergy of the new style even more. What is the +new-fashioned theology of those shallow pates compared with orthodoxy but +as dung-water compared with dirty water? On this point we are at one, that +our old religious system is false; but I cannot say with you that it is a +patchwork of bunglers and half philosophers. I know nothing in the world +upon which human ingenuity has been more subtly exercised than upon it. +That religious system which is now offered in place of the old is a +patchwork of bunglers and half philosophers." He is offended at men +hanging the concerns of eternity on the spider's thread of external +evidences, and so he was delighted to hurl the Wolfenbuettel "Fragments" at +the heads of theologians and the Hamburg pastor Goeze, whom he loaded with +contumely and scorn. Thoroughly characteristic too is the saying in the +"_Duplik_": That if God holding in his right hand all truth, and in his +left hand the search after truth, subject to error through all eternity, +were to offer him his choice, he would humbly say, "Father the left, for +pure truth is indeed for thee alone." In his "_Nathan_" only Judaism and +Mohammedanism are represented by truly noble and ideal characters, while +the chief representative of Christianity is a gloomy zealot, and the +conclusion of the parable is that all three rings are counterfeit. In +another work he views revelation as one of the stages in "The Education of +the Human Race," which loses its significance as soon as its purpose is +served. In familiar conversation with Jacobi he frankly declared his +acceptance of the doctrine of Spinoza: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.(78) _Wieland_, A.D. +1733-1813, soon turned from his youthful zeal for ecclesiastical orthodoxy +to the popular philosophy of the cultured man of the world. _Herder_, A.D. +1744-1803, with his enthusiastic appreciation of the poetical contents of +the Bible, especially of the Old Testament, was not slow to point out the +insipidity of its ordinary treatment. _Goethe_, A.D. 1749-1832, profoundly +hated the vandalism of neology, delighted in "The Confessions of a Fair +Soul" (§ 172, 2), had in earlier years sympathy with the Herrnhuters, but +in the full intellectual vigour of his manhood thought he had no need of +Christianity, which offended him by its demand for renunciation of self +and the world. _Schiller_, A.D. 1759-1805, enthusiastically admiring +everything noble, beautiful and good, misunderstood Christianity, and +introduced into the hearts of the German people Kantian rationalism +clothed in rich poetic garb. His lament on the downfall of the gods of +Greece, even if not so intended by the poet himself, told not so much +against orthodox Christianity as against poverty-stricken deism, which +banished the God of Christianity from the world and set in his place the +dead forces of nature. And if indeed he really thought that for religion's +sake he should confess to no religion, he has certainly in many profoundly +Christian utterances given unconscious testimony to Christianity.--The +Jacobi philosophy of feeling found poetic interpreters in _Jean Paul +Richter_, A.D. 1763-1825, and _Hebel_, died A.D. 1826, in whom we find the +same combination of pious sentiment which is drawn toward Christianity and +the sceptical understanding which allied itself to the revolt against the +common orthodoxy. _J. H. Voss_, a rough, powerful Dutch peasant, who in +his "_Luise_" sketched the ideal of a brave rationalistic country parson, +and, with the inexorable rigour of an inquisitor, hunted down the night +birds of ignorance and oppression. But alongside of those children of the +world stood two genuine sons of Luther, _Matthias Claudius_, A.D. +1740-1815, and _J. G. Hamann_, A.D. 1730-1788, the "Magus of the North" +and the Elijah of his age, of whom Jean Paul said that his commas were +planetary systems and his periods solar systems, to whom the philosopher +Hemsterhuis erected in the garden of Princess Gallitzin a tablet with the +inscription: "To the Jews a stumbling-block, to the Greeks foolishness." +With them may also be named two noble sons of the Reformed church, the +physiognomist _Lavater_, A.D. 1741-1801, and the devout dreamer, +_Jung-Stilling_, A.D. 1740-1817. The famous historian, _John von Mueller_, +A.D. 1752-1809, well deserves mention here, who more than any previous +historian made Christ the centre and summit of all times; and also the no +less famous statesman _C. F. von Moser_, the most German of the Germans of +this century, who, with noble Christian heroism, in numerous political and +patriotic tracts, battled against the prevailing social and political +vices of his age. + +12. The great Swiss educationist _Pestalozzi_, A.D. 1746-1827, assumed +toward the Bible, the church, and Christianity an attitude similar to that +of the philosopher of Koenigsberg. The conviction of the necessity and +wholesomeness of a biblical foundation in all popular education was rooted +in his heart, and he clearly saw the shallowness of the popular +philosophy, whether presented under the eccentric naturalism of Rousseau +or the bald utilitarianism of Basedow. His whole life issued from the very +sanctuary of true Christianity, as seen in his self-sacrificing efforts to +save the lost, to strengthen the weak, and to preach to the poor by word +and deed the gospel of the all-merciful God whose will it is that all +should be saved. He began his career as an educationist in A.D. 1775 by +receiving into his house deserted beggar children, and carried on his +experiments in his educational institutions at Burgdorf till A.D. 1798, +and at Isserten till A.D. 1804. His writings, which circulated far and +wide, gained for his methods recognition and high approval.(79) + + + +§ 172. Church Life in the Period of the "Illumination." + + +The ancient faith of the church had even during this age of prevailing +unbelief its seven thousand who refused to bow the knee to Baal. The +German people were at heart firmly grounded in the Christianity of the +Bible and the church, and where the pulpit failed had their spiritual +wants supplied by the devout writings of earlier days. Where the modern +vandalism of the "Illumination" had mutilated and watered down the books +of praise, the old church songs lingered in the memories of fathers and +mothers, and were sung with ardour at family worship. For many men of +culture, who were more exposed to danger, the Society of the Brethren +afforded a welcome refuge. But even among the most accomplished of the +nation many stood firmly in the old paths. Lavater and Stilling, Haller +and Euler, the two Mosers, father and son, John von Mueller and his brother +J. G. Mueller, are not by any means the only, but merely the best known, of +such true sons of the church. In Wuerttemberg and Berg, where religious +life was most vigorous, religious sects were formed with new theological +views which made a deep impression on the character and habits of the +people. Also toward the end of the century an awakened zeal in home and +foreign missions was the prelude of the glorious enterprises of our own +days. + +1. _The Hymnbook and Church Music._--Klopstock, followed by Cramer and +Schlegel, introduced the vandalism of altering the old church hymns to +suit modern tastes and views. But a few, like Herder and Schubert, raised +their voices against such philistinism. The "Illuminist" alterations were +unutterably prosaic, and the old pathos and poetry of the sixteenth and +seventeenth century hymns were ruthlessly sacrificed. The spiritual songs +of the noble and pious Gellert are by far the best productions of this +period.--_Church Music_ too now reached its lowest ebb. The old chorales +were altered into modern forms. A multitude of new, unpopular melodies, +difficult of comprehension, with a bald school tone, were introduced; the +last trace of the old rhythm disappeared, and a weary monotony began to +prevail, in which all force and freshness were lost. As a substitute, +secular preludes, interludes, and concluding pieces were brought in. The +people often entered the churches during the playing of operatic +overtures, and were dismissed amid the noise of a march or waltz. The +church ceased to be the patron and promoter of music; the theatre and +concert room took its place. The opera style thoroughly depraved the +oratorio. For festival occasions, cantatas in a purely secular, effeminate +style were composed. A true ecclesiastical music no longer existed, so +that even Winterfeld closed his history of church music with Seb. Bach. It +was, if possible, still worse with the mass music of the Roman Catholic +church. Palestrina's earnest and capable school was completely lost sight +of under the sprightly and frivolous opera style, and with the organ still +more mischief was done than in the Protestant church. + +2. _Religious Characters._--The pastor of Ban de la Roche in Steinthal of +Alsace, "the saint of the Protestant church," _J. Fr. Oberlin_, A.D. +1740-1826, deserves a high place of honour. During a sixty years' +pastorate "Father Oberlin" raised his poverty-stricken flock to a position +of industrial prosperity, and changed the barren Steinthal into a +patriarchal paradise. The same may be said of a noble Christian woman of +that age, _Sus. Cath. von Klettenberg_, Lavater's "Cordata," Goethe's +"Fair Soul," whose genuine confessions are wrought into "_Wilhelm +Meister_" the centre of a beautiful Christian circle in Frankfort, where +the young Goethe received religious impressions that were never wholly +forgotten.--Community of religious yearnings brought together pious +Protestants and pious Catholics. The Princess von Gallitzin, her chaplain +Overberg, and minister Von Fuerstenberg formed a noble group of earnest +Catholics, for whom the ardent Lutheran Hamann entertained the warmest +affection. + +3. _Religious Sects._--In Wuerttemberg there arose out of the pietism of +Spener, with a dash of the theosophy of Oetinger, the party of the +_Michelians_, so named from a layman, Michael Hahn, whose writings show +profound insight into the truths of the gospel. He taught the doctrine of +a double fall, in consequence of which he depreciated though he did not +forbid marriage; of a restitution of all things; while he subordinated +justification to sanctification, the Christ for us to the Christ in us, +etc. As a reaction against this extreme arose the _Pregizerians_, who laid +exclusive stress upon baptism and justification, declared assurance and +heart-breaking penitence unnecessary, and imparted to their services as +much brightness and joy as possible. Both sects spread over Wuerttemberg +and still exist, but in their common opposition to the destructive +tendencies of modern times, they have drawn more closely together. In +their chiliasm and restitutionism they are thoroughly agreed.--The +_Collenbuschians_ in Canton Berg propounded a dogmatic system in which +Christ empties Himself of His divine attributes, and assumes with sinful +flesh the tendencies to sin that had to be fought against, the sufferings +of Christ are attributed to the wrath of Satan, and His redemption +consists in His overcoming Satan's wrath for us and imparting His Spirit +to enable us to do works of holiness. The most distinguished adherents of +Collenbusch were the two Hasencamps and the talented Bremen pastor Menken. + +4. _The Rationalistic _"Illumination"_ outside of Germany._--In Amsterdam, +in A.D. 1791, a _Restored Lutheran Church_ or _Old Light_ was organized on +the occasion of the intrusion of a rationalistic pastor. It now numbers +eight Dutch congregations with 14,000 adherents and 11 pastors. Under the +name of _Christo Sacrum_ some members of the French Reformed church at +Delft, in A.D. 1797, founded a denomination which received adherents of +all confessions, holding by the divinity of Christ and His atonement, and +treating all confessional differences as non-essential and to be held only +as private opinions. In their public services they adopted mainly the +forms of the Anglican episcopal church. Though successful at first, it +soon became rent by the incongruity of its elements. In England the +dissenters and Methodists provided a healthy protest against the +lukewarmness of the State church. In _William Cowper_, A.D. 1731-1800, we +have a noble and brilliant poet of high lyrical genius, whose life was +blasted by the terrorism of a predestinarian doctrine of despair and the +religious melancholy produced by Methodistic agonies of soul. + +5. _Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise._--In order to arouse +interest in the idea of a grand union for practical Christian purposes, +the Augsburg elder, John Urlsperger, travelled through England, Holland, +and Germany. The Basel Society for Spreading Christian Truth, founded in +A.D. 1780, was the first-fruits of his zeal, and branches were soon +established throughout Switzerland and Southern Germany. The Basel Bible +Society was founded in A.D. 1804, and the Missionary Society in A.D. +1816.--At a meeting of English Baptist preachers at Kettering, in +Northamptonshire, in A.D. 1792, William Carey was the means of starting +the Baptist Missionary Society. Carey was himself its first missionary. He +sailed for India in A.D. 1793, and founded the Serampore Mission in +Bengal. The work of the society has now spread over the East and West +Indies, the Malay Archipelago, South Africa, and South America. A popular +preacher, Melville Horne, who had been himself in India, published +"Letters on Missions," in A.D. 1794, in which he earnestly counselled a +union of all true Christians for the conversion of the heathen. In +response to this appeal a large number of Christians of all denominations, +mostly Independents, founded in A.D. 1795, the London Missionary Society, +and in the following year the first missionary ship, _The Duff_, under +Captain Wilson, sailed for the South Seas with twenty-nine missionaries on +board. Its operations now extend to both Indies, South Africa, and North +America; but its chief hold is in the South Seas. In the Society Islands +the missionaries wrought for sixteen years without any apparent result, +till at last King Pomare II. of Tahiti sought baptism as the first-fruits +of their labours. A victory gained over a pagan reactionary party in A.D. +1815 secured complete ascendency to Christianity. The example of the +London Society was followed by the founding of two Scottish societies in +A.D. 1796 and a Dutch society in A.D. 1797, and the Church Missionary +Society in London in A.D. 1799, for the English possessions in Africa, +Asia, etc. The Danish Lutheran (§ 167, 9) and the Herrnhut (§ 168, 11) +societies still continued their operations.(80)--Continuation, §§ 183, 184. + + + + + +FOURTH SECTION. CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + + + +I. General and Introductory. + + + +§ 173. Survey of Religious Movements of Nineteenth Century. + + +A reaction had set in against the atheistic spirit of the French +Revolution, and the victories of A.D. 1813, 1815, encouraged the pious in +their Christian confidence. Princes and people were full of gratitude to +God. Alexander I., Francis I., and Frederick William III., representing +the three principal churches, in A.D. 1815, after the political situation +had been determined by the Congress of Vienna, formed "the Holy Alliance," +a league of brotherly love for mutual defence and maintenance of peace, to +which all the European princes adhered with the exception of the pope, the +sultan, and the king of England. Through Metternich's arts it ultimately +degenerated into an instrument of repression and tyranny.--Incongruous +elements were present everywhere. The restoration of the papacy in A.D. +1814 had given a new impulse to ultramontanism, as did also the +Reformation centenary of A.D. 1817 to Protestantism; while supernaturalism +and pietism prevailing in the Lutheran and Reformed churches led to +renewed attempts at union. Old sects were strengthened and new sects +arose. Pantheism, materialism, and atheism, as well as socialism and +communism, without concealment attacked Christianity; while pauperism and +vagabondage, on the one hand, and the Stock Exchange swindling of +capitalists, on the other, spread moral consumption through all classes of +society. The ultramontanes, led by the Jesuits, reasserted the most +arrogant claims of the papacy. The climax was reached when Pius IX. +obtained a decree of council affirming his infallibility, while by the +Nemesis of history the royal crown was torn from his head. + + + +§ 174. Nineteenth Century Culture in Relation to Christianity and the +Church. + + +Down to A.D. 1840, when zeal for it began to abate, philosophy exercised +an important influence on the religious development of the age, both in +the departments of science and of life. While rationalism was not able to +transcend the standpoint of Kant, the other theological tendencies were +more or less determined formally, and even materially by the philosophical +movements of this period. Alongside of philosophy, literature, itself to a +great extent coloured by contemporary philosophy, exerted a powerful +influence on the religious opinions of the more cultured among the people. +The sciences, too, came into closer relations, partly friendly, partly +hostile, to Christianity; and art in some of its masterpieces paid a noble +tribute to the church. + +1. _The German Philosophy_ (§ 170, 10).--_Fries_, whose philosophy was +Kantian rationalism, modified by elements borrowed from Jacobi, influenced +such theologians as De Wette. _Schelling_, in his "Philosophy of +Identity," had advanced from Fichte's idealism to a pantheistic +naturalism. From Fichte he had learned that this world is nothing without +spirit; but while Fichte recognised this world, the _non-ego_, as reality +only in so far as man seizes upon it and penetrates it by his spirit, and +so raises it into real being, Schelling regards spirit as nothing else +than the life of nature itself. In the lower stages of this nature-life +spirit is still slumbering and dreaming, but in man it has attained unto +consciousness. The nature-life as a whole, or the world-soul, is God; man +is the reflex of God and the world in miniature, a microcosmos. In the +world's development God comes into objective being and unfolds his +self-consciousness; Christianity is the turning point in the world's +history; its fundamental dogmas of revelation, trinity, incarnation, and +redemption are suggestive attempts to solve the world's riddle. +Schelling's poetic view of the world penetrated all the sciences, and gave +to them a new impulse. Though hateful to the old rationalists, this system +found ardent admirers among the younger theologians. As Schelling to +Fichte, so _Hegel_ was attached to Schelling, and wrought his pantheistic +naturalism into a pantheistic spiritualism. Not so much in the life of +nature as in the thinking and doing of the human spirit, the divine +revelation is the unfolding of the divine self-consciousness from +non-being into being. Judaism and Christianity are progressive stages of +this process; Judaism stands far below classic paganism; but in +Christianity we have the perfect religion, to be developed into the +highest form of philosophy. The Protestant church doctrine was now again +accorded the place of honour. Marheincke developed Lutheran orthodoxy into +a system of speculative theology based on Hegelian principles; while +Goeschel infused into it a pietist spirit, which made many hail the new +departure as the long-sought reconciliation of theology and philosophy. +But after Hegel's death in A.D. 1831 the condition of matters suddenly +changed. His school split into an orthodox wing following the master's +ecclesiastical tendencies, and a heterodox wing which deified the human +spirit. Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach led this heterodox party in +theology, and Ruge in reference to social, aesthetic, and political +questions. Persecuted by the state in A.D. 1843, the Young Hegelians +joined the rationalists, whom they had before sneered at as "antediluvian +theologians." _Schelling_, who had been silent for almost thirty years, +took Hegel's chair in Berlin as his decided opponent in A.D. 1841, and +with his dualistic doctrine of potencies, from which he finally advanced +to a Christian gnosticism, obtained a temporary influence among the +younger theologians. He died at the baths of Ragaz in Switzerland in A.D. +1854. He flashed for a moment like a meteor, and as suddenly his light was +quenched. + +2. The domination of the Hegelian philosophy was overthrown by the split +in the school and the radicalism of the adherents of the left wing, and +Schelling in the second stage of his philosophical development had not +succeeded in founding any proper school of his own. A group of younger +philosophers, with I. H. Fichte at their head, starting from the Hegelian +dialectic, have striven to free philosophy from the reproach of pantheism +and to develop a speculative theism in touch with historical Christianity. +Other members of this school are Weisse, Braniss, Chalibaeus, Ulrici, +Wirth, Romang, etc.--_Herbart_ renounces all that philosophers from Fichte +senior to Fichte junior had done, and declares the metaphysical end of +their systems beyond the horizon of philosophy, which must limit itself to +the province of experience. His realism is in diametrical opposition to +Hegel's idealism. Toward Christianity his philosophy occupies a position +of indifference. Influenced by Kant's theory of knowledge as well as by +the Fichte-Schelling-Hegel idealism and Herbart's realism, with an +infusion of Leibnitz's monad doctrine, _Hermann Lotze_ of Goettingen has, +since A.D. 1844, set forth a system of "teleological idealism." He +develops his metaphysical principles from what we have by immediate +experience internal and external, and the invariability of the causal +mechanism in everything that happens in the inner and outer world he +explains as the realizing of moral purposes.--_Schopenhauer's_ philosophy, +which only in the later years of his life (died A.D. 1860) began to +attract attention, is in spirit utterly opposed to the religion and ethics +of Christianity. Its task is to describe "The World as Will and Idea"; +first at that stage of entering into visibility which is represented in +man does will, the thing-in-itself, become joined with idea, and makes its +appearance now with it over against the world as a conscious subject. But +since idea is regarded as a pure illusion of the will, this leads to a +pessimism which takes absolute despair as the only legitimate moral +principle. _E. von Hartmann_ went still further in the same direction in +his "Philosophy of the Unconscious," published in 1869, of which an +English translation in three vols. appeared in 1884. He identifies the +will with matter and idea with spirit, demands in addition to the absolute +despair of the individual here and hereafter, the complete surrender of +the personality to the world-process in order to the attainment of its +end, the annihilation of the world. This dissolution of the world consists +in the complete withdrawal of the will into the absolute as the only +unconscious, so that at last the wrong and misery of being produced by the +irrational will are abolished in this withdrawal. From this philosophical +standpoint Hartmann attempted in A.D. 1874 to take Christianity to pieces, +showing some favour to Vatican Catholicism, but pouring out the vials of +his wrath upon Protestantism. His "religion of the future" consists in a +yearning for freedom from all the burden and misery of being and share in +the world-process by relapsing into the blessedness of non-being.--In +France, England, and America much favour has been shown to the +atheistic-sensual Positivism of _Aug. Comte_, which, excluding every form +of theology and morals, requires only the so-called exact sciences as the +object of philosophy. On his later notions of a "religion of humanity," +see § 210, 1. On essentially similar lines proceeds _Herbert Spencer_, in +his "System of Synthetic Philosophy," to whose school also Darwin +belonged. His followers are styled agnostics, because they regard all +knowledge of God and divine things as absolutely impossible, and +evolutionists, because their master endeavours to construct all the +sciences on the basis of the evolution theory. + +3. _The Sciences._--Schelling's profound theories were of all the more +significance from their not being restricted to the philosophical +strivings of his time, but inspiring the other sciences with the breath of +a new life. To the fullest extent the natural sciences exposed themselves +to this influence. There was not wanting indeed a certain shadowy +mysticism, to which especially the fancies of mesmeric magnetism largely +contributed; but this fog gradually cleared away, and the Christian +elements were purified from their pantheistic surroundings. Steffens and +Von Schubert taught that the divine book of nature is to be regarded as +the reflex and expansion of the divine revelation in Scripture. The +Hegelian philosophy, too, seemed at first likely to infuse a Christian +spirit into the other sciences. In Goeschel, at least, there was a thinker +who imparted to jurisprudence a Christian character, and to Christianity a +juristic construction. In other respects Hegel's philosophy in its +application to the other departments of science gave in many ways a +predominance to an abstruse dialectic tendency. Its adherents of the +extreme left sought to construct all sciences _a priori_ from the pure +idea, and at the same time to root out from them the last vestiges of the +Christian spirit. + +The greatest names in natural science, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Haller, +Davy, Cuvier, etc., are household words in Christian circles. All these +and many more were firmly convinced that there was no conflict between +their most brilliant discoveries and Christian truth. In A.D. 1825 the +Earl of Bridgwater founded a lectureship, and treatises on the power, +wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the creation, have been +written by Buckland, Chalmers, Whewell, Bell, etc. It was otherwise in +Germany. Even Schleiermacher, in his "Letters to Luecke," in A.D. 1829, +expressed his fears of the prophesied overthrow of all Christian theories +of the world by the incontrovertible results of physical research, and +Bretschneider in his "Letters to a Statesman," in A.D. 1830, proclaimed to +the world without regret that already what Schleiermacher only feared had +actually come to pass. Physicists, awakening from the glamour of the +Schelling nature philosophy, pronounced all speculation contraband, and +declared pure empiricism, the simple investigation of actual things, the +only permissible object of their labour. And although they handed over to +theologians and philosophers questions about spirit in and over nature, as +not belonging to their province, a younger generation maintained that +spirit was non-existent, because it could not be discovered by the +microscope and dissecting knife. Carl Vogt defined thought to be a +secretion of the brain, and Moleschott regarded life as a mere mode of +matter and man's existence after life only as the manuring of the fields. +Feuerbach proclaimed that "man is what he eats," and Buchner popularized +these views into a gospel for social democrats and nihilists. Oersted, the +famous discoverer of electro-magnetism, had sought "the spirit in nature," +but the spirit which he found was not that of the Bible and the church. +The grandmaster of German scientific research, Alex. von Humboldt, saw in +the world a cosmos of noble harmony as a whole and in its parts, but of +Christian ideas in God's great book of nature he finds no trace. In A.D. +1859 the great English naturalist Darwin, died A.D. 1882, introduced into +the arena the theory of "Natural Selection," by means of which the +modification and development of the few primary animal forms through the +struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest by sexual selection +is supposed, in millions, perhaps milliards, of years, to have brought +forth the present variety and manifoldness of animal species. Multitudes +of naturalists now accept his theory of the descent of men and apes from a +common stem.--In _Medicine_ De Valenti on the Protestant side, with +pietistic earnestness, maintains that Christian faith is a vehicle of +healing power; while a circle in Munich on the Catholic side make worship +of saints and the host a _conditio sine qua non_ of all medicine. A more +moderate attitude is assumed by the Roman Catholic Dr. Capellmann of +Aachen, in his "Pastoral Medicine." + +4. Of Christian _Jurists_ we have, on the Protestant side, Stahl, Savigny, +Puchta, Jacobson, Richter, Meier, Scheuerl, Hinschius, etc.; and on the +Catholic side, Walther, Philipps, etc. Among _Historians_, the greatest in +modern times is Leopold von Ranke, who, with his disciples, occupies a +thoroughly Christian standpoint. There has appeared, however, on the part +of many Protestant historians, such as Voigt, Leo, Mentzel, Vorreiter, +Hurter, Gfroerer, etc., a tendency in the most conspicuous manner to +recognise and admire the brilliant phenomena of mediaeval Catholicism, even +going to the length of renouncing the vital principles of Protestantism, +and glorifying a Boniface, a Gregory VII., and an Innocent III., and +characterizing the Reformation as a revolution. Ultramontanes have been +only too ready to turn to their own use all such concessions, but show no +inclination to make similar admissions damaging to their side, so that +with them history consists rather in the abuse of everything Protestant as +vile and perfidious, instead of being a record of independent research. +Janssen of Frankfort stands out prominently above the billows of the +"_Kulturkampf_" (§ 197), as the greatest master of this ultramontane style +of history making.--_Geography_, first raised to the rank of a science by +Carl Ritter, received from its great founder a Christian impress and owes +much of its development to the researches of Christian missionaries. +Finally, _Philology_, in the hands of Creuzer, Goerres, Sepp, etc., unfolds +in a Christian spirit the religion and mythology of classical paganism; +and in the hands of Naegelsbach and Luebker expounds the religious life of +the ancient world in relation to Christian truth. + +5. _National Literature_ (§ 171, 11).--To some extent Goethe, but much more +decidedly the romantic school of poets, was attached to Schelling's +philosophy of nature. The romanticists developed a deep religiousness of +feeling, as shown in Novalis and La Motte Fouque, and violent opposition +to rationalistic theology as shown in Tieck, which in the case of Fr. +Schlegel ran to the other extreme of moral frivolity as seen in his +"Lucinde." The romantic school as thus represented by Schlegel was joined +by the party of Young Germany with its gospel of the rehabilitation of the +flesh. Its mouthpiece was the gifted poet Heine. The pantheistic +deification of nature by Schelling, and the self-deification of the +Hegelian school obtained poetic expression in Leop. Schafer's +_Laienbrevier und Weltpriester_, as well as in Sallet's _Laienevangelium_; +while the sympathies of the young Hegelians with the revolutionary +movements gained utterance in the poems of Herwegh, and in a more serious +tone in those of Freiligrath. More recently the views of the +_Protestantenverein_ (§ 180) have found their poetical representative in +Nic. Eichhorn, whose "Jesus of Nazareth," a tragical drama, 1880, deals +with the life, works, and sufferings of the "historical Christ," after the +style of free Protestant science, with rich psychological analysis of the +character in a brilliant imaginative production. Though composed with a +view to theatrical representation, it has never yet been put on the stage. + +6. The Christian element was present in the noble patriotic songs of E. M. +Arndt(81) and Max. von Schenkendorf much more distinctly than in the +romantic school. Enthusiasm in the struggle for freedom awakened faith in +the living God. Uhland's lovely lyrics, with their enthusiasm for the +present interests of the Fatherland, entitle him to rank among patriotic +poets, and their brilliant and profound rendering of the old German +legends places him in the romantic school, which, however, in clearness +and depth he leaves far behind. Without being a distinctively Christian +poet, his warm sympathy with the life of the German people gives him a +genuine interest in the Christian religion. The same may be said of +Rueckert's highly finished poems, which transplanted the fragrant flowers +of oriental sensuousness and contemplativeness into the garden of German +poetry. A more decided Christian consecration of poetic genius is seen in +the noble and beautiful lyrics of Emanuel Geibel, died 1884, the greatest +and most Christian of the secular poets of the present. Of those +ordinarily ranked as sacred poets may be named Knapp, Doering, Spitta, +Garve, Vict. Strauss, etc., who for the most part contributed their sacred +songs to Knapp's "_Christoterpe_" (1833-1853). A later publication of +equal merit, called the "_Neue Christoterpe_," has been edited since 1880 +by Koegel, Baur, and Frommel. But with all the Christian depth and +spirituality, freshness and warmth, which we meet with in the productions +of these Christian poets, none of them has been able to rise to the noble +simplicity, power, popular force, and fitting them for church use, +objectivity which are present in the old evangelical church hymns. In this +respect they all bear too conspicuously the signature of their age, with +its subjective tone and the noise and turmoil of present conflicts. Of all +modern poets, Rueckert alone approaches in his advent hymn the measure and +spirit of the old church song.--In the department of novels and romance +there has been shown an almost invariable hostility toward Christianity, +religion being either entirely avoided or held up to contempt by having as +its representatives, simpletons, hypocrites, or knaves. + +7. In _France_, Chateaubriand in his "_Genie du Christianisme_" pronounces +an eloquent eulogy on the half-pagan Christianity of the Middle Ages. In +another work he makes the representatives of heathenism in the age of +Constantine act like Homeric heroes, and those of Christianity speak "like +theologians of the age of Bossuet." Lamartine may be described as a +Christian romanticist. Victor Hugo, Balzac, George Sand, Sue, Dumas, etc., +influenced by the Revolution, developed an antichristian tendency; while +naked naturalism, photographic realism in depicting the lowest side of +Parisian life, especially adultery and prostitution, is represented by +Flaubert, Daudet, De Goncourt, Zola, etc.--In _Italy_, the amiable Manzoni +gave noble expression to Christian feeling in his "_Inni Sacri_," and in +his masterly romance "_Promessi Sposi_"; and the famous poet Silvio +Pellico, in his "_La mia Prigioni_," affords a noble example of the +sustaining power of true religion during ten years' rigorous imprisonment +in an Austrian dungeon. The most gifted of modern Italian poets, Giacomo +Leopardi, sank into despairing pessimism, which expressed itself in the +domain of religion in biting satire and savage irony. Among the poets of +the present who, with glowing patriotism, not only yearned for the +deliverance and unity of Italy, but also lived to see these accomplished, +and have since given expression, though from different political and +religious standpoints, to the desire for the reconciliation of the free +united kingdom with the irreconcilable church, the most distinguished, are +Aleardi, Carducci, Imbriani, Guercini, Cavalotti.--In _Spain_, Caecilia +Boehl von Faber, although the daughter of a German father, and educated in +Germany, introduced, under the name Fernan Caballero, the modern romance +in a thoroughly national Spanish style, and in a purely moral and catholic +Christian spirit. In the _Flemish Provinces_, Hendrik Conscience, the able +novelist, has described Flemish village life in a spirit fully in sympathy +with Christianity.--_England_ had in Lord Byron a poet of the first rank, +who more than any other poet had experience in himself of the convulsions +and contradictions of his age. In powerful and impressive tones he sets +forth the unreconciled disharmonies of nature and of human life. Incurable +pain, despair, weariness of life, and hatred of mankind, without hope, yet +without desire for reconciliation, enthusiastic admiration of the ancient +world, passionate love of liberty and titanic pride in human might mingle +with scenes of grumbling, misery, and profligacy. On the other hand, the +rich and mostly solid English novel literature is prevailingly inspired by +a Christian spirit. + +8. _Popular Education._--While the poetic national literature for the most +part found entrance only among the cultured and adult circles, this age, +almost as fond of writing as of reading, produced an enormous quantity of +books for the people and for children. But only a few succeeded in +catching the proper tone for the masses and the youth, and still fewer +supplied their readers with what was genuinely pious. Pestalozzi's +"_Lienhard und Gertrud_," Hebel's "_Schatzkaestlein_," and Tschokke's +"_Goldmacherdorf_," respected at least the Christian feeling of the +people, although they did not strengthen or foster it. But, on the other +hand, in recent years a number of writers have appeared, thoroughly +popular, and at the same time thoroughly Christian, who, as popular poets +and novelists, have become apostles of Christian views, morals, and +customs to the people. The most distinguished of these are Jeremiah +Gotthelf (Albert Bitzius, died 1854), whose "Kate the Grandmother" was +translated in the _Sunday Magazine_ for 1865, Von Horn, Carl Stoeber, +Wildenhahn, Nathusius, Frommel, Weitbrecht, etc. In the Catholic church +Albanus Stoltz, died 1883, developed a wonderful power of popular +composition, which, however, he subsequently put at the service of a +fanatical ultramontanism, and so sacrificed much of its nobility and +worth. From the enormous mass of children's books only extremely few +attain their aim. In the front rank stands the brilliant patriarch of +Christian tale writing, Von Schubert, died 1860. After him are Barth, the +author of "Poor Henry," Stoeber, and the Swiss Spyri, and the Catholic +Christian Schmid, author of the "Easter Eggs."--The _Public Schools_, +especially under Dinter (died 1831), member of the consistory and +schoolboard of Koenigsberg, were for a long time nurseries of the tame, +flat, and self-satisfied rationalism of the _ancien regime_; but since +1830, and more particularly in consequence of the violent agitations of +the seminary director Diesterweg, who died in 1866, put to silence in +1847, but still for his work in connexion with education always highly +respected, many of the teachers took a higher flight in the +naturalistic-democratic direction. By word and pen Diesterweg carried on a +propaganda in favour of a free and liberal education for the people. His +disciples, wanting his earnest Christian spirit, carried out recklessly +his radical tendencies, and now the Christian faith has no more persistent +foes than the teachers of the public schools. In A.D. 1870, a Teachers' +Association in Vienna gave a vote of 6,000 in favour of radicalism. At a +Hamburg meeting in A.D. 1872 of 5,100 teachers, progress was shown by +individuals raising their voices in defence of Christianity, which, +however, were generally drowned in shrieks and hisses. A Teachers' +Evangelical Association held its ninth assembly at Hamburg in A.D. 1881 +with 1,500 members. Christian opinions are now ably represented in +schools, educational journals, and literature. A burning question at +present is whether the national school should be preferred to the +denominational school. Liberals in church and state say it should; +conservatives say it should not; while both parties think their views +supported by the experience of the past. The Prussian minister of +education, Falk, A.D. 1872-1879, firmly insisted upon the development of +the national system, but his successors Von Puttkamer and Von Gossler +reverted to the denominational system. The German Evangelical School +Congress of Hamburg in October, 1882, demanded that both elementary and +secondary schools should have a confessional character. + +9. _Art._--The intellectual quickening called forth with the opening of the +new century imparted new spirit and life to the cultivation of the arts. +Winckelmann, died A.D. 1768, had opened the way to an understanding of +pagan classical art, and romanticism awakened appreciation of and +enthusiasm for mediaeval Christian art. The greatest masters of +_Architecture_ were Schinckel, Klenze, and Heideloff. The foundation stone +of the final part of the Cologne cathedral was laid by a Protestant king, +Frederick William IV., in A.D. 1842, and the work was finished by a +Protestant builder in A.D. 1880. _Statuary_ had three great masters, who +gave expression to profound Christian ideas in bronze and marble, the +Italian Canova, the German Dannecker, and greatest of all, the Dane +Thorwaldsen, whose Christ and the Apostles and other works form a main +attraction to visitors in Copenhagen. Three younger German masters of the +art, who have heired their fame, are Rauch, Rietschl, and Drake.--In +_Painting_ too a new era now began. A group of gay German artists in Rome, +with Overbeck at their head, formed a Society in A.D. 1813, and mostly +became perverts to Romanism. Peter Cornelius, the ablest of the school, +himself born a Catholic, answered his friends' request to place Luther in +a picture of the last judgment, in hell: "Yes, but with the Bible in his +hands and the devils trembling before him;" and in a subsequent picture of +the judgment, he gave the German reformer his place among the saints in +heaven. His pupil, Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld is well known by his +"_Bibel in Bildern_." Ludwig Richter, the Albert Duerer of the nineteenth +century and creator of the modern woodcut, has filled German houses with +his artistic and poetic creations, which breathe of God, nature, and the +family fireside. The Frenchman, Gustave Dore of Strassburg, has also +illustrated the Bible in a manner worthy of ranking alongside of Schnorr, +though a characteristically French striving for effect is everywhere +discernible.--_Painted Glass_ (§ 104, 14) for church windows had during the +eighteenth century passed almost wholly out of use, but again in the +nineteenth came into favour, and was made at Dresden, Nuremberg, and +Munich. The most eminent artist in this department was Ainmiller of +Munich, specimens of whose workmanship are to be seen in all parts of the +world. + +10. _Music and the Drama._--In Vienna the three great masters of musical +composition, Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, produced in the department of +sacred music some of their noblest works. Mendelssohn, in his St. Paul and +Elijah and in his Psalms, sought to reproduce the power and truth of the +simple word of God. An early death prevented him giving expression to his +ideal of Christ in music. The Hungarian virtuoso Liszt sacrifices sacred +calmness and dignity to theatrical effect. His son-in-law, Richard Wagner, +inspired by Schopenhauer's philosophy, a richly endowed poet and composer, +proclaimed by his followers as the Messiah of the music of the future, +going back to mediaeval legend, has produced a _quasi_-Christian musical +drama, in which the gospel of pessimism takes the place of the gospel of +the grace of God.--Quite different is the Passion Play of the Bavarian +village Oberammergau, which is a reproduction of the mediaeval mysteries (§ +115, 12). It originated in a vow made in 1633 on the occasion of a plague +which visited the place, and is repeated every ten years on the Sundays +from the end of May to the middle of September. The history of the +Saviour's passion is here represented with interludes from Messianic Old +Testament passages explained by a chorus like that of the classical +tragedy, with appropriate scenery, drapery, and musical accompaniment. In +the presence of an immense concourse of strangers for whose accommodation +a large amphitheatre was been built, almost all the villagers, men, women, +and children, take part in the performance and show rare artistic power. +The text of the drama for the most part agrees with the gospel narrative, +only occasionally interspersed with legend, and quite free from +ultramontane hagiology and mariolatry. The performance of A.D. 1850, and +still more that of A.D. 1880, attracted crowds of pilgrims and tourists to +the quiet and remote valley. An independent exhibition, falling little +behind the original in the artistic character of its composition and +production, was given, in 1883, on the Sundays of July and August in the +Tyrolese village of Brixlegg, and was visited by similar crowds. + + + +§ 175. Intercourse and Negotiations between the Churches. + + +Protestants could recognise, as Catholics could not, elements of truth and +beauty in the creeds of their opponents. When a peaceful and conciliatory +spirit was shown by individual Catholic clergymen, it was the occasion of +suspicion and persecution on the part of the old Romish party. Schemes of +union were entertained by the Old Catholics (§ 190), and negotiations were +entered on by the Greek Orthodox church, on the one hand, and the Roman +Catholic and Anglican churches, on the other, but in both cases without +any practical result. On the union negotiations between the different +Protestant sects, see § 178; and on the Prusso-Anglican bishopric of +Jerusalem, see § 184, 8. Of the numerous conversions from Protestantism to +Catholicism and from Catholicism to Protestantism, we can here mention +only such as have excited public interest in some special way. + +1. _Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants._--Not only in England, where +an important high-church party embraced a more than half-Catholic Puseyism +(§ 202, 2), but even in Protestant Germany a Romanizing current set in on +many sides. A taste for the romantic, artistic, historical (§ 174, 5, 9, +4), as well as feudalist-aristocratic and hyper-Lutheran ecclesiastical +tendencies led the way in this direction. Many sought rest in the bosom of +the church "where alone salvation is found," while others, too deeply +rooted in evangelical truth, bewailed the loss of "noble and venerable" +institutions in the worship, life, and constitution of the church, but +were unable to accept the various unevangelical accretions which made void +the doctrine of justification by faith alone. This was the position of +Loehe of Neuendettelsau, in point of doctrine a strict Lutheran, who +published a selection of Catholic legends as patterns of self-denial for +his deaconesses, wished to restore anointing of the sick, etc. Some +Protestant pastors expressed warm sympathy with the Pope during his +misfortunes in A.D. 1860, and approved of the continuance of the papacy +and the pope's temporal dominion. A conference of Catholics (Count +Stolberg, Dr. Michelis, etc.) and Protestants (Leo, Bindewald, etc.) at +Erfurt in A.D. 1860, on the basis of a common recognition of the moral +advantages of the papacy, sought to bring about a union of the churches. +Still more remarkable is the story told by the Old Catholic professor +Friedrich. Just before the opening of the Vatican Council, certain +evangelical pastors of Saxony wrote letters to Bishop Martin of Paderborn, +which Friedrich himself read, urging that at the council permission should +be given to priests to marry and to give the cup in the communion to the +laity, and promising that in that case they themselves and many +like-minded pastors would join the Romish church. That the letters were +written and received is unquestionable; but it is doubtful whether folly +and imbecility or a wish to hoax and mystify, directed the pen. The writer +or writers, as the examination before the consistory of the locality +proved, are not to be sought among the pastors whose names are appended. +How far the Protestant ultra-conservative reactionary party goes with the +ultramontanes and how far it would aid the overthrow and undermining of +the Protestant state and evangelical church, is shown by the conduct of +the Privy Councillor and Chief Justice Ludwig von Gerlach (§ 176, 1), who, +in 1872, in the Prussian House of Representatives, took his place among +the ultramontane party of the centre, hostile to the empire and friendly +to the Poles, and in his pamphlet "_Kaiser und Papst_" of 1872 described +the new German empire as an incarnate antichrist. Also the Lutheran +Guelphs of Hanover are zealous supporters of all the demands of the centre +in the Prussian parliament and in the German Reichstag. + +2. _The Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism._--Every Catholic +bishop has still on assuming office to take the oath, _Haereticos pro posse +persequar_. The Jesuits, restored in A.D. 1814, soon pervaded every +section with their intolerant spirit. The huge lie that Protestantism is +in matters of State as well as of church essentially revolutionary, while +Catholicism is the bulwark of the State against revolution and democracy, +was affirmed with such audacity that even Protestant statesmen believed +it. The Roman Jesuit Perrone (§ 191, 9) taught the Catholic youth in a +controversial Italian catechism that "they should feel a creeping horror +come over them at the mere mention of the word Protestantism, more even +than when a murderous attack was made upon them, for Protestantism and its +defenders are in the religious and moral world just the same as the plague +and plague-stricken are in the physical world, and in all lands +Protestants are the scum of all that is vile and immoral," etc. In a +pastoral of A.D. 1855, Von Ketteler, Bishop of Mainz, compared the +Germans, who by the Reformation rent the unity of the church, to the Jews +who crucified the Messiah. Romish prelates have vied with one another in +their abuse of Protestants and Protestantism. In A.D. 1881, Leo XIII. +speaking of the spread of Russian nihilism, charged Protestant +missionaries with spreading the dominion of the prince of darkness. Prof. +Hohoff of Paderborn, in his "Hist. Studies on Protestantism and +Socialism," Paderb., 1881, reiterated the accusation: "Yes, it is so, +Protestantism has begotten atheism, materialism, scepticism, nihilism. The +Reformation was the murderer of all science, the greatest foe of culture +and learning, and the falsifier of all history.... Melanchthon's _Loci_ +may be styled the most unscientific production in the domain of +dogmatics.... Yes, the Reformation has proved a prime source of +superstition, a step backward in the history of civilization.... The +Catholic church has been the champion of conscience, reason, and +freedom.... No one is thoroughly capable of judging historical facts +without prejudice as the believing Catholic Christian."--But while the vast +majority of Catholic writers thus abuse Protestantism, others like +Seltmann of Eberswald seek to win over to the ranks of the Romish church +those who can be befooled by fair speeches. The "Protestant" +correspondents in Seltmann's periodical write under the cloak of +anonymity.--In Spain the Reformation was long attributed to the +Augustinians, who were jealous of the Dominicans as the only dispensers of +indulgences, and to Luther's desire to marry; but the poet Nunez de Arca +in his "_Vision de Fray Martin_," attributed it to the corruption of the +church and papacy of its time, and regarded with sympathy the spiritual +struggles of the reformer. Though as a good Catholic he concludes his poem +with the ban of the church against Luther, he yet describes him as a just +and well-deserving man. + +3. _Romish Controversy._--In the beginning of A.D. 1872 the Waldensian +Professor Sciarelli published as a challenge the thesis that the Apostle +Peter never set foot in Rome, and Pius IX. with childlike simplicity gave +his consent to a public disputation, which came off at Rome on 9th and +10th February. Three Protestant champions, with Sciarelli at their head, +were confronted by three Catholics, headed by Fabiani, before 125 auditors +admitted by ticket. Both sides claimed the victory; but the shorthand +reports were more widely read through Italy than could be agreeable to the +papal court. + +4. _Roman Catholic Union Schemes._--While American Protestant missionaries +strove zealously for the conversion of the schismatical Eastern Churches, +Rome with equal diligence but little success endeavoured to win over these +and the orthodox Greeks to her own communion. There was great joy over the +conversion of the _Bulgarians_ to Romanism in A.D. 1860. Taking advantage +of a national movement for the restoration of a patriarchate independent +of Constantinople (§ 207, 3), some French Jesuits succeeded in persuading +a small number of malcontents to agree to a union with Rome. In 1861 the +pope consecrated an old Bulgarian priest, Jos. Sokolski, archbishop of the +united Bulgarian church. Very soon, however, he and almost all his +followers returned to their allegiance to the Greek Orthodox church. Leo +XIII. in his _encyclical_ of A.D. 1880, by giving conspicuous honour to +Cyril and Methodius, and uttering kind sentiments about the Christian +church in the East, and conferring high rank on dignitaries of the Eastern +church, seeks to smooth the way for a union of the two great churches. + +5. _Greek Orthodox Union Schemes._--In A.D. 1867 the Archbishop of +Canterbury addressed a letter to the Patriarch of Constantinople and the +whole Eastern church, to open the way to a common understanding and union +of the churches, sending a modern Greek translation of the Book of Common +Prayer, and asking their assistance at the consecration of an Anglican +church at Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius granted this request, +and answered the letter in a friendly manner, passing over the Anglican's +warnings against superstitious additions to the doctrine, _e.g._ +mariolatry, but characterizing all the contrary doctrines of the +Thirty-nine Articles as "very modern." At the same time vigorous measures +were being taken with a similar object by members of the Russian and of +the Anglican churches. In 1870 Professor Overbeck of Halle undertook to +act as intermediary in these negotiations. He had in 1865 published, in +answer to the papal encyclical with syllabus of December 8th, 1864 (§ 185, +2), a tract with the motto _Ex oriente lux_, in which he placed the claims +of the Orthodox eastern church before the Roman Catholic as well as +Protestant. On the opening of the Vatican Council in 1869 he advocated in +a pamphlet the breaking up of the papal church and the formation of +Catholic national churches. In North America Professor Bjerring, of the +Catholic seminary for priests at Baltimore, took the same position. In +March, 1871, he went to St. Petersburg, was there ordained as an Orthodox +priest, and on his return to New York instituted a Sunday service in the +English language according to the Greek rite. Of any further advance in +this direction of union nothing is known. + +6. _Old Catholic Union Schemes._--Doellinger (§ 191, 5) in A.D. 1871 was +hopeful of a union not only with the Greek, but also with the Anglican +church, and similar hopes were entertained in England and Russia, and +distinguished representatives of both communions took part in the Old +Catholic congresses (§ 190, 1). On the invitation of Doellinger, as +president of the committee commissioned by the Freiburg Congress of A.D. +1874 to treat about union with the Anglican church, forty friends of union +from Germany, England, Denmark, France, Russia, Greece, and America met in +conference at Bonn. After a lively debate the cleft between East and West +was bridged over by a compromise treating the _filioque_ as an unnecessary +addition to the Nicene symbol, and asserting that, however desirable a +mutual understanding on doctrinal questions might be, existing differences +in constitution, discipline, and worship presented no bar to union. The +Catholics presented the Anglicans with fourteen theses essential to union, +in which the anti-Protestant doctrines were for the most part toned down, +but transubstantiation distinctly asserted. Subsequent conferences never +got beyond these preliminaries. It was, however, agreed that, in case of +necessity, Anglicans and Old Catholics might dispense the supper to one +another. + +7. _Conversions._--The most famous converts of the century were Hurter, the +biographer of Innocent III., the Countess Ida von Hahn-Hahn, writer of +religious romances, Gfroerer, the church historian, the radical Hegelian +Daumer, the historian of ante-tridentine theology Hugo Laemmer, and Dr. Ed. +Preuss, who had written against the immaculate conception and for criminal +conduct had to flee the country. In A.D. 1844 Carl Haas, a Protestant +pastor, went over to the Romish church, but the two new dogmas of Pius IX. +led him to study the works of Luther. He now returned to the Lutheran +church, vindicating his procedure in a treatise entitled, "To Rome, and +from Rome back again to Wittenberg, 1881." Also the Mecklenburg Lutheran +pastor, Dr. A. Hager, who, after his conversion, had undertaken the +editorship of an ultramontane newspaper in Breslau in 1873, was obliged in +a few years to resign the appointment. His return to the evangelical +church was being talked about, when he suddenly died in 1883, after having +received the last sacrament in the Catholic church. The climax of abuse of +Luther and the Lutheran church was reached by the Hanoverian Evers, who +had gone over in 1880; in all his scandalous and vituperative writings he +describes himself on the title page as "formerly Lutheran pastor." His +mud-throwing, however, was carried so far, that even the ultramontane +_Koeln. Volkszeitung_ was constrained to advise him to write more decently. + +8. The Mortara affair of A.D. 1858 attracted special attention. The +eight-year old son of the Jew Mortara of Bologna was violently taken from +his parents to Rome because his Christian nurse said that two years +before, during a dangerous illness, she had baptized him. The church +answered the entreaties of the parents and the universal outcry by saying +that the sacrament had an indelible character, and that the pope could not +change the law. Again in A.D. 1864, the ten-year old Jewish boy, Joseph +Coen, apprentice weaver in Rome, was decoyed by a priest to his cloister +and there persuaded to receive baptism. In vain his mother, the Jewish +community, and even the French ambassador, urged his restoration; and +when, in A.D. 1870, the temporal power of the pope was overthrown, the +lad, now sixteen years old, had himself become such a fanatical Catholic +that he refused to have anything to do with his mother as an unbeliever. + +9. In the Tyrol in A.D. 1830 there were numerous conversions from +Catholicism to Protestantism (§ 198, 1). A Catholic priest in Baden, +Henhoefer of Muehlhausen, influenced by the writings of Sailer and Boos, +went over to the Lutheran church in A.D. 1823, and continued down to his +death in A.D. 1862 a vigorous opponent of the prevailing rationalism. +Count Leopold von Seldnitzsky, formerly Prince-Bishop of Breslau, felt +obliged in 1840, in consequence of the conscientious objections he had to +perform his official duties toward church and state during the +ecclesiastico-political controversies of 1830 (§ 193, 1), to resign his +appointments. He was subsequently led in A.D. 1863, through reading the +Scriptures and Luther's works, after a sore struggle, to join the +evangelical Church. He devoted all his means to the founding of Protestant +educational institutions at Berlin and Breslau. He died in A.D. 1871, in +his eighty-fourth year. The proclamation by the Vatican of the dogma of +infallibility drove many pious and earnest Catholics out of the Romish +communion. Of these Carl von Richthofen, Canon of Breslau, engages our +special interest. Son of a pious Lutheran mother, and trained up under +Gossner's mild spiritual direction (§ 187, 2), his gentle and deeply +religious nature had attached itself to the Roman Catholic church of his +father only under the illusion that the Romish doctrine of justification +was not wholly irreconcilable with the evangelical doctrine. He at first +submitted to but soon renounced the Vatican decree; was excommunicated by +Archbishop Foerster, voluntarily resigned his emoluments; joined the Old +Catholics in A.D. 1873, and the separated Old Lutherans in A.D. 1875. In +the following year he died a painful death from the explosion of a +petroleum lamp.--Upon the whole Rome has made most converts in America and +England; and she has suffered losses more or less severe in France, +Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Bohemia. + +10. _The Luther Centenary, _A.D._ 1883._--The celebration of Luther's birth +was carried out with great enthusiasm throughout all Germany, more than a +thousand tracts on Luther and the Reformation were published, statues were +erected, special services were held in all Lutheran churches, high +schools, and universities, and brilliant demonstrations were made at Jena, +Worms, Wittenberg, and Eisleben. There were founded at Kiel a +Luther-house, at Worms and at the Wartburg Luther libraries, in Leipzig +and Berlin Luther churches. At Eisleben a bronze statue of the reformer +was solemnly unveiled representing his tearing the papal bull with his +right hand and pressing the Bible to his heart with his left. Another +noble monument was raised by the munificence of the emperor by the issuing +during this year of the first volume of pastor Knaake's critical edition +of Luther's works. A "German Luther Institute" aims at assisting children +of the poorer clergy and teachers, and a "Reformation History Society" has +undertaken the task of issuing popular tracts on the persons, events and +principles of that and the succeeding period based upon original +documents. Protestants of all lands, with the exception of the English +high-church party, contributed liberally; the Americans had a copy of the +great Luther statue of the Worms monument (§ 178, 1) made and erected in +Washington. Even in Italy the liberal press eulogised Luther, while the +ultramontanes loaded his memory with unmeasured calumny and reproach. The +threatened counter-demonstrations of German ultramontanes fell quite flat +and harmless. The _Zwingli Centenary_ of January 1st, A.D. 1884, was +celebrated with enthusiasm throughout the Reformed church, especially in +Switzerland. On the other hand, the celebration of the five-hundredth +anniversary of Wiclif's death on December 31st, 1884, created +comparatively little interest. + + + + +II. Protestantism in General.(82) + + + +§ 176. Rationalism and Pietism + + +At the beginning of the century rationalism was generally prevalent, but +philosophy and literature soon weakened its foundations, and the war of +independence moved the hearts of the people toward the faith of their +fathers. Pietism entered the lists against rationalism, and the Halle +controversy of A.D. 1830 marked the crisis of the struggle. The +rationalists were compelled to make appeal to the people by popular +agitators. During A.D. 1840 they managed to found several "free churches," +which, however, had for the most part but a short and unprosperous +existence. They were more successful in A.D. 1860 with the +_Protestantenverein_ as the instrument of their propaganda (§ 180). + +1. The old _Rationalism_ was attacked by the disciples of Hegel and +Schelling, and in A.D. 1834 Roehr of Weimar found Hase of Jena as keen an +opponent as any pietist or orthodox controversialist. That recognised +leader of the old rationalists had coolly attempted to substitute a new +and rational form of doctrine, worship, and constitution for the +antiquated formularies of the Reformation, and drew down upon himself the +rebuke even of those who sympathized with him in his doctrinal views.--In +A.D. 1817 Claus Harms of Kiel, on the occasion of the Reformation +centenary, opened an attack upon those who had fallen away from the faith +of their fathers, by the publication of ninety-five new theses, recalling +attention to Luther's almost forgotten doctrines. In A.D. 1827 Aug. Hahn +in an academical discussion at Leipzig maintained that the rationalists +should be expelled from the church, and Hengstenberg started his +_Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_. The jurist Von Gerlach in A.D. 1830 charged +Gesenius and Wegscheider of Halle with open contempt of Christian truth, +and called for State interference. In all parts of Germany, amid the +opposition of scientific theologians and the scorn of philosophers, +pietism made way against rationalism, so that even men of culture regarded +it as a reproach to be reckoned among the rationalists. Unbelief, however, +was widespread among the masses. When Sintenis, preacher in Magdeburg in +A.D. 1840, declared the worship of Christ superstitious, and was +reprimanded by the consistory, his neighbours, the pastors Uhlich and +Koenig, founded the society of the "Friends of Light," whose assembly at +Koethen then was attended by thousands of clergymen and laymen. In one of +these assemblies in A.D. 1844, Wislicenus of Halle, by starting the +question, Whether the Scriptures or the reason is to be regarded as the +standard of faith? shattered the illusion that rationalism still occupied +the platform of the church and Scripture. The left wing of the school of +Schleiermacher took offence at the severe measures demanded by +Hengstenberg and his party, and in 1846 issued in Berlin a manifesto with +eighty-eight signatures against the paper pope of antiquated Reformation +confessions and the inquisitorial proceedings of the _Kirchenzeitung_ +party, as inimical to all liberty of faith and conscience, wishing only to +maintain firm hold of the truth that Jesus Christ is yesterday, to-day, +and for ever the one and only ground of salvation. The Friends of Light, +combining with the German Catholics and the Young Hegelians, founded Free +churches at Halle, Koenigsberg, and many other places. Their services and +sermons void of religion, in which the Bible, the living Christ, and +latterly even the personal God, had no place, but only the naked worship +of humanity, had temporary vitality imparted them by the revolutionary +movements of A.D. 1848. This gave the State an excuse, long wished for, to +interfere, and soon scarcely a trace of their churches was to be found. + +2. _Pietism_ had not been wholly driven out of the evangelical church +during the period of ecclesiastical impoverishment, but, purified from +many eccentric excesses, and seeking refuge and support for the most part +by attaching itself to the community of the Moravian Brethren, it had, +even in Wuerttemberg, established itself independently and in an +essentially theosophical-chiliastic spirit. There too a kind of +spiritualism was introduced by the physician and poet Justin Kerner of +Weinsberg, and the philosopher Eschenmayer of Tuebingen, with spirit +revelations from above and below. Amid the religious movements of the +beginning of the century Pietism gained a decided advantage. It took the +form of a protest against the rationalism prevailing among the clergy. The +earnest and devout sought spiritual nourishment at conventicles and +so-called _Stunden_ addressed by laymen, mostly of the working class, well +acquainted with Scripture and works in practical divinity. Persecuted by +the irreligious mob, the rationalist clergy, and sometimes by the +authorities, they by-and-by secured representatives among the younger +clergy and in the university chairs, and carried on vigorous missions at +home and abroad. This pietism was distinctly evangelical and Protestant. +It did not oppose but endeavoured simply to restore the orthodoxy of the +church confession. Yet it had many of the characteristics of the earlier +pietism: over-estimation of the invisible to the disparagement of the +visible church, of sanctification over justification, a tendency to +chiliasm, etc.--Of no less importance in awakening the religious life +throughout Germany, and especially in Switzerland, was the missionary +activity of Madame de Kruedener of Riga. This lady, after many years of a +gay life, forsook the world, and began in A.D. 1814 her travels through +Europe, preaching repentance, proclaiming the gospel message in the +prisons, the foolishness of the cross to the wise of this world, and to +kings and princes the majesty of Christ as King of kings. Wherever she +went she made careless sinners tremble, and drew around her crowds of the +anxious and spiritually burdened of every sort and station. Honoured by +some as a saint, prophetess, and wonder-worker, ridiculed by others as a +fool, persecuted as a dangerous fanatic or deceiver, driven from one +country to another, she died in the Crimea in A.D. 1824.(83) + +3. _The Koenigsberg Religious Movement, _A.D._ 1835-1842._--The pious +theosophist, J. H. Schoenherr of Koenigsberg, starting from the two +primitive substances, fire and water, developed a system of theosophy in +which he solved the riddles of the theogony and cosmogony, of sin and +redemption, and harmonized revelation with the results of natural science. +At first influenced by these views, but from A.D. 1819 expressly +dissenting from them, J. W. Ebel, pastor in the same city, gathered round +him a group of earnest Christian men and women, Counts Kanitz and +Finkenstein and their wives, Von Tippelskirch, afterwards preacher to the +embassy at Rome, the theological professor H. Olshausen, the pastor Dr. +Diestel, and the medical doctor Sachs. After some years Olshausen and +Tippelskirch withdrew, and dissensions arose which gave opportunity to the +ecclesiastical authorities to order an investigation. Ebel was charged +with founding a sect in which impure practices were encouraged. He was +suspended in A.D. 1835, and at the instigation of the consistory a +criminal process was entered upon against him. Dr. Sachs, who had been +expelled from the society, was the chief and almost only witness, but +vague rumours were rife about mystic rites and midnight orgies. Ebel and +Diestel were deposed in A.D. 1839, and pronounced incapable of holding any +public office; and as a sect founder Ebel was sentenced to imprisonment in +the common jail. On appeal to the court of Berlin, the deposition was +confirmed, but all the rest of the sentence was quashed, and the parties +were pronounced capable of holding any public offices except those of a +spiritual kind. Two reasons were alleged for deposition: (1) That Ebel, +though not from the pulpit or in the public instruction of the young, yet +in private religious teaching, had inculcated his theosophical views. (2) +That both of them as married men had given expression to opinions +injurious to the purity of married life. In general they were charged with +spreading a doctrine which was in conflict with the principles of +Christianity, and making such use of sexual relations as was fitted to +awaken evil thoughts in the minds of hearers. Ebel was pronounced +guiltless of sectarianism.--Kanitz wrote a book in defence, which +represents Ebel and Diestel as martyrs to their pure Christian piety in an +age hostile to every pietistic movement; whereas Von Wegnern, followed by +Hepworth Dixon, in a romancing and frivolous style, lightly give currency +to evil surmisings without offering any solid basis of proof. The whole +affair still waits for a patient and unprejudiced investigation.(84) + +4. _The Bender Controversy._--At the Luther centenary festival of A.D. +1883, Prof. Bender of Bonn declared that in the confessional writings of +the Reformation evangelical truth had been obscured by Romish +scholasticism, introduced by subtle jurists and sophistical theologians. +This called forth vigorous opposition, in which two of his colleagues, 38 +theological students, 59 members of the Rhenish synod, took part. +General-Superintendent Baur, also, in a new year's address, inveighed +against Bender's statements. On the other hand, 170 students of Bonn, 32 +of these theological students, gave a grand ovation to the "brave +vindicator of academic freedom." The Rhenish and Westphalian synods +bewailed the offence given by Bender's address, and protested against its +hard and unfounded attacks upon the confessional writings. At the +Westphalian synod, Prof. Mangold said that the faculty was as much +offended at the address as the church had been, but that its author, when +he found how his words had created such feeling, sought in every way to +repress the agitation, and had intended only to pass a scientific judgment +on ecclesiastical and theological developments. + + + +§ 177. Evangelical Union and Lutheran Separation. + + +From A.D. 1817 Prussia favoured and furthered the scheme for union between +the two evangelical churches, and over this question a split arose in the +camp of pietism. On the one hand were the confessionalists, determined to +maintain what was distinctive in their symbols, and on the other, those +who would sacrifice almost anything for union. For the most part both +churches cordially seconded the efforts of the royal head of the church; +only in Silesia did a Lutheran minority refuse to give way, which still +maintains a separate existence. + +1. _The Evangelical Union._--Circumstances favoured this movement. Both in +the Lutheran and in the Reformed church comparatively little stress was +laid upon distinctive confessional doctrines, and pietism and rationalism, +for different reasons, had taught the relative unimportance of dogma. And +so a general accord was given to the king's proposal, at the Reformation +centenary of A.D. 1817, to fortify the Protestant church by means of a +_Union_ of Lutherans and Calvinists. The new Book of Common Order of A.D. +1822, in the preparation of which the pious king, Frederick William III., +had himself taken part, was indeed condemned by many as too high-church, +even Catholicizing in its tendency. A revised edition in A.D. 1829, giving +a wider choice of formularies, was legally authorized, and the union +became an accomplished fact. There now existed in Prussia an evangelical +national church with a common government and liturgy, embracing within it +three different sections: a Lutheran, and a Reformed, which held to their +distinctive doctrines, though not regarding these as a cause of +separation, and a real union party, which completely abandoned the points +of difference. But more and more the union became identified with +doctrinal indifferentism and slighting of all church symbols, and those in +whom the church feeling still prevailed were driven into opposition to the +union (§ 193). The example of Prussia in sacking the union of the two +churches was followed by Nassau, Baden, Rhenish Bavaria, Anhalt, and to +some extent in Hesse (§§ 194, 196). + +2. _The Lutheran Separation._--Though the union denied that there was any +passing over from one church to another, it practically declared the +distinctive doctrines to be unessential, and so assumed the standpoint of +the Reformed church. Steffens (§ 174, 3), the friend of Scheibel of +Breslau, who had been deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1832 for his +determined opposition to the union, and died in exile in 1843 (§ 195, 2), +headed a reaction in favour of old Lutheranism. Several suspended +clergymen in Silesia held a synod at Breslau in A.D. 1835, to organize a +Lutheran party, but the civil authorities bore so heavily upon them that +most of them emigrated to America and Australia. Guericke of Halle, +secretly ordained pastor, ministered in his own house to a small company +of Lutheran separatists, was deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1835, +and only restored in A.D. 1840, after he had apologised for his conduct. +From A.D. 1838, the laws were modified by Frederick William IV., +imprisoned clergymen were liberated in A.D. 1840, and a Lutheran church of +Prussia independent of the national church was constituted by a general +synod at Breslau in A.D. 1841, which received recognition by royal favour +in A.D. 1845. The affairs are administered by a supreme council resident +in Breslau, presided over by the distinguished jurist Huschke. Other +separations were prevented by timely concessions on the part of the +national church. The separatists claim 50,000 members, with fifty pastors +and seven superintendents. + +3. _The Separation within the Separation._--Differences arose among the +separate Lutherans, especially over the question of the visible church. +The majority, headed by Huschke, defined the visible church as an organism +of various offices and orders embracing even unbelievers, which is to be +sifted by the divine judgment. To it belongs the office of church +government, which is a _jus divinum_, and only in respect of outward form +a _jus humanum_. The opposition understood visibility of the preaching of +the word and dispensation of sacraments, and held that unbelievers +belonged as little to the visible as to the invisible church. The +distribution of orders and offices is a merely human arrangement without +divine appointment, individual members are quite independent of one +another, the church recognises no other government than that of the +unfettered preaching of the word, and each pastor rules in his own +congregation. Diedrich of Jabel and seven other pastors complained of the +papistical assumptions of the supreme council, and at a general synod in +A.D. 1860 refused to recognise the authority of that council, or of a +majority of synods, and in A.D. 1861, along with their congregations, they +formally seceded and constituted the so called Immanuel Synod. + + + +§ 178. Evangelical Confederation. + + +The union had only added a third denomination to the two previously +existing, and was the means of even further dissension and separation. +Thus the interests of Protestantism were endangered in presence of the +unbelief within her own borders and the machinations of the ultramontane +Catholics without. An attempt was therefore made in A.D. 1840 to combine +the scattered Protestant forces, by means of confederation, for common +work and conflict with common foes. + +1. _The Gustavus Adolphus Society._--In A.D. 1832, on the two hundredth +anniversary of the birth of the saviour of German Protestantism, on the +motion of Superintendent Grossman of Leipzig, a society was formed for the +help of needy Protestant churches, especially in Catholic districts. At +first almost confined to Saxony, it soon spread over Germany, till only +Bavaria down to A.D. 1849, and Austria down to A.D. 1860, were excluded by +civil enactment from its operations. The masses were attracted by the +simplicity of its basis, which was simply opposition to Catholicism, and +the demagogical Friends of Light soon found supremacy in its councils. +Because of opposition to the expulsion of Rupp, in A.D. 1846, as an +apostate from the principle of protestantism, great numbers with church +leanings seceded, and attempted to form a rival union in A.D. 1847. After +recovering from the convulsions of A.D. 1848, under the wise guidance of +Zimmermann of Darmstadt, the society regained a solid position. In A.D. +1883 it had 1,779 branches, besides 392 women's and 11 students' unions, +and a revenue for the year of about L43,000.--The same feeling led to the +erection of the _Luther Monument at Worms_. This work of genius, designed +by Rietschel, and completed after his death in A.D. 1857 by his pupils, +and inaugurated on 25th June, A.D. 1868, represents all the chief episodes +in the Reformation history. It was erected at a cost of more than L20,000, +raised by voluntary contributions, and the scheme proved so popular that +there was a surplus of L2,000, which was devoted to the founding of +bursaries for theological students. + +2. _The Eisenach Conference._--The other German states borrowed the idea of +confederation from Prussia and Wuerttemberg. It took practical shape in the +meetings of deputies at Eisenach, begun in A.D. 1852, and was held for a +time yearly, and afterwards every second year, to consult together on +matters of worship, discipline and constitution. Beyond ventilating such +questions the conference yielded no result. + +3. _The Evangelical Alliance._--An attempt was made in England, on the +motion of Dr. Chalmers (§ 202, 7), at a yet more comprehensive +confederation of all Protestant churches of all lands against the +encroachments of popery and puseyism (§ 202, 2). After several preliminary +meetings the first session of the _Evangelical Alliance_ was held in +London in August, A.D. 1846. Its object was the fraternizing of all +evangelical Christians on the basis of agreement upon the fundamental +truths of salvation, the vindication and spread of this common faith, and +contention for liberty of conscience and religious toleration. Nine +articles were laid down as terms of membership: Belief in the inspiration +of Scripture, in the Trinity, in the divinity of Christ, in original sin, +in justification by faith alone, in the obligatoriness of the two +sacraments, in the resurrection of the body, in the last judgment, and in +the eternal blessedness of the righteous and the eternal condemnation of +the ungodly. It could thus include Baptists, but not Quakers. In A.D. 1855 +it held its ninth meeting at the great Paris Industrial Exhibition as a +sort of church exhibition, the representatives of different churches +reporting on the condition of their several denominations. The tenth +meeting, of A.D. 1857, was held in Berlin. The council of the Alliance, +presided over by Sir Culling Eardley, presented an address to King +Frederick William IV., in which it was said that they aimed a blow not +only against the sadduceanism, but also against the pharisaism of the +German evangelical church. The confessional Lutherans, who had opposed the +Alliance, regarded this latter reference as directed against them. The +king, however, received the deputation most graciously, while declaring +that he entertained the brightest hopes for the future of the church, and +urged cordial brotherly love among Christians. Though many distinguished +confessionalists were members of the Alliance none of them put in an +appearance. The members of the "Protestantenverein" (§ 180) would not take +part because the articles were too orthodox. On the other hand, numerous +representatives of pietism, unionism, Melanchthonianism, as well as +Baptists, Methodists, and Moravians, crowded in from all parts, and were +supported by the leading liberals in church and state. While there was +endless talk about the oneness and differences of the children of God, +about the universal priesthood, about the superiority of the present +meeting over the oecumenical councils of the ancient church, about the want +of spiritual life in the churches, even where the theology of the +confessions was professed, etc., with denunciations of half-Catholic +Lutheranism and its sacramentarianism and officialism, and many a true and +admirable statement of what the church's needs are, Merle d'Aubigne +introduced discord by the hearty welcome which he accorded his friend +Bunsen, which was intensified by the passionate manner in which Krummacher +reported upon it. The gracious royal reception of the members of the +Alliance, at which Krummacher gave expression to his excited feelings in +the words, "Your Majesty, we would all fall not at your feet, but on your +neck!" was described by his brother, Dr. F. W. Krummacher, as a sensible +prelude to the solemn scenes of the last judgment. Sir Culling Eardley +declared, "There is no more the North Sea." Lord Shaftesbury said in +London that with the Berlin Assembly a new era had begun in the world's +history; and others who had returned from it extolled it as a second +Pentecost. + +4. _The Evangelical Church Alliance._--After the revolution of A.D. 1848, +the most distinguished theologians, clergymen and laymen well-affected +toward the church, sought to bring about a confederation of the Lutheran, +Reformed, United, and Moravian churches. When they held their second +assembly at Wittenberg, A.D. 1849, many of the strict Lutherans had +already withdrawn, especially those of Silesia. The Lutheran congress, +held shortly before at Leipzig under the presidency of Harless, had +pronounced the confederation unsatisfactory. The political reaction in +favour of the church had also taken away the occasion for such a +confederation. Yet the yearly deliberations of this council on matters of +practical church life did good service. An attempt made at the Berlin +meeting of A.D. 1853 to have the _Augustana_ adopted as the church +confession awakened keen opposition. At the Stuttgart meeting of A.D. 1857 +there were violent debates on foreign missions and evangelical Catholicity +between the representatives of confessional Lutheranism who had hitherto +maintained connection with the confederation and the unionist majority. +The Lutherans now withdrew. The attempt made at the Berlin October +assembly of A.D. 1871, amid the excitement produced by the glorious issue +of the Franco-Prussian War and the founding of the new German empire with +a Protestant prince, to draw into the confederation confessional Lutherans +and adherents of the "Protestantenverein," in order to form a grand German +Protestant national church, miscarried, and a meeting of the confederation +in the old style met again at Halle in the following year. But it was now +found that its day was past. + +5. _The Evangelical League._--At a meeting of the Prussian evangelical +middle party in autumn, 1886, certain members, "constrained by grief at +the surrender of arms by the Prussian government in the _Kulturkampf_," +gathered together for private conference, and resolved in defence of the +threatened interests of the evangelical church to found an "Evangelical +League" out of the various theological and ecclesiastical parties. +Prominent party leaders on both sides being admitted, a number of moderate +representatives of all schools were invited to a consultative gathering at +Erfurt. On January 15th, 1887, a call to join the membership of the league +was issued. It was signed by distinguished men of the middle party, such +as Beyschlag, Riehm of Halle, etc., moderate representatives of +confessionalism and the positive union, such as Kawerau of Kiel, Fricke of +Leipzig, Witte, Warneck, etc., and liberal theologians like Lipsius and +Nippold of Jena, etc.; and it soon received the addition of about 250 +names. It recognised Jesus Christ, as the only begotten Son of God, as the +only means of salvation, and professed the fundamental doctrines of the +Reformation. It represented the task of the League as twofold: on the one +hand the defending at all points the interests of the evangelical church +against the advancing pretensions of Rome, and, on the other hand, the +strengthening of the communal consciousness of the Christian evangelical +church against the cramping influence of party, as well as in opposition +to indifferentism and materialism. For the accomplishment of this task the +league organized itself under the control of a central board with +subordinate branches over all Germany, each having a committee for +representing its interests in the press, and with annual general +assemblies of all the members for common consultation and promulgating of +decrees. + + + +§ 179. Lutheranism, Melanchthonianism, and Calvinism. + + +Widespread as the favourable reception of the Prussian union had been, +there were still a number of Lutheran states in which the Reformed church +had scarcely any adherents, _e.g._ Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Mecklenburg, +and Schleswig-Holstein; and the same might be said of the Baltic Provinces +and of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Also in Austria, France, and +Russia the two denominations kept apart; and in Poland, the union of A.D. +1828 was dissolved in A.D. 1849 (§ 206, 3). The Lutheran confessional +reaction in Prussia afforded stimulus to those who had thus stood apart. +In all lands, amid the conflict with rationalism, the confessional spirit +both of Lutheran and Reformed became more and more pronounced. + +1. _Lutheranism within the Union._--After the Prussian State church had +been undermined by the revolution of A.D. 1848, an unsuccessful attempt +was made to have a pure Lutheran confessional church set up in its place. +At the October assembly in Berlin, in A.D. 1871, an ineffectual effort was +made by the United Lutherans to co-operate with those who were unionists +on principle. During the agitation caused by the May Laws (§ 197, 5) and +the Sydow proceedings (§ 180, 4), the first general evangelical Lutheran +conference was held in August, A.D. 1873, in Berlin. It assumed a moderate +conciliatory tone toward the union, pronounced the efforts of the +"Protestantenverein" (§ 180) an apostasy from the fundamental doctrines of +the gospel, bewailed the issuing of the May Laws, protested against their +principles, but acknowledged the duty of obedience, and concluded an +address to the emperor with a petition on behalf of a democratic church +constitution and civil marriage.--The literary organs of the United +Lutherans are the "_Evang. Kirchenzeitung_," edited by Hengstenberg, and +now by Zoeckler, and the "_Allgem. konserv. Monatsschrift fuer die christl. +Deutschl._," by Von Nathusius. + +2. _Lutheranism outside of the Union._--A general Lutheran conference was +held under the presidency of Harless, in July, A.D. 1868, at which the +sentiments of Kliefoth, denouncing a union under a common church +government without agreement about doctrine and sacraments, met with +almost universal acceptance. At the Leipzig gathering of A.D. 1870, +Luthardt urged the duty of firmly maintaining doctrinal unity in the +Lutheran church. The assembly of the following year agreed to recognise +the emperor as head of the church only in so far as he did not interfere +with the dispensation of word and sacrament, admitted the legality of a +merely civil marriage but maintained that despisers of the ecclesiastical +ordinance should be subjected to discipline, that communion fellowship is +to be allowed neither to Reformed nor unionists if fixed residents, but to +unionists faithful to the confession if temporary residents, even without +expressly joining their party; and also with reference to the October +assembly of the previous year the union of the two Protestant churches of +Germany under a mixed system of church government was condemned. The third +general conference of Nueremburg, in A.D. 1879, dealt with the questions: +Whether the church should be under State control or free? Whether the +schools should be denominational or not? and in both cases decided in +favour of the latter alternative.--Its literary organ is Luthardt's "_Allg. +Luth. Kirchenzeitung_." + +3. _Melancthonianism and Calvinism._--The Reformed church of Germany has +maintained a position midway between Lutheranism and Calvinism very +similar to the later Melanchthonianism. Ebrard indeed sought to prove that +strict predestinarianism was only an excrescence of the Reformed system, +whereas Schweitzer, purely in the interests of science (§ 182, 9, 16), has +shown that it is its all-conditioning nerve and centre, to which it owes +its wonderful vitality, force, and consistency. Heppe of Marburg went +still further than Ebrard in his attempt to combine Lutheranism and +Calvinism in a _Melancthonian church_ (§ 182, 16), by seeking to prove +that the original evangelical church of Germany was Melanchthonian, that +after Luther's death the fanatics, more Lutheran than Luther, founded the +so-called Lutheran church and completed it by issuing the Formula of +Concord; that the Calvinizing of the Palatinate, Hesse, Brandenburg, +Anhalt was only a reaction against hyper- or pseudo-Lutheranism, and that +the restoration of the original Melanchthonianism, and the modern union +movement were only the completion of that restoration. Schenkel's earlier +contributions to Reformation history moved in a similar direction. Ebrard +also, in A.D. 1851, founded a "_Ref. Kirchenzeitung_."--But even the +genuine strict _Calvinism_ had zealous adherents during this century, not +only in Scotland (§ 202, 7) and the Netherlands (§ 200, 2), but also in +Germany, especially in the Wupperthal. G. D. Krummacher, from A.D. 1816 +pastor in Elberfeld, and his nephew F. W. Krummacher of Barmen, were long +its chief representatives. When Prussia sought in A.D. 1835 to force the +union in the Wupperthal, and threatened the opposing Reformed pastors with +deposition, the revolt here proved almost as serious as that of the +Lutherans in Silesia. The pastors, with the majority of their people +agreed at last to the union only in so far as it was in accordance with +the Reformed mode of worship. But a portion, embracing their most +important members, stood apart and refused all conciliation. The royal +Toleration Act of A.D. 1847 allowed them to form an independent +congregation at Elberfeld with Dr. Kohlbruegge as their minister. This +divine, formerly Lutheran pastor at Amsterdam, was driven out owing to a +contest with a rationalising colleague, and afterwards, through study of +Calvin's writings, became an ardent Calvinist. This body, under the name +of the Dutch Reformed church, constituted the one anti-unionist, strictly +Calvinistic denomination in Prussia.--The De Cock movement (§ 200, 2), out +of which in A.D. 1830 the separate "Chr. Ref. Church of Holland" sprang, +spread over the German frontiers and led to the founding there of the "Old +Ref. Church of East Frisia and Bentheim," which has now nine congregations +and seven pastors.--At the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in New York +in A.D. 1873, the Presbyterians present resolved to convoke an oecumenical +Reformed council. A conference in London in A.D. 1875 brought to maturity +the idea of a Pan-Presbyterian assembly. The council is to meet every +third year; the members recognise the supreme authority of the Old and New +Testament in matters of faith and practice, and accept the consensus of +all the Reformed confessions. The first "_General Presbyterian Council_" +met in Edinburgh from 3rd to 10th July, A.D. 1877, about 300 delegates +being present. The proceedings consisted in unmeasured glorification of +presbyterianism "drawn from the whole Scripture, from the seventy elders +of the Pentateuch to the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse." The second +council met at Philadelphia in A.D. 1880, and boasted that it represented +forty millions of Presbyterians. It appointed a committee to draw up a +consensus of the confessions of all Reformed churches. The third council +of 305 members met at Belfast in A.D. 1884, and after a long debate +declined, by a great majority, to adopt a strictly formulated consensus of +doctrine as uncalled for and undesirable, and by the reception of the +Cumberland Presbyterians they even surrendered the Westminster Confession +(§ 155, 1) as the only symbol qualifying for membership of the council. +The fourth council met in London in A.D. 1887.--An oecumenical Methodist +congress was held in London in A.D. 1881, attended by 400 delegates. + + + +§ 180. The "Protestantenverein." + + +Rationalists of all descriptions, adherents of Baur's school, as well as +disciples of Hegel and Schleiermacher of the left wing, kept far off from +every evangelical union. But the common negation of the tendencies +characterizing the evangelical confederations and the common endeavour +after a free, democratic, non-confessional organization of the German +Protestant church, awakened in them a sense of the need of combination and +co-operation. While in North Germany this feeling was powerfully expressed +from A.D. 1854, in the able literary organ the "_Protest. +Kirchenzeitung_," in South Germany, with Heidelberg as a centre and Dean +Zittel as chief agitator, local "_Protestantenvereine_" were formed, which +combined in a united organization in the Assembly of Frankfort, A.D. 1863. +After long debates the northern and southern societies were joined in one. +In June, A.D. 1865, the first general Protestant assembly was held at +Eisenach, and the nature, motive, and end of the associations were +defined. To these assemblies convened from year to year members of the +society crowded from all parts of Germany in order to encourage one +another to persevere in spreading their views by word and pen, and to take +steps towards the founding of branch associations for disseminating among +the people a Christianity which renounces the miraculous and sets aside +the doctrines of the church. + +1. _The Protestant Assembly._--The first general German Protestant +Assembly, composed of 400 clerical and lay notabilities, met at Eisenach +in A.D. 1865, under the presidency of the jurist Bluntschli of Heidelberg +and the chief court preacher Schwarz of Gotha. A peculiar lustre was given +to the meeting by the presence of Rothe of Heidelberg. Of special +importance was Schwarz's address on "The Limits of Doctrinal Freedom in +Protestantism," which he sought not in the confession, not in the +authority of the letter of Scripture, not even in certain so called +fundamental articles, but in the one religious moral truth of +Christianity, the gospel of love and the divine fatherhood as Christ +taught it, expounded it in his life and sealed it by his death. In Berlin, +Osnabrueck, and Leipzig, the churches were refused for services according +to the _Protestantenverein_. In A.D. 1868 fifteen heads of families in +Heidelberg petitioned the ecclesiastical council to grant them the use of +one of the city churches where a believing clergyman might conduct service +in the old orthodox fashion. This request was refused by fifty votes +against four. Baumgarten denounced this intolerance, and declared that +unless repudiated by the union it would be a most serious stain upon its +reputation. In A.D. 1877 he publicly withdrew from the society. + +2. _The _"Protestantenverein"_ Propaganda._--The views of the union were +spread by popular lectures and articles in newspapers and magazines. The +"_Protestanten-Bibel_," edited by Schmidt and Holtzendorff in A.D. 1872, +of which an English translation has been published, giving the results of +New Testament criticism, "laid the axe at the root of the dogmatics and +confessionalism," and proved that "we are still Christians though our +conception of Christianity diverges in many points from that of the second +century, and we proclaim a Christianity without miracles and in accordance +with the modern theory of the universe." The success of such efforts to +spread the broad theology has been greatly over-estimated. Enthusiastic +partisans of the union claimed to have the whole evangelical world at +their back, while Holtzendorff boasted that they had all thoughtful +Germans with them. + +3. _Sufferings Endured._--In many instances members of the society were +disciplined, suspended and deposed. In October, A.D. 1880, _Beesenmeyer_ +of Mannheim, on his appointment to Osnabrueck, was examined by the +consistory. He confessed an economic but not an essential Trinity, the +sinlessness and perfect godliness but not the divinity of Christ, the +atoning power of Christ's death but not the doctrine of vicarious +satisfaction. He was pronounced unorthodox, and so unfit to hold office. +_Schroeder_, a pastor in the consistory of Wiesbaden in A.D. 1871, on his +refusing to use the Apostles' Creed at baptism and confirmation, was +deposed, but on appealing to the minister of worship, Dr. Falk, he was +restored in the beginning of A.D. 1874. The Stettin consistory declined to +ordain Dr. _Hanne_ on account of his work "_Der ideale u. d. geschichtl. +Christus_," and an appeal to the superior court and another to the king +were unsuccessful. Several members of the church protested against the +call of Dr. _Ziegler_ to Liegnitz in A.D. 1873, on account of his trial +discourse and a previous lecture on the authority of the Bible, and the +consistory refused to sustain the call. The Supreme Church Council, +however, when appealed to, declared itself satisfied with Ziegler's +promise to take unconditionally the ordination vow, which requires +acceptance of the fundamental doctrines of the gospel and not the peculiar +theological system of the symbols. + +4. The conflicts in _Berlin_ were specially sharp. In A.D. 1872 the aged +pastor of the so called New Church, Dr. _Sydow_, delivered a lecture on +the miraculous birth of Jesus, in which he declared that he was the +legitimate son of Joseph and Mary. His colleague, Dr. _Lisco_, son of the +well-known commentator, spoke of legendary elements in the Apostles' +Creed, and denied its authority. Lisco was reprimanded and cautioned by +the consistory. Sydow was deposed. He appealed, together with twenty-six +clergymen of the province of Brandenburg, and twelve Berlin pastors, to +the Supreme Church Council. The Jena theologians also presented a largely +signed petition to Dr. Falk against the procedure of the consistory, while +the Weimar and Wuerttemberg clergy sent a petition in favour of maintaining +strict discipline. The superior court reversed the sentence, on the ground +that the lecture was not given in the exercise of his office, and severely +reprimanded Sydow for giving serious offence by its public delivery. At a +Berlin provincial synod in A.D. 1877, an attack was made by pastor _Rhode_ +on creed subscription. _Hossbach_, preaching in a vacant church, declared +that he repudiated the confessional doctrine of the divinity of Christ, +regarded the life of Jesus in the gospels as a congeries of myths, etc. +Some loudly protested and others as eagerly pressed for his settlement. +The consistory accepted Rhode's retractation and annulled Hossbach's call. +The Supreme Church Council supported the consistory, and issued a strict +order to its president to suffer no departure from the confession. The +congregation next chose Dr. _Schramm_, a pronounced adherent of the same +party, who was also rejected. In A.D. 1879 _Werner_, biographer of +Boniface, a more moderate disciple of the same school, holding a sort of +Arian position, received the appointment. When, in A.D. 1880, the Supreme +Church Council demanded of Werner a clear statement of his belief +regarding Scripture, the divinity and resurrection of Christ, and the +Apostles Creed, and on receiving his reply summoned him to a conference at +Berlin, he resigned his office. + +5. The conflicts in Schleswig Holstein also caused considerable +excitement. Pastor _Kuehl_ of Oldensworth had published an article at +Easter, A.D. 1880, entitled, "The Lord is Risen indeed," in which the +resurrection was made purely spiritual. He was charged with violating his +ordination vow, sectaries pointed to his paper as proof of their theory +that the state church was the apocalyptic Babylon, and petitions from 115 +ministers and 2,500 laymen were presented against him to the consistory of +Kiel. The consistory exhorted Kuehl to be more careful and his opponents to +be more patient. In the same year, however, he published a paper in which +he denied that the order of nature was set aside by miracles. He was now +advised to give up writing and confine himself to his pastoral work. A +pamphlet by Decker on "The Old Faith and the New," was answered by _Luehr_, +and his mode of dealing with the ordination vow was of such a kind as to +lead pastor Paulsen to speak of it as a "chloroforming of his conscience." + + + +§ 181. Disputes about Forms of Worship. + + +During the eighteenth century the services of the evangelical church had +become thoroughly corrupted and disordered under the influence of the +"Illumination," and were quite incapable of answering to the Christian +needs and ecclesiastical tastes of the nineteenth century. Whenever there +was a revival in favour of the faith of their fathers, a movement was made +in the direction of improved forms of worship. The Rationalists and +Friends of Light, however, prevented progress except in a few states. Even +the official Eisenach Conference did no more than prepare the way and +indicate how action might afterwards be taken. + +1. _The Hymnbook._--Traces of the vandalism of the Illumination were to be +seen in all the hymnbooks. The noble poet Ernst Moritz Arndt was the first +to enter the lists as a restorer; and various attempts were made by Von +Elsner, Von Raumer, Bunsen, Stier, Knapp, Daniel, Harms, etc., to make +collections of sacred songs answerable to the revived Christian sentiment +of the people. These came to be largely used, not in the public services, +but in family worship, and prepared the way for official revisal of the +books for church use. The Eisenach Conference of A.D. 1853 resolved to +issue 150 classical hymns with the old melodies as an appendix to the old +collection and a pattern for further work. Only with difficulty was the +resolution passed to make A.D. 1750 the _terminus ad quem_ in the choice +of pieces. Wackernagel insisted on a strict adherence to the original text +and retired from the committee when this was not agreed to. Only in a few +states has the Eisenach collection been introduced; _e.g._ in Bavaria, +where it has been incorporated in its new hymnbook. + +2. _The Book of Chorales._--In A.D. 1814, Frederick William III. of Prussia +sought to secure greater prominence to the liturgy in the church service. +In A.D. 1817, Natorp of Muenster expressed himself strongly as to the need +of restoring the chorale to its former position, and he was followed by +the jurist Thibaut, whose work on "The Purity of Tone" has been translated +into English. The reform of the chorale was carried out most vigorously in +Wuerttemberg, but it was in Bavaria that the old chorale in its primitive +simplicity was most widely introduced. + +3. _The Liturgy._--Under the reign of the Illuminists the liturgy had +suffered even more than the hymns. The Lutherans now went back to the old +Reformation models, and liturgical services, with musical performances, +became popular in Berlin. Conferences held at Dresden did much for +liturgical reform, and the able works and collections of Schoeberlein +supplied abundant materials for the practical carrying out of the +movement. + +4. _The Holy Scriptures._--The Calw Bible in its fifth edition adopted +somewhat advanced views on inspiration, the canon and authenticity, while +maintaining generally the standpoint of the most reverent and pious +students of scripture. Bunsen's commentary assumed a "mediating" position, +and the "Protestant Bible" on the New Testament, translated into English, +that of the advanced school. Besser's expositions of the New Testament +books, of which we have in English those on John's gospel, had an +unexampled popularity. The Eisenach Conference undertook a revision of +Luther's translation of the Bible. The revised New Testament was published +in A.D. 1870, and accepted by some Bible societies. The much more +difficult task of Old Testament revision was entrusted to a committee of +distinguished university theologians, which concluded its labours in A.D. +1881. A "proof" Bible was issued in A.D. 1883, and the final corrected +rendering in A.D. 1886. A whole legion of pamphlets were now issued from +all quarters. Some bitterly opposing any change in the Luther-text, others +severely criticising the work, so that the whole movement seems now at a +standstill.(85)--In England, in May, 1885, the work of revision of the +English version of the Bible, undertaken by order of convocation, was +completed after fifteen years' labour, and issued jointly by the two +universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The revised New Testament, prepared +four years previously, had been telegraphed in short sections to America +by the representative of the _New York Herald_, so that the complete work +appeared there rather earlier than in England. But in the case of the Old +Testament revision such freebooting industry was prevented by the strict +and careful reserve of all concerned in the work. The revised New +Testament had meanwhile never been introduced into the public services; +whether the completed Bible will ever succeed in overcoming this prejudice +remains to be seen.(86) + + + +§ 182. Protestant Theology in Germany. + + +The real founder of modern Protestant theology, the Origen of the +nineteenth century, is Schleiermacher. His influence was so powerful and +manysided that it extended not merely to his own school, but also in +almost all directions, even to the Catholic church, embracing destructive +and constructive tendencies such as appeared before in Origen and Erigena. +Alongside of the vulgar rationalism, which still had notable +representatives, De Wette founded the new school of historico-critical +rationalism, and Neander that of pietistic supernaturalism, which soon +overshadowed the two older schools of rational and supra-rational +supernaturalism. On the basis of Schelling's and Hegel's philosophy Daub +founded the school of speculative theology with an evangelical tendency; +but after Hegel's death it split into a right and left wing. As the former +could not maintain its position, its adherents by-and-by went over to +other schools; and the latter, setting aside speculation and dogmatics, +applied itself to the critical investigation of the early history of +Christianity, and founded the school of Baur at Tuebingen. Schleiermacher's +school also split into a right and left wing. Each of them took the union +as its standard; but the right, which claimed to be the "German" and the +"Modern" theology, wished a union under a consensus of the confessions, +and sought to effect an accommodation between the old faith and the modern +liberalism; whereas the left wished union without a confession, and +unconditioned toleration of "free science." This latter tendency, however, +secured greater prominence and importance from A.D. 1854, through +combination with the representatives of the historico-critical and the +younger generation of the Baurian school, from which originated the "free +Protestant" theology. On the other hand, under the influence of pietism, +there has arisen since A.D. 1830, especially in the universities of +Erlangen, Leipzig, Rostock, and Dorpat, a Lutheran confessional school, +which seeks to develop a Lutheran system of theology of the type of +Gerhard and Bengel. A similar tendency has also shown itself in the +Reformed church. The most recent theological school is that founded by +Ritschl, resting on a Lutheran basis but regarded by the confessionalists +as rather allied to the "free Protestant" theology, on account of its free +treatment of certain fundamental doctrines of Lutheranism.--Theological +contributions from Scandinavia, England, and Holland are largely indebted +to German theology. + +1. _Schleiermacher, _A.D._ 1768-1834._--Thoroughly grounded in philosophy +and deeply imbued with the pious feeling of the Moravians among whom he +was trained, Schleiermacher began his career in A.D. 1807 as professor and +university preacher at Halle, but, to escape French domination, went in +the same year to Berlin, where by speech and writing he sought to arouse +German patriotism. There he was appointed preacher in A.D. 1809, and +professor in A.D. 1810, and continued to hold these offices till his death +in A.D. 1834. In A.D. 1799 he published five "_Reden ueber d. Religion_." +In these it was not biblical and still less ecclesiastical Christianity +which he sought with glowing eloquence to address to the hearts of the +German people, but Spinozist pantheism. The fundamental idea of his life, +that God, "the absolute unity," cannot be reached in thought nor grasped +by will, but only embraced in feeling as immediate consciousness, and +hence that feeling is the proper seat of religion, appears already in his +early productions as the centre of his system. In the following year, A.D. +1800, he set forth his ethical theory in five "Monologues": every man +should in his own way represent humanity in a special blending of its +elements. The study and translation of Plato, which occupied him now for +several years, exercised a powerful influence upon him. He approached more +and more towards positive Christianity. In a Christmas Address in A.D. +1803 on the model of Plato's Symposium, he represents Christ as the divine +object of all faith. In A.D. 1811 he published his "Short Outline of +Theological Study," which has been translated into English, a masterly +sketch of theological encyclopaedia. In A.D. 1821 he produced his great +masterpiece, "_Der Chr. Glaube_," which makes feeling the seat of all +religion as immediate consciousness of absolute dependence, perfectly +expressed in Jesus Christ, whose life redeems the world. The task of +dogmatics is to give scientific expression to the Christian consciousness +as seen the life of the redeemed; it has not to prove, but only to work +out and exhibit in relation to the whole spiritual life what is already +present as a fact of experience. Thus dogmatics and philosophy are quite +distinct. He proves the evangelical Protestant character of the doctrines +thus developed by quotations from the consensus of both confessions. +Notwithstanding his protest, many of his contemporaries still found +remnants of Spinozist pantheism. On certain points too, he failed to +satisfy the claims of orthodoxy; _e.g._ in his Sabellian doctrine of the +Trinity, his theory of election, his doctrine of the canon, and his +account of the beginning and close of our Lord's life, the birth and the +ascension.(87) + +2. _The Older Rationalistic Theology._--The older, so-called vulgar +rationalism, was characterized by the self-sufficiency with which it +rejected all advances from philosophy and theology, science and national +literature. The new school of historico-critical rationalism availed +itself of every aid in the direction of scientific investigation. The +father of the vulgar rationalism of this age was _Roehr_ of Weimar, who +exercised his ingenuity in proving how one holding such views might still +hold office in the church. To this school also belonged _Paulus_ of +Heidelberg, described by Marheineke as one who believes he thinks and +thinks he believes but was incapable of either; _Wegscheider_ of Halle, +who in his "_Institutions theol. Christ. dogmaticae_" repudiates miracles; +_Bretschneider_ of Gotha, who began as a supernaturalist and afterwards +went over to extreme rationalism; and _Ammon_ of Dresden, who afterwards +passed over to rational supernaturalism. + +3. The founder of _Historico-critical Rationalism_ was _De Wette_; a +contemporary of Schleiermacher in Berlin University, but deprived of +office in A.D. 1819 for sending a letter of condolence to the mother of +Sands, which was regarded as an apology for his crime. From A.D. 1822 till +his death in A.D. 1849 he continued to work unweariedly in Basel. His +theological position had its starting point in the philosophy of his +friend Fries, which he faithfully adhered to down to the end of his life. +His friendship with Schleiermacher had also a powerful influence upon him. +He too placed religion essentially in feeling, which, however, he +associated much more closely with knowledge and will. In the church +doctrines he recognised an important symbolical expression of religious +truths, and so by the out and out rationalist he was all along sneered at +as a mystic. But his chief strength lay in the sharp critical treatment +which he gave to the biblical canon and the history of the O.T. and N.T. +His commentaries on the whole of the N.T. are of permanent value, and +contain his latest thoughts, when he had approached most nearly to +positive Christianity. His literary career began in A.D. 1806 with a +critical examination of the books of Chronicles. He also wrote on the +Psalms, on Jewish history, on Jewish archaeology, and made a new +translation of the Bible. His Introductions to the O.T. and N.T. have been +translated into English.--_Winer_ of Leipzig is best known by his "Grammar +of New Testament Greek," first published in A.D. 1822, of which several +English and American translations have appeared, the latest and best that +of Dr. Moulton, made in A.D. 1870, from the sixth German edition. He also +edited an admirable "_Bibl. Reallexicon_," and wrote a work on symbolics +which has been translated into English under the title "A Comparative View +of the Doctrines and Confessions of the Various Communities of +Christendom" (Edin., 1873).--_Gesenius_ of Halle, who died A.D. 1842, has +won a high reputation by his grammatical and lexicographical services and +as author of a commentary on Isaiah--_Hupfeld_ of Marburg and Halle, who +died A.D. 1866, best known by his work in four vols. on the Psalms, in his +critical attitude toward the O.T., belonged to the same party.--_Hitzig_ of +Zuerich and Heidelberg, who died A.D. 1875, far outstripped all the rest in +genius and subtlety of mind and critical acuteness. He wrote commentaries +on most of the prophets and critical investigations into the O.T. +history.--_Ewald_ of Goettingen, A.D. 1803-1875, whose hand was against +every man and every man's hand against him, held the position of +recognised dictator in the domain of Hebrew grammar, and uttered oracles +as an infallible expounder of the biblical books. In his _Journal for +Biblical Science_, he held an annual _auto da fe_ of all the +biblico-theological literature of the preceding year; and, assuming a +place alongside of Isaiah and Jeremiah, he pronounced in every preface a +prophetic burden against the theological, ecclesiastical, or political ill +doers of his time. His exegetical writings on the poetical and prophetical +books of the O.T., his "History of Israel down to the Post-Apostolic Age," +and a condensed reproduction of his "Bible Doctrine of God," under the +title: "Revelation, its Nature and Record" and "Old and New Testament +Theology," have all appeared in English translations, and exhibit +everywhere traces of brilliant genius and suggestive originality.(88) + +4. _Supernaturalism_ of the older type (§ 171, 8) was now represented by +Storr, Reinhard, Planck, Knapp, and Staeudlin. In Wuerttemberg Storr's +school maintained its pre-eminence down to A.D. 1830. Neander, Tholuck, +and Hengstenberg may be described as the founders and most powerful +enunciators of the more recent _Pietistic Supernaturalism_. Powerfully +influenced by Schleiermacher, his colleague in Berlin, _Neander_, A.D. +1789-1850, exercised an influence such as no other theological teacher had +exerted since Luther and Melanchthon. Adopting Schleiermacher's +standpoint, he regarded religion as a matter of feeling: _Pectus est quod +theologum facit_. By his subjective pectoral theology he became the father +of modern scientific pietism, but it incapacitated him from understanding +the longing of the age for the restoration of a firm objective basis for +the faith. He was adverse to the Hegelian philosophy no less than to +confessionalism. Neander was so completely a pectoralist, that even his +criticism was dominated by feeling, as seen in his vacillations on +questions of N.T. authenticity and historicity. His "Church History," of +which we have admirable English translations, was an epoch-making work, +and his historical monographs were the result of careful original +research.(89)--_Tholuck_, A.D. 1799-1877, from A.D. 1826 professor at +Halle, at first devoted to oriental studies, roused to practical interests +by Baron von Kottwitz of Berlin, gave himself with all his wide culture by +preaching, lecturing and conversing to lead his students to Christ. His +scientific theology was latitudinarian, but had the warmth and freshness +of immediate contact with the living Saviour. His most important works are +apologetical and exegetical. In his "Preludes to the History of +Rationalism" he gives curious glimpses into the scandalous lives of +students in the seventeenth century; and he afterwards confessed that +these studies had helped to draw him into close sympathy with +confessionalism. While always lax in his views of authenticity, he came to +adopt a very decided position in regard to revelation and +inspiration.--_Hengstenberg_, A.D. 1802-1869, from A.D. 1826 professor in +Berlin, had quite another sort of development. Rendered determined by +innumerable controversies, in none of which he abated a single hair's +breadth, he looked askance at science as a gift of the Danaides, and set +forth in opposition to rationalism and naturalism a system of theology +unmodified by all the theories of modern times. Born in the Reformed +church and in his understanding of Scripture always more Calvinist than +Lutheran, rationalising only upon miracles that seemed to detract from the +dignity of God, and in his later years inclined to the Romish doctrine of +justification, he may nevertheless claim to be classed among the +confessionalists within the union. He deserves the credit of having given +a great impulse to O.T. studies and a powerful defence of O.T. books, +though often abandoning the position of an apologist for that of an +advocate. His "Christology of the Old Testament," in four vols., +"Genuineness of the Pentateuch and Daniel," three vols., "Egypt and the +Books of Moses," commentaries on Psalms, Ecclesiastes, Ezekiel, the Gospel +of John, Revelation, and his "History of the Kingdom of God in the Old +Testament," have all been translated into English. + +5. The so called _Rational Supernaturalism_ admits the supernatural +revelation in holy scripture, and puts reason alongside of it as an +equally legitimate source of religious knowledge, and maintains the +rationality of the contents of revelation. Its chief representative was +_Baumgarten-Crusius_ of Jena. Of a similar tendency, but more influenced +by aesthetic culture and refined feeling, and latterly inclining more and +more to the standpoint of "free Protestantism," _Carl Hase_, after seven +years' work in Tuebingen, opened his Jena career in A.D. 1830, which he +closed by resigning his professorship in A.D. 1883, after sixty years' +labour in the theological chair. In his "Life of Jesus," first published +A.D. 1829, he represents Christ as the ideal man, sinless but not free +from error, endowed with the fulness of love and the power of pure +humanity, as having truly risen and become the author of a new life in the +kingdom of God, of which the very essence is most purely and profoundly +expressed in the gospel of the disciple who lay upon the Master's heart. +The latest revision of this work, issued in A.D. 1876 under the title +"_Geschichte Jesu_," treats the fourth gospel as non-Johannnine in +authorship and mythical in its contents, and explains the resurrection by +the theory of a swoon or a vision. In his "_Hutterus Redivivus_," A.D. +1828, twelfth edition 1883, he seeks to set forth the Lutheran dogmatic as +Hutter might have done had he lived in these days. This led to the +publication of controversial pamphlets in A.D. 1834-1837, which dealt the +deathblow to the _Rationalismus Vulgaris_. His "Church History," +distinguished by its admirable little sketches of leading personalities, +was published in A.D. 1834, and the seventh edition of A.D. 1854 has been +translated into English. + +6. _Speculative Theology._--Its founder was _Daub_, professor at Heidelberg +from A.D. 1794 till his death in A.D. 1836. Occupying and writing from the +philosophical standpoints of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling successively, he +published in A.D. 1816 "Judas Iscariot," an elaborate discussion of the +nature of evil, but passed over in A.D. 1833, with his treatise on +dogmatics, to the Hegelian position. He exerted great influence as a +professor, but his writings proved to most unintelligible.--_Marheineke_ of +Berlin in the first edition of his "Dogmatics" occupied the standpoint of +Schelling, but in the second set forth Lutheran orthodoxy in accordance +with the formulae of the Hegelian system.--After Hegel's death in A.D. 1831 +his older pupils _Rosenkranz_ and _Goeschel_ sought to enlist his +philosophy in the service of orthodoxy. _Richter_ was the first to give +offence, by his "Doctrine of the Last Things," in which he denounced the +doctrine of immortality in the sense of personal existence after death. +_Strauss_, A.D. 1808-1874, represented the "Life of Jesus," in his work of +A.D. 1835, as the product of unintentional romancing, and in his +"_Glaubenslehre_" of A.D. 1840, sought to prove that all Christian +doctrines are put an end to by modern science, and openly taught pantheism +as the residuum of Christianity. _Bruno Bauer_, after passing from the +right to the left Hegelian wing, described the gospels as the product of +conscious fraud, and _Ludwig Feuerbach_, in his "Essence of Christianity," +A.D. 1841, set forth in all its nakedness the new gospel of +self-adoration. The breach between the two parties in the school was now +complete. Whatever Rosenkranz and Schaller from the centre, and Goeschel +and Gabler from the right, did to vindicate the honour of the system, they +could not possibly restore the for ever shattered illusion that it was +fundamentally Christian. Those of the right fell back into the camps of +"the German theology" and the Lutheran confessionalism; while in the +latest times the left has no prominent theological representative but +Biedermann of Zuerich. + +7. _The Tuebingen School._--Strauss was only the advanced skirmisher of a +school which was proceeding under an able leader to subject the history of +early Christianity to a searching examination. _Fred. Chr. Baur_ of +Tuebingen, A.D. 1792-1860, almost unequalled among his contemporaries in +acuteness, diligence, and learning, a pupil of Schleiermacher and Hegel, +devoted himself mainly to historical research about the beginnings of +Christianity. In this department he proceeded to reject almost everything +that had previously been believed. He denied the genuineness of all the +New Testament writings, with the exception of Revelation and the Epistles +to the Romans, Galatians, and Corinthians; treating the rest as forgeries +of the second century, resulting from a bitter struggle between the +Petrine and Pauline parties. This scheme was set forth in a rudimentary +form in the treatise on "The So-called Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle +Paul," A.D. 1835. His works, "Paul, the Apostle," and the "History of the +First Three Centuries," have been translated into English. He had as +collaborateurs in this work, Schwegler, Zeller, Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, etc. +_Ritschl_, who was at first an adherent of the school, made important +concessions to the right, and in the second edition of his great work, +"_Die Entstehung d. alt-kath. Kirche_," of A.D. 1857, announced himself as +an opponent. _Hilgenfeld_ of Jena, too, marked out new lines for himself +in New Testament Introduction and in the estimate of early church +doctrine, modifying in various ways the positions of Baur. The labours of +this school and its opponents have done signal service in the cause of +science. + +8. _Strauss_, who had meanwhile occupied himself with the studies of Von +Hutten, Reimarus, and Lessing's "Nathan," feeling that the researches of +the Tuebingen school had antiquated his "Life of Jesus," and stimulated by +Renan's "Life of Jesus," written with French elegance and vivacity, in +which he described Christ as an amiable hero of a Galilaean village story, +undertook in 1864 a semi-jubilee reproduction of his work, addressed to +"the German people." This was followed by a severe controversial pamphlet, +"The Half and the Whole," in which he lashed the halting attempts of +Schenkel as well as the uncompromising conservatism of Hengstenberg. He +now pointed out cases of intentional romancing in the gospel narratives; +the resurrection rests upon subjective visions of Christ's disciples. His +"Lectures on Voltaire" appeared in A.D. 1870, and in A.D. 1872 the most +radical of all his books, "The Old and the New Faith," which makes +Christianity only a modified Judaism, the history of the resurrection mere +"humbug," and the whole gospel story the result of the "hallucinations" of +the early Christians. The question whether "we" are still Christians he +answers openly and honourably in the negative. He has also surmounted the +standpoint of pantheism. The religion of the nineteenth century is +_pancosmism_, its gospel the results of natural science with Darwin's +discoveries as its bible, its devotional works the national classics, its +places of worship the concert rooms, theatres, museums, etc. The most +violent attacks on this book came from the _Protestantenverein_. Strauss +had said, "If the old faith is absurd, then the modernized edition of the +'_Protestantenverein_' and the school of Jena is doubly, trebly so. The +old faith only contradicts reason, not itself; the new contradicts itself +at every point, and how can it then be reconciled with reason?"(90) + +9. _The Mediating Theology._--This tendency originated from the right wing +of the school of Schleiermacher, still influenced more or less by the +pectoralism of Neander. It adopted in dogmatics a more positive and in +criticism a more conservative manner. It earnestly sought to promote the +interests of the union not merely as a combination for church government, +but as a communion under a confessional consensus. Its chief theological +organs were the "_Studien und Kritiken_," started in A.D. 1828, edited by +Ullmann and Umbreit in Heidelberg, afterwards by Riehm and Koestlin in +Halle, and the "_Jahrbuecher fuer deutsche Theologie_" of Dorner and +Leibner, A.D. 1856-1878.--Although the mediating theology sought to sink +all confessional differences, denominational descent was more or less +traceable in most of its adherents. Its leading representatives from the +_Reformed church_ were: _Alexander Schweizer_, who most faithfully +preserved the critical tendency of Schleiermacher, and, in a style far +abler and subtler than any other modern theologian, expounded the Reformed +system of doctrine in its rigid logical consistency. In his own system he +gives a scientific exposition of the evangelical faith from the unionist +standpoint, with many pious reflections on Scripture and the confession as +well as results of Christian experience, based upon the threefold +manifestation of God set forth without miracle in the physical order of +the world, in the moral order of the world, and in the historical economy +of the kingdom of God.--_Sack_, one of the oldest and most positive of +Schleiermacher's pupils, professor at Bonn, then superintendent at +Magdeburg, wrote on apologetics and polemics. _Hagenbach_ of Basel, A.D. +1801-1874, is well-known by his "Theological Encyclopaedia and +Methodology," "History of the Reformation," and "History of the Church in +the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," all of which are translated into +English.--_John Peter Lange_ of Bonn, A.D. 1802-1884, a man of genius, +imaginative, poetic, and speculative, with strictly positive tendencies, +widely known by his "Life of Christ" and the commentary on Old and New +Testament, edited and contributed to by him.--_Dr. Philip __ Schaff_ may +also be named as the transplanter of German theology of the +Neander-Tholuck type to the American soil. Born in Switzerland, he +accepted a call as professor to the theological seminary of the German +Reformed church at Mercersburg in 1843. He soon fell under suspicion of +heresy, but was acquitted by the Synod of New York in 1845. In 1869 he +accepted a call to a professorship in the richly endowed Presbyterian +Union Theological Seminary of New York. Writing first in German and +afterwards in English, his works treat of almost all the branches of +theological science, especially in history and exegesis. He is also +president of several societies engaged in active Christian work. + +10. Among those belonging originally to the _Lutheran church_ were +Schleiermacher's successor in Berlin, _Twesten_, whose dogmatic treatise +did not extend beyond the doctrine of God, a faithful adherent of +Schleiermacher's right wing on the Lutheran side; _Nitzsch_, professor in +Bonn A.D. 1822-1847, and afterwards of Berlin till his death in A.D. 1868, +best known by his "System of Christian Doctrine," and his Protestant reply +to Moehler's "Symbolism," a profound thinker with a noble Christian +personality, and one of the most influential among the consensus +theologians. _Julius Mueller_ of Halle, A.D. 1801-1878, if we except his +theory of an ante-temporal fall, occupied the common doctrinal platform of +the confessional unionists. His chief work, "The Christian Doctrine of +Sin," is a masterpiece of profound thinking and original research. +_Ullmann_, A.D. 1796-1865, professor in Halle and Heidelberg, a noble and +peace-loving character, distinguished himself in the domain of history by +his monograph on "Gregory Nazianzen," his "Reformers before the +Reformation," and most of all by his beautiful apologetical treatise on +the "Sinlessness of Jesus."--_Isaac Aug. Dorner_, A.D. 1809-1884, born and +educated in Wuerttemberg, latterly professor in Berlin, applied himself +mainly to the elaborating of Christian doctrine, and gave to the world, in +his "Doctrine of the Person of Christ," in A.D. 1839, a work of careful +historical research and theological speculation. The fundamental ideas of +his Christology are the theory favoured by the "German" theology generally +of the necessity of the incarnation even apart from sin (which Mueller +strongly opposed), and the notion of the archetypal Christ, the God-Man, +as the collective sum of humanity, in whom "are gathered the patterns of +all several individualities." His "System of Christian Doctrine" formed +the copestone of an almost fifty years' academical career. Christ's virgin +birth is admitted as the condition of the essential union in Him of +divinity and humanity; but the incarnation of the Logos extends through +the whole earthly life of the Redeemer; it is first completed in his +exaltation by means of his resurrection; it was therefore an operation of +the Logos, as principle of all divine movement, _extra __ carnem_. His +"System of Christian Ethics" was edited after his death by his +son.(91)--_Richard Rothe_, A.D. 1799-1867, appointed in A.D. 1823 chaplain +to the Prussian embassy at Rome, where he became intimately acquainted +with Bunsen. In A.D. 1828 he was made ephorus at the preachers' seminary +of Wittenberg, and afterwards professor in Bonn and Heidelberg. Rothe was +one of the most profound thinkers of the century, equalled by none of his +contemporaries in the grasp, depth, and originality of his speculation. +Though influenced by Schleiermacher, Neander, and Hegel, he for a long +time withdrew like an anchoret from the strife of theologians and +philosophers, and took up a position alongside of Oetinger in the chamber +of the theosophists. His mental and spiritual constitution had indeed much +in common with that great mystic. In his first important work, "_Die +Anfaenge der chr. Kirche_," he gave expression to the idea that in its +perfected form the church becomes merged into the state. The same thought +is elaborated in his "Theological Ethics," a work which in depth, +originality, and conclusiveness of reasoning is almost unapproached, and +is full of the most profound Christian views in spite of its many +heterodoxies. In his later years he took part in the ecclesiastical +conflicts in Baden (§ 196, 3) with the _Protestantenverein_ (§ 180, 1), +and entered the arena of public ecclesiastical life.(92)--_Beyschlag_ of +Halle, in his "_Christologie d. N. T._," A.D. 1866, carried out +Schleiermacher's idea of Christ as only man, not God and man but the ideal +of man, not of two natures but only one, the archetypal human, which, +however, as such is divine, because the complete representation of the +divine nature in the human. From this standpoint, too, he vindicates the +authenticity of John's Gospel, and from Romans ix.-xi. works out a +"Pauline Theodicy."--_Hans Lassen Martensen_, A.D. 1808-1884, professor at +Copenhagen, Bishop of Zealand and primate of Denmark, with high +speculative endowments and a considerable tincture of theosophical +mysticism, has become through his "Christian Dogmatics," "Christian +Ethics," in three vols., etc., of a thoroughly Lutheran type, one of the +best known theologians of the century. + +11. Among _Old Testament exegetes_ the most distinguished are: _Umbreit_, +A.D. 1795-1860, of Heidelberg, who wrote from the supernaturalist +standpoint, influenced by Schleiermacher and Herder, commentaries on +Solomon's writings and those of the prophets, and on Job; _Bertheau_ of +Goettingen, of Ewald's school, wrote historico-critical and philological +commentaries on the historical books; and _Dillmann_, Hengstenberg's +successor in Berlin, specially distinguished for his knowledge of the +Ethiopic language and literature, has written critical commentaries on the +Pentateuch and Job.--Among _New Testament exegetes_ we may mention: _Luecke_ +of Goettingen, known by his commentary on John's writings; _Bleek_, the +able New Testament critic and commentator on the Epistle to the Hebrews; +_Meyer_, A.D. 1800-1873, most distinguished of all, whose "Critical and +Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament," begun in A.D. 1832, in which +he was aided by Huther, Lunemann, and Duesterdieck, is well-known in its +English edition as the most complete exegetical handbook to the New +Testament; _Weiss_ of Kiel and Berlin, author of treatises on the +doctrinal systems of Peter and of John, "The Biblical Theology of the New +Testament," "Life of Christ," "Introduction to New Testament," revises and +rewrites commentaries on Mark, Luke, John, and Romans, in the last edition +of the Meyer series.--A laborious student in the domain of New Testament +textual criticism was _Constant. von Tischendorff_ of Leipzig, A.D. +1815-1874, who ransacked all the libraries of Europe and the East in the +prosecution of his work. The publication of several ancient codices, +_e.g._ the _Cod. Sinaiticus_, a present from the Sinaitic monks to the +czar on the thousandth anniversary of the Russian empire in A.D. 1862, the +_Cod. Vaticanus N.T._, a new edition of the LXX., the most complete +collection of New Testament apocrypha and pseudepigraphs, and finally a +whole series of editions of the New Testament (from A.D. 1841-1873 there +appeared twenty-four editions, of which the _Editio Octava Major_ of 1872 +is the most complete in critical apparatus), are the rich and ripe fruits +of his researches. A second edition, compared throughout with the +recensions of Tregelles and Westcott and Hort, was published by _Von +Gebhardt_, and a third volume of Prolegomena was added by C. R. Gregory. +As a theologian he attached himself, especially in later years, to the +Lutheranism of his Leipzig colleagues, and on questions of criticism and +introduction took up a strictly conservative position as seen in his well +known tract, "When were our Gospels written?" + +12. Among the university teachers of his time _John Tob. Beck_, A.D. +1804-1878, assumed a position all his own. After a pastorate of ten years +he began in A.D. 1836 his academical career in Basel, and went in A.D. +1843 to Tuebingen, where he opposed to the teaching of Baur's school a +purely biblical and positive theology, with a success that exceeded all +expectations. A Wuerttemberger by birth, nature, and training, he quite +ignored the history of the church and its dogmas as well as modern +criticism, and set forth a system of theology drawn from a theosophical +realistic study of the Bible. He took little interest in the excited +movements of his age for home and foreign missions, union, confederation, +and alliances, in questions about liturgies, constitution, discipline, and +confessions, in all which he saw only the form of godliness without the +power. Better times could be hoped for only as the result of the immediate +interposition of God. His "Pastoral Theology" and "Biblical Psychology" +have been translated into English. + +13. _The Lutheran Confessional Theology._--_Sartorius_, A.D. 1797-1859, +from A.D. 1822 professor in Dorpat, then from A.D. 1835 general +superintendent at Koenigsberg, made fresh and vigorous attacks upon +rationalism, and supported the union as preserving "the true mean" of +Lutheranism. He is best known by his "Doctrine of Divine Love." +_Rudelbach_,--a Dane by birth and finally settled in Copenhagen, occupying +the same ground, became a violent opponent of the union.--_Guericke_ of +Halle, beginning as a pietist, passed through the union into a rigorous +Lutheran, and joined Rudelbach in editing the journal afterwards conducted +by Luthardt of Leipzig.--Alongside of these older representatives of +Lutheran orthodoxy there arose a _second generation_ which from A.D. 1840 +has fallen into several groups. Their divergencies were mainly on two +points: (1) On the place and significance of the clerical order, some +viewing it as based on the general priesthood of believers and resting on +the call of the congregation for the orderly administration of the means +of grace, others regarding it as a divine institution, yet without +adopting the Romanizing and Anglican theory of apostolic succession; and +(2) On the more important question of biblical prophecy, where one party +maintained the spiritualistic, widely favoured since the time of Jerome, +and another party, attaching itself to Crusius and Bengel, insisted upon a +realistic interpretation.--At the head of the _first group_, which +maintained the old Protestant theory of church and office and looked +askance at chiliastic theories, supporting the old doctrines by all +available materials from modern science, stands _Harless_, A.D. 1806-1879, +professor in Erlangen and Leipzig, the chief ecclesiastical commissioner +in Dresden, and finally at Munich. His theological reputation rests upon +his "Commentary on Ephesians," A.D. 1835, his "Christian Ethics," A.D. +1842. Alongside of him _Thomasius_ of Erlangen, A.D. 1802-1875, wrought in +a similar direction.--_Keil_, A.D. 1807-1888, from A.D. 1833 professor in +Dorpat, since A.D. 1858 living retired in Leipzig, of all Hengstenberg's +students has most faithfully preserved his master's exegetical and +critical conservatism. He began in A.D. 1861 in connexion with Delitzsch +his "Old Testament Commentary" on strictly conservative lines. We have an +English translation of that work, and also of his "Introduction to the Old +Testament" and his "Old Testament Archaeology."--_Philippi_, A.D. 1809-1882, +son of Jewish parents, during his academic career in Dorpat, A.D. +1841-1852, exercised a powerful influence in securing for strict +Lutheranism a very widespread ascendency among the clergy of Livonia. From +A.D. 1852 till his death in A.D. 1882 he resided in Rostock. As exegete +and dogmatist, he has, like a John Gerhard and Quenstedt of the nineteenth +century, reproduced the Lutheran theology of the seventeenth century, +unmodified by the developments of modern thought. He is known to English +readers by his "Commentary on Romans." His chief work is "_Kirchl. +Glaubenslehre_," in six vols.--Alongside of him, and scarcely less +important, stands _Theodosius Harnack_, who went from Dorpat in A.D. 1853 +to Erlangen, but returned to Dorpat in A.D. 1866, and retired in A.D. +1873. He has written upon the worship of the church of the post-apostolic +age, on Luther's theology, and practical theology. + +14. At the head of the _second group_, characterized by a decided biblical +realism and inclined to a biblical chiliasm, stands _Von Hofmann_ of +Erlangen, A.D. 1810-1877, whose "_Weissagung und Erfuellung_," 1841, +represents the very antipodes of Hengstenberg's view of the Old Testament, +placing history and prophecy in vital relation to one another, and +studying prophecy in its historical setting. In his "_Schriftbeweis_" we +have an entirely new system of doctrine drawn from Scripture, the doctrine +of the atonement being set forth in quite a different form from that +generally approved, but vindicated by its author against Philippi as "a +new way of teaching old truth." In his commentary on the New Testament, he +takes up a conservative position on questions of criticism and +introduction.--_Franz Delitzsch_, in Rostock, A.D. 1846, Erlangen, A.D. +1850, in Leipzig since A.D. 1867, more intimately acquainted with +rabbinical literature than any other Christian theologian, became an +enthusiastic adherent of Hofmann's position. His theology, however, has a +more decidedly theosophical tendency, while his critical attitude is more +liberal. He is well known by his "Biblical Psychology," commentary on +Psalms, Isaiah, Solomon's writings, Job, Hebrews, and a new commentary on +Genesis in which he accepts many of the positions of the advanced school +of biblical criticism.--_Luthardt_ of Leipzig in the domain of New +Testament exegesis and dogmatics works from the standpoint of Hofmann. His +"Commentary on John's Gospel," "Authorship of Fourth Gospel," and +"Apologetical Lectures on the Fundamental, Saving and Moral Truths of +Christianity," are well known.--Hofmann's conception of Old Testament +doctrine is admirably carried out by _Oehler_, A.D. 1812-1872, with +learning and speculative power, in his "Theology of the Old Testament," +and in various important monographs on Old Testament doctrines.--The most +important representatives of the _third group_, which strongly emphasizes +the extreme Lutheran theory of the church and office, are _Kliefoth_ of +Schwerin, liturgist and biblical commentator; and _Vilmar_, who opened his +academic career at Marburg, in 1836, with a controversial programme +entitled "The Theology of Facts against the Theology of Rhetoric." +Vilmar's lectures, able, though sketchy and incomplete, were published +after his death in A.D. 1868 by some of his disciples. To the same school +belonged _Von Zezschwitz_ of Erlangen, A.D. 1825-1886, whose +"_Catechetics_" is a treasury of solid learning. + +15. Among Lutheran theologians taking little or nothing to do with these +controversial questions, _Kahnis_, A.D. 1814-1888, from A.D. 1850 +professor at Leipzig, occupied a strict Lutheran confessional standpoint, +diverging only in the adoption of a subordinationist doctrine on the +person of Christ, a Sabellian theory of the Trinity, and a theory of the +Lord's supper in some points differing from that of the strict Lutherans. +His historical sketches are vigorous and lively.--_Zoeckler_ of Giessen and +Greifswald has made important contributions to church history, exegesis, +and dogmatics, and especially to the theory and history of natural +theology. In 1886 he began the publication of a short biblical commentary +contributed to by the most distinguished positive theologians, he himself +editing the New Testament and Strack the Old Testament. It is to be in +twelve vols., and is being translated into English.--_Von Oetingen_ of +Dorpat has devoted himself to social problems and moral +statistics.--_Frank_ of Erlangen has proved a powerful apologist for old +Lutheranism, and in his "System of Christian Evidence" has introduced a +new branch of theology, in which the subjective Christian certitude which +the believer has with his faith is made the basis of the scientific +exposition of the truth set forth in his "System of Christian Truth," a +thoughtful and speculative treatise on doctrine, followed by "The System +of Christian Morals" as the conclusion of his theological work.--Lutheran +theology had also zealous representatives in several distinguished +jurists: _Goeschel_, president of the consistory of Magdeburg, who wrote +against Strauss, sought to derive profound Christian teaching from Goethe +and Dante, and wrote on the last things, and on man in respect of body, +soul, and spirit; _Stahl_, A.D. 1802-1861, professor of law at Erlangen +and Berlin, leader since A.D. 1849 of the high-church aristocratic +reactionary party in the Prussian chamber, supported his views by +reference to the Scripture doctrine of the divine origin of magisterial +authority. + +16. As zealous representatives of _Reformed Confessionalism_ who set aside +the dogma of predestination and so show no antagonism to the union, may be +named: _Heppe_, opponent of Vilmar in Marburg, who devoted much of his +career as a historian to the undermining of Lutheranism, then wrought upon +the histories of provincial churches, of Catholic mysticism and pietism, +etc.; and _Ebrard_, A.D. 1818-1887, a brilliant believing theologian who +combated rationalism and Catholicism, professor from A.D. 1847 of Reformed +theology at Erlangen, known by his "Gospel History: a Compendium of +Critical Investigations in Support of the Historical Church of the Four +Gospels," his "Apologetics," in 3 vols., "Commentary on Hebrews," etc. + +17. _The Free Protestant Theology._--This school originated in the left +wing of Schleiermacher's following, and has as its literary organs, +Hilgenfeld's _Zeitschrift_ and the _Jahrbuecher fuer prot. Theologie_.--The +distinguished statesman, _Von Bunsen_, A.D. 1791-1860, ambassador at Rome +and afterwards at London, at first stood at the head of the revival of the +church interests and life; but in his "Church of the Future," conceived a +constitutional idea on a democratic basis, for which he sought support in +historical studies on the Ignatian age, etc., and the historical +refutation of the orthodox Christology and trinitarianism. His elaborate +work on "Egypt's Place in the World's History," full of arbitrary +criticism, negative and positive, on the chronological and historical data +of the Old Testament, seeks to show that, by restoring the Egyptian +chronology, we for the first time make the Bible history fit into general +history. "The Signs of the Times" comprise glowing philippics against the +hierarchical pretensions of Papists and even more dangerous Lutherans, +insists on Scripture being translated out of the Semitic into the Japhetic +mode of speech, to which end he devoted his last great works, "God in +History" and his "Bible Commentary," the latter finished after his death +by Kamphausen and Holtzmann.--_Schenkel_, A.D. 1813-1885, professor at +Heidelberg from A.D. 1851 till his resignation in A.D. 1884, from the +right wing of the mediating school, through unionism and Melanchthonianism +advanced to the standpoint of his "_Charakterbild Jesu_," which strips +Christ of all supernatural features, yet proclaims him the redeemer of the +world, and strives to save his resurrection as a historical and saving +truth, and explains his appearances after the resurrection as "real +manifestations of the personality living and glorified after death." In +later years he sought to draw yet more closely to positive Christianity. +_Keim_ of Zuerich and Giessen, A.D. 1825-1878, the ablest of all recent +historians of the life of Jesus, and with all his radicalism preserving +some conservative tendencies, is best known by his "Jesus of Nazareth," in +six vols.--_Holtzmann_ of Heidelberg and Strassburg, passed from the +mediating school over to that of Tuebingen, from which in important points +he has now departed.--To the same rank belongs _Hausrath_ of Heidelberg, +whose "History of the New Testament Times" is well known. Under the +pseudonym of George Taylor he has composed several highly successful +historical romances.--The organs of this school are Hilgenfeld's +_Zeitschrift_, and since 1875 the Jena "_Jahrbuecher fuer protest. +Theologie_." + +18. _In the Old Testament Department_ a liberal critical school has arisen +which has reversed the old relation of "the law and the prophets," +treating the origin of the law as post-exilian, and as in not coming at +the beginning, but at the end of the Jewish history. _Reuss_, whose +"History of the New Testament Books" marked an epoch in New Testament +introduction, was the first who moved in this direction, in his lectures +begun at Strassburg in A.D. 1834, the results of which are given us in his +"History of the Theology of the Apostolic Age" and in his "History of the +Canon." Meanwhile _Vatke_ of Berlin had, in A.D. 1835, undertaken to prove +that the patriarchal religion was pure Semitic nature worship, and that +the prophets were the first to raise it into a monotheistic Jehovism. +Little success attended his efforts. Greater results were obtained by +Reuss' two pupils, _Graf_ in A.D. 1866, and _Kayser_ in A.D. 1874. The +most brilliant exposition of this theory was given by _Julius Wellhausen_ +of Greifswald, transferred in A.D. 1882 to the Philosophical Faculty of +Halle, in his "History of Israel." In his "Prolegomena to History of +Israel," and article "Israel" in "_Encyclopaedia Britannica_," he gives +expression with clearness and force to his radical negative criticism, and +develops a purely naturalist conception of the Old Testament. Professor +Kuenen of Leyden transplanted these views to the Netherlands, and +Robertson Smith has introduced them into Scotland and England, while in +Germany they are taught by a number of the younger teachers, Stade in +Giessen, Merx in Heidelberg, Smend in Basel, etc. And now at last in A.D. +1882 the venerable master of the school, _Edward Reuss_, has himself in +his "_Geschichte d. h. Schr. d. A. Test._" given a brilliant and in many +points modified exposition of these radical theories. The history of +Israel, according to him, divides itself into the four successive periods +of the heroes, of the prophets, of the priests, and of the scribes, +characterized respectively by individualism, idealism, formalism, and +traditionalism. Even before the close of prophetism the priestly influence +began to assert itself, but it was only in the post-exilian period under +the domination of the priests that the construction and codification of +the law began to make impression on the Jewish people. So too in the age +of the kings there existed a Levitical tradition about rites and worship, +which traced back its first outlines to the time of Moses, though at this +period there could have been no written official codex of any kind. In +regard to Moses, we are to think not only of his person as historical, but +also of his career as that of a man inspired by the divine spirit and +recognised as such by his contemporaries and fellow-countrymen.--Also +_Wellhausen_, who has hitherto concerned himself only with the critical +introduction to the Old Testament books, not with their historical or +theological interpretation, supplied this defect to some extent by his +"Prolegomena to the History of Israel." He admits that much of the history +of Israel related in the Old Testament is credible. He even goes so far as +to allow that this history was a preparation and forerunner of +Christianity, but without miracle and prophecy, and without any immediate +interposition of God in the affairs of Israel. + +19. Among the most distinguished free-thinking _dogmatists_ of recent +times, _Biedermann_ of Zuerich, A.D. 1819-1885, has occupied the most +advanced position. His principal work, "_Christliche Dogmatik_," A.D. +1869, defined God and the origin of the world as the self-development of +the Absolute Idea according to the Hegelian scheme, recognises in the +person of Christ the first realization of the Christian principle of the +divine sonship in a personal life, then proceeds with free exposition of +the Scripture and church doctrines, and combats openly the doctrines of +the church and through them also those of Scripture, as setting religion +purely in the domain of the imagination.--_Lipsius_ of Leipzig, Kiel, and +Jena, in his earliest treatise on the Pauline Doctrine of Justification in +A.D. 1853, held the position of the mediating theology, but under the +influence of Kant, Hegel, and Baur has been led to adopt the standpoint of +the "Free Protestant" school. His history of gnosticism and his researches +in early apocryphal literature are important contributions to our +knowledge of primitive Christianity. His "_Lehrbuch d. ev. prot. +Dogmatik_," 1876, 2nd ed. 1879, on the basis of Kant and Schleiermacher, +fixing the limits of science with the former, and maintaining with the +latter the necessity of religious faith and life, not rejecting +metaphysics generally, but only its speculations on God and divine things +lying quite outside of human experience, seeks from the common faith of +the Christian church of all ages, as it is expressed in the Scriptures and +in the confessions, by the application of the freest subjective criticism +of the letter of revelation, to secure a theory of the world in harmony +with modern views.--_Pfleiderer_, Twesten's successor in Berlin, in his +"Paulinism," "Influence of Paul on Development of Christianity" and +"History of the Philosophy of Religion," occupies more the Hegelian +speculative standpoint than that of Kantian criticism. + +20. _Ritschl and his School._--_Ritschl_, 1822-1889, from A.D. 1846 in +Bonn, from A.D. 1864 in Goettingen, on his withdrawal from the Tuebingen +party, applied himself to dogmatic studies and founded a school, the +adherents of which, divided into right and left wings, have secured quite +a number of academical appointments. After the completion of his great +dogmatic work on "Justification and Reconciliation," Ritschl resumed his +historical studies in a "History of Pietism," which he traces back through +the persecuted anabaptists of the Reformation age to the Tertiaries of the +Franciscan order and the mysticism of St. Bernard. He earnestly maintains +his adherence to the confessions of the Lutheran church, and regards it as +the task of his life to disentangle the pure Lutheran doctrine from the +accretions of scholastic metaphysics. Even more decidedly than +Schleiermacher, he banishes all philosophy from the domain of theology. +The grand significance of Kant's doctrine of knowledge, with its assertion +of the incomprehensibility of all transcendent truth except the ethical +postulates of God, freedom and immortality, as set forth in a more +profound manner by Lotze, is indeed admitted, but only as a methodological +basis of all religious inquiries, and with determined rejection of every +material support from Kant's construction of religion within the limits of +the pure reason. Ritschl rather pronounces in favour of the formal +principle of Protestantism, and declares distinctly that all religious +truth must be drawn directly from Scripture, primarily from the New +Testament as the witness of the early church uncorrupted by the +Platonic-Aristotelian metaphysic, but also secondarily from the Old +Testament as the record of the content of revelation made to the religious +community of Israel. The truthfulness of the biblical, especially of the +New Testament, system of truth, rests, however, not on any theory of +inspiration, but on its being an authentic statement of the early church +of the doctrine of Christ, inasmuch as to this witness the necessary +degree of _fides humana_ belongs. Ritschl's Christology rests on the +witness of Christ to himself in the synoptists, through which he proclaims +himself the one prophet who in the divine purpose of grace for mankind has +received perfect consecration, sent by God into the world to represent the +founding of the kingdom of God on earth foreshadowed in the Old Testament +revelation; but no attempt is made to explain how Christ became possessed +of the secrets of the divine decree. To him, as the first and only +begotten Son of God, standing in essential union with the Father, belongs +the attribute of deity and the right of worship. But of an eternal +preexistence of Christ we can speak only in so far as this is meant of the +eternal gracious purpose of God to redeem the world through him by means +of the complete unfolding of the kingdom of God in the fellowship of love. +Whatever goes beyond this in the fourth gospel, its Johannine authenticity +not being otherwise contested, as well as in Paul's epistles and in the +Epistle to the Hebrews, resulted from the necessity felt by their writers +for assigning a sufficient reason for the assumption of such incomparable +glory on the part of Christ. As the archetype of humanity destined for the +kingdom of God, Christ is the original object of the divine love, so that +the love of God to the members of his kingdom comes to them only through +him. And as the earthly founding, so also the heavenly completion, of the +kingdom of God is assigned to Christ, and hence after his resurrection all +power was given to him, of the transcendent exercise of which, however, we +can know nothing. The universality of human sin is admitted by Ritschl as +a fact of experience, but he despairs of reaching any dogmatic statement +as to the origin of sin through the temptation of a superhuman evil power. +But that sin is inherited and as original guilt is under the condemnation +of God, is not taught or pre-supposed by the teaching either of Christ or +of the apostles. Redemption (reconciliation and justification) consists in +the forgiveness of sins, by which the guilt that estranges from God is +removed and the sinner is restored into the fellowship of the kingdom of +God. Forgiveness, however, is not given on condition of the vicarious +penal sufferings of Christ, whose sufferings and death are of significance +rather because his life and works were a complete fulfilment of his +calling, and witnessed to as such by God's raising him from the dead. +Justification secures the reception of the penitent sinner into the +fellowship of the kingdom of God, preached and perfectly developed by +Christ, and the sonship enjoyed in its membership, prefigured in Christ +himself, which contains in itself the desire as well as the capacity to do +good works out of love to God.--The school of Ritschl is represented in +Goettingen by its founder and by _Schultz_ and _Wendt_, in Marburg by +_Herrmann_, in Bonn by _Bender_, in Giessen by _Gottschick_ and +_Kattenbusch_, in Strassburg by _Lobstein_, in Basel by _Kaftan_, formerly +of Berlin.(93) + +21. Opponents and critics of the school of Ritschl, especially from the +confessional Lutheran ranks, have appeared in considerable numbers. +Luthardt of Leipzig in A.D. 1878 opened the campaign against +Ritschilianism, followed by Bestmann, charging it with undermining +Christianity. The Hanoverian synod of A.D. 1882 decided by a large +majority that the scientific results of theological science must be ruled +by the confessions of the evangelical church. The chief theme at the +following Hanoverian Pentecost Conference was the "Incarnation of the Son +of God," the discussion being led by Professor Dieckhoff of Rostock, +against whom no voice was raised in favour of the views of Ritschl. Not +long after, Professor Fricke of Leipzig published a lecture given by him +at the Meissen Conference, on the Present Relations of Metaphysics and +Theology, followed by utterances of Kuebel of Tuebingen, Grau of Koenigsberg, +Kreibig and H. Schmidt at Berlin, all unfavourable to Ritschl's +theology.--The main objections are, according to _Bestmann_: idolatry of +Kant, depreciation of the religious factor in Christianity in favour of +the ethical by laying out a moral foreground without providing a dogmatic +background, reducing the objective fundamental truths of the confession +into subjective ethical ideas, etc.; according to _Luthardt_: Ritschl's +position that it does not matter so much what the facts of the Christian +faith are in themselves, as what they mean for us, makes his whole +dogmatic system hang in the air, if in Christianity we have to do not with +what God, Christ, the resurrection are, but only what significance we +attach to them, Christianity is stript of all importance, the significance +of a thing must have its foundation in the thing itself, etc.; according +to _Dieckhoff_: Ritschl on his accepting the divinity of Christ lays down +the rule that the special content of what is meant by the term divinity +must be transferable to the believer, and so for Ritschl, Christ is a mere +man who in his person was the first to represent a relation to God which +is destined for all men in like measure, etc.; according to _Fricke_: new +Kantian scepticism with regard to ideals and transcendentals, reducing +religious elements to moral, with Ritschl's removal of all metaphysical +facts the chief verities of our Christian faith are taken away, at least +in the scientific form in which we have them, _e.g._ the doctrine of the +Trinity, our Christology, our theory of satisfaction, in place of which +comes the Catholic _justitia infusa_, etc.; according to _Muenchmayer_: +"the object of justification with Ritschl is not the individual but the +community, it is no act of God upon the individual but an eternal purpose +of God for the community, its effect on the individual is not objective +divine forgiveness of guilt but a subjective act of incorporation of the +individual into the redeemed community; Christ and his work are not the +ground of justification, but only the means of revealing the eternal +justifying will of God, and therefore finally a continuation of the +historical work of Christ by means of his church takes the place of the +personal intercession of the exalted Redeemer for the penitent sinner." +Kreibig and Schmidt express themselves in a similar manner.--Ritschl has +not himself undertaken any reply, but his disciples have sought to remove +what they regard as misunderstandings, and generally to vindicate the +system of their master. + +22. _Writers on Constitutional Law and History._--The most distinguished +writers on the constitutional law of the church are Eichhorn and Dove of +Goettingen, Jacobsen of Koenigsberg, Wasserschleben of Giessen, Richter and +Hinschius of Berlin, Friedberg of Leipzig, who belong to the unionist +party; while Bickell of Marburg, Mejer of Goettingen and Hanover, Von +Scheuerl of Erlangen, and Sohm of Strassburg belong to the confessional +Lutherans.--Of ecclesiastical historians (§ 5, 4, 5) the number is so great +that we cannot even enumerate their names.--The "_Theologische +Literaturzeitung_" of Schuerer and Harnack is a liberal scientific journal, +distinguished for its fair criticisms by writers whose names are given. + + + +§ 183. Home Missions. + + +In regard to home mission work, the Protestant church long lagged behind +the Catholic, which had wrought vigorously through its monkish orders. +England first entered with zeal into the field, especially dissenters and +members of the low church party, and subsequently also the high church +ritualistic party (§ 202, 1, 3), which now takes an active interest in +this work. Germany, in view of the scanty means at the disposal of the +pietists and the church party, made noble efforts. In other continental +countries, but especially in North America, much was done for home +missions. Soon the whole Protestant world began to organize benevolent and +evangelistic institutions. The laborious Wichern, in A.D. 1849, went +through all Germany to arouse interest in home missions, and started a +yearly congress on the subject in Wittenberg. Till his death in A.D. 1881, +Wichern continued to direct this congress and further the interests which +it represented. + +1. _Institutions._--The earliest charity school was that founded at +Duesselthal by Count Recke-Volmarstein, in A.D. 1816, followed by Zeller's +at Beuggen in A.D. 1820. One of the most famous of these institutions was +the _Rauhe Haus_ of Wichern, at Horn, near Hamburg, A.D. 1833.(94) +Fliedner's Deaconess Institut at Kaiserswerth is the pride of the +evangelical church. It has now 190 branches, with 625 sisters, in the four +continents. There are many independent institutions modelled upon it in +Germany, England, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, and France. In A.D. +1881 there were in Germany 31, and in the cities of other lands 22, +principal deaconess institutions of this German order, with 4,751 sisters +and 1,491 fields of labour outside of the institution. The original +institute of Kaiserswerth comprises a hospital with 600 patients, a refuge +for fallen women and liberated prisoners, an orphanage for girls, a +seminary for governesses, and a home for female imbeciles.(95) Loehe +founded the deaconess institute of _Neuendettelsau_, on strict Lutheran +principles, with hospital, girls' school, and asylum for imbecile +children. In France a most successful institution was founded by pastor +Bost of Laforce, in A.D. 1848, for foundlings, imbeciles, and epileptics. +In England, George Mueller, a poor German student of Halle, a pupil of +Tholuck, beginning in A.D. 1832, founded at Bristol five richly endowed +orphanages after the pattern of that of A. H. Francke, in which thousands +of destitute street children have been educated, and for this and other +purposes has spent nearly L1,000,000 without ever asking any one for a +contribution, acting on the belief that "the God of Elijah still lives." +The London City Mission employs 600 missionaries. In New York, since A.D. +1855, about 60,000 street children have been placed, by the Society for +Poor Children, in Christian families, and 21 Industrial schools are +maintained with 10,000 scholars.--Tract Societies in London, Hamburg, +Berlin, etc., send out millions of tracts for Christian instruction and +awakening. The Society for North Germany successfully pursues a similar +work; the Calw Publication Society circulates Christian text-books with +woodcuts at a remarkably small price. In Berlin the Evangelical Book +Society issues reprints of the older tracts on practical divinity. +Christian women, like the English Quakeress Elizabeth Fry, the noble +Amalie Sieveking of Hamburg, Miss Florence Nightingale, the heroine of the +Crimean war, and the brave Maria Simon of Dresden, who organized the +female nursing corps of the wars of 1866, 1870, 1871, helped on the work +of home missions in all lands, especially in the departments of tending +the poor and the sick. + +2. The _Order of St. John_, secularized in A.D. 1810, was reorganized by +Frederick William IV. in A.D. 1852 into an association for the care of the +sick and poor. Under a grand-master it has 350 members and 1,500 +associates. Its revenues are formed from entrance fees and annual +contributions. It has thirty hospitals. In A.D. 1861 it founded a hospital +for men in Beyrout during the persecution of Christians in Syria, and in +A.D. 1868 gave aid during the famine that followed the typhus epidemic in +East Prussia, and did noble service in the wars of A.D. 1864, 1866, and +1870. + +3. _The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in Wuerttemberg._--Abandoning his +charge in A.D. 1840, Werner began his itinerant labours, and during the +year formed more than a hundred groups of adherents over all Wuerttemberg. +His preaching was allegorical and eschatological, and avoided the +doctrines of satisfaction and justification. On his repudiating the +Augsburg Confession, the church boards refused to recognise him, and he +went hither and thither preaching a Christian communism. In A.D. 1842 he +bought a site in Reutlingen, built a house, and founded a school for +eighty children. In order to develop his views of carrying on industrial +arts on a Christian basis, he bought, in A.D. 1850, the paper factory at +Reutlingen for L4,000, and subsequently transferred it to Dettingen on a +larger scale, at an outlay of L20,000. By A.D. 1862 he had established no +less than twenty-two branches, in which manufacturing was carried on, with +institutions of all kinds for education, pastoral work, rescuing the lost +and raising the fallen. Each member lives and works for the whole; none +receives wages; surplus income goes to increase the number and extent of +the institutions. Vast multitudes of sunken and destitute families have +been by these means restored to respectable social positions and to a +moral religious life. + +4. _Bible Societies._--The Bible societies constitute an independent branch +of the home mission. Modern efforts to circulate Scripture began in +England. As a necessary adjunct to missionary societies, the great British +and Foreign Bible Society was founded in London in A.D. 1804, embracing +all Protestant sects, excepting the Quakers. It circulates Bibles without +note or comment. The Apocryphal controversy of A.D. 1825-1827 resulted in +the society resolving not to print the Apocrypha in its issues. In +consequence of this decision, fifty German societies, including the +present society of Berlin, seceded. The New York Association, founded in +A.D. 1817, is in thorough accord with the London society. The Baden +Missionary Society revived the discussion in A.D. 1852 by making it the +subject of essay for a prize, which was won by the learned work of Keerl, +who, along with the stricter Lutherans, condemned the Apocrypha. The other +side was taken by Stier and Hengstenberg, and most of the consistories +advised adherence to the old practice, as all misunderstanding was +prevented by Luther's preface and the prohibition against using passages +from the Apocrypha as sermon texts.--Bible societies altogether have issued +during the century 180,000,000 Bibles and New Testaments in 324 different +languages.(96) + + + +§ 184. Foreign Missions. + + +Protestant zeal for missions to the heathen has gone on advancing since +the end of last century (§ 172, 5). Missionary societies increase from +year to year. In A.D. 1883 there were seventy independent societies with +innumerable branches, which contribute annually about L1,500,000, or five +times as much as the Romish church, and maintain 2,000 mission stations, +2,940 European and American missionaries, and 1,000 ordained native +pastors and 25,000 native teachers and assistants, having under their care +2,214,000 converts from heathenism. In missionary enterprise England holds +the first place, next comes America, and then Germany. Among Protestant +sects the Methodists and Baptists are most zealous in the cause of +missions, and the Moravian Brethren have wrought most successfully in this +department. The missions also did much to prepare the way for the +suppression of the slave trade by the European powers in A.D. 1830, and +the emancipation of all slaves in the British possessions in A.D. 1834, at +a cost of L20,000,000. The noble English philanthropist, William +Wilberforce, unweariedly laboured for these ends.--Also in England, +Germany, Russia, and France new associations were formed for missions to +the Jews, and the work was carried on with admirable patience, though the +visible results were very small. + +1. _Missionary Societies._--The great American Missionary Society was +founded at Boston in A.D. 1810, the English Wesleyan in A.D. 1814, the +American Methodist in A.D. 1819, the American Episcopal in A.D. 1820, and +the Society of Paris in A.D. 1824. The new German societies were on +confessional lines: that of Basel in A.D. 1816, of Berlin in A.D. 1823, +the Rhenish with the mission seminary at Barmen in A.D. 1829, the North +German, on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, in A.D. 1836. The Dresden +Society, which resumed the old Lutheran work in the East Indies (§ 167, +9), founded a seminary at Leipzig in A.D. 1849, in order to get the +benefit of the university. Lutheran societies, mostly affiliated with that +of Leipzig, were started in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Russia, Bavaria, +Hanover, Mecklenburg, Hesse, and America. The Neuendettelsau Institute +wrought through the Iowa Synod among the North American Indians, and +through the Immanuel Synod among the aborigines of Australia. The +Hermannsburg Institute under Harms prosecuted mission work with great +zeal. In A.D. 1853, Harms sent out in his own mission ship eight +missionaries and as many Christian colonists. It has been objected to this +mission, that endeavours after social elevation and industrial training +have driven to the background the main question of individual +conversion.--The advanced liberal school in Switzerland and Germany sought +in A.D. 1883 to start a mission on their own particular lines. They do not +propose any opposition to existing agencies, and intend to make their +first experiment among the civilized races of India and Japan. + +2. _Europe and America._--The Swedish mission in Lapland (§ 160, 7) was +resumed in A.D. 1825 by Stockfleth. The Moravians carried on their work +among the Eskimos in Greenland, which had now become a wholly Christian +country, and also in Labrador, which was almost in the same condition. The +chaplain of the Hudson Bay Company, J. West, founded a successful mission +in that territory in A.D. 1822. Among the natives and negro slaves in the +British possessions, the United States, and West Indies, Moravians, +Methodists, Baptists, and Anglican Episcopalians patiently and +successfully carried on the work. Among the natives and bush negroes, +descendants of runaway slaves, in Guiana, the Moravians did a noble +work.--Catholic South America remained closed against Protestant missions. +But the ardent zeal of Capt. Allen Gardiner led him to choose the +inhospitable shores of Patagonia as a field of labour. He landed there in +A.D. 1850 with five missionaries, but in the following year their corpses +only were found. The work, however, was started anew in A.D. 1856, and +prosecuted with success under the direction of an Anglican bishop. + +3. _Africa._--The Moravians have laboured among the Hottentots, the Berlin +missionaries among the wild Corannas, and the French Evangelical Society +among the Bechuanas. Hahn of Livonia is the apostle of the Hereros. On the +East Coast the London Missionary Society has wrought among the warlike +Kaffirs, and other British societies are labouring in Natal among the +Zulus. On the West Coast the English colony of Sierra Leone was founded +for the settling and Christianizing of liberated slaves, and farther south +is Liberia, a similar American colony; both in a flourishing condition, +under the care of Methodists, Baptists, and Anglican Episcopalians. The +Basel missionaries labour on the Gold Coast, Baptists in Old Calabar, and +the American and North German Societies on the Gaboon River.--The London +missionaries won Radama of Madagascar to Christianity in A.D. 1818, but +his successor Ranavalona instituted a bloody persecution of the Christians +in A.D. 1835, during which David Jones, the apostle of the Malagassy, +suffered martyrdom in A.D. 1843. In the island of Mauritius, where there +is an Anglican bishop, many Malagassy Christians found refuge. After the +queen's death in A.D. 1861, her Christian son Radama II. recalled the +Christian exiles and the missionaries. He soon became the victim of a +palace revolution. His wife and successor Rosaherina continued a heathen +till her death in A.D. 1868, but put no obstacle in the way of the gospel. +But her cousin Ranavalona II. overthrew the idol worship, was baptized in +A.D. 1869, and in the following year burned the national idols. +Protestantism now made rapid strides, till interrupted by French Jesuit +intrigues, which have been favoured by the recent French occupation. + +4. Livingstone and Stanley have made marvellous contributions to our +geographical knowledge of _Central Africa_ and to Christian missions +there. The Scottish missionary, David Livingstone, factory boy, afterwards +physician and minister, wrought, A.D. 1840-1849, under the London +Missionary Society in South Africa, and then entered on his life work of +exploration in Central Africa. During his third exploring journey into the +interior in A.D. 1865 as a British consul, he was not heard of for a whole +year. H. M. Stanley, of the _New York Herald_, was sent in A.D. 1871, and +found him in Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. Livingstone died of dysentery on +the southern bank of this lake in A.D. 1873. Still more important was +Stanley's second journey, A.D. 1874-1877, which yielded the most brilliant +scientific results, and was epoch-making in the history of African +missions. He got the greatest potentate in those regions, King Mtesa of +Uganda, who had been converted by the Arabs to Mohammedanism, to adopt +Christianity and permit a Christian church to be built in his city. +Stanley's letters from Africa roused missionary fervour throughout +England. The Church Missionary Society in A.D. 1877 set up a mission +station in the capital, and put a steamer on the Victoria Nyanza. The +church services were regularly attended, education and the work of +civilization zealously prosecuted, Sunday labour and the slave trade +prohibited, etc. French Jesuits entered in A.D. 1879, insinuating +suspicions of the English missionaries into the ear of the king, and the +machinations of the Arab slave-dealers made their position dangerous. +Missionaries arrived by way of Egypt with flattering recommendations from +the English foreign secretary in the name of the queen. But the traders, +by means of an Arabic translation of a letter purporting to be from the +English consul at Zanzibar, cast suspicion on the document as a forgery, +and represented its bearers as in the pay of the hostile Egyptians. +Mtesa's wrath knew no bounds, and only his favour for the missionary +physician saved the mission and led him to send an embassy of three chiefs +and two missionaries to England in June, A.D. 1879, to discover the actual +truth. His anger meanwhile cooled, and the work of the mission was +resumed. He was preparing to put an utter end to the national heathenism, +when suddenly a report spread that the greatest of all the Lubaris or +inferior deities, that of the Nyanza Lake, had become incarnate in an old +woman, in order to heal the king and restore the ancient religion. The +whole populace was in an uproar; Mtesa, under threat of deposition, +restored heathenism, with human sacrifice, man stealing, and the slave +trade. Then the Lubari excitement cooled down. Mtesa, moved by a dream, +declared himself again a Mohammedan, and converted the Christian church +into a mosque. The English missionaries, stripped of all means, starved, +and subjected to all sorts of privations, did not flinch. At last, in +January, A.D. 1881, the embassy, sent eighteen months before to England, +reached home again, and, by the story of their reception, caused a +revulsion of feeling in favour of the English mission, which again +flourished under the protection of the king. But Mtesa died in 1884. His +son and successor, Mwanga, a suspicious, peevish young despot, addicted to +all forms of vice, began again the most cruel persecution, of which Bishop +Hannington, sent out from England, with fifty companions, were the +victims. Only four escaped. + +5. _Asia._--The most important mission field in Asia is _India_. The old +Lutheran mission there had great difficulties to contend against: the +system of caste distinctions, the proud self-sufficiency of the +pantheistic Brahmans, the politico-commercial interests of the East India +Company, etc. The Leipzig Society has sixteen stations among the Tamuls, +and alongside are English, American, and German missionaries of every +school. The Gossner Society works among the Kohls of Chota Nagpore, where +a rival mission has been started by the puseyite bishop of Calcutta, Dr. +Milman, to which, in A.D. 1868, six of the twelve German missionaries and +twelve of the thirty-six chapels were transferred. The Basel missionaries +labour in Canara and Malabar. The military revolt in Northern India in +A.D. 1857 interrupted missionary operations for two years; but the work +was afterwards resumed with great vigour. The Christian benevolence shown +during the famine of A.D. 1878, in which three millions perished, made a +great impression in favour of the Protestant church. In the preceding +years throughout all India only between 5,000 and 10,000 souls were +annually added; but in A.D. 1878 the number of new converts rose to +100,000, and in A.D. 1879 there were 44,000.--The island of _Ceylon_ was, +under Portuguese and Dutch, rule, in great part nominally Christianized; +but when compulsion was removed under British rule, this sham profession +was at an end. Multitudes fell back into heathenism, and in the first ten +years of the British dominion 900 new idol temples were erected. From A.D. +1812 Baptist, Methodist, and Anglican missionaries have toiled with small +appearance of fruit. In _Farther India_ the American missionaries have +wrought since A.D. 1813. Judson and his heroic wife did noble work among +the Karens and the Burmans. Also in Malacca, Singapore, and Siam the +Protestant missions have had brilliant success. The work in Sumatra has +been retarded by the opposition of the Malays and deadly malarial fever. +The preaching of the gospel was eminently successful in _Java_, where +since A.D. 1814 Baptist missionaries and agents of the London Society have +wrought heroically. In Celebes the Dutch missionaries found twenty +Christian congregations of old standing, greatly deteriorated for want of +pastoral care, but still using the Heidelberg Catechism. At Banjermassin, +in A.D. 1835 the Rhenish Society founded their first station in Borneo, +and wrought not unsuccessfully among the heathen Dyaks. But in A.D. 1859 a +rebellion of the Mohammedan residents led to the expulsion of the Dutch +and the murder of all Christians. Only a few of the missionaries escaped +martyrdom, and subsequently settled in Sumatra. + +6. The work in _China_ began in A.D. 1807, when the London Missionary +Society settled Morrison in Canton, where he began the study of the +language and the translation of the Bible. Gutzlaff of Pomerania, in A.D. +1826, conceived the plan of evangelizing China through the Chinese +converts, but, though he continued his efforts till his death in A.D. +1854, the scheme failed through the unworthiness of many of the +professors. The war against the opium traffic, A.D. 1839-1842, opened five +ports to the mission, and led to the transference of Hongkong to the +English. The Chinese mission now made rapid strides; but the interior was +still untouched. The conflict between the governor of Canton and the +English, French, and Americans, and the chastisement administered to the +Chinese in A.D. 1857, led the emperor, in A.D. 1858, to make a treaty with +the three powers and also with Russia, by which the whole land was opened +up for trade and missions, and full toleration granted to Christianity. +Popular hatred of strangers, and especially of missionaries, however, +occasioned frequently bloody encounters, and in A.D. 1870 there was a +furious outburst directed against the French missionaries. During a +terrible famine in North China, in A.D. 1878, when more than five millions +perished, the heroic and self-sacrificing conduct of the missionaries +brought them into high favour. Throughout China there are now 320 +organized Christian congregations with 50,000 adherents under 238 foreign +missionaries.--After seclusion for three centuries, _Japan_, about the same +time as China, was opened by treaty to European and American commerce, +notwithstanding the opposition of the old feudal nobility, the so-called +Daimios. In A.D. 1871 the mikado's government succeeded in overcoming +completely the power of the daimios and setting aside the shiogun or +military vizier, who had exercised supreme executive power. European +customs were introduced, but the rigorous enactments against native +converts to Christianity were still enforced. A cruel persecution of +native Christians was carried on in A.D. 1867, but the Protestant +missionaries continued to work unweariedly, preparing dictionaries and +reading books. The Buddhist priests sought to get up a rival mission to +send agents to America and Europe, whereas many of the leading newspapers +expressed the opinion that Japan must soon put Christianity in the place +of Buddhism as the state religion. + +7. _Polynesia and Australia._--The flourishing Protestant church of Tahiti, +the largest and finest of the Society Islands (§ 172, 5), suffered from +the appearance of two French Jesuits in A.D. 1836. When Queen Pomare +compelled them to withdraw, the French government, resenting this as an +indignity to their nation, sent a fleet to attack the defenceless people, +proclaimed a French protectorate, and introduced not only Catholic +missionaries, but European vices. Amid much persecution, however, the +Protestants held their own. In December, 1880, Pomare V. resigned, and the +Society Islands became a dependency of France.--In the south-east groups +great opposition was shown, but in the north-west Christianity made rapid +progress. The island of Raiatea was the centre of the South Sea missions. +There from A.D. 1819 John Williams, the apostle of the South Seas, wrought +till he met a martyr's death in A.D. 1839. He went from place to place in +a mission ship built by his own hands. The Harvey Group were Christianized +in A.D. 1821, and the Navigator Group in A.D. 1830. The French took the +Marquesas Islands in A.D. 1838, and introduced Catholic missionaries. The +attempt to evangelize the New Hebrides led to the death of Williams and +two of his companions. Missionaries of the London Society, A.D. 1797-1799, +had failed in the Friendly Islands through the savage character of the +natives, but in A.D. 1822 the Methodists made a successful start. The +gospel was carried thence to Fiji, which is now under British rule. Both +groups have become almost wholly Christianized. The _Sandwich Islands_ +form a third mission centre, wrought by the American board. Kamehameha I. +gladly adopted the elements of Christian civilization, though rejecting +Christianity: while his successor Kamehameha II. in A.D. 1829 abolished +tabu and overthrew the idol temples. In A.D. 1851 Christianity was adopted +as the national religion. The work was more difficult in _New Zealand_, +where the Church Missionary Society, represented by Samuel Marsden, the +apostle of New Zealand, began operations in A.D. 1814. For ten years the +position of the missionaries was most hazardous; yet they held on, and the +conversion of the most bloodthirsty of the chiefs did much to advance +their cause. In New Guinea the London Society has been making steady +progress. Among the stolid natives of the continent of New Holland, the so +called Papuans, the labours of the Moravians since A.D. 1849 have not +yielded much fruit. Since A.D. 1875 the German-Australian Immanuel Synod, +supported by Neuendettelsau, has laboured for the conversion of the +heathen in the inland districts. + +8. _Missions to the Jews._--In A.D. 1809 the London Society for Promoting +Christianity among the Jews (§ 172, 5) was formed by a union of all +denominations, but soon passed into the hands of the Anglicans. By the +circulation of the Scriptures and tracts, and by the sending out of +missionaries, mostly Jewish converts, the work was persevered in amid many +discouragements. In A.D. 1818 Poland was opened to its missionaries, and +there some 600 Jews were baptized. The society carried on its operations +also in Germany, Holland, France, and Turkey. The work in Poland was +interrupted by the Crimean war, and was not resumed till A.D. 1875. In +Bessarabia Faltin has laboured successfully among the Jews since A.D. +1860. He was joined in the work in A.D. 1867 by the converted Rabbi +Gurland, who had studied theology at Halle and Berlin. In A.D. 1871 +Gurland accepted a call to similar work in Courland and Lithuania, and +since A.D. 1876 has been Lutheran pastor at Mitau. In A.D. 1841 the +evangelical bishopric of St. James was founded in Jerusalem by the English +and Prussian governments conjointly, presentations to be made alternately, +but the ordination to be according to the Anglican rite. The first bishop +was Alexander, a Jewish convert. He died in A.D. 1845 and was succeeded by +the zealous missionary Gobat, elected by the Prussian government. He died +in A.D. 1879 and was succeeded by Barclay, who died in A.D. 1881. It was +now again Prussia's turn to make an appointment. The English demand to +have Lutheran ministers ordained successively deacon, presbyter, and +bishop had given offence, and so no new appointment has been made. In June +1886 the English-Prussian compact was formally cancelled and a proposal +made to found an independent Prussian Evangelical bishopric. + +9. _Missions among the Eastern Churches._--In A.D. 1815 the Church +Missionary Society founded a missionary emporium in the island of Malta, +as a tract depot for the evangelizing the East; and in A.D. 1846 the Malta +Protestant College was erected for training native missionaries, teachers, +physicians, etc., for work in the various oriental countries. In the +Ionian islands, in Constantinople, and in Greece, British and American +missionaries began operations in A.D. 1819 by erecting schools and +circulating the scriptures. At first the orthodox clergy were favourable, +but as the work progressed they became actively hostile, and only two +mission schools in Syra and Athens were allowed to continue. In Syria the +Americans made Beyrout their head quarters in A.D. 1824, but the work was +interrupted by the Turco-Egyptian conflicts. Subsequently, however, it +flourished more and more, and, before the Syrian massacre of A.D. 1860 (§ +207, 2), there were nine prosperous stations in Syria. The founding of the +Jerusalem bishopric in A.D. 1841, and the issuing of the Hatti-Humayun in +A.D. 1856 (§ 207, 2), induced the Church Missionary Society to make more +vigorous efforts which, however, were afterwards abandoned for want of +success. Down to the outbreak of the persecution of Syrian Christians in +A.D. 1860, this society had five flourishing stations. From A.D. 1831 the +Americans had wrought zealously and successfully among the Armenians in +Constantinople and neighbourhood, but in A.D. 1845 the Armenian patriarch +excited a violent persecution which threatened the utter overthrow of the +work. The British ambassador, Sir Stratford de Redcliffe, however, +insisted upon the Porte recognising the rights of the Protestant Armenians +as an independent religious denomination, and since then the missions have +prospered. Among the Nestorians in Turkey and Persia the Americans, with +Dr. Grant at their head, began operations in A.D. 1834; but through Jesuit +intrigues the suspicions of the Kurds and Turks were excited, and in A.D. +1843 and 1846 a war of extermination was waged against the mountain +Nestorians, which annihilated the Protestant missions among them. +Operations, however, have been recommenced with encouraging success. Among +the deeply degraded Copts in Egypt, and extending from them into +Abyssinia, the Moravians had been working without any apparent result from +A.D. 1752 to A.D. 1783. In A.D. 1826 the Church Missionary Society, under +German missionaries trained at Basel (Gobat, Irenberg, Krapf, etc.), took +up the work, till it was stopped by the government in A.D. 1837. In A.D. +1855 the Basel missionaries began again to work in Abyssinia with the +approval of King Theodore. This state of things soon changed. Theodore's +ambition was to conquer Egypt and overthrow Islam. But when in A.D. 1863 +this scheme only called forth threats from London and Paris, he gave loose +rein to his natural ferocity and put the English consul and the German +missionaries in chains. By means of an armed expedition in A.D. 1868, +England compelled the liberation of the prisoners, and Theodore put an end +to his own life. After the withdrawal of the English the country was +desolated by civil wars, and at the close of these troubles in A.D. 1878 +the mission resumed its operations. + + + + +III. Catholicism in General. + + + +§ 185. The Papacy and the States of the Church. + + +The papacy, humiliated but not destroyed by Napoleon I., was in A.D. 1814 +by the aid of princes of all creeds restored to the full possession of its +temporal and spiritual authority, and amid many difficulties it reasserted +for the most part successfully its hierarchical claims in the Catholic +states and in those whose Protestantism and Catholicism were alike +tolerated. Many severe blows indeed were dealt to the papacy even in the +Roman states by revolutionary movements, yet political reaction generally +by-and-by put the church in a position as good if not better than it had +before. But while on this side the Alps, especially since the outbreak of +A.D. 1848, ultramontanism gained one victory after another in its own +domain, in Italy, it suffered one humiliation after another; and while the +Vatican Council, which put the crown upon its idolatrous assumptions (§ +189, 3), was still sitting, the whole pride of its temporal sovereignty +was shattered: the States of the Church were struck out of the number of +the European powers, and Rome became the capital and residence of the +prince of Sardinia as king of United Italy. But reverence for the pope now +reached a height among catholic nations which it had never anywhere +attained before. + +1. _The First Four Popes of the Century._--Napoleon as First Consul of the +French Republic, in A.D. 1801 concluded a concordat with _Pius VII._, A.D. +1800-1823, who under Austrian protection was elected pope at Venice, +whereby the pope was restored to his temporal and spiritual rights, but +was obliged to abandon his hierarchical claims over the church of France +(§ 203, 1). He crowned the consul emperor of the French at Paris in A.D. +1804, but when he persisted in the assertion of his hierarchical +principles, Napoleon in A.D. 1808 entered the papal territories, and in +May, A.D. 1809, formally repudiated the donation of "his predecessor" +Charlemagne. The pope treated the offered payment of two million francs as +an insult, threatened the emperor with the ban, and in July, A.D. 1809, +was imprisoned at Savona, and in A.D. 1812 was taken to Fontainebleau. He +refused for a time to give canonical institution to the bishops nominated +by the emperor, and though at last he yielded and agreed to reside in +France, he soon withdrew his concession, and the complications of A.D. +1813 constrained the emperor, on February 14th, to set free the pope and +the Papal States. In May the pope again entered Rome. One of his first +official acts was the restoration of the Jesuits by the bull _Sollicitudo +omnium_, as by the unanimous request of all Christendom. The Congregation +of the Index was again set up, and during the course of the year 737 +charges of heresy were heard before the tribunal of the holy office. All +sales of church property were pronounced void, and 1,800 monasteries and +600 nunneries were reclaimed. In A.D. 1815 the pope formally protested +against the decision of the Vienna Congress, especially against the +overthrow of the spiritual principalities in the German empire (§ 192, 1). +Equally fruitless was his demand for the restoration of Avignon (§ 165, +15). In A.D. 1816 he condemned the Bible societies as a plague to +Christendom, and renewed the prohibition of Bible translations. His +diplomatic schemes were determined by his able secretary Cardinal +Consalvi, who not only at the Vienna Congress, but also subsequently by +several concordats secured the fullest possible expression to the +interests and claims of the curia.--His successor was _Leo XII._, A.D. +1823-1829, who, more strict in his civil administration than his +predecessor, condemned Bible societies, renewed the Inquisition +prosecutions, for the sake of gain celebrated the jubilee in A.D. 1825, +ordered prayers for uprooting of heresy, rebuilt the Ghetto wall of Rome, +overturned during the French rule (§ 95, 3), which marked off the Jews' +quarter, till Pius IX. again threw it down in A.D. 1846. After the eight +months' reign of _Pius VIII._, A.D. 1829-1830, _Gregory XVI._, A.D. +1831-1846, ascended the papal throne, and sought amid troubles at home and +abroad to exalt to its utmost pitch the hierarchical idea. In A.D. 1832 he +issued an encyclical, in which he declared irreconcilable war against +modern science as well as against freedom of conscience and the press, and +his whole pontificate was a consistent carrying out of this principle. He +encountered incessant opposition from liberal and revolutionary movements +in his own territory, restrained only by Austrian and French military +interference, A.D. 1832-1838, and from the rejection of his hierarchical +schemes by Spain, Portugal, Prussia, and Russia.(97) + +2. _Pius IX., _A.D._ 1846-1878._--Count Mastai Feretti in his fifty-fourth +year succeeded Gregory on 16th June, and took the name of Pius IX. While +in ecclesiastical matters he seemed willing to hold by the old paths and +distinctly declared against Bible societies, he favoured reform in civil +administration and encouraged the hopes of the liberals who longed for the +independence and unity of Italy. But this only awakened the thunder storm +which soon burst upon his own head. The far resounding cry of the jubilee +days, "_Evviva Pio Nono!_" ended in the pope's flight to Gaeta in +November, 1848; and in February, 1849, the Roman Republic was proclaimed. +The French Republic, however, owing to the threatening attitude of +Austria, hastened to take Rome and restore the temporal power of the pope. +Amid the convulsions of Italy, Pius could not return to Rome till April, +1850, where he was maintained by French and Austrian bayonets. Abandoning +his liberal views, the pope now put himself more and more under the +influence of the Jesuits, and his absolutist and reactionary politics were +directed by Card. Antonelli. From his exile at Gaeta he had asked the +opinion of the bishops of the whole church regarding the immaculate +conception of the blessed Virgin, to whose protection he believed that he +owed his safety. The opinions of 576 were favourable, resting on Bible +proofs: Genesis iii. 15, Song of Sol. iv. 7, 12, and Luke i. 28; but some +French and German bishops were strongly opposed. The question was now +submitted for further consideration to various congregations, and finally +the consenting bishops were invited to Rome to settle the terms of the +doctrinal definition of the new dogma. After four secret sessions it was +acknowledged by acclamation, and on 8th December, 1854 (§ 104, 7), the +pope read in the Sixtine chapel the bull _Ineffabilis_ and placed a +brilliant diadem on the head of the image of the queen of heaven. The +disciples of St. Thomas listened in silence to this aspersion of their +master's orthodoxy; no heed was paid to two isolated individual voices +that protested; the bishops of all Catholic lands proclaimed the new +dogma, the theologians vindicated it, and the spectacle-loving people +rejoiced in the pompous Mary-festival. The pope's next great performance +was the encyclical, _Quanta cura_, of December 8th, 1864, and the +accompanying syllabus cataloguing in eighty-four propositions all the +errors of the day, by which not only the antichristian and +anti-ecclesiastical tendencies, but also claims for freedom of belief and +worship, liberty of the press and science, the state's independence of the +church, the equality of the laity and clergy in civil matters, in short +all the principles of modern political and social life, were condemned as +heretical. Three years later the centenary of Peter (§ 16, 1) brought five +hundred bishops to Rome, with other clergy and laymen from all lands. The +enthusiasm for the papal chair was such that the pope was encouraged to +convoke an oecumenical council. The jubilee of his consecration as priest +in A.D. 1869 brought him congratulatory addresses signed by one and a half +millions, filled the papal coffers, attracted an immense number of +visitors to Rome, and secured to all the votaries gathered there a +complete indulgence. On the Vatican Council which met during that same +year, see § 189.(98) + +3. _The Overthrow of the Papal States._--In the Peace of Villafranca of +1859, which put an end to the short Austro-French war in Italy, a +confederation was arranged of all the Italian princes under the honorary +presidency of the pope for drawing up the future constitution of Italy. +During the war the Austrians had vacated Bologna, but the French remained +in Rome to protect the pope. The revolution now broke out in Romagna. +Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed dictator for the time +over that part of the Papal States and a provisional government was set +up. In vain did the pope remind Christendom in an encyclical of the +necessity of maintaining his temporal power, in vain did he thunder his +_excommunicatio major_ against all who would contribute to its overthrow. +A pamphlet war against the temporal power now began, and About's letters +in the _Moniteur_ described with bitter scorn the incapacity of the papal +government. In his pamphlet, "_Le Pope et le Congres_," Lagueronniere +proposed to restrict the pope's sovereignty to Rome and its neighbourhood, +levy a tax for the support of the papal court on all Catholic nations, and +leave Rome undisturbed by political troubles. On December 31st, 1859, +Napoleon III. exhorted the pope to yield to the logic of facts and to +surrender the provinces that refused any longer to be his. The pope then +issued a rescript in which he declared that he could never give up what +belonged not to him but to the church. The popular vote in Romagna went +almost unanimously for annexation to Sardinia, and this, in spite of the +papal ban, was done. A revolution broke out in Umbria and the March of +Ancona, and Victor Emanuel without more ado attached these states also to +his dominion in A.D. 1860, so that only Rome and the Campagna were +retained by the pope, and even these only by means of French support. At +the September convention of A.D. 1864 Italy undertook to maintain the +papal domain intact, to permit the organization of an independent papal +army, and to contribute to the papal treasury; while France was to quit +Roman territory within at the latest two years. The pope submitted to what +he could not prevent, but still insisted upon his most extreme claims, +answered every attempt at conciliation with his stereotyped _non +possumus_, and in A.D. 1866 proclaimed St. Catherine of Siena (§ 112, 4) +patron of the "city." When the last of the French troops took ship in A.D. +1866 the radical party thought the time had come for freeing Italy from +papal rule, and roused the whole land by public proclamation. Garibaldi +again put himself at the head of the movement. The Papal State was soon +encircled by bands of volunteers, and insurrections broke out even within +Rome itself. Napoleon pronounced this a breach of the September +convention, and in A.D. 1867 the volunteers were utterly routed by the +French at Mentana. The French guarded Civita Vecchia and fortified Rome. +But in August, 1870, their own national exigencies demanded the withdrawal +of the French troops, and after the battle of Sedan the Italians to a man +insisted on having Rome as their capital, and Victor Emanuel acquiesced. +The pope sought help far and near from Catholic and non-Catholic powers, +but he received only the echo of his own words, _non possumus_. After a +four hours' cannonade a breach was made in the walls of the eternal city, +the white flag appeared on St. Angelo, and amid the shouts of the populace +the Italian troops entered on September 20th, 1870. A plebiscite in the +papal dominions gave 133,681 votes in favour of annexation and 1,507 +against; in Rome alone there were 40,785 for and only 46 against. The king +now issued the decree of incorporation; Rome became capital of united +Italy and the Quirinal the royal residence. + +4. _The Prisoner of the Vatican, _A.D._ 1870-1878._--The dethroned papal +king could only protest and utter denunciations. No result followed from +the adoption of St. Joseph as guardian and patron of the church, nor from +the solemn consecration of the whole world to the most sacred heart of +Jesus, at the jubilee of June 16th, A.D. 1875. The measures of A.D. 1871, +by which Cavour sought to realize his ideal of a "free church in a free +state," were pronounced absurd, cunning, deceitful, and an outrage on the +apostles Peter and Paul. By these measures the rights and privileges of a +sovereign for all time had been conferred on the pope: the holiness and +inviolability of his person, a body-guard, a post and telegraph bureau, +free ambassadorial communication with foreign powers, the +_ex-territoriality_ of his palace of the Vatican, embracing fifteen large +saloons, 11,500 rooms, 236 stairs, 218 corridors, two chapels, several +museums, archives, libraries, large beautiful gardens, etc., as also of +the Lateran and the summer palace of Castle Gandolpho, with all +appurtenances, also an annual income, free from all burdens and taxes, of +three and a quarter million francs, equal to the former amount of his +revenue, together with unrestricted liberty in the exercise of all +ecclesiastical rights of sovereignty and primacy, and the renunciation of +all state interference in the disposal of bishoprics and benefices. The +right of the inferior clergy to exercise the _appellatio ab abusu_ to a +civil tribunal was set aside, and of all civil rights only that of the +royal _exequatur_ in the election of bishops, _i.e._ the mere right of +investing the nominee of the curia in the possession of the revenues of +his office, was retained.--To the end of his life Pius every year returned +the dotation as an insult and injury, and "the starving holy father in +prison, who has not where to lay his head," received three or four times +more in Peter's pence contributed by all Catholic Christendom. Playing the +_role_ of a prisoner he never passed beyond the precincts of the Vatican. +He reached the semi-jubilee of his papal coronation in A.D. 1871, being +the first pope who falsified the old saying, _Annos Petri non videbit_. He +rejected the offer of a golden throne and the title of "the great," but he +accepted a Parisian lady's gift of a golden crown of thorns. In support of +the prison myth, straws from the papal cell were sold in Belgium for half +a franc per stalk, and for the same price photographs of the pope behind +an iron grating. As once on a time the legend arose about the disciple +whom Jesus loved that he would not die, so was it once said about the +pope; and on his eighty-third birthday, in A.D. 1874, a Roman Jesuit +paper, eulogising the moral purity of his life, put the words in his +mouth, "Which of you convinceth me of sin?" But he himself by constantly +renewed rescripts, encyclicals, briefs, allocutions to the cardinals and +to numerous deputations from far and near, unweariedly fanned the flame of +enthusiasm and fanaticism throughout papal Christendom, and thundered +threatening prophecies not only against the Italian, but also against +foreign states, for with most of them he lived in open war. A collection +of his "Speeches delivered at the Vatican" was published in 1874, +commented on by Gladstone in the _Contemporary Review_ for January, 1875, +who gives abundant quotations showing papal assumptions, maledictions, +abuse and misunderstanding of the Scriptures with which they abound. On +the fiftieth anniversary of the pope's episcopal consecration, in June, +1877, crowds from all lands assembled to offer their congratulations, with +costly presents and Peter's pence amounting to sixteen and a half million +francs. He died February 8th, 1878, in the eighty-sixth year of his age +and thirty-second of his pontificate. His heirs claimed the unpaid +dotations of twenty million lire, but were refused by the courts of +law.(99)--His secretary Antonelli, descended from an old brigand family, +who from the time of his stay at Gaeta was his evil demon, predeceased him +in A.D. 1876. Though the son of a poor herdsman and woodcutter, he left +more than a hundred million lire. His natural daughter, to the great +annoyance of the Vatican, sought, but without success, in the courts of +justice to make good her claims against her father's greedy brothers. + +5. _Leo XIII._--After only two days' conclave the Cardinal-archbishop of +Perugia, Joachim Pecci, born in A.D. 1810, was proclaimed on February +20th, 1878, as Leo XIII. In autograph letters he intimated his accession +to the German and Russian emperors, but not to the king of Italy, and +expressed his wish for a good mutual understanding. To the government of +the Swiss Cantons he declared his hope that their ancient friendly +relations might be restored. At Easter, 1878, he issued an encyclical to +all patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, in which he required +of them that they should earnestly entreat the mediation of the +"immaculate queen of heaven" and the intercession of St. Joseph, "the +heavenly shield of the church," and also failed not to make prominent the +infallibility of the apostolic chair, and to condemn all the errors +condemned by his predecessors, emphasizing the necessity of restoring the +temporal power of the pope, and confirming and renewing all the protests +of his predecessor Pius IX., of sacred memory, against the overthrow of +the Papal States. On the first anniversary of his elevation he proclaimed +a universal jubilee, with the promise of a complete indulgence. He still +persisted in the prison myth of his predecessor, and like him sent back +the profferred contribution of his "jailor." In the conflicts with foreign +powers inherited from Pius, as well as in his own, he has employed +generally moderate and conciliatory language.--He has not hesitated to take +the first step toward a good understanding with his opponents, for which, +while persistently maintaining the ancient principles of the papal chair, +he makes certain concessions in regard to subordinate matters, always with +the design and expectation of seeing them outweighed on the other side by +the conservation of all the other hierarchical pretensions of the curial +system. It was, however, only in the middle of A.D. 1885 that it became +evident that the pope had determined, without allowing any +misunderstanding to arise between himself and his cardinals, to break +through the trammels of the irreconcilable zealots in the college. And +indeed after the conclusion of the German _Kulturkampf_ (§ 197, 13, 15), +brought about by these means, in an allocution with reference thereto +addressed to the cardinals in May, 1887, he gave an unexpected expression +to his wish and longing in regard to an understanding with the government +on the Italian question, which involved an utter renunciation of his +predecessor's dogged _Non possumus_, the attitude hitherto unfalteringly +maintained. "Would that peaceful counsels," says he, "embracing all our +peoples should prevail in Italy also, and that at last once that unhappy +difference might be overcome without loss of privilege to the holy see!" +Such harmony, indeed, is only possible when the pope "is subjected to no +authority and enjoys perfect freedom," which would cause no loss to Italy, +"but would only secure its lasting peace and safety." That he counts upon +the good offices of the German emperor for the effecting of this +longed-for restoration of such a _modus vivendi_ with the Italian +government, he has clearly indicated in his preliminary communications to +the Prussian centre exhorting to peace (§ 197, 14). The _Moniteur de Rome_ +(§ 188, 1), however, interpreted the words of the pope thus: "Italy would +lose nothing materially or politically, if it gave a small corner of its +territory to the pope, where he might enjoy actual sovereignty as a +guarantee of his spiritual independence."--On Leo's contributions to +theological science see § 191, 12; on his attitude to Protestantism and +the Eastern Church, see § 175, 2, 4. He expressed himself against the +freemasons in an encyclical of A.D. 1884 with even greater severity than +Pius. Consequently the Roman Inquisition issued an instruction to all +bishops throughout the Catholic world requiring them to enjoin their +clergy in the pulpit and the confessional to make it known that all +freemasons are _eo ipso_ excommunicated, and by Catholic associations of +every sort, especially by the spread of the third order of St. Francis (§ +186, 2), the injunction was carried out. At the same time a year's +reprieve was given to the freemasons, during which the Roman heresy laws, +which required their children, wives, and relatives to denounce them to +all clergy and laymen, were to be suspended. Should the guilty, however, +allow this day of grace to pass, these laws were to be again fully +enforced, and then it would be only for the pope to absolve them from +their terrible sin. + + + +§ 186. Various Orders and Associations. + + +The order of the Jesuits restored in A.D. 1814 by Pius VII. impregnated +all other orders with its spirit, gained commanding influence over Pius +IX., made the bishops its agents, and turned the whole Catholic church +into a Jesuit institution. An immense number of societies arose aiming at +the accomplishment of home mission work, inspired by the Jesuit spirit and +carrying out unquestioningly the ultramontane ideas of their leaders. Also +zeal for foreign missions on old Jesuit lines revived, and the enthusiasm +for martyrdom was due mainly to the same cause. + +1. _The Society of Jesus and Related Orders._--After the suppression of +their order by Clement XIV. the Jesuits found refuge mainly among the +_Redemptorists_ (§ 165, 2), whose headquarters were at Vienna, from which +they spread through Austria and Bavaria, finding entrance also into +Switzerland, France, Belgium, and Holland, and after 1848 into Catholic +Prussia, as well as into Hesse and Nassau. The _Congregation of the Sacred +Heart_ was founded by ex-Jesuits in Belgium in A.D. 1794, and soon spread +in Austria and Bavaria.--The _restored Jesuit order_ was met with a storm +of opposition from the liberals. The July revolution of A.D. 1830 drove +the Jesuits from France, and when they sought to re-establish themselves, +Gregory XVI., under pressure of the government, insisted that their +general should abolish the French institutions in A.D. 1845. An important +branch of the order had settled in Catholic Switzerland, but the +unfavourable issue of the Separated Cantons' War of 1847 drove its members +out of that refuge. The revolution of 1848 threatened the order with +extinction, but the papal restoration of A.D. 1850 re-introduced it into +most Catholic countries. Since then the sons of Loyola have renewed their +youth like the eagle. They have forced their way into all lands, even in +those on both sides of the ocean that had by legislative enactments been +closed against them, spreading ultramontane views among Catholics, +converting Protestants, and disseminating their principles in schools and +colleges. Even Pius IX., under whose auspices Aug. Theiner had been +allowed, in A.D. 1853, in his "History of the Pontificate of Clement XIV." +to bring against them the heavy artillery drawn from "the secret archives +of the Vatican," again handed over to them the management of public +instruction, and surrendered himself even more and more to their +influence, so that at last he saw only by their eyes, heard only with +their ears, and resolved only according to their will.(100) The founding +of the Italian kingdom under the Prince of Sardinia in A.D. 1860 led to +their expulsion from all Italy, with the exception of Venice and the +remnants of the Papal States. When, in A.D. 1866, Venice also became an +Italian province, they migrated thence into the Tyrol and other Austrian +provinces, where they enjoyed the blessings of the concordat (§ 198, 2). +Spain, too, on the expulsion of Queen Isabella in A.D. 1868, and even +Mexico and several of the States of Central and Southern America, drove +out the disciples of Loyola. On the other hand, they made brilliant +progress in Germany, especially in Rhenish Hesse and the Catholic +provinces of Prussia. But under the new German empire the Reichstag, in +A.D. 1872, passed a law suppressing the Jesuits and all similar orders +throughout the empire (§ 197, 4). They were also formally expelled from +France in A.D. 1880 (§ 203, 6). Still, however, in A.D. 1881 the order +numbered 11,000 members in five provinces, and according to Bismarck's +calculation in A.D. 1872 their property amounted to 280 million thalers. +In A.D. 1853 John Beckx of Belgium was made general. He retired in A.D. +1881 at the age of ninety, Anderlady, a Swiss, having been appointed in +A.D. 1883 his colleague and successor.--The hope which was at first widely +entertained that Leo XIII. would emancipate himself from the domination of +the order seems more and more to be proved a vain delusion. In July, 1886, +he issued, on the occasion of a new edition of the institutions of the +order, a letter to Anderlady, in which he, in the most extravagant manner, +speaks of the order as having performed the most signal services "to the +church and society," and confirms anew everything that his predecessors +had said and done in its favour, while expressly and formally he recalls +anew anything that any of them had said and done against it. + +2. _Other Orders and Congregations._--After the storms of the revolution +religious orders rapidly recovered lost ground. France decreed, on +November 2nd, 1789, the abolition of all orders, and cloisters and in +1802, under Napoleon's auspices, they were also suppressed in the German +empire and the friendly princes indemnified with their goods. Yet on +grounds of utility Napoleon restored the Lazarists, as well as the Sisters +of Mercy, whose scattered remnants he collected in A.D. 1807 in Paris into +a general chapter, under the presidency of the empress-mother. But new +cloisters in great numbers were erected specially in Belgium and France +(in opposition to the law of 1789, which was unrepealed), in Austria, +Bavaria, Prussia, Rhenish Hesse, etc., as also in England and America. In +1849 there were in Prussia fifty monastic institutes; in 1872 there were +967. In Cologne one in every 215, in Aachen one in every 110, in Muenster +one in every sixty-one, in Paderborn one in every thirty-three, was a +Catholic priest or member of an order. In Bavaria, between 1831 and 1873 +the number of cloisters rose from 43 to 628, all, with the exception of +some old Benedictine monasteries, inspired and dominated by the Jesuits. +Even the Dominicans, originally such determined opponents, are now +pervaded by the Jesuit spirit. The restoration of the _Trappist order_ (§ +156, 8) deserves special mention. On their expulsion from La Trappe in +A.D. 1791 the brothers found an asylum in the Canton Freiburg, and when +driven thence by the French invasion of A.D. 1798, Paul I. obtained from +the czar permission for them to settle in White Russia, Poland, and +Lithuania. But expelled from these regions again in A.D. 1800 they +wandered through Europe and America, till after Napoleon's defeat they +purchased back the monastery of La Trappe, and made it the centre of a +group of new settlements throughout France and beyond it.--Besides regular +orders there were also numerous _congregations_ or religious societies +with communal life according to a definite but not perpetually binding +rule, and without the obligation of seclusion, as well as _brotherhoods_ +and _sisterhoods_ without any such rule, which after the restoration of +A.D. 1814 in France and after A.D. 1848 in Germany, were formed for the +purposes of prayer, charity, education, and such like. From France many of +these spread into the Rhine Provinces and Westphalia.--In Spain and +Portugal (§ 205, 1, 5) all orders were repeatedly abolished, subsequently +also in Sardinia and even in all Italy (§ 204, 1, 2), and also in several +Romish American states (§ 209, 1, 2), as also in Prussia and Hesse (§ 197, +8, 15). Finally the third French Republic has enforced existing laws +against all orders and congregations not authorized by the State (§ 206, +6).--On the 700th anniversary of the birth of St. Francis, in September, +1882, Leo XIII. issued an encyclical declaring the institute of the +Franciscan Tertiaries (§ 98, 11) alone capable of saving human society +from all the political and social dangers of the present and future, which +had some success at least in Italy. + +Of what inhuman barbarity the superiors of cloisters are still capable is +shown _instar omnium_ in the horrible treatment of the nun _Barbara +Ubryk_, who, avowedly on account of a breach of her vow of chastity, was +confined since A.D. 1848 in the cloister of the Carmelite nuns at Cracow +in a dark, narrow cell beside the sewer of the convent, without fire, bed, +chair, or table. It was only in A.D. 1869, in consequence of an anonymous +communication to the law officers, that she was freed from her prison in a +semi-animal condition, quite naked, starved, and covered with filth, and +consigned to an asylum. The populace of Cracow, infuriated at such +conduct, could be restrained from demolishing all the cloisters only by +the aid of the military. + +3. _The Pius Verein._--A society under the name of the Pius Verein was +started at Mainz in October, 1848, to further Catholic interests, +advocating the church's independence of the State, the right of the clergy +to direct education, etc. At the annual meetings its leading members +boasted in grossly exaggerated terms of what had been accomplished and +recklessly prophesied of what would yet be achieved. At the twenty-eighth +general assembly at Bonn in A.D. 1881, with an attendance of 1,100, the +same confident tone was maintained. Windhorst reminded the Prussian +government of the purchase of the Sibylline books, and declared that each +case of breaking off negotiations raised the price of the peace. Not a +tittle of the ultramontane claims would be surrendered. The watchword is +the complete restoration of the _status quo ante_. Baron von Loe, +president of the Canisius Verein, concluded his triumphant speech with the +summons to raise the membership of the union from 80,000 to 800,000, yea +to 8,000,000; then would the time be near when Germany should become again +a Catholic land and the church again the leader of the people. At the +assembly at Duesseldorf in A.D. 1883, Windhorst declared, amid the +enthusiastic applause of all present, that after the absolute abrogation +of the May laws the centre would not rest till education was again +committed unreservedly to the church. In the assembly at Muenster in A.D. +1885, he extolled the pope (notwithstanding all confiscation and +imprisoning for the time being) as the governor and lord of the whole +world. The thirty-third assembly at Breslau in A.D. 1886, with special +emphasis, demanded the recall of all orders, including that of the +Jesuits. + +4. _The various German unions_ gradually fell under ultramontane +influences. The Borromeo Society circulated Catholic books inculcating +ultramontane views in politics and religion. The Boniface Union, founded +by Martin, Bishop of Paderborn, aided needy Catholic congregations in +Protestant districts. Other unions were devoted to foreign missions, to +work among Germans in foreign lands, etc. In all the universities such +societies were formed. In Bavaria patriot peasant associations were set on +foot, as a standing army in the conflict of the ultramontane hierarchy +with the new German empire. For the same purpose Bishop Ketteler founded +in A.D. 1871 the Mainz Catholic Union, which in A.D. 1814 had 90,000 +members. The Goerres Society of 1876 (§ 188, 1) and the Canisius Society of +1879 (§ 151, 1) were meant to promote education on ultramontane lines.--In +_Italy_ such societies have striven for the restoration of the temporal +power and the supremacy of the church over the State. The unions of +_France_ were confederated in A.D. 1870, and this general association +holds an annual congress. The several unions were called "_oeuvres_." The +_OEuvre du Voeu National_, _e.g._, had the task of restoring penitent France +to the "sacred heart of Jesus" (§ 188, 12); the _OEuvre Pontifical_ made +collections of Peter's pence and for persecuted priests; the _OEuvre de +Jesus-Ouvrier_ had to do with the working classes, etc. + +5. The knowledge of the omnipotence of _capital_ in these days led to +various proposals for turning it to account in the interests of +Catholicism. The Catholic Bank schemes of the Belgian Langrand-Dumonceau +in 1872 and the Munich bank were pure swindles; and that of Adele +Spitzeder 1869-1872, pronounced "holy" by the clergy and ultramontane +press, collapsed with a deficit of eight and a quarter million +florins.--Archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati invited church members to avoid +risk to bank with him. He invested in land, advanced money for building +churches, cloisters, schools, etc., and in A.D. 1878 found himself +bankrupt with liabilities amounting to five million dollars. He then +offered to resign his office, but the pope refused and gave him a +coadjutor, whereupon the archbishop retired into a cloister where he died +in his eighty-third year. In the _Union Generale_ of Paris, founded in +1876, which came to a crash in 1882, the French aristocracy, the higher +clergy and members of orders lost hundreds of millions of francs. + +6. _The Catholic Missions._--The impulse given to Catholic interests after +1848 was seen in the zeal with which missions in Catholic lands, like the +Protestant Methodist revival and camp-meetings (§ 208, 1), began to be +prosecuted. An attempt was thus made to gather in the masses, who had been +estranged from the church during the storms of the revolution. The Jesuits +and Redemptorists were prominent in this work. In bands of six they +visited stations, staying for three weeks, hearing confessions, addressing +meetings three times a day, and concluding by a general communion. + +7. Besides the Propaganda (§ 156, 9), fourteen societies in Rome, three in +Paris, thirty in the whole of Catholic Christendom, are devoted to the +dissemination of Catholicism among _Heretics_ and _Heathens_. The Lyons +Association for the spread of the faith, instituted in 1822, has a revenue +of from four to six million francs. Specially famous is the _Picpus +Society_, so called from the street in Paris where it has its +headquarters. Its founder was the deacon Coudrin, a pupil of the seminary +for priests at Poictiers broken up in A.D. 1789. Amid the evils done to +the church and the priests by the Revolution, in his hiding-place he heard +a divine call to found a society for the purpose of training the youth in +Catholic principles, educating priests, and bringing the gospel to the +heathen "by atoning for excesses, crimes, and sins of all kinds by an +unceasing day and night devotion of the most holy sacrament of the altar." +Such a society he actually founded in A.D. 1805, and Pius VII. confirmed +it in A.D. 1817. The founder died in A.D. 1837, after his society had +spread over all the five continents. Its chief aim henceforth was missions +to the heathen. While the Picpus society, as well as the other seminaries +and monkish orders, sent forth crowds of missionaries, other societies +devoted themselves to collecting money and engaging in prayer. The most +important of these is the _Lyonese Society_ for the spread of the faith of +A.D. 1822. The member's weekly contribution is 5 cents, the daily +prayer-demand a paternoster, an angel greeting, and a "St. Francis Xavier, +pray for us." The fanatical journal of the society had a yearly +circulation of almost 250,000 copies, in ten European languages. The popes +had showered upon its members rich indulgences.--After Protestant missions +had received such a powerful impulse in the nineteenth century, the +Catholic societies were thereby impelled to force in wherever success had +been won and seemed likely to be secured, and wrought with all conceivable +jesuitical arts and devices, for the most part under the political +protection of France. The Catholic missions have been most zealously and +successfully prosecuted in North America, China, India, Japan, and among +the schismatic churches of the Levant. Since 1837 they have been advanced +by aid of the French navy in the South Seas (§ 184, 7) and in North Africa +by the French occupation of Algiers, and most recently in Madagascar. In +South Africa they have made no progress.--In A.D. 1837-1839 a bloody +persecution raged in Tonquin and Cochin China; in A.D. 1866 Christianity +was rooted out of Corea, and over 2,000 Christians slain; two years later +persecution was renewed in Japan. In China, through the oppressions of the +French, the people rose against the Catholics resident there. This +movement reached a climax in the rebellion of 1870 at Tientsin, when all +French officials, missionaries, and sisters of mercy were put to death, +and the French consulate, Catholic churches and mission houses were +levelled to the ground. Also in Further India since the French war of A.D. +1883 with Tonquin, over which China claimed rights of suzerainty, the +Catholic missions have again suffered, and many missionaries have been +martyred. + + + +§ 187. Liberal Catholic Movements. + + +Alongside of the steady growth of ultramontanism from the time of the +restoration of the papacy in A.D. 1814, there arose also a reactionary +movement, partly of a mystical-irenical, evangelical-revival and +liberal-scientific, and partly of a radical-liberalistic, character. But +all the leaders in such movements sooner or later succumbed before the +strictly administered discipline of the hierarchy. The Old Catholic +reaction (§ 190), on the other hand, in spite of various disadvantages, +still maintains a vigorous existence. + +1. _Mystical-Irenical Tendencies._--_J. M. Sailer_, deprived in A.D. 1794 +of his office at Dillingen (§ 165, 12), was appointed in A.D. 1799 +professor of moral and pastoral theology at Ingolstadt, and was +transferred to Landshut in A.D. 1800. There for twenty years his mild and +conciliatory as well as profoundly pious mysticism powerfully influenced +crowds of students from South Germany and Switzerland. Though the pope +refused to confirm his nomination by Maximilian as Bishop of Augsburg in +A.D. 1820, he so far cleared himself of the suspicion of mysticism, +separatism, and crypto-calvinism, that in A.D. 1829 no opposition was made +to his appointment as Bishop of Regensburg. Sailer continued faithful to +the Catholic dogmatic, and none of his numerous writings have been put in +the Index. Yet he lay under suspicion till his death in A.D. 1832, and +this seemed to be justified by the intercourse which he and his disciples +had with Protestant pietists. His likeminded scholar, friend, and +vicar-general, the Suffragan-bishop _Wittmann_, was designated his +successor in Regensburg, but he died before receiving papal confirmation. +Of all his pupils the most distinguished was the Westphalian Baron von +_Diepenbrock_, over whose wild, intractable, youthful nature Sailer +exercised a magic influence. In A.D. 1823 he was ordained priest, became +Sailer's secretary, remaining his confidential companion till his death, +was made vicar-general to Sailer's successor in A.D. 1842, and in A.D. +1845 was raised to the archiepiscopal chair of Breslau, where he joined +the ultramontanes, and entered with all his heart into the +ecclesiastico-political conflicts of the Wuerzburg episcopal congress (§ +192, 4). His services were rewarded by a cardinal's hat from Pius IX. in +A.D. 1850. His pastoral letters, however, as well as his sermons and +private correspondence, show that he never altogether forgot the teaching +of his spiritual father. He delighted in the study of the mediaeval +mystics, and was specially drawn to the writings of Suso. + +2. _Evangelical-Revival Tendencies._--A movement much more evangelical than +that of Sailer, having the doctrine of justification by faith alone as its +centre, was originated by a simple Bavarian priest, _Martin Boos_, and +soon embraced sixty priests in the diocese of Augsburg. The spiritual +experiences of Boos were similar to those of Luther. The words of a poor +old sick woman brought peace to his soul in A.D. 1790, and led him to the +study of Scripture. His preaching among the people and his conversations +with the surrounding clergy produced a widespread revival. Amid manifold +persecutions, removed from one parish to another, and flying from Bavaria +to Austria and thence into Rhenish Prussia, where he died in A.D. 1825 as +priest of Sayn, he lighted wherever he went the torch of truth. Even after +his conversion Boos believed that he still maintained the Catholic +position, but was at last to his own astonishment convinced of the +contrary through intercourse with Protestant pietists and the study of +Luther's works. But so long as the mother church would keep him he wished +not to forsake her.(101) So too felt his like-minded companions _Gossner_ +and _Lindl_, who were expelled from Bavaria in A.D. 1829 and settled in +St. Petersburg. Lindl, as Provost of South Russia, went to reside in +Odessa, where he exercised a powerful influence over Catholics and +Protestants and among the higher classes of the Russians. The machinations +of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches caused both Gossner and Lindl to +leave Russia in A.D. 1824. They then joined the evangelical church, Lindl +in Barmen and Gossner in Berlin. Lindl drifted more and more into +mystico-apocalyptic fanaticism; but Gossner, from A.D. 1829 till his death +in A.D. 1858 as pastor of the Bohemian church in Berlin, proved a sincere +evangelical and a most successful worker.--The Bavarian priest Lutz of +Carlshuld, influenced by Boos, devoted himself to the temporal and +spiritual well-being of his people, preached Christ as the saviour of +sinners, and exhorted to diligent reading of the Bible. In A.D. 1831, with +600 of his congregation, he joined the Protestant church; but to avoid +separation from his beloved people, he returned again after ten months, +and most of his flock with him, still retaining his evangelical +convictions. He was not, however, restored to office, and subsequently in +A.D. 1857, with three Catholic priests of the diocese, he attached himself +to the Irvingites, and was with them excommunicated. + +3. _Liberal-Scientific Tendencies._--_Von Wessenberg_, as vicar-general of +the diocese of Constance introduced such drastic administrative reforms as +proved most distasteful to the nuncio of Lucerne and the Romish curia. He +also endeavoured unsuccessfully to restore a German national Catholic +church. In the retirement of his later years he wrote a history of the +church synods of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which gave great +offence to the ultramontanes.--_Fr. von Baader_ of Munich expressed himself +so strongly against the absolutism of the papal system that the +ultramontane minister, Von Abel, suspended his lectures on the philosophy +of religion in A.D. 1838. He gave still greater offence by his work on +Eastern and Western Catholicism, in which he preferred the former to the +latter.(102) The talented _Hirscher_ of Freiburg more interested in what +is Christian than what is Roman Catholic, could not be won over to yield +party service to the ultramontanes. They persecuted unrelentingly _Leop. +Schmid_, whose theosophical speculation had done so much to restore the +prestige of theology at Giessen, and had utterly discredited their +pretensions. When his enemies successfully opposed his consecration as +Bishop of Mainz in A.D. 1849, he resigned his professorship and joined the +philosophical faculty. Goaded on by the venomous attacks of his opponents +he advanced to a more extreme position, and finally declared "that he was +compelled to renounce the specifically Roman Catholic church so long as +she refused to acknowledge the true worth of the gospel." + +4. _Radical-Liberalistic Tendencies._--The brothers _Theiner_ of Breslau +wrote in A.D. 1828 against the celibacy of the clergy; but subsequently +John attached himself to the German-Catholics, and in A.D. 1833 Augustine +returned to his allegiance to Rome (§ 191, 7).--During the July Revolution +in Paris, the priest Lamennais, formerly a zealous supporter of +absolutism, became the enthusiastic apostle of liberalism. His journal +_L'Avenir_, A.D. 1830-1832, was the organ of the party, and his _Paroles +d'un Croyant_, A.D. 1834, denounced by the pope as unutterably wicked, +made an unprecedented sensation. The endeavour, however, to unite elements +thoroughly incongruous led to the gradual breaking up of the school, and +Lamennais himself approximated more and more to the principles of modern +socialism. He died in A.D. 1854. One of his most talented associates on +the staff of the _Avenir_ was the celebrated pulpit orator _Lacordaire_, +A.D. 1802-1861. Upon Gregory's denunciation of the journal in A.D. 1832 +Lacordaire submitted to Rome, entered the Dominican order in A.D. 1840, +and wrote a life of Dominic in which he eulogised the Inquisition; but his +eloquence still attracted crowds to _Notre Dame_. Ultimately he fell +completely under the influence of the Jesuits. + +5. _Attempts at Reform in Church Government._--In A.D. 1861 _Liverani_, +pope's chaplain and apostolic notary, exposed the scandalous mismanagement +of Antonelli, the corruption of the sacred college, the demoralization of +the Roman clergy, and the ambitious schemes of the Jesuits, recommended +the restoration of the holy Roman empire, not indeed to the Germans, but +to the Italians: the pope should confer on the king of Italy by divine +authority the title and privileges of Roman emperor, who, on his part, +should undertake as papal mandatory the political administration of the +States of the Church. But in A.D. 1873 he sought and obtained papal +forgiveness for his errors. The Jesuit _Passaglia_ expressed enthusiastic +approval of the movements of Victor Emanuel and of Cavour's ideal of a +"free church in a free state." He was expelled from his order, his book +was put into the Index, but the Italian Government appointed him professor +of moral philosophy in Turin. At last he retracted all that he had said +and written. In the preface to his popular exposition of the gospels of +1874, the Jesuit father _Curci_ urged the advisability of a reconciliation +between the Holy See and the Italian government, and expressed his +conviction that the Church States would never be restored. That year he +addressed the pope in similar terms, and refusing to retract, was expelled +his order in A.D. 1877. Leo XIII. by friendly measures sought to move him +to recant, but without success. The condemnation of his books led to their +wider circulation. In A.D. 1883 he charged the Holy See with the guilt of +the unholy schism between church and state; but in the following year he +retracted whatever in his writings the pope regarded as opposed to the +faith, morals, and discipline of the Catholic church. + +6. _Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches._--After the July +Revolution of A.D. 1830 the Abbe _Chatel_ of Paris had himself consecrated +bishop of a new sect by a new-templar dignitary (§ 210, 1) and became +primate of the _French Catholic Church_, whose creed recognised only the +law of nature and viewed Christ as a mere man. After various congregations +had been formed, it was suppressed by the police in A.D. 1842. The Abbe +_Helsen_ of Brussels made a much more earnest endeavour to lead the church +of his fatherland from the antichrist to the true Christ. His _Apostolic +Catholic Church_ was dissolved in A.D. 1857 and its remnants joined the +Protestants. The founding of the _German Catholic Church_ in A.D. 1844 +promised to be more enduring. In August of that year, Arnoldi, Bishop of +Treves, exhibited the holy coat preserved there, and attracted one and a +half millions of pilgrims to Treves (§ 188, 2). A suspended priest, +_Ronge_, in a letter to the bishop denounced the worship of relics, +seeking to pose as the Luther of the nineteenth century. _Czerski_ of +Posen had in August, 1844, seceded from the Catholic church, and in +October founded the "Christian Catholic Apostolic Church," whose creed +embodied the negations without the positive beliefs of the Protestant +confessions, maintaining in other respects the fundamental articles of the +Christian faith. Ronge meanwhile formed congregations in all parts of +Germany, excepting Bavaria and Austria. A General Assembly held at Leipzig +in March, 1845, brought to light the deplorable religious nihilism of the +leaders of the party. Czerski, who refused to abandon the doctrine of +Christ's divinity, withdrew from the conference, but Ronge held a +triumphal procession through Germany. His hollowness, however, became so +apparent that his adherents grew ashamed of their enthusiasm for the new +reformer. His congregations began to break up; many withdrew, several of +the leaders threw off the mask of religion and adopted the _role_ of +political revolutionists. After the settlement that followed the +disturbances of A.D. 1848 the remnants of this party disappeared.(103) + +7. The inferior clergy of Italy, after the political emancipation of +Naples from the Bourbon domination in A.D. 1860, longed for deliverance +from clerical tyranny, and founded in A.D. 1862 a society with the object +of establishing a _national Italian church_ independent of the Romish +curia. Four Neapolitan churches were put at the disposal of the society by +the minister Ricasoli, but in 1865, an agreement having been come to +between the curia and the government, the bishops were recalled and the +churches restored. Thousands, to save themselves from starvation, gave in +their submission, but a small party still remained faithful. Encouraged by +the events of 1870 (§§ 135, 3; 189, 3), they were able in 1875 to draw up +a "dogmatic statement" for the "Church of Italy independent of the Roman +hierarchy," which indeed besides the Holy Scriptures admitted the +authority of the universal church as infallible custodian and interpreter +of revealed truth, but accepted only the first seven oecumenical councils +as binding. In the same year Bishop Turano of Girgenti excommunicated five +priests of the Silician town Grotta as opponents of the syllabus and the +dogma of infallibility. The whole clergy of the town, numbering +twenty-five, then renounced their obedience to the bishop, and with the +approval of the inhabitants declared themselves in favour of the +"statement." North of Rome this movement made little progress; but in 1875 +three villages of the Mantuan diocese claimed the ancient privilege of +choosing their own priest, and the bishop and other authorities were +obliged to yield. The Neapolitan movement, however, as a whole seems to be +losing itself in the sand. + +8. _The Frenchman, Charles Loyson_, known by his Carmelite monkish name of +_Pere Hyacinthe_, was protected from the Jesuits by Archbishop Darboy when +he inveighed against the corruptions of the church, and even Pius IX. on +his visit to Rome in 1868 treated him with favour. The general of his +order having imposed silence on him, he publicly announced his secession +from the order and appeared as a "preacher of the gospel," claiming from a +future General Council a sweeping reform of the church, protesting against +the falsifying of the gospel of the Son of God by the Jesuits and the +papal syllabus. He was then excommunicated. In A.D. 1871 he joined the +German Old Catholics (§ 190, 1); and though he gave offence to them by his +marriage, this did not prevent the Old Catholics of Geneva from choosing +him as their pastor. But after ten months, because "he sought not the +overthrow but the reform of the Catholic church, and reprobated the +despotism of the mob as well as that of the clergy, the infallibility of +the state as well as that of the pope," he withdrew and returned to Paris, +where he endeavoured to establish a French National Church free of Rome +and the Pope. The clerical minister Broglie, however, compelled him to +restrict himself to moral-religious lectures. In February, 1879, he built +a chapel in which he preaches on Sundays and celebrates mass in the French +language. He sought alliance with the Swiss Christian Catholics, whose +bishop, Herzog, heartily reciprocated his wishes, and with the Anglican +church, which gave a friendly response. But that this "seed corn" of a +"Catholic Gallican Church" will ever grow into a fully developed plant was +from the very outset rendered more than doubtful by the peculiar nature of +the sower, as well as of the seed and the soil. + + + +§ 188. Catholic Ultramontanism. + + +The restoration of the Jesuit order led, during the long pontificate of +Pius IX., to the revival, and hitherto unapproached prosperity of +ultramontanism, especially in France, whose bishops cast the Gallican +Liberties overboard (§§ 156, 3; 203, 1), and in Germany, where with +strange infatuation even Protestant princes gave it all manner of +encouragement. Even the lower clergy were trained from their youth in +hierarchical ideas, and under the despotic rule of their bishops, and a +reign of terror carried on by spies and secret courts, were constrained to +continue the profession of the strictest absolutism. + +1. _The Ultramontane Propaganda._--In _France_ ultramontanism revived with +the restoration. Its first and ablest prophet was Count _de Maistre_, A.D. +1754-1821, long Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg. He wrote against +the modern views of the relations of church and state, supporting the +infallibility, absolutism, and inviolability of the pope. He was supported +by Bonald, Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Lamennais, Lacordaire, and +Montalembert. Only Bonald maintained this attitude. Between him and +Chateaubriand a dispute arose over the freedom of the press; Lamennais and +Lacordaire began to blend political radicalism with their ultramontanism; +Lamartine involved himself in the February revolution of 1848 as the +apostle of humanity; and Montalembert took up a half-way position. In 1840 +Louis _Veuillot_ started the _Univers Religieux_ in place of the _Avenir_, +in which, till his death in 1883, he vindicated the extremest +ultramontanism.--In _Germany_ ultramontane views were disseminated by +romancing historians and poets mostly converts from Protestantism. +_Goerres_, professor of history in Munich, represented the Reformation as a +second fall, and set forth the legends of ascetics in his "History of +Mysticism" as sound history. The German bishops set themselves to train +the clergy in hierarchical views, and by a rule of terror prevented any +departure from that theory. The ultramontanising of the masses was carried +on by missions, and by the establishment of brotherhoods and sisterhoods. +In the beginning of A.D. 1860 there were only thirteen ultramontane +journals with very few subscribers, while in January, 1875, there were +three hundred. The most important was _Germania_, founded at Berlin in +1871.--The _Civilta Cattolica_ of Rome was always revised before +publication by Pius IX., and under Leo XIII. a similar position is held by +the _Moniteur de Rome_, while the _Osservatore Romano_ and the _Voce della +verita_ have also an official character. + +2. _Miracles._--Prince _Hohenlohe_ went through many parts of Germany, +Austria, and Hungary, performing miraculous cures; but his day of favour +soon passed, and he settled down as a writer of ascetical +works.--Pilgrimages to wonder-working shrines were encouraged by reports of +cures wrought on the grand-niece of the Bishop of Cologne (§ 193, 1), +cured of knee-joint disease before the holy coat of Treves (§ 187, 6). +Subjected to examination, the pretended seamless coat was found to be a +bit of the gray woollen wrapping of a costly silk Byzantine garment 1-1/2 +feet broad and 1 foot long. + +3. _Stigmatizations._--In many cases these marks were found to have been +fraudulently made, but in other cases it was questionable whether we had +not here a pathological problem, or whether hysteria created a desire to +deceive or pre-disposed the subject to being duped under clerical +influence. _Anna Cath. Emmerich_, a nun of Duelmen in Westphalia, in 1812, +professed to have on her body bloody wound-marks of the Saviour. For five +years down to her death in 1824, the poet Brentano sat at her feet, +venerating her as a saint and listening to her ecstatic revelations on the +death and sufferings of the Redeemer and his mother. Overberg, Sailer, and +Von Stolberg were also satisfied of the genuineness of her revelations and +of the miraculous marking of her body. The physician Von Drussel examined +the wound-prints and certified them as miraculous; but Bodde, professor of +chemistry at Muenster, pronounced the blood marks spots produced by +dragon's-blood. Competent physicians declared her a hysterical woman +incapable of distinguishing between dream and reality, truth and lies, +honesty and deceit. Others famous in the same line were Maria von Woerl, +Dominica Lazzari, and _Crescentia Stinklutsch_; also Dorothea Visser of +Holland and Juliana Weiskircher from near Vienna. + +4. Of a very doubtful kind were the miraculous marks on _Louise Lateau_, +daughter of a Belgian miner. On 24th April, 1868, it is said she was +marked with the print of the Saviour's wounds on hands, feet, side, brow, +and shoulders. In July, A.D. 1868, she fell into an ecstasy, from which +she could be awakened only by her bishop or one authorized by him. +Trustworthy physicians, after a careful medical examination, reported that +she laboured under a disease which they proposed to call "stigmatic +neuropathy." Chemical analysis proved the presence of food which had been +regularly taken, probably in a somnambulistic trance. In the summer of +1875 her sister for a time put an end to the affair by refusing the clergy +entrance into the house, and she was then obliged to eat, drink, and sleep +like other Christians, so that the Friday bloody marks disappeared. But +now, say ultramontane journals, Louise became dangerously ill, and clergy +were called in to her help, and the marks were again visible. Her patron +Bishop Dumont of Tournay being deposed by the pope in 1879, she took part +against his successor, and was threatened with excommunication (§ 200, 7). +She was now deserted by the ultramontanes and Belgian clergy, and treated +as a poor, weak-minded invalid. She died neglected and in obscurity in +A.D. 1883. + +5. Of pseudo-stigmatizations there has been no lack even in the most +recent times. In 1845 _Caroline Beller_, a girl of fifteen years, in +Westphalia, was examined by a skilful physician. On Thursday he laid a +linen cloth over the wound-prints, and sure enough on Friday it was marked +with blood stains; but also strips of paper laid under, without her +knowledge, were pricked with needles. The delinquent now confessed her +deceit, which she had been tempted to perpetrate from reading the works of +Francis of Assisi, Catherine of Siena, and Emmerich. Theresa Staedele in +1849, Rosa Tamisier in 1851, and Angela Hupe in 1863, were convicted of +fraudulently pretending to have stigmata. The latter was proved to have +feigned deafness and lameness for a whole year, to have diligently read +the writings of Emmerich in 1861, to have shown the physician fresh +bleeding wounds on hands, feet, and side, and to have affirmed that she +had neither eaten nor drunk for a year. Four sisters of mercy were sent to +attend her, and they soon discovered the fraud. In 1876 the father +confessor of Ernestine Hauser was prosecuted for damages, having injured +the girl's health by the severe treatment to which she was subjected in +order to induce ecstasy and obtain an opportunity for impressing the +stigmata. _Sabina Schaefer_ of Baden, in her eighteenth year, had for two +years borne the reputation of a wonder-working saint, who every Friday +showed the five wound prints, and in ecstasy told who were in hell and who +in purgatory. She professed to live without food, though often she betook +herself to the kitchen to pray alone, and even carried food with her to +give to her guardian angel to carry to the distant poor. When under +surveillance in 1880 she sought to bribe her guardian to bring her meat +and drink, fragments of food were found among her clothes, and also a +flask with blood and an instrument for puncturing the skin. She confessed +her guilt, and was sentenced by the criminal court of Baden to ten weeks' +imprisonment. The ultramontane _Pfaelzer Bote_ complained that so-called +liberals should ruthlessly encroach on the rights of the church and the +family. + +6. _Manifestations of the Mother of God in France._--The most celebrated of +these manifestations occurred in 1858 at _Lourdes_, where in a grotto the +Virgin repeatedly appeared to a peasant girl of fourteen years, almost +imbecile, named Bernadette Soubirous, saying "Je suis l'Immaculee +Conception," and urging the erection of a chapel on that spot. A +miracle-working well sprang up there. Since 1872 the pilgrimages under +sanction of the hierarchy have been on a scale of unexampled magnificence, +and the cures in number and significance far excelling anything heard of +before.--At the village of _La Salette_ in the department of Isere, in 1846 +two poor children, a boy of fifteen and a girl of eleven years, saw a fair +white-dressed lady sitting on a stone and shedding tears, and, lo, from +the spot where her foot rested sprang up a well, at which innumerable +cures have been wrought. The epidemic of visions of the Virgin reached a +climax in Alsace Lorraine in 1872. In a wood near the village of _Gereuth_ +crowds of women and children gathered, professing to see visions of the +mother of God; but when the police appeared to protect the forest, the +manifestation craze spread over the whole land, and at thirty-five +stations almost daily visions were enjoyed. The epidemic reached its +crisis in Mary's month, May, 1874, and continued with intervals down to +the end of the year. In some cases deceit was proved; but generally it +seemed to be the result of a diseased imagination and self-deception +fostered by speculative purveyors and the ultramontane press and clergy. + +7. _Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany._--In the summer of 1876 +three girls of eight years old in the village of _Marpingen_, in the +department of Treves, saw by a well a white-robed lady, with the halo over +her head and with a child in her arms, who made herself known as the +immaculate Virgin, and called for the erection of a chapel. A voice from +heaven said, This is my beloved Son, etc. There were also processions and +choirs of angels, etc. The devil, too, appeared and ordered them to fall +down and worship him. Thousands crowded from far and near, and the water +of the fountain wrought miraculous cures. The surrounding clergy made a +profitable business of sending the water to America, and the _Germania_ of +Berlin unweariedly sounded forth its praises. Before the court of justice +the children confessed the fraud, and were sentenced to the house of +correction; and though on technical grounds this judgment was set aside, +the supreme court of appeal in 1879 pronounced the whole thing a +scandalous and disgraceful swindle.--Weichsel, priest of _Dittrichswald_ in +Ermland, who gained great reputation as an exorcist, made a pilgrimage to +Marpingen in the summer of 1877, and on his return gave such an account of +what he had seen to his communicants' class that first one and then +another saw the mother of God at a maple tree, which also became a +favourite resort for pilgrims. + +8. _Canonizations._--When in 1825 Leo XII. canonized a Spanish monk +Julianus, who among other miracles had made roasted birds fly away off the +spit, the Roman wits remarked that they would prefer a saint who would put +birds on the spit for them. St. Liguori was canonized by Gregory XVI. in +1839. Pius IX. canonized fifty-two and beatified twenty-six of the martyrs +of Japan. The Franciscans had sought from Urban VIII. in 1627 canonization +for six missionaries and seventeen Japanese converts martyred in 1596 (§ +150, 2), but were refused because they would not pay 52,000 Roman thalers +for the privilege. Pius IX. granted this, and included three Jesuit +missionaries. At Pentecost, 1862, the celebration took place, amid +acclamations, firing of cannons, and ringing of bells. In 1868 the +infamous president of the heretic tribunal Arbues (§ 117, 2) received the +distinction. The number of _doctores ecclesiae_ was increased by Pius IX. +by the addition of Hilary of Poitiers in 1851, Liguori in 1870, and +Francis de Sales in 1877. And Leo XIII. canonized four new saints, the +most distinguished of whom was the French mendicant, Bened. Jos. Labre, +who after having been dismissed by Carthusians, Cistercians, and Trappists +as unteachable, made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he stayed fifteen years +in abject poverty, and died in 1783 in his thirty-sixth year. + +9. _Discoveries of Relics._--The Roman catacombs continued still to supply +the demand for relics of the saints for newly erected altars. Toward the +end of A.D. 1870 the Archbishop of St. Iago de Compostella (§ 88, 4) made +excavations in the crypt of his cathedral, in consequence of an old +tradition that the bones of the Apostle James the Elder, the supposed +founder of the church, had been deposited there, and he succeeded in +discovering a stone coffin with remains of a skeleton. The report of this +made to Pius IX. gave occasion to the appointment of a commission of seven +cardinals, who, after years of minute examination of all confirmatory +historical, archaeological, anatomical, and local questions, submitted +their report to Leo XIII., whereupon, in November, 1884, he issued an +"Apostolic Brief," by which he (without publishing the report) declared +the unmistakable genuineness of the discovered bones as _ex constanti et +pervulgato apud omnes sermone jam ab Apostolorum aetate memoriae prodita_, +pronounced the relics generally _perennes fontes_, from which the _dona +caelestia_ flow forth like brooks among the Christian nations, and calls +attention to the fact that it is just in this century, in which the power +of darkness has risen up in conflict against the Lord and his Christ, +these and also many other relics "_divinitus_" have been discovered, as +_e.g._ the bones of St. Francis, of St. Clara, of Bishop Ambrose, of the +martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, of the Apostles Philip and James the +Less, the genuineness of which had been avouched by his predecessors Pius +VII. and Pius IX. + +10. _The blood of St. Januarius_, a martyr of the age of Diocletian, +liquefies thrice a year for eight days, and on occasion of earthquakes and +such-like calamities in Naples, the blood is brought in two vials by a +matron near to the head of the saint; if it liquefies the sign is +favourable to the Neapolitans, if it remains thick unfavourable; but in +either case it forms a powerful means of agitation in the hands of the +clergy. Unbelievers venture to suggest that this _precioso sangue del +taumaturgo S. Gennaro_ is not blood, but a mixture that becomes liquid by +the warmth of the hand and the heat of the air in the crowded room, some +sort of cetaceous product coloured red. + +11. About 100 clergy, twenty colour-bearers, 150 musicians, 10,000 +leapers, 3,000 beggars, and 2,000 singers take part in the _Leaping +Procession at Echternach_ in Luxemburg, which is celebrated yearly on +Whit-Tuesday. It was spoken of in the sixteenth century as an ancient +custom. After an "exciting" sermon, the procession is formed in rows of +from four to six persons bound together by pocket-handkerchiefs held in +their hands; Wilibrord's dance is played, and all jump in time to the +music, five steps forward and two backward, or two backward and three +forward, varied by three or four leaps to the right and then as many to +the left. Thus continually leaping the procession goes through the streets +of the city to the parish church, up the sixty-two steps of the church +stair and along the church aisles to the tomb of Wilibrord (§ 78, 3). The +dance is kept up incessantly for two hours. The performers do so generally +because of a vow, or as penance for some fault, or to secure the saint's +intercession for the cure of epilepsy and convulsive fits, common in that +region, mainly no doubt owing to such senseless proceedings. The origin of +the custom is obscure. Tradition relates that soon after the death of +Wilibrord a disease appeared among the cattle which jumped incessantly in +the stalls, till the people went leaping in procession to Wilibrord's +tomb, and the plague was stayed! But the custom is probably a Christian +adaptation of an old spring festival dance of pagan times (§ 75, 3; comp. +2 Sam. vi. 14). + +12. _The Devotion of the Sacred Heart._--Even after the suppression of the +Jesuit order the devotion of the Sacred Heart (§ 156, 6) was zealously +practised by the ex-Jesuits and their friends. On the restoration of the +order numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods, especially in France, devoted +themselves to this exercise, and the _revanche_ movement of A.D. 1870 used +this as one of its most powerful instruments. Crowds of pilgrims flocked +to Paray le Monial, and there, kneeling before the cradle of Bethlehem, +they besought the sacred heart of Jesus to save France and Rome, and the +refrain of all the pilgrim songs, "_Dieu, de la clemence ... sauvez Rome +et la France au nom du sacre-coeur_," became the spiritual Marseillaise of +France returning to the Catholic fold. From the money collected over the +whole land a beautiful church _du Sacre-Coeur_ has been erected on +Montmartre in Paris. The gratifying news was then brought from Rome that +the holy father had resolved on July 16th, 1875, the twenty-ninth +anniversary of his ascending the papal throne and the two hundredth +anniversary of the great occurrences at Paray le Monial, that the whole +world should give adoration to the sacred heart. In France this day was +fixed upon for the laying of the foundation stone of the church at +Montmartre, and the Archbishop of Cologne, Paul Melchers, commanded +Catholic Germany to show greater zeal in the adoration of the sacred +heart, "ordained by divine revelation" two hundred years before. + +13. _Ultramontane Amulets._--The Carmelites adopted a brown, the +Trinitarians a white, the Theatines a blue, the Servites a black, and the +Lazarites a red, scapular, assured by divine visions that the wearing of +them was a means of salvation. A tract, entitled "_Gnaden und Ablaesse des +fuenffachen Skapuliers_," published by episcopal authority at Muenster in +1872, declared that any layman who wore the five scapulars would +participate in all the graces and indulgences belonging to them severally. +The most useful of all was the Carmelite scapular, impenetrable by +bullets, impervious to daggers, rendering falls harmless, stilling stormy +seas, quenching fires, healing the possessed, the sick, the wounded, +etc.--The Benedictines had no scapulars, but they had Benedict-medals, from +which they drew a rich revenue. This amulet first made its appearance in +the Bavarian Abbey of Metten. The tract, entitled, "_St. +Benediktusbuechlein oder die Medaille d. h. Benediktus_," published at +Muenster in 1876, tells how it cures sicknesses, relieves toothache, stops +bleeding at the nose, heals burns, overcomes the craving for drink, +protects from attacks of evil spirits, restrains skittish horses, cures +sick cattle, clears vineyards of blight, secures the conversion of +heretics and godless persons, etc.--In A.D. 1878 there appeared at Mainz, +with approval of the bishop, a book in its third edition, entitled, "_Der +Seraphische Guertel und dessen wunderbare Reichtuemer nach d. Franz, d. +paepstl. Hauspraelaten Abbe v. Segur_," according to which Sixtus V. in 1585 +founded the Archbrotherhood of the Girdle of St. Francis. It also affirms +that whoever wears this girdle day and night and repeats the six enjoined +paternosters, participates in all the indulgences of the holy land and of +all the basilicas and sanctuaries of Rome and Assisi, and is entitled to +liberate 1,000 souls a day from purgatory.--Great miracles of healing and +preservation from all injuries to body and soul, property and goods, are +attributed by the Jesuits to the "_holy water of St. Ignatius_" (§ 149, +11), the sale of which in Belgium, France, and Switzerland has proved to +them a lucrative business. But the mother of God has herself favoured them +with a still more powerful miracle-working water in the fountains of +Lourdes and Marpingen. + +14. We give in conclusion a specimen of _Ultramontane pulpit eloquence_. A +Bavarian priest, Kinzelmann, said in a sermon in 1872: "We priests stand +as far above the emperor, kings, and princes as the heaven is above the +earth.... Angels and archangels stand beneath us, for we can in God's +stead forgive sins. We occupy a position superior to that of the mother of +God, who only once bare Christ, whereas we create and beget him every day. +Yea, in a sense, we stand above God, who must always and everywhere serve +us, and at the consecration must descend from heaven upon the mass," +etc.--An apotheosis of the priesthood worthy of the Middle Ages. + + + +§ 189. The Vatican Council.(104) + + +Immediately after Pius IX. had, at the centenary of St. Peter in 1867, +given a hint that a general council might be summoned at an early date, +the _Civilta Cattolica_ of Rome made distinct statements to the effect +that the most prominent questions for discussion would be the confirming +of the syllabus (§ 185, 2), the sanctioning of the doctrine of papal +absolutism in the spirit of the bull _Unam sanctam_ of Boniface VIII. (§ +110, 1), and the proclamation of papal infallibility. The _Civilta_ had +already taught that "when the pope thinks, it is God who thinks in him." +When the council opened on the day of the immaculate conception, December +8th, 1869, all conceivable devices of skilful diplomacy were used by the +Jesuit Camarilla, and friendly cajoling and violent threatening on the +part of the pope, in order to silence or win over, and, in case this could +not be done, to stifle and suppress the opposition which even already was +not inconsiderable in point of numbers, but far more important in point of +moral, theological, and hierarchical influence. The result aimed at was +secured. Of the 150 original opponents only fifty dared maintain their +opposition to the end, and even they cowardly shrank from a decisive +conflict, and wrote from their respective dioceses, as their Catholic +faith obliged them to do, notifying their most complete acquiescence. + +1. _Preliminary History of the Council._--When Pius IX. on the centenary of +St. Peter made known to the assembled bishops his intention to summon a +general council, they expressed their conviction that by the blessing of +the immaculate Virgin it would be a powerful means of securing unity, +peace, and holiness. The formal summons was issued on the day of St. Peter +and St. Paul of the following year, June 29th, 1868. The end for which the +council was convened was stated generally as follows: The saving of the +church and civil society from all evils threatening them, the thwarting of +the endeavours of all who seek the overthrow of church and state, the +uprooting of all modern errors and the downfall of all godless enemies of +the apostolical chair. In Germany the Catholic General Assembly which met +at Bamberg soon after this declared that from this day a new epoch in the +world's history would begin, for "either the salvation of the world would +result from this council, or the world is beyond the reach of help." This +hopefulness prevailed throughout the whole Catholic world. Fostered by the +utterances of the _Civilta Cattolica_, the excitement grew from day to +day. The learned bishop _in partibus_ Maret, dean of the theological +faculty of Paris, now came forward as an eloquent exponent of the Gallican +liberties; even the hitherto so strict Catholic, the Count Montalembert, +to the astonishment of everybody, assumed a bold and independent attitude +in regard to the council, and energetically protested in a publication of +March 7th, 1870, six days before his death, against the intrigues of the +Jesuits and the infallibility dogma which it was proposed to authorize. +But the greatest excitement was occasioned by the work "_Der Papst und das +Konzil_," published in Leipzig, 1869, under the pseudonym _Janus_, of +which the real authors were Doellinger, Friedrich, and Huber of Munich, who +brought up the heavy artillery of the most comprehensive historical +scholarship against the evident intentions of the curia. The German +bishops gathered at the tomb of St. Boniface at Fulda in September, 1869, +and issued from thence a general pastoral letter to their disturbed +flocks, declaring that it was impossible that the council should decide +otherwise than in accordance with holy Scripture and the apostolic +traditions and what was already written upon the hearts of all believing +Catholics. Also the papal secretary, Card. Antonelli, quieted the anxiety +of the ambassadors of foreign powers at Rome by the assurance that the +Holy See had in view neither the confirming of the syllabus nor the +affirming of the dogma of infallibility. In vain did the Bavarian premier, +Prince Hohenlohe, insist that the heads of other governments should +combine in taking measures to prevent any encroachment of the council upon +the rights of the state. The great powers resolved to maintain simply a +watchful attitude, and only too late addressed earnest expostulations and +threats. + +2. _The Organization of the Council._--Of 1,044 prelates entitled to take +part in the council 767 made their appearance, of whom 276 were Italians +and 119 bishops _in partibus_, all pliable satellites of the curia, as +were also the greater number of the missionary bishops, who, with their +assistants in the propaganda, were supported at the cost of the holy +father. The sixty-two bishops of the Papal States were doubly subject to +the pope, and of the eighty Spanish and South American bishops it was +affirmed in Rome that they would be ready at the bidding of the holy +father to define the Trinity as consisting of four persons. Forty Italian +cardinals and thirty generals of orders were equally dependable. The +Romance races were represented by no less than 600, the German by no more +than fourteen. For the first time since general councils were held was the +laity entirely excluded from all influence in the proceedings, even the +ambassadors of Catholic and tolerant powers. The order of business drawn +up by the pope was arranged in all its details so as to cripple the +opposition. The right of all fathers of the council to make proposals was +indeed conceded, but a committee chosen by the pope decided as to their +admissibility. From the special commissions, whose presidents were +nominated by the pope, the drafts of decrees were issued to the general +congregation, where the president could at will interrupt any speaker and +require him to retract. Instead of the unanimity required by the canon law +in matters of faith, a simple majority of votes was declared sufficient. A +formal protest of the minority against these and similar unconstitutional +proposals was left quite unheeded. The proceedings were indeed taken down +by shorthand reporters, but not even members of council were allowed to +see these reports. The conclusions of the general congregation were sent +back for final revision to the special commissions, and when at last +brought up again in the public sessions, they were not discussed, but +simply voted on with a _placet_ or a _non-placet_. The right transept of +St. Peter's was the meeting place of the council, the acoustics of which +were as bad as possible, but the pope refused every request for more +suitable accommodation. Besides, the various members spoke with diverse +accents, and many had but a defective knowledge of Latin. Although +absolute secresy was enjoined on pain of falling into mortal sin, under +the excitement of the day so much trickled out and was in certain Romish +circles so carefully gathered and sifted, that a tolerably complete +insight was reached into the inner movements of the council. From such +sources the author of the "_Roemischen Briefe_," supposed to have been Lord +Acton, a friend and scholar of Doellinger, drew the material for his +account, which, carried by trusty messengers beyond the bounds of the +Papal State, reached Munich, and there, after careful revision by +Doellinger and his friends, were published in the _Augsburg Allg. Zeitung_. +Also Prof. Friedrich of Munich, who had accompanied Card. Hohenlohe to +Rome as theological adviser, collected what he could learn in episcopal +and theological circles in a journal which was published at a later date. + +3. _The Proceedings of the Council._--The first public session of December +8th, 1869, was occupied with opening ceremonies; the second, of January +6th, with the subscription of the confession of faith on the part of each +member. The first preliminary was the _schema_ of the faith, the second +that on church discipline. Then followed the _schema_ on the church and +the primacy of the pope in three articles: the legal position of the +church in reference to the state, the absolute supremacy of the pope over +the whole church on the principles of the Pseudo-Isidore (§ 87, 2) and the +assumptions of Gregory VII., Innocent III. and Boniface VIII., reproduced +in the principal propositions of the syllabus (§ 184, 2), and the outlines +of a catechism to be enforced as a manual for the instruction of youth +throughout the church. On March 6th there was added by way of supplement +to the _schema_ of the church a fourth article in the form of a sketch of +the decree of infallibility. Soon after the opening of the council an +agitation in this direction had been started. An address to the pope +emanating from the Jesuit college petitioning for this was speedily signed +by 400 subscribers. A counter address with 137 signatures besought the +pope not to make any such proposal. At the head of the agitation in favour +of infallibility stood archbishops Manning of Westminster, Deschamps of +Mechlin, Spalding of Baltimore, and bishops Fessler of St. Poelten, +secretary of the council, Senestrey of Regensburg, the "overthrower of +thrones" (§ 197, 1), Martin of Paderborn, and, as bishop _in partibus_, +Mermillod of Geneva. Among the leaders of the opposition the most +prominent were cardinals Rauscher of Vienna, Prince Schwarzenberg of +Prague and Matthieu of Besancon, Prince-bishop Foerster of Breslau, +archbishops Scherr of Munich, Melchers of Cologne, Darboy of Paris, and +Kenrick of St. Louis, the bishops Ketteler of Mainz, Dinkel of Augsburg, +Hefele of Rottenburg, Strossmayer of Sirmium, Dupanloup of Orleans, +etc.--Owing to the discussions on the _Schema of the Faith_ there occurred +on March 22nd a stormy scene, which in its wild uproar reminds one of the +disgraceful _Robber Synod of Ephesus_ (§ 52, 4). When Bishop Strossmayer +objected to the statement made in the preamble, that the indifferentism, +pantheism, atheism, and materialism prevailing in these days are +chargeable upon Protestantism, as contrary to truth, the furious fathers +of the majority amid shouts and roars, shaking of their fists, rushed upon +the platform, and the president was obliged to adjourn the sitting. At the +next session the objectionable statement was withdrawn and the entire +_schema_ of the faith was unanimously adopted at the third public sitting +of the council on April 24th. _The Schema of the Church_ came up for a +consideration on May 10th. The discussion turned first and mainly on the +fourth article about the infallibility of the pope. Its biblical +foundation was sought in Luke xxii. 32, its traditional basis chiefly in +the well-known passage of Irenaeus (§ 34, 8) and on its supposed +endorsement by the general councils of Lyons and Florence (§ 67, 4, 6), +but the main stress was laid on its necessarily following from the +position of the pope as the representative of Christ. The opposition party +had from the outset their position weakened by the conduct of many of +their adherents who, partly to avoid giving excessive annoyance to the +pope, and partly to leave a door open for their retreat, did not contest +the correctness of the doctrine in question, but all the more decidedly +urged the inopportuneness of its formal definition as threatening the +church with a schism and provocative of dangerous conflicts with the civil +power. The longer the decision was deferred by passionate debates, the +more determinedly did the pope throw the whole weight of his influence +into the scales. By bewitching kindliness he won some, by sharp, angry +words he terrified others. He denounced opponents as sectarian enemies of +the church and the apostolic chair, and styled them ignoramuses, slaves of +princes, and cowards. He trusted the aid of the blessed Virgin to ward off +threatened division. To the question whether he himself regarded the +formulating of the dogma as opportune, he answered: "No, but as +necessary." Urged by the Jesuits, he confidently declared that it was +notorious that the whole church at all times taught the absolute +infallibility of the pope; and on another occasion he silenced a modest +doubt as to a sure tradition with the dictatorial words, _La tradizione +sono io_, adding the assurance, "As Abbate Mastai I believe in +infallibility, as pope I have experienced it." On July 13th the final vote +was called for in the general congregation. There were 371 who voted +simply _placet_, sixty-one _placet juxta modum_, _i.e._ with certain +modifications, and eighty-eight _non placet_. After a last hopeless +attempt by a deputation to obtain the pope's consent to a milder +formulating of the decree, Bishop Ketteler vainly entreating on his knees, +to save the unity and peace of the church by some small concession, the +fifty hitherto steadfast members of the minority returned home, after +emitting a written declaration that they after as well as before must +continue to adhere to their negative vote, but from reverence and respect +for the person of the pope they declined to give effect to it at a public +session. On the following day, July 18th, the fourth and last public +sitting was held: 547 fathers voted _placet_ and only two, Riccio of +Cajazzo and Fitzgerald of Little Rock, _non placet_. A violent storm had +broken out during the session and amid thunder and lightning, Pius IX., +like "a second Moses" (Exod. xix. 16), proclaimed in the _Pastor aeternus_ +the absolute plenipotence and infallibility of himself and all his +predecessors and successors.--It was on the evening preceding the +proclamation of this new dogma that Napoleon III. proclaimed war with +Prussia, in consequence of which the pope lost the last remnants of +temporal sovereignty and every chance of its restoration. Under the +influence of the fever-fraught July sun, the council now dwindled down to +150 members, and, after the whole glory of the papal kingdom had gone down +(§ 185, 3), on October 20th, its sittings were suspended until better +times. The _schema_ of discipline and the preliminary sketch of a +catechism were not concluded; a subsequently introduced _schema_ on +apostolic missions was left in the same state; and a petition equally +pressed by the Jesuits for the defining of the corporeal ascension of Mary +had not even reached the initial stage. + +4. _Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council._--All protests which during +the council the minority had made against the order of business determined +on and against all irregularities resulting from it, because not persisted +in, were regarded as invalid. Equally devoid of legal force was their +final written protest which they left behind, in which they expressly +declined to exercise their right of voting. And the assent which they +ultimately without exception gave to the objective standpoint of the law +and the faith of the Catholic church, was not in the least necessary in +order to make it appear that the decisions of the council, drawn up with +such unanimity as had scarcely ever before been seen, were equally valid +with any of the decrees of the older councils. Thus the bishops of the +minority, if they did not wish to occasion a split of unexampled +dimensions and incalculable complications, quarrels, and contentions in +the church that boasted of a unity which had hitherto been its strength +and stay, could do nothing else than yield at the twelfth hour to the +pope's demand that "_sacrificio dell'intelletto_" which at the eleventh +hour they had refused. The German bishops, who had proved most steadfast +at the council, were now in the greatest haste to make their submission. +Even by the end of August, at Fulda, they joined their infallibilist +neighbours in addressing a pastoral letter, in which they most solemnly +declared that all true Catholics, as they valued their soul's salvation, +must unconditionally accept the conclusions of the council unanimously +arrived at which are in no way prejudiced by the "differences of opinion" +elicited during the discussion. At the same time they demanded of +theological professors, teachers of religion, and clergymen throughout the +dioceses a formal acceptance of these decrees as the inviolable standpoint +of their doctrinal teaching; they also took measures against those who +refused to yield, and excommunicated them. Even Bishop Hefele, who did not +sign this pastoral and was at first determined not to yield nor swerve, at +last gave way. In his pastoral proclaiming the new dogma he gave it a +quite inadmissible interpretation: As the infallibility of the church, so +also that of the pope as a teacher, extends only to the revealed doctrines +of faith and morals, and even with reference to them only the definitions +proper and not the introductory statements, grounds, and applications, +belong to the infallible department. But subsequently he cast himself +unreservedly into the arms of his colleagues assembled once again at Fulda +in September, 1872, where he also found his like-minded friend, Bishop +Haneberg of Spires. Yet he forbore demanding an express assent from his +former colleagues at Tuebingen and his clergy, and thus saved Wuerttemberg +from a threatened schism. Strossmayer held out longest, but even he at +last threw down his weapons. But many of the most cultured and scholarly +of the theological professors, disgusted with the course events were +taking, withdrew from the field and continued silently to hold their own +opinions. The inferior clergy, for the most part trained by ultramontane +bigots, and held in the iron grasp of strict hierarchical discipline, +passed all bounds in their extravagant glorification of the new dogma. And +while among the liberal circles of the Catholic laity it was laughed at +and ridiculed, the bigoted nobles and the masses who had long been used to +the incensed atmosphere of an enthusiastic adoration of the pope, bowed +the knee in stupid devotion to the papal god. But the brave heart of one +noble German lady broke with sorrow over the indignity done by the Vatican +decree and the characterlessness of the German bishops to the church of +which to her latest breath she remained in spirit a devoted member. Amalie +von Lasaulx, sister of the Munich scholar Ernst von Lasaulx (§ 174, 4), +from 1849 superioress of the Sisters of Mercy in St. John's Hospital at +Bonn, lay beyond hope of recovery on a sick-bed to which she had been +brought by her self-sacrificing and faithful discharge of the duties of +her calling, when there came to her from the lady superior of the order at +Nancy the peremptory demand to give in her adhesion to the infallibility +dogma. As she persistently and courageously withstood all entreaties and +threats, all adjurations and cruelly tormenting importunings, she was +deposed from office and driven from the scene of her labours, and when, +soon thereafter, in 1872, she died, the habit of her order was stripped +from her body. The Old Catholics of Bonn, whose proceedings she had not +countenanced, charged themselves with securing for her a Christian +burial.--No state as such has recognised the council. Austria answered it +by abolishing the concordat and forbidding the proclamation of the +decrees. Bavaria and Saxony refused their _placet_; Hesse, Baden, and +Wuerttemberg declared that the conclusions of the council had not binding +authority in law. Prussia indeed held to its principle of not interfering +in the internal affairs of the Catholic church, but, partly for itself, +partly as the leading power of the new German empire, passed a series of +laws in order to resume its too readily abandoned rights of sovereignty +over the affairs of the Catholic church, and to insure itself against +further encroachments of ultramontanism upon the domain of civil life (§ +197). The Romance states, on the other hand, pre-eminently France, were +prevented by internal troubles and conflicts from taking any very decisive +steps. + + + +§ 190. The Old Catholics. + + +A most promising reaction, mainly in Germany, led by men highly respected +and eminent for their learning, set in against the Vatican Council and its +decrees, in the so-called Old Catholic movement of the liberal circles of +the Catholic people, which went the length, even in 1873, of establishing +an independent and well organized episcopal church. Since then, indeed, it +has fallen far short of the all too sanguine hopes and expectations at +first entertained; but still within narrower limits it continues steadily +to spread and to rear for itself a solid structure, while carefully, even +nervously, shrinking from anything revolutionary. More in touch with the +demands of the _Zeitgeist_ in its reformatory concessions, yet holding +firmly in every particular to the positive doctrines of orthodoxy, the Old +Catholic movement has made progress in Switzerland, while in other +Catholic countries its success has been relatively small. + +1. _Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church in the German +Empire._--In the beginning of August, 1870, the hitherto exemplary Catholic +professor Michelis of Braunsberg (§ 191, 6), issued a public charge +against Pius IX. as a heretic and devourer of the church, and by the end +of August several distinguished theologians (Doellinger and Friedrich of +Munich, Reinkens, Weber, and Baltzer of Breslau, Knoodt of Bonn, and the +canonist Von Schulte of Prague) joined him at Nuremberg in making a public +declaration that the Vatican Council could not be regarded as oecumenical, +nor its new dogma as a Catholic doctrine. This statement was subscribed to +by forty-four Catholic professors of the university of Munich with the +rector at their head, but without the theologians. Similarly, too, several +Catholic teachers in Breslau, Freiburg, Wuerzburg, and Bonn protested, and +still more energetically a gathering of Catholic laymen at Koenigswinter. +Besides the Breslau professors already named, the Bonn professors Reusch, +Langen, Hilgers, and Knoodt refused to subscribe the council decrees at +the call of their bishop; whereas the Munich professors, with the +exception of Doellinger and Friedrich, yielded. A repeated injunction of +his archbishop in January, 1871, drew from Doellinger the statement that he +as a Christian, a theologian, a historian, and a citizen, was obliged to +reject the infallibility dogma, while at the same time he was prepared +before an assembly of bishops and theologians to prove that it was opposed +to Scripture, the Fathers, tradition, and history. He was now literally +overwhelmed with complimentary addresses from Vienna, Wuerzburg, Munich, +and almost all other cities of Bavaria; and an address to government on +the dangers to the state threatened by the Vatican decrees that lay at the +Munich Museum, was quickly filled with 12,000 signatures. On April 14th, +Doellinger was excommunicated, and Professor Huber sent an exceedingly +sharp reply to the archbishop. After several preliminary meetings, the +_first congress_ of the Old Catholics was held in Munich in September, +1871, attended by 500 deputies from all parts of Germany. A programme was +unanimously adopted which, with protestation of firm adherence to the +faith, worship, and constitution of the ancient Catholic church, +maintained the invalidity of the Vatican decrees and the excommunication +occasioned by them, and, besides recognising the Old Catholic church of +Utrecht (§ 165, 8), expressed a hope of reunion with the Greek church, as +well as of a gradual progress towards an understanding with the Protestant +church. But when at the second session the president, Dr. von Schulte, +proposed the setting up of independent public services with regular +pastors, and the establishing as soon as possible of an episcopal +government of their own, Doellinger contested the proposal as a forsaking +of the safe path of lawful opposition, taking the baneful course of the +Protestant Reformation, and tending toward the formation of a sect. As, +however, the proposal was carried by an overwhelming majority, he declined +to take further part in their public assemblies and retired more into the +background, without otherwise opposing the prevailing current or detaching +himself from it. The second congress was held at Cologne in the autumn of +1872. From the episcopal churches of England and America, from the +orthodox church of Russia, from France, Italy, and Spain, were sent +deputies and hearty friendly greetings. Archbishop Loos of Utrecht, by the +part which he took in the congress, cemented more closely the union with +the Old Catholics of Holland. Even the German "_Protestantenverein_" was +not unrepresented. A committee chosen for the purpose drew up an outline +of a synodal and congregational order, which provides for the election of +bishops at an annual meeting at Pentecost of a synod, of which all the +clergy are members and to which the congregations send deputies, one for +every 200 members. Alongside of the bishop stands a permanent synodal +board of five priests and seven laymen. The bishop and synodal board have +the right of vetoing doubtful decrees of synod. The choice of pastors lies +with the congregation; its confirmation belongs to the bishop. In July, +1873, a bishop was elected in the Pantaleon church of Cologne by an +assembly of delegates, embracing twenty-two priests and fifty-five laymen. +The choice fell upon Professor Reinkens, who, as meanwhile Bishop Loos of +Utrecht had died, was consecrated on August 11th, at Rotterdam, by Bishop +Heykamp of Deventer, and selected Bonn as his episcopal residence. + +2. The first synod of the German Old Catholics, consisting of thirty +clerical and fifty-nine lay members, met at Bonn in May, 1874. It was +agreed to continue the practice of auricular confession, but without any +pressure being put upon the conscience or its observance being insisted +upon at set times. Similarly the moral value of fasting was recognised, +but all compulsory abstinence, and all distinctions of food as allowable +and unallowable, were abolished. The second synod, with reference to the +marriage law, took the position that civil regular marriages ought also to +have the blessing of the church; only in the case of marriages with +non-Christians and divorced parties should this be refused. The third +synod introduced a German ritual in which the exorcism was omitted, while +the Latin mass was provisionally retained. The fourth synod allowed to +such congregations as might wish it the use of the vernacular in several +parts of the service of the mass. At all these synods the lay members had +persistently repeated the proposal to abolish the obligatory celibacy of +the clergy. But now the agitation, especially on the part of the Baden +representatives, had become so keen, that at the fifth synod of 1878, in +spite of the warning read by Bishop Reinkens from the Dutch Old Catholics, +who threatened to withdraw from the communion, the proposal was carried by +seventy-five votes against twenty-two. The Bonn professors, Langen and +Menzel, foreseeing this result, had absented themselves from the synod, +Reusch immediately withdrew and resigned his office as episcopal +vicar-general, Friedrich protested in the name of the Bavarian Old +Catholics. Reinkens, too, had vigorously opposed the movement; whereas +Knoodt, Michelis, and Von Schulte had favoured it. The synod of 1883 +resolved to dispense the supper in both kinds to members of the Anglican +church residing in Germany, but among their own members to follow +meanwhile the usual practice of _communio sub una_. The number of Old +Catholic congregations in the German empire is now 107, with 38,507 +adherents and 56 priests.--Even at their first congress the German Old +Catholics, in opposition to the unpatriotic and law-defying attitude of +German ultramontanism, had insisted upon love of country and obedience to +the laws of the state as an absolute Christian duty. Their newly chosen +bishop Reinkens, too, gave expression to this sentiment in his first +pastoral letter, and had the oath of allegiance administered him by the +Prussian, Baden, and Hessian governments. But Bavaria felt obliged, on +account of the terms of its concordat, to refuse. At first the Old +Catholics had advanced the claim to be the only true representatives of +the Catholic church as it had existed before July 18th, 1870. At the +Cologne congress they let this assumption drop, and restricted their +claims upon the state to equal recognition with "the New Catholics," equal +endowments for their bishop, and a fair proportion of the churches and +their revenues. Prussia responded with a yearly episcopal grant of 16,000 +thalers; Baden added about 6,000. It proved more difficult to enforce +their claim to church property. A law was passed in Baden in 1874, which +not only guaranteed to the Old Catholic clergy their present benefices and +incomes, freed them from the jurisdiction of the Romish hierarchy, and +gave them permission to found independent congregations, but also granted +them a mutual right of possessing and using churches and church furniture +as well as sharing in church property according to the numerical +proportion of the two parties in the district. A similar measure was +introduced into the Prussian parliament, and obtained the royal assent in +July, 1875. Since then, however, the interest of the government in the Old +Catholic movement has visibly cooled. In Baden, in 1886 the endowment had +risen to 24,000 marks. + +3. _The Old Catholics in other Lands._--_In Switzerland_ the Old, or +rather, as it has there been called, the Christian, Catholic movement, had +its origin in 1871 in the diocese of Basel-Solothurn, whence it soon +spread through the whole country. The national synod held at Olten in 1876 +introduced the vernacular into the church services, abolished the +compulsory celibacy of the clergy and obligatory confession of +communicants, and elected Professor Herzog bishop, Reinkens giving him +episcopal consecration. In 1879 the number of Christian Catholics in +German Switzerland amounted to about 70,000, with seventy-two pastors. But +since then, in consequence of the submission of the Roman Catholics to the +church laws condemned by Pius IX. they have lost the majority in no fewer +than thirty-nine out of the forty-three congregations of Canton Bern, and +therewith the privileges attached. A proposal made in the grand council of +the canton in 1883 for the suppression of the Christian Catholic +theological faculty in the University of Bern, which has existed since +1874, was rejected by one hundred and fifty votes against thirteen.--_In +Austria_, too, strong opposition was shown to the infallibility dogma. At +Vienna the first Old Catholic congregation was formed in February, 1872, +under the priest Anton; and soon after others were established in Bohemia +and Upper Austria. But it was not till October, 1877, that they obtained +civil recognition on the ground that their doctrine is that which the +Catholic church professed before 1870. In June, 1880, they held their +first legally sanctioned synod. The provisional synodical and +congregational order was now definitely adopted, and the use of the +vernacular in the church services, the abolition of compulsory fasting, +confession, and celibacy, as well as of surplice fees, and the abandoning +of all but the high festivals, were announced on the following Sunday. The +bitter hatred shown by the Czechs and the ultramontane clergy to +everything German has given to the Old Catholic movement for some years +past a new impulse and decided advantage.--_In France_ the Abbe Michaud of +Paris lashed the characterlessness of the episcopate and was +excommunicated, and the Abbes Mouls and Junqua of Bordeaux were ordered by +the police to give up wearing the clerical dress. Junqua, refusing to obey +this order, was accused by Cardinal Donnet, Bishop of Bordeaux, before the +civil court, and was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. Not till 1879 +did the ex-Carmelite Loyson of Paris lay the foundation of a Catholic +Gallican church, affiliated with the Swiss Old Catholics (§ 187, 8).--_In +Italy_ since 1862, independently of the German movement, yet on +essentially the same grounds, a national Italian church was started with +very promising beginnings, which were not, however, realized (§ 187, 7). +Rare excitement was caused throughout Italy by the procedure of Count +Campello, canon of St. Peter's in Rome, who in 1881 publicly proclaimed +his creed in the Methodist Episcopal chapel, there renouncing the papacy, +and in a published manifesto addressed to the cathedral chapter justified +this step and made severe charges against the papal curia; but soon after, +in a letter to Loyson, he declared that he, remaining faithful to the true +Catholic church, did not contemplate joining any Protestant sect severed +from Catholic unity, and in a communication to the Old Catholic Rieks of +Heidelberg professed to be in all points at one with the German Old +Catholics. Accordingly he sought to form in Rome a Catholic reform party, +whose interests he advocated in the journal _Il Labaro_. The pope's +domestic chaplain, Monsignor Savarese, has adopted a similar attitude. In +December, 1883, he was received by the pastor of the American Episcopal +church at Rome into the Old Catholic church on subscribing the Nicene +Creed. In 1886 they were joined by another domestic chaplain of the pope, +Monsignor Renier, formerly an intimate friend of Pius IX., who publicly +separated himself from the papal church, and with them took his place at +the head of a Catholic "_Congregation of St. Paul_" in Rome.--Also the +Episcopal _Iglesia Espanola_ in Spain (§ 205, 4), and the Mexican _Iglesia +de Jesus_ (§ 209, 1), must be regarded as essentially of similar +tendencies to the Old Catholics. + + + +§ 191. Catholic Theology, especially in Germany. + + +Catholic theology in Germany, influenced by the scientific spirit +prevailing in Protestantism, received a considerable impulse. From +latitudinarian Josephinism it gradually rose toward a strictly +ecclesiastical attitude. Most important were its contributions in the +department of dogmatic and speculative theology. Besides and after the +schools of Hermes, Baader, and Guenther, condemned by the papal chair, +appeared a whole series of speculative dogmatists who kept their +speculations within the limits of the church confession. Also in the +domain of church history, Catholic theology, after the epoch-making +productions of Moehler and Doellinger, has aided in reaching important +results, which, however, owing to the "tendency" character of their +researches, demand careful sifting. Least important are their +contributions to biblical criticism and exegesis. In general, however, the +theological _docents_ at the German universities give a scientific +character to their researches and lectures in respect of form and also of +matter, so far as the Tridentine limits will allow. But the more the +Jesuits obtained influence in Germany, the more was that scholasticism, +which repudiated the German university theology and opposed it with +perfidious suspicions and denunciations, naturalized, especially in the +episcopal seminaries, while it was recommended by Rome as the official +theology. The attempt, however, at the Munich Congress of Scholars in 1863 +to come to an understanding between the two tendencies failed, owing to +the contrariety of their principles and the opposition of the +Jesuits.--Outside of Germany, French theology, especially in the department +of history, manifested a praiseworthy activity. In Spain theology has +never outgrown the period of the Middle Ages. In Italy, on the other hand, +the study of Christian antiquities flourished, stimulated by recent +discoveries of treasures in catacombs, museums, archives, and libraries. + +1. _Hermes and his School._--The Bonn professor, _George Hermes_, +influenced in youth by the critical philosophy, passed the Catholic dogma +of Trent, assured it would stand the test, through the fire of doubt and +the scrutiny of reason, because only what survives such examination could +be scientifically vindicated. He died in A.D. 1831, and left a school +named after him, mainly in Treves, Bonn, and Breslau. Gregory XVI. in 1835 +condemned his writings, and the new Archbishop of Cologne, +Droste-Vischering, forbad students at Bonn attending the lectures of +Hermesians. These made every effort to secure the recall of the papal +censure. Braun and Elvenich went to Rome, but their declaration that +Hermes had not taught what the pope condemned profited them as little as a +similar statement had the Jansenists. There now arose on both sides a +bitter controversy, which received new fuel from the Prusso-Cologne +ecclesiastical strife (§ 193, 1). Finally in 1844 professors Braun and +Achterfeld of Bonn were deprived of office by the coadjutor-Archbishop +Geissel, and the Prussian government acquiesced. The professors of the +Treves seminary and Baltzer of Breslau, the latter influenced by Guenther's +theology, retracted.--A year before Hermes' condemnation the same pope had +condemned the opposite theory of Abbe _Bautain_ of Strassburg, that the +Christian dogmas cannot be proved but only believed, and that therefore +all use of reason in the appropriation of the truths of salvation is +excluded. Bautain, as an obedient son of the church, immediately +retracted, "_laudabiliter se subjecit_." + +2. _Baader and his School._--Catholic theology for a long time paid no +regard to the development of German philosophy. Only after Schelling, +whose philosophy had many points of contact with the Catholic doctrine, a +general interest in such studies was awakened as forming a speculative +basis for Catholicism. To the theosophy of Schelling based on that of the +Goerlitz shoemaker (§ 160, 2), _Francis von Baader_, professor of +speculative dogmatics at Munich, though not a professional theologian, but +a physician and a mineralogist, attached himself. In his later years he +went over completely to ultramontanism. His scholar _Franz Hoffmann_ of +Wuerzburg has given an exposition of Baader's speculative system. At +Giessen this system was represented by Leop. Schmid (§ 187, 3). All the +Catholic adherents of this school are distinguished by their friendly +attitude toward Protestantism. + +3. _Guenther and his School._--A theology of at least equal speculative +power and of more decidedly Catholic contents than that of Baader, was set +forth by the secular priest _Anton Guenther_ of Vienna, a profound and +original thinker of combative humour, sprightly wit, and a roughness of +expression sometimes verging upon the burlesque. He recognised the +necessity of going up in philosophical and theological speculation to +Descartes, who held by the scholastic dualism of God and the creature, the +Absolute and the finite, spirit and nature, while all philosophy, +according to him, had been ever plunging deeper into pantheistic monism. +Thence he sought to solve the two problems of Christian speculation, +creation and incarnation, and undertook a war of extermination against +"all monism and semimonism, idealistic and realistic pantheism, disguised +and avowed semipantheism," among Catholics and Protestants. His first +great work, "_Vorschule zur Spekul. Theologie_," published in 1828, +treating of the theory of creation and the theory of incarnation, was +followed by a long series of similar works. His most eminent scholars were +_Pabst_, doctor of medicine in Vienna, who gave clear expositions of his +master's dark and aphoristic sayings, and _Veith_, who popularized his +teachings in sermons and practical treatises. Some of the Hermesians, such +as Baltzer of Breslau, entered the rank of his scholars. The +historico-political papers, however, charged him with denying the +mysteries of Christianity, rejecting the traditional theology, etc., and +Clemens, a _privatdocent_ of philosophy in Bonn, became the mouthpiece of +this party. Thus arose a passionate controversy, which called forth the +attention of Rome. We might have expected Guenther to meet the fate of +Hermes twenty years before; but the matter was kept long under +consideration, for strong influence from Vienna was brought to bear on his +behalf. At last in January, 1857, the formal reprobation of the Guentherian +philosophy was announced, and all his works put in the Index. Guenther +humbly submitted to the sentence of the church. So too did _Baltzer_. But +being suspected at Rome, he was asked voluntarily to resign. This Baltzer +refused to do. Then Prince-Bishop Foerster called upon the government to +deprive him; and when this failed, he withdrew from him the _missio +canonica_ and a third of his canonical revenues, and in 1870, on his +opposing the infallibility dogma, he withheld the other two-thirds. His +salary from the State continued to be paid in full till his death in A.D. +1871. + +4. _John Adam Moehler._--None of all the Catholic theologians of recent +times attained the importance and influence of Moehler in his short life of +forty-two years. Stimulated to seek higher scientific culture by the study +mainly of Schleiermacher's works and those of other Protestants, and +putting all his rich endowments at the service of the church, he won for +himself among Catholics a position like that of Schleiermacher among +Protestants. His first treatise of 1825, on the unity of the church, was +followed by his "Athanasius the Great," and the work of his life, the +"Symbolics" of 1832, in its ninth edition in 1884, which with the +apparatus of Protestant science combats the Protestant church doctrine and +presented the Catholic doctrine in such an ennobled and sublimated form, +that Rome at first seriously thought of placing it in the Index. Hitherto +Protestants had utterly ignored the productions of Catholic theology, but +to overlook a scientific masterpiece like this would be a confession of +their own weakness. And in fact, during the whole course of the +controversy between the two churches, no writing from the Catholic camp +ever caused such commotion among the Protestants as this. The ablest +Protestant replies are those of Nitsch and Baur. In 1835 Moehler left +Tuebingen for Munich; but sickness hindered his scientific labours, and, in +1838, in the full bloom of manhood, the Catholic church and Catholic +science had to mourn his death. He can scarcely be said to have formed a +school; but by writings, addresses, and conversation he produced a +scientific ferment in the Catholic theology of Germany, which continued to +work until at last completely displaced by the scholasticism reintroduced +into favour by the Jesuits. + +5. _John Jos. Ignat. von Doellinger._--Of all Catholic theologians in +Germany, alongside of and after Moehler, by far the most famous on either +side of the Alps was the church historian Doellinger, professor at Munich +since 1826. His first important work issued in that same year was on the +"Doctrine of the Eucharist in the First Three Centuries." His +comprehensive work, "The History of the Christian Church," of 1833 (4 +vols., London, 1840), was not carried beyond the second volume; and his +"Text-book of Church History" of 1836, was only carried down to the +Reformation. The tone of his writings was strictly ecclesiastical, yet +without condoning the moral faults of the popes and hierarchy. Great +excitement was produced by his treatise on "The Reformation," in which he +gathered everything that could be found unfavourable to the Reformers and +their work, and thus gained the summit of renown as a miracle of erudition +and a master of Catholic orthodoxy. Meanwhile in 1838 he had taken part in +controversies about mixed marriages (§ 193, 1), and in 1843 over the +genuflection question (§ 195, 2), with severely hierarchical pamphlets. As +delegate of the university since 1845 he defended with brilliant eloquence +in the Bavarian chamber the measures of the ultramontane government and +the hierarchy, became in 1847 Provost of St. Cajetan, but was also in the +same year involved in the overthrow of the Abel ministry, and was deprived +of his professorship. In the following year he was one of the most +distinguished of the Catholic section in the Frankfort parliament, where +he fought successfully in the hierarchical interest for the unconditional +freedom and independence of the church. King Maximilian II. restored him +to his professorship in 1849. From this time his views of confessional +matters became milder and more moderate. He first caused great offence to +his ultramontane admirers at Easter, 1861, when he in a series of public +lectures delivered one on the Papal States then threatened, in which he +declared that the temporal power of the pope, the abuses of which he had +witnessed during a journey to Rome in 1857, was by no means necessary for +the Catholic church, but was rather hurtful. The papal nuncio, who was +present, ostentatiously left the meeting, and the ultramontanes were +beside themselves with astonishment, horror, and wrath. Doellinger gave +some modifying explanations at the autumn assembly of the Catholic Union +at Munich in 1861. But soon thereafter appeared his work, "The Church and +the Churches" (London, 1862), which gave the lecture slightly modified as +an appendix. The "Fables respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages" (London, +1871), was as little to the taste of the ultramontanes. Indeed in these +writings, especially in the first named, the polemic against the +Protestant Church had all its old bitterness; but he is at least more just +toward Luther, whom he characterizes as "the most powerful man of the +people, the most popular character, which Germany ever possessed." And +while he delivers a glowing panegyric on the person of the pope, he lashes +unrelentingly the misgovernment of the Papal States. At the Congress of +Scholars at Munich he contended for the freedom of science. Doellinger as +president of the congress sent the pope a telegram which satisfied his +holiness. But the Jesuits looked deeper, and immediately "_il povero +Doellinger_" was loaded by the _Civilta Cattolica_ with every conceivable +reproach. In A.D. 1868 nominated to the life office of imperial +councillor, he voted with the bishops against the liberal education scheme +of the government. But his battle against the council and infallibility +made the rent incurable, and his angry archbishop hurled against him the +great excommunication. Then Vienna made him doctor of philosophy, Marburg, +Oxford, and Edinburgh gave him LL.D., and the senate of his university +unanimously elected him rector in 1871. But his tabooed lecture room +became more and more deserted. He took no prominent part in the organizing +of the Old Catholic church (§ 190, 1), but all the more eagerly did he +seek to promote its union negotiations (§ 175, 6). + +6. _The Chief Representatives of Systematic Theology._--_Klee_, A.D. +1800-1840, of Bonn and Munich, was a positivist of the old school, and +during the Hermesian controversy a supporter of the theology of the curia. +_Hirscher_, 1788-1865, of Freiburg, numbered by the liberals as one of +their ornaments and by the fanatical ultramontanes as a heretic, did much +to promote a conciliatory and moderate Catholicism, equally free from +ultramontane and rationalistic tendencies, abandoning nothing essential in +the Catholic doctrine. _Hilgers_, the Hermesian, afterwards joined the Old +Catholics of Bonn. _Staudenmaier_ and _Sengler_ of Freiburg and _Berlage_ +of Muenster held a distinguished rank as speculative theologians. In the +same department, _Kuhn_ and _Drey_ of Tuebingen, _Ehrlich_ of Prague, +_Deutinger_ of Dillingen, a disciple of Schelling and Baader, and as such +persecuted, though a pious believing Catholic, _Oischinger_ of Munich, who +in despair at the proclamation of the Vatican decree suddenly stopped his +fruitful literary activity, _Dieringer_ of Bonn, who for the same reason +not only ceased to write but also in 1871 resigned his professorship and +retired to a small country pastorate, and finally, _Hettinger_ of +Wuerzburg, best known by his "_Apologie d. Christenthums_."--While the +above-named, though suspected and opposed by the scholastic party, strove +to preserve intact their ecclesiastical Catholic character, other +representatives of this tendency by their struggles against scholasticism +and then against the Vatican Council, were driven away from their orthodox +position. Thus _Frohschammer_ of Munich, when his treatise on "The Origin +of the Soul," in which he supported the theory of Generationism in +opposition to the Catholic doctrine of creationism, and other works were +placed in the Index, asked for a revision on the ground that he taught +nothing contrary to Catholic doctrine. He was stripped of all his clerical +functions, and students were prohibited attending his lectures. He +protested, and his rooms were more crowded than ever. Subsequently, +however, repudiated even by the Old Catholics, he drifted more and more, +not only from the church, but even from belief in revelation. Against +Strauss' last work he wrote a tract in which he sought to prove that "the +old faith is indeed untenable," but that also "the new science" cannot +take its place, that a "new faith" must be introduced by going back to the +Christianity of Christ. _Michelis_, a man of wide culture in the +department of natural science and philology, as well as theology and +philosophy, had in his earlier position as professor in Paderborn, +Muenster, and Braunsberg, supported by word and pen a strictly +ecclesiastical tendency; but the Vatican Council made him one of the first +and most zealous leaders of the Old Catholic movement. His most important +work is his "Catholic Dogmatics," of 1881, in which the Old Catholic +conception of Christianity is represented as the purified higher unity of +the Protestant and Vatican systems of doctrine. + +7. _The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology._--The first place +after Moehler and Doellinger belongs to Moehler's scholar Hefele, from 1840 +professor at Tuebingen and from 1869 Bishop of Rottenburg, distinguished by +the liberal spirit of his researches. His treatises on the Honorius +controversy made him one of the most dangerous opponents of the +infallibility dogma, to which, however, he at last submitted (§ 189, 4). +His most important work is the "History of the Councils." Hase criticised +the second edition of the work, severely but not without sufficient +grounds, by saying that in it "the bishop chokes the scholar." _Werner_ of +Vienna is a prolific writer in the department of the history of +theological literature; while _Bach_ of Munich and the Dominican _Denifle_ +have written on the mediaeval mystics, the latter also on the universities +of the Middle Ages. _Hergenroether_ of Wuerzburg, by his monograph on +"Photius and the Greek Schism," written in the interests of his party, and +by his polemic against the anti-Vatican movement, and specially by his +"Handbook of Church History," rendered such service to the papacy and the +papal church, that Leo XIII. in 1879 made him a cardinal and librarian of +the Vatican, with the task of reorganizing the library.--Among the Old +Catholics, _Friedrich_ of Munich, besides his historical account of the +Vatican Council, had written on Wessel, Huss, and the church history of +Germany. _Huber_ of Munich, whose "Philosophy of the Church Fathers" of +1859 was put in the Index, while his much more liberal work on Erigena of +1861 passed without censure, in later years wrote an exhaustive account of +the Jesuit order and a critical reply to Strauss' "Old and New Faith." +_Pichler_ of Munich, by his conscientious research and criticism, drew +down upon him the papal censure, and his book on the "History of the +Division of the Eastern and Western Churches" had the honour of being +placed in the Index. His later studies and writings estranged him more and +more from Romanism, inspired him with the idea of a national German +church, and fostered in him a love for the _Protestantenverein_ movement; +but his unbridled bibliomania while assistant in the Royal Library of St. +Petersburg in 1871, brought his public career to a sad and shameful end. +The Old Catholic Professor _Langen_ of Bonn, wrote a four-volume work +against the Vatican dogma, discussed the "Trinitarian Doctrinal +Differences between the Eastern and Western Churches," in the interests of +a union with the Greek church, and published an able monograph on "John of +Damascus," as well as a thorough and impartial "History of the Roman +Church down to Nicholas I.", two vols., 1881, 1885.--In Rome the Oratorian +_Aug. Theiner_ atoned for the literary errors of his youth (§ 187, 4) by +his zealous vindication of papal privileges. His chief works were the +continuation of the "_Annales Ecclesiastici_" of Baronius, and the editing +of the historical documents of the various Christian nations. The Jesuits +charged him with giving the anti-Vaticanists aid from the library and +sought to influence the pope against him so as to deprive him of his +office of prefect of the Vatican archives. He was suspended from his +duties, and though he still retained his title and occupied his official +residence in the Vatican, the doors from it into the library were built +up. His edition of the "Acts of the Council of Trent," which was +commenced, was also prohibited. But he succeeded in making a transcript at +Agram in Croatia, where in 1874 a portion of it, the official protocol of +the secretary of the Council, Massarelli, was printed by the help of +Bishop Strossmayer in an elegant style but abbreviated, and therefore +unsatisfactory. Cardinal Angelo _Mai_, as principal Vatican librarian, +distinguished himself by his palimpsest studies in old classical as well +as patristic literature. And quite worthy of ranking with either in +carefulness, diligence, and patience was _De Rossi_, who has laboured in +the department of Christian archaeology, and is well known by his great +work, "_Roma sotteranea cristiana_," published in 1864 ff.--_Xavier Kraus_, +when his "Handbook" had been adversely criticised, hastened to Rome, +submitted all his utterances to the judgment of the pope, and proclaimed +on his return that in the next edition he would explain what had been +misunderstood and withdraw what was objected to. The question now rises, +whether the more recent work of _Xav. Funk_ can escape a similar censure. + +Among Catholic writers on canon lay the most notable are _Walters_ of +Bonn, _Phillips_ of Vienna, _Von Schulte_ of Prague and Bonn, who till the +Vatican Council was one of the most zealous advocates of the strict +Catholic tendency, since then openly on the side of the opposition, a keen +supporter, and by word and pen a vigorous promoter, of the Old Catholic +movement, and _Vering_ of Prague, who occupies the ultramontane Vatican +standpoint. + +8. _The Chief Representatives of Exegetical Theology._--_Hug_ of Freiburg, +in his "Introduction," occupies the biblical but ecclesiastically +latitudinarian attitude of Jahn. Leaving dogma unattacked and so himself +unattacked, _Moevers_ of Breslau, best known by his work on the Phoenicians, +a Richard Simon of his age, developed a subtlety of destructive criticism +of the canon and history of the Old Testament which astonished even the +father of Protestant criticism, De Wette. _Kaulen_ of Bonn wrote an +"Introduction to the Old and New Testament," in a fairly scientific spirit +from the Vatican standpoint; while _Maier_ of Freiburg, wrote an +introduction to the New Testament and commentaries on some New Testament +books.--The Old Catholic _Reusch_ of Bonn wrote "Introduction to the Old +Testament," and "Nature and the Bible" (2 vols., Edin., 1886). _Sepp_ of +Munich, silent since 1867, began his literary career with a "Life of +Christ," a "History of the Apostles," etc., in the spirit of the romantic +mystical school of Goerres. His "Sketch of Church Reform, beginning with a +Revision of the Bible Canon," caused considerable excitement. With humble +submission to the judgment of his church, he demanded a correction of the +Tridentine decrees on Scripture in accordance with the results of modern +science, but the only response was the inclusion of his book in the Index. + +9. _The Chief Representatives of the New Scholasticism._--The official and +most masterly representative of this school for the whole Catholic world +was the Jesuit _Perrone_, 1794-1876, professor of dogmatics of the +_Collegium Romanum_, the most widely read of the Catholic polemical +writers, but not worthy to tie the shoes of Bellarmin, Bossuet, and +Moehler. In his "_Praelectiones Theologicae_," nine vols., which has run +through thirty-six editions, without knowing a word of German, he +displayed the grossest ignorance along with unparalleled arrogance in his +treatment of Protestant doctrine, history, and personalities (§ 175, 2). +The German Jesuit _Kleutgen_ who, under Pius IX., was the oracle of the +Vatican in reference to German affairs, introduced the new Roman +scholasticism by his work "_Die Theologie der Vorzeit_," into the German +episcopal seminaries, whose teachers were mostly trained in the _Collegium +Germanicum_ at Rome. Alongside of Perrone and Kleutgen, in the domain of +morals, the Jesuit _Gury_ holds the first place, reproducing in his works +the whole abomination of probabilism, _reservatio mentalis_, and the old +Jesuit casuistry (§ 149, 10), with the usual lasciviousness in questions +affecting the sexes. Among theologians of this tendency in German +universities we mention next _Denzinger_ of Wuerzburg, who seeks in his +works "to lead dogmatics back from the aberrations of modern philosophic +speculations into the paths of the old schools." His zealous opposition to +Guentherism did much to secure its emphatic condemnation. + +10. _The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863._--In order if possible +to heal the daily widening cleft between the scientific university +theologians and the scholastic theologians of the seminaries, and bring +about a mutual understanding and friendly co-operation between all the +theological faculties, Doellinger and his colleague Haneberg summoned a +congress at Munich, which was attended by about a hundred Catholic +scholars, mostly theologians. After high mass, accompanied with the +recitation of the Tridentine creed, the four days' conference began with a +brilliant presidential address by Doellinger "On the Past and Present of +Catholic Theology." The liberal views therein enunciated occasioned +violent and animated debates, to which, however, it was readily admitted +as a religious duty that all scientific discussions and investigations +should yield to the dogmatic claims of the infallible authority of the +church, as thereby the true freedom of science can in no way be +prejudiced. A telegraphic report to the pope drawn up in this spirit by +Doellinger was responded to in a similar manner on the same day with the +apostolic blessing. But after the proceedings _in extenso_ had become +known, a papal brief was issued which burdened the permission to hold +further yearly assemblies with such conditions as must have made them +utterly fruitless. They were indeed acquiesced in with a bad grace at the +second and last congress at Wuerzburg in 1864, but the whole scheme was +thus brought to an end. + +11. _Theological Journals._--The most severely scientific journal of this +century is the Tuebingen _Theol. Quartalschrift_, which, however, since the +Vatican Council has been struggling to maintain a neutral position between +the extremes of the Old and the New Catholicism. In order if possible to +displace it the Jesuits Wieser and Stenstrup of Innsbruck started in 1877 +their _Zeitschrift fuer Kath. Theologie_. The ably conducted _Theol. +Litteraturblatt_, started in 1866 by Prof. Reusch of Bonn, had to be +abandoned in 1878, after raising the standard of Old Catholicism. + +12. _The Popes and Theological Science._--What kind of theology _Pius IX._ +wished to have taught is shown by his proclaiming St. Liguori (§ 165, 2) +and St. Francis de Sales (§ 157, 1) _doctores ecclesiae_. _Leo XIII._, on +the other hand, in 1879 recommended in the encyclical _AEterni patris_, in +the most urgent way, all Catholic schools to make the philosophy of the +angelical Aquinas (§ 103, 6) their foundation, founded in 1880 an "Academy +of St. Thomas Aquinas," three out of its thirty members being Germans, +Kleutgen, Stoeckl, and Morgott, and gave 300,000 lire out of Peter's pence +for an edition of Aquinas' works with the commentaries of "the most +eminent expositors," setting aside "all those books which, while +professing to be derived from St. Thomas are really drawn from foreign and +unholy sources;" _i.e._, in accordance with the desires of the Jesuits, +omitting the strictly Thomist expositors (§ 149, 13), and giving currency +only to Jesuit interpretations. No wonder that the Jesuit General Beckx in +such circumstances submitted himself "humbly," being praised for this by +the pope as a saint. But a much greater, indeed a really great, service to +the documentary examination of the history of the Christian church and +state has been rendered by the same pope, undoubtedly at the instigation +of Cardinal Hergenroether, by the access granted not only to Catholic but +also to Protestant investigators to the exceedingly rich treasures of the +Vatican archives. Though still hedged round with considerable limitations, +the concession seems liberality itself as compared with the stubborn +refusal of Pius IX. to facilitate the studies of any inquirer. With honest +pride the pope could inscribe on his bust placed in the library: "_Leo +XIII. Pont. Max. historiae __ studiis consulens tabularii arcana reclusit a +1880._"--But what the ends were which he had in view and what the hopes +that he cherished is seen from the rescript of August, 1883, in which he +calls upon the cardinals De Luca, Pitra, and Hergenroether, as prefects of +the committee of studies, of the library and archives, while proclaiming +the great benefits which the papacy has secured to Italy, to do their +utmost to overthrow "the lies uttered by the sects" on the history of the +church, especially in reference to the papacy, for, he adds, "we desire +that at last once more the truth should prevail." Therefore archives and +library are to be opened to pious and learned students "for the service of +religion and science in order that the historical untruths of the enemies +of the church which have found entrance even into the schoolbooks should +be displaced by the composition of good writings." The firstfruits of the +zeal thus stimulated were the "_Monunenta ref. Lutheranae ex tabulariis S. +Sedis_," Ratisbon, 1883, published by the assistant keeper of the archives +P. Balan as an extinguisher to the Luther Jubilee of that year. But this +performance came so far short of the wishes and expectations of the Roman +zealots that by their influence the editor was removed from his official +position. The next attempt of this sort was the edition by Hergenroether of +the papal _Regesta_ down to Leo X. + + + + +IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States. + + + +§ 192. The German Confederation. + + +The Peace of Luneville of 1801 gave the deathblow to the old German +empire, by the formal cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, +indemnifying the secular princes who were losers by this arrangement with +estates and possessions on the right of the Rhine, taken from the neutral +free cities of the empire and the secularized ecclesiastical +principalities, institutions, monasteries, and orders. An imperial +commission sitting at Regensburg arranged the details of these +indemnifications. They were given expression to by means of the imperial +commission's decree or recess of 1803. The dissolution of the constitution +of the German empire thus effected was still further carried out by the +Peace of Presburg of 1805, which conferred upon the princes of Bavaria, +Wuerttemberg, and Baden, in league with Napoleon, full sovereignty, and to +the two first named the rank of kings, and was completed by the founding +of the Confederation of the Rhine of 1806, in which sixteen German princes +formally severed themselves from the emperor and empire and ranked +themselves as vassals of France under the protectorate of Napoleon. +Francis II., who already in 1804 had assumed the title of Emperor of +Austria as Francis I., now that the German empire had actually ceased to +exist, renounced also the name of German emperor. The unhappy proceedings +of the Vienna Congress of the German Confederation and its permanent +representation in the Frankfort parliament during 1814 and 1815, after +Napoleon's twice repeated defeat, led finally to the Austro-Prussian war +of 1866. + +1. _The Imperial Commission's Decree, 1803._--The significance of this for +church history consists not merely in the secularization of the +ecclesiastical principalities and corporations, but even still more in the +alteration caused thereby in the ecclesiastical polity of the territorial +governments. With the ecclesiastical principalities the most powerful +props of the Catholic church in Germany were lost, and Protestantism +obtained a decided ascendency in the council of the German princes. The +Catholic prelates were now simply paid servants of the state, and thus +their double connexion with the curia and the state brought with it in +later times endless entanglements and complications. On the other hand, in +states hitherto almost exclusively Protestant, _e.g._ Wuerttemberg, Baden, +Hesse, there was a great increase of Catholic subjects, which attracted +but little serious attention when the confessional particularism in the +consciousness of the age was more unassuming and tolerant than ever it has +been before or since. + +2. _The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine._--Baron Carl +Theod. von Dalberg, distinguished for his literary culture and his liberal +patronage of art and science, was made in 1802 Elector of Mainz and Lord +High Chancellor of the German empire. When by the recess of 1803 the +territories of the electorate on the left of the Rhine were given over to +France and those on the right secularized, the electoral rank was +abolished. The same happened with respect to the lord high chancellorship +through the creation of the Rhenish Confederation. Dalberg was indemnified +for the former by the favour of Napoleon by the gift of a small territory +on the right of the Rhine, and for the latter by the renewal of the +prince-primacy of the Confederation of the Rhine with a seat in the +Federal council. He still retained his episcopal office and fixed its seat +at Regensburg. The founding of a metropolitan chapter at Regensburg +embracing the whole domain of the Rhenish Confederation he did not succeed +in carrying out, and in 1813 he felt compelled to surrender also his +territorial possessions. His spiritual functions, however, as Archbishop +of Regensburg, he continued to discharge until his death in 1817. + +3. _The Vienna Congress and the Concordat._--The Vienna Congress of 1814, +1815, had assigned it the difficult task of righting the sorely disturbed +political affairs of Europe and giving a new shape to the territorial and +dynastic relations. But never had an indispensably necessary +redistribution of territory been made more difficult or more complicated +by diplomatic intrigues than in Germany. Instead of the earlier federation +of states, the restoration of which proved impossible, the federal +constitution of June 8th, 1815, created under the name of the German +Confederation a union of states in which all members of the confederation +as such exercised equal sovereign rights. Their number then amounted to +thirty-eight, but in the course of time by death or withdrawal were +reduced to thirty-four. The new distribution of territory, just as little +as the Luneville Peace, took into account confessional homogeneity of +princes and territories, so that the combination of Catholic and +Protestant districts with the above referred to consequences, occurred in +a yet larger measure. But the federal constitution secured in Article XVI. +full toleration for all Christian confessions in the countries of the +confederation. The claims of the Romish curia, which advanced from the +demand for the restoration of all ecclesiastical principalities and the +return of all impropriated churches and monasteries to their original +purposes, to the demand for the restoration of the holy Roman-German +empire in the mediaeval and hierarchical sense, as well as the solemn +protest against its conclusions laid upon the table of the congress by the +papal legate Consalvi, were left quite unheeded. But also a proposal +urgently pressed by the vicar-general of the diocese of Constance, Baron +von Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), to found a German Catholic national church +under a German primate found no favour with the congress; and an article +recommended by Austria and Prussia to be incorporated in the acts of the +confederation by which the Catholic church in Germany endeavoured to +secure a common constitution under guarantee of the confederation, was +rejected through the opposition of Bavaria. And since in the Frankfort +parliament neither Wessenberg with his primacy and national church idea +nor Consalvi with a comprehensive concordat answering to the wishes of the +curia, was able to carry through a measure, it was left to the separate +states interested to make separate concordats with the pope. Bavaria +concluded a concordat in 1817 (§ 195, 1); Prussia in 1821 (§ 193, 1). +Negotiations with the other German states fell through owing to the +excessiveness of the demands of the hierarchy, or led to very +unsatisfactory results, as in Hanover in 1824 (§ 194, 1) and the states +belonging to the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine in 1837 (§ +196, 1). In the time of reaction against the revolutionary excesses of +1848 the curia first secured any real advance. Hesse-Darmstadt opened the +list in 1854 with a secret convention (§ 196, 4); then Austria followed in +1855 with a model concordat (§ 198, 2) which served as the pattern for the +concordats with Wuerttemberg in 1857 (§ 196, 6), and with Baden in 1859 (§ +196, 2), as well as for the episcopal convention with Nassau in 1861 (§ +196, 4). But the revived liberal current of 1860 swept away the South +German concordats; the Vatican Council by its infallibility dogma gave the +deathblow to that of Austria, and the German "_Kulturkampf_" sent the +Prussian concordat to the winds, and only that of Bavaria remained in full +force. + +4. _The Frankfort Parliament and the Wuerzburg Bishops' Congress of +1848._--As in the March diets of 1848 the magic word "freedom" roused +through Germany a feverish excitement, it found a ready response among the +Catholics, whose church was favoured in the highest degree by the +movement. In the Frankfort parliament the ablest leaders of Catholic +Germany had seats. Among the Catholic population there were numerous +religio-political societies formed (§ 186, 3), and the German bishops, +avowedly for the celebration of the 600th anniversary of the building of +Cologne cathedral, set alongside of the Frankfort people's parliament a +German bishops' council. After they had at Frankfort declared themselves +in favour of unconditional liberty of faith, conscience, and worship, the +complete independence of all religious societies in the ordering and +administering of their affairs, but also of freeing the schools from all +ecclesiastical control and oversight, as well as of the introduction of +obligatory civil marriage, the bishops' council met in October at Wuerzburg +under the presidency of Archbishop Geissel of Cologne with nineteen +episcopal assistants and several able theological advisers. In thirty-six +sessions they reached the conclusion that complete separation between +church and state is not to be desired so long as the state does not refuse +to the church the place of authority belonging to it. On the other hand, +by all means in their power they are to seek the abrogation of the +_placet_ of the sovereign, the full independence of ecclesiastical +legislation, administration and jurisdiction, with the abolition of the +_appellatio tanquam ab abusu_, the direction and oversight of the public +schools as well as the control of religious instruction in higher schools +to be given only by teachers licensed for the purpose by the bishops, and +finally to demand permission to erect educational institutions of their +own of every kind, etc., and to forward a copy of these decisions to all +German governments. The main object of the Wuerzburg assembly to secure +currency for their resolutions in the new Germany sketched out at the +Frankfort parliament, was indeed frustrated by that parliament's speedy +overthrow. Nevertheless in the several states concerned it proved of great +and lasting importance in determining the subsequent unanimous proceedings +of the bishops. + + + +§ 193. Prussia. + + +To the pious king Frederick William III. (1797-1840) it was a matter of +heart and conscience to turn to account the religious consciousness of his +people, re-awakened by God's gracious help during the war of independence, +for the healing of the three hundred years' rent in the evangelical church +by a union of the two evangelical confessions. The jubilee festival of the +Reformation in 1817 seemed to him to offer the most favourable occasion. +The king also desired to see the Catholic church in his dominions restored +to an orderly and thriving condition, and for this end concluded a +concordat with Rome in 1821. But it was broken up in 1836 over a strife +between canon and civil law in reference to mixed marriages. Frederick +William IV. was dominated by romantic ideas, and his reign (1840-1858), +notwithstanding all his evangelical Christian decidedness, was wanting in +the necessary firmness and energetic consistency. In the Catholic church +the Jesuits were allowed unhindered to foster ultramontane hierarchical +principles, and in the evangelical church the troubles about constitution, +union, and confession could not be surmounted either by its own proper +guardian, the episcopate, or by the superior church councils created in +1850. And although the notifications of William I. on his entrance upon +the sole government in 1858 were hailed by the liberals as giving +assurance that a new era had dawned in the development of the evangelical +national church, this hope proved to be premature. With the exaltation of +the victory-crowned royal house of Prussia to the throne of the newly +erected German Empire on January 18th, 1871, a new era was actually opened +for ecclesiastical developments and modifications throughout the land. + +1. _The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne Conflict._--The +government of _Frederick William III._ entered into negotiations with the +papal curia, not so much for the old provinces in which everything was +going well, but rather in the interests of the Rhine provinces annexed in +1814, whose bishops' sees were vacant or in need of circumscription. The +first Prussian ambassador to the Roman curia (1816-1823) was the famous +historian Niebuhr. Although a true Protestant and keen critic and restorer +of the history of old pagan Rome he was no match for the subtle and +skilful diplomacy of Consalvi. In presence of the claims of the curia he +manifested to an almost incredible extent trustful sympathy and +acquiescence, even taking to do with matters that lay outside of Prussian +affairs, eagerly silencing and opposing any considerations suggested from +the other side. A complete concordat, however, defining in detail all the +relations between church and state was not secured, but in 1821 an +agreement was come to, with thankful acknowledgment of the "great +magnanimity and goodness" shown by the king, by the bull _De salute +animarum_, sanctioned by the king through a cabinet order ("in the +exercise of his royal prerogative and without detriment to these rights"), +according to which two archbishoprics, Cologne and Posen, and six +bishoprics, Treves, Muenster, Paderborn, Breslau, Kulm, and Ermeland, with +a clerical seminary, were erected in Prussia and furnished with rich +endowments. The cathedral chapter was to have the free choice of the +bishop; but by an annexed note it was recommended to make sure in every +such election that the one so chosen would be a _grata persona_ to the +king. The union thus effected between church and state was of but short +duration. The decree of Trent forbade Catholics to enter into mixed +marriages with non-Catholics. A later papal bull of 1741, however, +permitted it on condition of an only passive assistance of the clergy at +the wedding and an engagement by the parents to train up the children as +Catholics. The law of Prussia, on the other hand, in contested cases made +all the children follow the religion of their fathers. As this was held in +1825 to apply to the Rhine provinces, and as the bishops there had, in +1828, appealed to the pope, Pius VIII. when negotiations with the Prussian +ambassador Bunsen (1824-1838) proved fruitless, issued in 1830 a brief +which permitted Catholic priests to give the ecclesiastical sanction to +mixed marriages only when a promise was given that the children should be +educated as Catholics, but otherwise to give only passive assistance. When +all remonstrances failed to overcome the obstinacy of the curia, the +government turned to the Archbishop of Cologne, Count Spiegel, a zealous +friend and promoter of the Hermesian theology (§ 191, 1), and arranged in +1834 a secret convention with him, which by his influence all his +suffragans joined. In it they promised to give such an interpretation to +the brief that its observance would be limited to teaching and +exhortation, but would by no means extend to the obligation of submitting +the children to Catholic baptism, and that the mere _assistentia passiva_ +would be resorted to as rarely as possible, and only in cases where +absolutely required. Spiegel died in November, 1835. In 1836 the +Westphalian Baron _Clement Droste von Vischering_ was chosen as his +successor. Although before his elevation he had unhesitatingly agreed to +the convention, soon after his enthronization he strictly forbad all the +clergy celebrating any marriage except in accordance with the brief, and +blamed himself for having believed the agreement between convention and +brief affirmed by the government, and having only subsequently on closer +examination discovered the disagreement between the two. At the same time, +in order to give effect to the condemnation that had been meanwhile passed +on the Hermesian theology, he gave orders that at the confessional the +Bonn students should be forbidden to attend the lectures of Hermesians. +When the archbishop could not be prevailed on to yield, he was condemned +in 1837 as having broken his word and having incited to rebellion, and +sent to the fortress of Minden. _Gregory XIV._ addressed to the consistory +a fulminating allocution, and a flood of controversial tracts on either +side swept over Germany. Goerres designated the archbishop "the Athanasius +of the nineteenth century." The government issued a state paper justifying +its procedure, and the courts of law sentenced certain refractory priests +to several years' confinement in fortresses or prisons. The moderate +peaceful tone of the cathedral chapter did much to quell the disturbance, +supporting as it did the state rather than the archbishop. The example of +Cologne encouraged also _Dunin_, Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen, to issue +in 1838 a pastoral in which he threatened with suspension any priest in +his diocese who would not yield unconditional obedience to the papal +brief. For this he was deposed by the civil courts and sentenced to half a +year's imprisonment in a fortress, but the king prevented the execution of +the sentence. But Dunin fled from Berlin, whither he had been ordered by +the king, to Posen, and was then brought in 1839 to the fortress of +Kolberg. While matters were in this state _Frederick William IV._ came to +the throne in 1840. Dunin was immediately restored, after promising to +maintain the peace. Droste also was released from his confinement with +public marks of respect, but received in 1841, with his own and the pope's +approval, in the former Bishop of Spires, Geissel, a coadjutor, who in his +name and with the right of succession administered the diocese. The +government gave no aid to the Hermesians. The law in regard to mixed +marriages continued indeed in force, but was exercised so as to put no +constraint of conscience upon the Catholic clergy. Of his own accord the +king declined further exercise of the royal prerogative, allowing the +bishops direct intercourse with the papal see, whereas previously all +correspondence had to pass through royal committees, with this proviso by +the minister Eichhorn, "that this display of generous confidence be not +abused," and with the expectation that the bishops would not only +communicate to the government the contents of their correspondence with +the pope, but also the papal replies which did not deal exclusively with +doctrine, and would not speak and act against the wish and will of the +government. But Geissel, recommended by Louis of Bavaria to his son-in-law +Frederick William IV. instead of Baron von Diepenbrock (§ 187, 1) who was +first thought of, by his skilful and energetic manoeuvring, going on from +victory to victory, raised ultramontanism in Prussia to the very summit of +its influence and glory. + +2. _The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, 1841-1871._--In the +Cologne-Posen conflict Rome had won an almost complete victory, and with +all its satellites now thought only of how it might in the best possible +manner turn this victory to account, in which the all too trustful +government sought to aid it to the utmost. This movement received a +further impulse in the revolution of 1848 (§ 192, 4). In Prussia as well +as in other German lands, and there in a special degree, the Catholic +church managed to derive from the revolutionary movements of those times, +and from the subsequent reaction, substantial advantage. The constitution +of 1850 declared in Article xv.: "The evangelical and the Roman Catholic +Church as well as every other religious society regulates and administers +its affairs independently"; in Article xvi.: "The correspondence of +religious societies with their superiors is unrestricted, the publication +of ecclesiastical ordinances is subject only to those limitations which +apply to all other documents"; in Article xviii.: "The right of +nomination, proposal, election, and institution to spiritual office, so +far as it belongs to the state, is abolished"; and in Article xxiv.: "The +respective religious societies direct religious instruction in the public +schools." Under the screen of these fundamental privileges the Catholic +episcopate now claimed one civil prerogative after another, emancipated +itself wholly from the laws of the state, and, on the plea that God must +be obeyed rather than man, made the canon law, not only in purely +ecclesiastical but also in mixed matters, the only standard, and the +decision of the pope the final appeal. At last nothing was left to the +state but the obligation of conferring splendid endowments upon the +bishops, cathedral chapters, and seminaries for priests, and the honour of +being at home the executioner of episcopal tyranny, and abroad the avenger +of every utterance unfavourable in the doctrine and worship, customs and +enactments of the Catholic church. With almost incredible infatuation the +Catholic hierarchy was now regarded as a main support of the throne +against the revolutionary tendencies of the age and as the surest +guarantee for the loyalty of subjects in provinces predominantly Catholic. +Under protection of the law allowing the formation of societies and the +right of assembling, the order of Jesuits set up one establishment after +another, and made up for defects or insufficient energy of ultramontane +pastoral work, agitation and endeavour at conversion on the part of other +peaceably disposed parish priests, by numerous missions conducted in the +most ostentatious manner (§ 186, 6). Although according to Article xiii. +of the constitution religious societies could obtain corporative rights +only by special enactments, the bishops, on their own authority, without +regarding this provision, established religious orders and congregations +wherever they chose. As these were generally placed under foreign +superiors male or female, to whom in Jesuit fashion unconditional +obedience was rendered, each member being "like a corpse," without any +individual will, they spread without hindrance, so that continually new +cloisters and houses of the orders sprang up like mushrooms over the +Protestant metropolis (§ 186, 2). Education in Catholic districts fell +more and more into the hands of religious corporations, and even the +higher state educational institutions, so far as they dealt with the +training of the Catholic youth (theological faculties, gymnasia, and +Training schools), were wholly under the control of the bishops. From the +boys' convents and priests' seminaries, erected at all episcopal +residences, went forth a new generation of clergy reared in the severest +school of intolerance, who, first of all acting as chaplains, by +espionage, the arousing of suspicion and talebearing, were the dread of +the old parish priests, and, as "chaplains at large," stirred up +fanaticism among the people, and secured the Catholic press to themselves +as a monopoly. For the purposes of Catholic worship and education the +government had placed state aid most liberally at their disposal, without +requiring any account from the bishops as to their disposal of the money. +Although the number of Catholics in the whole country was only about half +that of the Protestants, the endowment of the Catholic was almost double +that of the evangelical church. The civil authority readily helped the +bishops to enforce any spiritual penalties, and thus the inferior clergy +were brought into absolute dependence upon their spiritual superiors. In +the government department of Public Worship, from 1840 to 1848 under the +direction of Eichhorn, there was since 1841 a subsection for dealing with +the affairs of the Catholic church which, although restricted to the +guarding of the rights of the king over against the curia and that of the +state over against the hierarchy, came to be in an entirely opposite sense +"the civil department of the pope in Prussia." Under Von Muehler's +ministry, 1862-1872, it obtained absolute authority which it seems to have +exercised in removing unfavourable acts and documents from the imperial +archives. And thus the Catholic church, or rather the ultramontane party +dominant in it since 1848, grew up into a power that threatened the whole +commonwealth in its very foundations.--By the annexation of Hanover, Hesse, +and Nassau in 1866, four new bishoprics, those of Hildesheim, Osnabrueck, +Fulda and Limburg were added to the previous eight.--Continuation § 197. + +3. _The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to 1848._--On the +accomplishment of the union by Frederick William III. and the confusions +arising therefrom, see § 177. _Frederick William IV._ on his accession +declared his wish in reference to the national evangelical church, that +the supreme control of the church should be exercised only in order to +secure for it in an orderly and legal way the independent administration +of its own affairs. The realization of this idea, after a church +conference of the ordinary clergy from almost all German states had been +held in Berlin without result, was attempted at Berlin by a general synod, +opened on Whitsunday, 1846. The synod at its eighteenth session entered +upon the consideration of the difficult question of doctrine and the +confession. The result of this was the approval of an ordination formula +drawn up by Dr. Nitzsch (§ 182, 10), according to which the candidate for +ordination was to make profession of the great fundamental and saving +truths instead of the church confession hitherto enforced. And since among +these fundamental truths the doctrines of creation, original sin, the +supernatural conception, the descent into hell and the ascension of +Christ, the resurrection of the body, the last judgment, everlasting life +and everlasting punishment were not included, and therefore were not to be +enforced, since further by this ordination formula the special confessions +of Lutheran and Reformed were really set aside, and therewith the +existence of a Lutheran as well as a Reformed church within the union +seemed to be abolished, a small number of decided Lutherans in the synod +protested; still more decided and vigorous protests arose from outside the +synod, to which the _Evang. Kirchenzeitung_ opened its columns. The +government gave no further countenance to the decisions of the synod, and +opponents exercised their wit upon the unfortunate _Nicaenum_ of the +nineteenth century, which as a _Nitzschenum_ had fallen into the water. In +March, 1847, the king issued a patent of toleration, by which protection +was assured anew to existing churches, but the formation of new religious +societies was allowed to all who found not in these the expression of +their belief. + +4. _The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1848-1872._--When the storms of +revolution broke out in 1848, the new minister of worship, _Count +Schwerin_, willingly aided in reorganizing the church according to the +mind of the masses of the people by a constitutional synod. But before it +had met the reaction had already set in. The transition ministry of +_Ladenberg_ was assured by consistories and faculties of the danger of +convoking such a synod of representatives of the people. Instead of the +synod therefore a _Supreme Church Council_ was assembled at Berlin in +1850, which, independent of the ministry, and only under the king as +_praecipuum membrum ecclesiae_, should represent the freedom of the church +from the state as something already realized. On March 6th, 1852, the king +issued a cabinet order, in consequence of which the Supreme Church Council +administered not only the affairs of the evangelical national church as a +whole, but also was charged with the interests of the Lutheran as well as +the Reformed church in particular, and was to be composed of members from +both of those confessions, who should alone have to decide on questions +referring to their own confession. On the _Itio in partes_ thus required +in this board, only Dr. Nitzsch remained over, as he declared that he +could find expression for his religious convictions in neither of the two +confessions, but only in a consensus of both. The difficulty was overcome +by reckoning him a representative equally of both denominations. +Encouraged by such connivance in high places to entertain still bolder +hopes, the Lutheran societies in 1853 presented to the king a petition +signed by one hundred and sixty one clergymen, for restoring Lutheran +faculties and the Lutheran church property. But this called forth a rather +unfavourable cabinet order, in which the king expressed his disapproval of +such a misconception of the ordinances of the former year, and made the +express declaration that it never was his intention to break up or weaken +the union effected by his father, that he only wished to give the +confession within the union the protection to which it was undoubtedly +entitled. After this the separate Lutheran interest so long highly +favoured fell into manifest and growing disfavour. Still the ministerial +department of worship under _Von Raumer_, 1850-1858, continued to conduct +the affairs of schools and universities in the spirit of the +ecclesiastical orthodox reaction, and issued the endless school +regulations conceived in this spirit of the privy councillor Stiehl. The +Supreme Church Council also exhibited a rare activity and passed many +wholesome ordinances. The evangelical church won great credit by the care +it took of its members scattered over distant lands, in supplying them +with clergy and teachers. The evident favour with which Frederick William +IV. furthered the efforts of the Evangelical Alliance of 1857 (§ 178, 3) +was the last proof of decided aversion from the confessional movement +which he was to be allowed to give. A long and hopeless illness, of which +he died in 1861, obliged him to resign the government to his brother +_William I_. When this monarch in October, 1855, began to rule in his own +name, he declared to his newly appointed ministers that it was his firm +resolve that the evangelical union, whose beneficent development had been +obstructive to an orthodoxy incompatible with the character of the +evangelical church, and which had thus almost caused its ruin, should be +maintained and further advanced. But in order that the task might be +accomplished, the organs for its administration must be carefully chosen +and to some extent changed. All hypocrisy and formalism, which that +orthodoxy had fostered, is wherever possible to be removed. The "new era," +however, marked by the appearance of liberal journals, by no means +answered to the expectations which those words excited. The ministry of +_Von Bethmann-Hollweg_, 1858-1862, filled some theological and spiritual +offices in this liberal spirit; Stahl withdrew from the Supreme Church +Council; the proceedings against the free churches, as well as the severe +measures against the re-marriage of divorced parties, were relaxed. But +the marriage law laid down by the ministry with permission of civil +marriage was rejected by the House of Peers, and the hated school +regulations had to be undertaken by the minister himself. The +ecclesiastically conservative ministry of _Von Muehler_, 1862-1872, which, +however, wanted a fixed principle as well as self-determined energy of +will, and was therefore often vacillating and losing the respect of all +parties, was utterly unfit to realize these expectations. The Supreme +Church Council published in 1867 the outlines of a provincial synodal +constitution for the six East Provinces which were still without this +institution, which the Rhine Provinces and Westphalia had enjoyed since +1835. For this purpose he convened in autumn, 1869, an extraordinary +provincial synod, which essentially approved the sketch submitted, +whereupon it was provisionally enacted. + +5. _The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1872-1880._--After the removal +of Von Muehler, the minister of worship, in January, 1872, his place was +taken by _Dr. Falk_, 1872-1879. The hated school regulations were now at +last set aside and replaced by new moderate prescriptions, conceived in an +almost unexpectedly temperate spirit. On September 10th, 1873, the king +issued a congregational and synodal constitution for the eastern +provinces, with the express statement that the position of the confession +and the union should thereby be in no way affected. It prescribed that in +every congregation presided over by a pastor, elected by the +ecclesiastically qualified church members, _i.e._ those of honourable life +who had taken part in public worship and received the sacraments, there +should be a church council of from four to twelve persons, and for more +important matters, _e.g._ the election of a pastor, a congregational +committee of three times the size, half of which should be reappointed +every third year. To the district synod, presided over by the +superintendent, each congregation sends as delegates besides the pastor a +lay representative chosen by the church council from among its members or +from the congregational committee. According to the same principle the +District Synods choose from their members a clerical and a lay +representative to the provincial synod, to which also the evangelical +theological faculty of the university within the bounds sends a deputy, +and the territorial lord nominates a number of members not exceeding a +sixth part of the whole. The general synod, in which also the two western +provinces, the Rhenish and Westphalian, take part, consists of one hundred +and fifty delegates from the provincial synods, and thirty nominated by +the territorial lords, to which the faculties of theology and law of the +six universities within the bounds send each one of their members. +Although this royal decree had proclaimed itself final, and only remitted +to an _Extraordinary General Synod_ to be called forthwith the task of +arranging for future ordinary general synods, yet at the meeting of this +extraordinary synod in Berlin, on November 24th, 1875, a draft was +submitted of a constitution modified in various important points. Of the +three demands of the liberal party now violently insisted upon--(1) +Substitution of the "filter" system in the election of provincial and +general synod members for that of the community electorate. (2) +Strengthening of the lay element in all synods; and (3) Abolition of the +equality of small village communities with large town communities--the +first was by far the most important and serious in its consequences, but +the other two bore fruit through the decree that two-thirds of the members +of the district and provincial synods should be laymen, and the other +one-third should be freely elected to the district synod from the populous +town communities, for the provincial synods from the larger district +synods. Also in reference to the rights belonging to the several grades of +synods, considerable modifications were made, whereby the privileges of +communities were variously increased (_e.g._ to them was given the right +of refusing to introduce the catechisms and hymn-books sanctioned by the +provincial synods), while those of the district and provincial synods were +lessened in favour of the general synod, and those of the latter again in +favour of the high church council and the minister of public worship. +After nearly four weeks' discussion the bill without any serious +amendments was passed by the assembly, and on January 20th, 1876, received +the royal assent and became an ecclesiastical law. But in order to give it +also the rank of a law of the state, a decision of the States' Parliament +on the relation of church and state was necessary. The parliament had +already in 1874, when the original congregational and synodal constitution +was submitted to it, in order to advance the movement, approved only the +congregational constitution with provisional refusal of everything going +beyond that. In May, 1876, the bill already raised by the king into an +ecclesiastical law, passed both houses of parliament, and had here also +some amendments introduced with the effect of increasing and strengthening +the prerogative of the state. The main points in the law as then passed +are these: The general synod, whose members undertake to fulfil their +duties agreeably to the word of God and the ordinances of the evangelical +national church, has the task of maintaining and advancing the state +church on the basis of the evangelical confession. The laws of the state +church must receive its assent, but any measure agreed upon by it cannot +be laid before the king for his sanction without the approval of the +minister of public worship. It meets every sixth year; in the interval it, +as well as the provincial synods, is represented by a synodal committee +chosen from its members. The head of the church government is the Supreme +Church Council, whose president countersigns the ecclesiastical laws +approved by the king. The right of appointing to this office lies with the +minister of public worship; in the nomination of other members the +president makes proposals with consent of the minister. Taxation of the +general synod for parliamentary purposes needs the assent of the minister +of state, and must, if it exceeds four per cent. of the class and income +tax, be agreed to by the Lower House, which also annually has to determine +the expenditure on ecclesiastical administration. + +6. When preparations were being made for the extraordinary general synod, +the king had repeatedly given vigorous expression to his positive +religious standpoint, and from the proposed lists of members for that +synod submitted by the minister of public worship all names belonging to +the _Protestantenverein_ were struck out. Still more decidedly in 1877 did +he show his disapproval in the Rhode-Hossbach troubles (§ 180, 4), by +declaring his firm belief in the divinity of Christ, and when the then +president of the Brandenburg consistory, Hegel, tendered his resignation, +owing to differences with the liberal president of the Supreme Church +Council, Hermann, the king refused to accept it, because he could not then +spare any such men as held by the apostolic faith. In May, 1878, Hermann +was at last, after repeated solicitations, allowed to retire, Dr. Hermes, +member of the Supreme Church Council, was nominated his successor, and the +positive tendency of the Supreme Church Council was strengthened by the +admission of the court preachers, Koegel and Baur. His proposals again +disagreeing with the royal nominations for the provincial synod and for +the _First Ordinary General Synod_ of autumn, 1879, led the minister of +public worship, Dr. Falk, at last, after repeated solicitation, to accept +his resignation. It was granted him in July, 1879, and the chief president +of the province of Silesia, _Von Puttkamer_, a more decided adherent of +the positive union party, was named as his successor; but in June, 1881, +he was made minister of the interior, and the undersecretary of the +department of public worship, _Von Gossler_, was made minister. The +general synod, October 10th till November 3rd, consisted of fifty-two +confessionalists, seventy-six positive-unionists, fifty-six of the middle +party or evangelical unionist, and nine from the ranks of the left, the +_Protestantenverein_; three confessionalists, twelve positive-unionists, +and fifteen of the middle party were nominated by the king. The measures +proposed by the Supreme Church Council: (1) A marriage service without +reference to the preceding civil marriage, with two marriage formulae, the +first a joint promise, the second a benediction; (2) A disciplinary law +against despisers of baptism and marriage, which threatened such with the +loss of all ecclesiastical electoral rights, and eventually with exclusion +from the Lord's supper and sponsor rights; and (3) A law dealing with +_Emeriti_, were adopted by the synod and then approved by the king. On the +other hand a series of independent proposals conceived in the interests of +the high-church party remained in suspense. The last effected elections +for the general synod committee resulted in the appointment of three +positive-unionist members, including the president, two confessionalists, +and two of the middle party.(105) + +7. _The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces._--In 1866 the +provinces of Hanover, Hesse and Schleswig-Holstein were incorporated with +the kingdom of Prussia. In these political particularism, combined with +confessional Lutheranism, suspicion of every organized system of church +government as intended to introduce Prussian unionism, even to the extreme +of open rebellion, led to violent conflicts. The king, indeed, personally +gave assurance in Cassal, Hanover and Kiel that the position of the church +confession should in no way be endangered. "He will indeed support the +union where it already existed as a sacred legacy to him from his +forefathers; he also hopes that it may always make further progress as a +witness to the grand unity of the evangelical church; but compulsion is to +be applied to no man." The consistories of these provinces were still to +continue independent of the Supreme Church Council. But the ministerial +order for the restoration of representative synodal constitution +increasingly prevailed, although the wide-spread suspicion and individual +protests against the system of church government, such as the temporary +prohibition of the Marburg consistory of the mission festival, as avowedly +used for agitation against the intended synodal constitution, helped to +intensify the bitterness of feeling. But on the other hand many preachers +by their unbecoming pulpit harangues, and their refusal to take the oath +of allegiance or service, to pray in church for their new sovereign, and +to observe the general holiday appointed to be held in 1869 on November +10th (Luther's birthday), etc., compelled the ecclesiastical authorities +to impose fines, suspension, penal transportation, and deposition. In the +Lutheran _Schleswig-Holstein_ a new congregational constitution was +introduced in 1869 by the minister Von Muehler, as the basis of a future +synodal constitution, which was adopted by the _Vorsynode_ of Rendsburg in +1871, preserving the confessional status laid down, without discussion. In +1878 an advance was made by the institution of district or provostship +synods, and in February, 1880, the first General Synod was held at +Rendsburg. As in Old Prussia so also here the conservative movement proved +victorious. The laity obtained majorities in all synods, and the supremacy +of the state was secured by the subordination of the church government +under the minister of public worship. + +8. _In Hanover_, where especially Lichtenberg, president of the upper +consistory, and Uhlhorn, member of the upper consistory (since 1878 abbot +of Loccum), although many Lutheran extremists long remained dissatisfied, +temperately and worthily maintained the independence and privileges of the +Lutheran church, the first national synod could be convened and could +bring to a generally peaceful conclusion the question of the constitution +only in the end of 1869, after the preliminary labour of the national +synod committee. In 1882 the Reformed communities of 120,000 souls, +hitherto subject to Lutheran consistories, obtained an independent +congregational and synodal constitution. Against the new marriage +ordinance enacted in consequence of the civil marriage law (§ 197, 5), +Theod. Harms (brother, and from 1865 successor of L. Harms, § 184, 1), +pastor and director of Hermannsburg missionary seminary, rebelled from the +conviction that civil marriage did not deserve to be recognised as +marriage. He was first suspended, then in 1877 deposed from office, and +with the most of his congregation retired and founded a separate Lutheran +community, to which subsequently fifteen other small congregations of +4,000 souls were attached. As teacher and pupils of the seminary made it a +zealous propaganda for the secession, the missionary journals and +missionary festivals were misused for the same purpose, and as Harms +answered the questions of the consistory in reference thereto, partly by +denying, partly by excusing, that court, in December, 1878, forbad the +missionary collections hitherto made throughout the churches at Epiphany +for Hermannsburg, and so completely broke off the connection between the +state church and the institution which had hitherto been regarded as "its +pride and its preserving salt." A reaction has since set in in favour of +the seminary and its friends on the assurance that the interests of the +separation would not be furthered by the seminary, and that several other +objectionable features, _e.g._ the frequent employment in the mission +service of artisans without theological training, the sending of them out +in too great numbers without sufficient endowment and salary, so that +missionaries were obliged to engage in trade speculations, should be +removed as far as possible; but since the seminary life was always still +carried on upon the basis of ecclesiastical secession, it could lead to no +permanent reconciliation with the state church. Harms died in 1885. His +son Egmont was chosen his successor, and as the consistory refused +ordination, he accepted consecration at the hands of five members of the +Immanuel Synod at Magdeburg. + +9. _In Hesse_ the ministry of Von Muehler sought to bring about a +combination of the three consistories of Hanau, Cassel, and Marburg, as a +necessary vehicle for the introduction of a new synodal constitution. In +the province itself an agitation was persistently carried on for and +against the constitutional scheme submitted by the ministers, which wholly +ignored the old church order (§ 127, 2), which, though in the beginning of +the seventeenth century through the ecclesiastical disturbances of the +time (§ 154, 1), it had passed out of use, had never been abrogated and so +was still legally valid. A _Vorsynode_ convened in 1870 approved of it in +all essential points, but conventions of superintendents, pastoral +conferences and lay addresses protested, and the Prussian parliament, for +which it was not yet liberal enough, refused the necessary supplies. As +these after Von Muehler's overthrow were granted, his successor, Dr. Falk, +immediately proceeded in 1873 to set up in Cassel the court that had been +objected to so long. It was constituted after the pattern of the Supreme +Church Council, of Lutheran, Reformed, and United members with _Itio in +partes_ on specifically confessional questions. The clergy of Upper Hesse +comforted themselves with saying that the new courts in which the +confessions were combined, if not better, were at least no worse than the +earlier consistories in which the confessions were confounded; and they +felt obliged to yield obedience to them, so long as they did not demand +anything contradictory the Lutheran confession. On the other hand, many of +the clergy of Lower Hesse saw in the advance from a merely eventual to an +actual blending of the confessional status in church government an +intolerable deterioration. And so forty-five clergyman of Lower and one of +Upper Hesse laid before the king a protest against the innovation as +destructive of the confessional rights of the Hessian church contrary to +the will of the supreme majesty of Jesus Christ. They were dismissed with +sharp rebuke, and, with the exception of four who submitted, were deposed +from office for obstinate refusal to obey. There were about sixteen +congregations which to a greater or less extent kept aloof from the new +pastors appointed by the consistories, and without breaking away from the +state church wished to remain true to the old pastor "appointed by Jesus +Christ himself."--In autumn, 1884, the movement on behalf of the +restoration of a presbyterial and synodal constitution of the Hessian +evangelical church, which had been delayed for fourteen years, was +resumed. A sketch of a constitution, which placed it under three general +superintendents (Lutheran, Reformed, United) and thirteen superintendents, +and, for the fair co-operation of the lay element in the administration of +church affairs (the confession status, however, being beyond discussion), +provided suitable organs in the shape of presbyteries and synods, with a +predominance of the lay element, was submitted to a _Vorsynode_ that met +on November 12th, consisting of two divisions, like a Lower and Upper +House, sitting together. The first division, as representative of the then +existing church order, embraced, in accordance with the practice of the +old Hessian synods, all the members of the consistory, _i.e._ the nine +superintendents and thirteen pastors elected by the clergy; the second, +consisting at least of as many lay as clerical members, was chosen by the +free election of the congregation. The royal assent was given to the +decrees of the _Vorsynode_ in the end of December, 1885, and the +confessional status was thereby expressly guaranteed. + + + +§ 194. The North German smaller States. + + +In most of the smaller North German states, owing to the very slight +representation of the Reformed church, which was considerable only in +Bremen, Lippe-Detmold, and a part of Hesse and East Friesland, the union +met with little favour. Yet only in a few of those provinces did a sharply +marked confessional Lutheranism gain wide and general acceptance. This was +so especially and most decidedly in Mecklenburg, but also in Hanover, +Hesse, and Saxony. On the other hand, since the close of 1860, in almost +all those smaller states a determined demand was made for a representative +synodal constitution, securing the due co-operation of the lay +element.--The Catholic church was strongest in Hanover, and next come some +parts of Hesse, which had been added to the ecclesiastical province of the +Upper Rhine (§ 196, 1), but in the other North German smaller states it +was only represented here and there. + +1. _The Kingdom of Saxony._--The present kingdom of Saxony, formerly an +electoral principality, has had Catholic princes since 1679 (§ 153, 1), +but the Catholic church could strike its roots again only in the immediate +neighbourhood of the court. Indeed those belonging to it did not enjoy +civil and religious equality until 1807, when this distinction was set +aside. The erection of cloisters and the introduction of monkish orders, +however, continued even then forbidden, and all official publications of +the Catholic clergy required the _placet_ of the government. The +administration of the evangelical church, so long as the king is Catholic, +lies, according to agreement, in the hands of the ministers commissioned +_in evangelicis_. Although several of these have proved defenders of +ecclesiastical orthodoxy, the rationalistic Illumination became almost +universally prevalent not only among the clergy but also among the general +populace. Meanwhile a pietistic reaction set in, especially powerful in +Muldenthal, where Rudelbach's labours impressed on it a Lutheran +ecclesiastical character. The religious movement, on the other hand, +directed by Martin Stephan, pastor of the Bohemian church in Dresden, came +to a sad and shameful end. As representative and restorer of strict +Lutheran views he had wrought successfully in Dresden from 1810, but, +through the adulation of his followers, approaching even to worship, he +fell more and more deeply into hierarchical assumption and neglect of +self-vigilance. When the police in 1837 restricted his nightly assemblies, +without, however, having discovered anything immoral, and suspended him +from his official duties, he called upon his followers to emigrate to +America. Many of them, lay and clerical, blindly obeyed, and founded in +1835, in Missouri, a Lutheran church communion (§ 208, 2). Stephan's +despotic hierarchical assumptions here reached their fullest height; he +also gave his lusts free scope. Women oppressed or actually abused by him +at length openly proclaimed his shame in 1839, and the community +excommunicated him. He died in A.D. 1846. Taught by such experiences, and +purged of the Donatist-separatist element, a church reaction against +advancing rationalism made considerable progress under a form of church +that favoured it, and secured also influential representatives in members +of the theological faculty of the university of Leipzig distinguished for +their scientific attainments. After repeated debates in the chamber over a +scheme of a new ecclesiastical and synodal order submitted by the +ministry, the first evangelical Lutheran state synod met in Dresden, in +May, 1871. On the motion of the government, the law of patronage was here +modified so that the patron had to submit three candidates to the choice +of the ecclesiastical board. It was also decided to form an upper or state +consistory, to which all ecclesiastical matters hitherto administered by +the minister of public worship should be given over; the control of +education was to remain with the ministry, and the state consistory was to +charge itself with the oversight only of religious instruction and +ethico-religious training. The most lively debates were those excited by +the proposal to abolish the obligation resting upon all church teachers to +seem to adhere to the confession of the Lutheran church, led by Dr. +Zarncke, the rector of the state university. The commission of inquiry +sent down, under the presidency of Professor Luthardt, demanded the +absolute withdrawal of this proposal, which aimed at perfect doctrinal +freedom. On the other hand, Professor G. Baur made the mediate proposal to +substitute for the declaration on oath, the promise to teach simply and +purely to the best of his knowledge and according to conscience the gospel +of Christ as it is contained in Scripture, and witnessed in the +confessions of the Lutheran church. And as even now Luthardt, inspired by +the wish not to rend the first State Synod at its final sitting by an +incurable schism, agreed to this suggestion, it was carried by a large +majority. In consequence of this decision, a number of "Lutherans faithful +to the confession," withdrew from the State church, and on the anniversary +of the Reformation in 1871, constituted themselves into an Evangelical +Lutheran Free Church, associated with the Missouri synod (§ 208, 2), from +which, on the suggestion of some of the members of the community who had +returned from America, they chose for themselves a pastor called Ruhland. +There were five such congregations in Saxony: at Dresden, Planitz, +Chemnitz, Frankenberg, and Krimmitschau, to which some South German +dissenters at Stenden, Wiesbaden, Frankfort, and Anspach attached +themselves. + +2. _The Saxon Duchies._--The Stephan emigration had also decoyed a number +of inhabitants from Saxe-Altenburg. In a rescript to the Ephorus +Ronneburg, in 1838, the consistory traced back this separatist movement to +the fact that the religious needs of the congregations found no +satisfaction in the rationalistic preaching, and urged a more earnest +presentation from the pulpit of the fundamental and central doctrines of +evangelical Christianity. This rescript was the subject of violent +denunciation. The government took the opinion of four theological +faculties on the procedure of the consistory and its opponents, who +published it simply with the praise and blame contained therein, and thus +prevented any investigation. Also in _Weimar_ and _Gotha_ the rationalism +of Roehr and Bretschneider, which had dominated almost all pulpits down to +the middle of the century, began gradually to disappear, and the more +recent parties of Confessional, Mediation, and Free Protestant theology to +take its place. The last named party found vigorous support in the +university of Jena. A petition addressed to it in 1882 from the Thuringian +Church Conference of Eisenach, to call to Jena also a representative of +the positive Lutheran theology, was decidedly refused, and, in a +controversial pamphlet by Superintendent Braasch, condemned as "the +Eisenach outrage" (_Attentat_). In _Meiningen_ the _Vorsynode_ convened +there in 1870 sanctioned the sketch of a moderately liberal synodal +constitution submitted to it, which placed the confession indeed beyond +the reach of legislative interference, but also secured its rights to free +inquiry. The first State Synod, however, did not meet before 1878. In +_Weimar_ the first synod was held in 1873, the second in 1879. + +3. _The Kingdom of Hanover._--Although the union found no acceptance in +Hanover, after the overthrow of the rationalism of the _ancien regime_, +the union theology became dominant in the university. The clergy, however, +were in great part carried along by the confessional Lutheran current of +the age. The Preachers' Conference at Stade in 1854 took occasion to call +the attention of the government to the "manifest divergence" between the +union theology of the university and the legal and actual Lutheran +confession of the state church, and urged the appointment of Lutheran +teachers. The faculty, on the other hand, issued a memorial in favour of +liberty of public teaching, and the curators filled the vacancies again +with union theologians. When in April, 1862, it was proposed to displace +the state catechism introduced in 1790, which neither theologically nor +catechetically satisfied the needs of the church, by a carefully sifted +revision of the Walther catechism in use before 1790, approved of by the +Goettingen faculty, the agitation of the liberal party called forth an +opposition, especially in city populations, which expressed itself in +insults to members of consistories and pastors, and in almost daily +repeated bloody street fights with the military, and obliged the +government at last to give way.--The negotiations about a concordat with +Rome reached up further in 1824 than obtaining the circumscription bull +_Impensa Romanorum_, by which the Catholic church obtained two bishoprics, +those of Hildesheim and Osnabrueck.--In 1886, Hanover was incorporated with +the kingdom of Prussia (§ 193, 8). + +4. _Hesse._--Landgrave Maurice, 1592-1627, had forced upon his territories +a modified Melanchthonian Calvinism (§ 154, 1), but a Lutheran basis with +Lutheran modes of viewing things and Lutheran institutions still remained, +and the Lutheran reaction had never been completely overcome, not even in +Lower Hesse, although there the name of the Reformed Church with Reformed +modes of worship had been gradually introduced in most of the +congregations. The communities of Upper Hesse and Schmalcald, however, by +continuous opposition saved for the most part their Lutheranism, which in +1648 was guaranteed to them anew by the Darmstadt Recess, and secured an +independent form of church government in the Definitorium at Marburg. The +union movement, which issued from Prussia in 1817, met with favour also in +Hesse, but only in the province of Hanau in 1818 got the length of a +formal constituting of a church on the basis of the union. In 1821, +however, the elector issued the so-called Reorganization edict, by which +the entire evangelical church of the electorate, without any reference to +the confession status, but simply in accordance with the political +divisions of the state, was put under the newly instituted consistories of +Cassel, Marburg, and Hanau, in the formation of which the confession of +the inhabitants had not been considered. The Marburg Definitorium indeed +protested, but in vain, against this despotic act, which was felt a +grievance, less on account of the wiping out of the confession than on +account of the loss of independent church government which it occasioned. +The government appointed pastors, teachers and professors without +enquiring much about their confession. In 1838 the hitherto required +subscription of the clergy to the confessional writings, the Augsburg +Confession and its Apology, was modified into a formula declaring +conscientious regard for them. But in this Bickell, professor of law at +Marburg, saw a loss to the church in legal status, an endangering of the +evangelical church; the theological professor, Hupfeld, also in the +further course of the controversy took his side, while the advocate, +Henkel, in Cassel, as a popular agitator opposed him and demanded a State +Synod for the formal abolishing of all symbolical books. The government +ignored both demands, and the vehement conflict was quieted by degrees. +With 1850 a new era began in the keen controversy over the question, which +confession, whether Lutheran or Reformed, was legally and actually that of +the state. The ministry of Hassenpflug from 1850, which suppressed the +revolution, considered it as legally the Lutheran, and determined the +ecclesiastical arrangements in this sense, and in this course Dr. Vilmar, +member of the Consistory, was the minister's right hand. But the elector +was from the beginning personally opposed to this procedure, and on the +overthrow of the ministry in 1855, Vilmar (died 1868) was also transferred +to a theological professorship at Marburg. This, however, only gave a new +impulse to the confessional Lutheran movement in the state, for the spirit +and tendency of the highly revered theological teacher powerfully +influenced the younger generation of the Hessian clergy. In consequence of +the German war, Hesse was annexed to Prussia in 1866 (§ 193, 9).--On the +Catholic church in this state, compare § 196, 1. + +5. _Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold._--Much ado was made +also in _Brunswick_ over the introduction of a new constitution for the +Lutheran state church in 1869, and at last in 1871 a synodal ordinance was +passed by which the State Synod, consisting of fourteen clerical and +eighteen lay members, was to meet every four years, so as not to be a too +offensive factor in the ecclesiastical administration and legislation, +which therefore has left untouched the content of the confession. The +first synod of 1872 began by rejecting the injunction to open the sessions +with prayer and reading of scripture. _Oldenburg_, which in 1849, by a +synod whose membership had been chosen by the original electorate, had +been favoured with a democratic church constitution wholly separate from +the state, accepted in 1854 without opposition a new constitution which +restored the headship of the church to the territorial lords, the +administration of the church to a Supreme Church Council and +ecclesiastical legislation to a State Synod consisting of clerical and lay +members.--The prince in the exercise of his sovereign rights gave a charter +in 1878 to the evangelical church of the Duchy of _Anhalt_ to a synodal +ordinance which, though approved by the _Vorsynode_ of 1876, had been +rejected by parliament, and afterwards it gained the assent of the +national representatives.--In the Reformed _Lippe-Detmold_ there were in +1844 still five preachers who, wearied of the illuminationist catechism of +the state church, had gone back to the Heidelberg catechism and protested +against the abolition of acceptance on oath of the symbols, as destructive +of the peace of the church. The democratic church constitution of 1851, +however, was abrogated in 1854, and instead of it, the old Reformed church +order of 1684 was again made law. At the same time, religious pardon and +equality were guaranteed to Catholics and Lutherans. The first Reformed +State Synod was constituted in 1878. + +6. _Mecklenburg._--Mecklenburg-Schwerin from 1848 was in possession of a +strictly Lutheran church government under the direction of Kliefoth, and +its university at Rostock had decidedly Lutheran theologians. When the +chamberlain Von Kettenburg, on going over to the Catholic church, +appointed a Catholic priest on his estate, the government in 1852, on the +ground that the laws of the state did not allow Catholic services which +extended beyond simple family worship, held that he had overstepped the +limits. A complaint, in reference thereto, presented to the parliament and +then to the German _Bund_, was in both cases thrown out. Even in 1863 the +Rostock magistrates refused to allow tower and bells in the building of a +Catholic church.--An extraordinary excitement was caused by the removal +from office in January, 1858, of Professor M. Baumgarten of Rostock. An +examination paper set by him on 2 Kings xi. by which the endeavour was +made to win scripture sanction for a violent revolution, obliged the +government even in 1856 to remove him from the theological examination +board. At the same time his polemic addressed to a pastoral conference at +Parchim, against the doctrine of the Mecklenburg state catechism on the +ceremonial law, especially in reference to the sanctification of the +Sabbath, increased the distrust which the clergy of the state, on account +of his writings, had entertained against his theological position as one +which, from a fanatical basis, diverged on all sides into fundamental +antagonism to the confession and the ordinances of the Lutheran state +church. The government finally deposed him in 1858 (leaving him, however, +in possession of his whole salary, also of the right of public teaching), +on the ground and after the publication of a judgment of the consistory +which found him guilty of heretical alteration of all the fundamental +doctrines of the Christian faith and the Lutheran confession, and sought +to prove this verdict from his writings. As might have been foreseen, this +step was followed by a loud outcry by all journals; but even Lutherans, +like Von Hofmann, Von Scheurl, and Luthardt, objected to the proceedings +of the government as exceeding the law laid down by the ecclesiastical +ordinance and the opinion of the consistory as resting upon +misunderstanding, arbitrary supposition and inconsequent conclusion. + + + +§ 195. Bavaria. + + +Catholic Bavaria, originally an electorate, but raised in 1806, by +Napoleon's favour, into a royal sovereignty, to which had been adjudged by +the Vienna Congress considerable territories in Franconia and the Palatine +of the Rhine with a mainly Protestant population, attempted under +Maximilian Joseph (IV.) I., after the manner of Napoleon, despotically to +pass a liberal system of church polity, but found itself obliged again to +yield, and under Louis I. became again the chief retreat of Roman Catholic +ecclesiasticism of the most pronounced ultramontane pattern. It was under +the noble and upright king, Maximilian II., that the evangelical church of +the two divisions of the kingdom, numbering two-thirds of the population, +first succeeded in securing the unrestricted use of their rights. +Nevertheless, Catholic Bavaria remained, or became, the unhappy scene of +the wildest demagogic agitation of the Catholic clergy and of the Bavarian +"Patriots" who played their game, whose patriotism consisted only in mad +hatred of Prussia and fanatical ultramontanism. Yet King Louis II., after +the brilliant successes of the Franco-German war, could not object to the +proposal of November 30th, 1870, to found a new German empire under a +Prussian and therefore a Protestant head. + +1. _The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian I., +1799-1825._--Bavaria boasted with the most unfeigned delight after the +uprooting of Protestantism in its borders as then defined (§ 151, 1), that +it was the most Catholic, _i.e._ the most ultramontane and most bigoted, +of German-speaking lands, and, after a short break in this tradition by +Maximilian Joseph III. (§ 165, 10), went forth again with full sail, under +Charles Theodore, 1777-1779, on the old course. But the thoroughly new +aspect which this state assumed on the overthrow of the old German empire, +demanded an adapting territorially of the civil and ecclesiastical life in +accordance with the relations which it owed to its present political +position. The new elector Maximilian Joseph IV., who as king styled +himself Maximilian I., transferred the execution of this task to his +liberal, energetic, and thoroughly fearless minister, Count Montgelas, +1799-1817. In January, 1802, it was enacted that all cloisters should be +suppressed, and that all cathedral foundations should be secularized; and +these enactments were immediately carried out in an uncompromising manner. +Even in 1801 the qualification of Protestants to exercise the rights of +Bavarian citizens was admitted, and a religious edict of 1803 guaranteed +to all Christian confessions full equality of civil and political +privileges. To the clergy was given the control of education, and to the +gymnasia and universities a considerable number of foreigners and +Protestants received appointments. In all respects the sovereignty of the +state over the church and the clergy was very decidedly expressed, the +episcopate at all points restricted in its jurisdiction, the training of +the clergy regulated and supervised on behalf of the state, the patronage +of all pastorates and benefices usurped by the government, even public +worship subjected to state control by the prohibition of superstitious +practices, etc. But amid many other infelicities of this autocratic +procedure was specially the gradual dying out of the old race of bishops, +which obliged the government to seek again an understanding with Rome; and +so it actually happened in June, 1817, after Montgelas' dismissal, that a +concordat was drawn up. By this the Roman Catholic apostolic religion +secured throughout the whole kingdom those rights and prerogatives which +were due to it according to divine appointment and canonical ordinances, +which, strictly taken, meant supremacy throughout the land. In addition, +two archbishoprics and seven bishoprics were instituted, the restoration +of several cloisters was agreed to, and the unlimited administration of +theological seminaries, the censorship of books, the superintendance of +public schools and free correspondence with the holy see were allowed to +the bishops. On the other hand, the king was given the choice of bishops +(to be confirmed by the pope), the nomination of a great part of the +priests and canons, and the _placet_ for all hierarchical publications. +After many vain endeavours to obtain amendments, the king at last, on +October 17th, ratified this concordat; but, to mollify his highly incensed +Protestant subjects, he delayed the publication of it till the +proclamation of the new civil constitution on May 18th following. The +concordat was then adopted, as an appendage to an edict setting forth the +ecclesiastical supremacy of the state, securing perfect freedom of +conscience to all subjects, as well as equal civil rights to members of +the three Christian confessions, and demanding from them equal mutual +respect. The irreconcilableness of this edict with the concordat was +evident, and the newly appointed bishops as well as the clerical +parliamentary deputies, declared by papal instruction that they could not +take the oath to the constitution without reservation, until the royal +statement of Tegernsee, September 21st, that the oath taken by Catholic +subjects simply referred to civil relations, and that the concordat had +also the validity of a law of the state, induced the curia to agree to it. +But the government nevertheless continued to insist as before upon the +supremacy of the state over the church, enlarged the claims of the royal +_placet_, put the free intercourse with Rome again under state control, +arbitrarily disposed of church property and supervised the theological +examinations of the seminarists, made the appointment of all clergy +dependent on its approbation, and refused to be misled in anything by the +complaints and objections of the bishops. + +2. _The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Louis I., 1825-1848._--Zealous +Catholic as the new king was, he still held with unabated tenacity to the +sovereign rights of the crown, and the extreme ultramontane ministry of +Von Abel from 1837 was the first to wring from him any relaxations, _e.g._ +the reintroduction of free intercourse between the bishops and the holy +see without any state control. But it could not obtain the abolition of +the _placet_, and just as little the eagerly sought permission of the +return of the Jesuits. On the other hand the allied order of Redemptorists +was allowed, whose missions among the Bavarian people, however, the king +soon made dependent on a permission to be from time to time renewed. His +tolerant disposition toward the Protestants was shown in 1830, by his +refusing the demand of the Catholic clergy for a Reverse in mixed +marriages, and recognising Protestant sponsors at Catholic baptisms. But +yet his honourable desire to be just even to the Protestants of his realm +was often paralysed, partly by his own ultramontane sympathies, partly and +mainly by the immense influence of the Abel ministry, and the religious +freedom guaranteed them by law in 1818 was reduced and restricted. Among +other things the Protestant press was on all sides gagged by the minister, +while the Catholic press and preaching enjoyed unbridled liberty. Great as +the need was in southern Bavaria the government had strictly forbidden the +taking of any aid from the _Gustavus Adolphus Verein_. Louis saw even in +the name of this society a slight thrown on the German name, and was +specially offended at its vague, nearly negative attitude towards the +confession. Yet he had no hesitation in affording an asylum in Catholic +Bavaria to the Lutheran confessor Scheibel (§ 177, 2) whom Prussian +diplomacy had driven out of Lutheran Saxony, and did not prevent the +university of Erlangen, after its dead orthodoxy had been reawakened by +the able Reformed preacher Krafft (died 1845), becoming the centre of a +strict Lutheran church consciousness in life as well as science for all +Germany. The adoration order of 1838, which required even the Protestant +soldiers to kneel before the host as a military salute, occasioned great +discontent among the Protestant population, and many controversial +pamphlets appeared on both sides. When finally the parliament in 1845 took +up the complaint of the Protestants, a royal proclamation followed by +which the usually purely military salute formerly in use was restored. In +1847 the ultramontane party, with Abel at its head, fell into disfavour +with the king, on account of its honourable attitude in the scandal which +the notorious Lola Montez caused in the circle of the Bavarian nobility; +but in 1848 Louis was obliged, through the revolutionary storm that burst +over Bavaria, to resign the crown. + +3. _The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian II., 1848-1864, +and Louis II._ (died 1886).--Much more thoroughly than his father did +Maximilian II. strive to act justly toward the Protestant as well as the +Catholic church, without however abating any of the claims of +constitutional supremacy on the part of the state. In consequence of the +Wuerzburg negotiations (§ 192, 4), the Bavarian bishops assembled at +Freysing, in November, 1850, presented a memorial, in which they demanded +the withdrawal of the religious edict included in the constitution of +1818, as in all respects prejudicial to the rights of the church granted +by the concordat, and set forth in particular those points which were most +restrictive to the free and proper development of the catholic church. The +result was the publication in April, 1852, of a rescript which, while +maintaining all the principles of state administration hitherto followed, +introduced in detail various modifications, which, on the renewal of the +complaints in 1854, were somewhat further increased as the fullest and +final measure of surrender.--The change brought about in 1866 in the +relation of Bavaria to North Germany led the government under Louis II. to +introduce liberal reforms, and the offensive and defensive alliance which +the government concluded with the heretical Prussia, the failure of all +attempts on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war to force it in +violation of treaty to maintain neutrality, and then to prevent Bavaria +becoming part of the new German empire founded in 1871 at the suggestion +of her own king, roused to the utmost the wrath of the Bavarian clerical +patriots. In the conflicts of the German government, in 1872, against the +intolerable assumptions, claims and popular tumults of the ultramontane +clergy, the department of public worship, led by Lutz, inclined to take an +energetic part. But this was practically limited to the passing of the +so-called _Kanzelparagraphen_ (§ 197, 4) in the _Reichstag_. Comp. § 197, +14. + +4. _Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran Church._--Since 1852, Dr. +von Harless (§ 182, 13), as president of the upper consistory at Munich, +stood at the head of the Lutheran church of Bavaria. Under his presidency +the general synod at Baireuth in 1853 showed a vigorous activity in the +reorganization of the church. On the basis of its proceedings the upper +consistory ordered the introduction of an admirable new hymnbook. This +occasioned considerable disagreement. But when, in 1856, the upper +consistory issued a series of enactments on worship and discipline, a +storm, originating in Nuremberg, burst forth in the autumn of that same +year, which raged over the whole kingdom and attacked even the state +church itself. The king was assailed with petitions, and the spiritual +courts went so far in faint-heartedness as to put the acceptance and +non-acceptance of its ordinances to the vote of the congregations. +Meanwhile the time had come for calling another general synod (1857). An +order of the king as head of the church abolished the union of the two +state synods in a general synod which had existed since 1849, and forbad +all discussion of matters of discipline. Hence instead of one, two synods +assembled, the one in October at Anspach, the other in November at +Baireuth. Both, consisting of equal numbers of lay and clerical members, +maintained a moderate attitude, relinquishing none of the privileges of +the church or the prerogatives of the upper consistory, and yet +contributed greatly to the assuaging of the prevalent excitement. Also the +lay and clerical members of the subsequent reunited general synods held +every fourth year for the most part co-operated successfully on moderate +church lines. The synod held at Baireuth in 1873 unanimously rejected an +address sent from Augsburg inspired by "Protestant Union" sympathies, as +to their mind "for the most part indistinct and where distinct +unevangelical." + +5. _The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the Rhine._--In the Bavarian +_Palatine of the Rhine_ the union had been carried out in 1818 on the +understanding that the symbolical books of both confessions should be +treated with due respect, but no other standard recognised than holy +scripture. When therefore the Erlangen professor, Dr. Rust, in 1832 +appeared in the consistory at Spires and the court for that time had +endeavoured to fill up the Palatine union with positive Christian +contents, 204 clerical and lay members of the Diocesan Synod presented to +the assembly of the states of the realm, opportunely meeting in 1837, a +complaint against the majority of the consistory. As this memorial yielded +practically no result, the opposition wrought all the more determinedly +for the severance of the Palatine church from the Munich Upper Consistory. +This was first accomplished in the revolutionary year 1848. An +extraordinary general synod brought about the separation, and gave to the +country a new democratic church constitution. But the reaction of the blow +did not stop there. The now independent consistory at Spires, from 1853 +under the leadership of Ebrard, convened in the autumn of that year a +general synod, which made the _Augustana Variata_ of 1540 as representing +the consensus between the _Augustana_ of 1530 and the Heidelberg as well +as the Lutheran catechism, the confessional standard of the Palatine +church, and set aside the democratic election law of 1848. When now the +consistory, purely at the instance of the general synod of 1853, submitted +to the diocesan synod in 1856 the proofs of a new hymnbook, the liberal +party poured out its bitter indignation upon the system of doctrine which +it was supposed to favour. But the diocesan synods admitted the necessity +of introducing a new hymnbook and the suitability of the sketch submitted, +recommending, however, its further revision so that the recension of the +text might be brought up to date and that an appendix of 150 new hymns +might be added. The hymnbook thus modified was published in 1859, and its +introduction into church use left to the judgment of presbyteries, while +its use in schools and in confirmation instruction was insisted upon +forthwith. This called forth protest after protest. The government wished +from the first to support the synodal decree, but in presence of growing +disturbance, changed its attitude, recommended the consistory to observe +decided moderation so as to restore peace, and in February, 1861, called a +general synod which, however, in consequence of the prevailingly strict +ecclesiastical tendencies of its members, again expressed itself in favour +of the new hymnbook. Its conclusions were meanwhile very unfavourably +received by the government. Ebrard sought and obtained liberty to resign, +and even at the next synod, in 1869, the consistory went hand in hand with +the liberal majority. + + + +§ 196. The South German Smaller States and Rhenish Alsace and Lorraine. + + +The Protestant princely houses of South Germany had by the Lueneville Peace +obtained such an important increase of Catholic subjects, that they had to +make it their first care to arrange their delicate relations by concluding +a concordat with the papal curia in a manner satisfactory to state and +church. But all negotiations broke down before the exorbitant claims of +Rome, until the political restoration movements of 1850 led to +modifications of them hitherto undreamed of. The concordats concluded +during this period were not able to secure enforcement over against the +liberal current that had set in with redoubled power in 1860, and so one +thing after another was thrown overboard. Even in the Protestant state +churches this current made itself felt in the persistent efforts, which +also proved successful, to secure the restoration of a representative +synodal constitution which would give to the lay element in the +congregations a decided influence. + +1. _The Upper Rhenish Church Province._--The governments of the South +German States gathered in 1818 at Frankfort, to draw up a common concordat +with Rome. But owing to the utterly extravagant pretensions nothing +further was reached than a new delimitation in the bull "_Provida +sollersque_," 1821, of the bishoprics in the so-called Upper Rhenish +Church Province: the archbishopric of Freiburg for Baden and the two +Hohenzollern principalities, the bishoprics of Mainz for Hesse-Darmstadt, +Fulda for Hesse-Cassel, Rottenburg for Wuerttemberg, Limburg for Nassau and +Frankfort; and even this was given effect to only in 1827, after long +discussions, with the provision (bull _Ad dominicae gregis custodiam_) that +the choice of the bishops should issue indeed from the chapter, but that +the territorial lord might strike out objectionable names in the list of +candidates previously submitted to him. The actual equality of Protestants +and Catholics which the pope had not been able to allow in the concordat, +was now in 1880 proclaimed by the princes as the law of the land. Papal +and episcopal indulgences had to receive approval before their +publication; provincial and diocesan synods could be held only with +approval of the government and in presence of the commissioners of the +prince; taxes could not be imposed by any ecclesiastical court; appeal +could be made to the civil court against abuse of spiritual power; those +preparing for the priesthood should receive scientific training at the +universities, practical training in the seminaries for priests, etc. The +pope issued a brief in which he characterized these conditions as +scandalous novelties, and reminded the bishops of Acts v. 29. But only the +Bishop of Fulda followed this advice, with the result that the Catholic +theological faculty at Marburg was after a short career closed again, and +the education of the priests given over to the seminary at Fulda. +Hesse-Darmstadt founded a theological faculty at Giessen in 1830; Baden +had one already in Freiburg, and Wuertemberg had in 1817 affiliated the +faculty at Ellwanger with the university of Tuebingen, and endowed it with +the revenues of a rich convent. In all these faculties alongside of +rigorous scientific exactness there prevailed a noble liberalism without +the surrender of the fundamental Catholic faith. The revolutionary year, +1848, first gave the bishops the hope of a successful struggle for the +unconditional freedom of the church. In order to enforce the Wuerzburg +decrees (§ 192, 4), the five bishops issued in 1851 a joint memorial. As +the governments delayed their answer, they declared in 1852 that they +would immediately act as if all had been granted them; and when at last +the answer came, on most points unfavourable, they said in 1853, that, +obeying God rather than man, they would proceed wholly in accordance with +canon law. + +2. _The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873._--The Grand Duchy of +Baden, with two-thirds of its population Catholic, where in 1848 the +revolution had shattered all the foundations of the state, and where +besides a young ruler had taken the reins of government in his hands only +in 1852, seemed in spite of the widely prevalent liberality of its clergy, +the place best fitted for such an attempt. The Archbishop of Freiburg, +_Herm. von Vicari_, in 1852, now in his eighty-first year, began by +arbitrarily stopping, on the evening of May 9th, the obsequies of the +deceased grand-duke appointed by the Catholic Supreme Church Council for +May 10th, prohibiting at the same time the saying of mass for the dead +(_pro omnibus defunctis_) usual at Catholic burials, but in Baden and +Bavaria hitherto not refused even to Protestant princes. More than one +hundred priests, who disobeyed the injunction, were sentenced to perform +penances. In the following year he openly declared that he would forthwith +carry out the demands of the episcopal memorial, and did so immediately by +appointing priests in the exercise of absolute authority; and by holding +entrance examinations to the seminary without the presence of royal +commissioners as required by law. As a warning remained unheeded, the +government issued the order that all episcopal indulgences must before +publication be subscribed by a grand-ducal special commissioner appointed +for the purpose. Against him, as well as against all the members of the +Supreme Church Council, the archbishop proclaimed the ban, issued a +fulminating pastoral letter, which was to have been read with the +excommunication in all churches, and ordered preaching for four weeks for +the instruction of the people on these matters. At the same time he +solemnly protested against all supremacy of the state over the church. The +government drove the Jesuits out of the country, forbad the reading of the +pastoral, and punished disobedient priests with fines and imprisonment. +But the archbishop, spurred on by Ketteler, Bishop of Mainz, advanced more +boldly and recklessly than ever. In May, 1854, the government introduced a +criminal process against him, during the course of which he was kept +prisoner in his own house. The attempts of his party to arouse the +Catholic population by demonstrations had no serious result. At the close +of the investigation the archbishop was released from his confinement and +continued the work as before. The government, however, still remained +firm, and punished every offence. In June, 1855, however, a provisional +agreement was published, and finally in June, 1859, a formal concordat, +the bull _AEterni patris_, was concluded with Rome, its concessions to the +archbishop almost exceeding even those of Austria (§ 198, 2). In spite of +ministerial opposition the second chamber in March, 1860, brought up the +matter before its tribunal, repudiated the right of the government to +conclude a convention with Rome without the approbation of the states of +the realm, and forbad the grand-duke to enforce it. He complied with this +demand, dismissed the ministry, insisted, in answer to the papal protest, +on his obligation to respect the rights of the constitution, and on +October 9th, 1860, sanctioned jointly with the chambers a law on the legal +position of the Catholic and Protestant churches in the state. The +archbishop indeed declared that the concordat could not be abolished on +one side, and still retain the force of law, but in presence of the firm +attitude of the government he desisted, and satisfied himself with giving +in 1861 a grudging acquiescence, by which he secured to himself greater +independence than before in regard to imposing of dues and administration +of the church property. Conflicts with the archbishop, however, and with +the clerical minority in the chamber, still continued. The archbishop died +in 1868. His see remained vacant, as the chapter and the government could +not agree about the list of candidates; the interim administration was +carried on by the vicar-general, Von Kuebel (died 1881), as administrator +of the archdiocese, quite in the spirit of his predecessor. The law of +October 9th, 1860, had prescribed evidence of general scientific culture +as a condition of appointment to an ecclesiastical office in the +Protestant as well as the Catholic church. Later ordinances required in +addition: Possession of Baden citizenship, having passed a favourable +examination on leaving the university, a university course of at least two +and half years, attendance upon at least three courses of lectures in the +philosophical faculty, and finally also an examination before a state +examining board, within one and half years of the close of the university +curriculum, in the Latin and Greek languages, history of philosophy, +general history, and the history of German literature (later also the so +called _Kulturexamen_). The Freiburg curia, however, protested, and in +1867 forbad clergy and candidates to submit to this examination or to seek +a dispensation from it. The result was, that forthwith no clergymen could +be definitely appointed, but up to 1874 no legal objection was made to +interim appointments of parochial administrators. The educational law of +1868 abolished the confessional character of the public schools. In 1869 +state recognition was withdrawn from the festivals of Corpus Christi, the +holy apostles, and Mary, as also, on the other hand, from the festivals of +Maundy Thursday and Good Friday. In 1870 obligatory civil marriage was +introduced, while all compulsion to observe the baptismal, confirmational, +and funeral rites of the church was abolished, and a law on the legal +position of benevolent institutions was passed to withdraw these as much +as possible from the administration of the ecclesiastical authorities. On +the subsequent course of events in Baden, see § 197, 14. + +3. _The Protestant Troubles in Baden._--The union of the Lutheran and +Reformed churches was carried out in the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1821. It +recognised the normative significance of the _Augustana_, as well as the +Lutheran and Heidelberg catechisms, in so far as by it the free +examination of scripture as the only source of Christian faith, is again +expressly demanded and applied. A synod of 1834 provided this state church +with union-rationalistic agenda, hymnbook, and catechism. When there also +a confessional Lutheran sentiment began again in the beginning of 1850 to +prevail, the church of the union opposed this movement by gensdarmes, +imprisonment and fines. The pastor Eichhorn, and later also the pastor +Ludwig, with a portion of their congregations left the state church and +attached themselves to the Breslau Upper Church Conference, but amid +police interference could minister to their flocks only under cloud of +night. After long refusal the grand-duke at last in 1854 permitted the +separatists the choice of a Lutheran pastor, but persistently refused to +recognise Eichhorn as such. Pastor Haag, who would not give up the +Lutheran distribution formula at the Lord's supper, was after solemn +warning deposed in 1855. On the other hand the positive churchly feeling +became more and more pronounced in the state church itself. In 1854 the +old rationalist members of the Supreme Church Council were silenced, and +Ullmann of Heidelberg was made president. Under his auspices a general +synod of 1855 presented a sketch of new church and school books on the +lines of the union consensus, with an endeavour also to be just to the +Lutheran views. The grand-duke confirmed the decision and the country was +silent. But when in 1858 the Supreme Church Council, on the ground of the +Synodal decision of 1855, promulgated the general introduction of a new +church book, a violent storm broke out through the country against the +liturgical novelties contained therein (extension of the liturgy by +confession of sin and faith, collects, responses, Scripture reading, +kneeling at the supper, the making a confession of their faith by +sponsors), the Heidelberg faculty, with Dr. Schenkel at its head, leading +the opposition in the Supreme Church Council. Yet Hundeshagen, who in the +synod had opposed the introduction of a new agenda, entered the lists +against Schenkel and others as the apologist of the abused church book. +The grand-duke then decided that no congregation should be obliged to +adopt the new agenda, while the introduction of the shorter and simpler +form of it was recommended. The agitations these awakened caused its +rejection by most of the congregations. Meanwhile in consequence of the +concordat revolution in 1860, a new liberal ministry had come into power, +and the government now presented to the chambers a series of thoroughly +liberal schemes for regulating the affairs of the evangelical church, +which were passed by large majorities. Toward the end of the year the +government, by deposing the Supreme Church Councillor Heintz began to +assume the patronage of the supreme ecclesiastical court. Ullmann and Baehr +tendered their resignations, which were accepted. The new liberal Supreme +Church Council, including Holtzmann, Rothe, etc., now published a sketch +of a church constitution on the lines of ecclesiastical constitutionalism, +which with slight modifications the synod of July, 1861, adopted and the +grand-duke confirmed. It provided for annual diocesan synods of lay and +clerical members, and a general synod every five years. The latter +consists of twenty-four clerical and twenty-four lay members, and six +chosen by the grand-duke, besides the prelate, and is represented in the +interval by a standing committee of four members, who have also a seat and +vote in the Supreme Church Council.--Dr. Schenkel's "_Leben Jesu_" of 1864 +led the still considerable party among the evangelical clergy who adhered +to the doctrine of the church to agitate for his removal from his position +as director of the Evangelical Pastors' Seminary at Heidelberg; but it +resulted only in this, that no one was obliged to attend his lectures. The +second synod, held almost a year behind time in 1867, passed a liberal +ordination formula. At the next synod in 1871, the orthodox pietistic +party had evidently become stronger, but was still overborne by the +liberal party, whose strength was in the lay element. Meanwhile a +praiseworthy moderation prevailed on both sides, and an effort was made to +work together as peaceably as possible.--In Heidelberg a considerable +number attached to the old faith, dissatisfied with the preaching of the +four "Free Protestant" city pastors, after having been in 1868 refused +their request for the joint use of a city church for private services in +accordance with their religious convictions (§ 180, 1), had built for this +purpose a chapel of their own, in which numerously attended services were +held under the direction of Professor Frommel of the gymnasium. When a +vacancy occurred in one of the pastorates in 1880, this believing +minority, anxious for the restoration of unity and peace, as well as the +avoidance of the separation, asked to have Professor Frommel appointed to +the charge. At a preliminary assembly of twenty-one liberal church members +this proposal was warmly supported by the president, Professor Bluntschli, +by all the theological professors, with the exception of Schenkel and +eighteen other liberal voters, and agreed to by the majority of the two +hundred liberals constituting the assembly. But when the formal election +came round the proposal was lost by twenty-seven to fifty-one votes. + +4. _Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau._--In 1819 the government of the Grand Duchy +of _Hesse_ recommended the union of all _Protestant_ communities under one +confession. Rhenish Hesse readily agreed to this, and there in 1822 the +union was accomplished. In the other provinces, however, it did not take +effect, although by the rationalism fostered at Giessen among the clergy +and by the popular current of thought in the communities, the Lutheran as +well as the Reformed confession had been robbed of all significance. But +since 1850 even there a powerful Lutheran reaction among the younger +clergy, zealously furthered by a section of the aristocracy of the state, +set in, especially in the district on the right bank of the Rhine, which +has eagerly opposed the equally eager struggles of the liberal party to +introduce a liberal synodal representative constitution for the +evangelical church of the whole state. These endeavours, however, were +frustrated, and at an extraordinary state synod of 1873, on all +controverted questions, the middle party gave their vote in favour of the +absorptive union. The state church was declared to be the united church. +The clause that had been added to the government proposal: "Without +prejudice to the status of the confessions of the several communities," +was dropped; the place of residence and not the confession was that which +determined qualifications in the community; the ordination now expressed +obligation to the Reformation confessions generally, etc. The members of +the minority broke off their connection with the synod, and seventy-seven +pastors presented to the synod a protest against its decisions. The +grand-duke then, on the basis of these deliberations, gave forthwith a +charter to the church constitution, in which indeed the Lutheran, +Reformed, and United churches were embraced in one evangelical state +church with a common church government; but still also, by restoring the +phrase struck out by the synod from § 1, the then existing confessional +status of the several communities was preserved and the confession itself +declared beyond the range of legislation. Yet fifteen Lutheran pastors +represented that they could not conscientiously accept this, and the upper +consistory hastened to remove them from office shortly before the shutting +of the gates, _i.e._, before July 1st, 1875, when by the new law (§ 197, +15) depositions of clergy would belong only to the supreme civil court. +The opposing congregations now declared, in 1877, their withdrawal from +the state church, and constituted themselves as a "free Lutheran church in +Hesse."--The _Catholic_ church in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, had under the +peaceful bishops of Mainz, Burg (died 1833) and Kaiser (died 1849), caused +the government no trouble. But it was otherwise after Kaiser's death. Rome +rejected Professor Leopold Schmid of Giessen, favoured at Darmstadt and +regularly elected by the chapter (§ 187, 3), and the government yielded to +the appointment of the violent ultramontane Westphalian, Baron von +Ketteler. His first aim was the extinction of the Catholic faculty at +Giessen (§ 191, 2); he rested not until the last student had been +transferred from it to the newly erected seminary at Mainz (1851). No less +energetic and successful were his endeavours to free the Catholic church +from the supremacy of the state in accordance with the Upper Rhenish +episcopal memorial. The Dalwigk ministry, in 1854, concluded a +"provisional agreement" with the bishop, which secured to him unlimited +autonomy and sovereignty in all ecclesiastical matters, and, to satisfy +the pope with his desiderata, these privileges were still further extended +in 1856. To this convention, first made publicly known in 1860, the +ministry, in spite of all addresses and protests, adhered with unfaltering +tenacity, although long convinced of its consequences. The political +events of 1886, however, led the grand-duke in September of that year to +abrogate the hateful convention. But the minister as well as the bishop +considered this merely to refer to the episcopal convention of 1850, and +treated the agreement with the pope of 1856 as always still valid. So +everything went on in the old way, even after Ketteler's supreme influence +in the state had been broken by the overthrow of Dalwigk in 1871. Comp. § +197, 15.--The Protestant church in the Duchy of _Nassau_ attached itself to +the union in 1817. The conflict in the Upper Rhenish church overflowed +even into this little province. The Bishop of Limburg, in opposition to +law and custom, appointed Catholic clergy on his own authority, and +excommunicated the Catholic officers who supported the government, while +the government arrested the temporalities and instituted criminal +proceedings against bishop and chapter. After the conclusion of the +Wuerttemberg and Baden concordats, the government showed itself disposed to +adopt a similar way out of the conflict, and in spite of all opposition +from the States concluded in 1861 a convention with the bishop, by which +almost all his hierarchical claims were admitted. Thus it remained until +the incorporation of Nassau in the Prussian kingdom in 1866. + +5. In _Protestant Wuerttemberg_ a religious movement among the people +reached a height such as it attained nowhere else. Pietism, chiliasm, +separatism, the holding of conventicles, etc., assumed formidable +dimensions; solid science, philosophical culture, and then also +philosophical and destructive critical tendencies issuing from Tuebingen +affected the clergy of this state. Dissatisfaction with various novelties +in the liturgy, the hymnbook, etc., led many formally to separate from the +state church. After attempts at compulsion had proved fruitless, the +government allowed the malcontents under the organizing leadership of the +burgomaster, G. W. Hoffman (died 1846), to form in 1818 the community of +Kornthal, with an ecclesiastical and civil constitution of its own after +the apostolic type. Others emigrated to South Russia and to North America +(§ 211, 6, 7). Out of the pastoral work of pastor Blumhardt at Moettlingen, +who earnestly preached repentance, there was developed, in connection with +the healing of a demoniac, which had been accompanied with a great +awakening in the community, the "gift" of healing the sick by absolution +and laying on of hands with contrite believing prayer. Blumhardt, in order +to afford this gift undisturbed exercise, bought the Bad Boll near +Goeppingen, and officiated there as pastor and miraculous healer in the way +described. He died in 1880.--After the way to a synodal representation of +the whole evangelical state church had been opened up in 1851 by the +introduction, according to a royal ordinance, of parochial councils and +diocesan synods, the consistory having also in 1858 published a scheme +referring thereto, the whole business was brought to a standstill, until +at last in 1867, by means of a royal edict, the calling of a State Synod +consisting of twenty-five clerical and as many lay members was ordered, +and consequently in February, 1869, such a synod met for the first time. +Co-operation in ecclesiastical legislation was assigned to it as its main +task, while it had also the right to advise in regard to proposals about +church government, also to make suggestions and complaints on such +matters, but the confession of the evangelical church was not to be +touched, and lay entirely outside of its province. A liberal enactment +with regard to dissenters was sanctioned by the chamber in 1870. + +6. _The Catholic Church in Wuerttemberg._--Even after the founding of the +bishopric of Rottenberg the government maintained strictly the previously +exercised rights of sovereignty over the Catholic church, to which almost +one-third of the population belonged, and the almost universally prevalent +liberalism of the Catholic clergy found in this scarcely any offence. A +new order of divine service in 1837, which, with the approval of the +episcopal council, recommended the introduction of German hymns in the +services, dispensing the sacraments in the German language, restriction of +the festivals, masses, and private masses, processions, etc., did indeed +cause riots in several places, in which, however, the clergy took no part. +But when in 1837, in consequence of the excitement caused throughout +Catholic Germany by the Cologne conflict (§ 193, 1), the hitherto only +isolated cases of lawless refusal to consecrate mixed marriages had +increased, the government proceeded severely to punish offending +clergymen, and transported to a village curacy a Tuebingen professor, Mack, +who had declared the compulsory celebration unlawful. Called to account by +the nuncio of Munich for his indolence in all these affairs and severely +threatened, old Bishop Keller at last resolved, in 1841, to lay before the +chamber a formal complaint against the injury done to the Catholic church, +and to demand the freeing of the church from the sovereignty of the state. +In the second chamber this motion was simply laid _ad acta_, but in the +first it was recommended that the king should consider it. The bishop, +however, and the liberal chapter could not agree as to the terms of the +demand, contradictory opinions were expressed, and things remained as they +were. But Bishop Keller fell into melancholy and died in 1845. His +successor took his stand upon the memorial and declaration of the Upper +Rhenish bishops, and immediately in 1853 began the conflict by forbidding +his clergy, under threats of severe censure, to submit as law required to +civil examinations. The government that had hitherto so firmly maintained +its sovereign rights, under pressure of the influence which a lady very +nearly related to the king exercised over him, gave in without more ado, +quieted the bishop first of all by a convention in 1854, and then entered +into negotiations with the Roman curia, out of which came in 1857 a +concordat proclaimed by the bull _Cum in sublimi_, which, in surrender of +a sovereign right of the state over the affairs of the church, far exceeds +that of Austria (§ 198, 2). The government left unheeded all protests and +petitions from the chambers for its abolition. But the example of Baden +and the more and more decided tone of the opposition obliged the +government at last to yield. The second chamber in 1861 decreed the +abrogation of the concordat, and a royal rescript declared it abolished. +In the beginning of 1862 a bill was submitted by the new ministry and +passed into law by both chambers for determining the relations of the +Catholic church to the state. The royal _placet_ or right of permitting or +refusing, is required for all clerical enactments which are not purely +inter-ecclesiastical but refer to mixed matters; the theological +endowments are subject to state control and joint administration; boys' +seminaries are not allowed; clergymen appointed to office must submit to +state examination; according to consuetudinary rights, about two-thirds of +the benefices are filled by the king, one-third by the bishops on +reporting to the civil court, which has the right of protest; clergy who +break the law are removable by the civil court, etc. The curia indeed +lodged a protest, but the for the most part peace-loving clergy reared, +not in the narrowing atmosphere of the seminaries but amid the scientific +culture of the university, in the halls of Tuebingen, submitted all the +more easily as they found that in all inter-ecclesiastical matters they +had greater freedom and independence under the concordat than before. + +7. _The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine since 1871._--After +Alsace with German Lorraine had again, in consequence of the +Franco-Prussian war, been united to Germany and as an imperial territory +had been placed under the rule of the new German emperor, the secretary of +the Papal States, Cardinal Antonelli, in the confident hope of being able +to secure in return the far more favourable conditions, rights and claims +of the Catholic church in Prussia with the autocracy of the bishops +unrestricted by the state, declared in a letter to the Bishop of +Strassburg, that the concordat of 1801 (§ 203, 1) was annulled. But when +the imperial government showed itself ready to accept the renunciation, +and to make profit out of it in the opposite way from that intended, the +cardinal hasted in another letter to explain how by the incorporation with +Germany a new arrangement had become necessary, but that clearly the old +must remain in force until the new one has been promulgated. Also a +petition of the Catholic clergy brought to Berlin by the bishop himself, +which laid claim to this unlimited dominion over all Catholic educational +and benevolent institutions, failed of its purpose. The clergy therefore +wrought for this all the more zealously by fanaticizing the Catholic +people in favour of French and against German interests. On the epidemic +about the appearance of the mother of God called forth in this way, see § +188, 7. In 1874 the government found itself obliged to close the so-called +"little seminaries," or boys' colleges, on account of their fostering +sentiments hostile to the empire. Yet in 1880 the newly appointed imperial +governor, Field-marshal von Manteuffel (died 1885), at the request of the +States-Committee, allowed Bishop Raess of Strassburg to reopen the seminary +at Zillisheim, with the proviso that his teachers should be approved by +the government, and that instruction in the German language should be +introduced. Manteuffel has endeavoured since, by yielding favours to the +France-loving Alsatians and Lorrainers, and to their ultramontane clergy, +to win them over to the idea of the German empire, even to the evident +sacrifice of the interests of resident Germans and of the Protestant +church. But such fondling has wrought the very opposite result to that +intended. + + + +§ 197. The so-called Kulturkampf in the German Empire.(106) + + +Ultramontanism had for the time being granted to the Prussian state, which +had not only allowed it absolutely free scope but readily aided its growth +throughout the realm (§ 193, 2), an indulgence for that offence which is +in itself unatoneable, having a Protestant dynasty. Pius IX. had himself +repeatedly expressed his satisfaction at the conduct of the government. +But the league which Prussia made in 1866 with the "church-robbing +Sub-alpine," _i.e._ Italian, government, was not at all to the taste of +the curia. The day of Sadowa, 3rd July, 1866, called from Antonelli the +mournful cry, _Il mondo cessa_, "The world has gone to ruin," and the +still more glorious day of Sedan, 2nd September, 1870, completely put the +bottom out of the Danaid's vessel of ultramontane forbearance and +endurance. This day, 18th January, 1871, had as its result the overthrow +of the temporal power of the papacy as well the establishment of a new and +hereditary German empire under the Protestant dynasty of the Prussian +Hohenzollerns. German ultramontanism felt itself all the more under +obligation to demand from the new emperor as the first expiation for such +uncanonical usurpation, the reinstatement of the pope in his lost temporal +power. But when he did not respond to this demand, the ultramontane party, +by means of the press favourable to its claims, formally declared war +against the German empire and its governments, and applied itself +systematically to the mobilization of its entire forces. But the empire +and its governments, with Prussia in the van, with unceasing +determination, supported by the majority of the States' representatives, +during the years 1871-1875 proceeded against the ultramontanes by +legislative measures. The execution of these by the police and the courts +of law, owing to the stubborn refusal to obey on the part of the higher +and lower clergy, led to the formation of an opposition, commonly +designated after a phrase of the Prussian deputy, Professor Virchow, +"_Kulturkampf_," which was in some degree modified first in 1887. The +imperial chancellor, Prince Bismarck, uttered at the outset the confident, +self-assertive statement, "We go not to Canossa,"--and even in 1880, when +it seemed as if a certain measure of submission was coming from the side +of the papacy, and the Prussian government also showed itself prepared to +make important concessions, he declared, "We shall not buy peace with +Canossa medals; such are not minted in Germany." Since 1880, however, the +Prussian government with increasing compliance from year to year set aside +and modified the most oppressive enactments of the May laws, so as +actually to redress distresses and inconveniences occasioned by clerical +opposition to these laws, without being able thereby to obtain any +important concession on the part of the papal curia, until at last in +1887, after the government had carried concession to the utmost limit, the +pope put his seal to definitive terms of peace by admitting the right of +giving information on the part of the bishops regarding appointments to +vacant pastorates, as well as the right of protest on the part of the +government against those thus nominated. + +1. _The Aggression of Ultramontanism._--Even in the revolution year, 1848, +German ultramontanism, in order to obtain what it called the freedom of +the church, had zealously seconded many of the efforts of democratic +radicalism. Nevertheless, in the years of reaction that followed, it +succeeded in catching most of the influential statesmen on the limed twig +of the assurance that the episcopal hierarchy, with its unlimited sway +over the clergy and through them over the feelings of the people, +constituted the only certain and dependable bulwark against the +revolutionary movements of the age, and this idea prevailed down to 1860, +and in Prussia down to 1871. But the overthrow of the concordat in Baden, +Wuerttemberg and Darmstadt by the states of the realm after a hard +conflict, the humiliation of Austria in 1866, and the growth in so +threatening a manner since of the still heretical Prussia, produced in the +whole German episcopate a terrible apprehension that its hitherto +untouched supremacy in the state would be at an end, and in order to ward +off this danger it was driven into agitations and demonstrations partly +secret and partly open. On 8th October, 1868, the papal nuncio in Munich, +Monsignor Meglia, uttered his inmost conviction regarding the Wuerttemberg +resident thus: "Only in America, England, and Belgium does the Catholic +church receive its rights; elsewhere nothing can help us but the +revolution." And on 22nd April, 1869, Bishop Senestray of Regensburg +declared plainly in a speech delivered at Schwandorff: "If kings will no +longer be of God's grace, I shall be the first to overthrow the throne.... +Only a war or revolution can help us in the end." And war at last came, +but it helped only their opponents. Although at its outbreak in 1870 the +ultramontane party in South Germany, especially in Bavaria, for the most +part with unexampled insolence expressed their sympathy with France, and +after the brilliant and victorious close of the war did everything to +prevent the attachment of Bavaria to the new German empire, their North +German brethren, accustomed to the boundless compliance of the Prussian +government, indulged the hope of prosecuting their own ends all the more +successfully under the new regime. Even in November, 1870, Archbishop +Ledochowski of Posen visited the victorious king of Prussia at Versailles, +in order to interest him personally in the restoration of the Papal +States. In February, 1871, in the same place, fifty-six Catholic deputies +of the Prussian parliament presented to the king, who had meanwhile been +proclaimed Emperor of Germany, a formal petition for the restoration of +the temporal power of the pope, and soon afterwards a deputation of +distinguished laymen waited upon him "in name of all the Catholics of +Germany," with an address directed to the same end. The _Bavarian +Fatherland_ (Dr. Sigl) indeed treated it with scorn as a +"belly-crawling-deputation, which crawled before the magnanimous +hero-emperor, beseeching him graciously to use said deputation as his +spittoon." And the _Steckenberger Bote_, inspired by Dr. Ketteler, +declared: "We Catholics do not entreat it as a favour, but demand it as +our right.... Either you must restore the Catholic church to all its +privileges or not one of all your existing governments will endure." At +the same time as the insinuation was spread that the new German empire +threatened the existence of the Catholic church in Germany, a powerful +ultramontane election agitation in view of the next Reichstag was set on +foot, out of which grew the party of the "Centre," so called from sitting +in the centre of the hall, with Von Ketteler, Windthorst, Mallinkrodt +(died 1874), and the two Reichenspergers, as its most eloquent leaders. +Even in the debate on the address in answer to the speech from the throne +this party demanded intervention, at first indeed only diplomatic, in +favour of the Papal States. In the discussion on the new imperial +constitution A. Reichensperger sought to borrow from the abortive German +landowners' bill of 1848, condemned indeed as godless by the syllabus (§ +185, 2), principles that might serve the turn of ultramontanism regarding +the unrestricted liberty of the press, societies, meetings, and religion, +with the most perfect independence of all religious communities of the +State. Mallinkrodt insisted upon the need of enlarged privileges for the +Catholic church owing to the great growth of the empire in Catholic +territory and population. All these motions were rejected by the +Reichstag, and the Prussian government answered them by abolishing in +July, 1871, the Catholic department of the Ministry of Public Worship, +which had existed since 1841 (§ 193, 2). The _Genfer Korrespondenz_, +shortly before highly praised by the pope, declared: If kings do not help +the papacy to regain its rights, the papacy must also withdraw from them +and appeal directly to the hearts of the people. "Understand ye the +terrible range of this change? Your hours, O ye princes, are numbered!" +The Berlin _Germania_ pointed threateningly to the approaching _revanche_ +war in France, on the outbreak of which the German empire would no longer +be able to reckon on the sympathy of its Catholic subjects; and the +_Ellwanger kath. Wochenblatt_ proclaimed openly that only France is able +to guard and save the Catholic church from the annihilating projects of +Prussia. And in this way the Catholic people throughout all Germany were +roused and incited by the Catholic press, as well as from the pulpit and +confessional, in home and school, in Catholic monasteries and nunneries, +in mechanics' clubs and peasants' unions, in casinos and assemblies of +nobles. Bishop Ketteler founded expressly for purposes of such agitations +the Mainz Catholic Union, in September, 1871, which by its itinerant +meetings spread far and wide the flame of religious fanaticism; and a +Bavarian priest, Lechner, preached from the pulpit that one does not know +whether the German princes are by God's or by the devil's grace. + +2. _Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old Catholics, +1871-1872._--That the Prussian government refused to assist the bishops in +persecuting the Old Catholics, and even retained these in their positions +after excommunication had been hurled against them, was regarded by those +bishops as itself an act of persecution of the Catholic church. To this +opinion they gave official expression, under solemn protest against all +encroachments of the state upon the domain of Catholic faith and law, in a +memorial addressed to the German emperor from Fulda, on September 7th, +1871, but were told firmly and decidedly to keep within their own +boundaries. Even before this Bishop _Krementz of Ermeland_ had refused the +_missio canonica_ to Dr. Wollmann, teacher of religion at the Gymnasium of +Braunsberg, on account of his refusing to acknowledge the dogma of +infallibility, and had forbidden Catholic scholars to attend his +instructions. The minister of public worship, Von Muehler, decided, because +religious instruction was obligatory in the Prussian gymnasia, that all +Catholic scholars must attend or be expelled from the institution. The +Bavarian government followed a more correct course in a similar case that +arose about the same time; for it recognised and protected the religious +instructions of the anti-infallibilist priest, Renftle in Mering, as +legitimate, but still allowed parents who objected to withhold their +children from it. And in this way the new Prussian minister, Falk, +corrected his predecessor's mistake. But all the more decidedly did the +government proceed against Bishop Krementz, when he publicly proclaimed +the excommunication uttered against Dr. Wollmann and Professor Michelis, +which had been forbidden by Prussian civil law on account of the +infringement of civil rights connected therewith according to canon law. +As the bishop could not be brought to an explicit acknowledgment of his +obligation to obey the laws of the land, the minister of public worship on +October 1st, 1872, stripped him of his temporalities. But meanwhile a +second conflict had broken out. The Catholic field-provost of the Prussian +army and bishop _in partibus_, Namszanowski, had under papal direction +commanded the Catholic divisional chaplain, Luennemann of Cologne, on pain +of excommunication, to discontinue the military worship in the garrison +chapel, which, by leave of the military court, was jointly used by the Old +Catholics, and so was desecrated. He was therefore brought before a court +of discipline, suspended from his office in May, 1872, and finally, by +royal ordinance in 1873, the office of field-provost was wholly abolished. + +3. _Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873._--In the formerly +Polish provinces of the Prussian kingdom the Polonization of resident +Catholic Germans had recently assumed threatening proportions. The +archbishop of Posen and Gnesen, Count _Ledochowski_, whom the pope during +the Vatican Council appointed primate of Poland, was the main centre of +this agitation. In the Posen priest seminary he formed for himself, in a +fanatically Polish clergy, the tools for carrying it out, and in the +neighbouring Schrimm he founded a Jesuit establishment that managed the +whole movement. Where previously Polish and German had been preached +alternately, German was now banished, and in the public schools, the +oversight of which, as throughout all Prussia, lay officially in the hands +of the clergy, all means were used to discourage the study of the German +language, and to stamp out the German national sentiment. But even in the +two western provinces the Catholic public schools were made by the +clerical school inspectors wholly subservient to the designs of +ultramontanism. In order to stem such disorder the government, in +February, 1872, sanctioned the _School Inspection Law_ passed by the +parliament, by which the right and duty of school inspection was +transferred from the church to the state, so that for the sake of the +state the clerical inspectors hostile to the government were set aside, +and where necessary might be replaced by laymen. A pastoral letter of the +Prussian bishops assembled at Fulda in April of that year complained +bitterly of persecution of the church and unchristianizing of the schools, +but advised the Catholic clergy under no circumstances voluntarily to +resign school inspection where it was not taken from them. By a rescript +of the minister of public worship in June, the exclusion of all members of +spiritual orders and congregations from teaching in public schools was +soon followed by the suppression of the Marian congregations in all +schools, and it was enjoined in March, 1873, that in Polish districts, +where other subjects had been taught in the higher educational +institutions in the German language, this also would be obligatory in +religious instruction. Ledochowski indeed directed all religious teachers +in his diocese to use the Polish language after as they had done before, +but the government suspended all teachers who followed his direction, and +gave over the religious instruction to lay teachers. The archbishop now +erected private schools for the religious instruction of gymnasial +teachers, and the government forbad attendance at them. + +4. _The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit law, 1871-1872._--While thus the +Prussian government took more and more decided measures against the +ultramontanism that had become so rampant in its domains, on the other +hand, its mobile band of warriors in cassock, dress coat, and blouse did +not cease to labour, and the imperial government passed some drastic +measures of defence applicable to the whole empire. At the instance of the +Bavarian government, which could not defend itself from the violence of +its "patriots," the Federal Council asked the Reichstag to add a new +article to the penal code of the empire, threatening any misuse of the +pulpit for political agitation with imprisonment for two years. The +Bavarian minister of public worship, Lutz, undertook himself to support +this bill before the Reichstag. "For several decades," he said, "the +clergy in Germany have assumed a new character; they are become the simple +reflection of Jesuitism." The Reichstag sanctioned the bill in December, +1871. Far more deeply than this so-called _Kanzelparagraph_, the operation +of which the agitation of the clergy by a little circumspection could +easily elude, did the _Jesuit Law_, published on July 4th, 1872, cut into +the flesh of German ultramontanism. Already in April of that year had a +petition from Cologne demanding the expulsion of the Jesuits been +presented to the Reichstag. Similar addresses flowed in from other places. +The Centre party, on the other hand, organized a regular flood of +petitions in favour of the Jesuits. The Reichstag referred both to the +imperial chancellor, with the request to introduce a law against the +movements of the Jesuits as dangerous to the State. The Federal Council +complied with this request, and so the law was passed which ordained the +removal of the Jesuits and related orders and congregations, the closing +of their institutions within six months, and prohibited the formation of +any other orders by their individual members, and the government +authorised the banishment of foreign members and the interning of natives +at appointed places. A later ordinance of the Federal Council declared the +Redemptorists, Lazarists, Priests of the Holy Ghost, and the Society of +the Heart of Jesus to be orders related to the Society of Jesus. Those +affected by this law anticipated the threatened interning by voluntarily +removing to Belgium, Holland, France, Turkey, and America. + +5. _The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875._--In order to be able to +check ultramontanism, even in its paedagogical breeding places, the +episcopal colleges and seminaries, and at the same time to restrict by law +the despotic absolutism of the bishops in disciplinary and beneficiary +matters, the Prussian government brought in other four ecclesiastical +bills, which in spite of violent opposition on the part of the Centre and +the Old Conservatives, were successively passed by both houses of +parliament, and approved by the king on May 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th, +1873. Their most important provisions are: As a condition for admission to +a spiritual office the state requires citizenship of the German empire, +three years' study at a German university, and, besides an exit gymnasial +examination preceding the university course, a state examination in +general knowledge (in philosophy, history, and German literature), in +addition to the theological examination. The episcopal boys' seminaries +and colleges are abolished. The priest seminaries, if the minister of +worship regards them as fit for the purpose, may take the place of the +university course, but must be under regular state inspection. The +candidates for spiritual offices, which must never be left vacant more +than a year, are to be named to the chief president of the province, and +he can for cogent reasons lodge a protest against them. Secession from the +church is freely allowed, and releases from all personal obligations to +pay ecclesiastical dues and perform ecclesiastical duties. Excommunication +is permissible, but can be proclaimed only in the congregation concerned, +and not publicly. The power of church discipline over the clergy can be +exercised only by German superiors and in accordance with fixed +processional procedure. Corporal punishment is not permissible, fines are +allowed to a limited extent, and restraint by interning in so-called +_Demeriti_ houses, but only at furthest of three months, and when the +party concerned willingly consents. Church servants, whose remaining in +office is incompatible with the public order, can be deposed by civil +sentence. And as final court of appeal in all cases of complaint between +ecclesiastical and civil authorities as well as within the ecclesiastical +domain, a royal court of justice for ecclesiastical affairs is +constituted, whose proceedings are open and its decision final.--But even +the May Laws soon proved inadequate for checking the insolence of the +bishops and the disorders among the Catholic population occasioned +thereby. In December, 1873, therefore, by sovereign authority there was +prescribed a new formula of the episcopal Oath of Allegiance, recognising +more distinctly and decisively the duty of obedience to the laws of the +state. Then next a bill was presented to the parliament, which had been +kept in view in the original constitution, demanding obligatory civil +marriage and abolition of compulsory baptism, as well as the conducting of +civil registration by state officials. In February, 1874, it was passed +into law. On the 20th and 21st _May, 1874_, two other bills brought in for +extending the May Laws of the previous year, in consequence of which a +bishop's see vacated by death, a judicial sentence, or any other cause, +must be filled within the space of a year, and the chapter must elect +within ten days an episcopal administrator, who has to be presented to the +chief president, and to undertake an oath to obey the laws of the state. +If the chapter does not fulfil these requirements, a lay commissioner will +be appointed to administer the affairs of the diocese. During the +episcopal vacancy, all vacant pastorates, as well as all not legally +filled, can be at once validly supplied by the act of the patron, and, +where no such right exists, by congregational election. Parochial +property, on the illegal appointment of a pastor, is given over to be +administered by a lay commissioner.--The empire also came to the help of +the May Laws by an imperial enactment of May 4th, 1874, sanctioned by the +emperor, which empowers the competent state government to intern all +church officers discharged from their office and not yielding submission +thereto, as well as all punished on account of incompetence in their +official duties, and, if this does not help, to condemn them to loss of +their civil rights and to expulsion from the German federal +territory.--Also in its next session the imperial house of representatives +again gave legislative sanction to the _Kulturkampf_; for in January, +1875, it passed a bill presented by the Federal Council on the deposition +on oath as to personal rank, and on divorce with obligatory civil +marriage, which, going far beyond the Prussian civil law of the previous +year, and especially ridding Bavaria of its strait-jacket canon marriage +law enforced by the concordat, abolished the spiritual jurisdiction in +favour of that of the civil courts, and gave it to the state to determine +the qualifications for, as well as the hindrances to, divorce, without, +however, touching the domain of conscience, or entrenching in any way upon +the canon law and the demands of the church. + +6. _Opposition in the States to the Prussian May Laws._--Bishop Martin of +Paderborn had even beforehand refused obedience to the May Laws of 1873. +After their promulgation, all the Prussian bishops collectively declared +to the ministry that "they were not in a position to carry out these +laws," with the further statement that they could not comply even with +those demands in them which in other states, by agreement with the pope, +are acknowledged by the church, because they are administered in a +one-sided way by the state in Prussia. On these lines also they proceeded +to take action. First of all, the refractoriness of several of the +seminaries drew down upon them the loss of endowment and of the right of +representation; and in the next place, the refusal of the bishops to +notify their appointment of clergymen led to their being frequently fined, +while the church books and seals were taken away from clergymen so +appointed, all the official acts performed by them were pronounced invalid +in civil law, and those who performed them were subjected to fines. But +here, too, again Bishop Martin, well skilled in church history (he had +been previously professor of theology in Bonn), had beforehand in a +pastoral instructed his clergy that "since the days of Diocletian there +had not been seen so violent a persecution of the name of Jesus Christ." +Soon after this Archbishop Ledochowski, in an official document addressed +to the Chief President of Poland, compared the demand to give notification +of clerical appointments with the demand of ancient Rome upon Christian +soldiers to sacrifice to the heathen gods. And by order of the pope +prayers were offered in all churches for the church so harshly and cruelly +persecuted. And yet the whole "persecution" then consisted in nothing more +than this, that a newly issued law of the state, under threat of fine in +case of disobedience, demanded again of the bishops paid by the state what +had been accepted for centuries as unobjectionable in the originally +Catholic Bavaria, and also for a long while in France, Portugal, and other +Romish countries, what all Prussian bishops down to 1850 (§ 193, 2) had +done without scruple, what the bishops of Paderborn and Muenster even had +never refused to do in the extra-Prussian portion of these dioceses +(Oldenburg and Waldeck), as also the Prince-Bishop of Breslau, since the +issuing of the similar Austrian May Laws (§ 198, 4) in the Austro-Silesian +part of his diocese, what the episcopal courts of Wuerttemberg and Baden +had yielded to, although in almost all these states the demand referred to +broke up the union with the papal curia. Yet before a year had passed the +cases of punishment for these offences had so increased that the only very +inadequate fines that could be exacted by the seizure of property had to +be changed into equivalent sentences of imprisonment. The first prelate +who suffered this fate was Archbishop Ledochowski, in February, 1874. Then +followed in succession: Eberhard of Treves, Melchers of Cologne, Martin of +Paderborn, and Brinkmann of Muenster. The ecclesiastical court of justice +expressly pronounced deposition against Ledochowski in April, 1874; +against Martin in January, 1875, and against the Prince-Bishop Foerster of +Breslau in October, 1875, who alone had dared to proclaim in his diocese +the encyclical _Quod nunquam_ (Par. 7). But the latter had even beforehand +withdrawn the diocesan property to the value of 900,000 marks to his +episcopal castle, Johannisberg, in Austro-Silesia, where with a truly +princely income from Austrian funds he could easily get over the loss of +the Prussian part of his revenues. Martin, who had been interned at Wesel, +fled in August, 1875, under cloud of night, to Holland, from whence he +transferred his agitations into Belgium, and finally to London (died +1879). Ledochowski found a residence in the Vatican. Brinkmann was deposed +in March, and Melchers in June, 1876, after both had beforehand proved +their enjoyment of martyrdom by escaping to Holland. Eberhard of Treves +anticipated his deposition from office by his death in May, 1876. Blum of +Limburg was deposed in June, 1877, and Beckmann of Osnabrueck died in +1878.--In the Prussian parliament and German Reichstag the Centre party, +supported by Guelphs, Poles, and the Social Democrats, had meanwhile with +anger, scorn, and vituperation, with and without wit, fought not only +against all ecclesiastical, but also against all other legislative +proposals, whose acceptance was specially desired by the government. And +all the representatives of the ultramontane press within and without +Europe vied with one another in violent denunciation of the ecclesiastical +laws, and in unmeasured abuse of the emperor and the empire. But almost +without exception the Roman Catholic officials in Prussia, as well as the +Protestants and Old Catholics, carried out "the Diocletian persecution of +Christians" in the judicial and police measures introduced by the church +laws. A number of Catholic notables of the eastern provinces of their own +accord, in a dutiful address to the emperor, expressly accepted the +condemned laws, and won thereby the nickname of "State Catholics." The +great mass of the Catholic people, high and low, remained unflinchingly +faithful to the resisting clergy in, for the most part, only a passive +opposition, although even, as the Berlin _Germania_ expressed it, "the +Catholic rage at the Bismarckian ecclesiastical polity could condense +itself into one Catholic head" in a murderous attempt on the chancellor in +quest of health at Kissingen, on July 13th, 1874. It was the cooper, +Kullmann, who, fanaticised by exciting speeches and writings in the +Catholic society of Salzwedel, sought to take vengeance, as he himself +said, upon the chancellor for the May Laws and "the insult offered to his +party of the Centre."--In the further course of the Prussian _Kulturkampf_, +however, fostered by the aid of the confessional, the insinuating +assiduity of the clerical press, and the all-prevailing influence of the +thoroughly disciplined Catholic clergy over the popish masses, the Centre +grew in number and importance at the elections from session to session, so +that from the beginning of 1880, by the unhappy division of the other +parties in the Reichstag as well as Chamber, it united sometimes with the +Conservatives, sometimes and most frequently with the Progressionists and +Democrats renouncing the _Kulturkampf_, and was supported on all questions +by Poles, Danes, Guelphs, and Alsatian-Lorrainers, as clerical interest +and ultramontane tactics required, in accordance with the plan of campaign +of the commander-in-chief, especially of the quondam Hanoverian minister, +Windthorst, dominated far more by Guelphic than by ultramontane +tendencies. The Centre was thus able to turn the scale, until, at least in +the Reichstag, after the dissolution and new election of 1887, its +dominatory power was broken by the closer combination of the conservative +and national liberal parties. + +7. _Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope._--_Pius IX._ had congratulated +the new emperor in 1871, trusting, as he wrote, that his efforts directed +to the common weal "might bring blessing not only to Germany, but also to +all Europe, and might contribute not a little to the protection of the +liberty and rights of the Catholic religion." And when first of all the +Centre party, called forth by the election agitation of German +ultramontanism, opened its politico-clerical campaign in the Reichstag, he +expressed his disapproval of its proceedings upon Bismarck's complaining +to the papal secretary Antonelli. Yet a deputation of the Centre sent to +Rome succeeded in winning over both. In order to build a bridge for the +securing an understanding with the curia, now that the conflict had grown +in extent and bitterness, the imperial government in May, 1872, appointed +the Bavarian Cardinal Prince Hohenlohe to the vacant post of ambassador to +the Vatican. But the pope, with offensive recklessness, rejected the +well-meant proposal, and forbade the cardinal to accept the imperial +appointment. From that time he gave free and public expression on every +occasion to his senseless bitterness against the German empire and its +government. In an address to the German Reading Society at Rome in July, +1872, he allowed himself to use the most violent expressions against the +German chancellor, and closed with the prophetic threatening: "Who knows +but the little stone shall soon loose itself from the mountain (Dan. ii. +34), which shall break in pieces the foot of the colossus?" But even this +diatribe was cast in the shade by the Christmas allocution of that year, +in which he was not ashamed to characterize the procedure of the German +statesmen and their imperial sovereign as "_impudentia_." And after the +publication of the first May Laws he addressed a letter to the emperor, in +which, founding upon the fact that even the emperor like all baptized +persons belonged to him, the pope, he cast in his teeth that "all the +measures of his government for some time aimed more and more at the +annihilation of Catholicism," and added the threatening announcement that +"these measures against the religion of Jesus Christ can have no other +result than the overthrow of his own throne." The emperor in his answer +made expressly prominent his divinely appointed call as well as his own +evangelical standpoint, and with becoming dignity and earnestness +decidedly repudiated the unmeasured assumptions of the papacy, and +published both letters. In the same style of immoderate pretension the +pope again, in November, 1875, in one encyclical after another, gave vent +to his anger against emperor and empire, especially its military +institutions. In place of the deposed and at that time imprisoned +archbishop, Ledochowski, he appointed in 1874 a native apostolic legate, +who was at last ascertained to be the Canon Kurowski, when he was in +October, 1875, condemned to two years' imprisonment. But the pope took the +most decided and successful step by the _Encyclical Quod nunquam, of 5th +February, 1875_, addressed to the Prussian episcopate, in which he +characterized the Prussian May Laws as "not given to free citizens to +demand a reasonable obedience, but as laid upon slaves, in order to force +obedience by fears of violence," and, "in order to fulfil the duties of +his office," declared quite openly to all whom it concerns and to the +Catholics throughout the world: "_Leges illas irritas esse, utpote quae +divinae Ecclesiae constitutioni prorsus adversantur_"; but upon those +"godless" men who make themselves guilty of the sin of assuming spiritual +office without a divine call, falls _eo ipso_ the great excommunication. +On the other hand he rewarded, in March, 1875, Archbishop Ledochowski, +then still in prison, but afterwards, in February, 1876, settled in Rome, +for his sturdy resistance of those laws, with a cardinal's hat, and to the +not less persistent Prince-Bishop Foerster of Breslau he presented on his +jubilee as priest the archiepiscopal pall. In the next Christmas +allocution he romanced about a second Nero, who, while in one place with a +lyre in his hand he enchanted the world by lying words, in other places +appeared with iron in his hand, and, if he did not make the streets run +with blood, he fills the prisons, sends multitudes into exile, seizes upon +and with violence assumes all authority to himself. Also to the German +pilgrims who went in May, 1877, to his episcopal jubilee at Rome, he had +still much that was terrible to tell about this "modern Attila," leaving +it uncertain whether he intended Prince Bismarck or the mild, pious German +emperor himself. + +8. _The Conflict about the Encyclical Quod nunquam of 1875._--By this +encyclical the pope had completely broken up the union between the +Prussian state and the curia, resting upon the bull _De salute animarum_ +(§ 193, 1); for he, bluntly repudiating the sovereign rights of the civil +authority therein expressly allowed, by pronouncing the laws of the +Prussian state invalid, authorized and promoted the rebellion of all +Catholic subjects against them. The Prussian government now issued three +new laws quickly after one another, cutting more deeply than all that went +before, which without difficulty received the sanction of all the +legislative bodies. I. The so called _Arrestment Act_ (_Sperrgesetz_) of +April 22nd, 1875, which ordered the immediate suspension of all state +payments to the Roman Catholic bishoprics and pastorates until those who +were entitled to them had in writing or by statement declared themselves +ready to yield willing obedience to the existing laws of the state. II. A +law of May 31st, 1875, ordering the _Expulsion of all Orders and such like +Congregations_ within eight months, the minister of public worship, +however, being authorized to extend this truce to four years in the case +of institutions devoted to the education of the young, while those which +were exclusively hospital and nursing societies were allowed to remain, +but were subject to state inspection and might at any time be suppressed +by royal order. III. A law of June 12th, 1875, declaring the formal +_Abrogation of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Eighteenth Articles of the +Constitution_ (§ 193, 2). And finally in addition there came the +enforcement during this session of the Chamber of laws previously +introduced on the rights of the Old Catholics (§ 190, 2), and, on June +20th, 1875, on the administration of church property in Catholic parishes. +The latter measures aimed at withdrawing the administration referred to +from the autocratic absolutism of the clergy, and transferring it to a lay +commission elected by the community itself, of which the parish priest was +to be a member, but not the president. Although the Archbishop of Cologne +in name of all the bishops before its issue had solemnly protested against +this law, because by it "essential and inalienable rights of the Catholic +church were lost," and although the recognition of it actually involved +recognition of the May Laws and the ecclesiastical court of justice, yet +all the bishops declared themselves ready to co-operate in carrying out +the arrangements for surrendering the church property to the +administration of a civil commission. They thus indeed secured thoroughly +ultramontane elections, but at the same time put themselves into a +position of self-contradiction, and admitted that the one ground of their +opposition to the May Laws, that they were one-sidedly wrought by the +state, was null and void. + +9. _Papal Overtures for Peace._--_Leo XIII._, since 1878, intimated his +accession to the Emperor William, and expressed his regret at finding that +the good relations did not continue which formerly existed between Prussia +and the holy see. The Emperor's answer expressed the hope that by the aid +of his Holiness the Prussian bishops might be induced to obey the laws of +the land, as the people under their pastoral care actually did; and +afterwards while in consequence of the attempt on his life of June 2nd, +1873, he lay upon a sickbed, the crown prince on June 10th answered other +papal communications by saying, that no Prussian monarch could entertain +the wish to change the constitution and laws of his country in accordance +with the ideas of the Romish church; but that, even though a thorough +understanding upon the radical controversy of a thousand years could not +be reached, yet the endeavour to preserve a conciliatory disposition on +both sides would also for Prussia open a way to peace which had never been +closed in other states. Three weeks later the Munich nuntio Masella was at +Kissingen and conferred with the chancellor, Prince Bismarck, who was +residing there, about the possibility of a basis of reconciliation. +Subsequently negotiations were continued at Gastein, and then in Vienna +with the there resident nuntio Jacobini, but were suspended owing to +demands by the curia to which the state could not submit. Still the pope +attempted indirectly to open the way for renewed consultation, for he +issued a brief dated February 24th, 1880, to "Archbishop Melchers of +Cologne" (deposed by the royal court of justice), in which he declared his +readiness to allow to the respective government boards notification of new +elected priests before their canonical institution. Thereupon a +communication was sent to Cardinal Jacobini that the state ministry had +resolved, so soon as the pope had actually implemented this declaration of +his readiness, to make every effort to obtain from the state +representatives authority to set aside or modify those enactments of the +May Laws which were regarded by the Romish church as harsh. But the pope +received this compromise of the government very ungraciously and showed +his dissatisfaction by withdrawing his concession, which besides referred +only to the unremovable priests, therefore not to _Hetzkaplane_ and +succursal or assistant priests, and presupposed the obtaining the +"_agrement_," _i.e._ the willingly accorded consent, of the state, without +by any means allowing the setting aside of the party elected. + +10. _Proof of the Prussian Government's willingness to be Reconciled, +1880-1881._--Notwithstanding this brusque refusal on the part of the papal +curia, the government, at the instance of the minister of public worship, +Von Puttkamer (§ 193, 6), resolved in May, 1880, to introduce a bill which +gave a wide discretionary power for moderating the unhappy state of +matters that had prevailed since the passing of the May Laws, throughout +Catholic districts, where 601 pastorates stood wholly vacant and 584 +partly so, and nine bishoprics, some by death and others by deposition. +Although the need of peace was readily admitted on both sides, the +Liberals opposed these "Canossa proposals" as far too great; the Centre, +Poles, and Guelphs as far too small. Yet it obtained at last in a form +considerably modified, through a compromise of the conservatives with a +great part of the national liberals the consent of both chambers. This +law, sanctioned on July 14th, 1880, embraced these provisions: 1. The +royal court shall no longer depose from office any church officers, but +simply pronounce incapable of administering the office; 2-4. The ministry +of the state is authorized to give the episcopal administrator charged by +the church with the interim administration of a vacant bishopric a +dispensation from the taking of the prescribed oath; further, an +administration by commission of ecclesiastical property may be revoked as +well as appointed; also state endowments that had been withdrawn are to be +restored for the benefit of the whole extent of the diocese; 5. Spiritual +official acts of a duly appointed clergyman by way merely of assistance in +another vacant parish are to be allowed; 6. The minister of the interior +and of public worship are empowered to approve of the erection of new +institutions of religious societies which are devoted wholly to the care +of the sick, as to allow revocably to them the care and nurture of +children not yet of school age; and more recently added were 7, the +particular, according to which Articles 2, 3, and 4 cease to operate after +January 1st, 1882. The government was particularly careful to carry out +the provisions temporarily recognised in Article 3, for the restoration of +orderly episcopal administration by regularly elected episcopal +administrators in bishoprics made vacant by death. Fulda, which was +longest vacant, from October, 1873, had to be left out of account, since +in that case there was only one member of the chapter left and so a +canonical election was impossible. But without difficulty in March, 1881, +the Vicar-General Dr. Hoeting for Osnabrueck and Canon Drobe for Paderborn, +without taking the oath of allegiance, succeeded in obtaining independent +administration of the property as well as the restoration of state pay for +the entire dioceses, though they did not give the notification required by +the May Laws for the interim administration. In October, 1881, the deposed +Prince Bishop Foerster of Breslau died, and the suffragan bishop, Gleich, +elected by the chapter, undertook with consent of the government the +office of episcopal administrator.--Meanwhile the pope, by a hearty letter +of congratulation to the emperor on his birthday, March 22nd, had given +new life to the suspended peace negotiations. And now also, when the +respective chapters transferred their right of election to the pope, the +orderly appointments of the Canon Dr. Korum of Metz, a pupil of the Jesuit +faculty of Innspruck, very warmly recommended by Von Manteuffel, governor +of Alsace and Lorraine, to the episcopal see of Treves, in August, 1881, +of Vicar-General Kopp of Hildesheim to Fulda in December, 1881, of the +episcopal administrators Hoeting and Drobe, in March and May, 1882, +respectively to Osnabrueck and Paderborn, were duly carried into effect. +For Breslau the chapter drew up a list of seven candidates, but the +government pointed out the Berlin provost, Rob. Herzog, as a mild and +conciliatory person. The chapter now laid its right of election in the +hands of the pope, and in May, 1882, Herzog was raised to the dignity of +prince-bishop. There now remained vacant only the sees of Cologne, Posen, +Limburg and Muenster, which had been emptied by the depositions of the +civil courts.--Meanwhile, too, the negotiations carried on at the instance +of the government by privy councillor Von Schloezer, with the curia at Rome +for the restoration of the embassy to the Vatican had been brought to a +close. The chamber voted for this purpose an annual sum of 90,000 marks, +and Schloezer himself was appointed to the post in March, 1882. + +11. _Conciliatory Negotiations, 1882-1884._--With January 1st, 1882, the +three enactments of the July law of 1880, which might be enforced at the +discretion of the government, ceased to operate. Von Gossler, minister of +public worship since June, 1881, on behalf of government, introduced a new +bill into the Chamber on January 16th, 1882, for their re-enactment and +extension, which by a compromise between the Conservatives and the Centre, +after various modifications secured a majority in both houses. This second +revised law embraced the following points: 1. Renewal of the three +above-named enactments till April 1st, 1884; 2. Restoration of the +"Bishop's Paragraph," lost in 1880, in this new form: If the king has +pardoned a bishop set aside by the ecclesiastical court, he becomes again +the bishop of his diocese recognised by the state; 3. The setting aside of +the examination in general knowledge (_Kulturexamen_) for those who bring +a certificate of having passed the Gymnasium exit examination, or have +attended with diligence lectures on philosophy, history and German +literature during a three years' course at a German university, or at a +Prussian seminary of equal rank, and have given proof of this by +presenting evidence to the chief president; 4. The setting aside of the +rights of the patron and congregation of themselves filling the vacant +pastorates during a vacancy in the episcopal see. The new law obtained +royal sanction on _May 31st, 1882_. But its two most important articles, 2 +and 3, remained for a long time a dead letter, and even Article 1 was only +carried out by the resumption of the state emoluments for the +Hohenzollerns and the five newly instituted bishoprics (Par. 10), but not +for the other seven. But the ill humour of the ultramontane Hotspurs was +raised to the boiling point by the fate of the bill introduced by the +Centre into the Reichstag to set aside the Expatriation Law of May 4th, +1874, which seemed to the government indispensable on account of its +applicability to the agitations against the empire of the Polish clergy. +This bill, after violent debates, was carried on January 18th, 1882, by a +two-thirds majority; but it was cast out by the Federal Council on June +6th, almost unanimously, only Bavaria and Reuss _juengere Linie_ voting in +its favour. This was the result mainly of the failure of all the attempts +of Von Schloezer to render the government's concessions acceptable to the +papal curia.--On the other hand, the government of its own accord brought +in a third revision scheme in June, 1883, by which it sought to relieve as +far as possible the troubles of the Catholic church. By adopting this law: +(1) The obligation of notification on the part of the bishops and the +right of the state to protest on the change of temporary assistants and +substitutes into regular spiritual officers, were abolished; as also (2) +the competence of the court for ecclesiastical affairs in appeals against +the protest of the chief president, which now therefore, according to the +generally prevailing rule, are referred to the minister of worship, the +whole ministry, the parliament, the king; (3) the immunity from punishment +in the execution of their office guaranteed in Article 5 of the July law +of 1880 (Par. 10) was extended to all spiritual offices whether vacant or +not; (4) the ordaining of individual candidates in vacant dioceses by +bishops recognised by the state was declared to be legal. In spite of +repeated declarations of the curia that it could and would agree to the +notification only after a previous sufficient guarantee of perfectly free +training of the clergy and free administration of the spiritual office, +the king while residing at the Castle of Mainau on Lake Constance, on July +11th, 1883, sanctioned the so-called Mainau Law that had passed both +houses, and on the 14th, the minister of public worship demanded that the +Prussian bishops, without making notification, should fill up vacancies in +pastorates by appointing assistants, and should name those candidates who +were eligible for such appointment under the conditions of the May Law of +the previous year (Par. 3). The pope at last, in September, 1883, allowed +the dispensation required, but for that time only and without prejudice +for the future. By the end of May, 1,884 applications had been made to the +senior of the Prussian episcopate appointed to receive such, Marnitz of +Kulm, by 1,443 clergymen, of whom the government rejected only 178 who had +studied at the Jesuit institutions of Rome, Louvain, and Innsbrueck.--In +December, 1883, Bishop Blum of Limburg, and in January, 1884, Brinkmann of +Muenster were restored by royal grace, and for both dioceses, as well as +for Ermeland, Kulm and Hildesheim, and at last also on March 31st, shortly +before the closing of the door, even for Cologne, in this case, however, +revocably, the arrest of salaries ceased, so that only the two +archiepiscopal sees of Cologne and Posen remained vacant, and only Posen +continued bereft of its endowments. On the other hand the government +allowed the three discretionary enactments that were in operation till +April 1st, 1884, to lapse without providing for their renewal. Also the +proposal for abolishing the Expatriation Law of November, 1884, introduced +anew by the Centre and again adopted by the Reichstag by a great majority, +was thrown out by the Federal Council; but in the beginning of December, +on the opening of the new Reichstag, it was again brought in by the Centre +and passed, but was left quite unnoticed by the Federal Council. The +repeated motions of the Centre for payment of the bishops' salaries from +the state exchequer, as well as for immunity to those who read mass and +dispensed the sacraments, were again thrown out by the House of Deputies +in April, 1885. + +12. _Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures, 1885-1886._--The +next subject of negotiation with the curia was the re-institution of the +archiepiscopal see of Posen-Gnesen. In March, 1884, the pope had nominated +Cardinal Ledochowski secretary of the committee on petitions, in which +capacity he had to remain in Rome. He now declared himself willing to +accept Ledochowski's resignation of the archbishopric if the Prussian +government would allow a successor who would possess the confidence of the +holy see as well as of the Polish inhabitants of the diocese. But of the +three noble Polish chauvinists submitted by the Vatican the government +could accept none. Since further no agreement could be reached on the +question of the bishop's obligation to make notification and the state's +right to protest, the negotiations were for a long time at a standstill, +and were repeatedly on the point of being broken off. But from the middle +of 1885, a conciliatory movement gained power, through the counsels of the +more moderate party among the cardinals. Archbishop Melchers, who lived as +an exile in Maestricht, was called to Rome, and as a reward for his +assistance was made cardinal, and the pope consecrated as his successor in +the archbishopric of Cologne, Bishop Krementz of Ermeland (Par. 2), who +also was acknowledged by the Prussian government and introduced to Cologne +on December 15th, 1885, with great pomp, with 20,000 torches and twenty +bands of music. After a long list of candidates had been set aside by one +side and the other, some here, some there, the pope at last fell from his +demand for one of Polish nationality, and in March, 1886, appointed to the +vacant see Julius Dinder, dean of Koenigsberg, a German by nation but +speaking the Polish language.--Meanwhile at other points advance was made +in the peaceful, yea, even friendly, relations between the pope and the +Prussian government. The diplomatist Leo showed his admiring regard for +the diplomatist Bismarck by sending him a valuable oil-painting of himself +by a Muenich master, and the latter astonished the world by making the pope +umpire in a threatening conflict with Spain on the possession of the +Caroline islands. His decision on the main question was indeed in favour +of Spain, but not unimportant concessions were also made to Germany. The +pope sent the prince two Latin poems as _pretium affectionis_, and +conferred upon him, the first Protestant that had ever been so honoured, +at the close of 1885 or beginning of 1886, the highest papal order, the +insignia of the Order of Christ, with brilliants, after the cardinal +secretary of state Jacobini as president of the papal court of arbitration +had been rewarded with the Prussian order of the Black Eagle, and the +other members of the court with other high Prussian orders; and at the end +of April, 1886, the German emperor sent the pope himself thanks for his +mediation, with an artistic and costly Pectoral (§ 59, 7) worth 10,000 +marks.--The government had, meanwhile, on February 15th, 1886, brought in a +new proposal of revision of church polity, the fourth, and in order to +secure the advice of a distinguished representative of the Prussian +episcopate, called Bishop Kopp of Fulda to the House of Peers. But as his +demands for concessions, suggested to him, not by the pope, but by the +Centre, went far beyond what was proposed, they were for the most part +decidedly opposed by the minister of worship and rejected by the house. +The law confirmed by the king on May 24th, 1886, made the following +changes: Complete abolition of the examination in general culture; freeing +of the seminaries recognised by the minister as suitable for clerical +training, as well as faculties established in universities, seminaries and +gymnasia from any special state inspection (as laid down in the May Laws), +and subjecting such to the common laws affecting all similar educational +institutions. Removal of restrictions requiring ecclesiastical +disciplinary procedure to be only before German ecclesiastical courts; +Abolition of the Court for Ecclesiastical Affairs and transference of its +functions partly to the ministry of worship, which now as court of appeal +in matters of church discipline dealt only with those cases which entailed +a loss or reduction of official income, partly to the Berlin supreme +court, which has jurisdiction in case of a breach of the law of the state +by a church officer as well as in case of a refusal to fulfil the oath of +obedience; The discretionary enactments of the government of 1880 (Par. +10) are again enforced and the modifications of these in Article 6 of that +law are extended to all other institutions engaged on the home propaganda; +All reading of private masses and dispensing of sacraments are no longer +subjected to the infliction of penalties.--Some weeks before royal sanction +was given to this law, Cardinal Jacobini had, at the instance of the pope, +expressed his profound satisfaction with the success of the advice in the +House of Peers, as also particularly at the prospect of other concessions +promised by the government. In an official communication to the president +of the House of Deputies, he proposed the addition that the notification +of new appointments to vacant pastorates should begin from that date. In +August there followed, on the part of the government, the hitherto refused +dispensation for those trained by the Jesuits in Rome and Innsbrueck, and +in November, with consent of the minister of public worship, the +re-opening of the episcopal seminaries at Fulda and Treves. + +13. _Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887._--In February, 1887, the state +journal published a new form of oath for the bishops, sanctioned by royal +ordinance, in which the obligation hitherto enforced "to conscientiously +observe the laws of the state," was omitted, and the asseveration added, +"that I have not, by the oath, taken to his Holiness the pope and the +church, undertaken any obligation which can be in conflict with the oath +of fidelity as a subject of his Royal Majesty."--The promised fifth +revision, meanwhile accepted by the pope in its several particulars and +acknowledged by him as sufficient basis for a definitive peace, was on +February 13th, 1887, contrary to precedent, first laid before the House of +Peers. Bishop Kopp proposed a great number of changes and additions, of +which several of a very important nature were accepted. The most important +provisions of this law, which was passed on _April 29th, 1887_, are the +following: The obligation on bishops to make notification applies only to +the conferring of a spiritual office for life, and the right of protest by +the state must rely upon a basis named and belonging to the civil domain; +All state compulsion to lifelong reinstatement in a vacant office is +unlawful; The previously insured immunity for reading mass and dispensing +the sacraments is now applied to members of all spiritual orders again +allowed in the kingdom; The duty of ecclesiastical superiors to +communicate disciplinary decisions to the Chief President is given up. +Those orders and congregations which devote themselves to aiding in +pastoral work, the administering of Christian benevolence, and, on Bishop +Kopp's motion, those which engage in educational work in girl's high +schools and similar institutions, as well as those which lead a private +life, are to be allowed and are to be also restored to the enjoyment of +their original possessions; The training of missionaries for foreign work +and the erection of institutions for this purpose are to be permitted to +the privileged orders and congregations.--Bishop Kopp, and also the pope, +with lively gratitude, accepted these ordinances as making the +reconciliation an accomplished fact; but they also expressed the hope that +the success of this peaceful arrangement will be such as shall lead to +further important concessions to the rightful claims of the Catholic +church. After this conclusive revision, besides the extremely contracted +obligation of notification by the bishops and the almost completely +insignificant right of civil protest, there remain of the _Kulturkampf_ +laws only: the _Kanzelparagraph_, the Jesuit and the exile enactments (all +of them imperial and not Prussian laws), and the abrogation of the three +articles of the Prussian constitution (Par. 8). Insignificant as the +concessions of the papal curia may seem in comparison to the almost +complete surrender of the Prussian government, it can hardly be said that +Bismarck has been untrue to his promise not to go to Canossa. With him the +main thing ever was to restore within the German empire the peace that was +threatened by thunderclouds gathering from day to day in the political +horizon in east and west, and thus, as also by nurturing and developing +the military forces, to set aside the danger of war from without. But for +this end, the sovereignty of the Centre, which hampered him on every side, +allying itself with all elements in the Chamber and Reichstag hostile to +the government and the empire, must be broken. But this was possible only +if he succeeded in breaking up the unhallowed artificial amalgamation of +Catholic church interests for which the Centre contended with the +political tendencies of the party hostile to the empire by recognising +those interests in a manner satisfactory to the pope and to all +right-minded loyal German Catholics, and so estranging them from the +political schemes of the leader of the Centre. This indeed would have +scarcely been possible with Pius IX., but with the much clearer and +sharper Leo XIII. there was hope of success. And the statesmanlike insight +and self-denial of the prince succeeded, though at first only in a limited +measure, and this was a much more important gain for the state than the +papal concessions of episcopal notification and the state's right of +protest.--When in the beginning of 1887, at the same time that the fear was +greatest of a war with France and Russia, the renewal and enlargement of +the military budget, hitherto for seven years, was necessary, and its +refusal by the Centre and its adherents was regarded as certain, Bismarck +prevailed on the pope to intervene in his favour. The pope did it in a +confidential communication to the president of the Centre, in which he +urged acceptance of the septennial act in the Reichstag for the security +of the Fatherland and the conserving of peace on the continent, expressly +referring to the friendly and promising attitude of the imperial +government to the papacy and the Catholic church. But the president kept +the communication secret from the members of his party, and they continued +strenuously and unanimously opposed to the Septennate. The Reichstag was +consequently dissolved. The pope now published this correspondence with +the leaders of the Centre, thirty-seven Rhenish nobles separated from the +party, and the new elections to the Reichstag were mainly favourable to +the government. Although the Deputy Windthorst as chief leader of the +Prussian _Ecclesia militans_ had on every occasion protested his and his +party's profoundest reverence for and conditional submission to every +expression of the papal will, and shortly before (§ 186, 3) had styled the +pope "Lord of the whole world," he opposed himself, as he had done on the +Septennate question, on the fifth revision of the ecclesiastical laws, to +the will of the infallible pope by publishing a memorial proving the +absolute impossibility of accepting this proposed law, which, however, +this time also he failed to carry out. + +14. _Independent Procedure of the other German Governments._--(1) +_Bavaria's_ energy in the struggle against ultramontanism (Par. 4) soon +cooled. Yet in 1873 the Redemptorists were instructed to discontinue their +missionary work (§ 186, 6), and all theological students were forbidden to +attend the Jesuit German College at Rome (§ 151, 1). Also in 1875, the +jubilee processions organized by the episcopate without obtaining the +royal _Placet_ were inhibited.--(2) _Wuerttemberg_, which since 1862 +possessed more civil jurisdiction over Catholic church affairs and +exercised it more freely (§ 196, 6) than Prussia laid claim to in 1873, +could all the more easily maintain ecclesiastical peace, since its +peaceful Bishop Hefele (§ 189, 3, 4; 191, 7) avoided all occasion of +conflict and strife.--(3) In _Baden_ the _Kulturkampf_ that had here +previously broken out (§ 196, 2) was continued all the more keenly. In +1873 public teaching, holding of missions and assisting in pastoral work, +had been refused to all religious orders and fraternities. But the main +blow, followed by the comprehensive church legislation of February 19th, +1874, which closed all boys' seminaries and episcopal institutions, +allowed none to hold a clerical office or discharge any ecclesiastical +function without a three years' course at a German university and a state +examination in general culture (§ 196, 2), strictly forbad all influencing +of public elections by the clergy, and made deposition follow the second +conviction of a church officer. The expedient hitherto resorted to of +appointing mere deputy priests so as to avoid the examination, was +consequently frustrated. The rapid increase of vacant pastorates, after +five years' opposition, at last moved the episcopal curia to sue for peace +at the hands of the government, and when the latter showed an exceedingly +conciliatory spirit, the curia with consent of the pope in February, 1880, +withdrew its prohibition of the request for dispensation from the state +examination, and the government now on its part with the Chambers passed a +law, by which the obligation to undergo this examination was abolished, +and the certificate of the exit examination, three years' attendance at a +German university, and diligent attention to at least three courses of the +philosophical faculty, was held as sufficient evidence of general culture. +The Baden _Kulturkampf_ seems to have been definitely concluded by the +election and recognition of Dr. Orbin to the see of Freiburg, vacant for +fourteen years, when he without scruple took the oath of allegiance. This, +however, did not check, far less put an end to the tumults of the +fanatical ultramontane Irredenta. + +15.--(4) _Hesse-Darmstadt_ in 1874 followed the example of Prussia and +Baden in excluding all spiritual orders from teaching in public schools, +and on April 23rd, 1875, issued five ecclesiastical laws which were +directed to restoring under penal sanctions the state of the law, which +before 1850 (§ 196, 4) had been unquestioned. Essentially in harmony with +the Prussian May Laws of 1873 and 1874, they go beyond these in several +particulars. All clergymen receiving appointments, _e.g._, must have gone +through a full university course; all religious orders and congregations +were to be allowed to die out; public roads and squares could be used for +ecclesiastical festivals only by permission of the government to be +renewed on each occasion. The "contentious" Bishop Ketteler of Mainz, who +stirred up the fire to the utmost with the Prussian brand, and had kindled +also a similar flame in Hesse over the proposal of this law, held still +that to view martyrdom at a distance was the better part, and carefully +avoided any overt act of disobedience. But he immediately refused to +co-operate in restoring the Catholic theological faculty at Giessen, and +the government consequently abandoned the idea. The Mainz see after +Ketteler's death in 1877 remained long vacant, as the government felt +obliged to reject the electoral list submitted by the chapter. A candidate +satisfactory to the Vatican and the government was only found in May, +1886, in the person of Dr. Haffner, a member of the chapter. After Prussia +had concluded its definitive peace with Rome, the Hessian government, in +May, 1887, laid before the house of representatives a revision of +ecclesiastical legislation of 1875, like that of Prussia, only not going +so far, for which meanwhile the approval of the papal curia had been +obtained. It agrees to the erection of a Catholic clerical seminary, and +Catholic students' residences in this seminary and in the state-gymnasia; +erection of independent boys' institutions preparatory to the seminary for +priests is, however, still refused; the existing duty of bishops to make +notification, and the right of the state to protest in regard to +appointments to vacant pastorates are also retained. There is no word of +rehabilitating religious orders and congregations, nor of any limitation +of the law about the exercise of ecclesiastical punishment and means of +discipline.--(5) Last of all among the German states affected by the +_Kulturkampf_, the kingdom of _Saxony_, with only 73,000 Catholic +inhabitants, at the instance of the second Chamber in 1876, came forward +with a Catholic church law modelled upon the Prussian May Laws, with its +several provisions modified, in spite of the contention of the talented +heir to the throne, Prince George, that the power of the state in relation +to the Catholic church could only be determined by a concordat with the +Roman curia. + + + +§ 198. Austria-Hungary. + + +To the emperor of Austria there was left, after the re-organization of +affairs by the Vienna Congress, of the Roman empire, only the name of +defender of the papal see, and the Catholic church, and the presidency of +the German Federal Council. The remnants of the Josephine ecclesiastical +constitution were gradually set aside and Catholicism firmly established +as the state religion; yet the government asserted its independence +against all hierarchical claims, and granted, though only in a very +limited degree, toleration to Protestantism. The revolution year 1848 +removed indeed some of these limits, but the period of reaction that +followed gave, by means of a concordat concluded with the curia in 1855, +to the ultramontane hierarchy of the country an unprecedented power in +almost all departments of civil life, and prejudicial also to the +interests of the Protestant church. After the disastrous issue of the +Italian war in 1859, and still more that of the German war in 1866, the +government was obliged to make an honest effort to introduce and develop +liberal institutions. And after an imperial patent of 1861 had secured +religious liberty, self-administration, and equal rights to the Protestant +church, the constitutional legislation of 1868 freed Catholic as well as +Protestant civil, educational, and ecclesiastical matters from the +provisions of the concordat that most seriously threatened them, and by +the declaration of papal infallibility in 1870 the government felt +justified in regarding the entire concordat as antiquated and declaring it +abolished. In its place a Catholic church act was passed by the state in +1874. But the _Kulturkampf_ struggle which was thus made imminent also for +Austria was avoided by pliancy on both sides. + +1. _The Zillerthal Emigration._--In the Tyrolese _Zillerthal_ the knowledge +of evangelical truth had spread among several families by means of +Protestant books and Bibles. When the Catholic clergy from 1826 had pushed +to its utmost the clerical guardianship by means of auricular confession, +an opposition arose which soon from the refusal to confess passed on to +the rejection of saint worship, masses for the dead, purgatory, +indulgences, etc., and ended in the formal secession of many to the +evangelical church in 1830, with a reference to the Josephine edict of +toleration. The emperor Francis I., to whom on the occasion of his visit +to Innsbrueck in 1832 they presented their petition, promised them +toleration. But the Tyrolese nobles protested, and the official decision, +given at last in 1834, ordered removal to Transylvania or return to the +Catholic church. The petitioners now applied, as those of Salzburg had +previously done (§ 165, 4), by a deputation to the king of Prussia, who, +after by diplomatic communications securing the emperor's consent to +emigration, assigned them his estate of Erdmannsdorf in Silesia for +colonization. There now the exiles, 399 in number, settled in 1837, and, +largely aided by the royal munificence, founded a new Zillerthal. + +2. _The Concordat._--After the revolution year 1848, the government were +far more yielding toward the claims of the hierarchy than under the old +Metternich _regime_. In April, 1850, an imperial patent relieved the papal +and episcopal decrees of the necessity of imperial approval, and on August +18th, 1855, a concordat with the pope was agreed to, by which +unprecedented power and independence was granted to the hierarchy in +Austria for all time to come. The first article secured to the Roman +Catholic religion throughout the empire all rights and privileges which +they claimed by divine institution and the canon law. The others gave to +the bishops the right of unrestricted correspondence with Rome, declared +that no papal ordinance required any longer the royal _placet_, that +prelates are unfettered in the discharge of their hierarchical +obligations, that religious instruction in all schools is under their +supervision, that no one can teach religion or theology without their +approval, that in catholic schools there can be only catholic teachers, +that they have the right of forbidding all books which may be injurious to +the faithful, that all cases of ecclesiastical law, especially marriage +matters, belong to their jurisdiction, yet the apostolic see grants that +purely secular law matters of the clergy are to be decided before a civil +tribunal, and the emperor's right of nomination to vacant episcopal sees +is to continue, etc. The inferior clergy, who were now without legal +protection against the prelates, only reluctantly bowed their necks to +this hard yoke; the liberal Catholic laity murmured, sneered, and raged, +and the native press incessantly urged a revision of the concordat, the +necessity of which became ever more apparent from concessions made +meanwhile willingly or grudgingly to the "Non-Catholics." But only after +Austria, by the issue of the German war of 1866, was restricted to her own +domain, and finally freed from the drag of its ultramontane Italian +interests, found herself obliged to make every effort to reconcile the +opposing parties within her own territories, could these views prove +successful. But since the government nevertheless held firmly by the +principle that the concordat, as a state contract regularly concluded +between two sovereigns, could be changed only by mutual consent, the +liberal majority of the house of deputies resolved to make it as harmless +as possible by means of domestic legislation, and on June 11th, 1867, the +deputy Herbst moved the appointment of a committee for drawing up three +bills for restoring civil marriage, emancipation of schools from the +church, and equality of all confessions in the eye of the law. The motion +was carried by a hundred and thirty-four votes against twenty-two. The +Cisleithan (_i.e._ Austrian excluding Hungary) episcopate, with Cardinal +Rauscher of Vienna at their head, presented an address to his apostolic +majesty demanding the most rigid preservation of the concordat, denouncing +civil marriage as concubinage, and the emancipation of schools as their +dechristianizing. An imperial autograph letter to Rauscher rebuked with +earnest words the inflammatory proceedings of the bishops, and at the same +time the ultramontane ambassador to Rome, Baron Huebner, was recalled. +After the arrangement with Hungary was completed, the first Cisleithan, +the so-called Burger, ministry was constituted under the presidency of +Prince Auersperg, composed of the most distinguished leaders of the +parliamentary majority. All the three bills were passed by a large +majority, and obtained imperial sanction on _May 25th, 1868_. The papal +nuncio of Vienna protested, the pope in an allocution denounced the new +Austrian constitution as _nefanda sane_ and the three confessional laws as +_abominabiles leges_. "We repudiate and condemn these laws," he says, "by +apostolic authority, as well as everything done by the Austrian government +in matters of church policy, and determine in the exercise of the same +authority that these decrees with all their consequences are and shall be +null and void." But all Vienna, all Austria held jubilee, and the +Chancellor von Beust rejected with energy the assumptions of the curia +over the civil domain. The bishops indeed issued protests and inflammatory +pastorals, and forbad the publication of the marriage act, but submitted +to the threats of compulsion by the supreme court, and Bishop Rudigier of +Linz, who went furthest in inciting to opposition, was in 1869 taken into +court by the police, and sentenced to twelve days' imprisonment, but +pardoned by the emperor. Toward the Vatican Council Austria assumed at +first a waiting policy, then in vain remonstrated, warned, threatened, and +finally, on July 30th, 1870, after the proclamation of infallibility, +declared that the concordat was antiquated and abolished, because by this +dogma the position of one of the contracting parties had undergone a +complete change. + +3. _The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria._--Down to 1848 +Protestantism of both confessions in Austria enjoyed only a very limited +toleration. The storms of this year first set aside the hated official +name of "Non-Catholics," and won permission for Protestant places of +worship to have bells and towers. But the repeated petitions for +permission to found branches of the _Gustavus Adolphus Union_, the +persistently maintained law that Catholic clergymen, even after they had +formally become Protestants, could not marry, because the _character +indelibilis_ of priestly consecration attached itself even to apostates, +and many such facts, prove that the government was far from intending to +grant to the Protestants civil equality with the Catholics. But the +unfortunate result of the Sardinian-French war of 1859, and the fear +thereby increased of the falling asunder of the whole Austrian federation, +induced the government to address itself earnestly to the introduction of +liberal institutions, and also to do justice to the Protestant church. The +presidency of the two Protestant consistories in Vienna, hitherto given to +a Catholic, was now assigned to a Protestant; meetings of the Gustavus +Adolphus Union were now allowed, and a share was given to the Protestant +party in the ministry of public worship by the appointment of three +evangelical councillors. After the entrance on office of the liberal +minister Von Schmerling, an imperial patent was issued on April 8th, 1864, +by which unrestricted liberty of faith, independent administration of all +ecclesiastical, educational, and charitable matters, free election of +pastors, even from abroad, full exercise of civil and political rights, +and complete equality with Catholics was given to the Protestants of the +German and Slavonian crown territories. Also in 1868, under the +reactionary ministry of Belcredi, on the expiry of the legal term of the +Evangelical Supreme Church Council, it was reorganized, two evangelical +school councillorships were created, and the pecuniary position of the +evangelical clergy considerably improved. But in spite of all privileges +legally granted to the evangelical church, it continued in many cases, in +presence of the concordat, which down to 1870 still remained in force, +exposed to the whims and caprice, sometimes of the imperial courts, +sometimes of the Catholic clergy. + +4. _The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol._--In the _Tyrol_, after +the publication of the imperial patent of April, 1861, a violent movement +was set on foot by clerical agitation. The Landtag, by a great majority, +pronounced the issuing of it the most serious calamity which the country, +hitherto honest, true, and happy in its undivided attachment to the +Catholic faith, could have suffered, and concluded that Non-Catholics in +the Tyrol should only by way of dispensation be allowed, but that +publicity of Protestant worship and formation of Protestant congregations +should be still forbidden. The Schmerling ministry, indeed, refused to +confirm these resolutions. The agitation of the clergy, however, which +fanned in all possible ways the fanaticism of the people, grew from year +to year, until at last the Belcredi ministry of 1866 came to an agreement +with the Landtag, sanctioned by the emperor, according to which the +creation of an evangelical landed proprietary in the Tyrol was not indeed +formally forbidden, but permission for an evangelical to possess land had +in each case to be obtained from the Landtag. The ecclesiastical laws of +1868 next called forth new conflicts. Twice was the Landtag closed because +of the opposition thus awakened, until finally in September, 1870, the +estates took the oath to the new constitution with reservation of +conscience. But now, when in December, 1875, the ministry of worship gave +approval to the formal constituting of two evangelical congregations in +the Tyrol, at Innsbrueck and Meran, the clerical press was filled with +burning denunciations, and the majority of the Landtag meeting in the +following March thought to give emphasis to their protest by leaving the +chamber, and so bringing the assembly to a sudden close. In June, 1880, +the three bishops of the Tyrol uttered in the Landtag a fanatical protest +against the continuance of the meanwhile established congregations, which +the Landtag majority renewed in July, 1883. + +5. _The Austrian Universities._--Stremayr, minister of public worship, +introduced in 1872 a scheme of university reorganization, by which the +exclusively Catholic character which had hitherto belonged to the Austrian +universities, especially those of Vienna and Prague, should be removed. Up +to this time a Non-Catholic could there obtain no sort of academical +degree, but this was now to be obtainable apart from any question of +confession. The office of chancellor, held by the archbishops of Prague +and Vienna, was restricted to the theological faculty, to the state was +assigned the right of nominating all professors, even in the theological +faculty, and the German language was recommended as the medium of +instruction. Candidates of theology have to pass through a full and +comprehensive course of theological science in a three years' university +curriculum, before they can be admitted into an episcopal seminary for +practical training. In spite of the opposition of the superior clergy, the +bill passed even in the House of Peers, and became law in 1873.--In +Innsbrueck, where according to ancient custom the rector was chosen from +the four faculties in succession, the other faculties protested against +the election when, in 1872, the turn came to the theological (Jesuit) +faculty, and they carried their point. The new organization law gave the +choice of rector to the whole professoriate, and a subsequent imperial +order withdrew from the general of the Jesuits the right of nominating all +theological professors.--Much was done, too, for the elevation of the +evangelical theological faculty in Vienna by bringing able scholars from +Germany, by giving a right to the promotion to the degree of doctor of +theology, etc. But its incorporation in the university, though often moved +for, was hindered by the continued opposition of the Catholic theologians +as well as philosophers, and in 1873 it did not meet with sufficient +support in the House of Peers. Even the use of certain halls in the +university buildings, promised by the minister, could not yet be obtained. + +6. _The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874-1876._--At last the government +in January, 1874, introduced the long-promised Catholic church legislation +into the Reichstag, intended to supply blanks occasioned by the setting +aside of the concordat. Its main contents are these: + +I. The concordat, hitherto only diplomatically dealt with, is now +legislatively annulled; the bishops have to present all their manifestoes +not before but upon publication to the state government for its +cognisance; every vacancy of an ecclesiastical office, as well as every +new appointment to such, is to be notified to the civil court, which can +raise objections against such appointment within thirty days; the minister +of worship then decides on the admissibility or inadmissibility of the +candidate; legal deposition of a church officer involves withdrawal of the +emoluments; the performance of unusual practices in public worship of a +demonstrative character can be prohibited by the civil court; any misuse +of ecclesiastical authority in restraining any one from obeying the laws +of the land or from exercising his civil rights is strictly interdicted. +II. The ecclesiastical revenues and the income of the cloisters are +subjected to a progressive taxation on behalf of a religious fund, mainly +for improving the condition of the lower clergy, for which the episcopate +hitherto, in spite of all entreaties, had done practically nothing. III. +Newly formed religious societies received state recognition if their +denomination and principles contain nothing contrary to law and morality +or offensive to those of another faith. IV. The state grants or refuses +its approval of the establishment of spiritual orders, congregations, and +ecclesiastical societies; institutions and legacies for them amounting to +over three thousand gulden require state sanction; any member is free to +quit any order; all orders must report annually on the personal changes +and disciplinary punishments that have taken place; at any time when +occasion calls for it they may be subjected to a visitation by the civil +court.(107)--In vain did the pope by an encyclical seek to rouse the +episcopate to violent opposition, in vain did he adjure the emperor in a +letter in his own hand not to suffer the church to be put into such +disgraceful bondage; the House of Deputies approved the four bills, and +the emperor in _May, 1874_, confirmed at least the first three, while the +fourth was being debated in the House of Peers. The bishops now issued a +joint declaration that they could obey these laws only in so far as they +"were in harmony with the demands of justice as stated in the concordat." +But it did not go to the length of actual conflict. Neither to the pope +and episcopate, nor to the government was such a thing convenient at the +time. Hence the attitude of reserve on both sides, which kept everything +as it had been. And when notwithstanding Bishop Rudigier of Linz, +threatened with fines on account of his refusal to notify the newly +appointed priests, appealed to the pope, he obtained through the Vienna +nuncio permission to yield on this point, "_non dissentit tolerari +posse_." But all the more urgently did the nuncio strive to prevent the +passing of the sweeping cloister law. In January, 1876, it was passed in +the House of Peers with modifications, to which, however, the emperor +refused his assent. Also the revised marriage law of the same date, which +removed the hindrances to marriage incorporated even in the book of civil +law, and no longer recognised differences of religion, Christians and +non-Christians, the remarriage of separated parties of whom at the time of +the first marriage only one party belonged to the Catholic church, higher +consecration and the vows of orders, did not pass the House of Peers. + +7. _The Protestant Church in the Transleithan Provinces._--In _Hungary_ +since 1833 the Reichstag had by bold action won for the Protestants full +equality with the Catholics, but in consequence of the revolution, the +military lordship of the Protestant Haynau in 1850 again put in fetters +all independent life in both Protestant churches. The Haynau decree was, +indeed, again abrogated in 1854, but full return to the earlier autonomy +of the church, in spite of all petitions and deputations, could never be +regained, all the less as Hungary in all too decided a manner rejected the +constitutional proposals submitted by the Government in 1856. The liberal +imperial patent of September 1st, 1859, which secured independent +administration and development to the Protestant church in the crown +possessions of Hungary, got no better reception. In the German-Slavonian +districts of North Hungary, as well as in Croatia, Slavonia, and Austrian +Servia, it was greeted with jubilation and gratitude, but the Magyar +Hungarians declined on many, for the most part frivolous, grounds, mainly +because it emanated from the emperor, and did not originate in an +autonomous synod. When the government showed its intention of going +forward with it, the opposition was carried to the utmost extreme, so that +the emperor was obliged temporarily to suspend proceedings in May, 1860. +Still the ecclesiastical joined with the political movement continued to +increase until in 1867 the imperial chancellor, Von Beust, succeeded in +quieting both for a time by the Hungarian Agreement. On June 8th of that +year, the emperor, Francis Joseph, on ratifying the agreement, was +solemnly crowned King of Hungary. The hated patent had been shortly before +revoked by an imperial edict, with the direction to order church matters +in a constitutional way. After a complete reconciliation, at a General +Protestant Convention in December, 1867, with the Patent congregations, +hitherto denounced as unpatriotic, it was concluded that to the state +belonged only a right of protection and oversight of the church, which is +autonomous in all its internal affairs, but to all confessions perfect +freedom in law, and that there should be not a separate religious +legislation for each, but a common one for all confessions. A committee +first appointed in 1873 for this purpose, with the motto, "A Free Church +in a Free State," constituted, and then adjourned _ad kalendas Graecas_. + + + +§ 199. Switzerland. + + +The Catholic church of Switzerland, after long continued troubles, +obtained again a regular hierarchical organization in 1828. Since that +time the Jesuits settled there in crowds, and assumed to themselves in +most of the Catholic cantons the whole direction of church and schools. +The unfortunate issue of the cantonal war of 1847 led indeed to their +banishment by law, but, favoured by the bishops, they knew how still to +re-enter by back doors and secretly to regain their earlier influence. The +city of Calvin was the centre of their plots, not only for Switzerland, +but also for all Cisalpine Europe, until at last the overstrained bow +broke, and the Swiss governments became the most decided and +uncompromising opponents of the ultramontane claims. In 1873 the papal +nuncio, in consequence of a papal encyclical insulting the government, was +banished.--In Protestant Switzerland, besides the destructive influence of +the Illumination, antagonistic to the church, and radical liberalism, +there appeared a soil receptive of pietism, separatism, and fanaticism, +whose first cultivation has been ascribed to Madame Kruedener (§ 176, 2). +In the Protestant church of German Switzerland the religious and +theological developments stood regularly in lively connexion with similar +movements in Germany, while those in the French cantons received their +impulse and support from France and England. From France, to which they +were allied by a common language, they learned the unbelief of the +encyclopaedists (§ 165, 14), while travelling Englishmen and those residing +in the country for a longer period introduced the fervour and superstition +of Methodism and other sects. + +1. _The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870._--The ecclesiastical +superintendence of Catholic Switzerland was previously subject to the +neighbouring foreign bishoprics. But for immediate preservation of its +interests the curia had appointed a nunciature at Lucerne in 1588. When +now, in 1814, the liberal Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), already long suspected of +heresy, was called as coadjutor to Constance, the nuncio manoeuvred with +the Catholic confederates till these petitioned the pope for the +establishment of an independent and national bishopric. But when each of +the cantons interested claimed to be made the episcopal residence +negotiations were at last suspended, and in 1828 six small bishoprics were +erected under immediate control of Rome. At the end of 1833 the diocesan +representatives of Basel and St. Gall assembled in Baden to consult about +the restoration of a national Swiss Metropolitan Union and a common state +church constitution for securing church and state against the +encroachments of the Romish hierarchy. But Gregory XIV. condemned the +articles of conference here agreed upon, which would have given to +Switzerland only what other states had long possessed, as false, +audacious, and erroneous, destructive of the church, heretical, and +schismatic, and among the Catholic people a revolt was stirred up by +ultramontane fanaticism, under the influence of which the whole action was +soon frustrated. On the occasion of a revision of the constitution of the +canton of Aargau, a revolt, led by the cloisters, broke out in 1841. But +the rebels were defeated, and the grand council resolved upon the closing +of all cloisters, eight in number. Complaint made against this at the diet +was regarded as satisfied by the Aargau Agreement of 1843 restoring three +nunneries. An opposition was organized against the revision of the +constitution of Canton _Lucerne_ in 1841. The liberal government was +overthrown, and the new constitution, in which the state insisted on its +_placet_ in ecclesiastical matters and the granting of cantonal civil +rights to those only who professed attachment to the Roman Catholic +church, was submitted to the pope for approval. At last, in 1844, the +academy of Lucerne was given over to the Jesuits, for which Joseph Leu, +the popular agitator, as member of the grand council, had wrought +unweariedly since 1839. In Canton _Vaud_ the parties of old or clerical +and young Switzerland contended with one another for the mastery. The +latter suffered an utter defeat in 1844, and the constitution which was +then carried allowed the right of public worship only to the Catholic +church. In consequence of this victory of the clerical party Catholic +Switzerland with Lucerne at its head became a main centre of +ultramontanism and Jesuitism. At the diet of 1844, indeed, Aargau, +supported by numerous petitions from the people, moved for the banishment +of all Jesuits from all Switzerland, but the majority did not consent. The +Jesuit opponents expelled from Lucerne now organized twice over a free +volunteer corps to overthrow the ultramontane government and force the +expulsion of the Jesuits, but on both occasions, in 1844 and 1845, it +suffered a sore defeat. In face of the threateningly growing increase of +the excitement, which made them fear a decisive intervention of the diet, +the Catholic cantons formed in 1845 a _separate league_ (_Sonderbund_) for +the preservation of their faith and their sovereign rights. This +proceeding, irreconcilable with the Act of Federation, led to a civil war. +The members of the _Sonderbund_ were defeated, the ultramontane +governments had to resign, and the Jesuits departed in 1847. The new +Federal constitution which Switzerland adopted in 1848, secured +unconditional liberty of conscience and equality of all confessions, and +the expulsion of the Jesuits in terms of the law. But since that time +ultramontanism has gained the supremacy in Catholic Switzerland, and in +spite of the existing law against the Jesuits all the threads of the +ultramontane clerical movements in Switzerland were in the Jesuits' hands. +These were never more successful than in Canton _Geneva_, where the +radical democratic agitator Fazy leagued himself closely with +ultramontanism to compass the destruction of the old Calvinistic +aristocracy, and by bringing in large numbers the lower class Catholics +from the neighbouring France and Savoy he obtained a considerable Catholic +majority in the canton, and in the capital itself made Catholics and +Protestants nearly equal. + +2. _The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883._--The Catholic church of Canton Geneva, +on the founding of the six Swiss bishoprics by a papal bull, had been +incorporated "for all time to come," after the style of the concordat, +with the bishopric of Freiburg-Lausanne. But the government made no +objection when the newly elected priest of Geneva, Mermillod, a Jesuit of +the purest water, assumed the title and rank of an episcopal vicar-general +for the whole canton. But when in 1864 the pope nominated him bishop of +Hebron _in partibus_ and auxiliary bishop of Geneva, it made a protest. +Nevertheless, when, in the following year, Bishop Marilley of Freiburg by +papal orders transferred to him absolute power for the canton with +personal responsibility, and in 1870 formally renounced all episcopal +rights over it, so that the pope now appointed the auxiliary bishop +independent bishop of Geneva, it was evident a step had been taken that +could not be recalled. The government renewed its protest and made it more +vehement, in consequence of which, in January, 1873, by a papal brief +which was first officially communicated to the government after it had +already been proclaimed from all Catholic pulpits, Mermillod was appointed +apostolic vicar-general with unlimited authority for Canton Geneva, and +the district was thus practically made a Catholic mission field. A demand +made of him by the state to resign this office and title and divest +himself of every episcopal function, was answered by the declaration that +he would obey God rather than man. The _Bund_ then expelled him from +Federal territory until he would yield to that demand. From Ferney, where +he settled, he unceasingly stirred up the fire of opposition among the +Genevan clergy and people, but the government decidedly rejected all +protests, and by a popular vote obtained sanction for a Catholic church +law which restricted the rights of the diocesan bishop who might reside in +Switzerland, but not in Canton Geneva, and without consent of the +government could not appoint there any episcopal vicar, and transferred +the election of priests and priests' vicars to the congregations. The next +elections returned Old Catholics, since the Roman Catholic population did +not acknowledge the law condemned by the pope and took no part in the +voting. By decision of the grand council of 1875 the abolition of all +religious corporations was next enacted, and all religious ceremonies and +processions in public streets and squares forbidden. Leo XIII. made an +attempt to still the conflict, for in 1879 he gave Bishop Marilley the +asked for discharge, and confirmed his elected successor, Cosandry, as +bishop of Freiburg, Lausanne, and Geneva, without however removing +Mermillod from his office of vicar apostolic of Geneva. But this actually +took place after the death of Cosandry in 1882 by the appointment of +Mermillod as his successor in 1883. As he now ceased to style himself a +vicar apostolic, the Federal council removed the decree of banishment as +the occasion of it had ceased, but left each canton free as to whether or +not it should accept him as bishop. Freiburg, Neuenburg, and Vaud accepted +him, and Mermillod had a brilliant entry into Freiburg, which he made his +episcopal residence. But Geneva refused to recognise him, because it had +already officially attached itself to the Old Catholic Bishop Herzog of +Berne, and Mermillod went so far in his ostentatious love of peace as to +declare that he would not in future enter Genevan territory. + +3. _Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, 1870-1880._--Bishop Lachat of +Soleure, whose diocese comprised the Cantons Bern, Soleure, Aargau, Basel, +Thurgau, Lucerne, and Zug, had been previously in conflict with the +diocesan conference, _i.e._ the delegates of the seven cantons entrusted +with the oversight of the ecclesiastical administration, on account of +introducing the prohibited handbook on morals of the Jesuit Gury (§ 191, +9), which ended in the closing of the seminary aided by the government, +and the erection of a new seminary at his own cost. Although the diocesan +conference next forbad the proclamation of the new Vatican dogma, the +bishop threatened excommunicated Egli in Lucerne in 1871, and Geschwind in +Starrkirch in 1872, who refused. The conference ordered the withdrawal of +this unlawful act, and on the bishop's refusal, deposed him in January, +1873. The dissenting cantons, Lucerne and Zug, indeed declared that after +as well as before they would only recognise Lachat as lawful bishop, the +chapter refused to make the required election of administrator of the +diocese, the clergy in Soleure and in _Bernese Jura_ without exception +took the side of the bishop, as also by means of a popular vote the great +majority of Catholics in Thurgau. But amid all this the conference did not +yield in the least. Lachat was compelled by the police to quit his +episcopal residence, and withdrew to a village in Canton Lucerne. The +council of the Bernese government resolved to recall the refractory clergy +of the Jura, took their names off the civil register and forbad them to +exercise any clerical functions. The outbreaks incited by rebel clergy in +the Jura were put down by the military, sixty-nine clergymen were exiled, +and, so far as the means allowed, replaced by liberal successors +introduced by the Old Catholic priest Herzog (§ 190, 3) in Olten. In +November, 1875, permission to return home was granted to the exiles in +consequence of the revised Federal constitution of 1874, according to +which the banishment of Swiss burghers was no longer allowed. The Bernese +government felt all the more disposed to carry out this enactment of the +National Council, as it believed that it had obtained the legal means for +checking further rebellion and obstinacy among those who should return. On +January, 1874, by popular vote a law was sanctioned reorganizing the whole +ecclesiastical affairs of the _Canton Bern_. By it all clergy, Catholic as +well as Protestant, are ranked as civil officers, the choice of whom rests +with the congregations, the tenure of office lasting for six years. All +purely ecclesiastical affairs for the canton rest in the last instance +with a synod of the particular denomination, for the several congregations +with a church committee, both composed of freely elected lay and clerical +members. But if a dispute in a particular congregation should arise about +a synodal decree, the congregational assembly decides on its validity or +non-validity for the particular congregation. All decrees of higher church +courts and pastorals must have state approval, which must never be refused +on dogmatic grounds. If a congregation splits over any question, the +majority claims the church property and pastor's emoluments, etc. And this +law was next extended in October 31st, 1875, in the matter of penal law by +the so-called Police Worship Law. It imposes heavy fines up to 1000 francs +or a year's imprisonment for any clerical agitation against the law, +institutions or enactments of the civil courts, as well as for every +outbreak of hostilities against members of other religious bodies, refuses +to allow any interference of foreign spiritual superiors without leave +granted by government in each particular case, forbids all processions and +religious ceremonies outside of the fixed church locality, etc. In the +same year the first Catholic Cantonal Synod declared its attachment to the +Christian or Old Catholic church of Switzerland. But it was otherwise +after the newly elected Grand Council of the canton of its own accord, on +September 12th, 1878, granted the returned Jura clergy complete amnesty +for all the past, and on the assumption of future submission to existing +laws of state, recognised them again eligible for election to spiritual +offices which had previously been denied them. Not only did the Roman +Catholic people regularly take part in elections of priests, church +councils, and synods, undoubtedly with the approval of the new pope Leo +XIII., who had in February addressed a conciliatory letter to the members +of the Federal Council, but also the extremest of the Jura now submitted +without scruple to the new election required by the law, and won therein +for the most part the majority of votes. In the Catholic Cantonal Synod +convened in Bern, in January, 1880, were found seventy-five Roman +Catholics and only twenty-five Old Catholic deputies. The latter were +naturally defeated in all controversies. The synod declared that the +connexion with the Christian Catholic national bishopric was annulled, +that auricular confession was obligatory, that marriages of priests were +forbidden, etc. Since now the law assigns the state pay of the priest as +well as all the church property in the case of a split to the majority for +the time being, the inevitable consequence was that Old Catholics of the +Jura district were deprived of all share in these privileges, and had to +make provision for their own support. Also in Canton _Soleure_, the law +that all pastors must be re-elected after the expiry of six years, came in +force in 1872, and then the thirty-two Roman Catholic clergymen concerned +were with only two exceptions re-elected, while, on the other hand, the +Old Catholic priest Geschwind of Starrkirch was rejected.--But all efforts +to restore the bishopric of Basel-Soleure came to grief over the person of +Bishop Lachat, whom the curia would not give up and the Federal Council +would not again allow, until at last a way out of the difficulty was +found. The canton Tessin, which previously in church matters belonged to +the Italian dioceses of Milan and Como, was, in 1859, by decree of the +Federal Council, detached from these. But Tessin insisted on the founding +of a bishopric of its own, while the Federal Council wished to join it to +the bishopric of Chur. Thus the matter remained undecided, till in +September, 1884, the papal curia came to an understanding with the Federal +Council that Lachat should be appointed vicar-apostolic for the newly +founded bishopric of Tessin, and that to the vacated bishopric of +Basel-Soleure the "learned as well as mild" Provost Fiala of Soleure +should be called. In this way all the cantons referred to, with the +exception of Bern, were won.(108) + +4. _The Protestant Church in German Switzerland._--Among all the German +cantons, _Basel_ (§ 172, 5), which unweariedly prosecuted the work of home +and foreign missions, fell most completely under the influence of +rationalism and then of the liberal Protestant theology. While pietism +obtained powerful support and encouragement in its missionary institutions +and movements, and there, though developing itself on Reformed soil, +assumed, in consequence of its manifold connection with Germany, a colour +almost more Lutheran than Reformed, the university by eminent theological +teachers of scientific ability represented the Mediation school in +theology of a predominantly Reformed type. In the Canton _Zuerich_, on the +other hand, the advanced theology, theoretical and practical, obtained an +increasing and finally an almost exclusive mastery in the university and +church. But yet, when in 1839 the Grand Council called Dr. David Strauss +to a theological professorship, the Zuerich people rose to a man against +the proposal, the appointment was not enforced, the Grand Council was +overthrown, and Strauss pensioned. The victory and ascendency of this +reaction, however, was not of long continuance. Theological and +ecclesiastical radicalism again won the upper hand and maintained it +unchecked. In the other German cantons the most diverse theological +schools were represented alongside of one another, yet with steadily +increasing advantage to liberal and radical tendencies. The theological +faculty at _Bern_ favoured mainly a liberal mediation theology, and an +attempt of the orthodox party in 1847, to set aside the appointment of +Professor E. Zeller by means of a popular tumult, miscarried. From 1860 +ecclesiastical liberalism prevailed in German Protestant Switzerland, +frequently going the length of the extremest radicalism and showing its +influence even in the cantonal and synodal legislation. The starting of +the "_Zeitstimmen fuer d. ref. Schweiz_," in 1859, by Henry Lang, who had +fled in 1848 from Wuerttemberg to Switzerland, and died in 1876 as pastor +in Zuerich, marked an epoch in the history of the radical liberal movement +in Swiss theology. In Fred. Langhans, since 1876 professor at Bern, he had +a zealous comrade in the fight. During 1864-1866, Langhans published a +series of violent controversial tracts against the pietistic orthodox +party in Switzerland, which zealously prosecuted foreign missions, and in +1866 he founded the _Swiss Reform __ Union_, while Alb. Bitzius, son of +the writer known as Jer. Gotthelf (§ 174, 8) started as its organ the +"_Reformblaetter aus d. bernischen Kirche_," which was subsequently +amalgamated with the _Zeitstimmem_.--After more or less violent conflicts +with pietistic orthodoxy, still always pretty strongly represented, +especially in the aristocracy, the emancipation of the schools from the +church and the introduction of obligatory civil marriage were accomplished +in most cantons, even before the revised Federal constitution of 1874 and +the marriage law of 1875 gave to these principles legal sanction +throughout the whole of Switzerland. In almost all Protestant cantons the +re-election or new election to all spiritual offices every six years was +ordained by law, in many the freeing of the clergy from any creed +subscription with the setting aside of confessional writings as well as of +the orthodox liturgy, hymnbooks and catechisms was also carried, and the +withdrawing of the Apostles' Creed from public worship and from the +baptismal formula was enjoined. The Basel synod in 1883, by thirty-six to +twenty-seven votes, carried the motion to make baptism no longer a +condition of confirmation; and although the Zuerich synod in 1882 still +held baptism obligatory for membership in the national church, the +Cantonal Council in 1883, on consulting the law of the church, overturned +this decision by 140 against 19 votes. + +5. _The Protestant Church in French Switzerland._--The French philosophy of +the eighteenth century had given to the Reformed church of _Geneva_ a +prevailingly rationalistic tendency. Notwithstanding, or just because of +this, Madame Kruedener, in 1814, with her conventicle pietism, found an +entrance there, and won in the young theologian Empaytaz a zealous +supporter and an apostle of conversion preaching. In the next year a +wealthy Englishman, Haldane, appeared there as the apostle of methodistic +piety, and inspired the young pastor Malan with enthusiasm for the revival +mission. Empaytaz and Malan now by speech and writing charged the national +church with defection from the Christian faith, and won many zealous +believers as adherents, especially among students of theology. The +_Venerable Compagnie_ of the Geneva clergy, hitherto resting on its lees +in rationalistic quiet, now in 1817 thought it might still the rising +storm by demanding of theological candidates at ordination the vow not to +preach on the two natures in Christ, original sin, predestination, etc., +but thereby they only poured oil on the fire. The adherents of the daily +increasing evangelical movement withdrew from the national church, founded +free independent communities and _Reunions_ under the banner of the +restoration of Calvinistic orthodoxy, and were by their enemies nicknamed +_Momiers_, _i.e._ mummery traders or hypocrites. The government imprisoned +and banished their leaders, while the mob, unchecked, heaped upon them all +manner of abuse. The persecution came to an end in 1830. Thereafter +settling down in quiet moderation, it founded in 1831 the _Societe +evangelique_, which, in 1832, established an _Ecole de Theologie_, and +became the centre of the Free church evangelical movement. From that time +the _Eglise libre_ of Geneva has existed unmolested alongside of the +_Eglise Nationale_, and the opposition at first so violent has been +moderated on both sides by the growth of conciliatory and mediating +tendencies. Since 1850, two divergent parties have arisen within the bosom +of the free church itself, which without any serious conflict continued +alongside of one another, until in May, 1883, the majority of the +presbytery resolved to make a peaceful separation, the stricter forming +the congregation of the _Pelisserie_, and the more liberal that of the +_Oratoire_. At the same time a committee was appointed to draw up a +confession upon which both could unite in lasting fellowship. But when +this failed, a formal and complete separation was agreed upon at the new +year.--From Geneva the Methodist revival spread to _Vaud_. The religious +movement got a footing, especially in Lausanne. The Grand Council, +however, did not allow the contemplated formation of an independent +congregation, and in 1824 forbad all "sectarian" assemblies, while the mob +raged even more wildly than at Geneva against the "_Momiers_." The +excitement increased when, in 1839, by decision of the Grand Council, the +Helvetic Confession was abrogated. When in 1845 a revolutionary radical +government came into office at Lausanne, the refusal of many clergymen to +read from the pulpit a political proclamation, caused a thorough division +in the church, for the preachers referred to were in a body driven out of +the national church. A Free church of Vaud now developed itself alongside +of the national church, sorely oppressed and persecuted by the radical +government, and spread into other Swiss cantons. It owed its freedom from +sectarian narrowness mainly to the influence of the talented and +thoroughly independent Alex. Vinet, who devoted his whole energies and +brilliant eloquence to the interests of religious freedom and liberty of +conscience and to the struggle for the separation of church and state. +Vinet was from 1817 teacher of the French language and literature in +Basel, then from 1837 to 1845 professor of practical theology at Lausanne, +but on the reconstruction of the university he was not re-elected. He died +in 1847.(109)--In the canton _Neuchatel_ the State Council in 1873 +introduced a law, which granted unconditional liberty of conscience, +freedom in teaching and worship without any sort of restriction on clergy, +teachers and congregations. The Grand Council by forty-seven votes to +forty-six gave it its sanction, notwithstanding the almost unanimous +protest of the evangelical synod, and refused to appeal to a popular vote. +When an appeal to the Federal Council proved fruitless, somewhere about +one half of the pastors, including the theological professors and all the +students, left the state church, and formed an _Eglise libre_; while the +other half regarded it as their duty to remain in the national church so +long as they were not hindered from preaching God's word in purity and +simplicity. Both parties had a common meeting point in the _Union +evangelique_, and a law originally passed in favour of the Old Catholics, +which secured to all seceders a right to the joint use of their respective +churches, proved also of advantage to the Free church.--The canton _Geneva_ +issued, in 1874, a Protestant law of worship, which with dogma and liturgy +also threw overboard ordination, and maintained that the clergy are +answerable only to their conscience and their electors. Yet at the new +election of the consistory in 1879, at the close of the legal term of four +years, the evangelical and moderate party again obtained the supremacy, +and a law introduced by the radical party in the Grand Council, demanding +the withdrawal of the budget of worship and the separation of church and +state, was, on July 4th, 1880, thrown out by universal popular vote, by a +majority of 9,000 to 4,000. + + + +§ 200. Holland and Belgium. + + +Among the most serious mistakes in the new partition of states at the +Vienna Congress was the combining in one kingdom of the United Netherlands +the provinces of Holland and Belgium, diverse in race, language, +character, and religion. The contagion of French Revolution of July, 1830, +however, caused an outbreak in Brussels, which ended in the separation of +Catholic Belgium from the predominantly Protestant Holland. Belgium has +since then been the scene of unceasing and changeful conflicts between the +liberal and ultramontane parties, whose previous combination was now +completely shattered. And while, on the other hand, in the Reformed state +church of Holland, theological studies, leaning upon German science, have +taken a liberal and even radical destructive course, the not +inconsiderable Roman Catholic population has fallen, under Jesuit leading, +more and more into bigoted obscurantism. + +1. _The United Netherlands._--The constitution of the new kingdom created +in 1814 guaranteed unlimited freedom to all forms of worship and complete +equality of all citizens without distinction of religious confession. +Against this the Belgian episcopate protested with bishop Maurice von +Broglie, of Ghent, at their head, who refused, in 1817, the prayers of the +church for the heretical crown princess and the _Te Deum_ for the newborn +heir to the throne. As he went so far as to excite the Catholic people on +all occasions against the Protestant government, the angry king, William +I., summoned him to answer for his conduct before the court of justice. +But he eluded inquiry by flight to France, and as guilty of high treason +was sentenced to death, which did not prevent him from his exile +unweariedly fanning the flames of rebellion. The number of cloisters grew +from day to day and also the multitude of clerical schools and seminaries, +in which the Catholic youth was trained up in the principles of the most +violent fanaticism. The government in 1825 closed the seminaries, expelled +Jesuit teachers, forbad attendance at Jesuit schools abroad, and founded a +college at Louvain, in which all studying for the church were obliged to +pass through a philosophical curriculum. The common struggle for +maintaining the liberty of instruction promised by the constitution made +political radicalism and ultramontanism confederates, and the government, +intimidated by this combination, agreed, in a concordat with the pope in +1827, to modify the obligatory into a facultative attendance at Louvain +College. The inevitable consequence of this was the speedy and complete +decay of the college. But the confederacy of the radicals and +ultramontanes continued, directing itself against other misdeeds of the +government, and was not broken up until in 1830 it attained its object by +the disjunction of Belgium and Holland. + +2. _The Kingdom of Holland._--In the prevailingly _Reformed_ national +church rationalism and latitudinarian supernaturalism had to such an +extent blotted out the ecclesiastical distinctions between Reformed, +Remonstrants, Mennonites, and Lutherans, that the clergy of one party +would unhesitatingly preach in the churches of the others. Then rose the +poet Bilderdijk, driven from political into religious patriotism, to +denounce with glowing fury the general declension from the orthodoxy of +Dort. Two Jewish converts of his, the poet and apologist Isaac da Costa, +and the physician Cappadose, gave him powerful support. A zealous young +clergyman, Henry de Cock, was theological mouthpiece of the party. Because +he offended church order, especially by ministering in other +congregations, he was suspended and finally deposed in 1834. The greater +part of his congregation and four other pastors with him formally declared +their secession from the unfaithful church, as a return to the orthodox +Reformed church. As separatists and disturbers of public worship, they +were fined and imprisoned, and were at last satisfied with the recognition +granted them of royal grace in 1839, as a separate or _Christian Reformed +Church_. It consists now of 364 congregations, embracing about 140,000 +souls, with a flourishing seminary at Kampen. The _Reformed State Church_, +with three-fourths of all the Protestant population, persevered in and +developed its liberalistic tendencies. The State Synod of 1883 expressly +declared that the Netherland Reformed Church demands from its teachers not +agreement with all the statements of the confessional writings, but only +with their spirit, gist, and essence; and the synod of 1877, by the vote +of a majority, stated that no sort of formulated confession should be +required even of candidates for confirmation. Yet even amid such +proceedings from various sides, a churchly and evangelical reaction of +considerable importance set in. Three great parties within the state +church carried on a life and death struggle with one another: (1) The +Strict Calvinists, whose leader is Dr. Kuyper, formerly pastor in +Amsterdam; (2) The so-called Middle Party, which falls into two divisions: +the, just about expiring, Ethical Irenical Party, with the Utrecht +professor Van Oosterzee (died 1882), and the Evangelical Party with the +Groeningen professor Hofstede de Groot, since 1872 Emeritus, as leaders, of +which the former, subordinating the confession, regards the Christian life +as the main thing in Christianity, and the latter declares itself prepared +to take the gospel alone for its creed and confession; and (3) The +so-called Modern Party, which, with Professors Scholten and Kuenen as +leaders, has its centre at Leyden, and in theology carries out with +reckless energy the destructive critical principles of the school of Baur +and Wellhausen (§ 182, 7, 18). The "_Moderns_" are also the founders and +leaders of the "_Protestant Federation_" after the German model (§ 180), +with its annual assemblies since 1873, in opposition to which a +"_Confessional Union_" holds its annual meetings at Utrecht, and operates +by means of evangelists and lay preachers in places where there are only +"Modern" pastors. The higher and cultured classes in the congregations +mostly favour the Groeningen and some also the Leyden school, but the great +majority of the middle and lower classes are adherents of Kuyper, and have +frequently secured majorities in the Congregational Church Council.--The +Dutch school law of 1856 banished every sort of confessional religious +education from public schools supported by the state, and so called forth +the erection of numerous denominational schools independent of the state, +and the founding of a "_Union for Christian Popular Education_," which has +spread through the whole country. The university law sanctioned, after +violent debates in the chamber, in 1876, establishes in place of the old +theological faculties, professorships for the science of religion +generally, with the exception of dogmatics and practical theology, and +left it with the Reformed State Synod to care for these two subjects, +either in a theological seminary or by founding for itself the two +theological professorships in the universities and supporting them from +the sums voted for the state church. The synod decided on the latter +course, and appointed to the new chairs men of moderate liberal views. The +adherents of the strict Calvinistic party, however, founded a Free +Reformed University at Amsterdam, which was opened in autumn, 1880. Its +first rector was Kuyper.--The _Lutheran Church_ of fifty congregations and +sixty-two pastors, with about 60,000 souls, has also had since 1816 a +theological seminary. In it neological tendencies prevail. + +3. The founding of the Free University at Amsterdam, referred to above, +led to a series of violent conflicts which threatened to break up the +whole Reformed church of the Netherlands by a wild schism. The Reformed +State Synod, consisting mainly of Groeningen theologians, but also +numbering many members belonging to the Modern or Leyden school, and +constituting the supreme ecclesiastical court, had, in spite of its +eleventh rule, which makes "the maintenance of the doctrine" a main task +of all church government, for a long time admitted the principle of +unfettered freedom of teaching, and ordained that even evidence of +orthodoxy on the part of candidates for confirmation would no longer be +regarded as a condition of their acceptance, their examination referring +only to their knowledge, the examining clergy and not the assisting elders +being judges in this matter. When now the Free University had been founded +in direct opposition to the synod, the latter resolved to reject all its +pupils at the examination of candidates, and when, in the summer of 1885, +its first student presented himself, actually carried out this resolution. +Thereupon the university transferred the examination to a committee, +elected by itself, consisting of orthodox Reformed pastors and elders, and +a small village congregation agreed to elect the candidate for its poorly +endowed, and so for seventeen years vacant, pastorate. But the synod +refused him ordination. Therefore the director of a strict Calvinistic +Gymnasium, formerly a pastor, performed the ceremony, and the congregation +announced its secession from the synodal union. At the same time in +Amsterdam a second conflict arose over the question of candidates for +confirmation. Three pastors of the "modern" school demanded the elders +subject to them, among them Dr. Kuyper, to take part as required in the +examining of their candidates; but these refused to give their assistance, +because the previous training had not been according to Scripture and the +confession, and also the majority of the church council approved of this +refusal, as the parents had complained, and declared that the certificate +of morality demanded by other pastors could be made out only if candidates +for confirmation had previously formally and solemnly confessed their +genuine and hearty faith in Jesus Christ as the only and all-sufficient +Saviour, which these, however, in accordance with the Dutch practice of +the eighteenth century, declined to do. The controversy was carried by +appeal through all the church courts, and finally the State Synod ordered +the church council to make delivery of the certificates within six weeks +on pain of suspension. But this was brought about before the expiry of +that period by the outbreak of a far more serious conflict over matters of +administration. In Amsterdam the administration of church property lay +with a special commission, responsible to the church council, consisting +of members, one half from the church council and the other half from the +congregations. If in the beginning of January, 1886, the threatened +suspension and deposition of the church council should be carried out, in +accordance with proper order until the appointment of a new council all +the rights of the same, therefore also that of supervising that +commission, would fall to the "classical board" (§ 143, 1) as the next +highest court. In order to avoid this, the fateful resolution was passed +on December 14th, 1885, to alter § 41 of the regulations, so that, if the +church council in the discharge of its duty to govern the community in +accordance with God's word and the legalized church confession, it would +be so hindered therein that it might feel in conscience obliged to obey +God rather than man and accept suspension and deposition, and a church +council should be appointed, the administrative commission would be +obliged to remain subject, not to this, but to the original commission. +The "classical board" annulled this resolution, suspended on January 4th, +1886, for continued obstinacy the previous church council, and constituted +itself, pending decision on the part of discipline, interim administrator +of all its rights and duties. The suspended majority, however, called a +meeting for the same day, and when it found the doors of its meeting place +closed, sent for a locksmith to break them open. They were prevented by +the police, who then, by putting on a safety lock, strengthening the +boards of the door by mailed plates, and setting a watch, greatly reduced +the chances of an entrance. But the opposition sent to the watchers a +letter by a policeman demanding that the representatives of the church +council should be allowed to pass; upon which these, regarding it as an +order of the police, withdrew. They then had the mailed plates sawn, took +possession of the hall and the archives and treasure box lying there, and +refused admission to the classical board. While then the question of law +and possession was referred to the courts of law, and there the final +decision would not be given before the lapse of a year, the disciplinary +procedure took its course through all the ecclesiastical courts and ended +in the deposition of all resisting elders and pastors. The latter preached +now to great crowds in hired halls. From the capital the excitement +increased by means of violent publications on both sides, spread over the +whole land and produced discord in many other communities. Wild and +uproarious tumults first broke out in Leidendorf, a suburb of Leyden. The +pastor and the majority of the church council refused to enter on their +congregational list two girls who had been confirmed by liberal churchmen +elsewhere, and with by far the greater part of the congregation seceded +from the synodal union. The classical board now, in July, 1886, declared +the pastorate vacant, and ordered that a regular interim service should be +conducted on Sundays by the pastors of the circuit. The uproar among the +people, however, was thereby only greatly increased, so that the civil +authorities were obliged to protect the deputed preachers, by a large +military escort, from rude maltreatment, and to secure quiet during public +worship by a company of police in church. And similar conflicts soon broke +out on like occasions and with similar consequences in many other places +throughout all parts of the land. In December, 1886, the Amsterdam church +council also declared its secession from the state church, and a +numerously attended "Reformed Church Congress" at Amsterdam, in January, +1887, summoned by Kuyper in the interests of the crowd of seceders, +resolved to accept the decision of the law in regard to church +property.(110) + +4. Even after the separation of Belgium there was still left a +considerable number of _Catholics_, about three-eighths of the population, +most numerous in Brabant, Limburg, and Luxemburg, and these were, as of +old, inclined to the most bigoted ultramontanism. This tendency was +greatly enhanced when the new constitutional law of 1848 announced the +principle of absolute liberty of belief, in consequence of which the +Jesuits crowded in vast numbers, and the pope in 1853 organized a new +Catholic hierarchy in the land, with four bishops and an archbishop at +Utrecht, under the control of the propaganda. The Protestant population +went into great excitement over this. The liberal ministry of Thorbecke +was obliged to resign, but the chambers at length sanctioned the papal +ordinance, only securing the Protestant population against its +misapplication and abuse.--On the withdrawal of the French in 1814 there +were only eight cloisters remaining; but in 1861 there were thirty-nine +for monks and 137 for nuns, and since then the number has considerably +increased.--The Dutch _Old Catholics_ (§ 165, 8), on account of their +protest against the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (§ 185, 2), +enjoined upon the Catholic church by the pope, were anew excommunicated, +and joined the German Old Catholics in rejecting the decrees of the +Vatican Council (§ 190, 1). + +5. _The Kingdom of Belgium._--Catholic Belgium obtained after its +separation from Holland a constitution by which unlimited freedom of +religious worship and education, and the right of confessing opinion and +of associating, were guaranteed, and to the state was allowed no +interference with the affairs of the church beyond the duty of paying the +clergy. Also in Leopold I., 1830-1865, of the house of Saxe-Coburg, it had +a king who though himself a Protestant was faithful to the constitution, +and, according to agreement, had his children trained up in the Roman +Catholic church. The confederacy of radicalism and ultramontanism, +however, was broken by the irreconciliable enmity and violent conflict in +daily life and in the chambers among clerical and liberal ministers. The +ultramontanes founded at Louvain in 1834 a strictly Catholic university, +which was under the oversight of the bishops and the patronage of the +Virgin; while the liberals promoted the erection of an opposition +university for free science at Brussels. That the Jesuits used to the +utmost for their own ends the liberty granted them by the constitution by +means of missions and the confessional, schools, cloisters, and +brotherhoods of every kind is what might have been expected. But +liberalism also knew how to conduct a propaganda and to bring the clergy +into discredit with the educated classes by unveiling their intrigues, +legacy-hunting, etc., while these exercised a great influence chiefly upon +bigoted females. The number of cloisters, which on the separation from +Holland amounted only to 280, had risen in 1880 in that small territory to +1,559, with 24,672 inmates, of whom 20,645 were nuns. + +6. After the ultramontane party had enjoyed eight years of almost +unchallenged supremacy, the Malou ministry favourable to it was overthrown +in June, 1878, and a liberal government, under the presidency of +Frere-Orban, took its place. Then began the _Kulturkampf_ in Belgium. The +charge of public education was taken from the ministry of the interior, +and a special minister appointed in the person of Van Humbeeck. He began +by changing all girls' schools under the management of sisters of +spiritual orders into communal schools, and in January, 1879, brought in a +bill for reorganizing elementary education, which completely secularized +the schools; deprived the clergy of all official influence over them, and +relegated religious instruction to the care of the family and the church, +the latter, however, having the necessary accommodation allowed in the +school buildings. The chambers approved the bill, and the king confirmed +it, in spite of all protests and agitation by the clergy. The clerical +journals put a black border on their issue which published it; the +provincial councils under clerical influence nullified as far as possible +all money bequests for the public schools, and the bishops assembled in +August at Mechlin resolved to found free schools in all communities, and +to refuse absolution to all parents who entrusted their children to state +schools and all teachers in them, in order thus to cause a complete decay +of the public schools, which indeed happened to this extent that within a +few months 1,167 communal schools had not a single Catholic scholar. On +complaint being made by the government to Leo XIII., he expressed through +the Brussels nuncio his regret and disapproval of the proceedings of the +bishops; but, on the other hand, he not only privately praised them on +account of their former zeal in opposing the school law, but also incited +them to continued opposition. When this double dealing of the curia was +discovered, the government in June, 1880, broke off all diplomatic +relations with the Vatican by recalling their ambassador and giving the +nuncio his passports. The ministerial president publicly in the chamber of +deputies characterized the action of the Holy See as "_fourberie_." +Whereupon the pope at the next consistory called princes and peoples as +witnesses of this insult. In May, 1882, the results of the inquiry into +clerical incitements against the public was read in the chamber, where +such startling revelations were made as these: Priests taught the children +that they should no longer pray for the king when he had committed the +mortal sin of confirming the school law; the ministers are worse than +murderers and true Herods; a priest even taught children to pray that God +might cause their "liberal" parents to die, etc. Amid such conflicts the +Catholic party in parliament split into the parties of the _Politici_, who +were willing to submit to the constitution, and that of the +_Intransigenti_, who, under the direction of the bishops and the +university of Louvain, held high above everything the standard of the +syllabus. The latter fought with such passionateness, that the pope felt +obliged in 1881 to enjoin upon the episcopate "that prudent attitude" +which the church in such cases always maintains in "enduring many evils" +which for the time cannot be overcome. But undeterred, the government +continued to restrict the claims of the clergy, so far as these were not +expressly guaranteed by the constitution.--In June, 1884, as the result of +the elections for the chamber of deputies, the clerical party again were +in power. Malou was once more at the head of a ministry in favour of the +clericals, caused the king to dissolve the senate, and in the new +elections won there also a majority for his party. No sooner were they in +power than the clerical ministry, in conjunction with the majority in the +chambers, proceeded with inconsiderate haste, amid the most violent, +almost daily repeated explosions from the now intensely embittered liberal +and radical section of the population, which only seemed to increase their +zeal, to employ their absolute power to the utmost in the interest of +clericalism. The restoration of diplomatic relations with the papal curia +in the spirit of absolute acquiescence in its schemes was the grand aim of +the reaction, as well as a new school law by which the schools were +completely given over again to the clergy and the orders. But when at the +next communal elections a liberal majority was returned, and protests of +the new communal councils poured in against the school law on behalf of +the vast number of state certificated teachers reduced by it to hunger and +destitution, the Malou ministry found itself obliged to resign in October, +1884. Its place was taken by the moderate ultramontane Beernaert ministry, +which sought indeed to quiet the excitement by mild measures, but held +firmly in all essential points to the principles of its predecessor. + +7. An exciting episode in the Belgium _Kulturkampf_ is presented by the +appearance of Bishop _Dumont of Tournay_, who, previously an enthusiastic +admirer of Pius IX. and a vigorous defender of the infallibility dogma, +also a zealous patron of stigmatization miracles at Bois d'Haine (§ 188, +4), now suddenly turned round on the school question and refused to obey +the papal injunction. For this he was first suspended, and then in 1880 +formally deposed by the pope. He afterwards wrote letters in the most +advanced liberal journals with violent denunciations of the pope, whom he +would not recognise as pope, but only as Bishop of Rome, and so styled him +not Leo, but only Pecci. In these letters Dumont makes the interesting +communication that the virgin Louise Lateau, favoured of God, has +threatened with excommunication the "intruder" Durousseaux, nominated by +the pope as his successor, because she continues to reverence Dumont as +the only legitimate Bishop of Tournay. The Vatican pronounced him insane, +and the chapter appealed to the civil authorities to have him declared +incapable in the sight of the law, which, however, they refused, because +they could not regard Dumont's insanity as proved. On the other hand, +Dumont refused to renounce his episcopal office, and accused Durousseaux +of having by night, with the help of a locksmith, obtained entrance to his +episcopal palace, and having taken forcible possession of a casket lying +there, which, besides the diocesan property to the value of five millions, +contained also about one and a half millions of his own private means. +Pending the issue of the conflict, as to which of the two should be +regarded as the true bishop, the palace was now officially sealed up. The +attempt to arrest the robbed casket had to be abandoned, because meanwhile +the canon Bernard, as keeper of the treasures of the diocese, had fled +with its contents to America. He was, however, on legal warrant imprisoned +in Havanna and brought back to Belgium in 1882. In April, 1884, the +dispute of the bishops was definitively closed by the judgment of the +supreme tribunal, according to which Dumont, having been legitimately +deposed, has no more claim to the title and revenues of his earlier +office; and in 1886 the supreme court of appeal at Brussels condemned +Bernard "on account of serious breach of trust" to three years' +imprisonment. + +8. _The Protestant Church_ was represented in Belgium only by small +congregations in the chief cities and some Reformed Walloon village +congregations. But for several decades, by the zealous exertions of the +Evangelical Society at Brussels with thirty-four pastors and evangelists, +the work of evangelization not only among Catholic Walloons, but also +among the Flemish population, has made considerable progress, +notwithstanding all agitation and incitement of the people by the Catholic +clergy, so that several new evangelical congregations, consisting mostly +of converts, have been formed. In two small places indeed the whole +communities, roused by episcopal arbitrariness, have gone over.--The pastor +Byse employed by the Evangelical Society at Brussels has taken up the idea +that all men by the fall have lost their immortality, and that it could be +restored again by faith in Christ, while all the unreconciled are given +over to annihilation, the second death of Revelation ii. 11, xx. 15. So +long as he maintained this theory merely as a private opinion the society +took no offence at it, but when he began to proclaim it in his preaching +and in his instruction of the young, and declined to yield to all advice +on the matter, the synod of 1882 resolved upon his dismissal. But a great +part of his congregation still remain faithful to him. + + + +§ 201. The Scandinavian Countries. + + +Notwithstanding the common Scandinavian-national and +Lutheran-ecclesiastical basis on which the civil and religious life is +developed, it assumed in the three Scandinavian countries a completely +diversified course. While in Denmark the civil life bore manifold traces +of democratic tendencies and thereby the relations between church and +state were loosened, Sweden, with a tenacity almost unparalleled in +Protestant countries, has for a long period held fast in exclusive +attachment to the idea of a state church. On the other hand Denmark was +far more open to influences from without hostile to the church, on the one +side those of rationalism, on the other, those of the anti-ecclesiastical +sects, especially of the Baptists and Mormons, than Sweden, which in its +certainly barren, if not altogether dead orthodoxy till after the middle +of the century was almost hermetically sealed against all heterogeneous +influences, but yet could not altogether over-master the pietistically or +methodistically coloured movements of religious yearning that arose among +her own people. Norway, again, although politically united with Sweden, +has, both in national character and in religious development, shown its +more intimate relationship with Denmark. + +1. _Denmark._--From the close of last century rationalism has had a home in +Denmark. In 1825 Professor Clausen, a moderate adherent of the neological +school, published a learned work on the opposition of "Catholicism and +Protestantism," identifying the latter with rationalism. First of all in +that same year Pastor _Grundtvig_ (died 1872), "a man of poetic genius, +and skilled in the ancient history of the land," inspired with equal +enthusiasm for the old Lutheranism of his fathers and for patriotic +Danism, entered the lists and replied with powerful eloquence, lamenting +the decay of Christianity and the church. He was condemned by the court of +justice as injurious, after he had during the process resigned his +pastoral office. A like fate befell the orientalist Lindberg, who charged +Clausen with the breach of his ordination vow. The adherents of Grundtvig +met for mutual edification in conventicles, until at last in 1832 he +obtained permission again to hold public services. Not less influential +was the work of Soeren _Kierkegaard_ (died 1855), who, largely in sympathy +with Grundtvig, without ecclesiastical office, in his writings earnestly +pled for a living subjective piety and unweariedly maintained an +uncompromising struggle against the official Christianity of the +secularized clergy. The wild, unmeasured Danomania of 1848-1849, during +the military conflict with Germany, drew opponents together and made them +friends. Grundtvig declaimed against everything German, and of the two +factors, which he had formerly regarded as the pivots on which universal +history turned, Danism and Lutheranism, he now let go Lutheranism as of +German origin. He therefore proposed the abrogation of the distinctive +German-Lutheran confessions, placed the Apostles' Creed before and above +the Bible and, pressing in a one-sided manner the doctrine of baptismal +grace, demanded a "joyous Christianity," denied the necessity of continued +preaching and exercise of repentance, and wished especially to introduce +into the schools the Norse mythology as introductory to the study of +Christianity. His adherents wrought with the anti-church party for the +abolition of the union of church and state. The Danish constitutional law +of 1849 abolished the confessional churches of the state church, and +Catholics, Reformed, Moravians, and Jews were granted equal civil rights +with the Lutherans. Since then the Catholic church has made slow but +steady progress in the country, and the increasing Baptist movement was +also favoured by a law of the Volkthing of 1857, which abolished +compulsory baptism, and only required the enrolment of all children in the +church books of their respective districts within the period of one year. +Civil marriage had also been granted to dissenters in 1851, and in 1868 +the peculiar institution of "electing communities" was founded, by means +of which twenty families from one or more parishes which declare +themselves dissatisfied with the pastors appointed them, may, without +leaving the national church, form an independent congregation under +pastors chosen by themselves and maintained at their own cost. The +_Schleswig-Holstein_ revolution in 1848, occasioned enormous confusion and +disturbance in the ecclesiastical conditions of the district. Over a +hundred German pastors were expelled and forty-six Schleswig parishes +deprived of the use of the German language in church and school. In 1864 +both provinces were at last by the Austrian and Prussian alliance rent +from the Danish government, and in consequence of the German war of 1866 +were incorporated with Prussia. + +2. _Sweden._--In Sweden there was formed in 1803, in opposition to the +barren orthodoxy of the state church, a religious association which, if +not altogether free of pietistic narrowness, was yet without any heretical +doctrinal tendency, and exercised a quiet and wholesome influence. From +the diligent _reading_ of Scripture and the works of Luther that prevailed +among its members it obtained the name of _Laesare_. The state proceeded +against its members with fines and imprisonment, according to the old +conventicle law of 1726, and the mob treated them with insults and +violence. But in 1842 a fanatical tendency began to show itself under the +leadership of a peasant, Erich Jansen, who induced many "_Readers_" to +quit the church and to cast into the fire even Luther's Postils and +Catechism as quite superfluous alongside of Holy Scripture. They mostly +emigrated to America in 1846. The law of the land since 1686 threatened +every Swede who seceded from the Lutheran state church with imprisonment +and exile, loss of civil privileges and the right of inheritance. As might +therefore be supposed the French Marshal Bernadotte, who in 1818, under +the name of Charles XIV., ascended the throne of Sweden, had been +previously in 1810 obliged to repudiate the Catholic confession. Even in +1857 the Reichstag rejected a royal proposal to set aside the Secession as +well as the Conventicle Act. But in the very next year, the holding of +conventicles under clerical supervision, and in 1860, the secession to +other ecclesiastical denominations, were allowed by law. The constitution +of 1865 still indeed made adherence to the Lutheran confession a condition +of qualification for a seat in either of the chambers. The Reichstag of +1870 at last sanctioned the admission of all Christian dissenters and also +of Jews to all offices of state as well as to the membership of the +Reichstag. On behalf of dissenters, especially of the numerous Baptists +and Methodists, the right of civil marriage was granted in 1879. In 1877, +Waldenstroem, head-master of the Latin school at Gefle, without +ecclesiastical ordination, began zealously and successfully by speech and +writings (to secure the widest possible circulation of which a joint stock +company with large capital was formed) to work for the revival of the +Christian life in the Lutheran national church. He vigorously contended +against the church doctrine of atonement and justification, repudiating +the idea of vicarious penal suffering, and broke through all church order +by allowing the sacrament of the Lord's supper to be dispensed by laymen. +He thus put himself, with his numerous following, directed by lay +preachers in their own prayer meetings and mission halls, into direct +opposition to the church, but by the wise forbearance of the +ecclesiastical authorities he has not yet been formally ejected.(111) + +3. _Norway._--In Norway, toward the end of last century, rationalism was +dominant in almost all the pulpits, and only a few remnants of Moravian +revivalism raised a voice against it. But in 1796, a simple unlearned +peasant _Hans Nielsen Hauge_, then in his twenty-fifth year made his +appearance as a revival preacher, creating a mighty spiritual movement +that spread among the masses throughout the whole land. He had obtained +his own religious knowledge from the study of old Lutheran practical +theology, and arising at a period of extraordinary spiritual excitement, +"his call," as Hase says, "to be a prophet was like that of the herdsman +of Tekoa." From 1799 he continued itinerating for five years, persecuted, +reproached, and calumniated by the rationalistic clergy, ten times cast +into prison, under a law of 1741, which forbad laymen to preach, and then +set free, until he had gone over all Norway even to its farthest and +remotest corners, preaching unweariedly everywhere in houses and in the +open air often three or four times a day, and nourishing besides the flame +which he had kindled by voluminous writings and an extensive +correspondence. He directed his preaching not only against the rationalism +of the state clergy, but also against the antinomian religion of feeling, +of "Blood and Wounds" theology introduced in earlier days by the +Moravians, with a one-sided emphasis and exaggeration indeed, but still in +all essentials maintaining the basis and keeping within the lines of +Lutheran orthodoxy. In 1804 he was charged with tendencies dangerous to +church and state, obtaining money from peasants on false pretences, +inciting the people against the clergy, etc., and again cast into prison. +The trial this time was carried on for ten years, until at last in 1814 +the supreme court sentenced him on account of his invectives against the +clergy to pay a fine, but pronounced him not guilty on the other charges. +Broken down in spirit and body by his long imprisonment, he could not +think of engaging again in his former work. He died in 1824. Numerous +peasant preachers, however, issuing from his school were ready to go forth +in his footsteps, and till this day the salutary effects of his and their +activity are seen in wide circles. The law of 1741 which had been made to +tell against them was at last abrogated by the Storthing in 1842. In 1845 +the right of forming Christian sects was recognised, and in 1851 even the +Jews were allowed the right of settlement previously refused them, and the +security of all civil privileges. Since that time even in Norway the +Catholic church has made considerable progress; in June, 1878, it had +eleven churches and fourteen priests. + + + +§ 202. Great Britain and Ireland. + + +During the course of the century a breach from without was made upon the +stronghold of the Anglican established church and its legal standing +throughout the United Kingdom. The strong coherence of the Anglican +episcopal church had already been weakened internally by the rise within +its own bosom of High, Low, and Broad tendencies. The advance of the +first-named party to tractarianism and ritualism opened the door to Romish +sympathies, while in the last-named school German rationalism and +criticism found favour, and the low church party was not ashamed to go +hand-in-hand with the evangelical pietistic and methodistic tendencies of +the dissenters. There followed numerous conversions to Rome, especially +from the aristocratic ranks of the upper ten thousand. The Emancipation +Act of 1829 opened the door to both Houses of Parliament to the Catholics, +and in 1858 the same privileges were extended to the Jews. Also the +bulwarks which the state church had in the old universities of Oxford and +Cambridge were undermined, and in 1871 were completely overthrown by the +legal abolition of all confessional tests. Down to 1869 the hierarchy of +the episcopal state church, though clearly alien to the country, +maintained its legal position in Catholic Ireland, till at last the Irish +Church Bill brought it there to an end. Repeatedly have bills been +introduced in the House of Commons, though hitherto without success, by +members of the incessantly agitating Liberation Society, to disestablish +the churches of England, Scotland, and Wales.(112) + +1. _The Episcopal State Church._--The two opposing parties of the state +church corresponded to the two political parties of Tories and Whigs. The +_high church party_, which has its most powerful representatives in the +aristocracy, holds aloof from the dissenters, seeks to maintain the +closest connexion between church and state, and eagerly contends for the +retention of all old ecclesiastical forms and ordinances in constitution, +worship, and doctrine. On the other hand the _evangelical or low church +party_, which is more or less methodistically inclined, holds free +intercourse with dissenters, associating with them in home and foreign +mission work, etc., and with various shades of differences advocates the +claims of progress against those of immobility, the independence of the +church against its identification with the state, the evangelical freedom +and general priesthood of believers against orthodoxy and hierarchism. +From their midst arose a movement in 1871, occasioned by the Oxford +"Essays and Reviews" and the works of Bishop Colenso, which resulted in +the publication, under the authority of the bishops, of the "Speaker's +Commentary," so-called because suggested by Denison, who had long been +speaker of the House of Commons. It is a learned, thoroughly conservative +commentary on the whole Bible by the ablest theologians of England. On the +revision of the English translation of the Bible see § 181, 4. Besides +these two parties, however, there has arisen a third, the broad church +party. It originated with the distinguished poet and philosopher, +Coleridge (died 1834), and includes many of the most excellent and +scholarly of the clergy, especially those most eminent for their +acquaintance with German theology and philosophy. They do not form an +organized ecclesiastical party like the evangelicals and high church men, +but endeavour not only to overcome the narrowness and severity of the +former, but also to secure a broader basis and a wider horizon for +theology as well as for the church.(113)--The struggle for the legalizing +of marriage with a deceased wife's sister has been energetically pressed +since 1850, but though the House of Commons has repeatedly passed the +bill, it has been hitherto by small majorities, under the influence of the +bishops, rejected by the House of Lords.--A non-official _Pan-Anglican +Council_ of English bishops from all parts of the world, excluding the +laity and inferior clergy, with pre-eminently anti-Romish and +anti-ritualistic tendencies, was held in London in 1867 (cf. § 175, 5). +When it met the second time in 1878, it was attended by nearly one hundred +bishops, one of them a negro. Of the three weeks' debates and their +results, however, no detailed account has been published. + +2. _The Tractarians and Ritualists._--The activity of the dissenters and +the episcopal evangelical party's attachment to them stirred up the +adherents of the high church party to vigorous guarding of their +interests, and drove them into a one-sided exaggerated accentuation of the +Catholic element. The centre of this movement since 1833 was the +university of Oxford. Its leaders were Professors Pusey and Newman, its +literary organ the _Tracts for the Times_, from which the party received +the name of _Tractarians_. This was a series of ninety treatises, +published 1833-1841, on the basis of Anglo-Catholicism, which sought, +while holding by the Thirty-nine Articles, to affirm with equal +decidedness the genuine Protestantism over against the Roman papacy, and, +in the importance which it attached to the apostolical succession of the +episcopate and priesthood and the apostolical tradition for the +interpretation of Scripture, the genuine Catholicism over against every +form of ultra-Protestantism. In this way, too, their dogmatics in all the +several doctrines, as far as the Thirty-nine Articles would by any means +allow, was approximated to the Roman Catholic doctrine, and indeed +by-and-by passed over entirely to that type of doctrine. Newman's Tract 90 +caused most offence, in which, with thoroughly jesuitical sophistry, it +was argued that the Thirty-nine Articles were capable of an explanation on +the basis of which they might be subscribed even by one who occupied in +regard to the church doctrine and practice an essentially Roman Catholic +standpoint. The university authorities now felt obliged to declare +publicly that the tracts were by no means sanctioned by them, and that +especially the application of the principles of Tract 90 to the conduct of +students in the matter of subscription of the Thirty-nine Articles is not +allowable. Bishop Bagot of Oxford, hitherto favourable to the tractarians, +refused to permit the continued issue of the tracts. The other bishops +also for the most part spoke against them in their pastorals, and a flood +of controversial pamphlets roused the wrath of the non-Catholic populace. +But on the other hand tractarianism still found favour among the higher +clergy and the aristocracy. In 1845 Newman went over to the Catholic +church, and has since led a retired life devoted to theological study. +Pius IX. paid him no attention, but in 1879 Leo XIII. acknowledged and +rewarded his services to the Catholic church by elevating him to the rank +of cardinal. The majority of the tractarians disapproved of Newman's step +and remained in the Anglican church. Thus acted Pusey (died 1882), the +recognised leader of the party, after whom they were now called +_Puseyites_. Many, however, followed Newman's example, so that by the end +of 1846 no less than one hundred and fifty clergymen and prominent laymen +were received into the widely opened door of the Catholic church.(114)--The +following twelve years, 1846-1858, were occupied by two +dogmatico-ecclesiastical conflicts vitally affecting the interests of the +tractarians. (1) _The Gorham Case._ The Thirty-nine Articles took +essentially Lutheran ground in treating of baptism, recognising it as a +vehicle of regeneration and divine sonship, and the tractarians laid +uncommonly great stress upon this article. So also the Bishop of Exeter, +Dr. Philpotts, refused to institute the Rev. Cornelius Gorham because of +his views on this subject. Gorham accused him before the Archbishop of +Canterbury, but the Court of Arches decided in favour of the bishop. The +Court of Appeal, however, the judicial committee of the Privy Council, +annulled the episcopal judgment, and ordered that Gorham should be +installed in his office. In vain did Philpotts, by a protest before the +Court of Queen's Bench, and then before the Court of Common Pleas, against +the jurisdiction of the Privy Council in this case, in vain, too, did +Blomfield, Bishop of London, insist upon the revival of Convocation, which +for one and a half centuries had been inoperative as a spiritual +parliament with upper and lower houses, and in vain did a tractarian +assembly of more than 1,500 distinguished clergymen and laymen lodge a +solemn protest. The judgment of the Privy Council stood, and Gorham was +inducted to his office in 1850. Many of the protesters now went over to +the Catholic church, and about 600 others, like the Puritan Pilgrim +Fathers 230 years before (§ 143, 4), under ecclesiastical oppression, +emigrated to New Zealand.--(2) _The Denison Eucharist Case._--The Puseyite +Archdeacon Denison of Taunton, in the diocese of Bath and Wells, had in +1851 in open defiance of the Thirty-nine Articles, which represent +Calvin's views of the Lord's Supper, affirmed in preaching and writing +that unbelievers as well as believers eat and drink the body and blood of +the Lord. Over this he was involved in a sharp discussion with a +neighbouring clergyman called Ditcher. In 1854 Ditcher accused Denison +before his bishop, who, after vain efforts to reconcile the parties, +referred the matter to the Court of Arches, which sought, but in vain, to +end the strife by compromise. Ditcher now in 1856 brought his complaint +before the _Queen's Bench_, which obliged the archbishop to take up the +matter again. A commission appointed by him declared that the complaint +was quite justifiable, and threatened Denison, when he refused any sort of +retraction, with deposition. But the Court of Appeal in 1858 stayed the +judgment on the ground of a technical error in procedure, and Denison +remained in office. + +3. From the middle of 1850 the tractarians, who had hitherto confined +themselves to the development of the Romanizing system of doctrine, began +to apply its consequences to the church ritual and the Christian life, and +so won for themselves the name of _Ritualists_, which has driven out their +earlier designation. Wherever possible they showed their Catholic zeal by +introducing images, crucifixes, candles, holy water, mass dresses, mass +bells, and boy choristers, urged the restoration of the seven sacraments, +especially of extreme unction, auricular confession, the sacrificial +theory and Corpus Christi day, of prayers for the dead and masses for +souls, invocation of saints and the blessed Virgin; they also praised +celibacy and monasticism, etc. Ritualism has from the first shown singular +skill in party organization. The _English Church Union_, founded in 1860, +has now nearly 200,000 members, of these about 3,000 clergymen and 50 +bishops, and it embraces 300 branches over the whole domain of the +Anglican church. Numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods, guilds and orders, +organized after the style of Roman Catholic monasticism, promote the +interests of ritualism, and zealously prosecute home and foreign mission +work. The _Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament_ originated in 1862, was +able in 1882 to celebrate Corpus Christi day in 250 churches along with +the Romish church, dispensing only with the procession. The _Society of +the Holy Cross_, founded in 1873 consists only of priests, and forms a +kind of directory for all branches of the ritualistic propaganda. The +_English Order of St. Augustine_ has a threefold division, into spiritual +brothers who are preparing for priests' orders, lay brothers who are being +qualified as lay preachers, both under the strictest vows, and a sort of +tertiaries, who are free from vows. Among the sisterhoods which already +supply nurses to all the great hospitals of the capital, the most +important is that called "by the name of Jesus." They take, like the +Beguines of the middle ages, the three vows, but not as binding for life. +By the ultra high church party the genuine apostolic succession of the +ordination of the first Protestant archbishop, Matthew Parker, and so the +genuineness of all subsequent ordinations going back to him, were doubted; +three Anglican bishops are said to have had episcopal consecration anew +conferred on them by a Greek Catholic bishop. The reckless and wilful +procedure of the ritualists in imitating the Roman Catholic ritual in +public worship called forth frequent violent disturbances at their +services, and noisy crowds flocked to their churches. Most frequent and +violent were the riots in 1859 and 1860 in the parish of St. George's, +London, where scarcely any service was held without disgraceful scenes of +hissing, whistling, stamping, and cries of "No popery." The offscouring of +all London flocked to the Sunday services as to a public entertainment. +Instead of hymns, street songs were sung, instead of responses blasphemous +cries were shouted forth, while cushions and prayer-books were hurled at +the altar decorations, etc. These unseemly proceedings were caused by the +ritualistic rector, Bryan King, who had introduced the objectionable +ceremonial, and obstinately continued it in spite of the decided +opposition and protests of his colleague, Mr. Allen. King's removal in +1860 first put an end to these disturbances, which police interference +proved utterly unable to check. The ritualistic _Church Union_, called +into existence by these proceedings, was opposed by an anti-ritualistic +_Church Association_, and from both multitudes of complaints and appeals +were brought before the ecclesiastical and civil tribunals. The first case +they brought up was that of Rev. A. H. MacConochie, of Holborn, who, +having been admonished by the ecclesiastical courts on account of his +ritualistic practices in 1867, appealed to the Privy Council. And although +this court decided in 1869 that all ceremonies not authorized by the +prayer-book are to be regarded as forbidden, he and his followers +continued to act on the principle that whatever is not there expressly +prohibited ought to be permitted. The _Public Worship Regulation Bill_, +introduced by Archbishop Tait, and passed by Parliament, which +legislatively determined the procedure in ritualistic cases, did not +prevent the constant advance of this movement. The _Court of Arches_ now +issued a suspension against the accused, and condemned them to prison when +they continued to officiate, until they declared themselves ready to obey +or to demit their office. Tooth of Hatcham, Dale of London, Enraght of +Bordesdale, and Green of Miles Platting were actually sent to prison in +1880. But the first three were soon liberated by the Court of Appeal +finding some technical flaw in the proceedings against them, while Green, +in whose case no such flaw appeared, lay in confinement for twenty months. +The ritualists still persistently continued their practice, and their +opponents renewed their prosecutions; these were followed by appeals to +the higher courts, presenting of petitions to both the Houses of +Parliament, addresses with vast numbers of signatures for and against to +the Archbishop of Canterbury, to Convocation which had meanwhile been +restored, to the Cabinet, to the Queen, etc. The result was that many +cases were abandoned, some obnoxious parties transferred elsewhere, and a +very few deposed. + +4. _Liberalism in the Episcopal Church._--The more liberal tendency of the +broad church party had also many supporters who scrupled not to pass +beyond the traditional bounds of English orthodoxy. In opposition to the +orthodoxy zealousy inculcated at Oxford, rationalism found favour at the +rival university of Cambridge, and vigorous support was given to the views +of the Tuebingen school of Baur in the London _Westminster Review_. And +even in high church Oxford, there were not wanting teachers in sympathy +with the critical and speculative rationalism of Germany. Great excitement +was caused in 1860 by the "_Essays and Reviews_," which in seven treatises +by so many Oxford professors contested the traditional apologetics and +hermeneutics of English theology, and set a sublimated rationalism in its +place. In Germany these not very important treatises would probably have +excited little remark, but in the English church they roused an +unparalleled disturbance; more than nine thousand clergymen of the +episcopal church protested against the book, and all the bishops +unanimously condemned it. The excitement had not yet subsided when from +South Africa oil was poured upon the flames. Bishop Colenso of Natal (died +1883), who had zealously carried on the mission there, but had openly +expressed the conviction that it is unwise, unscriptural, and unchristian +to make repudiation by Caffres living in polygamy, of all their wives but +one, a condition of baptism, had occasioned still greater offence by +publishing in 1863 in seven vols. a prolix critical disquisition on the +Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, in which he contested the authenticity +and unconditional credibility of these books by arguments familiar long +ago but now quite antiquated and overthrown in Germany. During a journey +to England undertaken for his defence he was excommunicated and deposed by +a synod of the South African bishops in Capetown. The Privy Council, as +supreme ecclesiastical court in England, cleared him, as well as the +authors of the Essays, from the charge of heresy. An important aid for the +dissemination of liberal religious views is afforded by the Hibbert +Lectureship. Robert Hibbert (died 1849), a wealthy private gentleman in +London, assigned the yearly interest of a considerable sum for "the +spreading of Christianity in its simplest form as well as the furthering +of the unfettered exercise of the individual judgment in matters of +religion." The Hibbert trustees are eighteen laymen who dispense the +revenues in supplementing the salaries of poorly paid clergymen of liberal +views, in providing bursaries for theological students at home and abroad, +and in other such like ways, but since 1878 especially, by advice of +distinguished scholars, in the endowment of annual courses of lectures, +afterwards published, on subjects in the domain of philosophy, biblical +criticism, the comparative science of religion and the history of +religion. The first Hibbert Lecturer was the celebrated Oxford professor, +Max Mueller, in 1878. Among other lecturers may be named Renan of Paris in +1880; Kuenen of Leyden in 1882; Pfleiderer of Berlin, in 1885. The battle +waged with great passionateness on both sides since 1869 for and against +the removal of the Athanasian Creed, or at least its anathemas, from the +liturgy has not yet been brought to any decided result. + +5. _Protestant Dissenters in England._--Down nearly to the end of the +eighteenth century all the enactments and restrictions of the Toleration +Act of 1689 (§ 155, 3) continued in full force. But in 1779 the obligation +of Protestant dissenters to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles was +abolished, and the acknowledgment of the Bible as God's revealed word +substituted. The right of founding schools of their own, hitherto denied +them, was granted in 1798. In 1813 the Socinians were also included among +the dissenters who should enjoy these privileges. After a severe struggle +the _Corporation and Test Acts_ were set aside in 1826, affording all +dissenters entrance to Parliament and to all civil offices. The necessity +of being married and having their children baptized in an episcopal church +was removed by the Marriage and Registration Act of 1836 and 1837, and +divorce suits were removed from the ecclesiastical to a civil tribunal in +1857. In 1868 compulsory church rates for the episcopal parish church were +abolished. Lord Russell's University Bill of 1854, by restricting +subscription of the Thirty-nine Articles to the theological students, +opened the universities of Oxford and Cambridge to dissenters, while the +University Tests Bill of 1871 made the adherents of all religious +confessions eligible for all university honours and emoluments at both +seminaries. Thus one restriction after another was removed, so that at +last the episcopal church has nothing of her exclusive privileges left +beyond the rank and title of a state church, and the undiminished +possession of all her ancient property, from which her prelates draw +princely revenues. + +6. _Scotch Marriages in England._--The saints of the English Revolution had +indeed resolved in 1653 to introduce civil marriage (§ 162, 1). But the +reaction under Cromwell set this unpopular law aside, and the Restoration +made marriage by an Anglican clergyman, even for dissenters, an +indispensable condition of legal recognition. But in no country, +especially among the higher orders, were private marriages, without the +knowledge and consent of the family, so frequent as here, and clergymen +were always to be found unscrupulous enough to celebrate such weddings in +taverns or other convenient places. When an end had been put to such +irregularities on English soil by an Act of Parliament of 1753, lovers +seeking secret marriage betook themselves to Scotland. In that country +there prevailed, and still prevails, the theory that a declaration of +willingness on both sides constitutes a perfectly valid marriage. The +Scottish ecclesiastical law indeed requires church proclamation and +ceremony, but failure to observe this requirement is followed only by a +small pecuniary fine. Fugitive English couples generally made the +necessary declaration before a blacksmith at Gretna-Green, who was also +justice of the peace in this small border village, and were then +legitimately married people according to Scottish law. Only in 1856 were +all marriages performed in this manner without previous residence in +Scotland pronounced by Act of Parliament invalid. + +7. _The Scottish State Church._--The Presbyterian Church of Scotland, from +the beginning strictly Calvinistic in constitution, doctrine and practice, +has, generally speaking, preserved this character. Only in recent times +has the endeavour of the so-called _Moderates_ to introduce a milder type +of doctrine won favour. The Established Church, as a national church +properly so-called and recognised by law, dates from the political union +of England and Scotland in the kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and the +Anglican Episcopal Church there was then reduced to a feebly represented +dissenting denomination. Patronage, set aside indeed in the Reformation +age, but restored under Queen Anne in 1712, and since then, in spite of +all opposition from the stricter party, continued, because often misused +to secure the intrusion of inacceptable ministers upon congregations, gave +occasion to repeated secessions. Thus the _Secession Church_ broke off in +1732, and the _Relief Church_ in 1752, the latter going beyond the +former's protest against patronage by unconditional repudiation of +Erastianism, _i.e._ the theory of the necessary connection of Church and +State (§ 144, 1), and the assertion of the spiritual independence of the +church, and expressed firmly the principles of Voluntaryism, _i.e._ the +payment of all ecclesiastical officers, etc., by voluntary contributions. +Both parties united in 1847 in the _United Presbyterian Church_, which now +embraces one-fifth of the population.--Twice that number joined the +secession of the Free Church in 1843. The General Assembly of the Church +of Scotland granted to congregations in 1834 the right of vetoing +presentations to vacancies. The civil courts, however, upheld the absolute +right of patrons, and at the Assembly of 1843 about two hundred of the +most distinguished ministers, with the great Dr. Chalmers (died 1847) at +their head, left the state church, and, as _Non-Intrusionists_, founded +the _Free Church of Scotland_, which at its own cost formed new parishes +and distinguished itself by Christian zeal in every direction. It differs +from the _United Presbyterian Church_ in restricting its opposition to the +abuse of patronage, without repudiating right off every sort of state aid +and endowment as unevangelical. But even to it the law passed in 1846, +granting to all congregations the right of veto, seemed now no longer a +sufficient motive to return to the state church. Even when in 1874, +parliament, at the call of the government, formally abolished the rights +of patronage through all Scotland and gave to the congregations the right +of choosing their own ministers, the General Assembly of the Free Church +by a great majority refused to reunite with the state church brought so +near it, because it conceded to the civil courts unwarrantable +interference with its internal affairs, especially the right of suspending +its clergy.(115) + +8. _Scottish Heresy Cases._--The Glasgow presbytery lodged before the +United Presbyterian Synod in Edinburgh of 1878 a charge against the Rev. +Fergus Ferguson of heresy, because his teaching was in conflict with the +church doctrine of the atonement in saying that sinners, apart from +Christ's intervention, would not suffer eternal punishment but extinction, +and that the same fate still lay before unbelievers and the impenitent. +After five days' violent discussion, the majority of the synod, while +strongly dissenting from his views and urging him to avoid it in his +preaching and catechising, resolved to retain him in office as having +proved his adherence to the orthodox doctrine of the atonement. But when, +at next year's synod, the Rev. D. Macrae of Gourock asserted that, in +spite of the Westminster Confession, it was allowable for ministers to +deny the eternity of punishment, and would not promise to preach +otherwise, he was unanimously deposed.--Far more exciting and long +continued were the proceedings begun in the Free Church in 1876, against +Professor Robertson Smith of Aberdeen, who was charged before his +presbytery with offensive statements about angels, but especially with +contradicting the inspiration of Scripture by contesting the Mosaic +authorship of Deuteronomy. After various proposals of deposition, +suspension, rebuke, acquittal, had been made, the General Assembly of +1880, after much deliberation and discussion, by a majority found the +charge of heterodoxy not proven, but earnestly exhorted the accused to +greater circumspection and moderation, and the decision was greeted with +thundering applause from the students and waving of handkerchiefs from the +ladies present. But when, very soon after this acquittal, several other +contributions by him appeared in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, on the +Hebrew Language and Literature, and Haggai, in the spirit of the +Wellhausen criticism (§ 182, 18), as also an article on Animal Worship +among the Arabians and in the Old Testament, in the _Journal of +Philology_, the _Commission_ sitting in Edinburgh reinstituted proceedings +against him. In October, 1880, Smith vindicated before that court his +scientific attitude toward the Old Testament, maintaining that a moderate +criticism of the biblical books was reconcilable with the maintenance of +their inspired authority. The majority of the Commission, however, voted +for his expulsion from his chair. Smith protested both against the +competence and against the judgment of the Commission, but declared +himself ready to submit to the judgment of the General Assembly. Meanwhile +he accepted an invitation from Glasgow to deliver public lectures there on +the Old Testament, which were received with extraordinary favour. This +course was published under the title: "_The Old Testament in the Jewish +Church_." The General Assembly of May, 1881, now decided by a large +majority to remove him from his academical chair, with retention of his +license and his professor's salary, which latter, however, Smith declined. +But his numerous sympathizers presented him with a scientific library +worth L3,000, and promised an annual stipend equal to his former salary. +In 1883 he received the appointment as Professor of Arabic in Cambridge +and the large revenues of that office allowed him to decline the offer of +his friends.(116) + +9. _The Catholic Church in Ireland._--The Catholic inhabitants of Ireland +under Protestant proprietors, and forced to pay tithes for the support of +the Protestant clergy, were always deprived of civil rights. In 1809 +O'Connell (died 1847), an agitator of great popular eloquence, placed +himself at the head of the oppressed people, in order in a constitutional +way to secure religious and political freedom and equality. At last, in +1829, the Emancipation Bill, supported by Peel and Wellington, was passed, +which on the basis of the formal declaration of the whole Catholic +episcopate that papal infallibility and papal sovereignty in civil matters +was not part of the Catholic faith nor could be joined therewith either in +Ireland or anywhere else in the Catholic world, gave to Catholics +admission to parliament and to all civil and military appointments. But +the hated tithes remained, and were enforced, when refused, by military +force. After long debates in both houses of parliament, the Tithes Bill +was adopted in 1838, which transferred the tithe as a land-tax from +tenants to proprietors, which, however, was only a postponing of the +question. It was thus regarded by O'Connell. He declared that justice for +Ireland could only be got by abolishing the legislative union with Great +Britain existing since 1800, and restoring her independent parliament. For +this purpose he organized the Repeal Association. In 1840 another no less +powerful popular agitator arose in the person of the Irish Capuchin, +Father Mathew, the apostle of temperance, who with unparalleled success +persuaded thousands of those degraded by drink to take vows of abstinence +from spirituous liquors. He kept apart from all political agitation, but +the fruits of his exertions were all in its favour. O'Connell in 1843 +organized monster meetings, attended by hundreds of thousands. The +government had him tried, the jury found him guilty, but the House of +Lords quashed the conviction and liberated him from prison in 1844. The +Peel ministry now sought to soothe the excitement by passing in 1845 the +Legacy Act, which allowed Catholics to hold property in their own names, +and the Maynooth Bill, by which the theological seminary at Maynooth +received a rich endowment from the State. Continued famine, and consequent +emigration of several hundreds of thousands to America and Australia, +relieved Ireland of a considerable portion of its Catholic population, +while Protestant missions by Bible and tract circulation and by schools +had some success in evangelizing those who remained. On November 5th, +1855, the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot, the Redemptorists at +Kingstown, near Dublin, erected and burnt a great bonfire in the public +streets of Bibles which they had seized, and the primate archbishop of +Ireland justified it by reference to the example of the believers at +Ephesus (Acts xix. 19). + +10. The Fenian movement, originating among the American Irish, which since +1863 created such terror among the English, was the result of political +rather than religious agitation. Although this movement failed in its +proper end, namely the complete separation of Ireland from England, it yet +forced upon the government the conviction of the absolute necessity of +meeting the just demands of the Irish by thorough-going reforms and +putting an end to the oppressions which the native farmers suffered at the +hands of foreign landowners, and the grievances endured by the Catholic +church by the maintenance of the Anglican church established in Ireland. +The carrying out of these reforms was the service rendered by the +Gladstone ministry. By the Irish Land Bill of 1870 the land question was +solved according to the demands of justice, and by the Irish Church Bill +of 1869, which deprived the Anglican church in Ireland of the character of +a state church and put it on the same footing as other denominations, the +church question was similarly settled. The dignitaries of the Anglican +church thus lost their position as state officials and their seats in the +House of Lords. The rich property of the hitherto established church was +calculated and applied partly to compensating for losses caused by this +reform, partly to creating benevolent institutions for the general good. +But neither the Church Bill, nor the Land Bill, nor the Universities Bill, +which in 1880 founded by state aid a Catholic university in Dublin, +secured the reconciliation of the Irish. "Eternal hatred of England" was +and is the battle cry; "Ireland for the Irish, and only for them," is +their watchword. In order to carry out this scheme an Irish "National +League" was formed, and innumerable secret "Moonlighters," under the +supposed leadership of "Captain Moonshine," committed atrocities by +burning farm steadings and mutilating cattle, murdering and massacring by +dagger and revolver, petroleum and dynamite, and directed their operations +against the representatives of the government, against proprietors who +sought rent, against tenants who paid rent, against officials who +endeavoured to enforce it, and against everything that was, or was called, +English. In order to cut at the root of this lawlessness, which by +proclamation of a state of siege was only restricted, not overthrown, the +government of 1881 passed further agrarian reforms: All tenant rights were +to be purchased by the surplus of the fund formed by the disestablishment +of the Irish church, and where this did not suffice, by state grants, and +the right to conclude contracts for rent and to determine its amount was +transferred from the proprietors to a newly-constituted land court, +without whose permission, after the lapse of the fifteen years' term, no +rent contract could be made. But even this did not stop almost daily +repeated murders and acts of destruction. The government now sought the +aid of the pope through the mediation of a Catholic member of parliament +on a visit to Rome; but these merely confidential negotiations led to no +considerable result. In May, 1883, the curia, on the occasion of a +collection promoted by the National League as a magnificent national +present to the great (Protestant) leader of the agitation, Mr. Parnell, in +a circular letter, forbad "_proprio motu_," the bishops in the strictest +manner taking any part in the movement, and urged them to dissuade their +members from doing so. But only Archbishop McCabe of Dublin (died 1885), +from the first an opponent of the League, issued a pastoral against it to +be read in all the pulpits of his diocese. The other bishops ignored the +papal command, and among the Catholic people the opinion obtained that +they owed to the pope obedience in spiritual but not in political matters. +The collections for the Parnell fund were continued with redoubled zeal. +The attempts of dynamitards, supplied with materials by their American +compatriots, and other agrarian offences have not yet been finally +stopped. + +11. _The Catholic Church in England and Scotland._--The Emancipation Act, +passed mainly for the relief of the Irish, naturally also benefited +English Catholics, who in 1791 had been allowed to hold Catholic services. +Led by the numerous accessions of Puseyites to entertain the most +extravagant hopes, Pius IX. in 1850 issued a bull, by which the Roman +Catholic hierarchy in England was reinstituted with twelve suffragan +bishoprics under one archbishop of Westminster. The bull occasioned great +excitement in the Protestant population (_Anti-Papal Aggression_), and the +_Ecclesiastical Titles Bill_ forbade the use of ecclesiastical titles not +sanctioned by the law of the land. After the first excitement had passed, +the Catholic bishops, at their head the learned and brilliant and zealous +ultramontane Cardinal Archbishop Wiseman (died 1865), and his successor, +surpassing him, if not in genius and learning, at least in ultramontane +zeal, the Puseyite convert Manning, made a cardinal in 1875, used with +impunity their condemned titles, until in 1871 the Ecclesiastical Titles +Bill was formally revoked by act of parliament. Conversions in noble +families were particularly numerous in the later decades. Since 1850 the +number of Catholics in England and Scotland has quadrupled. This has been +caused in great part by Irish emigration, for the middle and lower ranks +of the English have scarcely been affected by the conversion fever, which +as the latest form of the fitful humour of the English had so rich a +harvest in the families of the nobility. In 1780 all London had only one +Catholic place of worship, the chapel of the Sardinian embassy, which on +June 2nd of that year was wrecked and burnt by a raging mob. Now the +English capital has two episcopal dioceses, ninety-four Catholic churches +and chapels (besides about 900 Anglican churches) with 313 clergymen, and +forty-four cloisters. In the House of Lords sit twenty-eight Roman +Catholic peers, and in both countries there are forty-seven Catholic +baronets. Since 1847 England has a specifically Catholic university at +Kensington, under the episcopate, and with the pope as its supreme head, +which, however, with its poor staff of teachers and its expensive course +attracts but a few of the Catholic youth of England. Since the Anti-Papal +Aggression of 1850 failed, the Protestant people have shown themselves +comparatively indifferent to such assumptions of the papacy.--In the Act of +Union of 1707 (§ 155, 3), _Scotland_ was guaranteed the absolute exclusion +of every sort of Roman Catholic hierarchy for all time to come. But in +recent times the number of its Catholic inhabitants so greatly increased, +that Pius IX. in his last years, not unaided by the English government, +eagerly urged the re-establishment of the hierarchy, and Leo XIII. was +able at his first consistory of the college of cardinals in March, 1878, +to make appointments to the two newly-erected archdioceses and their +bishoprics. On the following Easter Sunday the allocution relating thereto +was read in all Catholic churches in Scotland. The restoration was thus +carried out in spite of all protests and demonstrations of Scottish +Protestants. + +12. _German Lutheran Congregations in Australia._--Besides the dominant +Anglican church, emigration has led to the formation of a considerable +number of German Lutheran congregations, which are distributed in three +synods. 1. The Victoria Synod was founded in 1852 by pastor Goethe. It +adopted at first the union platform, but subsequently attached itself more +decidedly to the Lutheran confession. 2. Pastor Karch, who in 1830 +emigrated with a number of Prussian Lutherans, in order to avoid the +union, laid the foundation of the Immanuel Synod. Since 1875 it has been +supplied with preachers from the missionary institute of Neuendettelsau. +It is distinguished by its missionary zeal for the conversion of the +natives, pursues with special interest the study of the prophetic word, +and makes chiliasm an open question which need not rend the church. 3. The +South Australian Synod, on the other hand, is the decided opponent of any +sort of chiliasm, and has assumed an attitude of violent antagonism to the +Immanuel Synod. + + + +§ 203. France. + + +In France, lauded as the eldest daughter of the church after the overthrow +of the first Empire, ultramontanism, under the secret and open +co-operation of the Jesuits, has ever arisen with revived youth and vigour +out of all the political convulsions which have since passed over the +land. And though indeed Gallicanism seemed again to obtain strength under +the second Empire and, down to the close of that period, found many able +champions among learned theologians like Bishop Maret (§ 189, 1), and even +among exalted prelates like the noble Archbishop Darboy of Paris, a martyr +of his office under the Commune (§ 212, 4), its influence faded gradually, +and in the latest phase of France's political development, the third +republic, seems utterly to have disappeared, so that even the +"_Kulturkampf_" which broke out in 1879 could not give it life again.--The +number of Protestant churches and church members, in spite of bloody +persecutions during the Bourbon restoration, and many arbitrary +restrictions by Catholic prefects under the citizen king and the second +Empire, by numerous accessions of whole congregations and groups of +congregations through zealous evangelization efforts, by means of school +instruction, itinerant preaching, and Bible colportage, has increased +during the century fourfold. In the Reformed church the opposition of +methodistically tinctured orthodoxy, reinforced from England and French +Switzerland, and rationalistic freethinking, led to sharp conflicts. Also +in the Lutheran church, more strongly influenced by Germany, similar +discussions arose, but a more conciliatory spirit prevailed and violent +struggles were avoided. + +1. _The French Church under Napoleon I._--In 1801 Napoleon as Consul +concluded with Pius VII. a Concordat which, adopting the concordat of +Francis I. (§ 111, 14), abandoning the pragmatic sanction of Bourges, and +only haggling about the limits to be fixed for the two powers, gave no +consideration to the idea of a wholesome internal reform of the French +Church: Catholicism is the acknowledged religion of the majority of the +French people; the church property belongs to the state, with the +obligation to maintain the clergy and ordinances; the clergy who had taken +the oath and those who were expatriated were all to resign, but were +eligible for election; new boundaries were to be marked out for the +episcopal dioceses with reference to the political divisions of the +country; the government elects and the pope confirms the bishops, and +these, with approval of the government, appoint the priests. The one-sided +_Organic Articles_ of the first Consul of 1802, which were annexed to the +publication of the Concordat as a code of explanatory regulations, made +any proclamation of papal orders and decrees of all foreign councils +dependent on previous permission of the government, as also the calling of +synods and consultative assemblies of the clergy. They further ordained +that all official services of the clergy should be gratuitous, and +transferred to the civil council the right and duty of strict inquiry into +any clerical breach of civil laws and any misuse or excessive exercise of +clerical authority. The thirty-first article, however, created that +unhappy order of _Desservants_ or curates, the result of which was that +interim appointments were made to most of the benefices in order to +squeeze state pay in supplement to the inadequate ecclesiastical +endowments, and so their holders were at the absolute mercy of the bishops +who could transport or dispense with them at any moment. For further +particulars about the friendly and hostile relations of Napoleon and the +pope, see § 185, 1. By an imperial decree of 1810, the four articles of +the Gallican Church (§ 156, 3) were made laws of the Empire; and a French +National Council of 1811 sought to complete the reconstruction of the +church according to Napoleon's ideas, but proved utterly incapable for +such a task, and was therefore dissolved by the emperor himself.--To pacify +the Protestants, dissatisfied with the Concordat, amid flattering +acknowledgment of their services to the state, to science and to the arts, +an appendix was attached to the Organic Articles, securing to them liberty +of religious worship and political and municipal equality with Catholics. +For training ministers for the Reformed Church a theological seminary was +founded at Montauban, and for Lutherans an academy with a seminary at +Strassburg. Napoleon also afterwards proved himself on every occasion +ready to help the Protestants. He was equally forward in recognising +public opinion in France. The National Institute of France in 1804 offered +a prize for an essay on the influence of Luther's Reformation on the +formation and advance of European national life, and awarded it to the +treatise of the Catholic physician Villers (_Essai sur l'influence de la +ref. de Luther_, etc.), which in all respects glorified Protestantism. +Even the Catholic clergy during the first Empire exhibited an easy temper +and tolerance such as was never shown before or since. The obligatory +civil marriage law introduced by the Revolution in 1792, obtained place in +the _Code Napoleon_ in 1804, and was with it introduced in Belgium and the +provinces of the Rhine.(117) + +2. _The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom._--The _Charter_ of the Bourbon +Restoration under Louis XVIII. (1814-1824) and Charles X. (1824-1830) made +Catholicism the state religion and granted toleration and state protection +to the other confessions. A new concordat concluded with Pius VII. in +1817, by which that of Napoleon of 1801, with the Organic Articles of the +following year, were abrogated, and the state of matters previous to 1789 +restored, was so vigorously opposed by the nation, that the ministry were +obliged to withdraw the measure introduced in both chambers for giving it +legislative sanction. Ultramontanism, however, in its boldest form, +steadily favoured by the government, soon prevailed among the clergy to +such an extent that any inclination to Gallicanism was denounced as heresy +and intolerance of Protestantism lauded as piety. In southern France the +rekindled hatred of the Catholic mob against the Reformed broke out in +1815 in brutal and bloody persecution. The government kept silence till +the indignation of Europe obliged it to put down the atrocities, but the +offenders were left unpunished. Connivance in such lawlessness on the part +of the government contributed largely to its overthrow in the July +revolution of 1830. The Catholic Church then lost again the privilege of a +state religion, and the hitherto persecuted and oppressed Protestants +obtained equal rights with the Catholics. But even under the new +constitutional government of Orleans, ultramontanism soon reasserted +itself. The Protestants had to complain of much injury and injustice from +Catholic prefects, and the Protestant minister Guizot claimed for France +the protectorate of the whole Catholic world. The Reformed Church +meanwhile flourished, though vacillating between methodistic narrowness +and rationalistic shallowness, growing both inwardly and outwardly, and +also the Lutheran communities, which outside of Alsace were only thinly +scattered, enjoyed great prosperity. In the February revolution of 1848 +the Catholic clergy readily yielded obedience to the citizen king Louis +Philippe, and, on the ground that the Catholic church is suited to any +form of government which only grants liberty to the church, did not refuse +their benediction to the tree of freedom with the sovereign people at the +barricades. + +3. _The Catholic Church under Napoleon III._--Louis Napoleon, as president +of the new republic (1848-1852), and still more decidedly as emperor +(1852-1870), inclined to follow the traditions of his uncle, regarded the +concordat of 1801 as still legally in force and seemed specially anxious +to arouse zeal for the Gallican liberties. Although his bayonets secured +the pope's return to Rome (§ 185, 2) and even afterwards supported his +authority there, he did not fulfil the heart's wish of the emperor by the +people's grace to place the imperial crown upon his head in his own +person. Severely strained relations between the imperial court and the +episcopate resulted in 1860 from a pamphlet against the papacy inspired by +the government (§ 185, 3). Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, was one of the +oldest and most determined defenders of the interests of the papal see, +and from Poitiers the emperor was pretty openly characterized as a second +Pilate. The government did not venture directly to interfere between the +two, but reminded the bishops that the emperor's differences with the pope +referred only to temporal affairs. It also forbade the forming of separate +societies for the collecting of Peter's pence, and dissolved the societies +of St. Vincent, instituted for benevolent purposes, but misused for +ultramontane agitations. When Archbishop Desprez of Toulouse, like his +predecessors in 1662 and 1762, on May 16th, 1862, with pompous phrases of +piety appointed the jubilee festival of the "_fait glorieux_," by which at +Toulouse three hundred years before, by means of shameful treachery and +base breach of pledges 4,000 Protestants were murdered (§ 139, 15), a +shout of indignation rose from almost all French journals and the +government forbade the ceremonial. It also refused permission to proclaim +the papal encyclical with the syllabus (§ 185, 2) and condemned several +bishops who disobeyed for misuse of their office. Under the influence of +the ultramontane empress Eugenie, however, the relation of the government +to the curia and the higher clergy of the empire, since the one could not +do without the other, became more friendly and intimate, till the day of +Sedan, September 2nd, 1870, put an end to the Napoleonic empire and the +temporal power of the papacy which it had maintained. + +4. _The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III._--After the revolution of +1848, the Lutherans at an assembly in Strassburg and the Reformed in Paris +consulted about a new organization of their churches. But as the latter +resolved in order to maintain constitutional union amid doctrinal +diversity, entirely to set aside symbol and dogma, pastor Fr. Monod and +Count Gasparin, the noble defenders of French Protestantism, lodged a +protest, and with thirty congregations of the strict party constituted a +new council at Paris in 1849, independent of the state, as the _Union des +eglises evangeliques de France_ with biennial synods. Louis Napoleon gave +to the Reformed Church a central council in Paris with consistories and +presbyteries; to the Lutheran, an annual general consistory as a +legislative court and a standing directory as an administrative court. The +Lutheran theological faculty at Strassburg with its vigorous +unconfessional science represents the westernmost school of +Schleiermacher's theology. The academy at Montauban, with Adolph Monod at +its head, represents Reformed orthodoxy, not strictly confessional but +coloured by methodistic piety, and Coquerel in Paris, was the head of the +rationalistic party of the Reformed national church. The lead in the +reaction against rationalism since 1830 has been taken by the _Societe +evangelique_ at Paris, which, aiming at the Protestantising of France, and +using for this end Bible colportage, tract distribution, the sending out +of evangelists, school instruction, etc., has developed an extraordinarily +restless and successful activity. It has been powerfully supported by the +evangelical society of Geneva. The number of Protestant clergymen in +France has steadily risen, and almost every year in and out of the +Catholic population new evangelical congregations have been formed, in +spite of endless difficulties put in the way by Catholic courts. In +Strassburg, in 1854, the Jesuits persuaded the Catholic prefects to recall +and arrest the revenues of the former St. Thomas institute, which since +the Reformation had been applied to the maintenance of a Protestant +gymnasium. The prefect of Paris, however, was instructed to desist from +his claims. In the speech from the throne in 1858, the emperor declared +that the government secured for Protestants full liberty of worship, +without forgetting, however, that Catholicism is the religion of the +majority, and the _Moniteur_ commented on this imperial speech so +evidently in the spirit of the _Univers_, that the prefects could not be +in doubt how to understand it. By General Espinasse, who, after the Orsini +attempt on the emperor's life in 1858, officiated for a long time as +Minister of the Interior, the prefects were expressly instructed, to +extend their espionage of the ill-affected press to the proceedings of the +evangelical societies, and to prohibit the colportage of Protestant +Bibles. On a change of minister, however, the latter enactment was +withdrawn, and only agents of foreign Bible societies were interfered +with. By an imperial decree of 1859, the right of permitting of the +opening of new Protestant churches and chapels was taken from the local +courts and transferred to the imperial council of state. For every +Protestant congregation, so soon as it numbered 400 souls, the legal state +salary for the clergymen would be paid. + +5. _The Catholic Church in the Third French Republic._--The Gambetta +government, the national vindication of the 4th September, 1870, resigned +its power in February, 1871, into the hands of the National Assembly +elected by the whole nation, which, although through clerical influence +upon the electors predominantly monarchical and clerical, appointed the +old Voltairean Thiers (died, 1877), formerly ministerial president under +Louis Philippe, as alone qualified for the difficult post of president of +the republic. In the necessary second vote, indeed, there was a +considerable increase of the republican and as such thoroughly +anti-clerical party; but even in its ranks it was admitted that the +establishment of France as leader of all Europe in the fight against +ultramontanism and the co-operation therein of the clergy were the +absolutely indispensable means for the political _Revanche_, after which +the hearts of all Frenchmen longed as the hart for the water streams. A +petition from five bishops and other dignitaries to the National Assembly +for the restoration of the temporal power of the pope was set aside as +inopportune. But Archbishop Guibert of Paris, without asking the +government, proclaimed the infallibility dogma, and the minister of +instruction, Jules Simon, contented himself with warning the episcopate in +a friendly way against any further illegal steps of that kind. The +clerical party was also successful in its protest to the National Assembly +against the education law, which by raising the standard of instruction, +placing it under the supervision of the state and making inspection of +schools obligatory, proposed to put an end to the terrible ignorance of +the French people as the chief cause of their deep decay. Bishop Dupanloup +of Orleans was appointed president of the commission for examining it, and +so its fate was sealed. Meanwhile the people, by frequent manifestations +of the Virgin, were roused to a high pitch of religious excitement. Crowds +of pilgrims encouraged by miraculous healings flocked to our Lady of La +Salette, at Lourdes, etc. (§ 188, 6), and the consecration of _Notre Dame +de la Deliverance_ at Bayeux was celebrated as a brilliant national +festival. When in May, 1873, Thiers gave way before the machinations of +his opponents and, under the new president, Marshal Macmahon, the +thoroughly clerical ministry of the Duc de Broglie got the helm of +affairs, the pilgrimage craze, mariolatry and ultramontane piety, aided by +the prefects and mayors, increased to an unparalleled extent among all +ranks. Under the Buffet ministry of 1875 the influence of clericalism was +unabated. To him it owed its most important acquisition, the right of +creating free Catholic universities wholly independent of the State, with +the privilege of conferring degrees. But when in 1876 the new elections +for the National Assembly gave an anti-clerical majority, Buffet was +obliged to resign. The new Dufaure ministry, with the Protestant +Waddington as minister of instruction, declared indeed that it continued +the liberty of instruction, but decidedly refused the right of conferring +degrees. The proposal to this effect met with the hearty support of the +new chamber of deputies. But all the greater was the jubilation of the +clericals when the senate by a small majority refused its consent, and all +the more eagerly was the founding of new free Catholic universities +carried on, at Paris, Angers, Lyons, Lille and Toulouse, but +notwithstanding every effort they only attracted a very small number of +scholars,--in 1879, when they flourished most, at all the five there were +only 742 students. + +6. _The French _"Kulturkampf,"_ 1880._--The Dufaure ministry was succeeded +in December, 1876, by the semi-liberal ministry of Jules Simon, which +again was driven out in a summary fashion by president Macmahon on May +16th, 1877, and replaced, on the dissolution of the chamber, by a clerical +ministry under Duc de Broglie. But in the newly elected chamber the +republican anti-clerical majority was so overwhelming that Macmahon, on +January 30th, 1879, abandoning his motto of government, _J'y suis et j'y +reste_, was at last obliged, between the alternatives offered him by +Gambetta, _Se soumettre ou se demettre_, to choose the latter. His +successor was Grevy, president of the Chamber, who entrusted the +protestant Waddington with the forming of a new ministry in which Jules +Ferry was minister of instruction. Ferry brought in a bill in March to +abolish the representation of the clergy in the High Council of Education +by four archiepiscopal deputies, continuing indeed the free Catholic +universities, but requiring their students to enroll in a state university +which alone could hold examinations and give degrees, and finally enacting +by Article 7 that the right of teaching in all educational institutions +should be refused to members of all religious orders and congregations not +recognised by the state. The chamber deputies accepted this bill without +amendment on July 9th, but the senate on March 7th, 1880, after passing +six articles refused to adopt the seventh. On March 29th, the president of +the republic issued on his own authority two decrees, based indeed upon +earlier enactments (1789-1852), gone into desuetude indeed, but never +abrogated (§ 186, 2), demanded the dissolution of the Society of Jesus, +containing 1,480 members in 56 institutions, within three months, and +insisted that the orders and congregations not recognised by the State, +embracing 14,033 sisters in 602 institutions and 7,444 brothers in 384 +institutions, in the same time should by production of their statutes and +rules seek formal recognition or else be broken up. A storm of protests on +the part of the bishops greeted these "_March Decrees_," and riotous +demonstrations made before the Minister of Instruction at his residence at +Lille expressed the protests of the students of the Catholic university +there. The pope now broke his reserve and by a nuncio sent the president +of the republic a holograph letter in which he declared that he must +interfere on behalf of the Jesuits and the threatened orders, because they +were indispensably necessary to the wellbeing of the church. He did not +wish that they should have recourse to unlawful means, but it must be +understood that they would appeal to the courts for protection of their +threatened civil liberties. When therefore on the morning of June 30th the +police began their work of expelling the Jesuits from their houses, these +lodged a complaint before the courts of invasion of their domestic peace +and infringement of their personal liberty. Their schools were closed on +August 31st, the end of the school year; meanwhile they had taken the +precaution to transfer most of them to such as would be ready afterwards +to restore them. The enforcement of the second of the March Decrees +against the other orders was delayed for a while. A compromise proposed by +the episcopate, favoured by the pope and not absolutely rejected even by +the minister Freycinet, Waddington's successor, according to which instead +of the required application for recognition all these orders should sign a +declaration of loyalty, undertaking to avoid all participation in +political affairs and to do nothing opposed to existing order, brought +about the overthrow of this ministry in September, 1880, by the +machinations from other motives of the president of the chamber and latent +dictator, Leon Gambetta. At the head of the new ministry was Ferry, who +held the portfolio of instruction, and under him the carrying out of the +second March Decree began on October 16th, 1880. Up to the meeting of the +chamber in November 261 monasteries had been vacated; the rest, as from +the first all female congregations, were spared, so that France with its +colonies and mission stations still number 4,288 male and 14,990 female +settlements of spiritual orders, the former with about 32,000, the latter +with about 166,200 inmates.--The expulsion of the Jesuits, as well as the +more recent of the other orders, was, however, stoutly opposed. The police +told off for this duty found doors shut and barricaded against them or +defended by fanatical peasants and mobs of shrieking women, so that they +had often to be stormed and broken up by the military. Still more +threatening than this opposition was the reaction which began to assert +itself at the instance of the almost thoroughly ultramontane jurists of +the country, a survival of the times of Napoleon III. and Macmahon. An +advocate Rousse, who publicly stated the opinion that the March Decrees +were illegal and therefore not binding, was supported by 2,000 attorneys +and over 200 corporations of attorneys and by many distinguished +university jurists. More than 200 state officials and many judiciary and +police officers, together with several officers of the army, tendered +their resignations so as to avoid taking part in the execution of the +decrees. When it became clear that unfavourable verdicts would be given by +the courts invoked by the Jesuits against the executors of the decree, as +indeed was soon actually done by several courts, the government lodged an +appeal against their competence before the tribunal of conflicts which +also actually in regard to all such cases pronounced them incompetent and +their decisions therefore null and void; but the complainers insisted that +their complaints should be taken to a Council of State as the only court +suitable to deal with charges against officials, which, as might be +expected, was not done. + +7. In the future course of the French "Kulturkampf" the most important +proceedings of the government were the following: The abolition of the +institute of military chaplains, highly serviceable in ultramontanizing +the officers, was carried out in 1880, as well as the requirement that the +clergy and teachers should give military service for one year, and +subsequently also military escorts to the Corpus Christi procession were +forbidden. In 1880 the Municipal Council of Paris, with the concurrence of +the prefect of the Seine, forbad the continuance of the beautiful building +of the church of the Heart of Jesus begun in 1875 on Montmartre (§ 188, +12), confiscating the site that had been granted for it. In 1881 the +churchyards were relieved of their denominational character, and the +following year the right of managing them, with permission of merely civil +interment without the aid of a clergyman, was transferred from the +ecclesiastical to the civil authorities. By introducing in 1880 high +schools for girls with boarding establishments an end was put to the +education of girls of the upper ranks in nunneries, which had hitherto +been the almost exclusive practice. Far more sweeping was the School Act +brought in by the radical minister of worship, Paul Bert, and first +enforced in October, 1886, which made attendance compulsory, relegated +religious instruction wholly to the church and home, and absolutely +excluded all the clergy from the right of giving any sort of instruction +in the public schools, and demanded the removal of all crucifixes and +other religious symbols from the school buildings. In December, 1884, a +tax was imposed on the property of all religious orders, also the state +allowance for the five Catholic seminaries with only thirty-seven students +was withdrawn, and many other important deductions made upon the budget +for Catholic worship, which at first the senate opposed, but at last +agreed to. The Divorce Bill frequently introduced since 1881, which +permitted parties to marry again, and gave disposal of the matter to the +civil court, got the assent of the senate only in the end of July, 1884. +The clericals were also greatly offended by the decree passed in May, +1885, which closed the church of St. Genoveva, the former Pantheon, as a +place of worship and made it again a burial place for distinguished +Frenchmen. This resolution was first carried out by placing there the +remains of Victor Hugo. Amid these and many other injuries to its +interests the Roman curia, concentrating all its energies upon the German +"Kulturkampf," endeavoured to keep things back in a moderate way. Yet in +July, 1883, the pope addressed to president Grevy a friendly but earnest +remonstrance, which he treated simply as a private letter and, without +communicating it officially to his cabinet, answered that apart from +parliament he could not act, but that so far as he and his ministry were +able they would seek to avoid conflict with the holy see. And in fact the +government, especially after the overthrow of the Gambetta ministry in +1882, often successfully opposed the proposal of the radical chamber, +_e.g._ the separation of church and state, the abrogation of the +concordat, the recall of the embassy to the Vatican, the abolition of +religious oaths in the proceedings of the courts, the stopping of the +state subvention of a million francs for payment of salaries in seminaries +for priests, etc. + +8. _The Protestant Churches under the Third Republic._--Since the French +Reformed began to emulate their Catholic countrymen in wild Chauvinism, +fanatical hatred of Germany and unreasoning enthusiasm for the _Revanche_, +they were left by the advancing clerical party unmolested in respect of +life, confession and worship during the time of war. The Lutherans on the +other hand, consisting, although on French territory, mainly of German +emigrants and settlers, even their French members not so disposed to +Chauvinistic extravagance, were obliged to atone for this double offence +by expulsion from house and home and by various injuries to their +ecclesiastical interests. After the conclusion of peace, especially under +Thiers' moderate government, this fanaticism gradually cooled down, so +that the expelled Germans returned and the churches and institutions that +had been destroyed were restored, so far as means would allow. By the +decree of Waddington, the minister of instruction, of date March 27th, +1877, instead of the theological faculty of Strassburg, now lost for the +French Lutheran church, one for both Protestant churches was founded in +Paris.--The _Lutheran Church_, in consequence of the cession of +Alsace-Lorraine, had only sixty-four out of 278 pastorates and six out of +forty-four consistories remaining. At the general synod convened at Paris, +in July, 1872, by the government for reorganising the Lutheran church it +was resolved: To form two inspectorates independent of each other--Paris, +predominantly orthodox, Moempelgard, predominantly liberal; the general +assembly, which meets every third year alternately at Moempelgard and +Paris, to consist of delegates from both. The two inspectorates are to +correspond in administrative matters directly with the minister of public +instruction, but in everything referring to confession, doctrine, worship +and discipline, the general assembly is the supreme authority. In regard +to the confessional question they agreed to the statement, that the holy +Scripture is the supreme authority in matters of faith, and the Augsburg +Confession the basis of the legal constitution of the church. An express +undertaking on the part of the clergy to this effect is not, however, +insisted upon. Only in 1879 could this constitution obtain legal sanction +by the State, and that only after considerable modification in the +direction of liberalism, especially in reference to electoral +qualification. In consequence of this the first ordinary general assembly +held in Paris in May, 1881, found both parties in a conciliatory +mood.--_The Reformed Church_, with about 500 pastorates and 105 +consistories, summoned by order of government a newly constituted General +Assembly at Paris, in June, 1872. Prominent among the leaders of the +orthodox party was the aged ex-minister Guizot; the leaders of the +liberals were Coquerel and Colani. The former supported the proposal of +Professor Bois of Montauban, who insisted on the frank and full confession +of holy Scripture as the sovereign authority in matters of faith, of +Christ as the only Son of God, and of justification by faith as the legal +basis of instruction, worship and discipline; while the latter protested +against every attempt to lay down an obligatory and exclusive confession. +The orthodox party prevailed and the dissenters who would not yield were +struck off the voting lists. When now in consequence of the complaint of +the liberal party the summoning of an ordinary general assembly was +refused by the government, the orthodox party repeatedly met in "official" +provincial and general assemblies without state sanction. The council of +state then declared all decisions regarding voting qualifications passed +by the synod of 1872 to be null and void, the minister of worship, Ferry, +ordered the readmission of electors struck from the lists, and his +successor Bert legalized, by a decree of March 25th, 1882, the division of +the Parisian consistorial circuit into two independent consistories of +Paris and Versailles, moved for by the liberal party but opposed by the +orthodox. But upon the elections for the new consistory of Paris, ordered +in spite of all protests, and for the presbyteries of the eight parishes +assigned to it, contrary to all expectation, in seven of these the +elections with great majorities were in favour of the orthodox, and the +first official document issued by the new consistory was a solemn protest +against the decree to which it owed its existence. Under such +circumstances the government as well as the liberal party had no desire +for the calling of an official general assembly, and the latter resolved +at a general assembly at Nimes, in October, 1882, to institute official +synods of their own for consultation and protection of their own +interests. + + + +§ 204. Italy. + + +In Italy matters returned to their old position after the restoration of +1814. But liberalism, aiming at the liberty and unity of Italy, gained the +mastery, and where for the time it prevailed, the Jesuits were expelled, +and the power of the clergy restricted; where it failed, both came back +with greatly increased importance. The arms of Austria and subsequently +also of France stamped out on all sides the revolutionary movements. Pius +IX., who at first was not indisposed, contrary to all traditions of the +papacy, to put himself at the head of the national party, was obliged +bitterly to regret his dealings with the liberals (§ 185, 2). Sardinia, +Modena and Naples put the severest strain upon the bow of the restoration, +while Parma and Tuscany distinguished themselves by adopting liberal +measures in a moderate degree. Sardinia, however, in 1840 came to a better +mind. Charles Albert first broke ground with a more liberal constitution, +and in 1848 proclaimed himself the deliverer of Italy, but yielded to the +arms of Austria. His son Victor Emanuel II. succeeded amid singularly +favourable circumstances in uniting the whole peninsula under his sceptre +as a united kingdom of Italy governed by liberal institutions. + +1. _The Kingdom of Sardinia._--Victor Emanuel I. after the restoration had +nothing else to do but to recall the Jesuits, to hand over to them the +whole management of the schools, and, guided and led by them in +everything, to restore the church and state to the condition prevailing +before 1789. Charles Felix (1821-1831) carried still further the +absolutist-reactionary endeavours of his predecessor, and even Charles +Albert (1831-1849) refused for a long time to realize the hopes which the +liberal party had previously placed in him. Only in the second decade of +his reign did he begin gradually to display a more liberal tendency, and +at last in 1848 when, in consequence of the French Revolution, Lombardy +rose against the Austrian rule, he placed himself at the head of the +national movement for freeing Italy from the yoke of strangers. But the +king gloried in as "the sword of Italy" was defeated and obliged to +abdicate. Victor Emanuel II. (1849-1878) allowed meanwhile the liberal +constitution of his father to remain and indeed carried it out to the +utmost. The minister of justice, Siccardi, proposed a new legislative code +which abolished all clerical jurisdiction in civil and criminal +proceedings, as also the right of asylum and of exacting tithes, the +latter with moderate compensation. It was passed by parliament and +subscribed by the king in 1850. The clergy, with archbishop Fransoni of +Turin at their head, protested with all their might against these +sacrilegious encroachments on the rights of the church. Fransoni was on +this account committed for a month to prison and, when he refused the last +sacrament to a minister, was regularly sentenced to deposition and +banishment from the country. Pius IX. thwarted all attempts to obtain a +new concordat. But the government went recklessly forward. As Fransoni +from his exile in France continued his agitation, all the property of the +archiepiscopal chair was in 1854 sequestered and a number of cloisters +were closed. Soon all penalties in the penal code for spreading +non-Catholic doctrines were struck out and non-Catholic soldiers freed +from compulsory attendance at mass on Sundays and festivals. The chief +blow now fell on March 2nd, 1855, in the Cloister Act, which abolished all +orders and cloisters not devoted to preaching, teaching, and nursing the +sick. In consequence 331 out of 605 cloisters were shut up. The pope +ceased not to condemn all these sacrilegious and church robbing acts, and +when his threats were without result, thundered the great excommunication +in July, 1855, against all originators, aiders, and abettors of such +deeds. Among the masses this indeed caused some excitement, but it never +came to an explosion. + +2. _The Kingdom of Italy._--Amid such vigorous progress the year 1859 came +round with its fateful Franco-Italian war. The French alliance had not +indeed, as it promised, made Italy free to the Adriatic, but by the peace +of Villafranca the whole of Lombardy was given to the kingdom of Sardinia +as a present from the emperor of the French. In the same year by popular +vote Tuscany, including Modena and Parma, and in the following year the +kingdom of the two Sicilies, as well as the three provinces of the States +of the Church, revolted and were annexed, so that the new kingdom of Italy +embraced the whole of the peninsula, with the exception of Venice, Rome +and the Campagna. Prussia's remarkable successes in the seven days' German +war of 1866 shook Venice like ripe fruit into the lap of her Italian ally, +and the day of Sedan, 1870, prepared the way for the addition of Rome and +the Campagna (§ 185, 3).--In Lombardy and then also in Venice, immediately +after they had been taken possession of, the concordat with Austria was +abrogated and the Jesuits expelled. Ecclesiastical tithes on the produce +of the soil were abolished throughout the whole kingdom, begging was +forbidden the mendicant friars as unworthy of a spiritual order, +ecclesiastical property was put under state control and the support of the +clergy provided for by state grants. In 1867 the government began the +appropriation and conversion of the church property; in 1870 all religious +orders were dissolved, with exception for the time being of those in Rome, +wherever they did not engage in educational and other useful works. In +May, 1873, this law was extended to the Roman province, only it was not to +be applied to the generals of orders in Rome. Nuns and some monks were +also allowed to remain in their cloisters situated in unpeopled districts. +The amount of state pensions paid to monks and nuns reached in 1882 the +sum of eleven million lire, at the rate of 330 lire for each person. The +abolition of the theological faculties in ten Italian universities in +1873, because these altogether had only six students of theology, was +regarded by the curia rather as a victory than a defeat. The newly +appointed bishops were forbidden by the pope to produce their credentials +for inspection in order to obtain their salaries from the government. The +loss of temporalities thus occasioned was made up by Pius IX. out of +Peter's pence flowing in so abundantly from abroad; each bishop receiving +500 and each archbishop 700 lire in the month. Leo XIII., however, felt +obliged in 1879, owing to the great decrease in the Peter's pence +contributions, to cancel this enactment and to permit the bishops to +accept the state allowance. In consequence of the civil marriage law +passed in 1866 having been altogether ignored by the clergy, nearly +400,000 marriages had down to the close of 1878 received only +ecclesiastical sanction, and the offspring of such parties would be +regarded in the eye of the law as illegitimate. To obviate this difficulty +a law was passed in May, 1879, which insisted that in all cases civil +marriage must precede the ecclesiastical ceremony, and clergymen, +witnesses and parties engaging in an illegal marriage should suffer three +or six months' imprisonment; but all marriages contracted in accordance +merely with church forms before the passing of this law might be +legitimized by being entered on the civil register.--Finally in January, +1884, the controversy pending since 1873 as to whether the rich property +of the Roman propaganda (§ 156, 9) amounting to twenty million lire should +be converted into state consols was decided by the supreme court in favour +of the curia, which had pronounced these funds international because +consisting of presents and contributions from all lands. But not only was +the revenue of the propaganda subjected to a heavy tax, but also all +increase of its property forbidden. In vain did the pope by his nuncios +call for the intervention of foreign nations. None of these were inclined +to meddle in the internal affairs of Italy. The curia now devised the plan +of affiliating a number of societies outside of Italy to the propaganda +for receiving and administering donations and presents. + +3. _The Evangelization of Italy._--Emigrant Protestants of various +nationalities had at an early date, by the silent sufferance of the +respective governments, formed small evangelical congregations in some of +the Italian cities; in Venice and Leghorn during the seventeenth century, +at Bergamo in 1807, at Florence in 1826, at Milan in 1847. Also by aid of +the diplomatic intervention of Prussia and England, the erection of +Protestant chapels for the embassy was allowed at Rome in 1819, at Naples +in 1825, and at Florence in 1826. When in 1848 Italy's hopes from the +liberal tendencies of Pius IX. were so bitterly disappointed, Protestant +sympathies began to spread far and wide through the land, even among +native Catholics, fostered by English missionaries, Bibles and tracts, +which the governments sought in vain to check by prisons, penitentiaries +and exile. Persecution began in 1851 in Tuscany, where, in spite of the +liberty of faith and worship guaranteed by the constitution of 1848, +Tuscan subjects taking part in the Italian services in the chapel of the +Prussian embassy at Florence were punished with six months' hard labour, +and in the following year the pious pair Francesco and Rosa Madiai were +sentenced to four years' rigorous punishment in a penitentiary for the +crime of having edified themselves and their household by reading the +Bible. In vain did the Evangelical Alliance remonstrate (§ 178, 3), in +vain did even the king of Prussia intercede. But when, stirred up by +public opinion in England, the English premier Lord Palmerston offered to +secure the requirement of Christian humanity by means of British ships of +war, the grand-duke got rid of both martyrs by banishing them from the +country in 1853. In proportion as the union of Italy under Victor Emanuel +II. advanced, the field for evangelistic effort and the powers devoted +thereto increased. So it was too since 1860 in Southern Italy. But when in +1866 a Protestant congregation began to be formed at Barletta in Naples, a +fanatical priest roused a popular mob in which seventeen persons were +killed and torn in pieces. The government put down the uproar and punished +the miscreants, and the nobler portion of the nation throughout the whole +land collected for the families of those murdered. The work of +evangelization supported by liberal contributions chiefly from England, +but also from Holland, Switzerland, and the German _Gustav-Adolf-Verein_ +(§ 178, 1), advanced steadily in spite of occasional brutal interferences +of the clergy and the mob, so that soon in all the large cities and in +many of the smaller towns of Italy and Sicily there were thriving and +flourishing little evangelical congregations of converted native +Catholics, numbering as many as 182 in 1882. + +4. The chief factor in the evangelization of Italy as far as the southern +coast of Sicily was the old _Waldensian Church_, which for three hundred +years had occupied the Protestant platform in the spirit of Calvinism (§ +139, 25). Remnants consisting of some 200,000 souls still survived in the +valleys of Piedmont, almost without protection of law amid constant +persecution and oppressions (§ 153, 5), moderated only by Prussian and +English intervention. But when Sardinia headed Italian liberalism in 1848 +religious liberty and all civil rights were secured to them. A Waldensian +congregation was then formed in the capital, Turin, which was strengthened +by numerous Protestant refugees from other parts of Italy. But in 1854 a +split occurred between the two elements in it. The new Italian converts +objected, not altogether without ground, against the old Waldensians that +by maintaining their church government with its centre in the valleys, the +so-called "Tables" and their old forms of constitution, doctrine and +worship, much too contracted and narrow for the enlarged boundaries of the +present, they thought more of Waldensianizing than of evangelizing Italy. +Besides, their language since 1630, when a plague caused their preachers +and teachers to withdraw from Geneva, had been French, and the national +Italian pride was disposed on this domain also to unfurl her favourite +banner "_Italia fara da se_." The division spread from Turin to the other +congregations. At the head of the separatists, afterwards designated the +"_Free Italian Church_" (_Chiesa libera_), stood Dr. Luigi Desanctis, a +man of rich theological culture and glowing eloquence, who, when Catholic +priest and theologian of the inquisition at Rome, became convinced of the +truth of the evangelical confession, joined the evangelical church at +Malta in 1847 and wrought from 1852 with great success in the congregation +at Turin. After ten years' faithful service in the newly formed free +church he felt obliged, owing to the Darbyite views (§ 211, 11) that began +to prevail in it, to attach himself again in 1864 to the Waldensians, who +meanwhile had been greatly liberalised. He now officiated for them till +his death in 1869 as professor of theology at Florence, and edited their +journal _Eco della verita_. This journal was succeeded in 1873 by the able +monthly _Rivista Cristiana_, edited at Florence by Prof. Emilio +Comba.--After Desanctis left the _Chiesa libera_ its chief representative +was the ex-Barnabite father Alessandro Gavazzi of Naples. Endowed with +glowing eloquence and remarkable popularity as a lecturer, he appeared at +Rome in 1848 as a politico-religious orator, attached himself to the +evangelical church in London in 1850, and undertook the charge of the +evangelical Italian congregation there. He returned to Italy in 1860 and +accompanied the hero of Italian liberty, Garibaldi, as his military +chaplain, preaching to the people everywhere with his leonine voice with +equal enthusiasm of Victor Emanuel as the only saviour of Italy and of +Jesus Christ as the only Saviour of sinners. He then joined the _Chiesa +libera_, and, as he himself obtained gradually fuller acquaintance with +evangelical truth, wrought zealously in organizing the congregations +hitherto almost entirely isolated from one another. At a general assembly +at Milan in 1870, deputies from thirty-two congregations drew up a simple +biblical confession of faith, and in the following year at Florence a +constitutional code was adopted which recognised the necessity of the +pastoral office, of annual assemblies, and a standing evangelization +committee. They now took the name "_Unione della Chiesa libere in +Italia_." The predominantly Darbyist congregations, which had not taken +part in these constitutional assemblies, have since formed a community of +their own as _Chiesa Cristiana_, depending only on the immediate leading +of the Holy Spirit, rejecting every sort of ecclesiastical and official +organization, and denouncing infant baptism as unevangelical.--Besides +these three national Italian churches, English and American Methodists and +Baptists carry on active missions. On May 1st, 1884, the evangelical +denominations at a general assembly in Florence, with the exception only +of the Darbyist _Chiesa Cristiana_, joined in a confederation to meet +annually in an "Italian Evangelical Congress" as a preparation for +ecclesiastical union. When, however, the various Methodist and Baptist +denominations began to check the progress of the work of union, the two +leading bodies, the Waldensians and the Free Church party, separated from +them. A committee chosen from these two sketched at Florence in 1885 a +basis of union, according to which the Free Church adopted the confession +and church order of the Waldensians, subject to revision by the joint +synods, their theological school at Rome was to be amalgamated with the +Waldensian school at Florence, and the united church was to take the name +of the "Evangelical Church of Italy." But a Waldensian synod in September, +1886, resolved to hold by the ancient name of the "Waldensian Church." +Whether the "Free Church" will agree to this demand is not yet known. + + + +§ 205. Spain and Portugal. + + +No European country has during the nineteenth century been the scene of so +many revolutions, outbreaks and civil wars, of changes of government, +ministries and constitutions, sometimes of a clerical absolutist, +sometimes of a democratic radical tendency, and in none has revolution +gone so unsparingly for the time against hierarchy, clergy and +monasticism, as in unfortunate Spain. Portugal too passed through similar +struggles, which, however, did not prove so dreadfully disordering to the +commonwealth as those of Spain. + +1. _Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina._--Joseph Bonaparte +(1808-1813) had given to the Spaniards a constitution of the French +pattern, abolishing inquisition and cloisters. The constitution which the +Cortes proclaimed in 1812 carried out still further the demands of +political liberalism, but still declared the apostolic Roman Catholic +religion as alone true to be the religion of the Spanish nation and forbad +the exercise of any other. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon restored in +December, 1813, hastened to restore the inquisition, the cloisters and +despotism, especially from 1815 under the direction of the Jesuits highly +esteemed by him. The revolution of 1820 indeed obliged him to reintroduce +the constitution of 1812 and to banish the Jesuits; but scarcely had the +feudal clerical party of the apostolic Junta with their army of faith in +the field and Bourbon French intervention under the Duke of Angouleme +again made his way clear, than he began to crush as before by means of his +Jesuit Camarilla every liberal movement in church and state. But all the +more successful was the reaction of liberalism in the civil war which +broke out after Ferdinand's death under the regency of his fourth wife, +the intriguing Maria Christina (1833-1837). The revolution now erected an +inquisition, but it was one directed against the clergy and monks, and +celebrated its _autos de fe_; but these were in the form of spoliation of +cloisters and massacres of monks. Ecclesiastical tithes were abolished, +all monkish orders suspended, the cloisters closed, ecclesiastical goods +declared national property, and the papal nuncio sent over the frontier. A +threatening papal allocution of 1841 only increased the violence of the +Cortes, and when Gregory XVI. in 1842 pronounced all decrees of the +government null and void, it branded all intercourse with Rome as an +offence against the state. + +2. _Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865._--Ferdinand VII., overlooking the +right of his brother Don Carlos, had, by abolishing the Salic law, secured +the throne to Isabella, his own and Maria Christina's daughter. After the +Cortes of 1843 had declared Isabella of age in her thirteenth year, the +Spanish government became more and more favourable to the restoration. +After long negotiations and vacillations under constantly changing +ministries a concordat was at last drawn up in 1851, which returned the +churches and cloisters that had not been sold, allowed compensation for +what had been sold, reduced the number of bishoprics by six, put education +and the censorship of the press under the oversight of the bishops, and +declared the Catholic religion the only one to be tolerated. But although +in 1854 the Holy Virgin was named generalissima of the brave army and her +image at Atocha had been decorated by the queen with a band of the Golden +Fleece, a revolution soon broke out in the army which threatened to deal +the finishing stroke to ultramontanism. Meanwhile it had not fully +permeated the republican party. The proposal of unrestricted liberty to +all forms of worship was supported by a small minority, and the new +constitution of 1855 called upon the Spanish nation to maintain and guard +the Catholic religion which "the Spaniards profess"; yet no Spaniard was +to be persecuted on account of his faith, so long as he did not commit +irreligious acts. A new law determined the sale of all church and cloister +property, and compensation therefore by annual rents according to the +existing concordat. Several bishops had to be banished owing to their +continued opposition; the pope protested and recalled his legates. +Clerical influence meanwhile regained power over the queen. The sale of +church and cloister property was stopped, and previous possessors were +indemnified for what had been already sold. Owing to frequent change of +ministry, each of which manifested a tendency different from its +predecessor, it was only in 1859 that matters were settled by a new +concordat. In it the government admitted the inalienability of church +property, admitted the unrestricted right of the church to obtain new +property of any kind, and declared itself ready to exchange state paper +money for property that had fallen into decay according to the estimation +of the bishops. The queen proved her Catholic zeal at the instigation of +the nun Patrocinio by fanatical persecution of Protestants, and hearty but +vain sympathies for the sufferings of the pope and the expatriated Italian +princes. Pius IX. rewarded Isabella, who seemed to him adorned with all +the virtues, by sending her in 1868 the consecrated rose at a time when +she was causing public scandal more than ever by her private life, and by +her proceedings with her paramour Marforio had lost the last remnant of +the respect and confidence of the Spanish nation. Eight months later her +reign was at an end. The provisional government now ordered the +suppression of the Society of Jesus, as well as of all cloister and +spiritual associations, and in 1869 the Cortes sanctioned the draught of a +new civil constitution, which required the Spanish nation to maintain the +Catholic worship, but allowed the exercise of other forms of worship to +strangers and as cases might arise even to natives, and generally made all +political and civil rights independent of religious profession. + +3. _Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885._--When Isabella's son returned to +Spain in January, 1875, in his seventeenth year, he obtained the blessing +of his sponsor the pope on his ascending the throne, promised to the +Catholic church powerful support, but also to non-Catholics the +maintenance of liberty of worship. How he meant to perform both is shown +by a decree of 10th February, 1875, which, abolishing the civil marriage +law passed by the Cortes in 1870, gave back to the Catholic church the +administration of marriage and matters connected therewith; for all +persons living in Spain, however, "who professed another than the true +faith," as well as for "the bad Catholics," to whom ecclesiastical +marriage on account of church censures is refused, liberty was given to +contract a civil marriage; but this did not apply to apostate priests, +monks, and nuns, to whom any sort of marriage is for ever refused, and +whose previously contracted marriages are invalid, without, however, +affecting the legitimacy of children already born of such +connections.--Against the draught of the new constitution, whose eleventh +article indeed affords toleration to all dissenting forms of worship, but +prohibits any public manifestation thereof outside of their place of +worship and burial grounds, Pius IX. protested as infringing upon the +still existing concordat in its "noblest" part, and aiming a serious blow +at the Catholic church. The Cortes, however, sanctioned it in 1876. + +4. _The Evangelization of Spain._--A number of Bibles and tracts, as well +as a religious paper in Spanish called _el Albo_, found entrance into +Spain from the English settlement at Gibraltar, without Spain being able +even in the most flourishing days of the restoration to prevent it, and +evangelical sympathies began more or less openly to be expressed. Franc. +Ruat, formerly a lascivious Spanish poet, who was awakened at Turin by the +preaching of the Waldensian Desanctis, and by reading the Bible had +obtained knowledge of evangelical truths, appeared publicly after the +publication of the new constitution of 1855 as a preacher of the gospel in +Spain. The reaction that soon set in, however, secured for him repeated +imprisonments, and finally in 1856 sentence of banishment for life. He +then wrought for several years successfully in Gibraltar, next in London, +afterwards in Algiers among Spanish residents, till the new civil +constitution of 1868 allowed him to return to Spain, where, in the service +of the German mission at Madrid, he gathered around him an evangelical +congregation, to which he ministered till his death in 1878. While +labouring in Gibraltar he won to the evangelical faith among others the +young officer Manuel Matamoros, living there as a political refugee. This +noble man, whose whole career, till his death in exile in 1866, was a sore +martyrdom for the truth, became the soul of the whole movement, against +which the government in 1861 and 1862 took the severest measures. By +intercepted correspondence the leaders and many of the members of the +secret evangelical propaganda were discovered and thrown into prison. The +final judgment condemned the leaders of the movement to severe punishment +in penitentiaries and the galleys. Infliction of these sentences had +already begun when the queen found herself obliged, by a visit to Madrid +in 1863 of a deputation of the Evangelical Alliance (§ 178, 3), consisting +of the most distinguished and respected Protestants of all lands, to +commute them to banishment.--After Isabella's overthrow in 1868, permission +was given for the building of the first Protestant church in Madrid, where +a congregation soon gathered of more than 2,000 souls. In Seville an +almost equally strong congregation obtained for its services what had been +a church of the Jesuits. Also at Cordova a considerable congregation was +collected, and in almost all the other large cities there were largely +attended places of worship. Several of those banished under Isabella, who +had returned after her overthrow, Carrasco, Trigo, Alhama, and others, +increased by new converts who had received their theological training at +Geneva, Lausanne, etc., and supported by American, English and German +fellow-labourers, such as the brothers F. and H. Fliedner, wrought with +unwearied zeal as preachers and pastors, for the spreading and deeper +grounding of the gospel among their countrymen. With the restoration of +the monarchy in 1875, the oppression of the Protestants was renewed with +increasing severity. The widest possible interpretation was given to the +prohibition of every public manifestation of dissenting worship in Article +XI. of the constitution. The excesses and insults of the mob, whose +fanaticism was stirred up by the clergy, were left unpunished and +uncensured. Even the most sorely abused and injured Protestants were +themselves subjected to imprisonment as disturbers of the peace. No +essential improvement in their condition resulted from the liberal +ministry of Sagasta in 1881. Nevertheless the number of evangelical +congregations continued steadily though slowly to increase, so that now +they number more than sixty, with somewhere about 15,000 native Protestant +members.--Besides these an _Iglesia Espanola_ arose in 1881, consisting of +eight congregations, which may be regarded to some extent as a national +Spanish counterpart to the Old Catholicism of Germany. Its founder and +first bishop is Cabrera, formerly a Catholic priest, who, after having +wrought from 1868 in the service of the Edinburgh (Presbyterian) +Evangelization Society as preacher in Seville, and then in Madrid, +received in 1880 episcopal consecration from the Anglican bishop Riley of +Mexico (§ 209, 1), then visiting Madrid. Although thus of Anglican origin, +the church directed by him wishes not to be Anglican, but Spanish +episcopal. It attaches itself therefore, while accepting the thirty-nine +Articles of the Anglican Church, in the sketch of its order of service in +the Spanish language, more to the old Mozarabic ritual (§ 88, 1) than to +the Anglican liturgy.(118) + +5. _The Church in Portugal._--Portugal after some months followed the +example of the Spanish revolution of 1820. John VI. (1816-1826) confirmed +the new constitution, drawn up after the pattern of the democratic Spanish +constitution of 1812, enacting the seizure of church property and the +suppression of the monasteries. But a counter revolution, led by the +younger son of the king, Dom Miguel, obliged him in 1823 to repudiate it +and to return to the older constitution. But he persistently resisted the +reintroduction of the Jesuits. After his death in 1826, the legitimate +heir, Pedro I. of Brazil, abandoned his claims to the Portuguese throne in +favour of his daughter Donna Maria II. da Gloria, then under a year old, +whom he betrothed to his brother Dom Miguel. Appointed regent, Dom Miguel +took the oath to the constitution, but immediately broke his oath, had +himself proclaimed king, recalled the Jesuits, and, till his overthrow in +1834, carried on a clerical monarchical reign of terror. Dom Pedro, who +had meanwhile vacated the Brazilian throne, as regent again suppressed all +monkish orders, seized the property of the church, and abolished +ecclesiastical tithes, but died in the same year. His daughter Donna +Maria, now pronounced of age and proclaimed queen (1834-1853), amid +continual revolutions and changes of the constitution, manifested an +ever-growing inclination to reconciliation with Rome. In 1841 she +negotiated about a concordat, and showed herself so submissive that the +pope rewarded her in 1842 with the consecrated golden rose. But the +liberal Cortes resisted the introduction of the concordat, and maintained +the right of veto by the civil government as well as the rest of the +restrictions upon the hierarchy, and the _Codigo penal_ of 1882 threatened +the Catholic clergy with heavy fines and imprisonment for every abuse of +their spiritual prerogatives and every breach of the laws of the State. In +1857 a concordat was at last agreed to, which, however, was adopted by the +representatives of the people not before 1859, and then only by a small +majority. Its chief provisions consist in the regulating of the patronage +rights of the crown in regard to existing and newly created bishoprics. +The relation of government to the curia, however, still continued +strained. The constitution declares generally that the Catholic Apostolic +Romish Church is the state religion. A Portuguese who passes over from it +to another loses thereby his civil rights as a citizen. Yet no one is to +be persecuted on account of his religion. The erection of Protestant +places of worship, but not in church form, and also of burial grounds, +where necessary, is permitted.--Evangelization has made but little progress +in Portugal. The first evangelical congregation, with Anglican episcopal +constitution, was founded at Lisbon by a Spanish convert, Don Angelo +Herrero de Mora, who in the service of the Bible Society had edited a +revision of the old Spanish Bible in New York, and had there been +naturalized as an American citizen. Consisting originally of American and +English Protestants, about a hundred Spanish and Portuguese converts have +since 1868 gradually attached themselves to it, the latter after they had +been made Spanish instead of Portuguese subjects. After the pattern of +this mother congregation, two others have been formed in the neighbourhood +of Lisbon and one at Oporto. + + + +§ 206. Russia. + + +The Russian government since the time of Alexander I. has sought amid many +difficulties to advance the education and enlightenment of the people, and +to elevate the orthodox church by securing a more highly cultured clergy, +and to increase its influence upon the life of the people; a task which +proved peculiarly difficult in consequence of the wide-spread +anti-ecclesiastical spirit (§ 210, 3) and the incomparably more dangerous +antichristian Nihilism (§ 212, 6).--The Catholic church, mainly represented +in what had before been the kingdom of Poland, had, in consequence of the +repeated revolutionary agitation of the Poles, in which the clergy had +zealously taken part by stirring up fanaticism among the people and +converting their religion and worship into a vehicle of rebellion, so +compromised itself that the government, besides taking away the national +political privileges, reduced more and more the rights and liberties +granted to the church as such.--The prosperous development of the +evangelical church in Russia, which, through the absolutely faultless +loyalty of its members, had hitherto enjoyed the hearty protection of the +government, in 1845 and 1846, and afterwards in 1883, in consequence of +numerous conversions among Esthonian and Livonian peasants, was checked by +incessant persecutions. + +1. _The Orthodox National Church._--The evangelical influences introduced +from the West during the previous century, especially among the higher +clergy, found further encouragement under Alexander I., A.D. 1801-1825. +Himself affected by the evangelical pietism of Madame Kruedener (§ 176, 2), +he aimed at the elevation of the orthodox church in this direction, +founded clerical seminaries and public schools, and took a lively interest +in Bible circulation among the Russian people. But under Nicholas I., A.D. +1825-1855, a reaction proceeding from the holy synod set in which +unweariedly sought to seal the orthodox church hermetically against all +evangelical influences. Also during the reign of Alexander II., A.D. +1855-1881, a reign singularly fruitful in civil reforms, this tendency was +even more rigidly illustrated, while with the consent and aid of the holy +synod every effort was put forth to improve the church according to its +own principles. Specially active in this work was Count Tolstoi, minister +of instruction and also procurator of the holy synod. A committee presided +over by him produced a whole series of useful reforms in 1868, which were +approved by the synod and confirmed by the emperor. While the inferior +clergy had hitherto formed an order by themselves, all higher ranks of +preferment were now opened to them, but, on the other hand, the obligation +of priests' sons to remain in the order of their fathers was abolished. +The clamant abuse of putting mere clerks and sextons to do the work of +priests was also now put a stop to, and training in clerical seminaries or +academies was made compulsory. Previously only married men could hold the +offices of deacon and priest; now widowers and bachelors were admitted, so +soon as they reached the age of forty years. In order to increase the poor +incomes many churches had not their regular equipment of clergy, and +instead of the full set of priest, deacon, sub-deacon, reader, sexton, and +doorkeeper, in the poorer churches there were only priest and reader. +Order was restored to monastic life, now generally grown dissolute, by a +fixed rule of a common table and uniform dress, etc. In 1860 an Orthodox +Church Society for Missions among the peoples of the Caucasus, and in 1866 +a second for Pagans and Mohammedans throughout the empire, were founded, +both under the patronage of the empress. The Russian church also cleverly +took advantage of political events to carry on missionary work in Japan (§ +184, 6). A society of the "Friends of Intellectual Enlightenment," founded +in St. Petersburg in 1872, aimed chiefly at the religious improvement of +the cultured classes in the spirit of the orthodox church by means of +tracts and addresses, while agreeing with foreign confessions as to the +nature and characteristics of the true church. Under Alexander III., since +A.D. 1881, the emperor's former tutor Pobedownoszew, with the conviction +of the incomparable superiority of his church, and believing that by it +and only by it could the dangerous commotions of the present be overcome +(§ 212, 6) and Russia regenerated, as procurator of the holy synod has +zealously wrought in this direction.--But meanwhile a new impulse was given +to the evangelical movement in aristocratic circles by Lord Radstock, who +appeared in St. Petersburg in 1870. The addresses delivered by him in +French in the salons of the fashionable world won a success scarcely to be +looked for. The most famous gain was the conversion of a hitherto proud, +worldly, rich and popular Colonel of the Guards, called Paschcow, who now +turned the beautiful ball-room of his palatial residence into a +prayer-meeting room, and with all the enthusiasm of a neophyte proclaimed +successfully among high and low the newly won saving truth in a Biblical +evangelical spirit, though not without a methodistic flavour. The +excitement thus created led to police interference, and finally, when he +refused to abstain from spreading his religious views among the members of +the orthodox church by the circulation of evangelical tracts in the +Russian language, he was, at the instigation of the holy synod and its all +powerful procurator, banished first from St. Petersburg and then in 1884 +from the empire, whereupon he withdrew to London. + +2. _The Catholic Church._--After the Greeks in the old West Russian +provinces (§ 151, 3), who had been forcibly united to Rome in 1596, had +again in 1772, in consequence of the first partition of Poland, come under +Russian rule, the government sought to restore them also to the orthodox +national church. This was first accomplished under Nicholas I., when at +the synod of Polosk in 1839 they themselves spontaneously expressed a wish +to be thus reunited with the mother church. Rome thus lost two million +members. But the allocution directed against this robbery by Gregory XVI. +was without effect, and the public opinion of Europe saw a case of +historical justice in this reunion, though effected not without severe +measures against those who proved obstinate and rebellious. Yet there +always remained a considerable remnant, about one-third of a million, +under the bishop of Chelun, in the Romish communion. But even these in +1875, after many disturbances with the prelate Popiel at their head, +almost wholly severed their connection with the pope, and were again +received into the bosom of the orthodox national church. In a memorial +addressed to the emperor for this purpose, they declared they were led to +this on the one hand by the continual endeavour of the curia and its +partisans, by Latinizing their old Greek liturgy and Polandizing the +people, to overthrow their old Russian nationality, and on the other hand, +by their aversion to the new papal dogmas of the immaculate conception of +Mary and the infallibility of the pope.--The insurrection of the Poles +against Russian rule in 1830, which even Pope Gregory XVI. condemned, bore +bitter fruits for the Catholic church of that country. The organic statute +of 1832 indeed secured anew to the Poles religious liberty, but the +bishops were prohibited holding any direct communication with Rome, the +clergy deprived of all control over the schools, and the Russian law +regarding mixed marriages made applicable to that province. By an +understanding with the curia in 1847 the choice of the bishops was given +to the emperor, their canonical investiture to the pope. The mildness with +which Alexander II. treated the Poles and the political troubles in the +rest of Europe fostered the hope of restoring the old kingdom of Poland. +Reckless demonstrations were made in the beginning of 1861, pilgrimages to +the graves of the martyrs of freedom were organized, political memorial +festivals were celebrated in churches, a general national mourning was +enjoined, mourning services were held, revolutionary songs were sung in +churches, etc. The Catholic clergy headed the movement and canonized it as +a religious duty. In vain the government sought to put it down by making +liberal concessions, in vain they applied to Pius IX. to discountenance +it. When in October the country lay in a state of siege, and the military +forced their way into the churches to apprehend the ringleaders of +rebellion, the episcopal administrator, Bialobezeski, denounced that as +church profanation, had all the Catholic churches in Warsaw closed, and +answered the government's request to reopen them by making extravagant +demands and uttering proud words of defiance. The military tribunal +sentenced him to death, but the emperor commuted this to one year's +detention in a fortress, with loss of all his dignities and orders. +Meanwhile the eyes of the pope had at length been opened. He now confirmed +the government's appointment of Archbishop Felinsky, who entered Warsaw in +February, 1862, and reopened the churches. After the suppression of the +revolt in 1864, almost all cloisters, as nurseries of revolution, were +abolished; in the following year the whole property of the church was +taken in charge by the State, and the clergy supported by state pay. The +pope, enraged at this, gave violent expression to his feelings to the +Russian ambassador at Rome during the New Year festivities of 1866, +whereupon the government completely broke off all relations with the +curia. Consequently in 1867 all the affairs of the Catholic church were +committed to the clerical college at St. Petersburg, and intercourse +between the clergy and the pope prohibited. Hence arose many conflicts +with Catholic bishops, whose obstinacy was punished by their being +interned in their dioceses. In 1869 the Russian calendar was introduced, +and Russian made the compulsory language of instruction. But in 1870 +greater opposition was offered to the introduction of Russian in the +public services by means of translations of the common Polish prayer and +psalm-books. Pietrowitsch, dean of Wilna, read from the pulpit the ukase +referring to this matter, but then cast it together with the Russian +translations into the flames, with violent denunciations of the +government, and gave information against himself to the governor-general. +He was agreeably to his own desire imprisoned, and then transported to +Archangel. The same sentence was pronounced against several other +obstinate prelates and clergy, among them Archbishop Felinsky, and thus +further opposition was stamped out.--Leo XIII. soon after entering on his +pontificate in 1878 took the first step toward reconciliation. His efforts +reached a successful issue first in February, 1883. The deposed prelates +were restored from their places of banishment, with promise of a liberal +pension, and were allowed to choose their residences as they pleased, only +not within their former dioceses. In their stead the pope consecrated ten +new bishops nominated by the emperor, who amid the jubilation of the +people entered their episcopal residences. With reference to the Roman +Catholic seminaries and clerical academies at Warsaw, the curia granted to +the government the right of control over instruction in the Russian +language, literature and history, but committed instruction in canonical +matters solely to the bishops, who, after obtaining the approval of the +government, appointed the rector and inspector and canonical teachers. +Vacant pastorates were filled by the bishops, and only in the case of the +more important was the approval of the government required. As to the +language to be used, it was resolved that only where the people speak +Russian were the clergy obliged to employ that language in preaching and +in their pastoral work. + +3. _The Evangelical Church._--The Lutheran church in Russia, comprising two +and a half millions of Germans, Letts, Esthonians and Finns, is strongest +in Livonia, Esthonia and Courland, is the national church in Finland, and +is also largely represented in Poland, in the chief cities of Russia, and +in the numerous German colonies in South Russia. In 1832 it obtained, for +the Baltic provinces and the scattered congregations in central Russia, a +church constitution and service book, the latter on the basis of the old +Swedish service book, the former requiring all religious teachers in +church and school to accept the Formula of Concord. Annual provincial +synods have the initiative in calling in, when necessary for legislative +purposes, the aid of the general synod.--In Poland the Reformed and +Lutheran churches were in 1828 united under one combined consistory. By an +imperial ukase of 1849, however, the independent existence of both +churches was restored. Protestants enjoyed all civil rights and had +absolute liberty in the exercise of their religion; but in central Russia +down to recent times, when a more liberal spirit began to prevail, they +were prohibited putting bells in their churches. The old prohibition of +evangelical preaching and the teaching of religion in the Russian tongue +also continued; but the attempt made for some decades in St. Petersburg +and the surrounding district to preach the gospel to Germans who had lost +their mother tongue, in the Russian language, has been hitherto +ungrudgingly allowed by the government. Quitting the national church or +returning from it to a church that had been left before, is visited by +severe penalties, and children of mixed marriages, where one parent +belongs to the national orthodox church, are claimed by law for that +church. Only Finland counts among her privileges the right of assigning +children of mixed marriages to the church of the father. The Lutheran +church in Livonia, with the island of Oesel, suffered considerable, and +according to the law of the land irreparable, loss by the secession of +sixty or seventy thousand Letts and Esthonians to the orthodox church +under the widespread delusion that thereby their economic position would +be improved. Disillusions and regret came too late, and the ever +increasing desire for restoration to the church forsaken in a moment of +excitement could only obtain arbitrary and insufficient satisfaction in +Lutheran baptism of infants seemingly near death, and in permission at +irregular intervals and without previous announcement to sit at the Lord's +Table according to the Lutheran rite. In 1865, not indeed legislatively +but administratively, the contracting of mixed marriages in the Baltic +provinces was permitted without the enforcement of the legal enactment +requiring that the children should be trained in the Greek church. In +Esthonia, however, in 1883 there was a new outbreak of conversions in +Leal, where five hundred peasants went over to the orthodox church, +declaring their wish to be of the same faith as the emperor and the whole +of the Russian people. By imperial decree in 1885 the suspension of the +law against withdrawing again from the national church, which had existed +for twenty years, was abolished. At the instigation of Pobedownoszew the +Imperial Council granted an annual subsidy of 100,000 roubles for +furthering orthodoxy in the Baltic provinces. No evangelical church could +be built in these provinces without the approval of the orthodox bishop of +the diocese, and any evangelical pastor who should dissuade a member of +his church from his purpose of joining the orthodox church, was liable to +punishment.--In order to supply the want of churches and schools, preachers +and teachers in the Lutheran congregations of Russia, a society was formed +in 1858 similar to the _Gustav-Adolfs-Verein_, under the supervision of +the General Consistory of St. Petersburg, which has laboriously and +zealously endeavoured to improve the condition of the oppressed +church.(119) + + + +§ 207. Greece and Turkey. + + +In the spirited struggle for liberty Greece freed herself from the tyranny +of the Turkish Mohammedan rule and obtained complete civil independence. +But the same princes representing all the three principal Christian +confessions, who in 1830 gave their sanction to this emancipation within +lamentably narrow limits, in 1840 conquered again the Holy Land for the +Turks out of the hands of a revolting vassal. And so inextricable were, +and still are, the political interests of the Christian States of Europe +with reference to the East, that in the London parliament of 1854 it could +be affirmed that the existence of Turkey in a condition of utter impotence +was so necessary, that if it did not exist, it would require to be +created. On two occasions has Russia called out her whole military force +to emancipate from the Turkish yoke her Slavic brethren of a common race +and common faith, without being able to give the finishing blow to the +"sick man" who had the protection of European diplomacy. + +1. _The Orthodox Church of Greece._--Deceived in their expectations from +the Vienna Congress, the Greeks tried to deliver themselves from Turkish +tyranny. In 1814 a _Hetairia_ was formed, branches of which spread over +the whole land and fostered among the people ideas of freedom. The war of +independence broke out in 1821. Its first result was a fearful massacre, +especially in Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius with his whole synod +and about 30,000 Christians were in three months with horrid cruelty +murdered by the Turks. The London Conference of 1830 at last declared +Greece an independent state, and an assembly of Greek bishops at Nauplia +in 1833 freed the national church of Greece from the authority of the +patriarch of Constantinople, who was under the control of Turkey. Its +supreme direction was committed to a permanent Holy Synod at Athens, +instituted by the king but in all internal matters absolutely independent. +The king must belong to the national church, but otherwise all religions +are on the same footing. Meanwhile the orthodox church is fully +represented, the Roman Catholic being strongest, especially in the +islands. The University of Athens, opened in 1856 with professors mostly +trained in Germany, has not been unsuccessful in its task even in the +domain of theology. + +2. _Massacre of Syrian Christians, 1860._--The Russo-Turkish war ending in +the beginning of 1856, in which France and England, and latterly also +Sardinia took the part of the sick man, left the condition of the +Christians practically unchanged. For though the Hatti Humayun of 1856 +granted them equal civil rights with the Moslems, this, however well meant +on the part of the Sultan of that time, practically made no improvement +upon the equally well meant Hatti Sherif of Guelhane of 1839. The outbreak +of 1860 also proved how little effect it had in teaching the Moslems +tolerance towards the Christians. Roused by Jesuit emissaries and trusting +to French support, the Maronites of Lebanon indulged in several provoking +attacks upon their old hereditary foes the Druses. These, however, aided +by the Turkish soldiery were always victorious, and throughout all Syria a +terrible persecution against Christians of all confessions broke out, +characterized by inhuman cruelties. In Damascus alone 8,000, in all Syria +16,000 Christians were murdered, 3,000 women taken to the harems, and 100 +Christian villages destroyed. After the massacre had been stopped, 120,000 +Christians wandered about without food, clothing, or shelter, and fled +hither and thither in fear of death. Fuad Pasha was sent from +Constantinople to punish the guilty, and seemed at first to proceed to +business energetically; but his zeal soon cooled, and French troops, sent +to Syria to protect the Christians, were obliged, yielding to pressure +from England, where their presence was regarded with suspicion, to +withdraw from the country in June, 1861. + +3. _The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle._--The Bulgarian church, with +somewhere about two and a half million souls, was from early times subject +to the patriarch of Constantinople (§ 73, 3), who acted toward it like a +pasha. He sold the Bulgarian bishoprics and archbishoprics to the highest +bidders among the Greek clergy, who were quite ignorant of the language of +the country, and had only one end in view, namely to recoup themselves by +extorting the largest possible revenue. No thought was given to the +spiritual needs of the Bulgarians, preaching was wholly abandoned, the +liturgy was read in a language unknown to the people. It was therefore not +to be wondered at that the Bulgarian church was for years longing for its +emancipation and ecclesiastical independence, and made every effort to +obtain this from the Porte. Turkey, however, sympathized with the +patriarch till the revolt in Crete in 1866-1869 and threatening political +movements in Bulgaria broke out. Then at last in 1870 the sultan granted +the establishment of an independent Slavic ecclesiastical province under +the designation of the Bulgarian Exarchate, with liberty to attach itself +to the other Slavic provinces upon a two-thirds majority of votes. The +patriarch Gregorius protested, but the Sublime Porte would not thereby be +deterred, and in May, 1872, Anthimos the Exarch elect was installed. The +patriarch and his synod now stigmatized _Phyletism_, the struggle for a +national church establishment, as accursed heresy, and excommunicated the +exarch and the whole Bulgarian church. Only the patriarch Cyril of +Jerusalem dissented, but he was on that account on his return home treated +with indignity and abuse and was deposed by a synod at Jerusalem. + +4. _The Armenian Church._--To the Gregorian-Armenian patriarch at +Constantinople (§ 64, 3), equally with his orthodox colleague (§ 67, 7), +had been assigned by the Sublime Porte civil jurisdiction as well as the +primacy over all members of his church in the Turkish empire. When now in +1830, at the instigation of France, an independent patriarchate with equal +rights was granted to the United Armenians (§ 72, 2), the twofold +dependence on the Porte and on the Roman curia created difficulties, which +in the meantime were overcome by giving the patriarch, who as a Turkish +official exercised civil jurisdiction, a primacy with the title of +archbishop as representative of the pope. The United Armenians, like the +other united churches of the East, had from early times enjoyed the +liberty of using their ancient liturgy, their old ecclesiastical calendar, +and their own church constitution with free election of their bishops and +patriarchs, and these privileges were left untouched down to 1866. But +when in that year the Armenian Catholic patriarch died, the archbishop +Hassun was elected patriarch, and then a fusion of the two ecclesiastical +powers was brought about, which was expected to lead to absolute and +complete subjection under papal jurisdiction and perfect assimilation with +the Romish constitution and liturgy, at the same time Hassun with a view +to securing a red hat showed himself eager and zealous in this business. +By the bull _Reversurus_ of 1867 Pius IX. claimed the right of nominating +the patriarchs of all united churches of the East, of confirming bishops +chosen by these patriarchs, in cases of necessity even choosing these +himself, and deciding all appeals regarding church property. But the +Mechitarists of St. Lazzaro (§ 164, 2) had already discovered the +intriguing designs of France and made these known among their countrymen +in Turkey. These now, while Monsignore Hassun was engaged combating the +infallibility dogma at the Vatican Council of 1870, drove out his +creatures and constituted themselves into a church independent of Rome, +without however, joining the Gregorian-Armenians. The influence of France +being meanwhile crippled by the Prussian victory, the Porte acquiesced in +the accomplished fact, confirmed the appointment of the newly chosen +patriarch Kupelian, and refused to yield to the pope's remonstrances and +allocutions. In 1874, however, it also recognised the Hassun party as an +independent ecclesiastical community, but assigned the church property to +the party of Kupelian, and banished Hassun as a fomenter of disturbance, +from the capital. The hearty sympathies which on the outbreak of the +Russo-Turkish war the Roman curia expressed so loudly and openly for the +victory of the crescent over the schismatic Russian cross, made the +Sublime Porte again regard the Hassunites with favour, so that Hassun in +September, 1877, returned to Constantinople, where the churches were given +over to his party and a great number of the Kupelianists were won over to +his side. He was eagerly aided not only by the French but also by the +Austrian ambassador, and the patriarch Kupelian, now sorely persecuted +from every side, at last resigned his position and went in March, 1879, to +Rome to kneel as a penitent before the pope. By an irade of the sultan, +Hassun was now formally restored, and in 1880 he was adorned with a red +hat by Leo XIII. Shortly before this the last of the bishops of the +opposing party, with about 30,000 souls, had given in his submission. + +5. _The Berlin Treaty, 1878._--Frequent and severe oppression, refusal to +administer justice, and brutal violence on the part of the Turkish +government and people toward the defenceless vassals drove the Christian +states and tribes of the Balkan peninsula in 1875 into a rebellion of +desperation, which was avenged, especially in Bulgaria in 1876, by +scandalous atrocities upon the Christians. When the half-hearted +interference of European diplomacy called forth instead of actual reforms +only the mocking sham of a pretended free representative constitution, +Russia held herself under obligation in 1877 to avenge by arms the wrongs +of her brethren by race and creed, but owing to the threats of England and +Austria could not fully reap the fruits of her dearly bought victory as +had been agreed upon in the Treaty of San Stefano. By the _Berlin +Conference_, however, of 1878 the principalities of Roumania, Servia, and +Montenegro, hitherto under the suzerainty of Turkey, were declared +independent, and to them, as well as to Greece, at the cost of Turkey, a +considerable increase of territory was granted, the portion between the +Balkans and the Danube was formed into the Christian principality of +Bulgaria under Turkish suzerainty, but East Roumelia, south of the +Balkans, now separated from Bulgaria, obtained the rank of an autonomous +province with a Christian governor-general. To Thessaly, Epirus, and Crete +were granted administrative reforms and throughout the European territory +left to the Porte it was stipulated that full religious and political +rights be granted to members of all confessions. The administration of +Bosnia and Herzegovina was given over to Austria, and that of Cyprus, by +means of a separate treaty, to England. The greater part of Armenia, lying +in Asia, belongs to Russia. + + + +§ 208. The United States of America.(120) + + +The Republic of the United States of America, existing since the +Declaration of Independence in 1776, and recognised by England as +independent since the conclusion of Peace in 1783, requires of her +citizens no other religious test than belief in one God. Since the +settlers had often left their early homes on account of religious matters, +the greatest variety of religious parties were gathered together here, and +owing to their defective theological training and their practical turn of +mind, they afforded a fruitful field for religious movements of all sorts, +among which the revivals systematically cultivated by many denominations +play a conspicuous part. The government does not trouble itself with +religious questions, and lets every denomination take care of itself. +Preachers are therefore wholly dependent on their congregations, and are +frequently liable to dismissal at the year's end. Yet they form a highly +respected class, and nowhere in the Protestant world is the tone of +ecclesiastical feeling and piety so prevailingly high. In the public +schools, which are supported by the State, religious instruction is on +principle omitted. The Lutheran and Catholic churches have therefore +founded parochial schools; the other denominations seek to supply the want +by Sunday schools. The candidates for the ministry are trained in colleges +and in numerous theological seminaries. + +1. _English Protestant Denominations._--The numerous Protestant +denominations belong to two great groups, English and German. Of the first +named the following are by far the most important: (1) _The +Congregationalists_ are the descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers who +emigrated in 1620 (§ 143, 4). They profess the doctrines of the +Westminster Confession (§ 155, 1).--(2) _The Presbyterians_, of Scotch +origin, have the same confession as the Congregationalists, but differ +from them by having a common church government with strict Synodal and +Presbyterial constitution. By rejecting the doctrine of predestination the +Cumberland Presbyterians in 1810 formed a separate body and have since +grown so as to embrace in the south-western states 120,000 +communicants.--(3) _The Anglican Episcopal Church_ is equally distinguished +by moderate and solid churchliness. Even here, however, Puseyism has +entered in and the Romish church has made many proselytes. But when at the +general conference of the Evangelical Alliance at New York in 1873, bishop +Cummins of Kentucky took part in the administration of the Lord's Supper +in the Presbyterian church and was violently attacked for this by his +Puseyite brethren, he laid the foundation of a "Reformed Episcopal +Church," in which secession other twenty-five Episcopal ministers joined. +They regard the episcopal constitution as an old and wholesome ordinance +but not a divine institution, also the Anglican liturgy and _Book of +Common Prayer_, though capable of improvement, while they recognise the +ordinations of other evangelical churches as valid, and reject as Puseyite +the doctrine of a special priesthood of the clergy, of a sacrifice in the +eucharist, the presence of the body and blood of Christ in the elements, +and of the essential and invariable connection between regeneration and +baptism.--(4) _The Episcopal Methodists_ in America formed since 1784 an +independent body (§ 169, 4). Their influence on the religious life in the +United States has been extraordinarily great. They have had by far the +most to do with the revivals which from the first they have carried to a +wonderful pitch with their protracted meetings, inquiry meetings, camp +meetings, etc. They reached their climax in the camp meetings which, under +the preaching mostly of itinerant Methodist preachers frequently in the +forest under the canopy of heaven, produced religious awakening among the +multitudes gathered from all around. Day and night without interruption +they continued praying, singing, preaching, exhorting; all the horrors of +hell are depicted, the excitement increases every moment, penitent +wrestlings with sighs, sobs, groans, convulsions and writhings, occur on +every side; grace comes at last to view; loud hallelujahs, thanksgivings +and ascription of praise by the converted mix with the moanings of those +on "the anxious bench" pleading for grace, etc. In San Francisco in 1874 +there were "_Baby-Revivals_," at which children from four to twelve years +of age, who trembled with the fear of hell, sang penitential hymns, made +confession of sin, and wrote their names on a sheet in order to engage +themselves for ever for Jesus. Since 1847 the Methodist church had been +divided into two hostile camps, a southern and a northern. The first named +tolerated slavery, while the members of the latter were decided +abolitionists and excommunicated all slave-owners as unworthy of the name +of Christian. Another party, the Protestant Methodists, has blended the +episcopal and congregational constitution.--(5) _The Baptists_ are split up +into many sects. The most numerous are the Calvinistic Baptists. Their +activity in proselytising is equally great with their zeal for missions to +the heathen. In opposition to them the Free-Will Baptists are Arminian and +the Christian Baptists have adopted Unitarian views.(121) + +2. _The German Lutheran Denominations._--The German emigration to America +began in Penn's time. In the organization of church affairs, besides +Zinzendorf and the Herrnhut missionaries, a prominent part was taken by +the pastor Dr. Melchior Muehlenberg (died 1787), a pupil of A. H. Francke, +and the Reformed pastor Schlatter from St. Gall; the former sent by the +Halle Orphanage, the latter by the Dutch church. The Orphanage sent many +earnest preachers till rationalism broke in upon the society. As at the +same time the stream of German emigration was checked almost completely +for several decades, and so all intercourse with the mother country +ceased, crowds of Germans, impressed by the revivals, went over to the +Anglo-American denominations, and in the German denominations themselves +along with the English language entered also English Puritanism and +Methodism. In 1815 German emigration began again and grew from year to +year. At the synod of 1857 the Lutheran church with 3,000 pastors divided +into three main divisions: (1) The American Lutheran church had become in +language, customs, and doctrine thoroughly Anglicised and Americanized; +Zwinglian in its doctrine of the sacraments, it was Lutheran in scarcely +anything but the name, until in its chief seminary at Gettysburg in +Pennsylvania in 1850 a reaction set in in favour of genuine Lutheran and +German tendencies. (2) A greatly attenuated Lutheranism with unionistic +sympathies and frequent abandonment of the German language also found +expression in the congregations of the Old Pennsylvanian Synod. (3) On the +other hand, the strict Lutheran church held tenaciously to the exclusive +use of the German language and the genuine Lutheran confession. The +Prussian emigration with Grabau and the Saxon Lutheran settlers with +Stephan constituted its backbone (§ 194, 1). To them a number of Bavarian +Lutherans attached themselves who had emigrated under the leadership of +Loehe, whose missionary institute at Neuendettelsau supplied them with +pastors. The Saxon Lutherans were meanwhile grouped together in the +Missouri Synod, which Loehe's missionaries also joined, so that it soon +acquired much larger proportions than the Buffalo Synod formed previously +by the Prussian Lutherans under Grabau. But very soon the two synods had a +violent quarrel over the idea of office and church which, owing to the +reception by the Missouri Synod of several parties excommunicated by the +Buffalo Synod, led to the formal breach of church fellowship between the +two parties. The Missouri Synod, with Dr. Walther at its head, attached +all importance to sound doctrine; the clerical office was regarded as a +transference of the right of the congregation and excommunication as a +congregational not a clerical act. The Buffalo Synod, on the other hand, +in consequence of serious conflict with pietistic elements, had been +driven into an overestimation of external order, of forms of constitution +and worship, and of the clerical office as of immediately divine +authority, and carried this to such a length as led to the dissolution of +the synod in 1877. Loehe's friends, who had not been able to agree with +either party, formed themselves into the Synod of Iowa, with their +seminary at Wartburg under Fritschel. On all questions debated between the +synods they took a mediating position. The Missourians, however, would +have nothing to do with them, while those of Buffalo long maintained +tolerably friendly relations with them. But the historical view of the +symbols taken by the Iowans, their inclination toward the new development +of Lutheran theology, and above all their attitude toward biblical +chiliasm, which they wished to treat as an open question, seemed to those +of Buffalo, as well as to the Missourians, a falling away from the church +confession, and led to their excommunication by that party also.--In +opposition to all this splitting up into sections a General Council of the +Lutheran Church in America was held in 1866, which sought to combine all +Lutheran district synods, of which twelve, out of fifty-six, with 814 +clergymen, joined it, Iowa assuming a friendly and Missouri a distinctly +hostile attitude. The ninth assembly at Galesburg in Illinois in 1875 laid +down as its fundamental principle, "Lutheran pulpits only for Lutheran +preachers, and Lutheran altars only for Lutheran communicants." The native +Americans, however, insisted upon exceptions being allowed, _e.g._ in +peril of death, etc. On the question of the limits of these exceptions, +however, subsequent assemblies have not been able to agree. + +3. But also in the Synodal Conference founded and led by the Missouri +Synod, embracing five synods, doctrinal controversies sprang up in 1860. A +large number with Dr. Walther at their head held a strict doctrine of +_predestination_ which they regarded as the mark of genuine Lutheranism. +God has, they taught, chosen a definite number of men from eternity to +salvation; these shall and must be saved. Salvation in Christ is indeed +offered to all, but God secures it only for His elect, so that they are +sure of it and cannot lose it again, not indeed _intuitu fidei_ but only +according to His sovereign grace. Even one of the elect may seem +temporarily to fall from grace, but he cannot die without returning into +full possession of it. Prof. Fritschel protested against this in 1872 as +essentially Calvinistic, and opposition also arose in the Missouri +Pastoral Conference. Prof. Asperheim, of the seminary of the Norwegian +Synod at Madison in Wisconsin, who first pronounced against it in 1876, +was deprived of his office and obliged to withdraw from the synod. The +controversy broke out in a violent form at the conferences of about 500 +pastors held at Chicago in 1880 and at Milwaukee three months later in +1881, at the former of which Prof. Stellhorn of Fort Wayne, at the latter +Prof. Schmidt of Madison, offered a vigorous opposition. Walther closed +the conference with the words: "You ask for war, war you shall have." The +result was that the whole of the Ohio Synod and a large portion of the +Norwegian Wisconsin Synod, broke away from communion with the Missouri +Synod.--Walther and his adherents went so far in their fanaticism as to +pronounce not only their American opponents but all the most distinguished +Lutheran theologians of Germany, Philippi as well as Hofmann, Luthardt as +well as Kahnis, Vilmar as well as Thomasius, Harms as well as Zoeckler, +etc., bastard theologians, semipelagians, synergists and rationalists, and +to refuse church fellowship not only with all Lutheran national churches +in Europe, but also with German Lutheran Free Churches, which did not +unconditionally attach themselves to them. These Missouri separatist +communities, though everywhere quite unimportant, are in Europe strongest +in the kingdom of Saxony; they have also a few representatives in Nassau, +Baden, Wuerttemberg, Bavaria and Hesse. + +4. _German-Reformed and other German-Protestant Denominations._--The +German-Reformed church has its seminary at Mercersburg in Pennsylvania. +Its confession of faith is the Heidelberg Catechism, its theology an +offshoot of German evangelical union theology, but with a distinctly +positive tendency. Although the union theology there prevailed among the +Reformed as well as the Lutherans, a German Evangelical Church Union was +formed at St. Louis in 1841 which wished to set aside the names Reformed +and Lutheran. It established a seminary at Marthasville in Missouri. The +Herrnhuters are also represented in America. Several German Methodist +sects have recently sprung up: 1. The "United Brethren in Christ," with +500 preachers, founded by a Reformed preacher Otternbein (died 1813). 2. +The "Evangelical Communion," commonly called _Albrechtsleute_, founded by +Jac. Albrecht, originally a Lutheran layman, whom his own followers +ordained in 1803, with 500 or 600 preachers working zealously and carrying +on mission work also in Germany (§ 211, 1). 3. The Weinbrennians or Church +of God, founded by an excommunicated Reformed pastor of that name in 1839. +They carry the Methodist revivalism to the most extravagant excess and are +also fanatical opponents of infant baptism. + +5. _The Catholic Church._--A number of English Catholics under Lord +Baltimore settled in Maryland in 1634. The little community grew and soon +filled the land. There alone in the whole world did the Roman Catholic +church though dominant proclaim the principle of toleration and religious +equality. Consequently Protestants of various denominations crowded +thither, outnumbered the original settlers, and rewarded those who had +hospitably received them with abuse and oppression. The Catholics were +also treated in other states as idolaters and excluded from public offices +and posts of honour. Only after the Declaration of Independence in 1783 +was this changed by the sundering of the connection of church and state +and the proclamation of absolute religious liberty. The number of +Catholics was greatly increased by numerous emigrations, specially from +Ireland and Catholic Germany. They now claim seven million members, with a +cardinal at New York, 13 archbishops, 64 bishops, about 7,000 churches and +chapels. A beautiful cathedral was erected in New York in 1879, the +immense cost of which, exceeding all expectation, was at last defrayed by +very unspiritual and unecclesiastical methods, _e.g._ lotteries, fairs, +dramatic exhibitions, concerts, and even dearly sold kisses, etc. The +Roman Catholics have also a university at St. Louis, 80 colleges, and 300 +cloisters. + + + +§ 209. The Roman Catholic States of South America. + + +To the predominantly Protestant North America the position of the Roman +Catholic states of South America forms a very striking contrast. Nowhere +else was the influence and power of the clergy so wide-spread and deeply +rooted, nowhere else has the depravation of Catholicism reached such a +depth of superstition, obscurantism, and fanaticism. During the second and +third decades of our century the Spanish states, favoured by the +revolutionary movement in the mother country, one after another asserted +their independence, and the Portuguese Brazil established herself as an +independent empire under the legitimate royal prince of Portugal, Pedro I. +in 1822. Although the other new states adopted a republican constitution, +they could not throw aside the influence of the Catholic clergy and carry +out the principles of religious freedom proclaimed in their constitutions. +The Catholicism of the Creoles, half-castes, and mulattoes was of too +bigoted a kind and the power of the clergy too great to allow any such +thing. Mexico went furthest in the attempt, and Brazil, under Dom Pedro +II. from 1831, astonished the world by the vigorous measures of its +government in 1874 against the assumptions of the higher clergy.--In spite +of all hindrances a not inconsiderable number of small evangelical +congregations have been formed in Romish America, partly through +emigration and partly by evangelization. + +1. _Mexico._--Of all the American states, Mexico, since its independence in +1823, has been most disturbed by revolutions and civil wars. The rich and +influential clergy, possessing nearly a half of all landed property, was +the factor with which all pretenders, presidents and rulers had to reckon. +After most of the earlier governments had supported the clergy and been +supported by them, the ultimately victorious liberal party under president +Juarez shook off the yoke in 1859. He proclaimed absolute religious +freedom, introduced civil marriage, abolished cloisters, pronounced church +possessions national property and exiled the obstinate bishops. The +clerical party now sought and obtained foreign aid. Spain, France and +England joined in a common military convention in 1861 in supporting +certain claims of citizens repudiated by Juarez. Spain and England soon +withdrew their troops, and Napoleon III. openly declared the purpose of +his interference to be the strengthening of the Latin race and the +monarchical principle in America. At his instigation the Austrian +Grand-Duke Maximilian was elected emperor, and that prince, after +receiving the pope's blessing in Rome, began his reign in 1864. Distrusted +by all parties as a stranger, in difficulties with the curia and clergy +because he opposed their claims to have their most extravagant privileges +restored, shamefully left in the lurch by Napoleon from fear of the +threatening attitude of the North American Union, and then sold and +betrayed by his own general Bazaine, this noble but unfortunate prince was +at last sentenced by Juarez at a court-martial to be shot in 1867. Juarez +now maintained his position till the end of his life in 1872, and strictly +carried out his anticlerical reforms. After his death clericalism again +raised her head, and the Jesuits expelled from Guatemala swarmed over the +land. Yet constitutional sanction was given to the Juarez legislation at +the congress of 1873. The Jesuits were driven across the frontiers, +obstinate priests as well as a great number of nuns, who had gathered +again in cloisters and received novices, were put in prison.--Also +_Evangelization_ advanced slowly under sanction of law, though regarded +with disfavour by the people and interfered with often by the mob. It +began in 1865 with the awakening of a Catholic priest Francisco Aguilar +and a Dominican monk Manuel Aguas, through the reading of the Scriptures. +They laid the foundation of the "_Iglesia de Jesus_" of converted +Mexicans, with evangelical doctrine and apostolic-episcopal constitution, +which has now 71 congregations throughout the whole country with about +10,000 souls. This movement received a new impulse in 1869, when a +Chilian-born Anglican episcopal minister of a Spanish-speaking +congregation in New York, called Riley, took the control of it and was in +1879 consecrated its bishop. Besides this independent "_Church of Jesus_" +North American missionaries of various denominations have wrought there +since 1872 with slow but steady success. + +2. _In the Republics of Central and Southern America_, when the liberal +party obtained the helm of government through almost incessant civil wars, +religious freedom was generally proclaimed, civil marriage introduced, the +Jesuits expelled, cloisters shut up, etc. But in _Ecuador_, president +Moreno, aided by the clergy, concluded in 1862 a concordat with the curia +by which throughout the country only the Catholic worship was tolerated, +the bishops could condemn and confiscate any book, education was under the +Jesuits, and the government undertook to employ the police in suppressing +all errors and compelling all citizens to fulfil all their religious +duties. And further the public resolved in 1873, although unable to pay +the interest of the national debt, to hand over a tenth of all state +revenues to the pope. But Moreno was murdered in 1875. The Jesuits, who +were out of favour, left Quito. The tithe hitherto paid to the pope was +immediately withheld, and in 1877 the concordat was abrogated. As Ecuador +in Moreno, so _Peru_ at the same time in Pierola had a dictator after the +pope's own heart. The republic had his misgovernment to thank for one +defeat after another in the war with Chili.--_Bolivia_ in 1872 declared +that the Roman Catholic religion alone would be tolerated in the country, +and suffered, in common with Peru, annihilating defeats at the hand of +Chili.--When at St. Iago in Chili, during the festival of the Immaculate +Conception in 1863, the Jesuit church La Compania was burnt and in it more +than 2,000 women and children consumed, the clergy pronounced this +disaster an act of grace of the blessed Virgin, who wished to give the +country a vast number of saints and martyrs. But here, too, the conflicts +between church and state continued. In 1874 the Chilian episcopate +pronounced the ban against the president and the members of the national +council and of the Lower House who had favoured the introduction of a new +penal code which secured liberty of worship, but it remained quite +unheeded. When then the archiepiscopal chair of St. Iago became vacant in +1878, the pope refused on any condition to confirm the candidate appointed +by the government. After the decisive victory over Peru and Bolivia, the +government again in December, 1881, urgently insisted upon their +presentation. The curia now sent to Chili, avowedly to obtain more +accurate information, an apostolic delegate who took advantage of his +position to stir up strife, so that the government was obliged to insist +upon his recall. As the curia declined to do so, his passports were sent +to the legate in January, 1883, and a presidential message was addressed +to the next congress which demanded the separation of the church and +state, with the introduction of civil marriage and register of civil +station, as the only remaining means for putting down the confusion caused +by papal tergiversation. The result of the long and heated debates that +followed was the promulgation of a law by which Catholicism was deprived +of the character of the state religion and the perfect equality of all +forms of worship was proclaimed.--_Guatemala_ in 1872 expelled the Jesuits +whose power and wealth had become very great. In 1874 the president +Borrias opened a new campaign against the clergy by forbidding them to +wear the clerical dress except when discharging the duties of their +office, and closing all the nunneries.--In _Venezuela_, in 1872, Archbishop +Guevara of Caracas, who had previously come into collision with the +government by favouring the rebels, forbade his clergy taking part in the +national festival, and put the cathedral in which it was to be celebrated +under the interdict. Deposed and banished on this account, he continued +from the British island of Trinidad his endeavours to stir up a new +rebellion. The president, Guzman Blanco, after long fruitless negotiations +with the papal nuncio, submitted in May, 1876, to the congress at St. +Domingo the draft of a bill, which declared the national church wholly +independent of Rome. The congress not only homologated his proposals, but +carried them further, by abolishing the episcopal hierarchy and assigning +its revenues to the national exchequer, for education. Now at last the +Roman curia agreed to the deposition of Guevara and confirmed the +nomination of his previously appointed successor. But president Blanco now +asked congress to abolish the law, and this was agreed to.--In the United +States of _Colombia_ since 1853, and in the _Argentine Republic_ since +1865, perfect liberty of faith and worship have been constitutionally +secured. From the latter state the Jesuits had been banished for a long +time but had managed to smuggle themselves in again. When in the beginning +of 1875 Archbishop Aneiros of Buenos Ayres addressed to the government +which favoured the clerical party rather than to the congress which was +the only competent court, a request to reinvest the Jesuits with the +churches, cloisters, and properties held by them before their expulsion, a +terrible outbreak took place, which the archbishop intensified to the +utmost by issuing a violent pastoral. A mob of 30,000 men, convened by the +students of the university, wrecked the palace of the archbishop, then +attacked the Jesuit college, burnt all its furniture and ornaments on the +streets and by means of petroleum soon reduced the building itself to +flames. Only with difficulty did the military succeed in preventing +further mischief. In October, 1884, the papal nuncio was expelled, +because, when the government decidedly refused his request to prevent the +spread of Protestant teaching and to place Sunday schools under the +oversight of the bishops, he replied in a most violent and passionate +manner. About the same time the republic of _Costa-rica_ issued a law +forbidding all religious orders, pronouncing all vows invalid, and +threatening banishment against all who should contravene these enactments, +and also an education act which forbade all public instruction apart from +that provided by the State. + +3. _Brazil._--In Brazil down to 1884, the "Catholic Apostolic Roman +Religion" was, according to the constitution, the religion of the empire. +But from 1828 there was a Protestant congregation in Rio de Janeiro, and +through the inland districts, in consequence of immigration, there were +100 small evangelical congregations, with twenty-five ordained pastors, +whose forms of worship were of various kinds. In earlier times Protestant +marriage was regarded as concubinage, but in 1851 a law was passed which +gave it civil recognition. But the bishops held to their previous views +and demanded of married converts a repetition of the ceremony. Since 1870, +however, the government has energetically opposed the claims of the clergy +who wished only to acknowledge the authority of Rome. Protestant marriages +were pronounced equally legitimate with Catholic marriages, no civil +penalties are incurred by excommunication, all papal bulls are subject to +the approval of the government, and it was insisted that announcement +should be made of all clergy nominated. The clergy considered freemasonry +the chief source of all this liberal current, and against it therefore +they directed all their forces. The pope assisted by his brief of May, +1873, condemning freemasonry. At the head of the rebel prelates stood Don +Vitalis Gonsalvez de Oliveira, bishop of Olinda and Pernambuco. He +published the papal brief without asking the imperial permission, +pronounced the ban upon all freemasons and suspended the interdict over +all associations which refused to expel masonic brothers from their +membership. In vain the government demanded its withdrawal. It then +accused him of an attack upon the constitution. The supreme court ordered +his detention, and he was placed in the state prison at Rio de Janeiro in +January, 1874. The trial ended by his being sentenced to four years' +imprisonment, which the emperor as an act of grace commuted to detention +in a fortress, and set him free in a year and a half. In consequence of +this occurrence the Jesuits were, in 1874, expelled from the country. The +increasing advent of monks and nuns from Europe led the government, in +1884, to appoint a commission to carry out the law already passed in 1870, +for the secularization of all monastic property after providing pensions +for those entitled to support. In the same year all naturalized +non-Catholics were pronounced eligible for election to the imperial +parliament and to the provincial assemblies. The members belonging to the +evangelical churches now number about 50,000, of whom 30,000 are +Germans.(122) + + + + +V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity. + + + +§ 210. Sectarians and Enthusiasts in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox +Russian Domains. + + +It cannot be denied that since the Tridentine attempt to define the church +doctrine far fewer sects condemning the church as such have sprung from +Roman Catholicism than from Protestantism. Yet such phenomena are not +wanting in the nineteenth century. Their scarcity is abundantly made up +for by the numberless degenerations and errors (§ 191) which the Catholic +church or its representatives in the higher and lower grades of the clergy +not only fell into, but actually provoked and furthered, and thus +encouraged an unhealthy love for religious peculiarities. Were the absence +of new heretical, sectarian and fanatical developments something to be +gloried in for itself alone, the Eastern church, with its absolute +stability, would obtain this distinction in a far higher degree. In the +Russian church, however, the multitude of sects which amid manifold +oppressions and persecutions continue to exist to the present day, in +spite of many persistent and even condemnable errors, witnesses to a deep +religious need in the Russian people. + +1. _Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain_ (§ 187, 6-8, § +190).--On the Catholic Irvingites see § 211, 10.--(1) _The Order of New +Templars_ sprang from the Freemasons (§ 172, 2). Soon after their +establishment in France the Jesuits sought to carry out their own +hierarchical ideas. The fable of an uninterrupted connection between +freemasonry as a "temple of humanity" and the Templars of the Middle Ages, +and the introduction therewith in their secret ceremonies of exercises, +borrowed from the chivalry of romance, afforded a means toward this end. +The idea was started in the Jesuit college at Claremont and was approved +and accepted by the local lodge. In A.D. 1754 a great number of their +noble members, who were disgusted with the Jesuit templar farce, withdrew +in order as "New Templars" to continue the old order in the spirit of +modern times. In consequence, however, of the revolution that broke out in +A.D. 1789 they could no longer hold their ground as a band of nobles. +Napoleon favoured the reorganization of the order freed from those limits. +The day of Molay's death (§ 112, 7) was publicly celebrated with great +pomp in Paris, A.D. 1808 and the order spread among all French +populations. On the Bourbon restoration the grand-master was, at the +instigation of the Jesuits, cast into prison and the order suppressed. +After the July revolution he was liberated and a new temple was opened in +Paris in A.D. 1833. The show-loving Parisians for a long time took +pleasure in the peculiar rites and costume of the templars. When this +interest declined the order passed out of view. Its religion, which +professed to be a primitive revelation carried down in the Greek and +Egyptian mysteries, from which Moses borrowed, then further developed by +Christ and transmitted in esoteric tradition by John and his successors +the grand-masters of the templars, taught a divine trinity of being, act +and consciousness, the eternity of the world alongside of God and an +indwelling of God in man. It declared the Roman Catholic church to be the +only true Christianity (_eglise chretienne primitive_). Its sacred book +consisted of an apocryphal gospel of John in accordance with its own +notions.--(2) On the communistic society of _St. Simonians_, which also +sprang up in France, see § 212, 2.--(3) St. Simon's secretary was _Aug. +Comte_, the founder of the Positivist philosophical school (§ 174, 2) and +he maintained intimate relations with his master all through life. In his +later years he undertook by carrying his philosophical doctrine into the +practical domain to sketch out a "religion of humanity," and thus became +the founder of a Positivist religious sect. The men of science indeed who +had adopted his philosophical principles (Littre, Renan, Taine, Lewes, +Leslie Stephens, Tyndall, Huxley, Draper, etc.), repudiate it; but in the +middle and lower ranks some were found longing for an object of worship, +who endeavoured on the basis of his _Calendrier positiviste_ and +_Catechisme positiviste_ to form a religious society for the worship of +humanity. His festival calendar divides the year into thirteen months of +four weeks each, named after the thirteen great benefactors of mankind +(among whom Christ does not appear), while the weeks are named after +lesser heroes. By the profound veneration of woman, which savours greatly +of Mariolatry, as well as by the fantastic worship of heroes, geniuses and +scholars, which is a mimicry of the popish saint worship, and by the +adoption of a sacerdotalism like that of Catholicism, this religion of +humanity shows itself to be an antichristian growth on Roman Catholic +soil. + +2.--(4) _Thomas Poeschl_, in the second decade of the century, presents an +instance of a degeneration of originally pietistic tendencies into +mischievous fanaticism. A Catholic priest at Ampfelwang near Linz, he +sought under the influence of Sailer's mysticism to awaken in his +congregation a more lively Christianity by means of prayer meetings and +the circulation of tracts, in which he proclaimed the approaching end of +the world. When the district in which he lived was, in 1814, attached to +Austria, he was committed to prison, and his followers accepted as their +leader the peasant _Jos. Haas_, who led them further still into fanatical +excesses. His fanaticism at length went so far that on Good Friday of 1817 +a young maiden belonging to their party suffered a voluntary death after +the example of Christ for her brothers and sisters. Poeschl professed the +deepest horror at this cruel deed for which he was blamed. He died in +close monastic confinement in 1837.--(5) The Antinomian sect of the +_Antonians_, most numerous in the Canton Bern, had its beginning among the +Roman Catholics. Its founder was Antoni Unternaehrer, born and reared at +Shuepfheim, near Lucerne, in the Catholic faith. From 1802 he resided at +Amfoldingen, near Thun, where he stood in high repute among the peasants +as a quack doctor, gave himself out as the son of God a second time become +man, and proclaimed by word and writing the perfect redemption from the +curse of the law by the introduction of the true freedom of the sons of +God, which was to show itself first of all in the absolutely unrestricted +intercourse of the sexes. After two years' confinement in a house of +correction he was banished from the Canton Bern and transported to his +native place, where, abandoning all pastoral duties, he died in a police +cell in 1814. The sect, which had meanwhile spread widely, and at Gsteig +near Interlaken had obtained a new leader in the person of Benedict +Schori, a third incarnation of Christ, could not be finally suppressed, +notwithstanding the liberal use of the prison, till the beginning of 1840. +Even at this day scattered remnants of Antonians are to be found in Canton +Bern.--(6) When the Austrian constitution of 1849 gave unconditional +religious toleration, the Bohemian _Adamites_ (§ 115, 5), of whom remnants +under the mask of Catholicism had continued down to the nineteenth +century, ventured again publicly to engage in proselytising efforts. An +official enquiry instituted on this occasion declared that the sect, +consisting of Bohemian peasants and artisans, had its headquarters among +the mystics of the Kruedener school, that its religious doctrine was a +mixture of communism, freethinking and quietism, and that its members were +in their ordinary public life blameless, but that in their secret nightly +assemblies, where they dispensed with clothes, they celebrated orgies +regardless of marriage or relationship.--(7) _David Lazzaretti_, formerly a +carrier in Tuscany, appeared in his native place after an absence of +several years, in 1872, declaring that he was descended from a natural son +of Charlemagne and had been entrusted by the Apostle Peter with a message +to the pope, pointing to a cross that had been burnt upon his brow by the +apostle himself. He startled those of the Vatican, where he was quite +unknown, by declaring that the bones of his ancestors lay under the ruins +of an old Franciscan cloister in Sabina, of whose existence nobody was +aware, the discovery of which seemed to vouch for his claims. These were +all the more readily admitted when it was found that he made the +restoration of the Pope's temporal power his main task. The number of his +adherents, mostly peasants, soon increased immensely, reaching, it is +said, 40,000. On Monte Labro they built a church with a strong "David's +Tower," over which "St. David" appointed two priests who, when they had +made certain changes in worship at the call of the prophet, were +excommunicated by the bishop. David now began to spread his socialistic +and communistic ideas. He insisted that his adherents should surrender +their goods to him as representative of the society, and promised down to +December 31st, 1890, the introduction of community of goods throughout +Italy and afterwards in other countries. In Arcidosso, the prophet's +birthplace, a beginning was to be made, but in its overthrow on August +18th, 1878, he met his death, and his befooled followers waited in vain +for the fulfilment of his dying promise that he would rise again on the +third day. + +3. _Russian Sects and Fanatics._--After the attempt under Nicholas I. at +the forcible conversion of the _Raskolniks_, especially the purely +schismatic _Starowerzians_ or Old Believers (§ 163, 10), had proved +fruitless, the government of Alexander II. by patience and concession took +a surer way to reconciliation and restoration. In October, 1874, their +marriages, births and deaths, which had hitherto been without legal +recognition, were put on the regular register and so their lawful rights +of inheritance were secured. Under Alexander III. in 1883 an imperial +decree was issued, which gave them permission to celebrate divine service +after their own methods in their chapels, which had not before the legal +standing of churches, and declared them also eligible for public +appointments.--To the _Duchoborzians_ (§ 166, 2), sorely oppressed under +Catherine II. and Paul I., Alexander I., after they had laid before him +the confession which they had adopted, granted toleration, but assigned +them a separate residence in the Taurus district. Under Nicholas I. they +were to the number of 3,000 transported to the Transcaucasian mountains in +1841, where they were called Duchoborje.--The Wuerttemberg Pietist colonists +of South Russia originated among the peasants the widespread sect of the +_Stundists_ soon after the abolition of serfdom in 1863. The originator of +those separatist meetings for the study of Scripture, which led first of +all to the condemnation of image worship and making the sign of the cross +as unbiblical, and subsequently to a complete withdrawal from the worship +of the orthodox church and the forming of conventicles, was the peasant +and congregational elder Ratusny of Osnowa near Odessa, to whom, at a +later period, with equal propagandist zeal, the peasant Balabok attached +himself. The latter was, in 1871, sentenced to one year's imprisonment at +Kiev and the loss of civil rights, and in 1873, at Odessa, a great +criminal prosecution was instituted against Ratusny and all the other +leaders of the sect, which, however, after proceeding for five years ended +in a verdict of acquittal. A process started in 1878 against the so-called +_Schaloputs_ had a similar issue. This sect, spread most widely among the +Cossacks of Cuban, rejects the Old Testament, the sacraments and the +doctrine of the resurrection, but believes in a continued effusion of the +Holy Spirit upon the prophets of the church who have prepared themselves +for their vocation by complete abstinence from flesh and spirituous liquor +as well as by incessant prayer and frequent fasting. + +4. About the middle of the eighteenth century among the "_Men of __ God_," +the strict interpretation of the prescriptions of their founder Danila +Filipow (§ 163, 10) had led many to abstain wholly from sexual relations; +when a peasant Andrew Selivanov appeared as a reformer and founded the +sect of the _Skopzen_ or mutilators, who, building on misinterpreted +passages of Scripture (Matt. v. 28-30, xix. 12; Rev. xiv. 4) insisted upon +the destruction of sexual desire by castration and excision of the female +breasts, generally performed under anaesthetics, as a necessary condition +of entrance into the kingdom of heaven. The first Skopzic congregation was +gathered round him in the village of Sosnowka. The "men of God" enraged at +his success denounced him to the government. He was punished with the +knout and condemned in 1774 to hard labour at Irkutzk. The idea that Peter +III., who died in 1762, was still alive, then widely prevailed. The "men +of God" had also adopted this opinion, and proclaimed him their +last-appearing Christ, who would soon return from his hiding-place to call +to account all unbelievers. Selivanov, who knew of this, now gave himself +out for the exiled monarch, and was accepted as such by his adherents in +his native place. When Paul I., Peter's son, assumed the reins of +government in 1796, a Skopzic merchant of Moscow told him secretly that +his father was living at Irkutzk under the name of Selivanov. The emperor +therefore brought him to Petersburg and shut him up as an imbecile in an +asylum. After Paul's death, however, his adherents obtained his release. +He now lived for eighteen years in honour at Petersburg, till in 1820 the +court again interfered and had him confined in a cloister at Suzdal, where +after some years he died. Sorely persecuted by Nicholas I. many of his +followers migrated to Moldavia and Walachia where they, dwelling in +separate quarters at Jassy, Bucharest and Galatz, lived as owners of +coach-hiring establishments, and by rich presents obtained proselytes. +Still more vigorously was the propaganda carried on in the Moscow colonies +on the Sea of Azov. There in Morschansk lived the spiritual head of all +Russian Skopzen, the rich merchant Plotizyn. After the government got on +the track of this society, Plotizyn's house was searched and a +correspondence revealing the wide extension of the sect was found, +together with a treasure of several, some say as much as thirty, millions +of roubles, which, however, in great part again disappeared in a +mysterious manner. Plotizyn and his companions were banished to Siberia +and sentenced to hard labour, the less seriously implicated to correction +in a cloister.--The secret doctrine of the Skopzen so far as is known is as +follows: God had intended man to propagate not by sexual intercourse but +by a holy kiss. They broke this command and this constituted the fall. In +the fulness of time God sent his Son into the world. The central point of +his preaching transmitted to us in a greatly distorted form was the +introduction of the baptism of fire (Matt. iii. 11), _i.e._ mutilation by +hot irons for which, in consideration of human weakness, a baptism of +castration may be substituted (Matt. xix. 12). Origen is regarded by them +as the greatest saint of the ancient church; to his example all saints +conformed who are represented as beardless or with only a slight beard. +The promised return of the Christ (in this alone diverging from the +doctrine of the "men of God"), took place in the person of the emperor +Peter III. whom an unstained virgin bore, who was called the empress +Elizabeth Petrovna. The latter after some years transferred the government +to a lady of the court resembling her and retired into private life under +the name of Akulina Ivanovna, where she still remains invisible behind +golden walls, waiting for the things that are to come. Her son Peter III., +who had also himself undergone the baptism of fire, escaped the snares of +his wife, reappeared under the name of Selivanov, performed many miracles +and converted multitudes, obtained as a reward the knout, and was at last +sent to Siberia. Emperor Paul recalled him and was converted by him. Under +Alexander I. he was again arrested and imprisoned in the cloister of +Suzdal. But he was conveyed thence by a divine miracle to Irkutzk, where +he now lives in secret, whence at his own time he shall return to judge +the living and the dead.--They kept up an outward connection with the state +church although they regarded it as the apocalyptic whore of Babylon. In +their own secret services inspired psalms were sung, and after exciting +dances prophecies were uttered.(123) + + + +§ 211. Sectaries and Enthusiasts in the Protestant Domain. + + +The United States of America with their peculiar constitution formed the +favourite ground for the gathering and moulding of sects during this age. +There, besides the older colonies of Quakers, Baptists and Methodists from +England, we meet with Swedenborgianism and Unitarianism, while Baptists +and Methodists began to send missionaries into Europe, and from England +the Salvation Army undertook a campaign for the conquest of the world. But +also on the European continent independent fanatical developments made +their appearance.--A new combination of communism with religious enthusiasm +is represented by the Harmonists and by the Perfectionists in North +America. The Grusinian Separatists and the Bavarian Chiliasts are +millenarians of German extraction, of whom the former sought deliverance +from the prevailing antichristian spirit in removal from, and the latter +in removal to, South Russia. The Amen churches sought to gather God's +people of the Jewish Christian communities together in Palestine, while +the so-called German Temple sought to gather the Gentile Christians. As +Latter Day Saints, besides the Adventists, the Darbyites established +themselves on an independent basis; the Irvingites, with revival of the +apostolic offices and charisms, and their American caricature, the +Mormons, with the addition of socialistic and fantastic gnostic +tendencies. The religion of the Taiping rebellion in China presented the +rare phenomenon of a national Chinese Christianity of native growth, and a +still rarer manifestation is met with in American-European spiritualism +with pretended spirit revelations from the other world. + +1. _The Methodist Propaganda._--From 1850 the American Methodists, both the +Albrechtsleute (§ 208, 4) and the Episcopal Methodists, have sent out +numerous missionaries, mostly Germans into Germany, whose zeal has won +considerable success among the country people. In North-West Germany +Bremen is their chief station, whence they have spread to Sweden, Central +and Southern Germany, and Switzerland, and have stations in Frankfort, +Carlsruhe, Heilbronn, and Zuerich.--Of a more evanescent character was the +attempt made on Germany by the so-called _Oxford Holiness Movement_. In +1866 the North American Methodists celebrated their centenary in New York +by the appointment of a great revival and holiness committee, in which +were also members of many other denominations. Among them the +manufacturer, _Pearsall Smith_, of Philadelphia, converted in 1871, +exhibited extraordinary zeal. In September, 1874, he held at Oxford great +revival meetings, from which the designation of the Oxford movement had +its origin. By some Germans there present his opinions were carried to +Germany. In spring, 1875, he began his second European missionary tour. +While his two companions, the revivalists Moody and Sankey, travelled +through England for the conversion of the masses, Smith went to Germany, +and proceeding from Berlin on to Switzerland, gave addresses in English, +that were interpreted, in ten of the large cities. The most pious among +clergy and laity flocked from far and near to hear him. The new apostle's +journey became more and more a triumphal march. He was lauded as a +reformer called to complete the work of Luther; as a prophet, who was to +fructify the barren wastes of Germany with the water of life. The core of +his doctrine was: Perfect holiness and the attainment of absolute +perfection, not hereafter, but now! now! now! with the constant refrain: +"_Jesus saves me now_"; not remission of sins through justification by +faith in the atoning efficacy of Christ's blood, which only avails for +outward sinful actions, but immediate extinction of sins by Christ in us, +proved in living, unfaltering, inner, personal experience, etc. By a great +international and interconfessional meeting at Brighton, lasting for ten +days, in June, 1875, at which many German pastors, induced by the payment +of travelling expenses, were present, the crown was put upon the work. But +at the height of his triumph, under the daily increasing tension and +excitement the apostle of holiness showed himself to be a poor sinful son +of man, for he strayed into errors, "if not practically, at least +theoretically," which his admirers at first referred to mental aberration, +but which they hid from the eyes of the world under a veil of mystery. +Toward the end of the Brighton conference he declared to his hearers: +"Thus plunge into a life of divine unconcern!" and, "All Europe lies at my +feet." And in subsequent private conversations he developed a system of +ethics that "would suit Utah rather than England," to which he then so +conformed his own conduct that his admirers, "although satisfied of the +purity of his own intentions," were obliged energetically to repudiate and +with all speed send away across the sea the man whom their own unmeasured +adulation had deceived. + +2. _The Salvation Army._--An extremely fantastic caricature of English +Methodism is the _Salvation Army_. The Methodist evangelist, _William +Booth_, who in 1865 founded in one of the lowest quarters of London a new +mission station, fell upon the idea in 1878, in order to make an +impression on the rude masses, to give his male and female helpers a +military organisation, discipline and uniform, and with military banners +and music to undertake a campaign against the kingdom of the devil. The +General of the Salvationists is Booth himself, his wife is his adjutant, +his eldest daughter field-marshal; his fellow-workers male and female are +his soldiers, cadets and officers of various ranks; chief of the staff is +Booth's eldest son. Their services are conducted according to military +forms; their orchestra of trombone, drum and trumpet is called the +Hallelujah Brass Band. Their journal, with an issue of 400,000, is the +_War Cry_; another for children, is _The Little Soldier_, in which Jane, +four years old, dilates on the experiences of her inner life; and Tommy, +eleven years old, is sure that, having served the devil for eleven years, +he will now fight for King Jesus; and Lucy, nine years old, rejoices in +being washed in the blood of the Lamb. The army attained its greatest +success in England. Its numerous "prisoners of war" from the devil's army +(prostitutes, drunkards, thieves, etc.) are led at the parade as trophies +of war, and tell of their conversion, whereupon the command of the +general, "Fire a Volley," calls forth thousands of hallelujahs. Liberal +collections and unsought contributions, embracing several donations of a +L1,000 and more, are given to the General, not only to pay his soldiers, +but also to rent or to purchase and fit up theatres, concert halls, +circuses, etc., for their meetings, and to build large new "barracks." Its +wonderful success has secured for the army many admirers and patrons, even +in the highest ranks of society. Queen Victoria herself testified to Mrs. +Booth her high satisfaction with her noble work. At the Convocation, too, +in the Upper as well as the Lower House, distinguished prelates spoke +favourably of its methods and results, and so encouraged the formation of +a Church Army, which, under the direction of the mission preacher Aitken, +pursues similar ways to those of the Salvation Army, without, however, its +spectacular displays, and has lately extended its exertions to India. The +temperance party after the same model has formed a Blue Ribbon Army, the +members of which, distinguished by wearing a piece of blue ribbon in the +buttonhole, confine themselves to fighting against alcohol. In opposition +to it public-house keepers and their associates formed a Yellow Ribbon +Army, which has as its ensign the yellow silk bands of cigar bundles. Soon +after the first great success of the Salvation Army, a Skeleton Army was +formed out of the lowest dregs of the London mob, which, with a banner +bearing the device of a skeleton, making a noise with all conceivable +instruments, and singing obscene street songs to sacred melodies, +interrupted the marches of the Salvation, and afterwards of the Church, +Army: throwing stones, filthy rotten apples and eggs, and even storming +and demolishing their "barracks."--In 1880 a detachment of the Salvation +Army, with Railton at its head, assisted by seven Hallelujah Lasses, made +a first campaign in America, with New York as its head-quarters. In the +following year, under Miss Booth, it invaded France, where it issues a +daily bulletin, "_En Avant_." In 1882 it appeared in Australia, then in +India, where Chunder Sen, the founder of the Brama-Somaj, showed himself +favourable. In Switzerland it broke ground in 1882, in Sweden in 1884, and +in Germany, at Stuttgart, in November, 1886. Africa, Spain, Italy, etc., +followed in succession. These foreign corps outside of England also found +considerable success. Almost everywhere they met with opposition, the +magistrates often forbidding their meetings, and inflicting fines and +imprisonment, and the mob resorting to all sorts of violent interference. +Nowhere were both sorts of opponents so persistent as in Switzerland in +1883 and 1884, especially in Lausanne, Geneva, Neuenburg, Bern, Beil, etc. +Although General Booth himself at the annual meeting in April, 1884, +boasted that L393,000 had been collected during the past year for the +purposes of the army, and over 846 barracks in eighteen countries of the +world had been opened, and now even spoke of strengthening the army by +establishing a Salvation Navy, the increasing extravagances caused by the +army itself, as well as the far greater improprieties of those more or +less associated with it, has drawn away many of its former supporters. + +3. _Baptists and Quakers._--_Baptist_ sympathies and tendencies often +appeared in Germany apart from an anti-ecclesiastical pietism or +mysticism. But this aberration first assumed considerable proportions when +a Hamburg merchant, Oncken, who had been convinced by his private Bible +reading of the untenableness of infant baptism, was baptized by an +American baptist in 1834, and now not only founded the first German +baptist congregation in Hamburg, but also proved unwearied in his efforts +to extend the sect over all Germany and Scandinavia by missions and tract +distribution. Oncken died in 1884. Thus gradually there were formed about +a hundred new Baptist German congregations in Mecklenburg, Brandenburg +(Berlin), Pomerania, Silesia, East Prussia (Memel, Tilsit, etc.), +Westphalia, Wupperthal, Hesse, Wuerttemberg and Switzerland. In Sweden (250 +congregations with 18,000 souls) they were mainly recruited from the +"Readers," who after 1850 went over in crowds (§ 201, 2). They also found +entrance into Denmark and Courland, but in all cases almost exclusively +among the uncultured classes of labourers and peasants. After long but +vain attempts at suppression by the governments during the reactionary +period of 1850, they obtained under the liberal policy of the next two +decades more or less religious toleration in most states. They called +themselves the society of "baptized Christians," and maintained that they +were "the visible church of the saints," the chosen people of God, in +contrast to the "hereditary church and the church of all and sundry," in +which they saw the apocalyptic Babylon. Even the Mennonites who +"sprinkle," instead of immersing, "all," _i.e._ without proper sifting, +they regard as a "hereditary" church. With the Anglo-American Baptists +they do indeed hold fellowship, but take exception to them in several +points, especially about open communion.--A peculiar order of Baptists has +arisen in Hungary in the _Nazarenes_ or Nazirites, or as they call +themselves: "Followers of Christ." Founded in 1840 by Louis Henefey +originally a Catholic smith, who had returned home from Switzerland, the +sect obtained numerous adherents from all three churches, most largely +from the Reformed church, favoured perhaps by the not yet altogether +extinguished reminiscences of the Baptist persecutions of the eighteenth +century (§ 163, 2). They practised strict asceticism, refused to take +oaths or engage in military service, and kept the bare Puritan forms of +worship, in which any one was allowed to preach whom the Holy Spirit +enlightened. Their congregations embraced weak and strong friends, and +also weak and strong brethren. The strong friends after receiving baptism +joined the ranks of weak brethren, and then again became strong brethren +on their admission to the Lord's Supper. The church officers were singers, +teachers, evangelists, elders, and bishops.--In North America _Quakerism_, +under the influence of increasing material prosperity, had lost much of +its primitive strictness in life and manners. The more lax were styled +_Wet-_, and their more rigorous opponents _Dry-Quakers_. Enthusiasm over +the American War of Independence of 1776-1783, spreading in their ranks, +led to further departures from the rigid standard of early times. Those +who took weapons in their hands were designated _Fighting Quakers_. The +General Assembly disapproved but tolerated these departures; neither the +Wet nor the Fighting Quakers were excommunicated, but they were not +allowed any part in the government of the community. In 1822 a party +appeared among them, led by Elias Hicks, which carried the original +tendency of Quakerism to separate itself from historical Christianity so +far as to deny the divinity of Christ, and to allow no controlling +authority to Scripture in favour of the unrestricted sway of reason and +conscience. This departure from the traditions of Quakerism, however, met +with vigorous opposition, and the protesting party, known as _Evangelical +Friends_, pronounced more decidedly than ever for the authority of +Scripture. In England, notwithstanding the wealth and position of its +adherents, Quakerism, since the second half of the eighteenth century, has +suffered a slow but steady decrease, while even in America, to say the +least, no advance can be claimed. In Holland, Friesland, and Holstein, +Quaker missionaries had found some success among the Mennonites, without, +however, forming any separate communities. In 1786 some English Quakers +succeeded in winning a small number of proselytes in Hesse, who in 1792, +under the protection of the prince of Waldeck, formed a little +congregation at Friedersthal, near Pyrmont, which still maintains its +existence.--On the sects of Jumpers and Shakers, variously related to +primitive, fanatical Quakerism, see § 170, 7.(124) + +4. _Swedenborgians and Unitarians._--In the nineteenth century +_Swedenborgianism_ has found many adherents. In England, Scotland and +North America the sect has founded many missionary and tract societies. In +Wuerttemberg the procurator Hofacker and the librarian Tafel, partly by +editions and translations of the writings of Swedenborg, partly by their +own writings, were specially zealous in vindicating and spreading their +views. A general conference of all the congregations in Great Britain and +Ireland in 1828 published a confession of faith and catechism, and +thirteen journals (three English, seven American, Tafel's in German, one +Italian and one Swedish) represent the interests of the party. The liberal +spirit of modern times has in various directions introduced modifications +in its doctrine. Its Sabellian opposition to the church doctrine of the +Trinity and its Pelagian opposition to the doctrine of justification, have +been retained, and its spiritualising of eschatological ideas has been +intensified, but the theosophical magical elements have been wholly set +aside and scarcely any reference is ever made to revelations from the +other world.--From early times the _Unitarians_ had a well ordered and +highly favoured ecclesiastical institution in Transylvania (§ 163, 1). But +in England the law still threatened them with a death sentence. This law +had not indeed for a long time been carried into effect, and in 1813 it +was formally abrogated. There are now in England about 400 small Unitarian +congregations with some 300,000 souls. The famous chemist Jos. Priestly +may be regarded as the founder of North American Unitarianism (§ 171, 1), +although only after his death in 1804 did the movement which he +represented spread widely through the country. Then in a short time +hundreds of Unitarian congregations were formed. Their most celebrated +leaders were W. Ellery Channing, who died in 1842, and Theodore Parker, +who died in 1860, both of Boston. + +5. _Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations._--The English woman Johanna +Southcote declared that she was the "woman in the sun" of Revelation xii. +or the Lamb's wife. In 1801 she came forth with her prophecies. Her +followers, the _New Israelites_ or Sabbatarians, so called because they +observed the Old Testament law of the Sabbath, founded a chapel in London +for their worship. A beautiful cradle long stood ready to receive the +promised Messiah, but Johanna died in 1814 without giving birth to him.--A +horrible occurrence, similar to that recorded in § 210, 2, took place some +years later, in 1823, in the village of Wildenspuch in Canton Zuerich. +_Margaret Peter_, a peasant's daughter, excited by morbid visions in early +youth, was on this account expelled from Canton Aargau, and was carried +still farther in the direction of extreme mysticism by the vicar John +Ganz, by whom she was introduced to Madame de Kruedener (§ 176, 2). Amid +continual heavenly visions and revelations, as well as violent conflicts +with the devil and his evil spirits, she gathered a group of faithful +followers, by whom she was revered as a highly gifted saint, among them a +melancholy shoemaker, Morf, whom Ganz introduced to her. The spiritual +love relationship between the two in an unguarded hour took a sensual form +and led to the birth of a child, which Morf's forbearing wife after +successfully simulating pregnancy adopted as her own. This deep fall, for +which she wholly blamed the devil, drove her fanaticism to madness. The +ridiculous proceedings in her own house, where for a whole day she and her +adherents beat with fists and hammers what they supposed to be the devil, +led the police to interfere. But before orders arrived from Zuerich, she +found refuge in an asylum, and there the end soon came. Margaret assured +her followers that in order that Christ might fully triumph and Satan be +overthrown, blood must be shed for the salvation of many thousand souls. +Her younger sister Elizabeth voluntarily allowed herself to be slain, and +she herself with almost incredible courage allowed her hands and feet to +be nailed to the wood and then with a stroke of the knife was killed, +under the promise that she as well as her sister should rise again on the +third day. The tragedy ended by the apprehension and long confinement of +those concerned in it.--The sect of _Springers_ in Ingermannland had its +origin in 1813. Arising out of a religious excitement not countenanced by +the church authorities, they held that each individual needed immediate +illumination of the Holy Spirit for his soul's salvation. So soon as they +believed that this was obtained, the presence of the Spirit was witnessed +to by ecstatic prayer, singing and shouting joined with handshaking and +springing in their assemblies. The special illumination required as its +correlate a special sanctification, and this they sought not only in +repudiation of marriage, but also in abstinence from flesh, beer, spirits +and tobacco. The "holy love," prized instead of marriage, however, here +also led to sensual errors, and the result was that many after the example +of the Skopzen (§ 210, 4) resorted to the surer means of castration.--Among +the Swedish peasants in 1842 appeared the singular phenomenon of the +_Crying Voices_ (_Roestar_). Uneducated laymen, and more particularly women +and even children, after convulsive fits broke out into deep mutterings of +repentance and prophesyings of approaching judgment. The substance of +their proclamations, however, was not opposed to the church doctrine, and +the criers were themselves the most diligent frequenters of church and +sacrament.--In the beginning of 1870 the wife of a settler at Leonerhofe, +near San Leopoldo in Brazil, _Jacobina Maurer_, became famous among the +careless colonists of that region as a pious miracle-working prophetess. +In religious assemblies which she originated, she gave forth her fantastic +revelations based upon allegorical interpretations of Scripture, and +founded a congregation of the "elect" with a communistic constitution, in +which she assumed to herself all church offices as the Christ come again. +Rude abuse and maltreatment of these "Muckers" on the part of the +"unbelieving," and the interference of the police, who arrested some of +the more zealous partisans of the female Christ, brought the fanaticism to +its utmost pitch. Jacobina now declared it the duty of believers to +prepare for the bliss of the millennium by rooting out all the godless. +Isolated murders were the prelude of the night of horror, June 25th-26th, +1874, on which well organized Mucker-bands, abundantly furnished with +powder and shot, went forth murdering and burning through the district for +miles around. The military sent out against them did not succeed in +putting down the revolt before August 2nd, after the prophetess with many +of her adherents had fallen in a fanatically brave resistance. + +6. _Christian Communistic Sects._--The only soil upon which these could +flourish was that of the Free States of North America. Besides the small +Shaker communities (§ 170, 7) still surviving in 1858, the following new +fraternities are the most important: 1. The _Harmonites_. The +dissatisfaction caused among the Wuerttemberg Pietists by the introduction +of liturgical innovations led to several migrations in the beginning of +the century. Geo. Rapp, a simple peasant from the village of Iptingen, +went to America in 1803 or 1804 with about six hundred adherents, and +settled in the valley of Connoquenessing, near Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. +As a fundamental principle of this "Harmony Association," which honoured +father Rapp as autocratic patriarch, prophet and high priest, and with him +believed in the near approach of the second advent, the community of goods +holds a prominent place. By diligence and industry in agriculture, labour +and manufactures, they reached great prosperity under the able leadership +of their patriarch. In 1807 the community, by a resolution of its own to +which Rapp agreed, resolved to abstain from marriage, so that henceforth +no children were born nor marriages performed. A falling off in numbers +was made up in 1817 by new arrivals from Wuerttemberg and afterwards by the +adoption of children. Industrial reasons led the community in 1814 to +colonize Wabashthal in Indiana, where they built the town of Harmony, +which, however, in 1823, on account of its unhealthy situation, they sold +to the Scotchman Robert Owen (§ 212, 3), and then founded for themselves +the town of Economy, not far from Pittsburg, where they still reside. In +1831 an adventurer, Bernard Mueller, appeared among them, who, at +Offenbach, had, for a long time, under the name of Proli, played a +brilliant part as a prophet called to establish universal spiritual +monarchy, and then, when in danger from the courts of law, had fled to +America. In Economy, where he passed himself off as Count Maximilian von +Leon, persecuted on account of his belief in the second coming, he found +as such a hearty welcome, and within a year, by his agitation for the +reintroduction of marriage and worldly enjoyments, drew away a third part +of the community, embracing 250 souls. The dissentients with 105,000 +dollars from the common purse withdrew and settled under the leadership of +the pseudo-count as a New Jerusalem society in the neighbouring village of +Philippsburg. But the new patriarch conducted himself so riotously that he +was obliged in 1833 to flee to Louisiana, where in the same year he died +of cholera. His people now in deep distress turned to Dr. Keil, a mystic +come from Prussia, who reorganised them after the pattern of Rapp's +communistic society, but with liberty to marry, and brought them to a +prosperous condition in two colonies mainly founded by him at Bethel in +Missouri and Aurora in Oregon. Economy, too, flourished in spite of the +heavy losses it sustained, so that now the common property of the +populace, which through celibacy had been reduced to about eighty persons, +amounts to eight million dollars. Father Rapp died in 1847, in his +ninetieth year, confident to the end that he would guide his church unto +the hourly expected advent of Christ.--2. When in 1831 a wave of revival +passed over North America, J. H. Noyes, an advocate's assistant, applied +himself to the study of the Bible and became the founder of a new sect, +the _Bible Communists_ or _Perfectionists_ of the Oneida Society. He +taught that the promised advent of Christ took place spiritually soon +after the destruction of Jerusalem; by it the kingdom of Adam was ended +and the kingdom of God in the heart of those who knew and received him was +established. The official churches were only state churches, but the true +church was scattered in the hearts of individual saints, until Noyes +collected and organized it into a Bible family. For them there is no more +law, for laws are for sinners and the saints no longer sin. Each saint can +do and suffer whatever the Spirit of God moves him to. All the members of +the congregation constitute one family, live, eat, and work together. +Goods, wives and children are in common. It lies with the wife to accept +or refuse the approaches of a man. But soon this proclaimed freedom from +law sent everything into confusion and disunion; schism--apostasy +prevailed. But Father Noyes now saved his church from destruction by +introducing a correction to this freedom from law in _Sympathy_, _i.e._ in +the agreement of all members of the family. The odium which fell upon the +community from without on account of its "complex marriages," induced him +at last in August, 1879, although he still always maintained the soundness +of his principle of free love and its final victory over prejudice, to +ordain the introduction of monogamic marriages, and the community +acquiesced. With regard to community of goods, meals and children, +however, they kept to the old lines. The parent community has its seat at +Lenox in Oneidabach in New York State. Alongside of it are three daughter +communities. They have their prophets and prophetesses, but no ritual +service and no Sunday. Their employment (they number about 300 souls) is +mainly fruit culture and the manufacture of snares of every kind for wild +and other animals.(125) + +7. _Millenarian Exodus Communities._--1. The _Georgian Separatists_. The +stream of Wuerttemberg emigrants above referred to turned also toward +Southern Russia. The settlers in Transcaucasian Georgia in the long +absence of regular pastors fell into fanatical separation, which the +clergy who followed in 1820 could not overcome. Under the direction of +three elders (one of them an old woman) as representing the Holy Trinity, +they lived quietly, refused to baptize their children, to give their dead +burial according to the rites of the church, to call in physicians in +sickness, and at last rejected the marriage relation. In 1842 their female +elder, Barbara Spohn, wife of a cartwright, appeared in the role of a +prophet, proclaiming the near approach of the end of the world and calling +upon her followers to pass through the wilderness to the promised land, +there to enter into the millenial kingdom. They were to take with them no +money, no bread, etc., but only a staff; their clothes and shoes would not +wear old in the desert, they could eat manna and quails, and in the holy +land Christ would dress them in the bridal robe. The government sought in +vain to bring them to reason and to obstruct their way, when about three +hundred of them wished at Pentecost, 1843, to start on their journey. They +were allowed to send three men to Constantinople and Palestine to seek +permission from the Turkish government to settle in a spot near Jerusalem. +But these returned before the close of the year with the news, that +Palestine is not the land that would suit them. This brought the majority +to their senses and they rejoined the church.--2. Equally unfortunate was +the attempt at colonization made in 1878 by some _Bavarian Chiliasts_. The +pastor Cloeter in Illenschwang had for a long time in the "_Bruederbote_," +edited by him, urged the emigration of believers to South Russia, where, +according to his exposition of the apocalyptic prophecy, a secure place of +refuge had been provided by God for believers of the last times during the +near approaching persecutions of antichrist. In June, 1878, the tailor +Minderlein with his family and nineteen other persons started to go +thither. Minderlein died by the way, and his companions after enduring +great hardships were obliged to return, and reached Nuremberg again in +October, absolutely destitute. Cloeter, however, was not discouraged by +this misfortune. In December he called his adherents from Bavaria, +Wuerttemberg and Switzerland, together to a conference at Stuttgart, where +they formed themselves into the "_German Exodus Church_." In the summer, +1880, Cloeter himself travelled to South Russia and thought that he found +in the Crimea the fittest place of refuge. On his return he was banished, +but after some days liberated, though deprived of his clerical office. A +final stop was then put to the exodus movement. + +8.--3. The _Amen Community_ owed its feeble existence to a Christian Jew, +Israel Pick of Bohemia. Believing that he was not required in baptism to +renounce his Judaism, but that rather thereby he first became a true Jew, +through a onesided interpretation of Old Testament promises to his nation, +he wished to found a colony of the people of God in the Holy Land on +Jewish-Christian principles. The whole Mosaic law, excluding the +observance of the Sabbath and circumcision, was to be the basis, together +with baptism and the Lord's Supper, of ecclesiastical and civil +organization. He succeeded in winning a few converts here and there, to +whom he gave the name of the Amen Community, because in Christ (the {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~} +{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} Isa. lxv. 16) all the prophecies of the old covenant are Yea and Amen. +Its chief seat was at Munich-Gladbach. In 1859 Pick travelled to Palestine +in order to choose a spot for the settlement of his followers and there +all trace of him was lost.--4. The founder of the _German Temple +Communities_ in Palestine was Chr. Hoffmann, brother of General +Superintendent Hoffmann of Berlin, and son of the founder of the Kornthal +Community (§ 196, 5), in connection with Chr. Paulus, nephew of the well +known Heidelberg professor Paulus (§ 182, 2). In 1854 they issued an +invitation to a conference at Ludwigsburg, for consultation about the +means for gathering the people of God in Palestine. A great crowd of +believers from all parts, numbering some 10,000 families, was to embark +for the holy land to form there a new people of God which, on the +foundation of prophets and apostles, should strictly practise the public +law of the old covenant in all points of civil administration, including +the laws of the sabbath and the jubilee. The conference besought of the +German League that it would use its influence with the Sultan to secure +permission for colonization with self-government and religious freedom. As +the German League simply declined the request, the committee bought the +estate of Kirschenhardthof near Marbach, in order there temporarily and in +a small way to form a social commonwealth observing the Mosaic law. In +1858 Hoffmann went with two of his followers to Jerusalem in order to look +out a place there suitable for their purpose. The result was +unsatisfactory. Therefore he issued in 1861 a summons to take part in a +German Temple. Consequently a number of men from Wuerttemberg, Bavaria, and +Baden, Protestants and Catholics, forsook their churches, ordained priests +and elders, and appointed Hoffmann their bishop and held regular synods. +The final aim of this procedure, however, was always still to find a +settlement in Palestine and erect a temple in Jerusalem which, according +to prophecy, is to form the central sanctuary for the whole world. +Colonization in the East was tried as a means to this end. Since 1869 +there have been five organized colonies, with a Temple Chief and a +congregational school, embracing about 1,000 souls, established in +Palestine, _viz._ at Jaffa, Haifa, Sarona, Beyrout, and in 1878 even in +Jerusalem, whither the original colony at Jaffa was transferred. The +German Imperial Government refused indeed in 1879 to give the recognition +sought for to the civil and political organization of the Palestinian +colonies, as in a foreign country beyond its jurisdiction, but granted to +its Lyceum at Jerusalem a yearly contribution of 1,500 marks and to the +schools of Jaffa, Haifa and Sarona from 650 to 1,000. In 1875 Hoffmann +published at Stuttgart a large apologetical and polemical work, "_Occident +und Orient_," which contained many thoughtful remarks. But since then, in +the central organ of all the Temple Communities inspired by him, the +"_Sueddeutsche Warte_," he has openly and distinctly attached himself to +Ebionitic rationalism, by denying and opposing the fundamental evangelical +doctrine of the trinity, redemption, and the sacraments. These theological +views, however, were by no means shared in by all the Templars, and caused +a split in the community, one section at Haifa with the chief templar +there, Hardegg, at its head, separating from the central body as an +independent "Imperial Brotherhood." The seceders, joined by many German +and American templar friends, again drew nearer to the Evangelical church +and ultimately became reconciled with it. But Hoffmann has, in his last +work, _Bibelforschungen_ i. ii.: _Roem.- u. Kol. br., Jerus._ 1882, 1884, +carried his polemic against the church doctrine to the utmost extreme of +cynical abuse. He died in December, 1885. At the head of the denomination +now stands his fellow-worker Paulus. From year to year several drop back +into the Evangelical church so that the community is evidently approaching +extinction. + +9. _The Community of _"the New Israel."--The Jewish advocate Jos. +Rabinowitsch at Kishenev in Bessarabia, who had long occupied himself with +plans for the improvement of the spiritual and material circumstances of +his fellow-countrymen, at the outbreak of the persecution of the Jews in +1882 in South Russia eagerly urged their return to the holy land of their +fathers and himself undertook a journey of inspection. There definite +shape seems to have been given to the long cherished thought of seeking +the salvation of his people in an independent national attachment to their +old sacred historical development, broken off 1850 years before, by +acknowledging the Messiahship of Jesus. At least after his return he gave +expression to the sentiment, based on Romans xi.: "The keys of the holy +land are in the hands of our brother Jesus," which, in consequence of the +high esteem in which he was held by his countrymen, was soon re-echoed by +some 200 Jewish families. His main endeavour now was the formation of +independent national Jewish-Christian communities, after the pattern of +the primitive church of Jerusalem, as "_New Israelites_," observing all +the old Jewish rites and ordinances compatible with New Testament +apostolic preaching and reconcilable with modern civil and social +conditions. The Torah, the prophets of the Old Testament and the New +Testament writings, are held as absolutely binding, whereas the Talmud and +the post-apostolic Gentile Christian additions to doctrine, worship, and +constitution are not so regarded. Jesus, Rabinowitsch teaches, is the true +Messiah who, as Moses and prophets foretold, was born as Son of David by +the Spirit of God and in the power of that Spirit lived and taught in +Israel, then for our salvation suffered, was crucified and died, rose from +the dead, and ascended to the right hand of the Father in heaven. The +trinity of persons in God as well as the two natures in Christ he rejects, +as not taught in the New Testament and originating in Gentile Christian +speculation. Baptism and the Lord's Supper (and that "according to the +example of Christians of the pure Evangelical confession in England and +Germany") are recognised as necessary means of grace; but the Lord's +Supper is to be, according to its institution, a real meal with the old +Jewish prayers. As to the doctrine of the Supper, Rabinowitsch agrees with +the views of the Lutheran church. Circumcision and the observance of the +Sabbath and the feasts (especially the Passover), are retained, not indeed +as necessary to salvation, therefore not binding on Gentile Christians, +but patriotically observed by Jewish-Christians as signs of their election +from and before all nations as the people of God. In January, 1885, with +consent of the Russian Government, the newly-erected synagogue of "the +holy Messiah Jesus Christ" for the small congregation of Rabinowitsch's +followers at Kishenev was solemnly opened, the Russian church authorities, +the Lutheran pastor Fultin and many young Jews taking part in the service. +Soon afterwards Rabinowitsch received Christian baptism in the chapel of +the Bohemian church at Berlin at the hands of Prof. Mead of Andover, +probably in recognition of the aid sent from America.--A Jewish-Christian +religious communion with similar tendencies has been formed in the South +Russian town of Jellisawetgrad under the designation of a "_Biblical +Spiritual Brotherhood_." + +10. _The Catholic Apostolic Church of the Irvingites._--Edward Irving, +1792-1834, a powerful and popular preacher of the Scotch-Presbyterian +church in London, maintained the doctrine that the human nature of Christ +like our own was affected by original sin, which was overcome and atoned +for by the power of the divine nature. At the same time he became +convinced that the spiritual gifts of the apostolic church could and +should still be obtained by prayer and faith. A party of his followers +soon began to exercise the gift of tongues by uttering unintelligible +sounds, loud cries, and prophecies. His presbytery suspended him in 1832 +and the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland excommunicated him. +Rich and distinguished friends from the Episcopal church, among them the +wealthy banker, Drummond, afterwards prominent as an apostle (died 1859), +rallied round the man thus expelled from his church, and gave him the +means to found a new church, but, in spite of Irving's protests, brought +with them high church puseyite tendencies, which soon drove out the +heretical as well as the puritanic tendencies, and modified the fanatical +element into a hierarchical and liturgical formalism. The restoration of +the office of apostle was the characteristic feature of the movement. +After many unsuccessful attempts they succeeded by the divine illumination +of the prophets in calling twelve apostles, first and chief of whom was +the lawyer Cardale (died 1877). By the apostles, as chief rulers and +stewards of the church, evangelists and pastors (or angels, Rev. ii. 1, 8, +etc.) were ordained in accordance with Eph. iv. 11; and subordinate to the +pastors, there were appointed six elders and as many deacons, so that the +office bearers of each congregation embraced thirteen persons, after the +example of Christ and His twelve disciples. In London seven congregations +were formed after the pattern of the seven apocalyptic churches (Rev. i. +20). Prominent among their new revelations was the promise of the +immediately approaching advent of the Lord. The Lord, who was to have come +in the lifetime of the first disciples and so was looked for confidently +by them, delayed indefinitely His return on account of abounding iniquity +and prevented the full development of the second apostolate designed for +the Gentiles and meanwhile represented only by Paul, because the church +was no longer worthy of it. Now at last, after eighteen centuries of +degradation, in which the church came to be the apocalyptic Babylon and +ripened for judgment, the time has come when the suspended apostolate has +been restored to prepare the way for the last things. Very confidently was +it at first maintained that none of their members should die, but should +live to see the final consummation. But after death had removed so many +from among them, and even the apostles one after another, it was merely +said that those are already born who should see the last day. It may come +any day, any hour. It begins with the first resurrection (Rev. xx. 5) and +the "changing" of the saints that are alive (the wise virgins, _i.e._ the +Irvingites), who will be caught up to the Lord in the clouds and in a +higher sphere be joined with the Lord in the marriage supper of the Lamb. +They are safely hidden while antichrist persecutes the other Christians, +the foolish virgins, who only can be saved by means of painful suffering, +and executes judgment on Babylon. This marks the end of the Gentile +church; but then begins the conversion of the Jews, who, driven by +necessity and the persecution of sinful men, have sought and found a +refuge in Palestine. After a short victory of antichrist the Lord visibly +appears among the risen and removed. The kingdom of antichrist is +destroyed, Satan is bound, the saints live and reign with Christ a +thousand years on the earth freed from the curse. Thereafter Satan is +again let loose for a short time and works great havoc. Then comes Satan's +final overthrow, the second resurrection and last judgment. Their liturgy, +composed by the apostles, is a compilation from the Anglican and Catholic +sources. Sacerdotalism and sacrifice are prominent and showy priestly +garments are regarded as requisite. Yet they repudiate the Romish doctrine +of the bloodless repetition of the bleeding sacrifice, as well as the +doctrine of transubstantiation. But they strictly maintain the +contribution of the tenth as a duty laid upon Christians by Heb. vii. 4. +Their typical view of the Old Testament history and legislation, +especially of the tabernacle, is most arbitrary and baseless. Their first +published statement appeared in 1836 in an apostolic "_Letter to the +Patriarchs, Bishops, and Presidents of the Church of Christ in all Lands, +and to emperors, kings, and princes of all baptized nations_," which was +sent to the most prominent among those addressed, even to the pope, but +produced no result. After this they began to prosecute their missionary +work openly. But they gave their attention mainly to those already +believers, and took no part in missions to the heathen, as they were sent +neither to the heathen nor to unbelievers, but only to gather and save +believers. In their native land of England, where at first they had great +success, their day seems already past. In North America they succeeded in +founding only two congregations. They prospered better in Germany and +Switzerland, where they secured several able theologians, chief of all +Thiersch, the professor of Theology in Marburg, the Tertullian of this +modern Montanism (died 1885), and founded about eighty small congregations +with some 5,000 members, chief of which are those of Berlin, Stettin, +Koenigsberg, Leipzig, Marburg, Cassel, Basel, Augsburg, etc. Even among the +Catholic clergy of Bavaria this movement found response; but that was +checked by a series of depositions and excommunications during 1857.--In +1882 the Lutheran pastor Alpers of Gehrden in Hanover was summoned to +appear before the consistory to answer for his Irvingite views. He denied +the charge and referred to his good Lutheran preaching. As, however, he +had taken the sacramental "sealing" from Irvingite apostles, the court +regarded this as proof of his having joined the party and so deposed +him.(126) + +11. _The Darbyites and Adventists._--Related on the one hand to Irvingism +by their expectation of the immediately approaching advent and by their +regarding themselves as the saints of the last time who would alone be +saved, the _Darbyites_, on the other hand, by their absolute +independentism form a complete contrast to the Irvingite hierarchism. John +Darby, 1800-1882, first an advocate, then a clergyman of the Anglican +church, breaking away from Anglicanism, founded between 1820 and 1830 a +sectarian, apocalyptic, independent community at Plymouth (whence the name +_Plymouth Brethren_), but in 1838 settled in Geneva, and in 1840 went to +Canton Vaud, where Lausanne and Vevey have become the headquarters of the +sect. All clerical offices, all ecclesiastical forms are of the evil one, +and are evidence of the corruption of the church. There is only one +office, the spiritual priesthood of all believers, and every believer has +the right to preach and dispense the sacraments. Not only the Catholic, +but also the Protestant church is a "Balaam Church," and since the +departure of the apostles no true church has existed. In doctrine they are +strictly Calvinistic.(127)--The _Adventists_. Regarding the 2,300 days of +Dan. viii. 14 as so many years, W. Miller of New York and Boston +proclaimed in 1833 that the second advent would take place on the night of +October 23rd, 1847, and convinced many thousands of the correctness of his +calculations. When at last the night referred to arrived the believers +continued assembled in their tabernacles waiting, but in vain, for the +promise (Matt. xxiv. 30, 31; 1 Cor. xv. 52; 1 Thess. iv. 16, 17), at "the +voice of the archangel and the trump of God to be caught up in the clouds +to meet the Lord in the air." This miscalculation, however, did not shake +the Adventists' belief in the near approach of the Lord, but their number +rather increased from year to year. Most zealous in propagating their +views by journals and tracts, evangelists and missionaries, is a branch of +the sect founded by James White of Michigan, whose adherents, because they +keep the Sabbath in place of the Lord's Day, are called _Seventh Day +Adventists_. + +12. _The Mormons or Latter Day Saints._--Jos. Smith, a broken down farmer +of Vermont, who took to knavish digging for hid treasures, affirmed in +1825, that under direction of divine revelations and visions, he had +excavated on Comora hill in New York State, golden tablets in a stone kist +on which sacred writings were engraved. A prophet's spectacles, _i.e._, +two pierced stones which as a Mormon Urim and Thummim lay beside them, +enabled him to understand and translate them. He published the translation +in "the Book of Mormon." According to this book, the Israelites of the ten +tribes had migrated under their leader, Lehi, to America. There they +divided into two peoples; the ungodly Lamanites, answering to the modern +Redskins, and the pious Nephites. The latter preserved among them the old +Israelitish histories and prophecies, and through miraculous signs in +heaven and earth obtained knowledge of the birth of Christ that had +meanwhile taken place. Toward the end of the fourth century after Christ, +however, the Lamanites began a terrible war of extermination against the +Nephites, in consequence of which the latter were rooted out with the +exception of the prophet Mormon and his son Moroni. Mormon recorded his +revelations on the golden tablets referred to, and concealed them as the +future witness for the saints of the last days on the earth. Smith +proclaimed himself now called on of God, on the basis of these documents +and the revelations made to him, to found the church of _The Latter Day +Saints_. The widow of a preacher in New York proved indeed that the Book +of Mormon was almost literally a plagiarism from a historico-didactic +romance written by her deceased husband, Sal. Spaulding. The MS. had +passed into the hands of Sidney Rigdon, formerly a Baptist minister and +then a bookseller's assistant, subsequently Smith's right-hand man. But +even this did not disturb the believers. In 1831 Smith with his followers +settled at Kirtland in Ohio. To avoid the daily increasing popular odium, +he removed to Missouri, and thence to Illinois, and founded there, in +1840, the important town of Nauvoo with a beautiful temple. By diligence, +industry and good discipline, the wealth, power and influence of their +commonwealth increased, but in the same proportion the envy, hatred and +prejudices of the people, which charged them with the most atrocious +crimes. In 1844, to save bloodshed the governor ordered the two chiefs, +Jos. and Hiram Smith, to surrender to voluntary imprisonment awaiting a +regular trial. But furious armed mobs attacked the prison and shot down +both. The roughs of the whole district then gathered in one great troop, +destroyed the town of Nauvoo, burned the temple and drove out the +inhabitants. These, now numbering 15,000 men, in several successive +expeditions amid indescribable hardships pressed on "through the +wilderness" over the Rocky Mountains, in order to erect for themselves a +Zion on the other side. Smith's successor was the carpenter, Brigham +Young. The journey occupied two full years, 1845-1847. In the great Salt +Lake basin of Utah they founded _Salt Lake City_, or the New Jerusalem, as +the capital of their wilderness state _Deseret_. The gold digging of the +neighbouring state of California did not allure them, for their prophet +told them that to pave streets, build houses and sow fields was better +employment than seeking for gold. So here again they soon became a +flourishing commonwealth. + +13. In common with the Irvingites, who recognised in them their own +diabolic caricature, the Mormons restored the apostolic and prophetic +office, insisted upon the continuance of the gift of tongues and miracles, +expected the speedy advent of the Lord, reintroduced the payment of +tithes, etc. But what distinguished them from all Christian sects was the +proclamation of polygamy as a religious duty, on the plea that only those +women who had been "sealed" to a Latter-day Saint would share in the +blessedness of life eternal. This was probably first introduced by Young +in consequence of a new "divine revelation," but down to 1852 kept secret +and denied before "the Gentiles." The ambiguous book of Mormon was set +meanwhile more and more in the background, and the teachings and +prophecies of their prophet brought more and more to the front. "The Voice +of Warning to all Nations" of the zealous proselyte Parly Pratt, formerly +a Campbellite preacher, exercised a great influence in spreading the sect. +But the most gifted of them all was Orson Pratt, Rigdon's successor in the +apostolate. To him mainly is ascribed the construction of its later, +highly fantastic religious system which, consisting of elements gathered +from Neo-platonism, gnosticism, and other forms of theosophical mysticism, +embraces all the mysteries of time and eternity. Its fundamental ideas are +these: There are gods without number; all are polygamists and their wives +are sharers of their glory and bliss. They are the fathers of human souls +who here on earth ripen for their heavenly destiny. Jesus is the first +born son of the highest god by his first wife; he was married on earth to +Mary Magdalene, the sisters Martha and Mary and other women. Those saints +who here fulfil their destiny become after death gods, while they are +arranged according to their merit in various ranks and with prospect of +promotion to higher places. At the end of this world's course, Jesus will +come again, and, enthroned in the temple of Salt Lake City, exercise +judgment against all "Gentiles" and apostates, etc.--The constitution of +the Mormon State is essentially theocratic. At the head stood the +president, Brigham Young, as prophet, patriarch, and priest-king, in whose +hands are all the threads of the spiritual as well as secular +administration. A high council alongside of him, consisting of seventy +members, as also the prophets and apostles, bishops and elders, and +generally the whole richly organized hierarchy, are only the pliable +instruments of his all-commanding will. Every one on entering the society +surrenders his whole property, and after that contributes a tenth of his +yearly income and personal labour to the common purse of the community. +Soon numerous missionaries were sent forth who crossed the Atlantic, and +attained great success, especially in Scotland, England and Scandinavia, +but also in North-West Germany and in Switzerland. On removing the +misunderstanding that prevailed about their social and political +condition, and supplying the penniless out of the rich immigration fund +with the means to make the journey, they persuaded great crowds of their +new converts to accompany them to Utah. + +14. In 1849 the Mormons had asked Congress for the apportioning of the +district colonized by them as an independent and autonomous "State" in the +union, but were granted, in 1850, only the constitution of a "territory" +under the central government at Washington, and the appointment of their +patriarch, Young, as its governor. Accustomed to absolute rule, in two +years he drove out all the other officers appointed by the union. He was +then deprived of office, but the new governor, Col. Sefton, appointed in +1854, with the small armament supplied him could not maintain his position +and voluntarily retired. When afterwards in 1858 Governor Cumming, +appointed by president Buchanan, entered Utah with a strong military +force, Young armed for a decisive struggle. A compromise, however, was +effected. A complete amnesty was granted to the saints, the soldiers of +the union entered peacefully into the Salt-Lake City, and Young assumed +tolerably friendly relations with the governor, who, nevertheless, by the +erection of a fort commanding the city made the position safe for himself +and his troops. On the outbreak of the war of Secession in 1861 the troops +of the union were for the most part withdrawn. But all the more +energetically did the central government at the close of the war in 1865 +resolve upon the complete subjugation of the rebel saints, having learnt +that since 1852 numerous murders had taken place in the territory, and +that the disappearance of whole caravans of colonists was not due to +attacks of Indians, who would have scalped their victims, but to a secret +Mormon fraternity called Danites (Judges xviii.), brothers of Gideon +(Judges vi. ff.) or Angels of Destruction, which, obedient to the +slightest hint from the prophet, had undertaken to avenge by bloody +terrorism any sign of resistance to his authority, to arrest any tendency +to apostasy, and to guard against the introduction of any foreign element. +The Union Pacific Railway opened in 1869 deprived the "Kingdom of God" of +its most powerful protection, its geographical isolation, while the rich +silver mines discovered at the same time in Utah, peopled city and country +with immense flocks of "Gentiles." The nemesis, which brought the Mormon +bishop Lee, twenty years after the deed, under the lash of the high court +of justiciary as involved in the horrible massacre of a large party of +emigrants at Mountain Meadows in 1857, would probably have also befallen +the prophet himself as the main instigator of this and many other crimes +had he not by a sudden death two months later, in his seventy-fifth year, +escaped the jurisdiction of any earthly tribunal (died 1877). A successor +was not chosen, but supreme authority is in the hands of the college of +twelve apostles with the elder John Taylor at their head.--Repeated +attempts made since 1874 by the United States authorities by penal +enactments to root out polygamy among the Mormons have always failed, +because its actual existence could never be legally proved. The witness +called could or would say nothing, since the "sealing" was always secretly +performed, and the women concerned denied that a marriage had been entered +into with the accused, or if one confessed herself his married wife she +refused to give any evidence about his domestic relations.--Recently a +split has occurred among the Mormons. By far the larger party is that of +the "Salt Lake Mormons," which holds firmly by polygamy and all the other +institutions introduced by Young and since his time. The other party is +that of the Kirtland, or Old Mormons, headed by the son of their founder, +Jos. Smith, who had been passed over on account of his youth, which +repudiates all these as unsupported novelties and restores the true +Mormonism of the founder. The Old Mormons not only oppose polygamy, but +also all more recently introduced doctrines. They are called Kirtland +Mormons from the first temple built by their founder at Kirtland in 1814, +which having fallen into ruins, was restored by Geo. Smith, jun., and +became the centre of the Old Mormon denomination. In April 1885 they held +there their first synod, attended by 200 deputies.(128) + +15. _The Taepings in China._--Hung-sen-tsenen, born in 1813 in the province +of Shan-Tung, was destined for the learned profession but failed in his +examination at Canton. There he first, in 1833, came into contact with +Protestant missionaries, whose misunderstood words awakened in him the +belief that he was called to perform great things. At the same time he +there got possession of some Christian Chinese tracts. Failing in his +examination a second time in 1837, he fell into a dangerous illness and +had a series of visions in which an old man with a golden beard appeared, +handing to him the insignia of imperial rank, and commanding him to root +out the demons. After his recovery he became an elementary teacher. A +relative called Li visited him in 1843. The Christian tracts were again +sought out and carefully studied. Sen now recognised in the old man of his +visions the God of the Christians and in himself the younger brother of +Jesus. The two baptized one another and won over two young relatives to +their views. Expelled from their offices, they went in 1844 to the +province of Kiang Se as pencil and ink sellers, preached diligently the +new doctrine and founded numerous small congregations of their sect. The +American missionaries at Canton heard of the success of their preaching, +and Sen accepted an invitation to join them in 1847. The missionary +Roberts had a great esteem for him and intended to baptize him, when in +consequence of stories spread about him their relations became strained. +Sen now returned in 1848 to his companions in Kiang Se, who had diligently +and successfully continued their preaching. In 1850 they began to attract +attention by the violent destruction of idols. When now all the remnants +of a pirate band joined them as converts, they were in common with these +persecuted by the government and proclaimed rebels. The expulsion of the +hated Mantshu dynasty, which two hundred years before had displaced the +Ming dynasty, and the overthrow of idolatry were now their main endeavour, +and in 1857 they organized under Sen a regular rebellion for the setting +up of a Taeping dynasty, _i.e._, of universal peace. The Taeping army +advanced unhindered, all Mantschu soldiers who fell into its hands were +massacred, and of the inhabitants of the provinces conquered, only those +were spared who joined their ranks. In March, 1853, they stormed the +second capital of the empire, Nankin, the old residence of the Ming +dynasty. There Sen fixed his residence and styled himself Tien-Wang, the +Divine Prince. He assigned to ten subordinate princes the government of +the conquered provinces, almost the half of the immense empire. Thousands +of bibles were circulated; the ten commandments proclaimed as the +foundation of law, many writings, prayers and poems composed for the +instruction of the people, and these with the bible made subjects of +examination for entrance to the learned order. An Arian theory of the +trinity was set forth; the Father is the one personal God, whose likeness +in bodily human form Sen strictly forbade, destroying the Catholic images +as well as the Chinese idols. Jesus is the first-born son of God, yet not +himself God, sent by the Father into the world in order to enlighten it by +his doctrine and to redeem it by his atoning sufferings. Sen, the younger +brother of Jesus, was sent into the world to spread the doctrine of Jesus +and to expel the demons, the Mantschu dynasty. Reception takes place +through baptism. The Lord's Supper was unknown to them. Bloody and +bloodless offerings were still tolerated. The use of wine and tobacco was +forbidden; the use of opium and trafficking in it were punished with +death. But polygamy was sanctioned. Saturday, according to the Old +Testament, was their holy day. Their service consisted only of prayer, +singing and religious instruction; but also written prayers were presented +to God by burning. + +16. Sen himself had no more visions after 1837. But other ecstatic +prophets arose, the eastern prince Yang and the western prince Siao. The +revelations of the latter were comparatively sober, but those of the +former were in the highest degree blasphemously fanatical. He declared +himself the Paraclete promised by Jesus, and taught that God himself, as +well as Jesus, had a wife with sons and daughters. He was at the same time +a brave and successful general, and the mass of the Taepings were +enthusiastically attached to him. Sen humbly yielded to the extravagances +of this fanatic, even when Yang sentenced him to receive forty lashes. +Sen's overthrow was already resolved upon in Yang's secret council, when +Sen took courage and gave the northern prince secret orders to murder Yang +and his followers in one night. This was done, and Sen was weak enough to +allow the executioner of his secret order to be publicly put to death so +as to appease the excited populace. But he thus again in 1856 became +master of the situation.--One of the oldest apostles of Sen, his near +relative Hung Yin, had been turned off at Hong Kong. He there attached +himself to the Basel missionary, Hamberg, who in 1852 baptized him and +made him his native helper. In hope of winning his cousin to the true +Christian faith, he travelled in 1854 to Nankin, which however he did not +reach till January, 1859. Sen received him gladly and made him his war +minister. But his efforts to introduce a purer Christianity among the +Taepings were unsuccessful, for he tried the slippery way of +accommodation, and under pressure from Sen set up for himself a harem. In +October, 1860, on Sen's repeated invitation, his former teacher, the +missionary Roberts of Nankin, arrived and was immediately made minister +for foreign affairs. The Shanghai missionaries, several of whom visited +Nankin, had interesting interviews with Yin in 1860, but not with the +emperor, as they refused to go on their knees before him. They were +encouraged by Yin to hope for a future much needed purifying of Taeping +Christianity. Yang's revelations, however, held their ground after as well +as before, and were increased by further absurdities. To such crass +fanaticism was now added the inhuman cruelty with which they massacred the +vanquished and wasted the conquered cities and districts. Had the European +powers ranged themselves in a friendly and peaceful attitude alongside of +the Taepings, China might now have been a Christian empire. Instead of +this the English, on account of the extreme opposition of the Taepings to +the opium traffic, took up a hostile position toward them, while they were +also in disfavour with the French, who had been denounced by them as +idolaters on account of their Romish image worship. Down to the beginning +of 1862, however, Yin's influence had prevented any hostile proceedings +against the Europeans in spite of many provocations given. But after that +the Taepings refused them any quarter. Roberts fled by night to save his +life. Against disciplined European troops the rebels could not hold their +ground. One city after another was taken from them, and at last, in July +1864, their capital Nankin. Sen was found poisoned in his burning +palace.(129) + +17. _The Spiritualists._--The shoemaker's apprentice, Andrew Jackson Davis +of Poughkeepsie on the Hudson, in his nineteenth year fell into a magnetic +sleep and composed his first work, "The Principles of Nature, Her Divine +Revelations and a Voice to Mankind," in 1845. He declared its utterances +to be spiritual revelations from the other world. But his later writings +composed in working hours made the same claim, especially the five volume +work, "Great Harmonia, being a Philosophical Revelation of the Natural, +Spiritual, and Celestial Universe," 1850 ff. Both went through numerous +editions and were translated into German. The great spiritual +manifestation promised in the first work was not long delayed. In a house +bought by the family of Fox in Hydesville in New York State a spectral +knocking was often heard. Through the intercourse which the two youngest +daughters, aged nine and twelve years, had with the ghosts, the skeleton +of a murdered five years' old child of a pedlar was discovered buried in +the cellar, and when the family soon thereafter left the house, the ghosts +went with them and continued their communications by table turning, table +rapping, table writing, etc. The thing now became epidemic. Hundreds and +thousands of male and female _mediums_ arose and held an extremely lively +and varied intercourse with innumerable departed ones of earlier and later +times. The believers soon numbered millions, including highly educated +persons of all ranks, even such exact chemists as Mapes and Hare. An +abundant literature in books and journals, as well as Sunday services, +frequent camp-meetings and annual congresses formed a propaganda for the +alleged spiritualism, which soon found its way across the ocean and won +enthusiastic adherents for all confessions in all European countries, +especially in London, Paris, Brussels, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Dresden, +Leipzig, etc. They now broke up into two parties called respectively +Spiritualists and Spiritists. The former put in the foreground physical +experiments with astonishing results and miraculous effects; the latter, +with the Frenchman Allan Kardec (_Rivail_) as their leader, give +prominence to the teaching of spirits by direct communication. The former +in reference to the origin of the human soul held by the theory of +traducianism; the latter to that of pre-existence in connection with a +doctrine of re-incarnation of spirits by reason of growing purity and +perfection. The latter see in Christ the incarnation of a spirit of the +highest order; the former merely the purest and most perfect type of human +nature. But neither admit the real central truth of Christianity, the +reconciliation of sinful humanity with God in Christ. Both evaporate the +resurrection into a mere spectral spirit manifestation; and the +disclosures and utterances of the spirits with both are equally trivial, +silly, and vain.--In England the famous palaeontologist and collaborateur of +Darwin, Alfr. Russel Wallace, and the no less celebrated physicist Wm. +Crookes, are apologists of spiritualism. The latter declared in 1879 that +to the three well-known conditions of matter, solid, fluid and gaseous, +should be added a fourth, "radiant," and that there is the borderland +where force and matter meet. And in Germany the acute Leipzig +astrophysicist Fr. Zoellner, after a whole series of spiritualistic seances +conducted by the American medium Slade in 1877 and 1878 had been carefully +scrutinized and tested by himself and several of his most accomplished +scientific colleagues, was convinced of the existence and reality of +higher "four dimension" space in the spirit world, to which by reason of +its fourth dimension the power belonged of passing through earthly bodily +matter. The philosophers I. H. Fichte of Stuttgart and Ulrici of Halle +have admitted the reality of spiritualistic communications and allege them +as proofs of immortality. Among German theologians Luthardt of Leipzig +regards it all as the work of demons who take advantage for their own ends +of the moral-religious dissolution of the modern world and its consequent +nerve shaking that prevails, just as in the ancient world in the +beginnings of Christianity. Zoeckler of Greifswald finds an analogy between +it and the demoniacal possession of New Testament times; so too Martensen +in his "Jacob Boehme," and on the Catholic side W. Schneider; while +Splittgerber refers most of the manifestations in question to a merely +subjective origin in "the right side of the human soul life," but puts the +materialization of spirits in the category of delusive jugglery. +Spiritualism has scarcely rallied from the obloquy cast upon it by the +unmasking of the tricks of the famous medium Miss Florence Cook in London +in 1880 and of the distinguished spirit materialiser Bastian by the +Grand-duke John of Austria in 1884.(130) + +18. To the domain of unquestionable illusion belongs also the +spiritualistic movement of Indian _Theosophism_ or _Occultism_. The +American Col. Olcott of New York had already moved for twenty-two years in +spiritualist circles when in 1874 he met with Madame Blavatsky, widow of a +Russian general who had been governor of Erivan in Armenia. She professed +to have been from her eighth year in communication with spirits, then to +have had secret intercourse with the Mahatmas, _i.e._ spirits of old +Indian penitents, during a seven years' residence on the Himalayas. She +now promised to introduce the colonel to them. Olcott and Blavatsky +founded at New York in 1875 a society for research in the department of +the mystic sciences, travelled in 1878 to Further India and Ceylon, and +settled finally in Madras, whence by word and writing they proclaimed +through the whole land theosophism or occultism as the religion of the +future, which, consisting in a medley of Hinduism and Buddhism, enriched +by spiritualistic revelations of Mahatmas, vouched for by spiritualistic +signs and miracles and conformed to the most recent philosophical and +scientific researches in America and Europe, aimed at heaping contempt +upon Christianity and finally driving it from the field. As fanatical +opponents of Christian missions in India they were strongly supported by +the Brahman and Buddhist hierarchy, and soon obtained for the theosophical +society founded by them not only numerous adherents from among the natives +but also many Englishman befooled by their spiritualistic swindle. As +apostle and literary pioneer of the new religion appeared an Anglo-Indian +called Sinnett. In spring, 1884, Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went on +a propagandist tour to Europe, where, in England, France, Austria, and +Hungary, they won many converts, while Col. Olcott at Elberfeld and Madame +Blavatsky at Odessa founded branches of their theosophical society.--But +meanwhile in India affairs assumed a threatening aspect. Blavatsky on her +departure had entrusted the keys of her dwelling and her mysterious +cabinet with its various panels, falling doors, etc., to Mr. and Mrs. +Coulomb, who had been hitherto her assistants in all her juggleries. +Madame Coulomb, however, quarrelled with the board of theosophists at +Madras, and revenged herself by placing in the hands of the Scottish +mission letters addressed by Blavatsky to herself and her husband which +supplied evidence that all her spiritualistic manifestations were only +common tricks. In addition she gave public exhibitions in which she +demonstrated to the spectators _ad oculos_ the spiritual manifestations of +the Mahatmas, and subsequently published an "Account of My +Acquaintanceship with Madame Blavatsky, 1872-1884," with discoveries of +her earlier rogueries. Meanwhile the swindler had herself in December, +1884, returned to Madras in company with several believers gathered up in +England, among others a young English clergyman, Leadbeater, who some days +previously in Ceylon had formally adopted Buddhism. The theosophists now +demanded that the reputed cheat and deceiver should be brought before a +civil court. The president, however, declared that the investigations and +judgment of a profane court of law could not be accepted to the mysteries +of occultism, but promised a careful examination by a commission appointed +by himself, and Blavatsky thought it advisable "for the restoration of her +health in a cooler climate" to make off from the scene of conflict.(131) + + + +§ 212. Antichristian Socialism and Communism. + + +While the antichristian spirit of the age breaks out in various +theoretical forms in our literature, there also abound social and +communistic movements of a practical kind. Socialism and communism both +aim at a thorough-going reform of the rights of property and possession in +strict proportion to the labour spent thereon. They are, however, +distinguished in this, that while communism declares war against all +private property and demands absolute community of goods, socialism, at +least in its older and nobler forms, proceeding from the idea of precise +correspondence between capital and labour, seeks to have expression given +to this in fact. From the older socialism, which endeavoured to reach its +end in a peaceful way within the existing lines of civil order, a later +social democracy is to be distinguished by its decidedly +politico-revolutionary character and tendency to attach itself more to +communism. This modern socialism thinks to open the way to the realization +of its hare-brained ideas by the confusion and overthrow of existing law +and order. + +1. _The Beginnings of Modern Communism._--As early as 1796 Babeuf published +in Paris a communistic manifesto which maintained the thesis that natural +law gives all men an equal right to the enjoyment of all goods. His ideas +were subsequently systematized and developed by Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, +and Louis Blanc in France, and by Weibling and Stirner in Germany. In a +treatise of 1840 Proudhon answered the question, _Qu'est-ce que la +propriete?_ in words which afterwards became proverbial, and formed the +motto of communism: _La propriete c'est le vol._ But the mere negation of +property affords no permanent standing ground. All altars must be thrown +down; all religion rooted out as the plague of humanity; the family and +marriage, as the fountain of all selfishness, must be abolished; all +existing governments must be overthrown; all Europe must be turned into +one great social democracy. A secret communistic propaganda spread over +all western Europe, had its head centres in Belgium and Switzerland, +crossed the Alps and the Pyrenees, as well as the Channel, and found a +congenial soil even in Russia. + +2. _St. Simonism._--The Count St. Simon of Paris, reduced to poverty by +speculation, proposed by means of a thorough organization of industry to +found a new and happy state of things in which there would be pure +enjoyment without poverty and care. An attempted suicide, which led +however to his death in 1825, made him in the eyes of his disciples a +saviour of the world. The July revolution of 1830 gave to the new +universal religion, which reinstated the flesh in its long lost rights and +sought to assign to each individual the place in the commonwealth for +which he was fitted, some advantage. "Father" Enfantin, whom his followers +honoured as the highest revelation of deity, contended with pompous +phrases and in fantastic style for the emancipation of woman and against +the unnatural institution of marriage. But St. Simonism soon excited +public ridicule, was pronounced immoral by the courts of justice, and the +remnants of its votaries fled from the scorn of the people and the +vengeance of the law to Egypt, where they soon disappeared. + +3. _Owenists and Icarians._--The Scotch mill-owner _Rob. Owen_ went in 1829 +to America, in order there, unhindered by religious prejudices, clerical +opposition, and police interference, to work out on a large scale his +socialistic schemes for improving the world, which in a small way he +believed he had proved already among his Scotch mill-operatives. He bought +for this purpose from the Wuerttemberger Rapp the colony of Harmony (§ 211, +6); but wanting the necessary capital for the socialistic commonwealth +there established, and failing to realize his expectations, discontent, +disorder, and opposition got the upper hand, and in 1826 Owen was obliged +to abandon all his property. He now returned to England, and addressed +himself in treatises, tracts, and lectures to the working classes of the +whole land, in order to win them over to his ideas. A vast brotherhood for +mutual benefit and for the enjoyment of their joint earnings was to put an +end to earth's misery, which the positive religions had not lessened but +only increased. In 1836, in the great industrial cities socialist unions +with nearly half a million members were formed, with their head centre and +annual congress at Birmingham. The practical schemes of Owen, however, had +no success in England, and his societies no permanency. He died in +1858.--Still more disastrous was the fate of the Icarian Colony, founded in +Texas in 1848 by the Frenchman _Stephen Cabet_, author of "_Voyage en +Icarie, Roman philos. et social_," 1840, as an attempt to realize his +communistic-philanthropic ideas on the other side of the Atlantic. The +colonists soon found their sanguine hopes bitterly disappointed, and +hurled against their leader reproaches and threats. Some ex-Icarians +accused him in 1849 before the Paris police-court as a swindler, and he +was condemned to two years' imprisonment and five years' loss of civil +privileges. Cabet now hastened to France, and on appeal obtained reversion +of his sentence in 1851. Returning to America, he founded a new Icarian +colony at Nauvoo in Illinois. But there, too, everything went wrong, and a +revolt of the colonists obliged him to flee. He died in 1856.(132) + +4. _The International Working-Men's Association._--Local and national +working-men's unions with a socialistic organization had for a long time +existed in England, France, and Germany. The idea of a union embracing the +whole world was first broached at the great London Exhibition in 1862, and +at a conference in London on September 28th, 1864, at which all industrial +countries of Europe were represented, it assumed a practical shape by the +founding of a universal international working-men's association. Its +constitution was strictly centralistic. A directing committee in London, +Carl Marx of Treves, formerly _Privatdocent_ of philosophy at Bonn, +standing at its head as dictator, represented the supreme legislative and +governing authority, while alongside of it a general standing council held +the administrative and executive power. The latter was divided into eight +sections, English, American, French, German, Belgian, Dutch, Italian, and +Spanish, and annual international congresses at Geneva, Lausanne, +Brussels, Basel, and the Hague gave opportunity for general consultation +on matters of common interest. Reception as members was granted by the +giving of a diploma after six months' trial, and involved unconditional +obedience to the statutes and ordinances of the central authorities and +the payment of an annual fee. The number of members, not, however, +exclusively drawn from the working classes, is said to have reached two +and a half millions. The society adopted the current socialistic and +communistic ideas and tendencies. The religious principle of the +association was therefore: atheism and materialism; the political: +absolute democracy; the social: equal rights of labour and profit, with +abolition of private property, hereditary rights, marriage, and family; +and as means for realizing this programme, unaccomplishable by peaceable +methods, revolution and rebellion, fire and sword, poison, petroleum and +dynamite. Such means have been used already in various ways by the +international throughout the Romance countries; but specially in the brief +Reign of Terror of the Paris Commune, March and April, 1871, in the +relatively no less violent attempted revolt at Alcoy in Southern Spain in +July, 1873. But meanwhile differences appeared within the society, which +were formulated at the Hague Congress in 1872, and led to splits, which +greatly lessened its unity, influence, and power to do mischief, so that +this congress may perhaps be regarded as the first beginning of its +end.(133) + +5. _German Social Democracy._--_Ferd. Lassalle_, son of a rich Jewish +merchant of Breslau, after a full course of study in philosophy and law, +began in 1848 to take a lively part in the advanced movements of the age, +and when he found among the liberal citizens no favour for his socialistic +ideas turned exclusively to the working classes. In answer to the question +as to what was to be done, by the central committee of a working-men's +congress at Leipzig, he wrought out in 1863 with great subtlety in an open +letter the fundamental idea of his universal redemption. All plans of +self-help to relieve the distress of working men hitherto proposed +(specially that of Schulze-Delitzsch) break down over the "iron economic +law of wages," in consequence of which under the dominion of capital and +the large employers of labour wages are always with fatalistic necessity +reduced to the point indispensable for supplying a working man's family +with the absolute necessaries of life. The working classes, however, have +the right according to the law of nature to a full equivalent for their +labour, but in order to reach this they must be their own undertakers, and +where self-help is only a vain illusion, state help must afford the means. +By insisting on the right to universal suffrage the working classes have +obtained a decided majority in the legislative assemblies, and there +secured a government of the future in accordance with their needs. On +these principles the Universal German Society of Working Men was +constituted, with Lassalle as its president, which position he held till +his death in a duel in 1864. Long internal disputes and personal +recriminations led to a split at the Eisenach Congress in 1869. The +malcontents founded an independent "Social Democratic Working-Men's +Union," under the leadership of Bebel and Liebknecht, which, particularly +successful in Saxony, Brunswick, and South Germany, represents itself as +the German branch of the "International Working-Men's Association." It +adhered indeed generally to Lassalle's programme, but objected to the +extravagant adulation claimed for Lassalle by their opponents, the proper +disciples of Lassalle, who had Hasenclaver as their leader and Berlin as +their headquarters, substituted a federal for a centralistic organization, +and instead of a great centralised government in the future desired rather +a federal republic embracing all Europe. But both declared equally in +favour of revolution; they vied with one another in bitter hatred of +everything bearing the name of religion; and wrought out with equal +enthusiasm their communistic schemes for the future. At the Gotha Congress +of 1875 a reconciliation of parties was effected. The social-democratic +agitation thus received a new impulse and assumed threatening proportions. +Yet it required such extraordinary occurrences as the twice attempted +assassination of the aged emperor, by Hodel on May 11th, and Nobiling on +June 2nd, 1878, to rouse the government to legislative action. On the +basis of a law passed in October, 1878, for two and a half years (but in +May, 1880, continued for other three and a half years, and in May, 1884, +and again in April, 1886, on each occasion extended to other two years), +200 socialist societies throughout the German empire were suppressed, +sixty-four revolutionary journals, circulated in hundreds of thousands and +with millions of readers, and about 800 other seditious writings, were +forbidden. But that the social-democratic organization and agitation was +not thereby destroyed is proved by the fact that in August, 1880, in an +uninhabited Swiss castle lent for the purpose, in Canton Zuerich, a +congress was held, attended by fifty-six German socialists, with greetings +by letter from sympathisers in all European countries, which among other +things passed the resolution unanimously, no longer as had been agreed +upon at Gotha, to seek their ends by lawful methods, as by the law of the +socialists impossible, but by the way of revolution.--On the other hand, +the German Imperial Chancellor Prince Bismarck in the Reichstag, 1884, +fully admitted the "right of the worker to work," as well as the duty of +the state to ameliorate the condition of working men as far as possible, +and in three propositions: "Work for the healthy workman, hospital +attendance to the sick, and maintenance to the invalided," granted all +that is asked for by a healthy social policy. + +6. _Russian Nihilism._--In Russia, too, notwithstanding a strictly +exercised censorship, the philosophico-scientific gospel of materialism +and atheism found entrance through the writings of Moleschott, Feuerbach, +Buechner, Darwin, etc. (§ 174, 3), especially among the students. In 1860, +Nihilism, springing from this seed, first assumed the character of a +philosophical and literary movement. It sought the overthrow of all +religious institutions. Then came the women's question, claiming +emancipation for the wife. The example of the Paris Commune of 1871 +contributed largely to the development of Nihilistic idealism, its +political revolutionary socialism. The Nihilist propaganda, like an +epidemic, now seized upon the academic youth, male and female, was spread +in aristocratic families by tutors and governesses, won secret disciples +among civil servants as well as officers of the army and navy, and was +enthusiastically supported by ladies in the most cultured and exalted +ranks. In order to spread its views among the people, young men and women +disguised in peasant's dress went out among the peasants and artisans, +lived and wrought like them, and preached their gospel to them in their +hours of rest. But their efforts failed through the antipathy and apathy +of the lower orders, and the energetic interference of the government by +imprisonment and banishment thinned the ranks of the propagandists. But +all the more closely did those left bind themselves together under their +central leaders as the "Society for Country and Freedom," and strove with +redoubled eagerness to spread revolutionary principles by secretly +printing their proclamations and other incendiary productions, and +scattering them in the streets and houses. On January 24th, 1878, the +female Nihilist _Vera Sassulitsch_ from personal revenge dangerously +wounded with a revolver General Trepoff, the dreaded head of the St. +Petersburg police. Although she openly avowed the deed before the court +and gloried in it, she was amid the acclamations of the public acquitted. +This was the hour when Nihilism exercised its fellest terrorism. The fair, +peaceful phrase, "To work, fight, suffer, and die for the people," was +silenced; it was now, sword and fire, dagger and revolver, dynamite and +mines for all oppressors of the people, but above all for the agents of +the police, for their spies, for all informers and apostates. An +"executive committee," unknown to most of the conspirators themselves, +issued the death sentence; the lot determined the executioner, who himself +suffered death if he failed to accomplish it. What was now aimed at was +the assassination of higher state officials; then the sacred person of the +emperor. Three bold attempts at assassination miscarried; the revolver +shot of Solowjews on April 14th, 1879; the mine on the railway near Moscow +that exploded too late on November 30th, 1879; the horrible attempt to +blow up the Winter Palace with the emperor and his family on February +17th, 1880; but the fourth, a dynamite bomb thrown between the feet of the +emperor on March 13th, 1881, destroyed the life of this noble and humane +monarch, who in 1861-1863 had freed his people from the yoke of serfdom. +As for years nothing more had been heard of Nihilist attempts, it was +hoped that the government had succeeded in putting down this diabolical +rebellion, but in 1887 the news spread that an equally horrible attempt +had been planned for the sixth anniversary of the assassination of +Alexander II., but fortunately timely precautions were taken against it. + + + + + +CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. + + +_First Century._ + +14-37. The Emperor Tiberius, § 22, 1. +41-54. The Emperor Claudius, § 22, 1. +44. Execution of James the Elder, § 16. +51. The Council at Jerusalem, § 18, 1. +54-68. The Emperor Nero, § 23, 1. +61. Paul's Arrival at Rome, § 15. +63. Stoning of James the Just, § 16, 3. +64. Persecution of Christians in Rome, § 22, 1. +66-70. Jewish War, § 16. +81-96. The Emperor Domitian, § 22, 1. + +_Second Century._ + +98-117. The Emperor Trajan, § 22, 2. +115. (?) Ignatius of Antioch, Martyr, § 22, 2. +117-138. The Emperor Hadrian, § 22, 2. + Basilides, Valentinus, § 22, 2, 4. +132-135. Revolt of Barcochba, § 25. +Abt. 150. Celsus, § 23, 3. Marcion, § 27, 11. +138-161. The Emperor Antoninus Pius, § 22, 2. +155. Paschal Controversy between Polycarp and Amicetus, § 37, 2. +161-180. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3. +165. Justin Martyr, § 30, 9. +166. (155?) Martyrdom of Polycarp, § 22, 3. +172. (156?) Montanus appears as a Prophet, § 40, 1. +177. Persecution of Christians at Lyons and Vienne, § 22, 3. +178. Irenaeus made Bishop of Lyons, § 31, 2. +180-192. The Emperor Commodus, § 22, 3. +196. Paschal Controversy between Victor and Polycrates, § 37, 2. + +_Third Century._ + +202. Tertullian becomes Montanist, § 40, 2. + Pantaenus dies, § 31, 4. +220. Clement of Alexandria dies, § 31, 4. +235. Settlement of the Schism of Hippolytus, § 41, 1. +235-238. The Emperor Maximinus Thrax, § 22, 4. +243. Ammonius Saccus dies, § 25, 2. +244. Arabian Synod against Beryllus, § 33, 7. +249-251. The Emperor Decius, § 22, 5. +250. The Schism of Felicissimus, § 41, 2. +251. The Novatian Schism, § 41, 3. +253-260. The Emperor Valerian, § 22, 5. +254. Origen dies, § 31, 5. +255-256. Controversy about Heretics' Baptism, § 35, 5. +258. Cyprian dies, § 31, 11. +260-268. The Emperor Gallienus. The Toleration Edict, § 22, 5. +262. Synod at Rome against Sabellius and Dionysius of Alexandria, § 33, 7. +269. Third Synod of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, § 33, 8. +276. Mani dies, § 29, 1. +284-305. The Emperor Diocletian, § 22, 6. + +_Fourth Century._ + +303. Beginning of Diocletian Persecution, § 22, 6. +306. Synod of Elvira, § 38, 3; 45, 2. + Meletian Schism in Egypt, § 41, 4. + Constantius Chlorus dies, § 22, 7. +311. Galerius dies, § 22, 6. +312. Constantine's Expedition against Maxentius, § 22, 7. + Donatist Schism in Africa, § 63, 1. +313. Edict of Milan, § 22, 7. +318. Arius is Accused, § 50, 1. +323-337. Constantine the Great, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2. +325. First OEcumenical Council at Nicaea, § 50, 1. +330-415. Meletian Schism at Antioch, § 50, 8. +335. Synod at Tyre, § 50, 2. +336. Athanasius Exiled. Arius dies, § 50, 2. +341. Council at Antioch, § 50, 2. +343. Persecution of Christians under Shapur II., § 64, 2. +344. Synod at Sardica, § 46, 3; 50, 2. +346. Council at Milan against Photinus, § 50, 2. +348. Ulfilas, Bishop of the Goths, § 76, 1. +350-361. Constantius, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2. +351. First Council at Sirmium against Marcellus, § 50, 2. +357. Second Council at Sirmium, Homoians, § 50, 3. +358. Third Council at Sirmium, § 50, 3. +359. Synods at Seleucia and Rimini, § 50, 3. +361-363. Emperor Julian the Apostate, § 42, 3. +362. Synod at Alexandria against Athanasius, § 50, 4. +366-384. Damasus I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4. +368. Hilary of Poitiers dies, § 47, 14. +373. Athanasius dies, § 47, 3. +379. Basil the Great dies, § 47, 4. +379-395. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, § 42, 4. +380. Synod at Saragossa, § 54, 2. +381. Second OEcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 50, 4. + Ulfilas dies, § 76, 1. +384-398. Siricius, Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4. +385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, § 54, 2. +390. Gregory Nazianzen dies, § 47, 4. +391. Destruction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, § 42, 6. +393. Council at Hippo Rhegius, § 59, 1. +397. Ambrose dies, § 47, 15. +399. Rufinus Condemned at Rome as an Origenist, § 51, 2. +400. Martin of Tours dies, § 47, 15. + +_Fifth Century._ + +402-417. Innocent I. of Rome, § 46, 5. +403. Synodus ad Quercum, § 51, 3. + Epiphanius dies, § 47, 10. +407. Chrysostom dies, § 47, 8. +408-450. Theodosius II. in the East, § 52, 3. +411. _Collatio cum Donatistis_, § 63, 1. +412. Synod at Carthage against Coelestius, § 53, 4. +415. Synods at Jerusalem and Diospolis against Pelagius, § 53, 4. +416. Synods at Mileve and Carthage against Pelagius, § 53, 4. +418. General Assembly at Carthage, § 53, 4. + Roman Schism of Eulalius and Bonifacius, § 46, 6. +420. Jerome dies, § 47, 16. + Persecution of Christians under Behram V., § 64, 2. +422-432. Coelestine I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 6. +428. Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople, § 52, 3. +429. Theodore of Mopsuestia dies, § 47, 9. + The Vandals in North Africa, § 76, 3. +430. Cyril's Anathemas, § 52, 3. + Augustine dies, § 47, 18. +431. Third OEcumenical Council at Ephesus, § 52, 3. +432. St. Patrick in Ireland, § 77, 1. + John Cassianus dies, § 47, 21. +440-461. Leo I., the Great, § 46, 7; 47, 22. +444. Cyril of Alexandria dies, § 47, 6. + Dioscurus succeeds Cyril, § 52, 4. +445. Rescript of Valentinian III., § 46, 7. +448. Eutyches excommunicated at Constantinople, § 52, 4. +449. Robber Synod at Ephesus, § 52, 4. + Attack of Angles and Saxons upon Britain, § 77, 4. +451. Fourth OEcumenical Synod at Chalcedon, § 52, 4. +457. Theodoret dies, § 47, 9. +475. Semipelagian Synods at Arles and Lyons, § 53, 5. +476. Overthrow of the West Roman Empire, § 46, 8; 76, 6. + Monophysite Encyclical of Basiliscus, § 52, 5. +482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, § 52, 5. + Severinus dies, § 76, 6. +484-519. The Thirty-five Years' Schism between the East and West, § 52, 5. +492-496. Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 8; 47, 22. +496. Battle of Zuelpich. Clovis baptized, § 76, 9. + +_Sixth Century._ + +502. Synodus Palmaris, § 46, 8. +517. Council at Epaon, § 76, 5. +527-565. Justinian I., Emperor, § 46, 9; 52, 6. +529. Synods at Oranges and Valence, § 53, 5. + Monastic Rule of Benedict of Nursia, § 85. + Suppression of the University of Athens, § 42, 4. +533. The Theopaschite Controversy, § 52, 6. + Overthrow of the Vandal Empire, § 76, 3. +544. Condemnation of the "Three Chapters," § 52, 6. +553. Fifth OEcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 52, 6. +554. Overthrow of the Ostrogoth Empire in Italy, § 76, 7. +563. Council at Braga, § 54, 2. + St. Columba among the Picts and Scots. § 77, 2. +567. Founding of the Exarchate of Ravenna, § 46, 9. +568. The Longobards under Alboin in Italy, § 76, 8. +589. Council at Toledo under Reccared, § 76, 2. + Columbanus and Gallus in the Vosges Country, § 77, 7. +590-604. Gregory I., the Great, § 46, 10; 47, 22. +595. Gregory of Tours dies, § 90, 2. +596. Augustine goes as Missionary to the Anglo-Saxons, § 77, 4. +597. St. Columba dies, § 77, 2. + Ethelbert baptized, § 77, 4. + +_Seventh Century._ + +606. Emperor Phocas recognises the Roman Primacy, § 46, 10. +611-641. Heraclius, Emperor, § 52, 8. +615. Columbanus dies, § 77, 7. +622. Hejira, § 65. +625-638. Honorius I., Pope, § 46, 11. +636. Isidore of Seville dies, § 90, 2. +637. Omar conquers Jerusalem, § 65. +638. Monothelite Ecthesis of Heraclius, § 52, 8. +640. Omar conquers Egypt, § 65. +642-668. Constans II., Emperor, § 52, 8. +646. St. Gallus dies, § 78, 1. +648. The Typus of Constans II., § 52, 8. +649-653. Martin I., Pope, § 46, 11. +649. First Lateran Council under Martin I., § 52, 8. +652. Emmeran at Regensburg, § 78, 2. +657. Constantine of Mananalis, § 71, 1. +662. Maximus Confessor, dies, § 47, 13. +664. Synod at Streoneshalch (_Syn. Pharensis_), § 77, 6. +668-685. Constantinus Pogonnatus, § 52, 8; 71, 1. +677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, § 78, 3. +678-682. Agatho, Pope, § 46, 11. +680. Sixth OEcumenical Council at Constantinople (Trullanum I.), § 52, 8. +690. Wilibrord among the Frisians, § 78, 3. +692. Concilium Quinisextum (Trullanum II.), § 63, 3. +696. Rupert in Bavaria (Salzburg), § 78, 2. + +_Eighth Century._ + +711. The Saracens conquer Spain, § 81. +715-731. Pope Gregory II., § 66, 1; 78, 4. +716. Winifrid goes to the Frisians, § 78, 4. +717-741. Leo III., the Isaurian, Emperor, § 66, 1. +718. Winifrid in Rome, § 78, 4. +722. Winifrid in Thuringia and Hesse, § 78, 4. +723. Winifrid a second time at Rome, consecrated Bishop, etc., § 78, 4. +724. Destruction of the Wonder-working Oak at Geismar, § 78, 4. +726. Leo's First Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1. +730. Leo's Second Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1. +731. Gregory III., Pope, § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1. +732. Boniface, Archbishop and Apostolic Vicar, § 78, 4. + Battle at Poitiers, § 81. + Separation of Illyria from the Roman See by Leo the Isaurian, § 66, 1. +735. The Venerable Bede dies, § 90, 2. +739. Wilibrord dies, § 78, 3. +741. Charles Martel dies, § 78, 5. Gregory III. dies. Leo the Isaurian + dies. +741-752. Pope Zacharias, § 78, 5, 7; 82, 1. +741-775. Constantinus Copronymus, Emperor, § 66, 2. +742. Concilium Germanicum, § 78, 5. +743. Synod at Liptinae, § 78, 5; 86, 2. +744. Synod at Soissons, § 78, 5. +745. Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, § 78, 5. +752. Childeric III. deposed, Pepin the Short, King, § 78, 5; 82, 1. +754. Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople, § 66, 2. + Pepin's donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 1. +755. Boniface dies, § 78, 7. +Abt. 760. Rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, § 84, 4. +767. Synod at Gentilliacum, § 91, 2; 92, 1. +768-814. Charlemagne, § 82, 2, 4; 90, 1, etc. +772-795. Pope Hadrian I., § 82, 2. +772. Destruction of Eresburg, § 78, 9. +774. Charlemagne's donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 2. +785. Wittekind and Alboin are baptized, § 78, 9. +787. Seventh OEcumenical Council at Nicaea, § 66, 3. + Founding of Cloister and Cathedral Schools, § 90, 1. +790. _Libri Carolini_, § 92, 1. +792. Synod at Regensburg, § 91, 1. +794. General Synod at Frankfort, § 91, 1; 92, 1. +795-816. Leo III., Pope, § 82, 3. +799. Alcuin's disputation with Felix at Aachen, § 91, 1. +800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, § 82, 3. + +_Ninth Century._ + +804. End of the Saxon War, § 78, 9. + Alcuin dies, § 90, 3. +809. Council at Aachen, on the _Filioque_, § 91, 2. +813-820. Leo the Armenian, Emperor, § 66, 4. +814-840. Louis the Pious, § 82, 4. +817. Reformation of Monasticism by Benedict of Aniane, § 85, 2. +820-829. Michael Balbus, Emperor, § 66, 4. +825. Synod at Paris against Image Worship, § 92, 1. +826. Theodorus Studita dies, § 66, 4. + Ansgar in Denmark, § 80, 1. +827. Establishment of Saracen Sovereignty in Sicily, § 81. +829-842. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4. +833. Founding of the Archbishopric of Hamburg, § 80, 1. +835. Synod at Didenhofen, § 82, 4. +839. Claudius of Turin dies. Agobard of Lyons dies, § 90, 4. +840-877. Charles the Bald, § 90, 1. +842. Feast of Orthodoxy, § 66, 4. + Theodora recommends the out-rooting of the Paulicians, § 71, 1. +843. Compact of Verdun, § 82, 5. +844. Eucharist Controversy of Paschasius Radbertus, § 91, 3. +845-882. Hincmar of Rheims, § 83, 2; 90, 5. +847. Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, § 80, 1. +848. Synod of Mainz against Gottschalk, § 91, 5. +850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, § 81, 1. +851-852. The Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore, § 87, 2, 3. +853. Synod of Quiersy. _Capitula Carisiaca_, § 91, 5. +855. Synod at Valence in favour of Gottschalk, § 91, 5. +856. Rabanus Maurus dies, § 90, 4. +858-867. Pope Nicholas I., § 82, 7. +858. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, § 67, 1. +859. Synod of Savonnieres, § 91, 5. +861. Methodius goes to the Bulgarians, § 73, 3. +863. Cyril and Methodius go to Moravia, § 79, 2. +865. Ansgar dies, § 80, 1. +866. Encyclical of Photius, § 67, 1. +867-886. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, § 67, 1. +867-872. Hadrian II., Pope, § 82, 7. +869. Eighth OEcumenical Council of the Latins at Constantinople § 67, 1. +870. Treaty of Mersen, § 82, 5. +871. Basil the Macedonian puts down the Paulicians, § 71, 1. + Borziwoi and Ludmilla baptized, § 79, 3. +871-901. Alfred the Great, § 90, 9. +875. John VIII. crowns Charles the Bald Emperor, § 82, 8. +879. Eighth OEcumenical Council of the Greeks at Constantinople, § 67, 1. +886-911. Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, § 67, 2. +891. Photius dies, § 67, 1. + +_Tenth Century._ + +910. Abbot Berno founds Clugny, § 98, 1. +911. The German Carolingians die out, § 82, 8. +911-918. Conrad I., King of the Germans. § 96, 1. +914-928. Pope John X., § 96, 1. +919-936. Henry I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1. +934. Henry I. enforced toleration of Christianity in Denmark, § 93, 2. +936-973. Otto I., Emperor, § 96, 1. +942. Odo of Clugny founds the Clugniac Congregation, § 98, 1. +950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, § 93, 8. +955. Olga baptized in Constantinople, § 73, 4. +960. Atto of Vercelli dies, § 100, 3. +962. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, § 96, 1. +963. Synod at Rome deposes John XII., § 96, 1. +966. Miecislaw of Poland baptized, § 93, 7. +968. Founding of Archbishopric of Magdeburg, § 93, 9. +970. Migration of Paulicians to Thrace, § 71, 1. +973-983. Otto II., Emperor, § 96, 2. +974. Ratherius of Verona dies, § 100, 3. +983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, § 96, 2, 3. +983. Mistewoi destroys all Christian establishments among the Wends, § 93, + 9. +987. Hugh Capet is made King of France, § 96, 2. +988. Wladimir Christianizes Russia, § 73, 4. +992-1025. Boleslaw Chrobry of Poland, § 93, 7. +996-999. Pope Gregory V., § 96, 2. +997-1038. Stephen the Saint, § 93, 8. +997. Adalbert of Prague, Apostle of Prussia, dies, § 93, 13. +999-1003. Pope Sylvester II., § 96, 3. +1000. Olaf Tryggvason dies, § 93, 4. + Christianity introduced into Iceland and Greenland, § 93, 5. + Stephen of Hungary secures the throne, § 93, 8. + +_Eleventh Century_ + +1002-1024. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4. +1008. Olaf Skautkoning of Sweden baptized, § 93, 3. +1009. Bruno martyred, § 93, 13. +1012-1024. Pope Benedict VIII., § 96, 4. +1014-1036. Canute the Great, § 93, 2. +1018. Romuald founds the Camaldulensian Congregation, § 98, 1. +1024-1039. Conrad II., Emperor, § 96, 4. +1030. Olaf the Thick of Norway dies, § 93, 4. +1031. Overthrow of the Ommaides in Spain, § 95, 2. +1039-1056. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4, 5. +1041. Treuga Dei, § 105, 1. +1046. Synod at Sutri, § 96, 4. +1049-1054. Pope Leo IX., § 96, 5. +1050. Synods at Rome and Vercelli against Berengar, § 101, 2. +1053. Epistle of Michael Caerularius, § 67, 3. +1054. Excommunication of Greek Church by Papal Legates, § 67, 3. +1056-1106. Henry IV., Emperor, § 96, 6-11. +1059. Pope Nicholas II. assigns the choice of Pope to the College of + Cardinals, § 96, 6. +1060. Robert Guiscard founds the Norman Sovereignty in Italy, § 95, 1. +1066. Murder of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, § 93, 9. +1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII., § 96, 7-9. +1075. Gregory's third Investiture Enactment, § 96, 7. +1077. Henry IV. as a Penitent at Canossa, § 96, 8. +1079. Berengar subscribes at Rome the doctrine of Transubstantiation, § + 101, 2. +1086. Bruno of Cologne founds the Carthusian Order, § 98, 2. +1088-1099. Pope Urban II., § 96, 10. +1095. Synod at Clermont, § 94. +1096. First Crusade. Godfrey of Boulogne, § 94, 1. +1098. Synod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4. + Robert of Citeaux founds the Cistercian Order, § 98, 1. +1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, § 94, 1. +1099-1118. Pope Paschalis II., § 96, 11. + +_Twelfth Century._ + +1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor, § 96, 11. +1106. Michael Psellus dies, § 68, 5. +1109. Anselm of Canterbury dies, § 101, 1, 3. +1113. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, § 98, 1; 102, 3. +1118. Founding of the Order of Knights Templar. Knights of St. John, § 98, + 7. + Basil, head of Bogomili, sent to the stake, § 71, 4. +1119-1124. Calixtus II., Pope, § 96, 11. +1121. Norbert founds the Praemonstratensian Order, § 98, 2. +1122. Concordat of Worms, § 96, 11. +1123. Ninth OEcumenical Council (First Lateran), § 96, 11. +1124. First Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10. +1126. Peter of Bruys burnt, § 108, 7. +1128. Second Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10. +1130-1143. Pope Innocent II., § 96, 13. +1135. Rupert of Deutz dies, § 102, 8. +1139. Tenth OEcumenical Council (Second Lateran), § 96, 13. +1141. Synod at Sens condemns Abaelard's writings, § 102, 2 + Hugo St. Victor dies, § 102, 4. +1142. Abaelard dies, § 102, 2. +1143. Founding of the Roman Commune, § 96, 13. +1145-1153. Pope Eugenius III., § 96, 13. +1146. Fall of Edessa, § 94, 2. +1147. Second Crusade. Conrad III. Louis VII., § 94, 2. +1149. Henry of Lausanne dies, § 108, 7. +1150. _Decretum Gratiani_, § 99, 5. +1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14. +1153. Bernard of Clairvaux dies, § 102, 3. +1154. Vicelin dies, § 93, 9. +1154-1159. Hadrian IV., Pope, § 96, 14. +1155. Arnold of Brescia put to death, § 96, 14. +1156. Peter the Venerable dies, § 98, 1. + Founding of Carmelite Order, § 98, 3. +1157. Introduction of Christianity into Finland, § 93, 11. +1159-1181. Pope Alexander III., § 96, 15, 16. +1164. Peter the Lombard dies, § 102, 5. + Council of Clarendon, § 96, 16. +1167. Council at Toulouse (Cathari), § 108, 2. +1168. Christianity of the Island of Ruegen, § 93, 10. +1169. Gerhoch of Reichersberg dies, § 102, 6, 7. +1170. Thomas Becket murdered, § 96, 16. + Founding of the Waldensian sect, § 108, 10. +1176. Battle of Legnano, § 6, 15. +1179. Eleventh OEcumenical Council (Third Lateran), § 96, 15. +1180. John of Salisbury dies, § 102, 9. +1182. Maronites are attached to Rome, § 73, 3. +1184. Meinhart in Livonia, § 93, 12. +1187. Saladin conquers Jerusalem, § 94, 3. +1189. Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa, § 94, 3. +1190-1197. Henry VI., Emperor, § 96, 16. +1190. Founding of Order of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8. +1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica dies, § 68, 5. +1198-1216. Pope Innocent III., § 96, 17, 18. + +_Thirteenth Century._ + +1202. Joachim of Floris dies, § 108, 5. + Founding of Order of the Brothers of the Sword, § 93, 12. + Genghis Khan destroys Kingdom of Prester John, § 72, 1. +1204-1261. Latin Empire in Constantinople, § 94, 4. +1207. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, § 96, 18. +1208. Peter of Castelnau slain, § 109, 1. +1209-1229. Albigensian Crusade, § 109, 1. +1209. Council of Paris against Sect of Amalrich of Bena, § 108, 4. +1212. Battle at Tolosa, § 95, 2. +1213. John Lackland receives England as a Papal Fief, § 96, 18. +1215-1250. Frederick II., Emperor, § 96, 17, 19, 20. +1215. Twelfth OEcumenical Council (Fourth Lateran), § 96, 18. +1216. Confirmation of the Dominican Order, § 98, 5. +1216-1227. Pope Honorius III., § 96, 19. +1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4. +1223. Confirmation of Franciscan Order, § 98, 3. +1226. Francis of Assisi dies, § 98, 3. +1226-1270. Louis IX., the Saint, § 94, 6; 93, 15. +1227-1241. Pope Gregory IX., § 96, 19. +1228. Fifth Crusade. Frederick II., § 94, 5. + Settlement of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, § 93, 13. +1229. Synod at Toulouse, § 109, 2. +1231. St. Elizabeth dies, § 105, 3. +1232. Inquisition Tribunal set up, § 109, 2. +1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, § 109, 3. +1234. Crusade against Stedingers, § 109, 3. +1237. Union of the Order of Sword with that of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8. +1243-1254. Pope Innocent IV., § 96, 20. +1245. Thirteenth OEcumenical Council (first of Lyons), § 96, 20. + Alexander of Hales died, § 103, 4. +1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral of Cologne laid, § 101, 11. + Sixth Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6. +1253. Robert Grosseteste dies, § 103, 1. +1254. Condemnation of the "_Introductorius in evangelium aeternum_," § 108, + 5. +1260. First Flagellant Campaign in Perugia, § 107, 1. +1260-1282. Michael Palaeologus, Emperor, § 67, 4. +1261-1264. Urban IV., Pope, § 96, 20. +1262. Arsenian Schism, § 70, 1. +1268. Conradin on the Scaffold. § 96, 20. +1269. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., § 96, 21. +1270. Seventh Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6. +1271-1276. Pope Gregory X., § 96, 21. +1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, § 93, 15. + David of Augsburg dies, § 103, 10. + Bertholdt of Regensburg dies, § 104, 1. +1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor, § 96, 21, 22. +1274. Fourteenth OEcumenical Council (second of Lyons), § 96, 21. + Thomas Aquinas dies, § 103, 6. + Bonaventura dies, § 103, 4. +1275. Strassburg Minster, § 104, 13. +1280. Albert the Great dies, § 103, 5. +1282. Sicilian Vespers, § 96, 22. +1283. Prussia subdued, § 93, 13. +1286. Barhabraeus dies, § 72, 2. +1291. Fall of Acre, § 94, 6. + John of Montecorvino among the Mongols, § 93, 16. +1294. Roger Bacon dies, § 103, 8. +1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, § 110, 1. +1296. Bull _Clericis laicos_, § 110, 1. +1300. First Roman Jubilee, § 117. + Lollards at Antwerp, § 116, 2. + Gerhard Segarelli burnt, § 108, 8. + +_Fourteenth Century._ + +1302. Bull _Unam Sanctam_, § 110, 1. +1305-1314. Pope Clement V., § 110, 2. +1307. Dolcino burnt, § 108, 4. +1308. Duns Scotus dies, § 113, 1. +1309-1377. Residence of Popes at Avignon, § 110, 2-4. +1311-1312. Fifteenth OEcumenical Council at Vienne, § 110, 2. + Suppression of Templar Order, § 112, 7. +1314-1347. Louis the Bavarian, Emperor, § 110, 3, 4. +1315. Raimund Lullus dies, § 93, 17; 103, 5. +1316-1334. Pope John XXII., § 110, 3; 112, 2. +1321. Dante dies, § 116, 6. +1322. Split in the Franciscan Order, § 112, 2. +1327. Meister Eckhart dies, § 114, 1. +1334-1342. Pope Benedict XII., § 110, 4. +1335. Bishop Hemming in Lapland, § 93, 11. +1338. Electoral Union at Rhense, § 110, 5. +1339. Union negotiations at Avignon. Barlaam, § 67, 5. +1340. Nicholas of Lyra dies, § 113, 7. +1341-1351. Hesychast Controversy in Constantinople, § 69, 1. +1342-1352. Pope Clement VI., § 110, 4. +1346-1378. Charles IV., Emperor, § 110, 4. +1347. Rienzi, § 110, 4. + Emperor Louis dies, § 110, 4. +1348. Founding of University of Prague, § 119, 3. +1348-1350. Black Death. Flagellant Campaign, § 116, 3. +1349. Thomas Bradwardine dies, § 113, 2. +1352-1362. Pope Innocent VI., § 110, 4. +1356. Charles IV. issues the Golden Bull, § 110, 4. +1360. Wiclif against the Begging Friars, § 119, 1. +1361. John Tauler dies, § 114, 2. +1362-1370. Pope Urban V., § 110, 4. +1366. Henry Suso dies, § 114, 5. +1367-1370. Urban V. in Rome, § 110, 4. +1369. John Palaeologus passes over to the Latin Church, § 67, 5. +1370-1378. Pope Gregory XI., § 110, 4. +1374. Dancers, § 116, 3. +1377. Return of the Curia to Rome, § 110, 4. +1378-1417. Papal Schism, § 110, 6. +1380. Catharine of Siena dies, § 112, 4. +1384. Wiclif dies, § 119, 1. + Gerhard Groot dies, § 112, 9. +1386. Introduction of Christianity into Lithuania, § 93, 14. +1400. Florentius Radewin dies, § 112, 9. + +_Fifteenth Century._ + +1402. Hus becomes Preacher in the Bethlehem Chapel, § 119, 3. +1409. OEcumenical Council at Pisa, § 110, 6.(134) + Withdrawal of the Germans from Prague, § 119, 3. +1410-1415. John XXIII., Pope, § 110, 7. +1410-1437. Sigismund, Emperor, § 110, 7, 8. +1412. Traffic in Indulgences in Bohemia, § 119, 4. +1413. Papal Ban against Hus, § 119, 4. +1414-1418. Sixteenth OEcumenical Council at Constance, § 110, 6; 119, 5. +1415. Hus obtains the crown of martyrdom, § 119, 5. +1416. Jerome of Prague martyred, § 119, 5. +1417-1431. Pope Martin V., § 110, 7. +1420. Calixtines and Taborites, § 119, 7. +1423. General Councils at Pavia and Siena, § 110, 7. +1424. Ziska dies, § 119, 7. +1425. Peter D'Ailly dies, § 118, 3. +1429. Gerson dies, § 118, 3. +1431-1447. Pope Eugenius IV., § 110, 7. +1431-1449. Seventeenth OEcumenical Council at Basel, § 110, 8; 119, 5-7. +1433. Basel Compacts, § 119, 7. +1434. Overthrow of Hussites at Boehmischbrod, § 119, 7. +1438. Papal Counter-Council at Ferrara, § 110, 8. + Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, § 110, 9. +1439. Council at Florence, § 67, 6. +1448. Concordat of Vienna, § 110, 9. +1453. Fall of Constantinople, § 67, 6. +1457. Laurentius Valla dies, § 120, 1. +1458-1464. Pope Pius II., § 110, 11. +1459. Congress of Princes at Mantua, § 110, 10. +1464-1471. Pope Paul II., § 110, 11. +1467. Convention of Bohemian Brethren at Lhota, § 119, 8. +1471. Thomas a Kempis dies, § 114, 5. +1471-1484. Sixtus IV., Pope, § 110, 11. +1483. Luther born on November 10th, § 122, 1. + Spanish Inquisition, § 117, 1. + Close of _Corpus juris canonici_, § 99, 5. +1484-1492. Innocent VIII., Pope, § 110, 11. +1484. Zwingli born January 1st, § 130, 1. + Bull _Summis desiderantes_, § 117, 4. +1485. Rudolph Agricola dies, § 120, 3. +1489. John Wessel dies, § 119, 10. +1492-1503. Alexander VI., Pope, § 110, 12. +1492. Fall of Granada, § 95, 2. +1493-1519. Maximilian I., Emperor, § 110, 13. +1497. Melanchthon born, § 122, 5. +1498. Savonarola sent to the stake, § 119, 11. + +_Sixteenth Century._ + +1502. Founding of University of Wittenberg, § 122, 1. +1508-1513. Pope Julius II., § 110, 13. +1506. Rebuilding of St. Peter's at Rome, § 115, 13. +1508. Luther becomes Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 1. +1509. Calvin born on July 10th, § 138, 2. +1509-1547. Henry VIII. of England, § 139, 4. +1511. Luther's journey to Rome, § 122, 1. Council at Pisa, § 110, 13. +1512. Luther made Doctor of the Holy Scriptures and Preacher, § 112, 1. +1512-1517. Fifth Lateran Council, § 110, 13, 14. +1513-1521. Pope Leo X., § 110, 14. +1514. Reuchlin's contest with the Dominicans, § 120, 4. +1516. _Epistolae Obscur. virorum_, § 120, 5. + Erasmus edits the New Testament, § 120, 6. + Zwingli preaches at Mariae Einsiedeln, § 130, 1. +1517. Luther's Theses, October 31st, § 122, 2. +1518. Luther at Heidelberg and before Cajetan at Augsburg, § 122, 3. + Melanchthon Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 5. +1519. Miltitz, § 122, 3. + Disputation at Leipzig, § 122, 4. + Zwingli in Zuerich, § 130, 1. + Olaf and Laurence Peterson in Sweden, § 139, 1. +1519-1556. Emperor Charles V., § 123, 5. +1520. Bull of Excommunication against Luther, § 123, 2. + Christian II. in Denmark, § 139, 2. +1521. Luther at Worms, § 123, 7. + Melanchthon's _Loci_, § 121, 1. + Beginning of Reformation in Riga, § 139, 3. +1521-1522. The Wartburg Exile, § 123, 8. +1522. The Prophets of Zwickau in Wittenberg, § 124, 1. + Reuchlin dies, § 120, 4. +1522-1523. Pope Hadrian VI., § 126, 1. +1523. Thomas Muenzer in Allstaedt, § 124, 4. + Luther's contest with Henry VIII., § 125, 3. + First Martyrs, Voes and Esch, § 128, 1. + Sickingen's defeat, § 124, 2. +1523-1534. Pope Clement VII., § 149, 1. +1524. Staupitz dies, § 112, 2. + Carlstadt in Orlamuende, § 124, 3. + Erasmus against Luther, § 125, 2. + Diet of Nuremberg, § 126, 2. + Regensburg League, § 126, 3. + Hans Tausen in Denmark, § 139, 2. + Founding of Theatine Order, § 149, 7. +1525. Eucharist Controversy, § 131, 1. + Luther's Marriage, § 129. + Albert of Prussia, Hereditary Duke, § 126, 4. + Founding of the Capuchin Order, § 149, 7. +1525-1532. John the Constant, Elector of Saxony, § 124, 5. +1526. Synod at Hamburg, § 127, 2. + Torgau League, § 126, 5. + Diet at Spires, § 126, 6. + Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6. +1527. Diet at Odense, § 139, 2; and at Westeraes, § 139, 1. +1528. The Pack incident, § 132, 1. Disputation at Bern, § 130, 7. +1529. Church Visitation of Saxony, § 127, 1. + Diet at Spires, § 132, 3. + Marburg Conference, § 132, 4. + First Peace of Cappel, § 130, 9. +1530. Diet at Augsburg. _Conf. Augustana_, June 25th, § 132, 6, 7. +1531. Schmalcald League, § 133, 1. + Zwingli dies. Second Peace of Cappel, § 130, 10. +1532-1547. John Frederick the Magnanimous, Elector of Saxony, § 133, 2. +1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg, § 133, 2. + Farel at Geneva, § 138, 1. + Henry VIII. renounces authority of the Pope, § 139, 4. +1534. Luther's complete Bible Translation, § 129, 1. + Reformation in Wuerttemberg, § 133, 3. +1534-1535. Anabaptist Troubles in Muenster, § 133, 6. +1534-1549. Pope Paul III., § 149, 2. +1535. Vergerius in Wittenberg, § 134, 1. + Calvin's _Institutio rel. Christ._, § 138, 5. +1536. Erasmus dies, § 120, 6. Wittenberg Concord, § 133, 8. + Calvin in Geneva, § 138, 2. Diet at Copenhagen, § 139, 2. + Menno Simons baptized, § 147, 1. +1537. Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1. + Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1. +1538. Nuremberg League, § 134, 2. + Calvin Expelled from Geneva, § 138, 3. +1539. Outbreak at Frankfort, § 134, 3. + Reformation in Albertine Saxony, § 134, 4. + Joachim II. reforms Brandenburg, § 134, 5. + Diet at Odense, § 139, 2. +1540. The Society of Jesus, § 149, 8. + Double Marriage of the Landgrave, § 135, 1. + Religious Conferences at Spires, Hagenau, and Worms, § 135, 2. +1541. Carlstadt dies, § 124, 3. + Interim of Regensburg, § 135, 3. + Naumburg Episcopate, § 135, 5. + Calvin returns to Geneva, § 138, 3, 4. +1542. Reformation in Brunswick, § 135, 6. + National Assembly at Bonn, § 135, 7. + Francis Xavier in the East Indies, § 150, 1. + Roman Inquisition, § 139, 23. +1544. Diet at Spires, Peace of Crespy, Wittenberg Reformation, § 135, 9. + Diet at Westeraes, § 139, 1. +1545. Synod at Erdoed, § 139, 20. +1545-1547. Nineteenth OEcumenical Council at Trent, § 136, 4; 149, 2. +1546. Regensburg Conference: Murder of John Diaz, § 135, 10. + Luther dies, February 18th, § 135, 11. + Reformation in the Palatinate, § 135, 6. +1546-1547. Schmalcald War, § 136. +1547-1553. Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5. +1547. Hermann of Cologne resigns, § 136, 2. +1548-1572. Sigismund Augustus, of Poland, § 139, 18. +1548. Interim of Augsburg, § 136, 5. + Adiaphorist Controversy, § 141, 5. + Priests of the Oratory, § 149, 7. +1549. _Consensus Tigurinus_, § 138, 7. + Andrew Osiander at Koenigsburg, § 141, 2. + Jesuit Mission in Brazil, § 150, 3. + The first Jesuits in Germany (Ingolstadt), § 151, 2. +1550-1555. Pope Julius III., § 136, 8. +1550. Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7. +1551. Resumption of Tridentine Council, § 136, 8; 149, 2. +1552. Compact of Passau, § 137, 3. + Outbreak of Crypto-Calvinist Controversy, § 141, 9. + Francis Xavier dies, § 150, 1. +1553-1558. Mary the Catholic of England, § 139, 5. +1553. Elector Maurice dies, § 137, 4. + Servetus burnt, § 148, 2. +1554. _Consensus Pastorum Genevensium_, § 138, 7. + John Frederick the Magnanimous dies, § 137, 3. +1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg, § 137, 5. + Outbreak of Synergist Controversies, § 141, 7. +1555-1598. Philip II. of Spain, § 139, 21. +1556-1564. Ferdinand I, Emperor, § 137, 8. +1556. Loyola dies, § 149, 8. +1557. National Assembly at Clausenburg and _Confessio Hungarica_, § 139, + 20. +1558. Frankfort Recess, § 141, 11. +1558-1603. Elizabeth of England, § 139, 6. +1559. Gustavus Vasa's Mission to the Lapps, § 142, 7. + _Confessio Gallicana_, § 139, 14. + The English Act of Uniformity, § 139, 6. +1560-1565. Pope Pius IV., § 149, 2. +1560. _Confessio Scotica_, § 139, 9. + John a Lasco dies, § 139, 18. + Calvinizing of the Palatinate, § 144, 1. + Melanchthon dies, § 141, 10. +1561. Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland, § 139, 3. + Religious Conference at Poissy, § 139, 14. + Mary Stuart in Scotland, § 139, 10. + Princes' Diet at Naumburg, § 141, 11. +1562-1563. Resumption and Close of Tridentine Council, § 149, 2. +1562. _Confessio Belgica_, § 139, 12. + The XXXIX. Articles of the English Church, § 139, 6. + Calvinizing of Bremen, § 144, 2. + Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1. + Laelius Socinus dies, § 148, 4. +1564. Calvin dies, § 138, 4. + _Professio fidei Tridentinae_, § 149, 14. + Cassander's Union Proposals, § 137, 8. + Maulbronn Convention, § 144, 1. +1564-1576. Emperor Maximilian II., § 137, 8. +1566. _Catechasimo Romanus_, § 149, 10. + _Confessio Helvetica posterior_, § 138, 7. + The League of "the Beggars," § 139, 12. +1567. The writings of Michael Baius condemned, § 149, 13. +1570. General Synod at Sendomir, § 139, 13. + Peace of St. Germains, § 139, 15. +1572-1585. Pope Gregory XIII., § 149, 3. +1572. John Knox dies, § 139, 11. + Bloody Marriage of Paris, August 24th, § 139, 16. +1573. _Pax dissidentium_ in Poland, § 139, 18. +1574. Maulbronn Convention, § 141, 12. + Restoration of Catholicism in Eichsfelde, § 151, 1. +1575. _Confessio Bohemica_, § 139, 19. +1576. Book of Torgau, § 141, 12. + Pacification of Ghent, § 139, 12. +1576-1612. Rudolph II., Emperor, § 137, 8. +1577. The Formula of Concord, § 141, 12. + Restoration of Catholicism in Fulda, § 151, 1. +1578. The Jesuit Possevin in Sweden, § 151, 3. +1579. The Union of Utrecht, § 139, 12. +1580. Book of Concord, § 141, 12. +1582. Second Attempt at Reformation in Cologne, § 137, 6. + Matthew Ricci in China, § 150, 1. + Reform of Calendar, § 149, 3. +1585-1590. Pope Sixtus V., § 149, 3. +1587. Mary Stuart on the Scaffold, § 139, 10. +1588. Louis Molina, § 149, 13. +1589-1610. Henry IV. of France, § 139, 17. +1589. Patriarchate at Moscow, § 73, 4. +1592. Saxon Articles of Visitation, § 141, 13. +1593. Assembly of Representatives at Upsala, § 139, 1. +1595. Synod at Thorn, § 139, 18. +1596. Synod at Brest, § 151, 3. +1597. Calvinizing the Principality of Anhalt, § 144, 3. + _Congregatio de auxiliis_, § 149, 13. +1598. Edict of Nantes, § 139, 17. +1600. Giordano Bruno at the Stake, § 146, 3. + +_Seventeenth Century._ + +1604. Faustus Socinus dies, § 148, 4. +1605. Landgrave Maurice calvinizes Hesse Cassel, § 154, 1. + Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6. +1606. The Treaty of Vienna, § 139, 10. + Interdict on the Republic of Venice, § 156, 2. +1608. Founding the Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 156, 10. +1609. The Royal Letter, § 193, 19. +1610-1643. Louis XIII. of France, § 153, 3. +1610. Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants, § 160, 2. +1611. Peres de l'Oratoire, § 156, 7. +1612-1619. Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 1. +1613. Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg goes over to Reformed Church, + § 154, 3. + George Calixtus in Helmstaedt, § 159, 2. +1614. _Confessio Marchica_, § 154, 3. +1616. Leonard Hutter dies, § 159, 4. +1618. Monks of St. Maur in France, § 156, 7. +1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War, § 153, 2. +1618-1619. Synod of Dort, § 161, 2. +1619-1637. Ferdinand II., Emperor, § 153, 2. +1620. The Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. + The Pilgrim Fathers, § 143, 2. +1621. John Arndt dies, § 160, 1. +1622. Francis de Sales dies, § 157, 1. + _Congregatio de propaganda fide_, § 156, 9. +1624. End of Controversy over {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, § 159, 1. + Jac. Boehme dies, § 160, 2. +1628. Adam Schall in China, § 156, 12. +1629. Edict of Restitution, § 153, 2. +1631. Religious Conference at Leipzig, § 155, 4. +1632. Gustavus Adolphus falls at Luetzen, § 153, 2. +1637. John Gerhard dies, § 159, 4. + Rooting out of Christianity in Japan, § 156, 11. +1638. Overthrow of Racovian Seminary, § 148, 4. + Cyril Lucar strangled, § 152, 2. + Scottish Covenant, § 155, 1. +1641. Irish Massacre, § 153, 5. +1642. Condemnation of the "Augustinus" of Jansen, § 157, 5. +1643-1715. Louis XIV. of France, § 153, 2; 157, 2, 3, 5. +1643. Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas, § 152, 3. + Opening of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. +1645. Hugo Grotius dies, § 153, 7. + Religious Conference at Thorn, § 153, 7. + Peace of Linz, § 153, 3. +1645-1742. Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12. +1647. George Fox appears as Leader of the Quakers, § 163, 4. +1648. Peace of Westphalia, § 153, 2. + Close of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. +1649. Execution of Charles I. of England, § 155, 1. +1650. Descartes dies, § 164, 1. +1652. Liturgical Reform of the Patriarch Nikon, § 163, 10. +1653. Innocent X. condemns the Five Propositions of Jansen, § 157, 5. + Barebones' Parliament, § 155, 2. +1654. Christina of Sweden becomes a Catholic, § 153, 1. + John Val. Andreae dies, § 160, 1. +1655. The Bloody Easter in Piedmont, § 153, 5. + _Consensus repetitus fidei vere Lutheranae_, § 159, 2. +1656. George Calixtus dies, § 159, 2. + Pascal's _Lettres Provinciales_, § 157, 5. +1658. Outbreak of Cocceian Controversies, § 161, 5. +1660. Vincent de Paul dies, § 156, 8. + Restoration of Royalty and Episcopacy in England, § 155, 3. +1661. Religious Conference at Cassel, § 154, 4. +1664. Founding of Order of Trappists, § 156, 8. +1669. Cocceius dies, § 161, 3. +1670. The Labadists in Herford, § 163, 7. +1673. The Test Act, § 153, 6. +1675. _Formula consensus Helvetici_, § 161, 2. + Spener's _Pia Desideria_, § 159, 3. +1676. Paul Gerhardt dies, § 154, 4. + Voetius dies, § 161, 3. +1677. Spinoza dies, § 164, 1. +1682. _Quatuor propositiones Cleri Gallicani_, § 156, 1. + Founding of Pennsylvania, § 163, 4. +1685. Revocation of Edict of Nantes and Expulsion of Waldensians from + Piedmont, § 153, 4, 5. +1686. Spener at Dresden and _Collegia philobiblica_ in Leipzig, § 159, 3. + Abraham Calov dies, § 159, 4. +1687. Michael Molinos forced to Abjure, § 157, 2. +1689. English Act of Toleration, § 155, 3. + Return of banished Waldensians, § 153, 5. +1690. The Pietists Expelled from Leipzig, § 159, 3. +1691. Spener in Berlin, § 159, 3. +1694. Founding of University of Halle, § 159, 3. +1697. Frederick Augustus the Strong of Saxony becomes Catholic, § 153, 1. +1699. Propositions of Fenelon Condemned, § 157, 3. + +_Eighteenth Century._ + +1701. Thomas of Tournon in the East Indies, § 156, 12. +1702. Loescher's "_Unschuldige Nachrichten_," § 167, 1. + Buttlar Fanatical Excesses, § 170, 4. +1703. _Collegium caritativum_ at Berlin, § 169, 1. + Peter Codde deposed, § 165, 8. +1704. Bossuet dies, § 153, 7; 157, 3. +1705. Spener dies, § 159, 3. +1706. Founding of Lutheran Mission at Tranquebar, § 167, 9. +1707. The Praying Children at Silesia, § 167, 8. +1709. Port Royal suppressed, § 157, 5. +1712. Richard Simon dies, § 158, 1. + Mechitarist Congregation, § 165, 2. +1713. The Constitution _Unigenitus_, § 165, 7. +1717-1774. Louis XV. of France, § 165, 5. +1715. Fenelon dies, § 157, 3. +1716. Leibnitz dies, § 164, 2. +1717. French Appellants, § 165, 7. + Madame Guyon dies, § 157, 3. + Gottfried Arnold dies, § 160, 2. + Inspired Communities in the Cevennes, § 170, 2. +1721. Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, § 166. + Hans Egede goes as Missionary to Greenland, § 167, 9. +1722. Founding of Herrnhut, § 168, 2. +1727. A. H. Francke dies, § 167, 8. + Thomas of Westen dies, § 160, 7. + Founding of the Society of United Brethren, § 168, 2. +1728. Callenberg's Institute for Conversion of Jews, § 167, 9. +1729. Buddeus dies, § 168, 2. + Methodist Society formed, § 169, 4. +1731. Emigration of Evangelicals of Salzburg, § 165, 4. +1740-1786. Frederick II. of Prussia, § 171, 4. +1741. Moravian Special Covenant with the Lord Jesus, § 168, 4. +1750. Sebastian Bach dies, § 167, 7. + End of Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 165, 3. +1751. Semler, Professor in Halle, § 171, 6. +1752. Bengel dies, § 167, 4. +1754. Christ. v. Wolff dies, § 167, 3. + Winckelmann becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6. +1755. Mosheim dies, § 167, 3. +1758-1769. Pope Clement XIII., § 165, 9. +1759. Banishment of Jesuits from Portugal, § 165, 9. +1760. Zinzendorf dies, § 168, 3. +1762. Judicial Murder of Jean Calas, § 165, 5. +1765. Universal German Library, § 171, 4. +1769-1774. Pope Clement XIV., § 165, 9. +1772. Swedenborg dies, § 170, 5. +1773. Suppression of Jesuit Order, § 165, 9. +1774. Wolfenbuettel Fragments, § 171, 6. +1775-1799. Pius VI., Pope, § 165, 9, 10. +1775. C. A. Crusius dies, § 167, 3. +1776. Founding of the Order of the Illuminati, § 165, 13. +1778. Voltaire and Rousseau die, § 165, 14. +1780-1790. Joseph II., sole ruler, § 165, 10. +1781. Joseph's Edict of Toleration, § 165, 10. +1782. Pope Pius VI. in Vienna, § 165, 10. +1786. Congress at Ems and Synod at Pistoja, § 165, 10. +1787. Edict of Versailles, § 165, 4. +1788. The Religious Edict of Woellner, § 171, 5. +1789. French Revolution, § 165, 15. +1791. Wesley dies, § 169, 5. + Semler dies, § 171, 6. +1793. Execution of Louis XVI. and his Queen. Abolition of Christian + reckoning of time and of the Christian religion in France. + _Temple de la Raison_, § 165, 15. +1794. _Le peuple francais reconnait l'Etre supreme et l'immortalite de + l'ame_, § 165, 15. +1795. Founding of London Missionary Society, § 172, 5. +1799. Schleiermacher's "_Reden ueber die Religion_," § 182, 1. +1800. Stolberg becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6. + +_Nineteenth Century_ + +1800-1823. Pope Pius VII., § 185, 1. +1801. French Concordat, § 203, 1. +1803. Recess of Imperial Deputies, § 192, 1. +1804. Founding of British and Foreign Bible Society, § 183, 4. + Kant dies, § 171, 10. +1806. End of Catholic German Empire, § 192. +1809. Napoleon under Ban; the Pope Imprisoned, § 185, 1. +1810. Founding of American Missionary Society at Boston, § 184, 1. + Schleiermacher professor at Berlin, § 182, 1. +1811. French National Council, § 185, 1. +1814. Vienna Congress. Restoration of the Pope, § 185, 1. + Restoration of the Jesuits, § 186, 1. +1815. The Holy Alliance, § 173. +1816. Mission Seminary at Basel, § 184, 1. +1817. The Theses of Harms, § 176, 1. + Union Interpellation of Frederick William III., § 177, 1. +1822. Introduction of the Prussian Service Book, § 176, 1. + Lyons Association for Spreading the Faith, § 186, 7. +1823-1829. Pope Leo XII., § 185, 1. +1825. Book of Mormon, § 211, 12. +1827. Hengstenberg's _Evangel. Kirchenzeitung_, § 176, 1. +1829. English Catholic Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9. + Founding of Barmen Missionary Institute, § 184, 1. +1829-1830. Pope Pius VIII., § 185, 1. +1830. July Revolution, § 203, 2. + Halle Controversy, § 176, 1. + Abbe Chatel in Paris, § 187, 6. +1831-1846. Gregory XVI., Pope, § 185, 1. +1831. Hegel dies, § 174, 1. +1833. Beginning of Puseyite Agitation, § 203, 2. +1834. Conflict at Hoenigern, § 177, 2. + Schleiermacher dies, § 182, 1. +1835. Strauss' first Life of Jesus, § 182, 6. + Condemnation of Hermesianism, § 193, 1. + Edward Irving dies, § 211, 10. + Persecution of Christians in Madagascar, § 184, 3. +1836. Founding of Dresden Missionary Institute, § 184, 1. +1837. Emigrants of Zillerthal, § 198, 1. + Beginning of Troubles at Cologne, § 193, 1. +1838. Archbishop Dunin of Posen, § 193, 1. + Rescript of Altenburg, § 194, 2. + J. A. Moehler dies, § 191, 4. + English Tithes' Bill, § 202, 9. +1839. Call of Dr. Strauss to Zuerich, § 199, 4. + Bavarian order to give Adoration, § 195, 2. + Synod at Polozk, § 206, 2. +1810-1861. Frederick William IV. of Prussia, § 193. +1841. Schelling at Berlin, § 174, 1. + Constitution of Lutherans separated from National Church of Prussia, § + 177, 2. + Founding of Evangelical Bishopric of Jerusalem, § 184, 8. + Founding of Gustavus Adolphus Association, § 178, 1. +1843. Disruption and Founding of the Free Church of Scotland, § 202, 7. +1844. German-Catholic Church, § 187, 1. + Wislicenus' "Ob Schrift, ob Geist?" § 176, 1. +1845. Founding Free Church of Vaud, § 199, 2. +1845-1846. Conversions in Livonia, § 206, 3. +1846-1878. Pope Pius IX., § 185, 2-4. +1846. Founding of Evangelical Alliance in London, § 178, 3. + Fruitless Prussian General Synod in Berlin, § 193, 3. +1847. Prussian Patent of Toleration, § 193, 3. + War of Swiss Sonderbund, § 199, 1. +1848. Revolution of February and March, § 192, 4. + Founding of _Evangel. Kirchentag_, § 178, 4. + Founding of Catholic "Pius Association," § 186, 3. + Bishops' Congress of Wuerzburg, § 192, 4. +1849. Roman Republic, § 185, 2. + First Congress for Home Missions, § 183. +1850. Institution of Berlin "Oberkirchenrat," § 193, 4. + Return of Pope to Rome, § 185, 2. + English Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11. +1851. Memorial of Upper Rhine Bishops, § 196, 1. + Taeping Rebellion in China, § 211, 15. +1852. Conference at Eisenach, § 178, 2. +1852-1870. Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, § 203, 3, 5. +1853. The _Kirchentag_ at Berlin acknowledges the _Augustana_, § 178, 4. + Missionary Institute at Hermannsburg, § 185, 1. + New Organization of the Catholic Hierarchy in Holland, § 200, 4. +1855. Sardinian Law about Monasteries, § 204, 1. + Austrian Concordat, § 198, 2. +1857. The Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, § 178, 3. +1858. Disturbances in Baden about Service Book, § 196, 3. + The Mother of God at Lourdes, § 188, 7. +1859. Franco-Austrian War in Italy, 204, 2. +1860. Persecution of Syrian Christians, § 207, 2. + Abrogation of Baden Concordat, § 196, 2. +1861. The Austrian Patent, § 198, 3. + Introduction of a Constitutional Church Order into Baden, § 196, 3. + Radama II. in Madagascar, § 184, 3. + Schism among Separatist Lutherans in Prussia, § 177, 3. +1862. Hanoverian Catechism Scandal, § 194, 3. + Renan's Life of Jesus, 182, 8. + Wuerttemberg Ecclesiastical Law, § 196, 6. +1863. Congress of Catholic Scholars at Munich, § 190, 10. +1864. Encyclical and Syllabus, § 185, 2. + Strauss' and Schenkel's Life of Jesus, § 182, 8, 17. +1865. The first _Protestantentag_ at Eisenach, § 180. 1. +1866. Founding of the North German League. +1867. St. Peter's Centenary Festival at Rome, § 185, 2. +1869. Irish Church Bill, § 202, 10. + Opening of Vatican Council, § 189, 2. +1870. Proclamation of Doctrine of Infallibility, July 18th, § 189, 3. + Revocation of the Austrian Concordat. § 198, 2. + Overthrow of the Church States, § 185, 3. +1871. Founding of the new German Empire, January 18th, § 197. + The first Old Catholic Congress at Munich, § 190, 1. + "The Kanzelparagraph," § 197, 4. + First Lutheran National Synod in the kingdom of Saxony, § 194, 1. +1872. Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Worship, § 193, 5. + The Prussian School Inspection Law, § 199, 3. + The Roman Disputation, § 175, 3. + The German Jesuit Law, § 197, 4. + Epidemic of Manifestations of the Mother of God in Alsace-Lorraine, § + 188, 6. +1873. The four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 197, 5. + Mermillod and Lachat Deposed from office, § 199, 2, 3. + Constitution of Old Catholic Church in German Empire, § 190, 1. +1874. The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 198, 6. + Union Conference at Bonn, § 175, 6. +1875. The Encyclical _Quod numquam_ and the Embargo Act, § 197, 8. + Berlin Extraordinary General Synod, § 193, 5. + Pearsall Smith, § 211, 1. +1876. Marpinger Mother-of-God trick, § 188, 7. + The Dutch University Law, § 202, 2. +1878. Leo XIII. ascends the Papal chair, § 185, 5. + Organization of a Catholic Hierarchy in Scotland, § 202, 11. + Congress of Berlin, § 207, 5. + Amnesty to the recalcitrant Clergy of the Jura, § 199, 3. + First appearance of the Salvation Army, § 205, 2. +1879. The Belgian Liberal Education Act, § 200, 6. +1880. Abolition of the "_Kulturexamen_" in Baden, § 197, 14. + French Decree of March, § 203, 6. +1881. Robertson Smith's Heresy Case, § 202, 8. +1882. The Confessional Lutheran Conflict with the Ritschlian School, § + 182, 21. +1883. The Luther Jubilee, § 175, 10. +1884. The Belgian Clerical Education Act, § 200, 6. + Conclusion of the "Kulturkampf" in Switzerland, § 199, 2, 3. +1887. Prussian and Hessian Governments conclude Peace with Papal Curia, § + 197, 13, 15. + Founding of Evangelical _Bund_, § 178, 5. + + + + + +INDEX. + + +Aachen, Council of, § 91, 1, 2. + +Aargau, § 199, 1. + +Abaelard, § 102, 1, 2; 104, 10. + +Abbacomites, § 85, 5. + +Abbadie, § 161, 7. + +Abbate, Abbe, § 111, 2. + +Abbo of Fleury, § 100, 2. + +Abbot, § 44, 3. + +Abbuna, § 52, 7. + +Abdas of Susa, § 64, 2. + +Abdelmoumen, § 95, 2. + +Abderrhamann, § 81; 95, 2. + +Abdias, § 32, 5. + +Abel, von, § 195, 2. + +Abelites, § 44, 7. + +Abgar Bar Maanu, § 21. + " of Edessa, § 13, 2. + +About, E., § 185, 3. + +Abraham a St. Clara, § 158, 2. + +Abrahamites, § 165, 16. + +Abrasax, § 27, 3. + +Abrenunciatio diaboli, § 35; 58, 1. + +Absolution, Formula of, § 89, 5. + +Abstinence, Days of, § 56, 2. + +Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. + +Abyssinian Church, § 64, 1; 72, 2; 150, 4; 152, 1; 160, 7; 166, 3; 187, + 19. + +Acacius of Amida, § 64, 2. + " of Constantinople, § 52, 5. + +Acceptants, § 165, 7. + +Accommodation Controversy, § 155, 12. + +d'Achery, § 158, 2. + +Achterfeld, § 191, 1. + +Acindynos, § 69, 2. + +Acoimetae, § 44, 3; 52, 5, 6. + +Acolytes, § 34, 3. + +Acominatus, § 68, 5. + +Acosta, Uriel, § 155, 14. + +_Acta facientes_, § 22, 5. + +Acta Pilati, § 22, 7; 32, 4. + +Acta Sanctorum, § 158, 2. + +Acton, Lord, § 189, 2. + +Acts of Apostles, Apocryphal, § 32, 5, 6. + +Acts of Martyrs, § 32, 8. + +Adalbert of Bremen, § 96, 6; 97, 2. + " the Heretic, § 78, 6. + " of Prague, § 93, 13. + " of Tuscany, § 96, 1. + +Adam, Book of, § 32, 3. + +Adam, St. Victor, § 104, 10. + +Adamantius (Origen), § 31, 5. + +Adamites, § 27, 8. + " Bohemian, § 116, 5; 210, 2. + +Adamnan, § 77, 8. + +Addai, § 32, 6. + +Adeodatus, § 47, 18. + +Adiaphorist Controversy, § 141, 5. + +Adoptionists, § 91, 1; 102, 6. + +Adrianus, § 48, 1. + +Adrumetum, § 53, 5. + +Advent, § 56, 5. + +Adventists, § 211, 11. + +Advocatus diaboli, § 104, 8. + " ecclesiae, § 86. + +Aedesius, § 64, 1. + +Aelfric, § 100, 1. + +Aeneas of Gaza, § 47, 7. + + " of Sylvius, _see_ Pius II. + +Aeons, § 26, 2. + +Aepinus, § 141, 3. + +Aerius, § 62, 2. + +_Aeternus ille_, § 149, 4. + +Aetius, § 50, 3. + +Africa, § 76, 3. + +Africanus, § 31, 8. + +Agape, § 17, 7; 36, 1. + +Agapetae, § 39, 3. + +Agapetus, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + +Agathangelos, § 64, 3. + +Agatho, § 46, 11; 52, 8. + +Agenda Controversy in Prussia, § 177, 1. + +Agenum, Synod of, § 50, 3. + +Agilulf, § 76, 8. + +Agnostics, § 174, 2. + +Agobard, § 90, 4, 9; 91, 1; 92, 2. + +Agreda, § 156, 5. + +Agricola, John, § 141, 1. + " Rudolph, § 120, 3. + +Agrippa of Nettesheim, § 146, 2. + +Aguas, § 209, 1. + +Aguilar, § 209, 1. + +Aguirre, § 158, 2. + +Ahle, Rud., § 160, 5. + +Aidan, § 77, 5. + +d'Ailly, § 110, 7; 118, 4; 119, 5. + +Aistulf, § 82, 1. + +Aizanas, § 64, 1. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 52, 5. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, § 39, 2. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 35, 1. + +Alacoque, § 156, 6. + +Alanus ab Insulis, § 102, 5. + +Alaric, § 76, 2. + +Alaviv, § 76, 1. + +Alba, § 59, 7. + +Alba, Duke of, § 136, 3; 139, 12. + +_Albati_, § 116, 3. + +Alberich, § 96, 1. + +Albert the Great, § 103, 5. + " of Apeldern, § 93, 12. + " the Bear, § 93, 9. + " of Buxhoewden, § 93, 12. + " of Franconia-Brandenburg, § 137, 2, 4. + +Albert of Mainz, § 122, 2; 123, 8; 134, 5. + +Albert of Prussia, § 126, 4; 127, 3; 141, 2. + +Albert of Suerbeer, § 73, 6; 92, 12. + +Alberti, § 160, 3. + +Albigensians, § 109, 1. + +Albinus, § 160, 4. + +Alboin, § 76, 8. + +Albrechtsleute, § 208, 4; 211, 1. + +Alcantara, Peter of, § 149, 16. + +Alcantarmes, § 98, 8; 149, 6. + +Alcibiades, § 40, 1. + +Alcuin, § 90, 3; 91, 1, 2; 92, 1. + +Aldgild, § 78, 3. + +Aleander, § 123, 6, 7. + +d'Aleman, Cardinal, § 110, 8; 118, 4. + +Alemanni, § 78, 1. + +d'Alembert, § 165, 14. + +Alexander II., § 96, 6. + " III., § 96, 15, 16. + " IV., § 96, 20. + " V., § 110, 6; 119, 4. + " VI., § 110, 12. + " VII., § 156, 1, 2, 4, 5; 157, 5. + +Alexander VIII., § 156, 1, 3. + +Alexander I., Czars I., II., III., § 203, 1; 207, 3. + +Alexander of Alexandria, § 50, 1. + " " Antioch, § 50, 8. + " " Hales, § 103, 4. + " " Newsky, § 73, 6. + " " Parma, § 139, 12. + +Alexander Severus, § 22, 3. + +Alexandrian School, § 31, 4; 47, 2, 3. + +Alexis, § 73, 5. + +Alexius Comnenus, § 71, 1, 4. + +Alfarabi, § 103, 1. + +Alfred the Great, § 90, 10. + +Algazel, § 103, 1, 2. + +Alger of Liege, § 102, 7. + +Alkindi, § 103, 1. + +Allatius, Leo, § 158, 2. + +Allegri, § 158, 3. + +Allen, W., § 139, 6. + +Allendorf, § 167, 6. + +Alliance, The Holy, § 173. + " The Evangelical, § 178, 2. + +All Saints' Day, § 57, 1; 88, 5. + +All Souls' Day, § 104, 7. + +Almansor, § 95, 2. + +Almohaden, § 95, 2. + +Almoravides, § 95, 2. + +Alms, Dispensers of, § 17, 2. + +Alogians, § 33, 2. + +Alpers, § 208, 10. + +Alphonso the Catholic, § 81, 1. + " the Chaste, § 81, 1. + " of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, § 95, 2. + +Alphonso XII., § 205, 3. + +Alsace-Lorraine, § 196, 7. + +Altar, § 38; 60, 5; 88, 5. + +Altenburg, § 194, 2. + +Alting, § 160, 7. + +Alumbrados, § 149, 16. + +Alvarus, § 81, 1; 90, 6. + " Pelagius, § 118, 2. + +Alzog, § 5, 6. + +Amadeus of Savoy, § 110, 8. + +Amalarius, § 90, 4; 91, 5. + +Amalrich of Bena, § 108, 4. + +Amandus, § 78, 3. + +Ambo, § 60, 5. + +Ambrose, § 47, 15; 50, 4; 57, 2, 3; 59, 5. + +Ambrosian Chant, § 59, 5. + +Ambrosiaster, § 47, 15. + +Amen Sect, § 211, 8. + +America, § 150, 3; 208; 209. + +Amesius, § 161, 7; 162, 4. + +Amling, § 144, 3. + +Ammon, § 182, 2. + +Ammonius, § 44, 3. + " Saccas, § 24, 2. + +Amort, § 164, 15. + +Amsdorf, § 127, 4; 135, 5; 141, 4, 6, 7. + +Amulets, § 188, 13. + +Amyrald, § 161, 3, 7. + +Anabaptists, § 124, 1; 130, 5; 133, 6; 147; 148, 1; 163, 1, 2. + +Anacletus I., § 17, 1. + " II., § 96, 13. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 35, 3. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 34, 3. + +Anastasius Biblioth., § 90, 6. + " I., § 46, 4; 51, 2. + " II., § 46, 8. + " IV., § 96, 10. + " Sinaita, § 47, 12; 60, 6. + +Anathema, § 52, 3. + +Anatolius, § 46, 7. + +Anchorets, § 44. + +Ancyra, Council of, § 50, 3. + +Anderledy, § 182, 1. + +Anderson, § 139, 1. + +Andreae, Jac., § 141, 12. + " Val., § 160, 1. + +Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4. + " of Crain, § 110, 11. + " " Crete, § 70, 2. + +Andronicus Palaeologus, § 67, 5. + +Angela of Brescia, § 149, 7. + +Angelicals, § 149, 7. + +Angels, Worship of, § 57, 3. + +Angelo, Michael, § 115, 13; 149, 15. + +Angelus Silesius, § 157, 4; 160, 3. + +Angilram, § 87, 1. + +Anglican Church, § 139, 6; 155; 202. + +Anglo-Saxon Church, § 77, 4, 5, 6. + +Anhalt, Reformation in, § 133, 4; 144, 3. + +Anicetus, § 37, 2. + +Anjou, § 96, 21, 22. + +Ann, Veneration of St., § 57, 2; 115, 1. + +Anna of Russia, § 73, 4. + " " Prussia, § 154, 3. + +Annats, § 110, 15. + +Anno of Cologne, § 96, 6; 97, 2. + +Annunciation, Order of the, § 112, 8. + +Anomaeans, § 50, 3. + +Ansbert of Milan, § 83, 3. + +Ansegis, § 87, 1. + +Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4; 96, 12; 101, 1, 3. + +Anselm of Havelberg, § 67, 4. + " Laon, § 101, 1. + " Lucca, § 96, 6. + +Ansgar, § 80, 1. + +Anthimus of Constantinople, § 52, 6. + +Anthimus, Exarch, § 207, 3. + +Anthony, St., § 44, 1. + " of Padua, § 98, 4. + " Order of St., § 98, 2. + +Anthusa, § 47, 1. + +Antidicomarianites, § 62, 2. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, § 58, 4. + +Antilegomena, § 36, 8. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, § 60, 5. + +Antinomianism, § 27, 8. + +Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1. + +Antioch, Council of, § 50, 2. + +Antiochean School, § 31, 1; 47, 1; 52, 2. + +Antiphonal Music, § 59, 5. + +_Antiphonarium_, § 59, 5. + +Antitrinitarians, § 148. + +Anton of Bourbon, § 139, 14. + +Anton Paul, § 159, 3. + +Antonelli, § 185, 2, 4; 189, 1; 196, 7; 197. + +Antonians, § 207, 2. + +Antoninus Pius, § 22, 3. + " of Florence, § 113, 7. + +Apelles, § 27, 12. + +Aphraates, § 47, 13. + +Apiarius, § 46, 5, 6. + +Apocrisarians, § 46, 1. + +Apocrypha, Non-Canonical, § 32. + " Deutero-Canonical, § 59, 1; 136, 4. + +Apocryphal Controversy, § 161, 8; 183, 4. + +Apollinaris, § 47, 5; 52, 1. + " Claudius, § 30, 8. + +Apollonius of Tyana, § 24, 1. + +Apollos, § 18, 3. + +Apologists, Early Christian, § 30, 8. + +Apology of Augsburg Confession, § 132, 7. + +Apostles of the Lord, §§ 14-16. + +Apostles, New Testament Office of, § 17, 5; 37, 1. + +Apostles, Teaching of XII., § 30, 7. + +Apostles, Doctrine of the, § 18, 2. + +Apostles' Creed, § 35, 2; 59, 2. + +Apostolic Age, Beginning and Close of, § 14. + +Apostolic Church, Constitution of, § 17. + +Apostolic Epistles, § 32, 7. + " Fathers, § 30, 3-6. + " Constitutions and Canons, § 43, 4. + +Apostolics, § 62, 1. + +Appellants, § 165, 7. + +_Appellatio ab abusu_, § 185, 4; 192, 4; 197, 9. + +Appenfeller, § 170, 4. + +Apse, § 60, 1. + +Aquarii, § 27, 10. + +Aquaviva, § 149, 8, 10, 12; 156, 13. + +Arabia, § 21. + +Arbues, § 117, 2. + +Arcadius, Emperor, § 42, 4; 51, 3. + +Archbishop, § 46, 1. + +Archchaplain, § 84, 1. + +Archdeacon, § 45, 3; 84, 2; 97, 3. + +Archelaus of Cascar, § 29, 1. + +Archimandrite, § 44, 3. + +Architecture, § 60, 1; 88, 6; 104, 12; 115, 13; 149, 15; 158, 3; 174, 9. + +Archpresbyter, § 45, 3. + +Areopagite, Dionysius the, § 47, 11. + +Arialdus, § 97, 5. + +Arians, § 50; 76. + +Aribert, § 76, 8. + +Aristides, § 30, 8. + +Aristobulus, § 10, 1. + +Ariston of Pella, § 30, 8. + +Aristotle, § 7, 4; 68, 2; 103, 1. + +Arius, § 50, 1, 2. + +Arles, Synod at, § 50, 2. + +Armenian Church, § 64, 3; 72, 2; 82, 8; 207, 4. + +Arminians, § 161, 2. + +Arnaud, § 153, 4. + +Arnauld, § 157, 5. + +Arndt, E.M., § 174, 6; 181, 1. + " John, § 160, 1. + +Arno of Salzburg, § 79, 1. + " " Reichersberg, § 102, 6, 7. + +Arnobius, § 31, 12, + " the Younger, § 53, 5. + +Arnold of Brescia, § 96, 13. + " " Citeaux, § 109, 1. + " the Dominican, § 108, 6. + " Gottfried, § 5, 3; 159, 4; 160, 2, 4. + +Arnoldi, Bishop, § 187, 6. + +Arnoldists, § 108, 7. + +Arnulf of Carinthia, § 82, 8. + " " Rheims, § 96, 2. + +Arran, Earl of, § 139, 8. + +Ars Magna, § 103, 7. + " Moriendi, § 115, 5. + +Arsacius, § 51. + +Arsenius, § 70, 1. + +Art, Early Christian and Mediaeval, § 38, 3; 60. + +Artemon, § 33, 3. + +Articles of English Church, The XXXIX., § 139, 6. + +Articles, Organic, § 203, 1. + +Artotyrites, § 40, 4. + +Ascension, Festival of, § 56, 4. + " of Mary, § 32, 4; 57, 2. + +Asceticism, § 39, 3; 44, 6; 70, 3; 107. + +Aschaffenberg Concord, § 110, 8. + +Ash Wednesday, § 56, 4. + +Asia Minor, Theological School of, § 31, 1. + +Asinarii, § 23, 4. + +Asseburg, § 170, 1. + +Assemani, § 165, 12. + +Assenath, § 32, 3. + +Asses, Feast of, § 105, 2. + +Asterius, § 50, 6. + " of Amasa, § 57, 4. + +Astruc, § 165, 11. + +Asylum, Right of, § 43, 1. + +Athanaric, § 76. + +Athanasian Creed, § 59, 2. + +Athanasius, § 44; 47, 3; 50; 52, 2. + +Athenagoras, § 30, 10. + +Athos, Monks of Mount, § 70, 3; 69, 1. + +_Atrium_, § 60, 1. + +Attila, § 46, 7. + +Atto of Vercelli, § 100, 2. + +d'Aubigne, Merle, § 178, 2. + " Th. A., § 139, 17. + +Audians, § 62, 1. + +_Audientes_, § 35, 1. + +_Audientia episc._, § 43, 1. + +Augsburg Confession, § 132, 7. + +Augsburg Religious Peace, § 137, 5. + +Augustus of Saxony, § 141, 12. + +Augusta, § 139, 19. + +Augusti, § 182, 5. + +Augustine, § 47, 18, 19; 53, 2-5; 54, 1; 61, 1, 4; 63, 1. + +Augustine, Missionary to England, § 77, 4. + +Augustinus Triumphus, § 118, 2. + +Augustinian Order, § 98, 6; 112, 5. + +August Conference, § 179, 1. + +Aurelian, Emperor, § 22, 5; 33, 8. + " Bishop, § 63, 1. + +Auricular Confession, § 61, 1; 104, 4. + +Aurifaber, § 129, 1. + +_Ausculta fili_, § 110, 1. + +Australia, § 184, 7; 202, 12. + +Austria, § 165, 9; 190, 3; 198. + +Autbert, § 81, 1. + +Auto al nasciemento, § 115, 12. + " de fe, § 117, 2. + " sacramentale, § 115, 12. + +Autocephalic Bishops, § 46, 1. + +Auxentius of Dorostorus, § 76, 1. + " of Milan, § 47, 14. + +Avars, § 79, 1. + +Avenarius, § 142, 6. + +Aventin, § 120, 3. + +Averrhoes, § 103, 1, 2. + +Avicenna, § 103, 1, 2. + +Avignon, § 110, 2-5. + +Avitus, § 53, 6; 76, 5. + +Azimites, § 67, 3. + +Baader, Francis, § 175, 5; 187, 3; 191, 2. + +Baanes, § 71, 1. + +Babaeus, § 52, 3. + +Babeuf, § 212, 1. + +Babylonian Exile of Popes, § 110, 2-5. + +Bach, Sebastian, § 167, 7. + +Bacon, Roger, § 103, 8. + +Bacon, Lord Verulam, § 164, 1. + +Baden, § 196, 2, 3; 197, 13. + +Bahrdt, § 170, 4, 7. + +Baius, Michael, § 149, 13. + +Bajazet, § 110, 11. + +Balaeus, § 48, 7. + +Balde, Jac., § 158, 3. + +Baldwin of Jerusalem, § 94, 1; 98, 7. + +Baldwin of Flanders, § 94, 4. + " the Heretic, § 108, 4. + +Balsamon, § 68, 5. + +Balthazar of Fulda, § 151, 2. + +Baltic Provinces of Russia, § 139, 3; 206, 3. + +Baltimore, Lord, § 208, 5. + +Baltzer, § 191, 1, 3. + +Baluzius, § 158, 2. + +Bampfield, § 163, 3. + +Ban, § 89, 6; 106, 1. + +Banez, § 149, 13. + +Bangor, § 85, 4. + +Baphomet, § 112, 7. + +Baptism, § 35, 2-4; 58, 1, 5; 141, 13. + +Baptismal Font, § 60, 4; 88, 5. + +_Baptismus Clinicorum_, § 35, 3. + +Baptists, § 163, 3; 170, 6; 208, 1; 211, 3. + +Baptistries, § 60, 4. + +Baer, David, § 170, 4. + +Baradai, § 52, 7. + +Barbatianus, § 62, 2. + +Barbs, § 108, 10. + +Barckhausen, § 169, 1. + +Barclay, § 163, 5. + +Bar-Cochba, § 25. + +Bardesanes, § 27, 5. + +Barefooted Friars, § 98, 3; 149, 6. + +Bar Hanina, § 47, 15. + +Bar Hebraeus, § 72, 2. + +Bari, Synod at, § 67, 4. + +Barkers, § 170, 7. + +Barlaam, § 67, 5; 69, 2. + +Barlaam and Josaphat, § 68, 6. + +Barletta, § 115, 2. + +Barnabas, § 14; 30, 4. + +Barnabites, § 149, 7. + +Barnim, § 133, 4. + +Baronius, § 5, 2; 149, 14. + +Barriere, § 149, 6. + +Barrow, § 143, 4. + +Barsumas, § 52, 3. + +Bartholomew, Massacre of St., § 139, 16. + +Bartholomew of Pisa, § 98, 3. + +Bartolemeo, Fra, § 115, 13. + +Basedow, § 171, 4. + +Basel, § 130, 3, 8; 196, 4. + " Council of, § 110, 8, 9; 119, 7. + +Basil the Great, § 44; 47, 4; 59, 6. + " chief of Bogomili, § 71, 4. + " of Ancyra, § 50, 3. + " the Macedonian, § 67, 1; 68, 1; 71, 1; 73, 1. + +Basilica, § 60, 1, 2. + +Basilicus, § 139, 26. + +Basilides, the Gnostic, § 27, 2. + " the Martyr, § 22, 4. + +Basnage, § 5, 2; 161, 7. + +Basrelief, § 60, 6. + +Bassi, § 149, 6. + +Bathori, Steph., § 139, 18. + +Bauer, Bruno, § 174, 1; 182, 6. + " Lor., § 171, 7. + +Baumgarten-Crusius, § 182, 4. + " M., § 180, 1; 194, 6. + " Sigism. Jac., § 167, 4. + +Baumstark, § 175, 7. + +Baur, Chr. F., § 182, 7; 5, 4. + " Gust., § 194, 1. + +Bautain, § 91, 1. + +Bavaria, § 78, 2; 151, 2; 165, 10; 195; 197, 14. + +Bavo, § 78, 3. + +Baxter, § 162, 3. + +Bayle, § 164, 4. + +Bayly, Lewis, § 162, 3. + +Beatification, § 104, 8. + +Beaton, § 139, 8. + +Beaumont, § 165, 7. + +Bebel, § 212, 5. + +Bebenburg, § 118, 2. + +Beccus, § 67, 4. + +Beck, Tob., § 182, 12. + +Becket, § 96, 16. + +Bede, The Venerable, § 90, 2. + +Beethoven, § 174, 10. + +Begging Friars, § 98, 3-6; 103, 3-6; 112, 2-6. + +Beghards and Beguins, § 98, 7; 116, 5. + +Bekker, Balthaz., § 161, 5. + +Belgium, § 200, 4-7. + +Bellarmine, § 149, 4, 10, 14. + +Beller, Card., § 188, 13. + +Bellini, § 115, 13. + +Bells, § 60, 5. + " Baptism of, § 88, 5. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, § 60, 1. + +Bembo, § 120, 1. + +Benard, Lor., § 156, 7. + +Bender, § 176, 4. + +Benedetto of Mantova, § 139, 23. + +Benedict III., § 82, 5. + " V., § 96, 1. + " VI., VII., § 96, 2. + " VIII., IX., 96, 4. + " X., § 96, 6. + " XI., § 110, 1. + " XII., § 110, 4; 67, 5; 112, 1. + +Benedict XIII., XIV., § 165, 1. + " of Aniane, § 85, 2. + " Levita, § 87, 1. + " of Nursia, § 85, 1. + +Benedictines, § 85; 98, 1; 112, 1; 186, 2. + +Benedict Medal, § 188, 13. + +Benefice System, § 86, 2. + +Bengel, § 167, 3. + +Benno of Meissen, § 93, 9; 129, 1. + +Berengar, § 101, 1, 2. + +Berengar, I., II., § 96, 1. + +Berg, John, § 153, 7. + " Book of, § 141, 12. + +Berlage, § 188, 6. + +Berleburger Bible, § 170, 1. + +Bern, § 130, 4; 199, 3, 4. + +Bernard of Clairvaux, § 102, 2, 3; 94, 2; 96, 13; 104, 10; 108, 2, 3, 7; + 109. + +Bernard the Missionary, § 93, 10. + " Sylvester, § 102, 10. + " de Saisset, § 110, 1. + " Tolomei, § 112, 1. + +Bernardino of Siena, § 112, 3. + +Bernardines, § 98, 1. + +Berno of Clugny, § 98, 1. + +Berruyer, § 165, 14. + +Bertha, § 77, 4. + +Bertheau, § 182, 11. + +Berthold of Limoges, § 98, 6. + " of Loccum, § 93, 12. + " of Regensburg, § 104, 1. + " Leonard, § 171, 7. + +Berti, § 165, 15. + +Bertrada, § 96, 10. + +Bertrand de Got, § 110, 2. + +Berylle, Pet., § 156, 7. + +Beryllus, § 33, 6. + +Bespopowtschini, § 163, 10. + +Bessarion, § 67, 6; 68, 2; 120, 1. + +Besser, § 181, 4. + +Bestmann, § 182, 21. + +Bethel, § 183, 1. + +Bethman-Hollweg, § 193, 4. + +Beuggen, § 183, 1. + +Beust, von, § 198, 2, 4. + +Beyschlag, § 182, 10. + +Beza, § 138, 8; 139, 14; 143, 2, 5. + +Bianchi, § 116, 3. + +Bible Societies, § 183, 4; 185, 1. + " Communists, § 211, 6. + " Revision, § 181, 4. + " Translations, § 37, 1; 59, 1; 115, 4. + +Bible reading forbidden, § 105, 3; 185, 1. + +_Biblia pauperum_, § 115, 3. + +Bickell, § 194, 4. + +Biedermann, § 182, 19. + +Biel, Gebr, § 113, 3. + +Bienemann, § 142, 4. + +Bilderdijk, § 200, 2. + +Billicanus, § 122, 2. + +Bilocation, § 105, 4. + +Bingham, § 169, 6. + +Bischof, Conrad, § 175, 2. + +Bishops, § 17, 5; 34, 2; 45; 84; 97. + " Election of, § 34, 3; 45; 84; 97, 3. + +Bishops' Bible, § 202, 1. + " Paragraph, § 197, 11, 12. + +Bismarck, § 197; 212, 5. + +Bittner, § 175, 2. + +Blackburne, § 171, 1. + +Blahoslaw, § 139, 19. + +Blanc, Louis, § 212, 1. + +Blandina, § 22, 3. + +Blandrata, § 148, 3. + +Blaesilla, § 44, 4. + +Blastus, § 37, 2. + +Blau, Dr., § 165, 13. + +Blaurer, § 125, 1; 133, 3; 143, 2. + +Blaurock, § 147, 3. + +Blavatski, § 211, 18. + +Bleek, § 182, 11. + +Blondel, § 161, 7. + +Blood vases, § 35, 2. + " baptism, § 35, 4. + " revenge, § 88, 5. + +Bloody Marriage, § 139, 16. + +Blot-Sweyn, § 93, 3. + +Blount, § 168, 3. + +Blue Ribbon Army, § 211, 2. + +Blum, Bishop, § 197, 6, 11. + +Blumhardt, § 196, 5. + +Bluntschli, § 180, 1; 196, 3. + +Boabdil, § 95. + +Bobadilla, § 149, 8. + +Bobbio, § 78, 1; 85, 4. + +Boccaccio, § 115, 10. + +Bochart, § 161, 6. + +Bodelschwingh, § 183, 1. + +Bodin, § 117, 4; 148, 3. + +Boeckh, § 181, 3. + +Boethius, § 47, 23. + +Bogatzky, § 167, 6, 8. + +Bogomili, § 71, 4. + +Bogoris, § 72, 3. + +Boehl v. Faber, § 174, 7. + +Boehme, Jacob, § 160, 2. + " Mart., § 142, 4. + +Bohemia, § 79, 3; 93, 6; 139, 19; 153, 2. + +Bohemian Brethren, § 119, 8; 139, 19. + +Boehmer, § 167, 5. + +Boehringer, § 5, 4. + +Bois, Professor, § 203, 8. + +Bolanden, Cour. v., § 175, 2. + +Boleslaw of Poland, § 93, 7. + " " Bohemia, 93, 6. + " Chrobry, 93, 7. + +Boleyn, Anne, § 139, 4. + +Bolingbroke, § 170, 1. + +Bolivia, § 209, 2. + +Bollandists, § 158, 2. + +Bolsec, § 138, 3. + +Bolsena, Mass of, § 104, 7. + +Bomberg, § 120, 9. + +Bomelius, § 125, 2. + +Bona, § 158, 2. + +Bonald, § 186, 9. + +Bonaventura, § 103, 4; 104, 10. + +Boniface, Apostle of Germany, § 78, 4-8. + +Boniface I., § 46, 6. + " II., § 46, 8. + " III., IV., § 46, 10. + " VI., § 82, 8. + " VII., § 96, 2. + " VIII., § 110, 1; 99, 4; 117, 1. + " IX., § 110, 6; 117, 2. + +_Boni homines_, § 108, 2. + +Bonner, Bp., § 139, 4, 5. + +Bonosus, § 62, 2. + +Book of Discipline, § 139, 9. + +Boos, Mart., § 187, 2. + +Booth, General, § 211, 2. + +Bordelum, Sectaries at, § 170, 4. + +Borgia, § 110, 10, 12. + " Francis, § 149, 8. + +Borromeo, § 149, 17; 151, 2. + " Society, § 186, 4. + +Borsenius, § 170, 4. + +Boruth, § 79, 1. + +Borziwoi, § 79, 3. + +Bosio, Ant., § 38, 1. + +Boso, § 95, 3. + +Bossuet, § 5, 2; 153, 7; 156, 3; 157, 3; 158, 2. + +Bost, Pastor, § 156, 1. + +Bothwell, § 139, 10. + +Bourdaloue, § 159, 2. + +Bourgos, Pragmatic Sanction of, § 110, 9. + +Bourignon, § 157, 4. + +Bouthillier de Rance, § 156, 8. + +Boyle, § 164, 3. + +Bradacz, M. v., § 119, 8. + +Bradwardine, § 113, 2. + +Braga, Syn. of, § 76, 4. + +Brakel, § 169, 2. + +Bramante, § 115, 3; 149, 15. + +Brandenburg, § 134, 5; 154, 3. + +Brandt, § 181, 4. + +Braniss, § 174, 2. + +Brant, Seb., § 115, 11. + +Braun, Hermesian, § 191, 1. + +Brazil, § 150, 3; 209, 3. + +Breckling, § 163, 9. + +Breithaupt, § 159, 3. + +Breitinger, § 162, 6. + +Bremen, § 127, 4; 144, 2. + +Brendel, § 151, 1. + +Brentano, § 188, 3. + +Brenz, § 131, 1; 133, 3; 141, 8; 142, 2, 6. + +Brest, Synod of, § 72, 4; 151, 3. + +Brethren, The four long, § 51, 3. + " of the Free Spirit, § 116, 5. + +Brethren of the Common Life, § 112, 9. + +Brethren, Bohemian and Moravian, § 119, 7. + +Brethren, The United, § 168. + +Bretschneider, § 174, 3; 182, 2. + +Bretwalda, § 77, 4. + +Breviary, § 56, 2; 149, 14. + +Briconnet, § 120, 8; 138, 1. + +Bridaine, § 158, 1. + +Bridge-Brothers, § 98, 9. + +Bridget, St., § 110, 5; 112, 4, 8. + +Bridgewater Treatises, § 174, 3. + +Brief, Papal, § 110, 16. + +Briesmann, § 139, 3. + +Brinckerinck, § 112, 9. + +Brinkmann, § 197, 6, 11. + +Britons, Ancient, § 77. + +Broad Churchmen, § 202, 1. + +Broglie, Duc de, § 203, 5, 6. + " Bishop, § 200, 1. + +Brothers of the Common Life, § 112, 9. + +Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7. + +Brothers of the Free Spirit, § 116, 5. + +Brown, Archbishop, of Dublin, § 139, 7. + +Brown, Rob. (Brownist), § 143, 4. + " Thomas, § 164, 3. + +Bruccioli, § 115, 4. + +Brueck, Dr., § 132, 7. + +Brucker, Jac., § 167, 8. + +Bruggeler, Sectaries, § 170, 4. + +Brunehilde, § 77, 7; 46, 10. + +Bruneleschi, § 115, 13. + +Bruno of Cologne, § 97, 2. + " the Missionary, § 93, 13. + " of Rheims, § 98, 2. + " " Toul, § 96, 5. + " Giordano, § 146, 3. + +Brunswick, § 127, 4; 135, 6; 194, 5. + +Bucer, § 122, 2; 124, 3; 131, 1; 133, 8; 135, 1, 3, 7; 139, 5. + +Buchel, Anna v., § 170, 4. + +Buchfuehrer, § 128, 1. + +Buechner, § 174, 3. + +Budaeus, § 120, 8. + +Buddeus, § 167, 1, 4. + +Buffalo Synod, § 208, 4. + +Bugenhagen, § 125, 1; 127, 4; 133, 4; 139, 2; 142, 2. + +Buelau, § 139, 3. + +Bulgaria, § 67, 1; 73, 3; 175, 4; 207, 3. + +_Bulgari_, § 108, 1. + +Bulls, Papal, § 110, 16. + +Bull, The Golden, § 97, 2; 110, 4. + +Bullinger, § 133, 8; 138, 7; 161, 4. + +Bunsen, § 181, 1, 4; 182, 17; 198, 1. + +Bunyan, § 162, 3. + +Bueren, § 144, 2. + +Burgundians, § 76, 5. + +Burmann, § 161, 7. + +Burnet, Bishop, § 161, 3. + +Bursfeld, Congregation of, § 112, 1. + +Busch, John, § 112, 1. + +Busembaum, § 158, 1; 149, 10. + +Buttlar Sectaries, § 170, 4. + +Butter week, § 56, 7. + +Buxhoewden, § 93, 12. + +Buxtorf, § 161, 3, 6. + +Byron, § 174, 7. + +Byse, § 200, 8. + +Caballero, § 174, 7. + +Cabasilas, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + +Cabet, § 212, 3. + +Cabrera, § 205, 4. + +Cadan, Peace of, § 133, 3. + +Caecilius, § 63, 1. + +Caedmon, § 89, 3. + +Caesarius of Arles, § 47, 20; 53, 5; 61, 4. + +Caesarius of Heisterbach, § 103, 9. + +Cainites, § 27, 6. + +Caius, § 31, 7; 33, 9. + +Cajetan, Card., § 122, 3. + " of Thiene, § 149, 7. + +Calas, § 164, 5. + +Calatrava, Order of, § 98, 8. + +Calderon, § 158, 3. + +Calendar Reform, § 149, 3. + +Calixt, Geo., § 153, 7; 158, 2, 8. + +Calixtines, § 119, 7. + +Calixtus II., § 96, 11. + " III., § 96, 15; 110, 10. + +Callinice, § 71, 1. + +Callistus, § 33, 5; 41, 1. + +Calmet, § 165, 14. + +Calov, § 153, 7; 159, 2, 4, 5; 160, 2. + +Calvin, § 138; 143, 5. + +Camaldulensian Order, § 98, 1. + +_Camera Romana_, § 110, 16. + +Camerarius, § 142, 6. + +Camisards, § 153, 4. + +Campanella, § 164, 1. + +Campanus, § 148, 1. + +Campbellites, § 170, 6. + +Campe, § 171, 4. + +Campegius, § 126, 2, 3; 132, 6. + +Campello, § 190, 3. + +Camp-Meeting, § 208, 1. + +_Cancellaria Romana_, § 110, 16. + +Canisius, § 149, 14; 151, 1. + " Society, § 186, 4. + +Canon, Biblical, § 36, 8; 59, 1. + " of the Mass, § 59, 5. + " in Music, § 115, 8. + " Law, § 43, 2. + +_Canones Apostt._, § 43, 4. + +Canonesses, § 85, 3. + +Canonical Age, § 45, 1. + " Life, § 84, 4; 97, 3. + +_Canonici_, § 84, 4; 97, 3. + +Canossa, § 96, 8. + +Canova, § 174, 9. + +Canstein, § 167, 8. + +_Cantores_, § 34, 3. + +_Cantus Ambros._, § 59, 5. + " figuratus, § 104, 11. + " firmus, § 59, 5. + +Canute the Great, § 93, 2, 4. + +Canus, § 149, 14. + +Canz, § 167, 2. + +Capistran, § 112, 3. + +Capito, § 124, 3; 130, 3; 131, 1. + +_Capitula Carisiaca_, § 91, 5. + " _Clausa_, § 111. + " _episcoporum_, § 87, 1. + +Capitularies, § 87, 1. + +Cappadocians, The Three, § 47, 5. + +Cappadose, § 200, 2. + +Cappel, Peace of, § 130, 9, 10. + +Cappellus, § 161, 3, 6. + +Capuchins, § 149, 6. + +Caraccioli, § 139, 24. + +Caraffa, § 149, 2, 7; 139, 22, 23. + +Carantanians, § 79, 1. + +Carbeas, § 71, 1. + +Cardale, § 211, 10. + +Cardinals, § 97, 1. + +Carey, § 172, 5. + +Carl, Dr., § 170, 1. + +Carlomann, § 78, 5. + +Carlstadt, § 122, 4; 124, 1, 3; 131, 1; 139, 2. + +Carmelites, § 98, 6; 149, 6. + +Carnesecchi, § 139, 22, 23. + +Carnival, § 56, 4; 105, 2. + +Carpentarius, § 128, 1. + +Carpocrates, § 27, 8. + +Carpov, § 167, 4. + +Carpzov, J. B., § 117, 4, 158, 3; 167, 1. + +Carpzov, J. G., § 167, 4. + +Carranza, § 139, 21. + +Carrasco, § 205, 4. + +Carthusians, § 98, 2; 112. + +las Casas, § 150, 3. + +Casimir of Berleburg, § 170. + " " Brunswick, § 126, 4. + +Cassander, § 137, 8. + +Cassel, Religious Conference of, § 154, 4. + +Cassianus, § 44, 4; 47, 21; 53, 5. + +Cassiodorus, § 47, 23. + +Castellio, § 138, 4; 143, 5. + +Castellus, § 161, 6. + +Castelnau, Pet. v., § 109, 1. + +Casuists, § 113, 4. + +Casula, § 59, 7. + +Catacombs, § 38, 1-3. + +Cataphrygians, § 40, 1. + +Catechetical School, § 31, 1. + +Catechism, Heidelberg, § 144, 1. + " Luther's, § 127, 1. + +Catechisms, § 115, 5. + +Catechismus Genevensis, § 138, 2. + " Romanus, § 149, 14. + +Catechoumens, § 35, 1. + +_Catenae_, § 48, 1. + +Cathari, § 108, 1. + +Catharine of Aragon, § 139, 4. + " Bora, § 129. + " de Medici, § 139, 13 ff. + " II. of Russia, § 165, 9. + " St., of Sweden, § 112, 8. + " of Siena, § 112, 4; 110, 5, 6. + +Cathedral, § 84, 4. + " Schools, § 90, 8. + +Catholicus, § 52, 7. + +Catholicity, § 20, 2; 34, 7. + +Cave, § 161, 7. + +Celbes, § 28, 4. + +Celibacy, § 39, 3; 45, 2; 84, 3; 96, 7; 111, 1; 187, 4. + +Cellites, § 116, 3. + +Celsus, § 23, 3. + +Celtes, Conrad, § 120, 3. + +Celtic Church, § 77. + +Cemeteries, § 38; 60, 2. + +Cencius, § 96, 7. + +Centuries, The Magdeburg, § 5, 2. + +Ceolfrid, § 77, 3, 8. + +Cerdo, § 27, 11. + +Cerinthus, § 17, 3; 27, 1. + +Cesarini, § 110, 7. + +Cesena, § 112, 2. + +Cevennes, Prophets of the, § 153, 4; 170, 2, 7. + +Chaila, du, § 153, 4. + +Chalcedon, Council of, § 46, 1, 7; 52, 4. + +Chaldean Christians, § 52, 3; 72, 1; 150, 4. + +Chalmers, § 178, 2; 202, 7. + +Chalybaeus, § 174, 2. + +_Chambre ardente_, § 139, 13. + +Chamier, § 161, 7. + +Chandler, § 171, 1. + +Channing, § 208, 4. + +Chantal, § 156, 7; 157, 1. + +Chapels, § 84, 1, 2. + +Chaplain, § 84, 1, 2. + +Chapter of Cathedral, § 84, 4; 97, 2; 111. + +Chapters, Controversy of the three, § 52, 6. + +Charlemagne, § 78, 9; 79, 5; 81, 1; 82, 2, 3; 89, 2; 90, 1; 92, 1. + +Charles of Anjou, § 96, 20-22. + " the Bald, § 82, 4, 5, 8; 90, 1. + " Martel, § 81; 82, 1. + " IV., Emperor, § 110, 4, 5; 117, 2. + " VII. of France, § 110, 9. + " V., Emperor, § 123, 5. + " I., II. of England, § 153, 6; 155, 1, 3. + " IX. of France, § 139, 14-16. + " IX. of Sweden, § 139, 1. + " XII. of Sweden, § 165, 4. + " Albert of Sardinia, § 204, 1. + +Charles Felix of Sardinia, § 204, 1. + " Alexander of Wuerttemberg, § 165, 5. + +Charles Theodore of Bavaria, § 165, 10. + +Charles of Lorraine, Cardinal, § 139, 13; 149, 2, 17. + +Charisms, § 17, 1. + +Chastel, § 5, 5. + +Chateaubriand, § 174, 7. + +Chatel, Abbe, § 187, 6. + +Chatimar, § 79, 1. + +Chazari, § 73, 2. + +Chemnitz, § 141, 2, 12; 142, 2, 6. + +Cherbury, § 164, 3. + +Children, The Praying, § 167, 1. + " Baptism of, § 17, 7; 35, 4; 58, 1. + +Children's Communion, § 36, 3; 58, 4. + +Children's Crusade, § 94, 4. + +Chili, § 209, 2. + +Chiliasm, § 33, 9; 40, 4; 108, 5; 162, 1; 211, 7. + +Chillingworth, § 161, 3. + +China, § 93, 15; 150, 1; 156, 12; 165, 3; 184, 6; 186, 7. + +Chinese Rites, § 156, 12. + +Choir, § 60, 1. + +Chorale, § 142, 5; 160, 5; 181, 2. + +_Chorepiscopi_, § 34, 3; 45; 84; 97, 3. + +Choristers, § 97, 3. + +_Chorisantes_, § 116, 2. + +Chosroes, § 11; 64, 2. + +Chrism, § 35, 4. + +Christ, Order of, § 112, 8. + +Christian Association (German), § 172, 5. + +Christian, Bishop, § 93, 13. + " II., III. of Denmark, § 139, 2. + +Christian Baptists, § 170, 6; 208, 1. + +Christina of Sweden, § 153, 1. + +Christopher of Wuerttemberg, § 133, 3. + +_Christo sacrum_, § 172, 4. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, § 48, 5. + +Chrodegang of Metz, § 48, 4. + +_Chronicon paschale_, § 48, 2. + +Chrysolaras, § 120, 1. + +Chrysologus, § 47, 17. + +Chrysostom, § 47, 8; 51, 3; 53, 1. + +Chubb, § 171, 1. + +Churches, § 38. + +Church Army, § 211, 2. + " Discipline, § 39; 61; 89, 6; 106. + " History, Idea, Periods, Sources, etc., of, §§ 1-5. + " Law, Catholic, § 43, 3-5; 68, 5; 87; 99, 5. + " Law, Protestant, § 167, 5. + " Property, § 45, 4; 86, 1; 96, 15. + " States, § 82, 1; 185, 3. + " Year, § 56, 6. + +Chytraeus, § 141, 12; 142, 6. + +_Ciborium_, § 60, 5. + +Cilicium, § 106. + +Cimabue, § 104, 14. + +Circumcelliones, § 63, 1. + +Cistercians, § 98, 1. + +Ciudad, § 147, 7. + +Clara of Assisi, § 98, 3. + " Nuns of St., § 98, 3. + +Clarendon, Council at, § 96, 16. + +Clarke, Sam., § 171, 1. + +_Classes_, § 143, 1. + +Classical Synods, § 143, 1. + +Claude, § 161, 3, 7. + +Claudius Apollinaris, § 30, 4. + " I., Emperor, § 22, 1. + " II., " § 22, 5. + " of Savoy, § 148, 3. + " " Turin, § 90, 4; 92, 3. + " Matthias, § 171, 11. + +Clausen, § 201, 1. + +Clemangis, § 110, 3; 118, 4. + +Clemens, F. J., § 191, 3. + +Clement of Alexandria, § 31, 4. + " of Rome, § 30, 3. + " II., § 96, 4, 5. + " III., § 96, 8, 16. + " IV., § 96, 20; 103, 8. + " V., § 110, 2; 112, 7. + " VI., § 110, 4, 5. + " VII., § 110, 6; 126, 2; 132, 2; 149, 1. + " VIII., § 110, 7; 149, 2, 13, 14. + " IX., X., § 156, 1. + " XI., § 165, 1, 7. + " XIII., XIV., § 165, 9. + " a Heretic of Britain, § 78, 6. + +Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, § 28, 3, 4. + +_Clementinae_, § 99, 5. + +Cleomenes, § 33, 5. + +Clergy, § 34, 4. + +_Clerici vagi_, § 84, 2. + +_Clericis laicos_, § 110, 1. + +Clericus, § 169, 6. + +Clermont, Synod at, § 94; 96, 7. + +Climacus, § 47, 12. + +_Clinici_, § 34, 3; 45, 1. + +Cloister Schools, § 90, 8. + +Cloots, Anach., § 165, 12. + +Clothilda, § 76, 5, 9. + +Clovis, § 76, 9. + +Clugny, § 98, 1; 165, 2. + +Cluniacs, § 98, 1. + +Cocceius, § 161, 4, 6; 162, 5. + +Cochlaeus, § 129, 1; 135, 10. + +Cock, H. de, § 200, 2. + +Codde, § 165, 8. + +Codex Alexandrinus, § 152, 2. + " Sinaiticus, § 182, 11. + +Coelestine I., § 46, 1; 52, 3; 53, 4. + " II., § 96, 13. + " III., § 96, 16. + " IV., § 96, 19. + " V., § 96, 22. + +Coelestines, § 98, 2. + " Eremites, § 98, 4. + +Coelestius, § 53, 4. + +Coelicolae, § 42, 6. + +Coenobites, § 44. + +Coisi, § 77, 4. + +Coke, § 169, 4. + +Colani, § 203, 8. + +Colenso, § 202, 4. + +Coleridge, § 202, 1. + +Colet, § 120, 6, 7. + +_Colidei_, § 77, 8. + +Coligny, § 139, 14, 16; 143, 6. + +_Collatio cum Donatist._, § 63, 1. + +_Collegia philobibl._, § 159, 3. + " _pietatis_, § 159, 3. + +Collegial System, § 167, 5. + +Collegiants, § 163, 1. + +Collegiate Foundations, § 84, 4. + +_Collegium caritativum_, § 169, 1. + " _Germanicum_, § 151, 1. + " _Helveticum_, § 151, 2. + +Collenbusch, § 172, 3. + +Collins, § 171, 1. + +Collyridian Nuns, § 57, 2. + +Colman, § 77, 6. + +Cologne, Cathedral of, § 104, 13. + " Conflict of, § 190, 1. + " Reformation of, § 135, 7; 136, 2; 137, 7. + +Colombiere, § 156, 6. + +Colonna, § 110, 1, 3. + " Vittoria, § 139, 22. + +Columba, § 77, 2. + +Columbanus, § 77, 7. + +Columbus, § 116. + +Comenius, § 163, 9; 168, 2. + +_Comes Hieron._, § 59, 3. + +Commendatory Abbots, § 85, 5; 111, 2. + +Commodian, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + +Commodus, § 22, 2. + +Common Prayer, Book of, § 139, 5, 6. + +_Communicatio idiomatum_, § 141, 9. + +Communism, § 211, 6; 212, 1. + +Compact, The Basel, § 119, 7. + +Competentes, § 35, 1. + +Compiegne, Diet of, § 82, 4. + +Composition, § 89, 5, 6. + +Compromise, Belgian, § 139, 12. + +Comte, § 174, 2; 210, 1. + +Concha, § 60, 1. + +_Concilium Germanicum_, § 78, 5. + +Conclave, § 96, 21. + +Concomitantia, § 105, 1. + +Concord of Wittenberg, § 133, 8. + " Formula of, § 141, 12. + +Concordat of Austria, § 198, 2. + " " Baden, § 196, 2. + " " Bavaria, § 195, 1. + " " France, § 203, 1. + " " Holland, § 200, 1. + " " Portugal, § 205, 5. + " " Prussia, § 193, 1. + " " Spain, § 205, 1. + " " Upper Rhine, § 196, 1. + " " Vienna, § 110, 7. + " " Worms, § 96, 5. + " " Wuerttemberg, § 96, 5. + +Conde, § 139, 14, 16, 17. + " Louise de, § 186, 2. + +Conference, Evangelical, § 178, 4. + +_Confessio_, § 57, 1. + +Confession, § 36, 3; 61, 1; 89, 6; 104, 4. + +_Confessio Augustana_, § 132, 7. + " " _Variata_, § 141, 4, 7. + " _Belgica_, § 139, 12. + " _Bohemica_, § 139, 19. + " _Czengeriana_, § 139, 20. + " _Gallicana_, § 139, 14. + " _Hafnica_, § 139, 2. + " _Helvetica_ I., § 133, 8. + " " II., § 138, 7. + " _Hungarica_, § 139, 20. + " _Marchica_, § 154, 3. + " _Saxonica_, § 136, 8. + " _Scotica_, § 139, 9. + " _Sigismundi_, § 154, 3. + " _Tetrapolit._, § 132, 7. + +Confession, Westminster, § 155, 1. + " Wuerttemberg, § 136, 8. + +_Confessores_, § 22, 5; 39, 2, 5. + +Confirmation, § 35, 4; 139, 19; 167, 2. + +_Confutatio Conf. August._, § 132, 7. + +Congregatio de auxiliis, § 149, 13. + " _de propag. fides_, § 156, 9. + +Congregationalists, § 143, 4; 162, 1; 202, 5. + +Congregations, § 98, 1; 186, 2. + +Conon, Pope, § 46, 11. + +Cononites, § 57, 2. + +Conrad I., Emperor, § 96, 1. + " II., § 96, 4. + " III., § 96, 13; 94, 2. + " IV., § 96, 20. + " of Hochsteden, § 104, 13. + " " Marburg, § 109, 3. + " " Massovia, § 93, 13. + " " Megenburg, § 118, 2. + +Conradin, § 96, 20. + +Consalvi, § 185, 1; 192, 3. + +Conscientiarii, § 164, 4. + +Consensus Dresdensis, § 141, 10. + " Genev., § 138, 7. + " Sendomir, § 139, 18. + " repetitus, § 159, 2. + " Tigurinus, § 138, 7. + +Consilia evangelica, § 39. + +Consistories, § 142, 1. + +_Consolamentum_, § 108, 2. + +Constance, Council of, § 110, 7; 119, 5, 7. + +Constantia, § 50, 2. + +Constantine the Great, § 28, 7; 42, 1, 2; 60, 1; 63, 1. + " I., Pope, § 46, 11. + " II., " § 82, 2. + " Chrysomalus, § 70, 4. + " Copronymus, § 66, 2. + " of Mananalis, § 71, 1. + " Monomachus, § 67, 3. + " Pogonnatus, § 52, 8. + " Porphyrogenneta, § 68, 1. + +Constantinople, Second OEcum. Council at, § 46, 1; 50, 4, 5; 52, 2. + " Fifth OEcum. Council at, § 52, 6. + " Sixth OEcum. Council at, § 52, 8. + " Seventh OEcum. Council at, § 66, 2, 3. + " Eighth OEcum. Council at, § 67, 1. + +Constantius, § 42, 2; 50, 2. + " Chlorus, § 22, 6. + +_Constitutio Rom._, § 82, 4. + +Constitution of Early Church, § 17. + +Constitutiones apost., § 43, 4. + +Contarini, § 135, 2; 139, 22. + +_Continentes_, § 39, 3. + +Contraremonstrants, § 161, 2. + +_Convenensa_, § 108, 2. + +Conventuals, § 112, 3. + +_Conversi_, § 98. + +Converts, Romish, § 153, 1; 165, 6; 175, 7. + +Convocation, English, § 202, 3. + +Copts, § 52, 7; 72, 2. + +Coquerel, § 203, 4, 8. + +Coracion, § 33, 9. + +Coran, § 65. + +Corbinian, § 78, 2. + +Cordeliers, § 149, 6. + +Cornelius, Bishop, § 42, 3. + +Coronation, Papal, § 96, 23; 110, 15. + +_Corporale_, § 60, 5. + +Corporations Act, § 155, 3; 202, 5. + +_Corpus Cathol. et Evangel._, § 153, 1. + " _Christi_ Festival, § 104, 7. + " _doctr. Misnicum_, § 141, 10. + " _juris canon._, § 99, 5. + " _Pruthen._, § 141, 2. + +_Correctores Rom._, § 99, 5. + +Correggio, § 115, 13. + +Cosmas of Jerusalem, § 70, 2. + " Indicopleustes, § 48, 2. + " Patr., § 70, 4. + " Usurpator, § 66, 1. + +Cossa, Cardinal, § 110, 7. + +Costa, Is. da, § 200, 2. + +Coster, § 149, 14. + +Cotta, Urs., § 122, 1. + +Councils, OEcumenical, § 43, 2. + +Counter-Reformation, § 151; 153; 165, 4. + +Cour, Did. de la, § 156, 4. + +Courland, § 93, 12; 139, 3. + +Court, Ant., § 165, 5. + +Covenant, § 139, 8; 155, 1. + +Cowper, § 172, 4. + +Cranach, § 142, 2. + +Cranmer, § 139, 4, 5. + +Cranz, § 115, 8. + +Crasselius, § 167, 6. + +Crato of Crafftheim, § 141, 10; 137, 8. + +Creationism, § 53, 1. + +Crell, J., § 148, 4. + " Nich., § 141, 13. + " Paul, § 141, 10. + +Crescens, § 30, 9. + +Crescentius, § 96, 2, 4. + +Creuzer, § 174, 4. + +Cromwell, § 153, 5, 6; 155, 1-3. + +Crookes, § 211, 17. + +Cross, § 38, 2; 60, 6. + " Discovery of the, § 57, 5. + " Ordeal of the, § 88, 5. + " Sign of the, § 39, 1; 59, 8; 72, 5. + +Crotus, Rubianus, § 120, 2, 5. + +Crucifix, § 60, 6. + +Cruciger, § 136, 7. + +Cruco, § 93, 9. + +Crueger, § 160, 5. + +Crusaders, § 98, 8. + +Crusades, § 94; 105, 3. + +Crusius, Mart., § 139, 26. + " Chr. Aug., § 167, 4. + +Crypto-Calvinists, § 141, 10, 13. + +Crypts, § 38, 1; 60, 1. + +Cubricus, § 29, 1. + +Cudworth, § 164, 3. + +Culdees, § 77, 8. + +_Cum ex apostolatus officio_, § 149, 2. + +Cummins, § 208, 1. + +Cunaeus, § 161, 6. + +Cupola, § 60, 3. + +_Curati_, § 84, 2. + +Curaeus, § 141, 10. + +Curci, § 187, 5. + +Curia, The Papal, § 110, 15. + +Curio, § 139, 24. + +Cursores, § 60, 5. + +Cusa, Nich. of, § 113, 6. + +Cynewulf, § 89, 3. + +Cyprian, St., § 22, 5; 31, 11; 34, 1, 7, 8; 35, 3; 39, 2; 41, 2, 3. + " of Antioch, § 48, 8. + " Sal., § 167, 4; 169, 1. + +Cyran, St., § 157, 2. + +Cyriacus, § 104, 9. + +Cyril of Alexandria, § 47, 6; 52, 2, 3. + " of Jerusalem, § 47, 10; 52, 2, 3. + " Lucar, § 152, 2. + " and Methodius, § 73, 2, 3; 79, 2, 3. + +Cyrillonas, § 48, 7. + +Cyrus of Alexandria, § 52, 8. + +Czersky, § 186, 6. + +Dach, Sim., § 160, 3. + +Daechsel, § 186, 4. + +Dagobert I., § 78, 1. + +Daille, § 161, 3, 7. + +Dalberg, J. v., § 120, 2, 3. + " K. Th. v., § 187, 3; 192, 2. + +Dale, § 202, 3. + +_Dalmatica_, § 59, 7. + +Damascus I., § 46, 4; 59, 1, 4. + " II., § 96, 5. + +_Dames du Coeur sacre_, § 186, 1. + +Damiani, Petrus, § 97, 4; 104, 10; 106, 4. + +Damiens, § 158, 1. + +Dandalo, § 94, 4. + +Daniel of Winchester, § 78, 4. + +Danites, § 211, 14. + +Dankbrand, § 93, 5. + +Dannecker, § 174, 9. + +Dannhauer, § 159, 5. + +Dante, § 115, 10. + +Danzig, § 139, 18. + +Darboy, § 189, 3; 203. + +Darbyites, § 211, 11. + +Darnley, § 139, 10. + +Darwin, § 174, 3. + +_Dataria Rom._, § 110, 16. + +Daub, § 182, 6. + +Daumer, § 175, 7. + +David of Augsburg, § 103, 10. + " " Dinant, § 108, 4. + " Christian, § 167, 9. + +Davidis, Fr., § 148, 3. + +Davis, § 211, 17. + +Deacon, § 17, 5; 34, 3. + +Deaconess, § 34, 3. + +Deaconess-institutes, § 183, 1. + +Dean, § 84, 2. + +Decius, Emperor, § 22, 5. + " Nich., § 142, 3. + +Declaratio Thornuensis, § 153, 7. + +Decretals, § 46, 3. + +Decretists, § 99, 5. + +Decretum Gelasianum, § 47, 22. + " Gratiani, § 99, 5. + +_Defensores_, § 45, 5. + +Deism, § 164, 3; 171, 1. + +Delicieux, § 117, 2. + +Delitzsch, § 182, 14. + +Delrio, § 149, 11. + +Demetrius of Alexandria, § 31, 5. + " Cydonius, § 68, 5. + " Mysos, § 139, 36. + +Demiurge, § 26, 2. + +Denek, § 148, 1. + +Denecker, § 160, 1. + +Denifle, § 191, 7. + +Denison, § 202, 2. + +Denmark, § 80; 93, 2; 139, 2; 201, 1. + +Denzinger, § 191, 9. + +Derezer, § 165, 11. + +Dernbach, § 151, 1. + +_De salute animarum_, § 193, 11. + +Desanctis, § 204, 4. + +Descant, § 104, 11. + +Descartes, § 161, 3; 164, 1. + +Deseret, § 211, 12. + +Desiderius, § 82, 1. + +Desprez, § 203, 3. + +Dessau, Convention of, § 126, 5. + +Dessler, § 167, 6. + +Deutinger, § 191, 6. + +"Deutsche Theologie," § 114, 2. + +De Valenti, § 174, 3. + +Devay, § 139, 20. + +Dhu Nowas, § 64, 4. + +Diana of Poitiers, § 139, 13. + +Diatessaron, § 30, 9; 36, 7. + +Diaz, Juan, § 135, 10. + +Didache, § 30, 7. + +_Didascalia Apost._, § 43, 4. + +Didenhofen, Synod of, § 82, 4. + +Diderot, § 165, 12. + +Didier de la Cour, § 156, 7. + +Didymus of Alexandria, § 47, 5. + " Gabr, § 124, 1. + +Dieckhoff, § 182, 21. + +Diedrich, § 177, 3. + +Diepenbrock, § 189, 1. + +Dieringer, § 191, 6. + +_Dies Stationum_, § 37; 56, 1. + +Diestel, Past., § 176, 3. + +Dietrich, Meister, § 103, 10. + " Veit, § 142, 2. + +Dillmann, § 182, 11. + +Dinant, David of, § 108, 4. + +Dinder, Archbishop, § 197, 12. + +Dinkel, Bishop, § 187, 3. + +Dinter, § 173, 3; 180, 4. + +Diocletian, Emperor, § 22, 6. + +Diodorus of Tarsus, § 47, 8. + +Diognetus, § 30, 6. + +Dionysius of Alexandria, § 31, 6, 14; 33, 7, 9; 35, 3. + " the Areopagite, § 47, 11; 90, 8. + " _Exiguus_, § 47, 23. + " of Paris, § 25. + " " Rome, § 33, 7. + +Dioscurus of Alexandria, § 52, 4. + " " Rome, § 46, 8. + +Dippel, § 170, 3. + +Diptychs, § 59, 6. + +_Disciplina arcani_, § 36, 4. + +Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6. + " " Basel, § 130, 3. + " " Bern, § 130, 7. + " " Leipzig, § 122, 4. + " " Rome, § 175, 3. + " " Zuerich, § 130, 2. + +Dissenters, § 143, 3, 4; 155, 1-3; 202, 5. + +Dober, § 168, 3, 4, 11. + +Docetism, § 26, 2. + +_Doctor acutus_, § 113, 2. + " _angelicus_, § 103, 6. + " _audientium_, § 33, 1. + " _Christianiss._, § 113, 4. + " _ecstaticus_, § 114, 5. + " _invincibilis_, § 113, 3. + " _irrefragibilis_, § 103, 4. + " _melifluus_, § 102, 2. + " _mirabilis_, § 103, 8. + " _profundus_, § 103, 8; 116, 2. + " _resolutissimus_, § 113, 3. + " _seraphicus_, § 103, 4. + " _subtilis_, § 113, 1. + " _universalis_, § 103, 5. + +_Doctores audientium_, § 34, 3. + " _ecclesiae_, § 47, 22. + +Doederlein, § 171, 8. + +Dodwell, § 161, 7. + +Dolcino, § 108, 8. + +Doellinger, § 190, 5; 191, 5, 9; 175, 6; 5, 6. + +Domenichino, § 149, 15. + +Domenico da Pescia, § 119, 11. + +Dominic, St., § 98, 4; 106, 3. + +Dominicans, § 98, 5; 109, 2; 112, 4; 186, 2. + +_Dominus ac redemt._, § 165, 9. + +Domitian, Emperor, § 22, 1. + " Abbot, § 52, 6. + +Domnus of Antioch, § 52, 4. + +_Donatio Constantini_, § 87, 4. + +Donatists, § 63, 1. + +Donnet, Card., § 190, 3. + +Dore, Gustav, § 174, 9. + +Doring, Matt., § 113, 7. + +_Dormitoria_, § 38, 2; 60, 4. + +Dorner, § 182, 10. + +Dorotheus, § 30, 6. + +Dort, Synod of, § 161, 2. + +Dositheus of Samaria, § 25, 2. + " " Jerusalem, § 152, 3. + +Drabricius, § 163, 9. + +Dragonnades, § 153, 3. + +Drake, § 174, 9. + +Drey, § 191, 6. + +Druids, § 77, 2. + +Drummond, § 211, 10. + +Drusius, § 161, 6. + +Druthmar, Christ., § 90, 4, 9; 91, 3. + +Dualism, § 26, 2. + +Dualistic Heretics, § 71. + +Dubois, Pet. v., § 118, 1. + " Card., § 165, 7. + +Ducange, § 158, 2. + +Duchoborzians, § 166, 2; 210, 3. + +Dufay, § 115, 8. + +Dufresne, § 158, 2. + +Dulignon, § 163, 8. + +Dumont, Bishop, § 200, 7. + +Dumoulin, § 161, 3, 7. + +Dungal, § 92, 2. + +Dunin, § 193, 1. + +Duns Scotus, § 113, 1. + +Dunstan, § 97, 4; 100, 1. + +Dupanloup, § 189, 3; 203, 3-5. + +Duplessis-Mornay, § 139, 17. + +Duraeus, § 154, 4. + +Durandus of Osca, § 108, 10. + " William, § 113, 3. + +Duerer, Albert, § 115, 13; 142, 2. + +Durousseaux, § 200, 7. + +Duesselthal, § 183, 1. + +Dutoit, § 171, 9. + +Duvergier, § 157, 5. + +Eadbald, § 77, 4. + +Eanfled, § 77, 6. + +Eardley, § 178, 2. + +Easter-Festival, § 37, 1; 56, 3, 4. + " Reckoning of, § 56, 3; 77, 3. + +East Friesland, § 170, 3. + +East Indies, § 64, 4; 150, 1; 155, 11; 165, 3; 167, 9; 168, 6; 184, 5. + +Ebed Jesu, § 72, 1. + +Ebel, § 176, 3. + +Eber, Paul, § 141, 10; 142, 3. + +Eberhard of Bamberg, § 102, 6. + " J. A., § 171, 4-7. + " Bishop of Treves, § 197, 6. + +Eberlin, § 125, 1. + +Ebionites, § 28, 1. + +Ebner, § 114, 6. + +Ebo of Rheims, § 80; 87, 3. + +Ebrard, § 182, 16; 195, 5; 5, 5. + +Ecbert of Schoenau, § 107, 1. + +Eccart, John, § 142, 5. + +_Ecclesia Christi_ Bull, § 203, 1. + +Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11. + +Ecetae, § 70, 3. + +Echter, Jul., § 151, 1. + +Echternach Procession, 188, 11. + +Eck, § 122, 1, 4; 123, 1; 130, 6; 135, 2, 3; 149, 14. + +Eckhart, Meister, § 114, 1. + +Ecthesis, § 52, 8. + +Edelmann, § 171, 3. + +Edessa, School of, § 31, 1; 47, 1. + +Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5. + +Edwin, § 77, 4. + +Egbert, § 77, 8; 78, 3. + +Egede, § 167, 9. + +Egli, § 199, 3. + +Eichhorn, J. G., § 176, 7. + " Minister, § 196, 2. + " Nich., § 174, 5. + +Eichsfeld, § 151, 1. + +Einhard, § 88, 6. + +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, § 39, 2. + +Eisenach, Conference at, § 172, 2. + " Attentat, § 194, 2. + +Eisenmenger, § 161, 7. + +Eisleben, Magister, § 141, 1. + +Elagabalus, § 22, 4. + +Eleesban, § 64, 4. + +Eleutherus, § 40, 2. + +Elias of Cortona, § 98. + +Eligius, § 78, 3. + +Elipandus, § 91, 1. + +Elisaeus, § 64, 3. + +Elizabeth, St., § 105, 3. + " of Brandenburg, § 128, 1. + " " Calenberg, § 134, 5. + " " England, § 139, 6-8. + " " Herford, § 163, 7, 8. + " " Schoenau, § 104, 9; 107, 1. + +Elizabeth-Society, § 186, 4. + +Elkesaites, § 28, 2. + +Eller, § 170, 4. + +Elliot, § 162, 7. + +Eltz, Jac. v., § 151, 1. + +Elvenich, § 191, 1. + +Elvira, Syn. of, § 38, 3; 45, 2. + +Elxai, § 27, 2. + +Elzevir, § 161, 6. + +Emanation, § 26, 2. + +Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9. + +Emmerau, § 78, 2. + +Emmerich, § 188, 3. + +Empaytaz, § 199, 5. + +Emser, Jerome, § 123, 4; 149, 14. + +Encratites, § 27, 10. + +Encyclicon, § 52, 5. + +Encyclopaedists, § 165, 14. + +Endemic Synods, § 43, 2. + +Energumens, § 35, 3. + +_Enfans sans souci_, § 115, 12. + +Enfantin, § 212, 2. + +England, § 139, 4; 143, 1; 154, 4; 155; 162, 1; 202. + +Ennodius, § 46, 8; 59, 4. + +Enoch, Book of, § 32, 2. + +Enraght, § 202, 3. + +Eoban, St., § 78, 7. + +Epaon, Council of, § 76, 5. + +Ephesus, Council of, § 52, 3; 53, 4. + +Ephraem, § 47, 13; 48, 7; 59, 4. + +Epigonus, § 33, 5. + +Epiphanes, § 27, 8. + +Epiphanius, § 47, 10; 51, 2, 3; 57, 4. + +Episcopal System, § 167, 5. + +_Episcopi in partibus_, § 97, 3. + +Episcopius, § 161, 2. + +_Epistolae decretales_, § 46, 3. + " _formatae_, § 34, 6. + " _obscur. vir._, § 120, 5. + " _paschales_, § 34, 6; 56, 3. + " _synodales_, § 34, 6. + +_Epulae Thyesteae_, § 22. + +Erasmus, § 120, 6; 123, 3; 125, 3. + +Erastianism, § 202, 7. + +Erastus, § 117, 4; 144, 1. + +Erfurt, University of, § 120, 2. + +Eric of Calenberg, § 136, 1. + " " Sweden, § 80, 1; 93, 2. + " St., § 93, 3, 11. + " the Red, § 93, 5. + +Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + +Erimbert, § 81, 1. + +Erlembald, § 97, 5. + +Ernest the Pious, § 160, 6. + " of Lueneburg, § 126, 4; 127, 3. + +Ernesti, § 171, 6. + +Ernestine Bible, § 160, 6. + +Esch, John, § 128, 1. + +Eschenmayer, § 176, 2. + +Escobar, § 149, 16; 158, 1. + +Essenes, § 8, 4; 28, 2. + +Essenius, § 161, 5. + +Established Church, § 139, 6; 202, 1. + +Esthonia, § 93, 2; 205, 3. + +Estius, § 150, 14. + +Ethelberga, § 77, 4. + +Ethelbert, § 77, 4. + +Ethelwold, Bishop, § 100, 1. + +Etherius of Osma, § 91, 1. + +Ethiopia, § 64, 1. + +Etshmiadzin, § 72, 2. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, § 17, 7; 36, 3. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, § 61, 3. + +Eucherius, § 47, 21. + +Euchites, § 44, 7; 71, 3. + +Eudocia, § 48, 5; 52, 3, 4, 5. + +Eudoxia, § 51, 3. + +Eudoxius, § 50, 8. + +Eugenius II., § 82, 4. + " III., § 96, 13. + " IV., § 67, 6; 110, 8, 9. + +Eulalius, § 46, 6. + +Euler, § 150, 14. + +Eulogies, § 58, 4. + +Eulogius of Caesarea, § 53, 4. + " " Cordova, § 81, 1; 90, 6. + +Eunapius, § 42, 5. + +Eunomius, § 50, 3. + +Euphemites, § 42, 6. + +Euphrates, § 28, 4. + +Euric, § 76, 2. + +Eusebians, § 50, 2. + +Eusebius of Caesarea, § 36, 8; 47, 2; 50, 1; 59, 1. + " " Dorylaeum, § 52, 3. + " " Emesa, § 47, 8. + " " Nicomedia, § 50, 1. + " " Vercelli, § 50, 2. + +Eustasius of Luxeuil, § 78, 2. + +Eustathians, § 44, 7. + +Eustathius of Antioch, § 50, 8. + " " Sebaste, § 44, 3, 7; 62, 1. + " " Thessalonica, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + +Euthalius, § 59, 1. + +Euthymius Zigabenus, § 68, 5. + +Eutyches, § 52, 4. + +Euzoius, § 50, 8. + +Evagrius, § 5, 1. + +Evangelical-Party, § 202, 1, 4. + +Evangelists, § 17, 5; 34, 1. + +_Evangelium aeternum_, § 108, 4. + +Evolutionists, § 174, 2. + +Ewald, The black and white, § 78, 9. + " H., § 182, 3. + +Exarchate, § 46, 9; 76, 7; 82, 1. + +Exarchs, Episcopal, § 46, 1. + +_Execrabilis_, § 110, 10. + +Exemption, § 98. + +Exercises, Spiritual, § 149, 9; 188, 1. + +Excommunication, § 35, 2; 88, 5; 106, 1. + +Exodus-Churches, § 211, 6, 7. + +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, § 32, 2. + +Exorcism, § 35, 4; 58, 1; 142, 2; 167, 2. + +Exorcists, § 33, 3. + +_Exsurge Domini_, § 123, 2. + +_Extra_, § 99, 5. + +_Extraneae_, § 39, 3. + +_Extravagantes_, § 99, 5. + +Eyck, § 115, 13. + +Eznik, § 64, 3. + +Ezra, Fourth Book of, § 32, 2. + +Faber, John, § 130, 2, 6. + " Stapulensis, § 120, 8. + +Fabian, Bishop of Rome, § 22, 5. + +Facundus of Hermiane, § 47, 19; 52, 6. + +Fagius, § 139, 5. + +Falk, Dr., § 174, 8; 193, 5, 6; 197, 2, 3, 5. + +Familists, § 146, 5. + +Farel, § 130, 3; 138, 1. + +Fasts, Ascetic, § 44, 4; 107. + " Ecclesiastical, § 37, 3; 56, 4, 7; 115, 1, 12. + +Fatak, § 29, 1. + +Faustus of Mileve, § 54, 1. + " " Rhegium, § 47, 21; 53, 5. + +Favre, Pet., § 149, 8. + +Fawkes, Guy, § 153, 6. + +Fazy, § 199, 1. + +Febronius, § 165, 10. + +Fecht, § 167, 1. + +Federal Theology, § 161, 4. + +Felicissimus, § 41, 2. + +Felicitas, § 22, 4. + +Felix, II., § 46, 4. + " III., § 46, 8; 52, 5. + " IV., § 46, 8. + " V., § 110, 8. + " of Aptunga, § 63, 1. + " the Manichaean, § 54, 1. + " Pratensis, § 120, 9. + " of Urgellis, § 91, 1. + +Fell, Marg., § 163, 4. + +Feneberg, § 187, 1. + +Fenelon, § 157, 3; 158, 2. + +Fenian-movement, § 202, 10. + +Ferdinand I., § 137, 8; 126, 2, 3; 139, 19, 20. + " II., § 151, 1; 153, 2. + " VII. of Spain, § 205, 1. + " I. of Castile, § 95, 2. + " III. of Castile, § 95, 2. + " the Catholic, § 95, 2; 117, 2; 118, 7. + +Ferguson, Fergus, § 202, 8. + +Ferrara, Council of, § 67, 6; 110, 8. + +Ferrer, Bonif., § 115, 4. + " Vincent, § 115, 2; 110, 6. + +Ferry, Minister, § 203, 6. + +_Ferula_, § 60, 1. + +Fessler, Bishop, § 189, 3. + " Ign., § 165, 13. + +Feudalism, § 86, 1. + +Feuerbach, § 174, 1, 3; 182, 6. + +Feuillants, § 149, 6. + +Feyin, Synod of, § 64, 3. + +Fichte, J. G., § 170, 13. + " J. H., § 174, 2; 211, 15. + +Fiesole, § 115, 13. + +Fifth Monarchy Men, § 162, 1. + +_Filioque_, § 50, 7; 67, 1; 91, 2. + +Finkenstein, § 176, 3. + +Finland, § 93, 11; 139, 1; 206, 3. + +Firmian, § 165, 4. + +Firmcius Maternus, § 47, 14. + +Firmilian, § 34, 3; 35, 3. + +Fischart, § 142, 7. + +Fisher, Bishop, § 139, 4. + +Fisherman's Ring, § 110, 16. + +Fitzgerald, § 189, 3. + +Five Mile Act, § 155, 3. + +Flacius, § 141, 4-8; 142, 6; 5, 2. + +Flagellants, § 106, 4; 116, 3; 149, 17. + +Flagellation, § 106, 4; 116, 3; 149, 17. + +Flavia Domitilla, § 22, 1. + +Flavian of Antioch, § 50, 8. + " of Constantinople, § 52, 4. + +Flechier, § 158, 2. + +Flemming, § 160, 3. + +Fletcher, § 169, 3. + +Fleury, § 5, 2; 158, 2; 165, 7. + +Fliedner, § 183, 1. + +Flora, § 27, 5. + +Florence, Council of, § 67, 6; 72; 110, 8. + +Florentius Radewin, § 112, 9. + +Florinus, § 31, 2. + +Florus Magister, § 90, 5; 91, 5. + +Folmar, § 102, 6. + +Fontevraux, Order of, § 98, 2. + +Fools, Festival of, § 105, 2. + +Formosus, § 82, 8. + +_Formula Concordiae_, § 141, 9. + " Consensus Helvet., § 161, 3. + +Foerster, J., § 142, 6. + " prelate, § 118, 3; 197, 6. + +Fortunatus, § 48, 6. + +Fouque, de la M., § 174, 5. + +Fourier, § 212, 1. + +Fox, George, Quaker, § 163, 4, 5. + " American Spiritualist, § 211, 17. + +France, § 139, 13-17; 153, 4; 165, 5; 203. + +Francis, St., § 93, 16; 98, 3; 104, 10; 106, 5. + " de Paula, § 112, 8. + " " Sales, § 156, 6; 157, 1. + " I., of France, § 110, 9, 14; 120, 8; 126, 5, 6; 139, 13. + " II., of France, § 139, 14. + +Francisca Romana, § 112, 1. + +Franciscans, § 98, 3; 112, 2; 149, 6. + +Francis Xavier Society, § 186, 4. + +Franck, Seb. § 146, 3. + " John, § 160, 4. + " Michael, § 160, 4. + " Sal., § 167, 6. + +Francke, A. H., § 159, 3; 167, 2, 8, 9; 160, 7. + +Franco of Cologne, § 144, 11. + +Frank, J. H., § 182, 15. + +Frankists, § 165, 17. + +Franks, The, § 76, 9. + +Frankfort, Synod of, § 91, 1; 92, 1. + " Concordat of, § 110, 9, 14. + " Parliament of, § 189, 4. + " Recess of, § 141, 11. + " Troubles of, § 134, 3. + +_Fratres de communi vita_, § 112, 9. + " _minores_, § 98, 3. + " _pontifices_, § 98, 9. + " _praedicatores_, § 98, 5. + +_Fraticelli_, § 112, 2. + +Fredigis, § 90, 4. + +Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14, 15; 94, 3. + " II., Emperor, § 94, 5; 96, 20; 97, 2; 99, 3; 109, 2. + " III., Emperor, § 110, 9. + " III., of Austin, § 110, 3. + " I., of Prussia, § 169, 1. + " II., " § 165, 9; 171, 4. + " I., of Denmark, § 139, 2. + " IV., " § 167, 9. + " of Palatinate, § 153, 3. + " Aug. the Strong, § 153, 1. + " the Wise, § 122, 3; 123, 9. + " William, the Great Elector, § 154, 4. + " William II., § 171, 5. + " " III., § 171, 5; 172, 3; 177, 1; 193. + " " IV., § 177, 2; 193. + +Freemasons, § 171, 2; 104, 13. + +Free-will Baptists, § 162, 3; 208, 1. + +Free-thinkers, § 164, 2; 171, 2. + +Freiligrath, § 174, 5. + +Fresenius, § 167, 8. + +Freylinghausen, § 167, 6-8. + +Fricke, § 182, 21. + +Fridolin, § 77, 7; 78, 1. + +Friedewalt, Convention of, § 126, 6. + +Friedrich, John, § 190, 1; 191, 7. + +Fries, § 174, 1. + +Frisians, § 78, 3. + +Frith, § 139, 4. + +Frithigern, § 76, 1. + +Fritzlar, § 78, 4. + +Fritzsche, § 183, 3. + +Frobenius, § 120, 6. + +Frohschammer, § 191, 6. + +Froment, § 138, 1. + +Fronto, § 23. + +Frumentius, § 64, 1. + +Fry, Elizabeth, § 183, 1. + +Fugue, Musical, § 115, 8. + +Fulbert of Chartres, § 101, 1. + +Fulco, Canonist, § 102, 1. + " of Neuilly, § 104, 1. + +Fulda, § 78, 5; 151, 2. + +Fulgentius, Ferr., § 47, 20. + " of Ruspe, § 47, 20. + +Gabler, Andr., § 182, 6. + " Th. A., § 171, 5. + +Gabriel, Didymus, § 124, 1. + +Galen, § 23. + +Galerius, § 22, 6. + +Galileo, § 156, 4. + +Gall, St., § 130, 4, 8. + +Galle, Peter, § 139, 1. + +Gallienus, § 22, 5. + +Gallican Church, § 156, 3; 203. + +Gallizin, Am. v., § 172, 2. + +Gallus, St., § 178. + " Emperor, § 22, 5. + +Ganganelli, § 165, 8. + +Gangra, Synod of, § 44, 7; 45, 2. + +Gardiner, Allen, § 184, 2. + " Bishop, § 139, 4, 5. + +Garibaldi, 185, 3. + +Garve, § 170, 4. + +Gasparin, § 203, 4. + +Gannilo, § 101, 3. + +Gauzbert, § 81, 1. + +Gavazzi, § 204, 4. + +Gebhardt of Eichstedt, § 96, 5. + " " Cologne, § 137, 7. + " " Salzburg, § 97, 2. + +Gedike, § 154, 3. + +Gedimin, § 93, 14. + +Geibel, § 174, 6. + +Geier, § 159, 4. + +Geiler of Kaisersb., § 115, 2, 11. + +Geisa, § 93, 8. + +Geismar, § 78, 4. + +Geissel, § 194, 1. + +Gelasius, I., § 46, 8; 47, 22; 59, 6. + " II., § 96, 11. + +Gelimar, § 76, 3. + +Gellert, § 176, 11; 172, 1. + +Genesis, The little, § 32, 2. + +Genesius, § 71, 1. + +Geneva, § 138; 199, 1, 2, 5. + +Genghis-Khan, § 72, 1. + +Gennadius, § 47, 16; 48, 3. + " Patr., § 68, 5; 67, 7. + +Genseric, § 76, 3. + +Gentile Christians, § 18. + +Gentilis, § 148, 3. + +Gentilly, Synod of, § 91, 2; 92, 1. + +_Genuflectentes_, § 35, 1. + +George Acyndynos, § 69, 1. + " of Brandenburg, § 127, 3; 132, 6. + " of Saxony, § 122, 4; 126, 5; 128; 134, 2. + " Bishop of the Arabs, § 72, 2. + " of Trebizond, § 68, 2. + +Gerbert, § 96, 2; 100, 3. + +Gereuth, § 188, 6. + +Gerhard Groot, § 112, 9. + " John, § 159, 4; 160, 1. + " Segarelli, § 108, 8. + " Zerbolt, § 112, 9. + +Gerhardt, Paul, § 154, 4; 160, 4. + +Gerike, P., § 139, 18. + +Gerlach, L. v., § 175, 1; 176, 1. + " Otto v., § 181, 4. + " Stephen, § 139, 26. + +St. Germains, Peace of, § 139, 15. + +German Empire, § 192; 197. + " Catholics, § 187, 6. + +Germany, Young, § 174, 5. + +Germanus, Patr., § 66, 1. + +Gerson, § 110, 6, 7; 112, 6; 113, 3; 118, 4; 119, 5. + +Gertrude the Great, § 107, 1. + " of Hackeborn, § 107, 1. + +Gesenius, W., § 182, 3. + " Just., § 160, 3. + +Gewilib of Mainz, § 78, 4. + +Geysa, § 93, 2. + +Gfroerer, § 5, 4; 175, 7. + +Ghazali, § 103, 1. + +Ghent, Pacific. of, § 139, 12. + +Ghetto, § 95, 3; 185, 1. + +Ghiberti, § 115, 13. + +Gichtel, § 163, 9. + +Gieseler, § 5, 4. + +Giessen, University of, § 154, 1; 196, 1, 5. + +Gil, Juan, § 129, 21. + +Gilbertines, § 98, 2. + +Gilbertus Porretanus, § 102, 3. + +Gildas, § 90, 8. + +Giotto, § 115, 13. + +Gisela, § 93, 8. + +Gladstone, § 202, 10. + +Glass, Painting on, § 104, 14; 174, 9. + +Glassius, § 159, 4. + +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, § 17, 1. + +Gnesen, Archbishopric of, § 93, 2. + +Gnosimachians, § 62, 3. + +Gnosticism, § 18, 3; 26-28. + +Goar, St., § 78, 3. + +Gobat, Bishop, § 184, 8, 9. + +Gobel, § 165, 15. + +Goch, John of, § 119, 10. + +God, Friends of, § 116, 4. + +Godfrey of Bouillon, § 94, 1. + " " Strassburg, § 105, 6. + +Goethe, § 171, 11. + +Goetze, § 171, 8. + +Gomarus, § 161, 2. + +Gonzago, Cardinal, § 149, 2. + +Gonzalo of Berceo, § 105, 6. + +Good Friday, § 56, 4. + +Goodwin, § 161, 6. + +Gordianus, § 22, 4. + +Goerg, Junker, § 123, 8. + +Gorm the Old, § 93, 2. + +Goerres, Jos., § 174, 4; 181, 1; 5, 6. + +Goeschel, § 179, 1, 2; 182, 6, 15. + +Gossler, § 193, 6; 197, 11. + +Gossner, § 187, 2; 184, 1. + +Gothic Architecture, § 104, 12. + +Goths, § 76. + +Gotter, § 167, 6. + +Gottschalk, Prince of Wends, § 93, 9. + " Monk, § 91, 5, 6. + +Goudimel, § 143, 2; 149, 15. + +Grabau, § 208, 2. + +Grabow, § 210, 10. + +Graf, § 182, 18. + +_Graffiti_, § 38, 1; 39, 5. + +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, § 34, 6. + +Grammont, Order of, § 98, 2. + +Grant, § 184, 9. + +Granvella, § 135, 1, 2, 3. + +Gratian, Emperor, § 42, 4. + " Canonist, § 99, 5; 104, 4. + +Gratius Ortuinus, § 120, 5. + +Graumann, § 142, 3. + +Grebel, § 130, 5. + +Greece, § 207. + +Greeks, United, § 151; 206, 2. + +Green, § 202, 3. + +Greenland, § 93, 1; 167, 9; 184, 2. + +Gregentius, § 48, 3. + +Gregoire, Bishop, § 165, 15. + +Gregory I., § 46, 10; 47, 22; 57, 4; 58, 3; 59, 5, 6, 9; 61, 4; 76, 8; 77, + 4. + " II., III., § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1. + " IV., § 82, 4. + " V., § 96, 2. + " VI., § 96, 4. + " VII., § 96, 7-9; 94; 101, 2. + " VIII., § 96, 16; 94, 3. + " IX., § 96, 19; 99, 4; 109, 2. + " X., § 96, 21; 67, 4. + " XI., § 110, 5; 114, 4; 117, 2. + " XII., § 110, 6, 7. + " XIII., § 139, 17; 149, 3, 4, 17. + " XIV., § 149, 3. + " XV., § 156, 1, 4, 5. + " XVI., § 185, 1. + " Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. + " Acindynos, § 69, 2. + " of Constantinople, § 207, 1. + " of Heimburg, § 118, 5. + " Illuminator, § 64, 3. + " Palamas, § 69, 2. + " Scholaris, § 68, 5. + " Thaumaturgus, § 31, 6. + " Nazianzen, § 47, 4; 48, 5, 8; 59, 4. + " of Nyssa, § 47, 4. + " of Tours, § 90, 2. + " of Utrecht, § 78, 3. + +Gregorian Chant, § 59, 3. + +Gretna-Green, § 202, 6. + +Grevy, § 203, 5. + +Grey, Lady Jane, § 139, 5. + +Griesbach, § 171, 7. + +Groot, Gerh., § 112, 9. + +Gropper, § 135, 3, 7. + +Grosseteste, § 97, 4. + +Grotius, § 153, 7; 161, 2, 6, 7. + +Gruber, § 170, 1, 2. + +Gruet, Jac., § 138, 4. + +Grundtvig, § 201, 1. + +Grunthler, § 139, 24. + +Grynaeus, § 133, 8. + +Gualbertus, § 98, 1. + +Guardian, § 98, 5. + +Guatemala, § 209, 2. + +Guelphs, § 96, 7. + +Guericke, § 5, 5; 176, 1; 177, 2; 182, 13. + +Guerin, § 98, 2. + +Guevara, § 209, 2. + +Guiana, § 184, 2. + +Guibert, Archbishop, § 203, 5. + " of Nogent, § 101, 1. + +Guido of Arezzo, § 104, 11. + " de Castello, § 102, 2; 108, 7. + " of Siena, § 104, 9, 14. + +Guigo, § 98, 2. + +Guise, Dukes of, § 139, 13-17. + +Guizot, § 185, 3; 203, 2, 8. + +Gundiberge, § 76, 8. + +Gundioch, § 75, 5. + +Gundobald, § 76, 5. + +Gundulf, § 108, 2. + +Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6. + +Gunthamund, § 76, 3. + +Gunther of Cologne, § 82, 7. + +Guenther, Ant., § 191, 3. + " Cyriacus, § 160, 4. + +Guenzburg, Eberlin of, § 125, 1. + +Gury, § 191, 9. + +Gustavus Adolphus, § 153, 2; 160, 7. + " " Society, § 178, 1. + +Guetzlaf, § 184, 6. + +Guyon, § 157, 3. + +Gylas, § 93, 8. + +Gyrovagi, § 44, 7. + +Haag, Pastor, § 196, 3. + +Haas, Jos., § 210, 2. + " Charles, § 175, 7. + +Haco the Good, § 93, 4. + +Hadrian, Emperor, § 28, 3; 25; 39, 6. + +Hadrian I., § 66, 3; 82, 2; 91, 1. + " II., § 67, 1; 79, 2; 82, 7; 83, 2. + " III., § 82, 8. + " IV., § 96, 14. + " V., § 96, 22. + " VI., § 149, 1; 126, 1. + +Hagenau, § 135, 2. + +Hagenbach, § 182, 9; 5, 5. + +Hahn, Aug., § 176, 1. + " Michael, § 172, 3. + " Missionary, § 184, 3. + +Hahn-Hahn, Ida, § 175, 7. + +Hakem, § 95, 2. + +Haldane, § 199, 5. + +Haldanites, § 170, 6. + +Halle, University of, § 167, 1. + +Haller, Alb., § 171, 8. + " Berth., § 130, 4. + " L. v., § 175, 7. + +Hamann, § 171, 11. + +Hamburg, Bishopric, § 80, 1. + +Hamilton, Patrick, § 139, 8. + +Hammerschmidt, § 160, 5. + +Handel, § 167, 7. + +Haneberg, § 189, 4; 197, 6. + +Hanne, Dr., § 180, 3. + +Hannington, Bishop, § 184, 4. + +Hanover, § 193, 8; 194, 3. + +Hans, Brother, § 115, 11. + +Harald the Apostate, § 80. + " Blaatand, § 93, 2. + +Hardenberg, § 144, 2. + +Hard-Shell Baptists, § 170, 6. + +Hardouin, § 165, 11. + +Hare, § 211, 17. + +Harless, § 182, 13; 195, 4. + +Harmonites, § 211, 6. + +Harmonius, § 27, 5. + +Harms, Claus, § 176, 1. + " Louis, § 184, 1. + +Harnack, Th., § 182, 13. + +Hartmann, E. v., § 174, 2. + +Hase, § 5, 4; 176, 1; 182, 5. + +Hasse, § 5, 5. + +Hassun, § 207, 4. + +Hattemists, § 170, 8. + +Hatto of Reichenau, § 90, 3. + " I. of Mainz, § 83, 3. + +Hatty-Humayun, § 207. + +Haetzer, § 130, 5; 148, 1. + +Haug, § 170, 1. + +Hauge, § 201, 3. + +Hauser, § 188, 5. + +Hausmann, Nich., § 133, 4. + +Hausrath, § 182, 17. + +Haydn, § 174, 10. + +Haymo of Halberstadt, § 90, 5. + +Hebel, § 171, 11. + +Heber, Bishop, § 184, 5. + +Hebraeans, Sect of, § 170, 8. + +Hebrews, Gospel of the, § 31, 16. + +Heddo of Strassburg, § 84, 2. + +Hedinger, § 170, 1. + +Hedio, § 130, 3. + +Hedwig of Poland, § 93, 14. + " St. of Silesia, § 105, 3. + +Heermann, § 160, 3. + +Hefele, § 189, 3, 4; 191, 7. + +Hefter, § 184, 8. + +Hegel, § 174, 1. + +Hegesippus, § 31, 7. + +Hegius, § 120, 3. + +Heidanus, § 161, 5, 7. + +Heidegger, § 161, 3. + +Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1. + " University, § 120, 3. + +Heine, § 174, 5. + +Heinrichs, § 171, 5. + +Hejira, § 65. + +Held, H., § 159, 3. + " Imperial Orator, § 134, 2. + +Helding, § 136, 5. + +Helena, Empress, § 57, 5, 6. + " of Russia, § 73, 4. + +Heliand, § 89, 3. + +Hell, § 106, 3. + +Hellenists, § 10, 1. + +Helmstedt, § 159, 2. + +Heloise, § 102, 1. + +Helvetius, § 165, 12. + +Helvidius, § 62, 2. + +Hemero-baptists, § 25, 1. + +Hemmerlin, § 118, 5. + +Hemming of Upsala, § 93, 11. + " Professor, § 141, 10. + +Hengstenberg, § 176, 1; 182, 4. + +Henke, § 5, 3; 171, 7. + +Henoticon, § 52, 2. + +Henricians, § 108, 7. + +Henry I., Emperor, § 93, 2; 96, 1. + " II., § 96, 4. + " III., § 96, 4; 97, 1. + " IV., § 96, 6. + " V., § 96, 11 ff. + " VI., § 96, 16. + " VII., § 110, 2. + " I. of England, § 96, 12. + " II. " § 96, 16; 94, 3. + " VIII. " § 125, 3; 139, 4, 7, 8. + " II. of France, § 139, 13. + " III. " § 139, 17, 18. + " IV. " § 139, 17. + " of Brunswick, § 126, 5; 135, 6, 10. + " of Saxony, § 134, 4. + " _de Hessia_, § 118, 5. + " of Langenstein, § 118, 5. + " of Lausanne, § 108, 7. + " of Noerdlingen, § 114, 6. + " of Upsala, § 93, 11. + " the Lion, § 93, 9. + " Wendish Prince, § 93, 9. + " of Zuetphen, § 128, 1. + +Hensel, Louise, § 174, 6. + +Heppe, § 170, 3; 182, 16. + +Heracleon, § 27, 5. + +Heraclius, § 52, 8; 57, 5; 64, 2. + +Herbart, § 174, 2. + +Herder, § 171, 11. + +Heretic's Baptism, § 35, 5. + +Hergenroether, § 5, 6; 191, 7. + +Heriger, § 80, 1. + +Hermann von Fritzlar, § 114. + " Premonstrat., § 95, 3. + " of Cologne, § 133, 5. + " von Wied, § 133, 5; 135, 7; 136, 2. + +Hermannsburg, § 184, 1; 193, 8. + +Hermas, § 30, 4. + +Hermes, § 191, 1. + +Hermias, § 30, 10. + +Hermogenes, § 27, 13. + +Herrero de Mora, § 205, 5. + +Herrmann, § 182, 20. + +Herrnhut, § 168; 169, 3. + +Hervaeus, § 102, 8. + +Herzog, Old Catholic Bishop, § 190, 3; 199, 3. + " Prelate, § 197, 10, 11. + " J. J., § 5, 5. + +Hess, J. Jac., § 171, 6. + +Hesse, § 127, 2. + " Darmstadt, § 196, 4; 197, 15. + " Cassel, § 154, 1; 193, 9; 194, 4. + +Hesshus, § 144, 1, 2. + +Hesychasts, § 69, 2. + +_Hetaerae_, § 22, 2. + +Hettinger, § 191, 6. + +Heubner, § 184, 5. + +Heumann, § 167, 4. + +Hexapla, § 31, 5. + +Hibbert Trust, § 202, 4. + +Hicks, § 211, 3. + +Hieracas, § 39, 3. + +Hierocles, § 23, 3. + +Hieronomites, § 112, 8. + +High-Churchmen, § 202, 1. + +Hilarion, § 44, 3. + +Hilary of Arles, § 46, 7. + " " Poitiers, § 47, 14. + +Hildebert of Tours, § 101, 1; 104, 4, 10. + +Hildebrand, § 96, 4 ff.; 101, 2. + +Hildegard, § 97; 107, 1; 109. + +Hilderic, § 76, 9. + +Hilduin, § 90, 8. + +Hilgenfeld, § 182, 7. + +Hilgers, § 191, 6. + +Hiller, § 167, 6. + +Hinemar of Laon, § 83, 2. + " " Rheims, § 82, 7; 83, 2; 87, 3; 90, 5; 91, 5. + +Hippolytus, § 31, 3; 33, 5; 40, 2; 41, 1. + +Hirschberger Bible, § 167, 8. + +Hirscher, § 187, 3; 191, 6. + +Hitzig, § 182, 3. + +Hobbes, § 164, 3. + +Hoe v. Hoenegg, § 154, 4; 159, 1. + +Hofacker, § 211, 4. + +Hoffmann, Christ., § 211, 8. + " Fr., § 191, 2. + " G. W., § 196, 5. + " Melch., § 147, 1. + " Chr. K. v., § 182, 14. + " Dan., § 141, 15. + +Hofmeister, Seb., § 130, 4. + +Hofstede de Groot, § 200, 2. + +Hohenlohe, § 188, 2. + " Card., § 189, 1; 197, 7. + +Holbach, § 165, 12. + +Holbein, § 115, 6, 13; 113, 5; 142, 2. + +Holland, § 165, 7; 200, 2, 3. + +Hollaz, § 167, 4, 8. + +Holtzmann, § 182, 17. + +Homberg, Synod of, § 127, 2. + +Homoians, § 50, 3. + +Homoiousians, § 50, 3. + +Homologoumena, § 36, 8. + +Homoousians, § 33, 1; 50, 1. + +Hoenigern, § 177, 2. + +Honorius, Emperor, § 42, 4; 53, 4. + " I., § 46, 11; 52, 8, 9. + " II., § 96, 13. + " III., § 96, 19. + " IV., § 96, 22. + +Honter, Jac., § 139, 20. + +Hontheim, § 165, 10. + +Hoogstraten, § 120, 4; 122, 3. + +Hooper, § 139, 5. + +Hormisdas of Rome, § 46, 8; 52, 5, 6. + +Horsley, § 171, 1. + +Hosius, Bishop, § 50, 1, 2, 3. + " Cardinal, § 139, 18. + +Hospinian, § 161, 7. + +Hospital Brothers, § 98, 8. + +Hossbach, § 180, 4. + +Host, § 104, 2. + +Hoeting, § 197, 10. + +Hottinger, § 5, 2; 161, 6. + +Howard, Catherine, § 139, 4. + +Huber, J., § 189, 1; 190, 1; 191, 7. + " Sam., § 141, 14. + +Hubmeier, § 130, 5; 147, 3. + +Huebald, § 104, 11. + +Huetius, § 158, 1. + +Hug, § 191, 8. + +Hugh Capet, § 96, 2. + +Huguenots, § 139, 14 ff.; 153, 4; 166, 5. + +Hugo a St. Caro, § 103, 9. + " of St. Victor, § 102, 4; 104, 2, 4. + +_Hugo de Payens_, § 98, 8. + +Huelsemann, § 153, 7; 159, 2. + +Humanists, § 120. + +Humbert, § 67, 3; 101, 2. + +Humboldt, Alex. v., § 174, 3. + +Hume, § 171, 1. + +Humiliates, § 98, 7; 101, 2. + +Hundeshagen, § 196, 3. + +Hungary, § 93, 8; 139, 20; 153, 3; 198, 6. + +Hunneric, § 76, 3; 54, 1. + +Hunnius, AEgid., § 141, 13. + " Nich., § 159, 5. + +Huntingdon, Lady, § 169, 3. + +Hupfeld, § 182, 3; 194, 4. + +Hurter, § 175, 1. + +Husig, § 64, 3. + +Huss, § 113, 7; 119, 3-6. + +Hutten, Ulr. v., § 120, 2, 3; 122, 4. + +Hy, § 77, 2. + +Hyacinth, § 93, 13. + +Hylists, Anc. Materialists, § 26, 2. + +Hymn Music, § 142, 3; 171, 1; 180, 1. + +Hymnology, § 17, 7; 36, 10; 59, 4; 89, 2; 104, 10; 115, 7. + +Hymns, Catholic, § 149, 15. + " Protestant, § 142, 3; 143, 2; 160, 3; 162, 6; 167, 6; 175, 10. + +Hypatia, § 42, 4. + +Hyperius, § 143, 5; 154, 1. + +Hypophonic singing, § 59, 5. + +Hypostasianism, § 33, 1. + +Hypsistarians, § 42, 6. + +Hystaspes, § 32, 1. + +Iamblichus, § 24, 2. + +Ibas, § 47, 13; 52, 3. + +Iberians, § 64, 4. + +Icarians, § 212, 3. + +Iceland, § 93, 5; 139, 2. + +Idacius, § 54, 2. + +Iglesia Espanola, § 205, 4. + +Ignatius of Antioch, § 22, 2; 30, 5; 34, 1, 7. + " Patr. of Constant., § 67, 1. + +Ignatius Loyola, § 149, 8. + +_Ignorantins_, § 165, 2. + +Ijejasu, § 150, 2; 156, 11. + +Ildefonsus, § 90, 2, 9. + +Illuminati, § 165, 11. + +Illyria, § 46, 5, 9. + +Images, § 38, 4. + " Controversy about, § 66; 92, 1. + +Image-worship, § 57, 4; 89, 4. + +Immaculate Conception, § 104, 7; 112, 4; 113, 2; 149, 13; 156, 6; 185, 2. + +Immanuel Synod, § 177, 3. + +Immunity, § 84, 1. + +_Impostores tres_, § 148, 4. + +Incense, § 59, 8. + +_Inclusi_, § 85, 6. + +_In Coena Domini_, § 117, 3. + +_In commendam_, § 86, 5; 110, 15. + +Independents, § 143, 4; 155, 1; 162, 1. + +_Index prohibitorius_, § 149, 14. + +Indulgences, § 106, 2; 117, 1. + +_Ineffabilis_, § 185, 2. + +_In eminenti_, § 157, 5. + +Infallibility, § 96, 23; 110, 14; 149, 4; 165, 8; 189, 3. + +Infant Baptism, § 35, 3; 58, 1. + +Infralapsarianism, § 161, 1. + +_Infula_, § 84, 1. + +Inge, § 93, 3. + +Ingolstadt, § 120, 3. + +_Innocentum festum_, § 57, 1; 105, 2. + +Innocent I., § 46, 5; 51, 3; 53, 4; 61, 2, 3. + " II., § 96, 13. + " III., § 96, 17, 18; 94, 4; 102, 9; 108, 10; 109, 1. + " IV., § 96, 20; 72, 6. + " V., § 96, 22. + " VI., § 110, 4, 5. + " VII., § 110, 6. + " VIII., § 110, 11; 115, 4. + " IX., § 149, 3. + " X., § 156, 1; 153, 2; 157, 5. + " XI., § 156, 1, 3; 157, 2. + " XII., § 156, 1, 3; 157, 3. + " XIII., § 165, 1. + +_In partibus infidelium_, § 97, 3. + +Inquisition, § 109, 2; 117, 2; 139, 22; 149, 2; 151; 156, 3. + +Inspiration, Doctrine of, § 36, 9. + +_Insula sanctorum_, § 77, 1. + +Intentionalism, § 149, 10. + +Interdict, § 106, 1. + +Interim, The Augsburg, § 136, 5, 6. + " " Leipzig, § 136, 7. + " " Regensburg, § 135, 3. + +International, § 212, 4. + +Interpreters, § 34, 3. + +Investiture, § 45, 1; 84; 96, 7, 11, 12. + +Iona, § 77, 2. + +Ireland, § 77, 1; 139, 7; 153, 6; 202, 9. + +Irenaeus, § 31, 2; 33, 9; 34, 8; 40, 2. + +Irene, § 66, 9. + +Irish Massacre, § 153, 6. + +Irvingites, § 211, 10. + +Isaac, the Great, § 64, 3. + " of Antioch, § 48, 7. + +Isabella of Castile, § 95, 2; 117, 2; 118, 7. + " II. of Spain, § 205, 2. + +Isenberg, § 184, 9. + +Isidore the Gnostic, § 28, 2. + " of Pelusium, § 47, 6; 44, 3. + " the Presbyter, § 51, 2, 3. + " Russ. Metropol., § 73. + " of Seville, § 90, 2. + +Islam, § 65; 81; 95. + +Issy, Conference of, § 157, 3. + +_Itala_, § 36, 8. + +Italy, § 139, 22; 189, 7; 204. + +Ithacius, § 54, 2. + +Ivo of Chartres, § 99, 5. + +Jablonsky, § 168, 3. + +Jacob el Baradai, § 52, 7. + " Basilicus, § 139, 26. + " a Benedictis, § 104, 10. + " of Brescia, § 112, 3. + " ben Chajim, § 120, 8. + " the Conqueror, § 95. + " of Edessa, § 47, 13. + " " Harkh, § 71, 2. + " " Jueterbegk, § 118, 5. + " " Maerlant, § 105, 5. + " " Marchia, § 112, 4. + " " Misa, § 119, 7. + " " Nisibis, § 47, 13. + " " Sarug, § 48, 7. + +Jacobi, § 171, 10. + +Jacobini, § 197, 9, 12. + +Jacobites, § 52, 7; 72, 2. + +Jacopone da Todi, § 104, 10. + +Jaldabaoth, § 27, 7. + +James the Just, § 16, 3. + " V. of Scotland, § 139, 8. + " I. of England, § 117, 4; 139, 11; 153, 6; 155, 1. + " II. of England, § 153, 6; 155, 3. + " III. of Baden, § 153, 1. + " Molay, § 112, 7. + " a Voragine, § 104, 8. + +Jansen, Cornel., § 157, 5. + +Jansenists, § 157, 15; 165, 6. + +Januarius, St., § 188, 10. + +Janus, § 189, 1. + +Japan, § 150, 2; 156, 11; 184, 6; 186, 7. + +Jaroslaw I., § 72, 4. + " II., § 73, 6. + +Jason and Papiscus, § 30, 8. + +Java, § 184, 5. + +Jay, le, § 158, 1. + +Jazelich, § 52, 3. + +Jena, Univ. of, § 141, 1, 6. + +Jeremias II., § 73, 4; 139, 26. + +Jerome, § 17, 6; 33, 9; 47, 16; 48, 1; 51, 2; 53, 4; 59, 3. + " of Prague, § 119, 4, 5. + +Jerusalem, Bishopric, § 184, 8. + " Church of the New, § 170, 4. + +Jesuates, § 112, 8. + +Jesuits, § 149, 8-12; 150; 151; 156, 2-9; 157, 2, 5; 165, 7-9; 186, 1; + 197, 4; 199, 1. + +Jewish Christians, § 18; 28; 211, 9. + " Missions, § 167, 9; 184, 8. + +Jews in Middle Ages, § 90, 9; 95, 3. + +Joachim of Floris, § 108, 5. + " " Brandenburg, § 128, 1; 134, 5. + " II. of Brandenburg, § 134, 5; 136, 5. + +Joan of Arc, § 116, 2. + +Joanna, Popess, § 82, 6. + " of Valois, § 112, 8. + +John I., Pope, § 46, 8. + " VIII. and IX., § 82, 8; 79, 2; 67, 1. + " X., XII., XIII., § 96, 1. + " XIV., XV., XVI., § 96, 2. + " XVII., XVIII., § 96, 4. + " XIX., § 96, 4; 57, 1. + " XXI., § 96, 22; 82, 6. + " XXII., § 110, 3; 112, 2; 113, 1; 114, 1. + " XXIII., § 110, 7; 119, 4. + " the Constant, § 124, 5. + " Frederick, the Magnanimous, § 133, 2; 136, 3; 137, 3. + " Lackland, § 96, 18. + " VII. of Portugal, § 205, 4. + " Sigismund, § 154, 3. + " the Apostle, § 16, 2. + " of Antioch, § 52, 3. + " Beccos, § 67, 3. + " of Capistrano, § 112, 3. + " " Climacus, § 47, 12. + " " the Cross, § 49, 6, 16. + " " Damascus, § 66, 1; 68, 2-5. + " " Ephesus, § 5, 1. + " " God, § 149, 7. + " " Hagen, § 112, 1. + " " Jandun, § 118, 1. + " Jejunator, § 46, 10; 61, 1. + " of Leyden, § 133, 6. + " de Monte Corvino, § 93, 15. + " Moschus, § 47, 12. + " of Nepomuc, § 116, 1. + " Ozniensis, § 72, 2. + " V., Palaeologus, § 67, 5. + " VII., " § 67, 6. + " of Paris, § 118, 1. + " " Parma, § 108, 5. + " Philoponus, § 47, 11. + " the Presbyter, § 16, 3; 30, 6. + " Prester, § 72, 4. + " of Ravenna, § 83, 3. + " " Salisbury, § 102, 9. + " Scholasticus, § 43, 3. + " Scotus Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + " Talaja, § 52, 5. + " of Trani, § 67, 3. + " " Turrecremata, § 110, 15. + " Tzimiskes, § 71, 1. + " of Wesel, § 119, 10. + +John, St., Festival of, § 57, 1. + " Disciples of, § 25, 1. + " Knights of, § 98, 8. + +Jonas of Bobbio, § 77, 3. + " " Orleans, § 90, 4; 92, 2. + " Justus, § 123, 7; 134, 5; 142, 2. + +Jones, § 182, 3. + +Jordanes, § 90, 8. + +Joris, David, § 148, 1. + +Joseph, Patr., § 67, 4; 70, 1. + " I., Emperor, § 165, 1. + " II., § 165, 10; 186, 2. + +Josephus, § 10, 2; 13, 2. + +Jovi, § 80, 1. + +Jovinian, § 62, 2. + +Juarez, § 209, 1. + +Jubilee Year, § 117, 1. + +Jubilees, Book of, § 32, 2. + +_Jubili_, § 85, 2. + +Judae, Leo, § 130, 2; 143, 5. + +Judson, § 184, 5. + +Julia Mammaea, § 22, 4; 31, 5. + +Juliana, § 104, 7. + +Julianists, § 52, 7. + +Julian, Emperor, § 42, 3, 5; 63, 1. + " of Eclanum, § 47, 21; 53, 4. + " " Toledo, § 90, 2, 9. + " St., § 188, 8. + +July Law, Pruss., § 197, 10, 11. + +Julius I., § 46, 3; 50, 2. + " II., § 110, 13. + " III., § 149, 2. + " Africanus, § 31, 8. + +Jumpers, § 170, 7. + +Jung-Stillung, § 171, 11. + +Junilius, § 48, 1. + +Junius, Fr., § 143, 5. + +Jurieu, § 161, 7. + +_Jus circa sacra_, § 43, 1; 167, 3. + " _primarum prec._, § 165, 1. + " _regaliae_, § 156, 1. + " _spoliorum_, § 110, 15. + +Justin I., § 52, 5. + " Martyr, § 30, 9; 33, 9; 36, 3, 7. + " the Gnostic, § 27, 6. + +Justina, St., § 48, 8. + " Empress, § 50, 4. + +Justinian I., § 42, 4; 45, 2; 46, 9; 52, 6. + " II., § 46, 11. + +Juvenal of Jerusalem, § 53, 3. + +Juvencus, § 48, 6. + +Kaehler, § 176, 3. + +Kahnis, § 182, 15. + +Kaiser, § 128, 1. + +Kaiserwerth, § 183, 1. + +Kamehameha, § 184, 7. + +Kamel, Sultan, § 94, 4, 5. + +Kanitz, § 176, 3. + +Kant, § 171, 10. + +Karaites, § 72, 1. + +Kardec, § 211, 17. + +Karg, Controversy of, § 141, 3. + +Katerkamp, § 5, 6. + +Kaulen, § 191, 8. + +Keil, § 182, 13. + +Keim, § 182, 17. + +Keller, Bishop, § 196, 6. + +Kellner, § 177, 2. + +Kempen, Stephen, § 125, 1. + +Kempis, Thomas a, § 112, 9; 114, 7. + +Kenrick, § 189, 3. + +Kerner, Just., § 176, 2. + +Kessler, § 124, 1; 130, 4. + +Ketteler, § 175, 2; 187, 3; 189, 3; 196, 1-4; 197, 1, 4, 15. + +Kettler, § 139, 3. + +Kierkegaard, § 201, 1. + +Kiev, § 73, 4. + +Kilian, § 78, 2. + +Kings, § 160, 4. + " the Three Holy, § 56, 5. + +Klebitz, § 144, 1. + +Klee, § 191, 6. + +Kleuker, § 171, 8. + +Kleutzen, § 191, 9. + +Kliefoth, § 181, 3; 182, 14; 194, 6. + +Klopstock, § 171, 11. + +Knapp, A., § 181, 1. + " G. Ch., § 171, 8. + +Knights, Teutonic, § 98, 8; 93, 13. + " of St. John, § 98, 8. + +Knox, § 139, 9, 11. + +Knutzen, § 164, 4. + +Kohlbruegge, § 179, 3. + +Kohler, § 170, 4. + +Koellner, § 5, 5. + +Koenigsberg, Relig. Process., § 176, 3. + +Koeppen, § 171, 8. + +Koerner, § 141, 12. + +Kornthal, § 196, 5. + +Krafft, § 195, 2. + +Kraus, Xav., § 5, 6. + +Kruedener, § 176, 2; 199, 5. + +Krummacher, G. D., § 179, 3. + " F. W., § 178, 2. + +Kuebel, § 196, 2. + +Kublai-Khan, § 93, 15. + +Kuenen, § 182, 20. + +Kuhn, § 191, 6. + +"Kulturkampf," German, § 197. + " Belgian, § 200, 5. + " French, § 203, 6. + +Kuyper, § 200, 2. + +Labadie, § 163, 7, 8. + +Labarum, § 22, 7. + +Labrador, § 184, 2. + +Labyrinth, The Little, § 31, 3. + +Lachat, § 199, 3. + +Lacordaire, § 187, 4; 188, 1. + +Lactantius, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + +Ladislaus, St., § 93, 2. + " of Naples, § 110, 7. + +Laforce, § 183, 1. + +Lainez, § 149, 8. + +Laity, § 34, 4. + +Lamartine, § 174, 7. + +Lambert le Begue, § 98, 7. + " of Avignon, § 127, 2; 130, 2. + +Lambeth Articles, § 144, 5. + +Lamennais, § 187, 4; 188, 1. + +Laemmer, § 175, 2. + +Lammists, § 163, 1. + +Lampe, § 169, 2, 6. + +Lancelot, § 159, 5. + +Landulf, § 97, 5. + +Lanfranc, § 96, 8; 101, 1, 2. + +Lang, H., § 199, 4. + +Lange, Joach., § 167, 1, 4. + " J. Pet., § 182, 9. + +Langen, Rud. v., § 120, 3. + +Laplace, § 161, 2. + +Lapland, § 93, 11; 163, 4; 184, 2. + +Lapsi, § 22, 5. + +Lardner, § 171, 1. + +Lasalle, § 165, 2; 212, 5. + +Lasaulx, Am. v., § 188, 4. + +Las Casas, § 150, 3. + +Lasco, J. a, § 139, 18. + +Lateran, § 110, 15. + " Synods I., § 52, 8; 96, 11. + " " II., § 96, 13. + " " III., § 96, 15. + " " IV., § 96, 18; 101, 2; 104, 3-5; 106, 1; 109, 2. + +Latimer, § 139, 5. + +Latitudinarians, § 161, 3. + +Latter-day Saints, § 211, 10, 12-14. + +Laud, § 155, 1. + +Laurence, Martyr, § 22, 5. + " Bishop, § 46, 8. + " Archbishop, § 77, 4. + +Laurentius Valla, § 120, 1. + +Lausanne, § 196, 5. + +Lauterbach, § 129, 1. + +Lavater, § 171, 11. + +Lay Abbots, § 85, 5. + " Brethren, § 98. + +Lazarists, § 156, 8. + +Leade, Jane, § 163, 9. + +Leander of Seville, § 76, 2; 90, 2. + +Lectionaries, § 33; 59, 3. + +Ledochowski, § 197, 3, 6, 7, 12. + +Lee, Anna, § 170, 7. + " Bishop, § 211, 74. + +Lefebvre, § 188, 4. + +Legates, § 96, 23. + +_Legenda aurea_, § 104, 8. + +Legends, § 57, 1. + +_Legio fulminatrix_, § 22, 3. + " _Thebaica_, § 22, 6. + +Lehnin, Prophecy of, § 153, 8. + +Leibnitz, § 153, 7; 160, 7; 164, 2. + +Leidecker, § 161, 5. + +Leidrad of Lyons, § 90, 3; 91, 1. + +Leipzig Disputation, § 123, 4. + " Relig. Conference, § 154, 4. + +Leland, § 169, 6; 171, 1. + +Lenau, Nich. v., § 174, 6. + +Lentulus, § 13, 2. + +Leo I., the Great, § 45, 2; 46, 7; 47, 22; 52, 4; 54, 1, 2; 61, 1. + " II., § 46, 11. + " III., § 82, 3; 91, 2. + " IV., § 82, 5. + " VIII., § 96, 1. + " IX. § 67, 6; 96, 5. + " X., § 110, 14; 121, 1; 122, 2, 3; 194, 4. + " XI., § 149, 3. + " XII., § 185, 1. + " XIII., § 175, 2; 185, 5; 188, 8, 9; 191, 12; 197, 9; 200, 5; 203, 6. + " of Achrida, § 67, 3. + " the Armenian, § 66, 4. + " Chazarus, § 66, 3. + " the Isaurian, § 66, 1; 71, 1. + " the Philosopher, § 67, 2; 68, 1. + " the Thracian, § 52, 5. + " Henry, § 175, 1. + +Leonardo da Vinci, § 115, 13. + +Leonidas, § 22, 4. + +_Leonistae_, § 108, 10. + +Leontius of Byzant., § 47. 12. + +Leopardi, § 174, 7. + +Leopold I., Emperor, § 153, 3, 7. + " of Tuscany, § 165, 9. + +Leovigild, § 76, 2. + +Leporius, § 52, 2. + +Lessing, § 171, 6, 8, 11. + +Lestines, Synod of, § 78, 5; 86, 2. + +Lestrange, § 186, 2. + +Leucius, § 32, 4, 5. + +Levellers, § 162, 2. + +Leyser, § 155, 4. + +Libanius, § 42, 4. + +_Libellatici_, § 22, 5. + +_Libelli pacis_, § 39, 2. + +_Liber confirmitat._, § 98, 3. + " _diurnus_, § 46, 11; 52, 9. + " _paschalis_, § 56, 3. + " _pontificalis_, § 90, 6. + +Liberal Arts, § 90, 8. + +Liberation Society, § 202. + +Liberatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. + +Liberius of Rome, § 46, 4; 50, 2, 3. + +Libertins, § 146, 4. + +_Libri Carolini_, § 92, 1. + +_Licet ab initio_, § 139, 23. + +Licinius, § 22, 7. + +Lightfoot, § 161, 6. + +Light, Friends of, § 176, 1. + +Liguorians, § 165, 2; 186, 1. + +Limborch, § 161, 7. + +Limbus infantium, § 106, 3. + " patrum, § 106, 3. + +_Limina apostt._, § 57, 6. + +Linus, § 17, 1. + +Linz, Peace of, § 153, 3. + +Lippe, Princes' Diet of, § 154, 2; 194, 5. + +Lipsius, § 182, 19. + +Liptinae, Synod of, § 75, 5; 86, 2. + +Lisco, § 181, 4. + +Litany, § 59, 9. + +Lithuanians, § 93, 14. + +_Litterae formatae_, § 34, 6. + +Liturgical dress, etc., § 59, 7; 60, 3. + +Liturgy, § 36, 1; 59, 6; 89, 1; 104, 1. + +Liudger, § 78, 3. + +Liutprand, § 82, 1. + +Livingstone, § 184, 4. + +Livinus, § 78, 3. + +Livonia, § 93, 12; 139, 3; 153, 3; 168, 5; 206, 3. + +Locke, § 164, 2. + +Lodges, Free Masons', § 104, 3. + +Loehe, § 175, 1; 183, 1; 208, 2. + +Lola Montez, § 195, 2. + +Lollards, § 116, 3; 119, 1. + +Lombardus, § 102, 7. + +Longobards, § 76, 8. + +Lope de Vega, § 158, 3. + +Loretto, § 115, 9. + +Loescher, § 167, 1, 2, 4. + +Louis the Bavarian, § 110, 3, 4. + " " German, § 82, 5, 7. + " " Pious, § 82, 4; 90, 1. + " II., Emperor, § 82, 5. + " VII. of France, § 94, 2. + " IX., the Saint, § 93, 15; 94, 6; 96, 21. + +Louis XI., § 110, 13. + " XII., § 110, 13, 14. + " XIII., § 153, 4. + " XIV., § 153, 4; 156, 3; 157, 2, 3, 5. + +Louis I. of Bavaria, § 195, 2. + " II. " § 195, 3. + " V. of Hesse, § 154, 1. + " VI. of Palatinate, § 143, 6. + +Lourdes, § 188, 14; 203, 5. + +Lothair I., Emperor, § 82, 5. + " II., of Lothringia, § 82, 5, 7. + " III., the Saxon, § 96, 13. + +Lotze, § 174, 2. + +Low Churchmen, § 202, 1. + +Loyola, § 149, 8. + +Loyson, § 189, 8. + +Luebeck, § 127, 4. + +Luebker, § 174, 4. + +Lucar, Cyr., § 152, 2. + +Lucerne, § 199, 1. + +Lucian, Martyr, § 31, 9. + " of Samosata, § 23, 1. + +Lucidus, § 53, 5. + +Lucifer of Calaris, § 47, 14; 50, 2, 8. + +Luciferians, § 50, 8. + +Lucilla, § 63, 1. + +Lucius II., Pope, § 96, 13. + " III., § 96, 16. + +Lucrezia Borzia, § 110, 10. + +Ludmilla, § 79, 3; 93, 6. + +Luis de Leon, § 149, 14, 15. + +Luke of Prague, § 115, 7; 119, 8; 139, 19. + +Lullus of Mainz, § 78, 7. + +Lullus Raimund, § 93, 16; 103, 7. + +Lueneburg, § 127, 3. + +Luthardt, § 182, 14, 21; 194, 1. + +Luther, § 122-135. + +Lutherans, Separatists, Pruss., § 177, 2, 3. + +Luther-Memorial, § 178, 1. + " Jubilee, § 175, 10. + +Luetkemann Controversy, § 159, 1. + +Lutz, Minister, § 195, 3; 197, 4. + +Luxeuil, § 78, 1. + +Lyons, Council of, § 67, 4; 96, 20, 21. + +Lyra, Nich. v., § 113, 7. + +Mabillon, § 158, 2. + +Macarius the Elder, § 47, 7. + " Magnes, § 47, 6. + +Maccabees, Fest. of, § 57, 1. + +Macedonius, § 50, 5. + +Macchiavelli, § 120, 1. + +Maccovius, § 161, 7. + +MacConochie, § 202, 3. + +Macmahon, § 203, 5, 6. + +Macrae, § 202, 8. + +Macrianus, § 22, 5. + +Macrina, § 47, 5. + +Madagascar, § 184, 3. + +Madiai, § 204, 3. + +Maerlant, § 105, 5. + +Magdeburg, § 127, 4; 137, 1. + +_Magister historiarum_, § 105, 3. + " _sententiarum_, § 102, 4. + +_Magna Charta_, § 96, 18. + +Magnoald, § 78, 1. + +Magnus the Good, § 93, 4. + " of Mecklenburg, § 134, 5. + " " Upsala, § 139, 1. + +Mai, Cardinal, § 191, 7. + +Maid of Orleans, § 116, 2. + +Maimbourg, § 158, 2. + +Maimonides, § 103, 1. + +Mainau Law, § 197, 11. + +Maintenon, § 157, 3. + +Mainz Cath. Union, § 186, 4; 197, 1. + +Majorist Controversy, § 141, 6, 10. + +Maistre, § 187, 9. + +Malachi, Proph. of, § 149, 5. + +Malakanians, § 166, 2. + +Malan, § 199, 5. + +Malchion, § 33, 8. + +Maldonatus, § 149, 14. + +Maltese, § 98, 8. + +Mamertus, § 59, 9. + +Mandaeans, § 25, 1; 28, 2. + +Mandeville, § 171, 1. + +Manfred, § 96, 20. + +Manichaeans, § 29; 54, 1. + +Manning, § 189, 3; 202, 2, 11. + +Mansi, § 165, 15. + +Mantua, Council of, § 96, 6. + " Congress of, § 110, 10. + +Manuel Comnenus, § 69, 1. + +Manzoni, § 174, 7. + +Maphrian, § 52, 7. + +Mara, § 13, 2. + +Marburg Bible, § 170, 1. + " Church Order, § 127, 2. + " Colloquy, § 132, 4. + +Marcellus of Ancyra, § 50, 2. + " II., § 149, 2. + +Marcia, § 22, 3; 41, 1. + +Marcian, § 52, 4. + +Marcion, § 27, 11. + +Marcionites, § 27, 12; 54, 1; 64, 5. + +Marco Polo, § 93, 15. + +Marcosians, § 27, 5. + +Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3. + " Eremita, § 47, 7. + " Eugenicus, § 67, 6; 68, 5. + +Maresius, § 161, 3, 7. + +Margaret of Navarre, § 120, 6; 146, 4. + +Marheincke, § 182, 6. + +Maria Theresa, § 165, 9. + +Mariana, § 149, 10, 14. + +Marinus, § 63, 1. + +Mariolatry, § 57, 2; 104, 8. + +Marius Mercator, § 47, 20. + " Victorinus, § 47, 14. + +Marloratus, § 143, 3. + +Marnix, Ph. v., § 139, 12. + +Maronites, § 52, 8; 72, 3. + +Marot, § 143, 2. + +Marozia, § 96, 1. + +Marriage, Christian, § 39, 1; 61, 2; 70, 2; 88, 3; 89, 4; 104, 6. + +Marsden, § 184, 7. + +Marsilius of Inghem, § 113, 3. + " " Padua, § 118, 1. + +Martensen, § 182, 10. + +Martin I., § 46, 11; 52, 8. + " IV., § 96, 22. + " V., § 110, 6. + " of Braga, § 76, 4; 90, 2. + " " Mainz, § 114, 4. + " " Paderborn, § 175, 2; 189, 3; 197, 6. + " " Tours, § 47, 14; 54, 2. + " St., § 165, 14. + +Martyrs, § 22, 5. + " Acts of, § 32, 9. + " Veneration of, § 39, 5. + +Martyrologies, § 57, 1; 90, 9. + +Marx, § 212, 4. + +Mary of England, § 139, 5. + " " Guise, § 139, 8. + " " Jesus, § 156, 5. + " " Scotland, § 139, 6, 8, 10. + +Maryland, § 208, 5. + +Mass, Canon of, § 59, 6. + " Sacrifice of, § 36, 6; 58, 3; 88, 3. + +Massacre, Irish, § 153, 6. + " of St. Bartholomew, § 139, 16. + " " Stockholm, § 139, 1. + " " Thorn, § 165, 4. + +Massilians, § 53, 5. + +Massillon, § 158, 2. + +Mastricht, § 161, 7. + +Matamoros, § 205, 4. + +Maternus, Jul. Firm., § 47, 14. + " Pistorius, § 120, 2. + +Mathesius, § 142, 2, 3. + +Matilda, Margravine, § 96, 8, 10. + +Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 2. + +Matthys, Jan., § 147, 8, 9. + +Maulbronn, Formula, § 141, 12. + " Conference, § 144, 1. + +Maur, Monks of St., § 156, 7. + " St., § 85. + +Maurice of Hesse, § 154, 1. + " " Orange, § 139, 12; 161, 2. + " " Saxony, § 136; 137. + +Mauritius, St., § 22, 6. + " Emperor, § 46, 10. + +Maxentius, § 22, 7. + +Maximianus Herculius, § 22, 6. + +Maximilian I., § 110, 13. + " II, § 137, 8; 139, 9. + " I., Duke of Bavaria, § 151, 1. + " III., Elector of Bavaria, § 165, 10. + " I., King of Bavaria, § 195, 1. + " II., King of Bavaria, + " Francis of Cologne, § 165, 13. + " Emperor of Mexico, § 209, 1. + +Maximilla, § 40, 1. + +Maximinus Daza, § 22, 6, 7. + " Thrax, § 22, 4. + +Maximus, Emperor, § 54, 2. + " Confessor, § 47, 12; 52, 8. + +Mayer, Seb., § 130, 4. + +May Laws, Prussian, § 197, 5, 6. + " " Austrian, § 198, 6. + +Maynooth Bill, § 202, 9. + +Mayhew, § 162, 7. + +Mechitarists, § 165, 2. + +Mechthild, § 107, 2. + +Mecklenburg, § 134, 5; 194, 6. + +Medici, § 110, 11. + +Meinhart, § 93, 12. + +Meinrad, § 85, 6. + +Mel, Conrad, § 169, 1. + +Melanchthon, § 122, 5; 139, 13; 141, 7, 9. + +Melchers, § 188, 12; 189, 3; 197, 6, 12. + +Melchiades, § 46, 3; 63, 1. + +Melchionites, § 147, 1. + +Melchisedecians, § 33, 3. + +Melchites, § 52, 7. + +Meletius of Antioch, § 50, 8. + " " Lycopolis, § 41, 4. + +Melissander, § 142, 3. + +Melito, § 30, 8; 36, 8; 40, 1. + +Memnon of Ephesus, § 52, 5. + +Menander, § 25, 2. + +Mendelssohn, § 171, 3. + " Bartholdy, § 174, 10. + +Mendez, § 152, 1. + +Mendicant Friars, § 98, 3. + +Menius, § 141, 6. + +Menken, § 172, 3. + +Mennas, § 52, 6. + +Mennonites, § 147, 2; 163, 1. + +Menologies, § 57, 1. + +Menot, § 115, 2. + +Mensurius, § 63, 1. + +Mercedarians, § 98, 9. + +Mercerus, § 143, 5. + +Merlan, § 170, 1. + +Merle d'Aubigne, § 178, 2. + +Mermillod, § 189, 3; 199, 2. + +Mersen, Treaty of, § 82, 5. + +Merswin, § 114, 2, 4. + +Mesmer, § 174, 2. + +Mesrop, § 64, 3. + +Messalians, Christian, § 44, 7. + " Pagan, § 42, 6. + +Meth, § 163, 9. + +Methodists, § 169, 4, 5; 208, 1; 211, 1. + +Methodius, § 73, 3; 79, 2. + " of Olympus, § 31, 9; 33, 9. + +Metraphanes, § 67, 6. + " Critop., § 152, 2. + +Metropolitans, § 34, 3; 83, 3. + +Mettrie, la, § 165, 12. + +Mexico, § 209, 1; 190, 3. + +Meyer, H. A. W., § 182, 11. + +Meyffart, § 160, 3. + +Michael, Archangel, § 88, 4. + " Acominatus, § 68, 5. + " Balbus, § 66, 4. + " of Bradacz, § 119, 8. + " Caerularius, § 119, 8. + " of Cesnea, § 112, 2. + " the Drunkard, § 67, 1. + " Palaeologus, § 67, 6. + +Michael Angelo, § 149, 15. + +Michaelis, Chr. Ben., § 167, 3. + " J. D., § 171, 6. + " J. H., § 167, 3. + +Michaelmas, § 57, 3. + +Michaud, § 190, 3. + +Michelians, § 171, 3. + +Michelis, § 190, 1; 191, 6. + +Micislas, § 93, 7. + +Milicz, § 119, 2. + +_Militia Christi_, § 37. + +Mill, Walter, § 139, 8. + +Millennium, § 33, 9. + +Milman, § 182, 4. + +Miltiades of Athens, § 30, 8; 37, 3. + " " Rome, § 46, 3. + +Miltiz, § 122, 3. + +Milton, § 172, 3. + +Minimi, § 112, 8. + +Minnesingers, § 105, 6. + +Minorites, § 98, 3. + +Minster, § 84, 4. + +Minucius Felix, § 31, 12. + " Fundanus, § 22, 2. + +_Missa Catechum. et fidelium_, § 36, 2, 3; 58, 4. + +_Missa Solitaria_, § 58, 3. +_ " Sponsorum_, § 61, 2; 88, 3; 104, 6. + +Missa Marcelli, § 149, 15. + +_Missale Rom._, § 149, 14. + +Missionary Societies, § 172, 5; 5; 184, 1; 186, 6. + +Missions, Foreign, § 75-78; 93. + " " Catholic, § 150; 156, 10, 12; 165, 3; 186, 7. + +Missions, Foreign, Protest., § 142, 8; 143, 7; 160, 7; 162, 7; 167, 9; + 168, 11: 184. + +Missions, Home, Catholic, § 149, 7; 156, 4; 186, 4, 5. + +Missions, Home, Protest., § 183. + +Missions, Priests of the, § 156, 8. + +Missouri Synod, § 208, 2, 3. + +Mistewoi, § 93, 9. + +Mitre, § 84, 1. + +Mizetius, § 91, 1. + +Modalists, § 33. + +Moderates, § 202, 7. + +Mogilas, § 152, 3. + +Mogtasilah, § 28, 2. + +Mohammed, § 65. + " II., § 67, 7; 110, 10. + +Mohammedans, § 184, 9. + +Moehler, § 191, 4, 5, 6. + +Molanus, § 153, 7. + +Molay, § 112, 7. + +Moleschott, § 174, 3. + +Molina, § 149, 13. + +Molinaeus, § 161, 3. + +Molinos, § 157, 2. + +Momiers, § 199, 5. + +Mommers, § 169, 2. + +Moempelgard, Relig. Confer., § 138, 8. + +_Monarcha theologor._, § 103, 3. + +Monarchians, § 33. + +_Monasterium Clericor._, § 45, 1. + +Monasticism, § 44; 70; 85; 98; 112; 149; 156; 165; 186. + +Mongols, § 93, 15. + +Monica, § 47, 13. + +_Monita Secreta_, § 149, 9. + +Monod, § 203, 4. + +Monogram, § 38, 4. + +Monophysites, § 52, 5, 7; 72, 2. + +Monothelites, § 52, 8. + +Montalembert, § 189, 9; 190, 1. + +Montalte, § 157, 5. + +Montalto, § 149, 3. + +Montanists, § 40. + +Montanus, Arias, § 149, 14. + +Monte, del, § 149, 2. + +Monte Cassino, § 85. + " Corvino, § 93, 15. + +Montesquieu, § 165, 14. + +Montfaucon, § 165, 11. + +Montfort, Sim. de, § 109, 1. + +Montmorency, § 139, 13, 14. + +Moody, § 211, 1. + +Moors, § 81; 95. + +Moralities, § 105, 5. + +Morata, § 139, 24. + +Moravia, § 79, 2. + +Moravian Brethren, § 119, 5. + +Moray, The Regent, § 139, 11. + +More, Sir Thomas, § 120, 7; 139, 4. + +Morel, § 139, 25. + +Moreno, § 209, 2. + +Morgan, § 171, 1. + +Morinus, § 158, 1. + +Moriscoes, § 95, 2. + +Morland, § 153, 5. + +Mormons, § 211, 12-14. + +Morone, § 135, 2; 137, 5; 139, 22. + +Morison, § 184, 6. + +Mortara, § 175, 8. + +Morton, § 139, 11. + +Morus, § 171, 8. + +Mosaics, § 60, 6; 104, 14. + +Moser, J. F. v., § 167, 6, 8. + " K. F. v., § 171, 10; 172, 2. + +Moses of Chorene, § 64, 3. + +Mosheim, § 5, 3; 167, 4; 169, 1. + +Moslems, § 65. + +Moulin, du, § 161, 3. + +Mouls, § 190, 4. + +Movers, § 191, 8. + +Mozarabians, § 81, 1. + +Mozarabic Liturgy, § 88, 1; 104, 1. + +Mozart, § 174, 10. + +Mtesa, § 184, 4. + +"_Mucker_," § 176, 3. + +Muehlenberg, § 208, 2. + +Muehler, v., § 193, 4; 197, 2. + +Mueller, Ad., § 175, 7. + " Bem., § 211, 6. + " G., § 183, 1. + " H., § 160, 1. + " J. v., § 171, 11. + " J. G., § 171, 8. + " Jul., § 182, 10. + +Muenster, City, § 133, 6. + " Seb., § 143, 5. + +Muenzer, Thos., § 124, 4, 5. + +Muratori, § 165, 12. + +Muratorian Canon, § 36, 8. + +Murillo, § 158, 3. + +Murner, Thos., § 125, 4; 130, 6. + +Murrone, § 112, 4. + +Musaeus, § 141, 7; 144, 2. + +Musculus, Andr., § 141, 12. + " Wolfg., § 141, 14. + +Music, § 59, 3; 104, 11; 115, 8; 149, 15; 158, 3; 172, 1; 174, 10. + +Muspilli, § 89, 3. + +Mutianus, § 120, 2, 3. + +Mwanga, § 184, 4. + +Myconius, § 125, 1. + " Oswald, § 133, 8. + +Mysos, § 139, 26. + +Mysteries, § 105, 5; 115, 12. + +Mystics, Eastern, § 92; 102; 103; 107; 114. + +Mystics, Grecian, § 47, 7, 11; 68, 3. + +Mystics, Catholic, § 149, 16; 156, 1-4. + +Mystics, Protest., § 146; 160, 2; 169, 3. + +Naassenes, § 27, 6. + +Naegelsbach, § 173, 4. + +Namszanowski, § 197, 2. + +Nantes, Edict of, § 139, 17; 153, 4. + +Napoleon I., § 165, 5; 185, 1; 203, 1. + +Napoleon III., § 185, 3; 203, 3, 4; 209, 1. + +Narthex, § 60, 1. + +Nassau, § 193, 6; 196, 4. + +_Natales episc._, § 45, 1. + " Martyrum, § 39, 5. + +Natalis, Alexander, § 5, 2; 157, 2. + +Natalius, § 33, 3. + +National Assembly, French, § 165, 15. + +National Convention, § 165, 15. + +Natorp, § 181, 2. + +Naumburg, Bishopric of, § 135, 5. + " Princes' Diet, § 141, 11. + +Nauplia, Syn., § 207, 1. + +Nauvoo, § 211, 10. + +Naylor, § 163, 4. + +Nazareans, § 28, 1. + +Neander, § 5, 5; 182, 4. + " Joach., § 162, 6. + +Nectarius, § 61, 6. + +Nemesius, § 47, 6. + +Nennius, § 90, 8. + +Neophytes, § 34, 3. + +Neo-Platonists, § 24, 2; 42. + +Nepomuk, § 116, 1. + +Nepos of Arsinoe, § 33, 9. + +Nepotism, § 110. + +Neri, Philip, § 149, 7; 158, 3. + +Nero, § 22, 1. + +Nerses I., § 64, 3. + " IV., Clajensis, § 72, 2. +" of Lampron, § 72, 2. + +Nerva, § 22, 1. + +Nestor, § 73, 4. + +Nestorians, § 52, 3; 64, 2; 72, 1; 150, 4; 184, 9. + +Nestorius, § 52, 3. + +Netherlands, § 139, 12; 162, 4; 169, 2; 184, 5; 200. + +Neuendettelsau, § 183, 1. + +Neumann, § 160, 4. + +Neumark, § 160, 4. + +Newman, § 202, 2. + +New Year, § 56, 5. + +Nicaea, Council of, § 40, 1; 41, 4; 46, 3; 50, 1; 56, 3. + +Nicephorus Gregoras, § 69, 2. + " Callisti, § 5, 1. + +Nicetas Acominatus, § 68, 5. + " of Nicomedia, § 67, 4. + " Pectoratus, § 67, 3. + +Nicholas I., § 67, 1; 73, 3; 82, 7; 83, 3; 91, 5. + +Nicholas II., § 96, 6. + " III., IV., § 96, 22. + " V., § 110, 9, 10. + " of Basel, § 114, 4. + " Cabasilas, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + " of Clemanges, § 118, 4. + " " Cusa, § 113, 6. + " v. d. Fluee, § 116, 1. + " of Lyra, § 113, 7. + " " Methone, § 68, 5. + " Mysticus, § 67, 2. + " of Pisa, § 110, 12. + " I., Czar, § 206, 1, 2; 210, 2. + +Nicolai, Publisher. § 171, 4. + " Henry, § 146, 5. + " Philip, § 142, 4. + +Nicolaitanism, § 96, 5. + +Nicolaitans, § 18, 3; 27, 8. + +Nicole, § 158, 1. + +Niebuhr, § 193, 1. + +Niedner, § 5, 4. + +Niemeyer, § 171, 7. + +Nightingale, § 183, 1. + +Nihilism, § 102, 8. + +Nihilists, § 212, 6. + +Nikon, § 163, 10. + +Nilus Sinaiticus, § 44, 3; 47, 10. + " the Younger, § 100. + +Nimbus, § 60, 6. + +Ninian, § 77, 2. + +Niphon, Monk, § 70, 4. + " Patriarch, § 70, 1. + +Nismes, Edict of, § 154, 4. + +Nitschmann, § 168, 3, 11. + +Nitzsch, § 182, 10; 193, 3, 4. + +Noailles, § 165, 7. + +Nobili, § 156, 11. + +Nobla leiczon, § 108, 14 (vol. ii., p. 471). + +Nobreja, § 150, 3. + +Nobunaja, § 150, 2. + +Noetus, § 33, 5. + +Nogaret, § 110, 1. + +Nolasque, § 98, 9. + +Nominalists, § 99, 2; 113, 3. + +Nomo-Canon, § 43, 3. + +_Nonae_, § 86, 2. + +Non-Intrusionists, § 202, 7. + +Nonconformists, § 143, 2, 3; 155, 1, 2. + +Nonna, § 47, 4. + +Nonnus of Panopolis, § 48, 5. + +Norbert, § 98, 2; 96, 13. + +Normans, § 93, 1; 95, 1. + +North African School, § 31, 1. + +North America, § 208. + +Norwegians, § 93, 4; 139, 2; 201, 13. + +Noesselt, § 171, 8. + +Noting of Verona, § 91, 5. + +Notker Balbulus, § 88, 2. + " Labeo, § 100, 1. + +Novalis, § 174, 5. + +Novatian, § 31, 12; 41, 3. + +Novatus, § 38, 2, 3. + +Noviciate, § 44, 2; 86, 1. + +Noyes, § 208, 6. + +Nunez de Arca, § 175, 2. + +Nunia, § 64, 4. + +Nuns, § 44, 5. + +Nuntio, § 151, 1. + +Nuremberg, Relig. Peace of, § 133, 2. + " Diet of, § 126, 1, 2. + +Oak, Synod of the, § 51, 3. + +Oates, Titus, § 153, 6. + +_Oberammergau_, § 174, 10. + +Oberlin, § 172. + +_Oblati_, § 85, 1. + +Oblations, § 36; 39, 5; 61, 4. + +Obotrites, § 93, 9. + +Observants, § 112, 2; 149, 6. + +Occam, § 112, 2; 113, 3; 118, 2. + +Occultists, § 211, 18. + +Ochino, § 139, 24; 147, 6; 149, 6. + +O'Connell, § 199, 9. + +Octaves, § 56, 4. + +October Assembly, § 178, 3. + +Odensee, Diet of, § 139, 2. + +Odilo of Bavaria, § 78, 5. + +Odo of Clugny, § 98, 1; 100, 2; 104, 10, 11. + +Odoacer, § 46, 8. + +OEcolampadius, § 130, 3, 6; 131, 1. + +OEcumenius, § 68, 4, + +Oersted, § 174, 3. + +Oetingen, § 182, 15. + +Oetinger, § 170, 5; 171, 9. + +Oehler, § 182, 14. + +_OEuvres_, § 186, 4. + +_Officium S. Mariae_:, § 104, 8. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 45, 5. + +Oischinger, § 191, 6. + +Oktai-Khan, § 93, 15. + +Olaf, § 80, 1. + " Haraldson, § 93, 4, 5. + " Schosskoenig, § 93, 3. + " Trygvason, § 93, 4, 5. + " St., § 93, 4. + +Olcott, § 211, 18. + +Oldcastle, § 119, 1. + +Oldenbarneveldt, § 161, 2. + +Oldenburg, § 194, 5. + +Olevian, § 144, 1; 161, 4. + +Olga, § 73, 4. + +Olgerd, § 93, 14. + +Oliva, § 108, 6. + +Olivet, Monks of Mount, § 112, 1. + +Olivetan, § 138, 1; 143, 5. + +Olshausen, § 176, 3. + +Ommaiades, § 81; 95, 2. + +Oncken, § 211, 3. + +Oneida-sect, § 211, 6. + +_Onochoetes Deus_, § 23, 2. + +Oosterzee, § 200, 2. + +Ophites, § 27, 6, 7. + +Opitz, § 160, 3. + +Optatus of Mileve, § 63, 1. + +Opzoomer, § 200, 3. + +Orange, Synod of, § 53, 6. + +Oratories, § 84, 2. + +Oratory of Divine Love, § 139, 22. + " Fathers of the, § 155, 7. + " Priests of the, § 149, 7. + +Ordeals, § 89, 5. + +Ordericus Vitalis, § 5, 1. + +Ordination, § 45, 1. + +_Ordines majores et minores_, § 34, 3. + +_Ordo Romanus_, § 59, 6. + +Organs, § 88, 2; 104, 11; 115, 8; 154, 3. + +Origen, § 31, 5; 33, 6-9; 36, 9; 61, 4. + +Origenist Controversy, § 51. + +Original Sin, Controversy about, § 141, 8. + +Orosius, § 47, 19. + +Ortlibarians, § 103, 4. + +Ortuinus Gratus, § 120, 5. + +_Osculum pacis_, § 35. + +Osiander, Andr., § 126, 4; 135, 6; 141, 2. + +Osiander, Luc., § 159, 1. + +Osiandrian Controversy, § 141, 2. + +_Ostiarii_, § 34, 3. + +Ostrogoths, § 76, 7. + +Oswald, § 77, 5. + +Oswy, § 77, 5, 6. + +Ota, § 78, 2. + +Otfried, § 89, 3. + +Otgar of Mainz, § 87, 3. + +Otternbein, § 208, 4. + +Ottheinrich, § 135, 6. + +Otto I., § 93, 2, 8; 96, 1. + " II., III., § 96, 2, 3. + " IV., § 96, 17. + " of Bamberg, § 93, 10. + " " Passau, § 114, 6. + +Overbeek, Painter, § 174, 9. + " Dr., § 175, 5. + +Overberg, § 172, 2. + +Owen, Rob., § 212, 3. + +Oxford, § 202, 2. + " Movement, § 211, 1. + +Pabst, § 191, 3. + +_Pabulatores_, § 44, 7. + +Paccanari, § 186, 1. + +Pachomius, § 44, 1, 3, 5. + +Pacianus, § 47, 15. + +Pacifico, Fra, § 104, 10. + +Pack, O. v., § 132, 1. + +Paderborn, § 133, 5. + +Paez, § 152, 1. + +_Pagani_, § 42, 4. + +Pagi, § 158, 2; 5, 2. + +Pagninus, § 149, 14. + +Pajon, § 161, 3. + +Palamas, § 69, 2. + +Palatinate, § 135, 6; 144, 1; 153, 1, 3; 196, 4. + +Paleario, § 139, 22, 23. + +Palestrina, § 149, 15. + +Paley, § 171, 8. + +Palladius, § 47, 10. + +Pallium, § 46, 1; 59, 7; 97, 3. + +Palm Sunday, § 56, 4. + +Pamphilus, § 31, 6. + +Pan-Anglicanism, § 202, 1. + +Pandulf, § 96, 18. + +Pan-Presbyterianism, § 179, 3. + +Pantaenus, § 31, 4. + +Pantheon, § 46, 10. + +_Papa_, § 46, 1. + +Papacy, § 34, 8; 46, 2; 82; 96; 110; 149; 156; 165; 185. + +Papal Elections, § 46, 8, 11; 82, 4; 96, 6, 15, 21. + +Papebroch, § 155, 2. + +Paphnutius, § 45, 2. + +Papias, § 30, 6; 33, 9. + +_Parabolani_, § 45, 3. + +Paracelsus, § 146, 2. + +Paraguay, § 156, 10; 165, 3. + +Pareus, § 159, 5. + +Parker, Matt., § 139, 6. + " Theodore, § 211, 4. + +Parnell, § 202, 10. + +_Parochia_, § 84, 2. + +_Parochus_, § 84, 2. + +Parsimonius, § 141, 8. + +Pasagians, § 108, 3. + +Pascal, § 157, 5; 158, 1. + +Pascale, § 139, 25. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, § 56, 4. + +Paschal Controversy, § 37, 2. + +Paschalis I., § 82, 4. + " II., § 96, 11. + " III., § 96, 15. + +Paschasius, § 99, 5; 91, 3. + +Paschkow, § 206, 1. + +Pasquino, § 149, 1. + +Passaglia, § 187, 5. + +Passau, Treaty of, § 137, 3. + +Passion Play, § 105, 5; 115, 12; 174, 10. + +Pastor, § 84, 2. + +_Pastor aeternus_, § 189, 3. + +_Patareni_, § 108, 1. + +Pataria, § 97, 5. + +Patent, Austrian, § 198, 3. + " Hungarian, § 198, 6. + +_Pater Orthodoxiae_, § 47, 4. + +Patriarchs, § 46. + +Patriciate, Roman, § 82, 1. + +Patrick, St., § 77, 1. + +_Patrimonium pauperum_, § 45, 4. + " Petri, § 46, 10; 82, 1. + +Patripassians, § 33, 4. + +Patronage, § 84. + +Patronus, § 57, 1. + +Paul, the Apostle, § 15. + " Burgensis, § 113, 7. + " Diaconus, § 90, 3. + " Orosius, § 47, 20. + " the Persian, § 48, 1. + " of Samosata, § 33, 8; 39, 3. + " Silentiarius, § 48, 5. + " of Thebes, § 39, 4. + " Warnefried, § 90, 3. + " I., § 82, 1. + " II., § 110, 11, 15; 119, 4. + " III., § 149, 2; 134, 1; 139, 23. + " IV, § 149, 2. + " V., § 155, 1, 2, 5; 149, 13. + " I. of Russia, § 186, 2. + +Paula, St., § 44, 5. + " Francis de, § 112, 8. + " Vinc. de, § 156, 8. + +Pauli, Greg., § 148, 3. + +Paulicians, § 71, 1. + +Paulinus of Antioch, § 50, 8. + " " Aquileia, § 90, 3. + " " Milan, § 47, 20; 53, 4. + " Missionary, § 77, 4. + " of Nola, § 48, 6; 60, 5. + +Paulus, Dr., § 182, 2. + +_Pauperes de Lugduno_, § 108, 10. + " _Catholici_, § 108, 10. + +Payens, § 98, 7. + +_Pax dissid._, § 139, 18. + +Pearson, § 161, 6, 7. + +Peasants' War, § 124, 5. + +Pectorale, § 59, 7. + +Pelagius, § 47, 21; 53, 3, 4. + " I., Pope, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + " II., " § 46, 9. + +Pelayo, § 81, 1. + +Pellicanus, § 120, 4, note. + +Pellico-Silvio, § 173, 7. + +Penance, § 104, 4. + +Penda, § 77, 4. + +Penitential Books, § 61, 1; 89, 6; 103, 6. + +Penn, § 163, 5. + +Pentecost, § 37, 1; 56, 4. + +Pepin, § 78, 5; 82, 1. + +Pepucians, § 40, 1. + +Peraldus, § 103, 9. + +Perates, § 27, 6. + +Peregrinus Proteus, § 23, 1. + +_Peres de la foi_, § 186, 1. + +Perfectionists, § 211, 6. + +Perfectus, § 21, 1. + +Pericopes, § 59, 2; 167, 2. + +Peristerium, § 60, 5. + +Perkins, § 143, 5. + +Peroz, § 64, 2. + +Perpetua, § 22, 5. + +Perrone, § 175, 2; 191, 9. + +Persecution of Christians, § 23; 64. + +Persia, § 64, 2; 93, 15. + +Perthes, § 183, 1. + +Peschito, § 36, 8. + +Pestalozzi, § 171, 12. + +Petavius, § 158, 1. + +Peter the Apostle, § 16, 1. + " d'Ailly, § 118, 4. + " of Alcantara, § 149, 5, 16. + " " Alexandria, § 41, 4. + " " Amiens, § 94, 1. + " " Aragon, § 96, 18. + " " Bruys, § 108, 7. + " Cantor, § 103, 3. + " of Castelnau, § 109, 1. + " " Chelczic, § 119, 7. + " " Clugny, § 96, 13. + " Chrysolanus, § 67, 4. + " Chrysologus, § 47, 16. + " Comestor, § 105, 5. + " Damiani, § 97, 4; 104, 10; 106, 4. + " Dresdensis, § 115, 7. + " of Dubois, § 118, 1. + " Fullo, § 52, 5. + " Hispanus, § 96, 22. + " the Lombard, § 102, 5; 104, 2, 4. + " Mongus, § 52, 5. + " of Murrone, § 98, 2. + " " Pisa, § 90. + " " Poitiers, § 102, 5. + " Siculus, § 71, 1. + " the Venerable, § 98, 1; 102, 2; 109. + " I. of Russia, § 166. + " and Paul, Festival of, § 57, 1. + " Fest. of Chair of St., § 57, 1. + " Church of St., § 115, 13. + +Peter's Pence, § 82. + +Petersen, § 170, 1. + +Peterson, § 139, 1. + +Petilian, § 63, 1. + +Petrarch, § 115, 10. + +Petrejus, § 120, 2. + +Petrikan, Synod, § 139, 18; 148, 3. + +Petrobrusians, § 108, 7. + +Petrow, § 163, 10. + +Petrucci, § 157, 2. + +Peucer, § 141, 10; 144, 3. + +Peyrerius, § 161, 7. + +Peysellians, § 170, 6. + +Pfaff, § 167, 4, 5, 8. + +Pfefferkorn, § 120, 4. + +Pfeffinger, § 141, 7. + +Pfeiffer, Aug., § 159, 4. + +Pfenninger, § 171, 8. + +Pfleiderer, § 182, 19. + +Pflugk, § 135, 3, 5; 136, 5; 137, 6. + +_Pharensis Syn._, § 77, 6. + +Pharisees, § 8, 4. + +Philadelphia, § 60, 4. + +Philadelphian Churches, § 170, 1. + " Period, § 168, 4. + " Sect, § 163, 8. + +Philaster, § 47, 14. + +Philip, § 14; 17, 2. + " the Arabian, § 22, 4. + " I. of France, § 96, 8, 10. + " II., Aug., § 94, 3; 96, 18. + " the Fair, § 110, 1, 2; 112, 7. + " II. of Spain, § 139, 12, 21. + " of Swabia, § 96, 17. + " the Magnanimous, § 126, 4, 5; 135, 1, 3; 137, 3. + +Philippi, § 182, 13. + +Philippists, § 141, 4 ff. + +Philippones, § 163, 10. + +Philippopolis, Synod of, § 50, 2. + +Philipps, § 175, 7; 191, 7. + +Phillpotts, § 202, 2. + +Philo, § 10, 1. + +Philopatris, § 42, 5. + +Philoponus, § 47, 11. + +Philosophical Sin, § 149, 10. + +Philosophoumena, § 31, 3. + +Philostorgius, § 4, 1. + +Philoxenus, § 59, 1. + +Philumena, § 27, 12. + +Phocas, § 46, 10. + +Phoebe, § 18, 4. + +Photinus, § 50, 2. + +Photius, § 67, 1; 68, 5. + +Phyletism, § 207, 3. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 35, 1. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, § 52, 7. + +Piacenza, Council, § 94. + +Piarists, § 156, 7. + +Picards, § 116, 5; 119, 8. + +Pichler, § 191, 7. + +Pick, § 211, 8. + +Picts, § 77, 2. + +Picus of Mirandola, § 120, 1. + +Pideritz, § 133, 5. + +Piedmont, § 204, 3. + +Pietism, Lutheran, § 159, 3; 167, 1 + " Reformed, § 162, 3, 4. + " in 19th Century, § 176, 2. + +Pilate, Acts of, § 14, 2; 31, 2. + +Pilgrim of Passau, § 93, 8. + " Fathers, § 143, 4; 208, 1. + +Pilgrimages, § 57, 6; 89, 4; 104, 8; 115, 9; 188, 5, 6. + +Pin, du, § 158, 2. + +Pionius, § 30, 5. + +Pirkheimer, § 120, 3. + +Pirminius, § 78, 1, 5. + +Pirstinger, § 125, 5; 149, 14. + +Pisa, Council of, § 110, 6. + +Piscator, § 143, 5. + +Pistis, Sophia, § 27, 7. + +Pistoja, Synod of, § 165, 10. + +Pistorius, § 135, 3. + " Maternus, § 120, 2. + +Pius II., § 110, 10; 118, 6; 119, 4. + " III., § 110, 13. + " IV., § 149, 2. + " V., § 149, 3; 139, 23. + " VI., § 165, 9, 10, 15. + " VII., § 185, 1; 203, 1. + " VIII., § 184, 1; 193, 1. + " IX., § 185, 2 ff.; 175, 2; 188, 8; 189, 3; 197, 7; 202, 11. + +Placaeus, § 161, 3. + +Planck, § 171, 8. + +_Planeta_, § 59, 7. + +Plastic Arts, § 60, 6; 89, 6; 104, 14; 115, 13. + +Plato, § 7, 4; 47, 5; 68, 3; 99, 2. + +Platon, § 166, 1. + +Platter, § 130, 4. + +_Plebani_, _Plebs_, § 84, 2. + +Plenaries, § 115, 4. + +Pleroma, § 26, 2. + +Pletho, § 68, 2; 120, 1. + +Pliny the Younger, § 22, 2. + +Plotinus, § 24, 2. + +Plotizin, § 210, 4. + +Plutschau, § 167, 9. + +Plymouth Brethren, § 211, 11. + +Pneumatomachians, § 50, 5. + +Pobedonoszew, § 206, 1. + +Poblenz, § 184, 5. + +Pocquet, § 146, 4. + +Pococke, § 161, 6. + +Podiebrad, § 119, 7, 8. + +Poetry, Christian, § 48, 5, 6; 105, 4; 173, 6. + +Poggio, § 120, 1; 119, 5. + +Poiret, § 163, 9. + +Poissy, Relig. Confer., § 139, 14. + +Poland, § 93, 7; 139, 18; 165, 4; 206, 2, 3. + +Pole, § 139, 5, 22. + +Polemon, § 47, 6. + +Polenz of Samland, § 125, 1. + +Poliander, § 142, 3. + +Polo, Marco, § 93, 15. + +Polozk, Synod of, § 206, 2. + +Polycarp, § 22, 3; 30, 6; 37, 2. + +Polychronius, § 47, 9. + +Polycrates, § 37, 2. + +Polyglott, Antwerp, § 149, 14. + " Complutensian, § 120, 8. + " London, § 161, 6. + " Paris, § 158, 1. + +Pomare, § 184, 7. + +Pombal, § 165, 9. + +Pommerania, § 93, 10; 134, 4. + +Pomponazzo, § 120, 1. + +Ponce de la Fuente, § 139, 21. + +_Poenitentiaria Rom._, § 110, 16. + +Pontianus, § 38, 1. + +Ponticus, § 22, 3. + +Pontius, § 98, 1. + +Popiel, § 206, 1. + +Popular Philosophy, § 171, 4. + +Pordage, § 163, 9. + +Porphyry, § 23, 3; 24, 2. + +Portig, § 180, 3. + +Portiuncula, § 98, 3. + +Port Royal, § 157, 5. + +Portugal, § 165, 9; 205, 5. + +Positivism, § 174, 2; 210, 1. + +Possessor of Carthage, § 53, 5. + +Possevin, § 139, 1; 151, 2, 3. + +Possidius, § 47, 18. + +Post-Apostolic Age, § 20, 1. + +_Postilla_, § 103, 9; 116, 6. + +Potamiaena, § 22, 4. + +Pothinus, § 22, 3. + +_Praeceptor Germaniae_, § 122, 5. + +_Praepositi_, § 84, 2. + +Praetorius, § 160, 1. + +Praxeas, § 33, 4. + +Prayer, § 37; 39, 1. + +Preaching, § 36, 2; 59, 3; 89, 1; 104, 1; 115, 2; 142, 2. + +Preaching Orders, § 98, 5; 112, 4. + +Pre-Adamites, § 161, 4. + +Prebends, § 84, 4. + +Precaria, § 86, 1. + +Precists, § 96, 23. + +Predestination, § 53; 91, 4; 125, 3; 141, 12; 161, 2, 3; 168, 1; 208, 3. + +Prepon, § 27, 12. + +Presburg, Peace of, § 192. + +Presbyter, § 17, 2, 5; 34, 3; 45. + +Presbyterians, § 143, 3; 162, 1; 202, 4; 208, 1. + +Prierias, § 122, 3. + +Priestley, § 211, 4. + +Primacy, Papal, § 34, 8; 46, 2, 3. + +Primasius, § 48, 1. + +Primian, § 63, 1. + +Prisca, § 40, 1. + +Priscillianists, § 54, 2. + +Probabilism, § 149, 10; 113, 4. + +Procession of Holy Spirit, § 50, 6; 67, 1; 91, 2. + +Processions, § 59, 9. + +Prochorus, § 31, 18. + +Procidians, § 27, 8. + +Proclus, Montanist, § 31, 7; 40, 2. + " Neoplaton., § 24, 2; 42, 5. + +Procopius of Gaza, § 48, 1. + " the Great, § 119, 7. + +Procopowicz, § 166. + +_Professio fid. Trid._, § 149, 14. + +Proles, § 112, 5. + +Proli, § 211, 16. + +Propaganda, § 156, 9; 204, 2. + +Prophecy, § 143, 3, 5. + +_Propositt. Cleri Gallicani_, § 156, 3; 203, 1. + +Proselytes of Gate and Righteousness, § 10, 2. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, § 39, 2. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, § 36. + +Prosper Aquit., § 47, 20; 48, 6; + 53, 8. + +Proterius, § 52, 5. + +Protestants, § 132, 3. + +"_Protestantenverein_," § 180. + +Proudhon, § 212, 1. + +_Provida sollersque_, § 196, 1. + +Prudentius, Poet, § 48, 6. + " of Troyes, § 91, 5. + +Psellus, § 68, 5; 71, 3. + +Pseudepigraphs, § 32. + +Pseudo-Basilideans, § 27, 3. + " Clement, § 28, 3; 43, 4. + " Cyril, § 96, 23. + " Dionysius, § 47, 11. + " Ignatius, § 43, 5. + " Isidore, § 87, 2. + " Tertullian, § 31, 3. + +Psychians, § 26, 2; 40, 5. + +_Publicani_, § 108, 1. + +Pufendorf, § 167, 5. + +Pulcheria, § 52, 4. + +Pullus, Rob., § 102, 5. + +Punctation of Ems, § 165, 10. + +Purcell, § 186, 5. + +Purgatory, § 61, 4; 67, 6; 104, 4; 106, 2, 3. + +Purists, § 159, 4. + +Puritans; § 143, 3, 4; 155. + +Puseyites, § 202, 2. + +Puttkamer, v., § 174, 8; 193, 6; 197, 10. + +Quadragesima, § 37, 1; 56, 4, 5, 7. + +Quadratus, § 30, 8. + +_Quadrivium_, § 90, 8. + +Quakers, § 163, 4, 5, 6; 211, 3. + +_Quanta cura_, § 185, 2. + +Quartodecimans, § 37, 2; 56, 3. + +Quenstedt, § 159, 5. + +_Quercum_, _Synod ad_, § 51, 3. + +Quesnel, § 165, 7. + +_Quicunque_, § 50, 7. + +Quietists, § 157. + +_Quinisextum_, § 63, 2. + +_Quinquagesima_, § 37, 1; 56, 4. + +Quintin, § 146, 4. + +_Quod numquam_, § 197, 7. + +Rabanus, § 90, 4; 91, 3, 5. + +Rabaut, § 165, 5. + +Rabinowitz, § 211, 9. + +Rabulas, § 52, 3; 48, 7. + +Racovian Catechism, § 148, 4. + +Radama I., II., § 184, 3. + +Radbertus, § 90, 5; 91, 3, 4. + +Radbod, § 78, 3. + +Radewins, Flor., § 112, 9. + +Radstock, § 206, 1. + +Raimund Lullus, § 93, 16; 103, 7 + " Martini, § 103, 9. + " of Pennaforte, § 93, 16; 99, 5; 113, 4. + +Raimund du Puy, § 93, 8. + " of Sabunde, § 113, 5. + " " Toulouse, § 109, 4. + +Rakoczy, § 153, 3. + +Rambach, § 167, 6, 8. + +Ramus, § 143, 6. + +Ranavalona, § 184, 3. + +Rance, de, § 156, 8. + +Raphael, § 115, 13. + " Union, § 186, 4. + +Rapp, § 211, 6. + +Raskolniks, § 163, 10; 210, 3. + +Rasoherina, § 184, 3. + +Raspe, § 105, 3. + +Raess, Bishop, § 196, 7. + +Rastislaw, § 79, 2. + +Ratherius, § 100, 2. + +Rationalism, § 171; 176, 1; 182, 2, 3. + +Ratramnus, § 67, 1; 90, 5; 91, 3, 4, 5. + +"_Rauhes Haus_," § 183, 1. + +Rauscher, Card., § 189, 3; 198, 2. + +Ravaillac, § 139, 17. + +Raynaldi, Oderic, § 5, 2. + +Realism and Nominalism, § 99, 2; 113, 2. + +Recafrid, § 81, 1. + +Reccared, § 76, 2. + +Rechiar, § 76, 4. + +_Reclusi_, § 85, 6. + +_Recognit. Clem._, § 27, 4. + +_Reconciliatio_, § 39, 2. + +_Recursus ab abusu_, § 185, 4; 192, 4; 194, 9; 197, 9. + +Redemptions, § 88, 5. + +Redemptorists, § 165, 2; 186, 1. + +Reformation in head and members, § 118, 3. + +Refugees, French Huguenot, § 153, 4. + +Regensburg Colloquy, § 130, 3, 10. + " Convention, § 126, 3. + " Declaration, § 135, 4. + " Diet, § 133, 2; 135, 3. + " Reformation, § 135, 6. + " Synod, § 91, 1. + +Regino of Pruem, § 90, 5. + +Reginus, § 104, 11. + +Regionary Bishops, § 84. + +_Regula fidei_, § 35, 2. + +Reichenau, § 78, 1. + +Reimarus, § 171, 6. + +Reinerius Sachoni, § 108, 1. + +Reinhard, Mart., § 139, 2. + +Reinhard, Fr. Volk., § 171, 8. + +Reinkens, § 190, 1. + +Reiser, Fred., § 119, 9; 118, 5. + +Reland, § 169, 6. + +Relics, Worship of, § 39, 5; 57, 5; 88, 4; 104, 8; 115, 9. + +_Religiosi_, § 44. + +Remigius of Auxerre, § 90, 5. + " " Lyons, § 91, 5. + " " Rheims, § 76, 9. + +Remismund, § 76, 4. + +Remoboth, § 44, 7. + +Remonstrants, § 161, 2. + +Renaissance, § 115, 13; 149, 15. + +Renan, § 182, 8. + +Renata of Ferrara, § 138, 2; 139, 22. + +Renaudot, § 165, 11. + +Reni, Guido, § 149, 15. + +Reparatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. + +Repeal Association, § 202, 9. + +_Reservatio mentalis_, § 149, 10. + +Reservations, § 110, 15. + +_Reservatum ecclest._, § 137, 5. + +Restitution Edict, § 153, 2. + +Reuchlin, § 120, 3, 4. + +Reuss, § 182, 18. + +Revenues of the Church, § 45, 6; 86, 1. + +_Reversurus_, § 207, 4. + +Revivals, § 208, 1. + +Revolution, French, § 165, 14. + " English, § 155. + +_Rex Christianiss._, § 110, 13. + +Rhaw, § 142, 5. + +Rhegius Urbanus, § 120, 3; 127, 3; 125, 1. + +Rheinwald, § 83, 2. + +Rhenius, § 184, 5. + +Rhense, Elector. Union of, § 110, 4. + +Rhetorians, § 62, 3. + +Rhine League, § 192. + +Rhodoald, § 67, 1; 82, 7. + +Rhodon, § 27, 12. + +Rhyming Bible, § 105, 5. + " Legends, § 105, 5. + +Riccabona, § 175, 2. + +Ricci, Laur., § 165, 9. + " Matt., § 150, 1. + " Scipio, § 165, 10. + +Richard Coeur de Leon, § 94, 3. + " of Cornwallis, § 94, 5. + " " St. Victor, § 102, 4; 104, 4. + +Richelieu, § 153, 4. + +Richter, C. F., § 167, 6. + " Emil, § 182, 22. + " Greg., § 160, 2. + " Jean Paul, § 171, 11. + " Louis, § 174, 9. + +Ridley, § 139, 5. + +Rieger, § 167, 8. + +Rienzi, § 110, 5. + +Rietschel, § 174, 9. + +Riga, § 93, 12; 139, 3. + +Rigdon, Sidney, § 211, 12, 13. + +Riley, § 209, 1. + +Rimbert, § 80, 2. + +Rimini, Syn., § 50, 3. + +Rinck, Melch., § 147, 1. + +Ring and Staff, § 96, 6, 7. + +Ringold, § 93, 14. + +Rinkart, § 160, 3. + +Rist, § 160, 3. + +_Risus Paschales_, § 105, 2. + +Ritschl, § 182, 7, 20. + +Ritter, Erasm., § 130, 4, 8. + " J. J., § 5, 6. + " Carl, § 174, 4. + +Ritualists, § 199, 2. + +Rizzio, § 139, 10. + +Robber Synod, § 52, 4. + +Robert of Arbrissel, § 98, 2. + " " Citeaux, § 98, 1. + " Grosseteste, § 103, 1. + " Guiscard, § 95, 1; 98, 6, 8. + " Pullus, § 102, 5. + " of the Sorbonne, § 103, 9. + +Robert of France, § 104, 10. + +Robespierre, § 165, 15. + +Robinson, § 143, 4. + +Rodigast, § 160, 4. + +Rodriguez, § 149, 8; 150, 4. + +Roell, § 161, 5. + +Roger of Sicily, § 95, 1; 96, 13. + +Roehr, § 176, 1; 182, 2. + +Rokycana, § 119, 7. + +Rollo, § 93, 1. + +Romanz, § 174, 2. + +Roman Architecture, § 104, 12. + +Romanus, Pope, § 96, 1. + +Romuald, § 98, 1. + +Ronge, § 187, 6. + +Roos, § 171, 8. + +Rosary, § 104, 8; 115, 1. + +Roscelinus, § 101, 3. + +Rose, The Consecrat. Golden, § 96, 23. + +Rosenkranz, § 182, 6. + +Rosicrucians, § 160, 1. + +Rossi de, § 191, 7; 38, 1. + +Roestar, § 211, 5. + +Roswitha, § 100, 1. + +_Rota Romana_, § 110, 16. + +Rothad of Soissons, § 83, 2. + +Rothe, A., § 167, 6; 168, 2. + " Rich., § 5, 4; 180, 1; 182, 10. + +Rothmann, § 147, 9. + +Roeublin, § 130, 5; 147, 3. + +Roundheads, § 155, 1. + +Rousseau, § 165, 14. + +Rubianus Crotus, § 120, 2, 5. + +Rueckert, § 174, 6. + +Rudelbach, § 182, 13; 194, 1. + +Rudolph of Hapsburg, § 96, 21, 22. + +Rudolph II., § 129, 19; 137, 8. + " of Swabia, § 96, 8. + +Ruet, § 205, 4. + +Rufinus, § 5, 1; 47, 17; 48, 2; 51, 2. + +Ruge, § 174, 1. + +Ruegen, § 93, 10. + +Rugians, § 76, 6. + +Ruinart, § 158, 2. + +Rulman Merswin, § 114, 2, 4. + +Rupert, § 78, 2. + " of Deutz, § 102, 8. + +Rupp, § 176, 1; 178, 1. + +Russel, Lord, § 202, 1, 5. + +Russia, § 73, 5-6; 151, 3; 163, 8; 166; 206; 219, 3, 4; 212, 6. + +Rust, § 195, 5. + +Ruysbroek, John of, § 114, 7. + " William of, § 93, 15. + +_Sabatati_, § 108, 10. + +Sabbath, § 56, 1. + +Sabbatarians, § 163, 3; 211, 5. + +Sabeans, § 22, 1. + +Sabellius, § 33, 5, 7. + +Sabinianus, § 60, 5. + +_Sacco di Roma_, § 132, 2. + +Sachs, Hans, § 142, 3, 7. + +Sack, K. H., § 182, 9. + +Sacramentalia, § 58; 104, 2. + +Sacraments, § 58; 70, 2; 104, 2-5. + +_Sacramentarium_, § 59, 6. + +_Sacrificati_, § 22, 5. + +_Sacrum rescript._, § 53, 3. + +Sacy, de, § 158, 1. + +Sadducees, § 8, 4. + +Sadolet, § 138, 3; 139, 22. + +Sagittarius, § 159, 4. + +Sailer, § 165, 12; 187, 1. + +Saints, Worship of, § 57, 1; 88, 4; 104, 8. + +Saladin, § 94, 3. + +Sales, Francis de, § 156, 7; 157, 1. + " Nuns of, § 156, 7. + +Salisbury, John of, § 102, 9. + +Salmeron, § 149, 8. + +Salt Lake, § 211, 10. + +Salvation Army, § 211, 2. + +Salvianus, § 47, 21. + +Salzburg, § 78, 2; 79. + " Emigrants of, § 164, 4. + +Samaritans, § 10; 22. + +Sampseans, § 28, 2. + +Sanbenito, § 117, 2. + +Sanchez, § 149, 10. + +Sanction, Pragmatic, § 96, 21; 110, 9, 14. + +_Sanctissimum_, § 104, 3. + +Sandwich Islands, § 182, 7. + +Sankey, § 211, 1. + +Sapor I., § 29, 1. + +Sapores, § 64, 2. + +Sarabaites, § 44, 7. + +Saracens, § 81; 95. + +Sardica, Council of, § 46, 3; 50, 2. + +Sardinia, § 204, 1, 3. + +Sarmatio, § 62, 2. + +Sarpi, § 156, 2; 158, 2. + +Sartorius, § 182, 13. + +Saturnalia, § 56, 5. + +Saturninus, § 27, 9. + +Saunier, § 138, 1; 139, 25. + +Saurin, § 169, 6. + +Savonarola, § 119, 11. + +Savonieres, Syn. of, § 91, 5. + +Sbynko, § 119, 3, 4. + +_Scala santa_, § 115, 9. + +Schaffhausen, § 130, 8. + +Schelling, § 171, 10; 174, 1. + +Schenkel, § 182, 17; 196, 3, 4; 180, 1. + +Schiller, § 171, 11. + +Schirmer, § 160, 4. + +Schism, Papal, § 110, 6. + " between East and West, § 67. + +Schisms in the Ancient Church, § 41; 50, 8; 52, 5; 63. + +Schlegel, Fr., § 174, 5; 175, 7. + " J. Ad., § 172, 1. + +Schleiermacher, § 5, 4; 182, 1; 174, 3. + +Schleswig-Holstein, § 127, 3; 156, 2; 201, 1; 193, 7. + +Schlichting, § 148, 4. + +Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1. + " League, § 133, 1, 7. + " War, § 136. + +Schmerling, § 198, 3, 4. + +Schmid, Leop., § 187, 3; 191, 2; 196, 4. + +Schmidt, Erasm., § 159, 4. + " Lor., § 171, 3. + " Seb., § 159, 4. + +Schmolck, § 167, 6, 8. + +Schnepf, § 122, 2; 131, 1; 133, 3. + +Schnorr, § 174, 9. + +Schoeberlein, § 181, 3. + +_Schola palatina_, § 90, 1. +" _Saxonica_, § 82. + +Scholastica, St., § 85, 3. + +Scholasticism, Greek, § 47, 6; 68, 3. + " Latin, § 99 ff.; 113. + +Scholasticus, John, § 43, 3. + +Scholten, § 200, 2. + +Schools. + +Schopenhauer, § 174, 2. + +Schortinghuis, § 169, 3. + +Schroeckh, § 5, 3; 171, 8. + +Schubert, § 174, 3, 8. + +Schultens, § 169, 6. + +Schultz, Herm., § 182, 20. + +Schulz, Dav., § 183, 3. + +Schwartz, § 167, 9. + +Schwarzenberg, § 189, 3. + +Schweizer, § 182, 9. + +Schwenkfeld, § 146, 1. + +Scotists, § 113, 2. + +Scotland, § 77, 2; 139, 8; 202, 7, 8, 11. + +Scots, 77, 2. + +Scottish Cloister, § 98, 1; 112. + +Scotus, John Duns, § 113. + " Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + +Scriver, § 160, 1. + +Scythianus, § 29, 1. + +_Seculum obscurum_, § 100. + +Secundus, § 50, 1. + +_Sedes Apostolicae_, § 34. + +Sedulius, § 48, 6. + +Segarelli, § 108, 8. + +Segneri, § 157, 2. + +Seiler, § 171, 8. + +Selden, § 161, 6. + +Selnecker, § 141, 12; 142, 4. + +Sembat, § 71, 2. + +Semi-arians, § 50, 3. + +Semi-jejunia, § 37, 2. + +Semi-pelagians, § 53, 5. + +Semler, § 171, 6; 5, 3. + +Sendomir Compact, § 139, 18. + +Seneca's Correspondence, § 32, 7. + +Sententiarists, § 102, 5. + +Sepp, § 191, 8; 174, 4. + +Septimius Severus, § 22, 4. + +Septuagint, § 10, 2; 36, 8; 48, 1. + +Sequences, § 88, 2. + +Serapeion, § 42, 4. + +Seraphic Order, § 98, 3. + +Serenius Granian., § 22, 2. + +Serenus of Marsilia, § 57, 4. + +Sergius of Constantinople, § 52, 8. + " " Ravenna, § 83, 2. + " I. of Rome, § 46, 11; 63, 3. + " II., § 82, 5. + " III., § 96, 1. + " IV., § 96, 4. + +Serrarius, § 149, 14. + +Servatus Lupus, § 90, 5; 91, 5. + +Servetus, § 148, 2. + +Servites, § 98, 6. + +_Servus servorum Dei_, § 46, 10. + +Sethians, § 27, 6. + +Seventh-Day Adventists, § 211, 1. + " " Baptists, § 163, 3. + +Severa, § 23, 4; 26. + +Severians, § 52, 7. + +Severina, § 28, 4. + +Severinus, Missionary, § 76, 6. + " Pope, § 46, 11. + +Severus, Emperor, § 22, 6. + " Wolfg., § 137, 8. + +Shaftesbury, § 171, 1. + +Shakers, § 170, 7. + +Sherlock, § 171, 1. + +Shiites, § 65, 1. + +Ship of the Church, § 60, 1. + +Sibylline Books, § 32, 1. + +Sicily, § 81; 95. + +Sickingen, § 120, 4; 122, 4; 123, 7; 124, 2. + +Siena, Syn., § 110, 7. + +Sieveking, § 183, 1. + +Sigfrid, § 93, 1. + +Sigillaria, § 56, 5. + +Sigismund of Burgundy, § 76, 5. + " Emperor, § 110, 7, 8; 119, 5. + +Sigismund I. of Poland, § 139, 18. + " Aug. " § 139, 18. + " III. " § 139, 18. + +Sigurd, § 93, 3. + +Silesia, § 127, 3; 153, 2; 165, 4. + +Silesius, Angelus, § 157, 4; 160, 4. + +Silverius, § 46, 9. + +Simeon of Jerusalem, § 22, 2. + " Stylites, § 44, 6. + " called Titus, § 71, 1. + " Czar, § 73, 3. + " Metaphrastes, § 68, 4. + " of Thessalonica, § 68, 5. + " " Tournay, § 103, 2. + " VI., VII.; Counts of Lippe, § 154, 2. + +Simeoni, § 205, 4. + +Simon Magus, § 25, 2. + " Rich., § 158, 2. + " St., § 212, 2. + +Simonians, § 27, 8. + +Simons, Menno, § 147, 2. + +Simony, § 96, 5. + +Simplicius, § 42, 5. + +Siricius, § 45, 2; 46, 4. + +Sirmium, Syn., § 50, 2, 3. + +Sirmond, § 158, 2. + +Sisters of Mercy, § 156, 8; 186, 2. + +Sixtus II., § 22, 5. + " III., § 46, 6. + " IV., § 110, 11; 112, 3; 115, 1. + +Sixtus V., § 149, 3, 4, 14. + " of Siena, § 149, 14. + +Skeleton Army, § 211, 2. + +Smith, Jos., § 211, 10. + " Pearsall, § 211, 1. + " Robertson, § 202, 8. + +Socialism, § 212. + +Socinians, § 148, 4; 202, 5. + +Soissons, Syn., § 78, 4; 102, 8. + +_Sollicitudo omnium_, § 185, 1. + +Somerset, § 139, 5. + +Sophia, Church of, § 60, 3. + +Sophronius, § 52, 8. + +Sorbonne, § 103, 9. + +Soter, § 36, 8. + +Southcote, Joanna, § 211, 5. + +Spain, § 76, 2, 3; 95, 2; 139, 21; 205. + +Spalatin, § 122, 6. + +Spalding, Bishop, § 189, 3. + +Spangenberg, John, § 142, 6. + " Bishop, § 168, 7. + +Spanheim, § 5, 2; 161, 3, 7. + +Speaker's Bible, § 202, 1. + +Spencer, John, § 161, 6. + " Herbert, § 174, 2. + +Spener, § 158, 3; 167, 5. + +Spiera, Fr., § 139, 2, 4. + +Spinoza, § 164, 1. + +Spires, Diet, § 126, 6; 132, 3; 135, 9; 147, 4. + +Spirit, Sect of the New, § 108, 2. + +_Spiritales_, § 40, 5. + +Spirituals, § 164, 1. + +_Spirituels_, § 146, 4. + +Sponsors, § 35, 5; 58, 1. + +Sufis, § 61, 1. + +Stackhouse, § 168, 6. + +Stahl, § 182, 15; 193, 6. + +Stancarns, § 141, 2. + +Stanislaus, St., § 93, 2. + " Znaim, § 119, 4. + +Stanley, § 184, 4. + +Stapfer, § 169, 6. + +Stapulensis, § 120, 7, 8. + +Starck, § 175, 7. + +Starowerzi, § 163, 10; 210, 3. + +Staudenmaier, § 191, 6. + +Staeudlin, § 171, 8. + +Staupitz, § 112, 6; 122, 1. + +Stedingers, § 109, 3. + +Steffens, § 174, 3; 177, 2. + +Stein, Baron v., § 176, 1. + +Steinbart, § 171, 4, 6. + +Steinmetz, § 167, 8. + +Stephan I., § 35, 3. + " II., § 66, 2; 78, 7; 82, 1. + " III., § 60, 2; 82, 1. + " IV., § 82, 4. + " V., VI., § 82, 8. + " IX., § 96, 6. + " St., § 93, 8; 96, 3. + " of Palecz, § 119, 4, 5. + " " Sunik, § 72, 2. + " " Tigerno, § 98, 2. + " Mart., § 194, 1. + +Stephanas, § 18, 4. + +Stephen Langton, § 96, 18. + +Stier, § 181, 1; 183, 4. + +Stigmatization, § 105, 4; 188, 3. + +Stirner, Max., § 212, 1. + +Stolberg, § 5, 6; 165, 6. + +Storch, Nich., § 124, 1. + +Storr, § 171, 8. + +Strassburg, § 125, 1. + " Minster, § 104, 13. + +Strauss, Dav. Fr., § 174, 1; 182, 6, 8; 199, 4. + +Streoneshalch, Syn., § 77, 6. + +Strossmayer, § 189, 3, 4. + +Stuart, Mary, § 139, 5. + +Studites, § 44, 4. + +Sturm of Fulda, § 78, 4, 5. + +Stylites, § 44, 6; 78, 3; 85, 6. + +Suarez, § 149, 14. + +_Subintroductae_, § 39, 3. + +Subordinationists, § 33, 1. + +Suevi, § 76, 4. + +Suffragan Bishops, § 84. + +Sully, § 139, 17. + +Sulpicius Severus, § 47, 17. + +_Summa_ of Holy Scripture, § 125, 2. + +Summaries, Wuerttemb., § 160, 6. + +_Summis desiderantes_, § 117, 4. + +Summists, § 102, 4. + +_Summus Episcopus_, § 167, 3. + +Sun, Children of, § 71, 2. + +Sunday, Fest. of, § 17, 7; 37; 56, 1. + +Sunnites, § 65, 1. + +_Supplicationes_, § 59, 9. + +Supralapsarians, § 161, 1. + +Supernaturalists, § 171, 8; 182, 4, 5. + +Suso, H., § 114, 5. + +Sutri, Syn., § 96, 4. + +Swabian Articles, § 132, 5. + " Halle, Sect in, § 108, 6. + +Sweden, § 80; 93, 3; 139, 1; 201, 2. + +Swedenborgians, § 170, 5; 211, 4. + +Sweyn, § 93, 2. + +Switzerland, § 78, 1; 130; 138; 162, 6; 189, 7; 190, 3; 199. + +Sydow, § 180, 4. + +Syllabus, § 185, 2. + +Sylvester I., § 42, 1; 46, 3; 59, 5; 82, 2. + +Sylvester II., § 94; 96, 3. + " III., § 96, 4. + " Bern., § 102, 10. + +_Symbolum Apost._, § 35, 2; 59, 2. +_ " Athan._, § 59, 2. +_ " Nic. Constant._, § 59, 2. +_ " Nicaenum_, § 50, 1. + +Symmachus, Pope, § 46, 8. + " Prefect, § 42, 4. + +Sympherosa, § 32, 9. + +Synagogues, § 8, 3. + +Syncretist Controv., § 159, 3. + +Synergists, § 53, 1. + +Synesius, § 47, 7; 59, 4. + +_Syngramma Suevic._, § 131, 1. + +Synod, Holy Russian, § 166. + " The Holy Athens, § 207, 1. + +Synods, § 34, 5; 43, 2. + +_Synodus palmaris_, § 46, 8. + +Syrians, § 184, 9; 207, 2. + +Syzigies, § 27, 3; 28, 3. + +Tabernaculum, § 104, 3. + +Taborites, § 119, 7. + +Taepings, § 211, 15. + +Tafel, Imm., § 211, 4. + +Tahiti, § 184, 6. + +Talmud, § 25. + +Tamerlane, § 72, 1; 93, 15. + +Tamuls, § 184, 5. + +Tanchelm, § 108, 9. + +Tartars, § 73, 1. + +Tasso, § 149, 15. + +Tatian, § 27, 10; 30, 10. + +Tauler, § 114, 2. + +Teellinck, § 161, 4. + +Teetotallers, § 202, 9. + +Telesphorus, § 22, 2. + +Teller, § 171, 4, 7. + +Templars, § 98, 8; 112, 7. + +Terminants, § 98, 3. + +Terminism, § 167, 2. + +Territorial System, § 167, 5. + +Tersteegen, § 169, 1. + +Tertiaries, § 93, 3, 5. + +Tertullian, § 31, 10; 33, 4, 9; 34, 8; 40, 3. + +Tertullianists, § 40, 3. + +_Tessareskaidecatites_, § 37, 2. + +Test Act, § 153, 6; 155, 3; 202, 5. + +Testam. of XII. Patri., § 32, 3. + +Tetzel, § 122, 2. + +Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8; 93, 13. + +Theatines, § 149, 7. + +Thecla, § 32, 6. + +Theiner, § 186, 1; 187, 4; 191, 7. + +Theodelinde, § 76, 8. + +Theodemir, § 92, 2. + +Theodo I., II., § 78, 2. + +Theodora, § 46, 9; 52, 6; 71, 1. + +Theodore of Abyssinia, § 182, 9. + +Theodoret, § 47, 9; 52, 3, 4. + +Theodoric, § 46, 8; 76, 7. + " of Freiburg, § 103, 10. + " of Niem, § 118, 5. + +Theodorus, Pope, § 52, 1. + " Ascidas, § 52, 8. + " Balsamon, § 43, 3. + " Lector, § 5, 1. + " of Mopsuestia, § 47, 9; 48, 1; 52, 3; 53, 4. + +Theodorus Studita, § 66, 4. + " of Tarsus, § 90, 8. + +Theodosius the Great, § 42, 4; 47, 15; 50, 4. + +Theodosius II., § 42, 4. + +Theodotians, § 33, 3. + +Theodulf of Orleans, § 89, 2; 90, 2. + +Theognis of Nicaea, § 50, 1. + +Theonas, § 50, 1. + +Theopaschites, § 52, 6. + +Theophanies, § 96, 2. + +Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4. + " of Alexandria, § 42, 4; 51, 2, 3. + +Theophilus of Antioch, § 30, 10. + " " Din, § 64, 4. + " " Moscow, § 166, 1. + +Theophylact, § 68, 5. + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, § 52, 2, 3. + +Therapeutae, § 10, 1. + +Theresa, St., § 149, 6, 15, 16. + +_Thesaurus supererogat._, § 106, 2. + +Thiers, § 203, 5. + +Thiersch, § 211, 10. + +Thietberga, § 82, 7. + +Thietgaut of Treves, § 82, 7. + +Thilo, § 160, 3. + +Tholuck, § 182, 4. + +Thomas Aquinas, § 103, 6; 96, 23; 104, 4, 10. + +Thomas Becket, § 96, 16. + " Bradwardine, § 113, 2. + " of Celano, § 104, 10. + " a Kempis, § 112, 9; 114, 7. + +Thomas Christians, § 52, 3. + +Thomasius, Chr., § 117, 4; 159, 3; 167, 4, 5. + +Thomasius, Gottfr., § 182, 13. + +Thomassinus, § 158, 1. + +Thomists, § 113, 3. + +Thontracians, § 71, 2. + +Thorn, Declarat., § 153, 7. + " Massacre, § 165, 4. + " Relig. Confer., § 153, 7; 154, 4. + +Thorwaldsen, § 173, 9. + +Thrasimund, § 76, 3. + +_Thuribulum_, § 60, 5. + +_Thurificati_, § 22, 5. + +Tiara, Papal, § 96, 23. + +Tiberius, § 22, 1. + +Tieck, § 174, 5. + +Tieftrunk, § 171, 7. + +Tillemont, § 158, 2; 5, 2. + +Tillotson, § 161, 3. + +Timotheus Aelurus, § 52, 5. + +Tindal, Matt., § 171, 1. + " William, § 139, 4. + +Tiridates III., § 64, 3. + +Tischendorf, § 182, 11. + +Titian, § 115, 13; 149, 11. + +_Tituli_, § 84, 2. + +Titus of Bostra, § 54, 1. + +Toland, § 171, 1. + +Toledo, Syn., § 76, 2. + +Toleration Acts, English, § 155, 3; 202, 5. + " Edict, Austr., § 165, 10. + " Patent, Pruss., § 193, 3. + +Tolomeo of Lucca, § 5, 1. + +Tolstoi, § 206, 1. + +Tonsure, § 45, 1; 77, 3. + +Tooth, Arth., § 202, 3. + +Torgau, Articles of, § 132, 7. + " Book of, § 141, 12. + " League of, § 126, 5. + +Torquemada, John, § 110, 15; 112, 4. + " Thomas, § 117, 2. + +Toulouse, Syn., § 105, 5; 108, 2; 109, 2. + +Tours, Syn., § 101, 2; 110, 13. + +Tractarianism, § 202, 2. + +Tradition, § 33, 4. + +Traditors, § 22, 6. + +Traducianism, § 53, 1. + +Trajan, § 22, 2. + +Tranquebar, § 167, 9. + +Translations, § 57, 1. + +Transept, § 60, 1. + +Transubstantiation, § 58, 2; 104, 3. + +Transylvania, § 139, 20. + +Trappists, § 156, 8. + +Tremellius, § 143, 5. + +Trent, Council of, § 149, 2; 136, 4. + +_Treuga Dei_, § 105, 1. + +Tribur, Princes' Diet, § 96, 7. + " Syn., § 83, 3. + +Trinitarian Controversy, § 32; 50. + " Order, § 98, 2. + +Trinity, Festival of the, § 104, 7. + " Order of the Holy, § 149, 4. + +Trishagion, § 52, 5, 6. + +Trithemius, § 113, 7. + +_Trivium_, § 90, 8. + +Troparies, § 59, 4. + +Troubadours, § 105, 6. + +_Trullanum, I. Conc._, § 52, 8. + _ " II. "_ § 63, 2; 45, 2. + +Tuebingen, § 120, 3. + +Turkey, § 207. + +Turrecremata, John, § 110, 15; 112, 14. + +Turrecremata, Thos., § 117, 2. + +Turretin, J. A., § 164, 1, 6. + +Turribius, § 54, 2. + +Tutilo, § 88, 6. + +Twesten, § 182, 10. + +Tychonius, § 48, 1. + +Typus, § 52, 8. + +Tyrol, § 193, 4. + +Tyre, Syn., § 50, 2. + +Ubertino de Casale, § 108, 6. + +_Ubiquitas Corp. Chr._, § 141, 9. + +Udo, § 62, 1. + +Ugolino, § 165, 12. + +Uhlhorn, § 193, 8. + +Uhlich, § 176, 1. + +Ulenberg, § 149, 15. + +Ulfilas, § 76, 1. + +Ullmann, § 182, 10; 196, 3. + +Ulrich of Augsb., § 84, 3. + " " Wuerttemb., § 133, 3. + +Ulrici, § 174, 2; 211, 17. + +Ultramontanism, § 188; 197. + +Umbreit, § 182, 11. + +_Unam Sanctam_, § 110, 1. + +_Unctio extrema_, § 61, 3; 70, 2; 104, 5. + +Uniformity, Act of, § 139, 6; 155, 3. + +Unigenitus, § 165, 7. + +Union Attempts in the Eastern Church, § 67, 4, 5; 152, 2; 175, 4-6. + +Union, Catholic Protestant, § 137, 8; 153, 7. + +Union, Lutheran Reformed, § 155, 4; 167, 4; 169, 1, 2. + +Union, Prussian, § 177, 1. + +Unitarians, § 148; 163, 1; 211, 4. + +United Brethren, § 119, 8. + " Greeks, § 72, 4; 151, 3; 206, 2. + +Universities, § 99, 3. + " Bill, § 199, 5. + +Urban II., § 96, 10; 94. + " III., § 96, 16. + " IV., § 96, 20. + " V., § 110, 5; 117, 2. + " VI., § 110, 6. + " VII., § 149, 3. + " VIII., § 156, 1, 4, 9; 157, 5. + +Urbanus Rhegius, § 127, 3. + +Ursacius, § 50, 3. + +Ursinus of Rome, § 46, 4. + " Zach., § 144, 1; 169, 1. + +Ursula, St., § 104, 9. + +Ursuline Nuns, § 149, 7. + +Ussher, § 161, 6, 7. + +Utah, § 211, 10. + +Utraquists, § 119, 6. + +Utrecht, Church of, § 165, 7. + " Union of, § 139, 12. + +Vadian, § 130, 4. + +Valdez, § 108, 10. + +Valence, Syn., § 91, 5. + +Valens, Emperor, § 50, 4; 42, 4. + +Valentinian I., § 42, 4. + " II., § 42, 4. + " III., § 46, 3; 46, 7. + +Valentinus, § 27, 4. + +Valerian, § 22, 5. + +Valla, § 120, 1. + +Vallombrosians, § 98, 1. + +Valsainte, § 186, 2. + +Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. + +Vandals, § 76, 3. + +Vanne, Congreg. of, § 156, 7. + +Varanes I., § 29, 1. + " III., § 64, 2. + +_Variata_, § 141, 4. + +Vasa, Gustavus, § 139, 1; 142, 8. + +Vasquez, § 149, 10. + +Vatican, § 110, 15. + " Council, § 189. + +Vatke, § 182, 18. + +Vaud, Canton, § 199, 5. + +Vega, Lope de, § 158, 3. + +Velasquez, § 98, 8. + +Venantius Fortunatus, § 48, 6. + +Venema, § 169, 6. + +Venezuela, § 209, 2. + +Vercelli, Syn., § 101, 2. + +Verdun, Treaty of, § 82, 5. + +Vergerius, § 134, 1; 139, 24. + +Vermilius, Pet. Mart., § 139, 5, 24. + +Veronica, § 18, 2. + +Versailles, Edict of, § 165, 5. + +Vespers, Sicilian, § 96, 22. + +_Vestibulum_, § 60, 1. + +Vestments, Ecclest., § 59, 7. + +Veuillot, § 188, 1; 203, 3. + +_Viaticum_, § 104, 5. + +Vicelinus, § 93, 9. + +Victor I., § 33, 3, 4; 37, 2; 40, 2; 41, 1. + +Victor II., § 96, 5. + " III., § 96, 10. + " IV., § 96, 15. + " of Vita, § 48, 2. + " Emmanuel I., § 204, 1. + " " II., § 185, 3; 204, 1, 2. + +Victor, St., Monastery of, § 102, 4, 8. + +Victorinus, Marius, § 47, 14. + " of Pettau, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + +Victorius, § 56, 3. + +Vienna, Congress of, § 192, 3. + " Peace of, § 139, 40. + +Vienne, Council of, § 110, 2; 112, 1, 2, 7. + +Vigilantius, § 62, 2. + +Vigilius, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + +Vigils, § 35; 56, 4. + +Vikings, § 93, 1. + +Villegagnon, § 143, 7. + +Vilmar, § 182, 14; 194, 4. + +Vincent of Beauvais, § 99, 6. + +Vincent Ferrari, § 115, 2; 110, 6. + " of Lerins, § 47, 21; 53, 5. + " de Paula, § 156, 8. + +Vinci, Leon. da, § 115, 13. + +Vinet, § 129, 5. + +Viret, § 138, 1. + +Virgilius of Salzburg, § 78, 6. + +Virgins, The 11,000, § 104, 9. + +Visigoths, § 76, 2. + +Visitation, Articles of, § 141, 13. + +_Vita quadragesimalis_, § 112, 8. + +Vitalis Ordenicus, § 5, 1. + +Vitus, § 46, 3. + +Vitringa, § 161, 6. + +Vladimir, § 73, 4. + +Vladislaw, § 119, 7. + " IV., § 153, 7. + +Voetius, § 161, 4, 5, 7; 162, 4; 163, 7. + +Volkmann, § 169, 1. + +Voltaire, § 105, 5, 14, 15. + +Vorstius, § 161, 2. + +Vossius, § 171, 11. + +Vulgate, § 59, 1; 136, 4; 149, 14. + +Waddington, § 203, 5, 8. + +Wafers, § 104, 3. + +Wagner, Rich., § 174, 10. + +Wala, § 82, 5. + +Walafrid Strabo, § 90, 4; 91, 3. + +Walch, J. G., § 167, 4. + " Fr., § 171, 8. + +Waldemar I., § 93, 10. + " II., § 93, 12. + +Waldensians, § 108, 10-12; 119, 9, 10; 139, 25; 153, 5; 204, 4. + +Waldrade, § 82, 8. + +Wallace, § 211, 17. + +Walter of Habenichts, § 94, 1. + " " St. Victor, § 102, 9. + " v. d. Vogelweide, § 105, 6. + +Walther, Hans, § 142, 5. + " Mich., § 159, 4. + " Dr., § 208, 2, 3. + +Walton, Brian, § 161, 6. + +Warburton, § 171, 1. + +Ward, § 156, 8. + +Warnefried, § 90, 3. + +Wartburg, § 123, 8. + +Watts, Isaac, § 169, 6. + +Wazo of Liege, § 109. + +Wearmouth, § 85, 4. + +Weber, F. W., § 174, 6. + +Wecelinus, § 95, 3. + +Wechabites, § 65, 4. + +Wegelin, § 160, 3. + +Wegscheider, § 182, 2. + +Weigel, Val., § 146, 2. + +Weingarten, § 5, 5. + +Weiss, Bern., § 182, 11. + +Weissel, § 160, 3. + +Wellhausen, § 182, 18. + +Wends, § 93, 9. + +Wendelin, § 161, 7. + +Wenilo, § 91, 5. + +Wenzel, § 119, 3. + +Wenzeslaw, § 93, 6. + +Wertheimer Bible, § 171, 2. + +Wesel, John of, § 119, 10. + +Wesley, § 169, 3, 4. + +Wessel, § 119, 10. + +Westeraes, Diet of, § 139, 1. + +Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. + +Westphal, § 141, 10. + +Westphalia, Peace of, § 153, 2. + " Reform, § 133, 5. + +Wette, de, § 182, 3. + +Wetterau, § 170. + +Wettstein, § 169, 6. + +Whitaker, § 143, 5. + +Whitefield, § 169, 3, 4. + +Whitgift, § 143, 5. + +Wibert, § 96, 6, 8. + +Wichern, § 183, 1. + +Wiclif, § 119, 1. + +Wido of Milan, § 97, 5. + +Wied, H. v., § 133, 5; 135, 7. + +Wieland, § 171, 11. + +Wigand, § 141, 10. + +Wilberforce, § 184. + +Wilfrid, § 77, 6; 78, 3; 83, 3. + +Wilgard, § 100. + +Wilibrord, § 78, 3. + +Willehad, § 78, 3. + +William of St. Amour, § 103, 3. + " " Aquitaine, § 98, 1. + " " Champeaux, § 101, 1. + " " Conches, § 102, 10. + " the Conqueror, § 96, 8, 12. + " Durandus, § 113, 3. + " of Modena, § 93, 13. + " " Nogaret, § 110, 1. + " " Occam, § 112, 2; 113, 3; 118, 2. + +William Rufus, § 96, 12. + " Ruysbroek, § 93, 15. + " of Thierry, § 102, 2, 10. + " " Tyre, § 94, 3. + " " Bavaria, § 135, 8; 136, 2, 6; 151, 1. + +William IV., V., of Hesse, § 154, 1. + " I. of Orange, § 129, 12. + " III. of Orange, § 153, 6; 155, 3. + +William I., German Emperor, § 193; 197. + +Williams, John, § 184, 7. + " Roger, § 162, 2; 163, 3. + +Willigis, § 96, 2; 97, 2. + +Wilsnack, Mirac, host of, § 119, 3. + +Wilson, § 172, 5. + +Winckelmann, § 165, 6; 174, 9. + +Windesheim, § 112, 9. + +Windthorst, § 197, 1, 6; 188, 3. + +Winer, § 182, 4. + +Winfrid, § 78, 4-8. + +Wion, § 149, 3. + +Wiseman, § 202, 11. + +Wishart, § 139, 8. + +Wislicenus, § 176, 1. + +Witch Hammer, § 117, 4. + " Process, § 117, 4. + +Witsius, § 161, 7; 169, 4. + +Wittenberg, § 120, 3. + " Catech., § 141, 10. + " Concord., § 133, 8. + " Sketch of Reform, § 135, 13. + +Witzel, § 137, 8; 149, 15. + +Wolf, J. Chr., § 167, 4. + +Wolfenbuettel Fragments, § 171, 6. + +Wolff, Chr. v., § 167, 4; 171, 10. + +Wolfgang, William, of Palatine Neuburg, § 153,1. + +Wolfram of Eschenb., § 105, 6. + +Woellner, § 171, 5. + +Wolmar, Melch., § 138, 2, 8. + +Wolsey, § 120, 7. + +Woltersdorf, § 167, 6, 8. + +Woolston, § 171, 1. + +Worms Edict, § 123, 7. + " Concordat, § 96, 11. + " Consultation, § 137, 6. + " Relig. Confer., § 135, 2. + +Wratislaw, § 79, 3. + +Wulflaich, § 78, 3. + +Wulfram, § 78, 3. + +Wuerttemberg, § 133, 3; 193, 5, 6; 197, 14. + +Wuerzburg, Bish. Congress, § 192, 4. + +Wyttenbach, Dan., § 169, 6. + " Thomas, § 130, 1. + +Xavier, § 119, 8; 150, 1. + +Xenaias, § 59, 1. + +Ximenes, § 117, 2; 118, 7; 120, 8, 9. + +Young, Brigham, § 211, 12. + +Yvon, § 163, 8. + +Zacharias, Pope, § 78, 5, 6; 82, 1. + " of Anagni, § 67, 1. + +Zapolya, § 139, 20. + +_Zelatores_, § 98, 4. + +Zell, Matt., § 125, 1. + +Zeller, Ed., § 182, 9; 199, 4. + +_Zelus domus Dei_, § 153, 2. + +Zeno, Philos., § 8, 4. + " Emp., § 52, 5. + " of Verona, § 47, 14. + +Zenobia, § 32, 8. + +Zephyrinus, § 33, 3, 5; 41, 1. + +Zeschwitz, § 182, 14. + +Ziegenbalg, § 167, 9. + +Zillerthal, § 198. + +Zimmermann, § 178, 1; 182, 2. + +Zinzendorf, § 168; 170, 2, 3; 171, 3. + +Zionites, § 170, 4. + +Ziska, § 119, 7. + +Zollikofer, § 171, 7. + +Zosimus, § 46, 5; 53, 4. + +Zschokke, § 176, 1. + +Zulu Kaffres, § 184, 3. + +Zuerich, § 130, 2; 199, 4. + +Zwick, § 143, 2. + +Zwickau, Prophets of, § 121, 1. + +Zwingli, § 130; 131, 1; 132, 4. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Merimee, "The Russian Impostors: the False Demetrius," London, 1852. + + 2 Neale, "History of the Holy Eastern Church," vol. ii., p. 356 ff. + Cyrillus Lucaris, "_Confessio Christianae Fidei_." Geneva, 1633. + Smith, "_Collectanea de Cyrillo Lucario_." London, 1707. + + 3 Stevens, "Life and Times of Gustavus Adolphus." New York, 1884. + Trench, "Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, and other Lectures on the + Thirty Years' War." London. Gardiner, "The Thirty Years' War" in + "Epochs of Modern History." London, 1881. + + 4 Bray, "Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes." London, 1870. + Poole, "History of the Huguenots of the Dispersion." London, 1880. + Agnew, "Protestant Exiles from France in the Reign of Louis XIV." 3 + vols. London, 1871. Weiss, "History of French Protestant Refugees." + London, 1854. + + 5 Macaulay, "History of England from the Accession of James II." + London, 1846. Hassencamp, "History of Ireland from the Reformation + to the Union." London, 1888. Adair, "Rise and Progress of the + Presbyterian Church of Ireland from 1623 to 1670." Belfast, 1866. + Hamilton, "History of Presbyterian Church in Ireland." Edin., 1887. + + 6 Butler, "Life of Hugo Grotius." London, 1826. Motley, "John of + Barneveld," vol. ii. New York, 1874. + + 7 "An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church in Matters of + Controversy." London, 1685. "Variations of Protestantism." 2 vols. + Dublin, 1836. Butler, "Some Account of the Life and Writings of + Bishop Bossuet." London, 1812. + + 8 "The Work of John Durie in behalf of Christian Union in the + Seventeenth Century," by Dr. Briggs in _Presbyterian Review_, vol. + viii., 1887, pp. 297-300. To which is attached an account by Durie + himself, never before published, of his own union efforts from July, + 1631, till September, 1633. See pp. 301-309. + + 9 Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion in England, 1649-1666." 3 vols. + Oxford, 1667. Burnet, "History of his Own Time, 1660-1713." 2 vols. + London, 1724. Guizot, "History of English Revolution of 1640." + London, 1856. Gardiner, "History of England, 1603-1642." 10 vols. + London, 1885. Marsden, "History of Early and Later Puritans, down to + the Ejection of the Nonconformists in 1662." 2 vols. London, 1853. + Masson, "Life of Milton." 4 vols. London, 1859 ff. + + 10 Mitchell, "The Westminster Assembly." London, 1882. Mitchell and + Struthers, "Minutes of Westminster Assembly." Edinburgh, 1874. + Macpherson, "Handbook to Westminster Confession." 2nd ed. Edinburgh, + 1882. Hetherington, "History of Westminster Assembly." 4th ed. + Edinburgh, 1878. + + 11 Carlyle, "Cromwell's Letters and Speeches." 2 vols. London, 1845. + Guizot, "Life of Cromwell." London, 1877. Paxton Hood, "Oliver + Cromwell." London, 1882. Picton, "Oliver Cromwell." London, 1878. + Harrison, "Oliver Cromwell." London, 1888. Barclay, "The Inner Life + of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth." London, 1877. + + 12 Guizot, "Richard Cromwell and the Restoration of Charles II." 2 + vols. London, 1856. Macpherson, "History of Great Britain from the + Restoration." London, 1875. + + 13 Bargraves, "Alexander VII. and His Cardinals." Ed. by Robertson. + London, 1866. + + 14 Cunningham, "Discussions on Church Principles." Edin., 1863. Chap. + v.: "The Liberties of the Gallican Church," pp. 133-163. + + 15 Von Gebler, "Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia," transl. by + Sturge. London, 1879. Madden, "Galileo and the Inquisition." London, + 1863. Brewster, "Martyrs of Science." Edin., 1841. Von Gebler denies + that any condemnation _ex cathedra_ was given. + + 16 Wilson, "Life of Vincent de Paul." London, 1874. + + 17 Marsolier, "Life of Francis de Sales," translated by Coombes, + London, 1812. + + 18 "Golden Thoughts from the 'Spiritual Guide' of Molinos." With + preface by J. H. Shorthouse. London, 1883. + + 19 Upham, "Life, Religious Opinions, and Experience of Madame de la + Mothe Guyon, with an account of Fenelon." London, 1854. Brooke, + "Exemplary Life of the Pious Lady Guion." Bristol, 1806. Butler, + "Life of Fenelon." London, 1810. + + 20 Beard, "Port Royal." 2 vols. London, 1861. St. Amour, "Journal in + France and Rome, containing Account of Five Points of Controversy + between Jansenists and Molinists." London, 1664. Schimmelpenninck, + "Select Memoirs of Port Royal." Fourth edition. 2 vols. London, + 1835. + + 21 Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 98-251. + + 22 Bruce, "Humiliation of Christ," p. 131. Edin., 1876. + + 23 Dowding, "German Theology during the Thirty Years' War: Life and + Correspondence of G. Calixt." 2 vols. Oxford, 1863. + + 24 Wildenhahn, "Life of Spener," translated by Wenzel. Philadelphia, + 1881. Guericke, "Life of A. H. Francke." London, 1847. + + 25 Jennings, "The Rosicrucians: their Rites and Mysteries." London, + 1887. + + 26 Martensen, "Life and Works of Jacob Boehme." London, 1886. + + 27 All the translations of hymns referred to in this and the preceding + section are from Miss Winkworth's "_Lyra Germanica_." London, 1885. + + 28 The "Works of Arminius," transl. by Nicholls, to which are added + Brandt's "Life of Arminius," etc. 3 vols. London, 1825. Scott, + "Translation of Articles of Synod of Dort." London, 1818. Hales, + "Letters from the Synod of Dort." Glasgow, 1765. Calder, "Life of + Simon Episcopius." New York, 1837. Cunningham, "Reformation and + Theology of Reformation": Essay VIII., "Calvinism and Arminianism," + pp. 412-470. Motley, "John of Barneveldt." 2 vols. London, 1874. + + 29 Barclay, "The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the + Commonwealth." Second ed. London, 1877. Dr. Stoughton's "History of + Religion in England from Opening of Long Parliament to End of + Eighteenth Century." London. + + 30 See Macpherson, "Presbyterianism" (Edin., 1883), pp. 8-10, where + charges of intolerance such as those made against Presbyterianism in + the text are repudiated. + + 31 Masson, "Life of John Milton." 4 vols. London, 1859. Pattison, + "Milton" in "English Men of Letters" series. London, 1880. + + 32 "_Relquiae Baxterianae_: Baxter's Narrative of most Memorable Passages + in his own Life." London, 1696. Orme, "Life and Times of Richard + Baxter, with Critical Examination of his Writings." London, 1830. + Stalker, "Baxter" in "Evangelical Succession Lectures." Second + series. Edinburgh, 1883. + + 33 Froude disputes this, and says, p. 12, that probably he was on the + side of the Royalists. Brown has shown it to be almost certain that + in 1644, not 1642, Bunyan, then in his sixteenth year, joined the + Parliamentary forces. See Brown's "Life," pp. 42-52. + + 34 Brown, "Life of Bunyan." London, 1885. Autobiography in "Grace + Abounding," 1622. Southey, "Life of John Bunyan." London, 1830. + Macaulay, "Essay on Bunyan," in _Edinburgh Review_, 1830. Froude, + "Bunyan," in "English Men of Letters." London, 1880. Nicoll, + "Bunyan," in "Evangelical Succession Lectures." Third series. + Edinburgh, 1883. + + 35 "Life of John Eliot, Apostle of the Indians." By John Wilson, + afterwards of Bombay. Edin., 1828. + + 36 Crosby, "History of the English Baptists." 4 vols. London, 1728. + Ivimey, "History of the English Baptists from 1688-1760." 2 vols. + London, 1830. Cramp, "History of the Baptists to end of 18th + Century." 3 vols. London, 1872. + + 37 Backus, "History of the English-American Baptists." 2 vols. Boston, + 1777. Cox and Hoby, "The Baptists in America." New York, 1836. + Hague, "The Baptists Transplanted," etc. New York, 1846. + + 38 Of special importance for the early history of the Quakers are, + "Letters of Early Friends," edited by Robert Barclay, a descendant + of the Quaker apostle. London, 1841. "Fox's Journal; or, Historical + Accounts of his Life, Travels, and Sufferings." London, 1694. Penn, + "Summary of History, Doctrines, and Discipline of Friends." London, + 1692. Tallack, "George Fox; the Quakers and the Early Baptists." + London, 1868. Bickley, "George Fox and the Early Quakers." London, + 1884. Stoughton, "W. Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania." London, 1883. + + 39 Sewel, "History of the Quakers." 2 vols. London, 1834. Cunningham, + "The Quakers, from their Origin in 1624 to the Present Time." + London, 1868. Barclay, "Apology for the True Christian Divinity: a + Vindication of Quakerism." 4th ed. London, 1701. Clarkson, "A + Portraiture of Quakerism." 3 vols. London, 1806. Rowntree, + "Quakerism, Past and Present." London, 1839. + + 40 Heard, "The Russian Church and Russian Dissent." London, 1887. + Mackenzie Wallace, "Russia," chaps, xiv., xx. 2 vols. London, 1877. + Palmer, "The Patriarch and the Tsar." 6 vols. London, 1871-1876. + + 41 Ueberweg, "History of Philosophy," vol. ii., pp. 31-135. Puenjer, + "History of the Christian Philosophy of Religion from the + Reformation to Kant." Edin., 1887. Pfleiderer, "Philosophy of + Religion," vol. i. London, 1887. Erdmann's "History of Philosophy." + 3 vols. London, 1889. + + 42 "Bacon's Works," ed. by Spedding, Ellis, and Heath. 14 vols. London, + 1870. Spedding, "Letters and Life of Lord Bacon." 2 vols. London, + 1862. Macaulay on Bacon in _Edinburgh Review_ for 1837. Church, + "Bacon" in vol. v. of "Collected Works." London, 1888. Nichol, + "Bacon: Life and Philosophy." 2 vols. Edin., 1888. + + 43 "Descartes' Method, Meditations, and Principles of Philosophy." + Transl. by Prof. Veitch. Edin., 1850 ff. Fischer, "Descartes and his + School." London, 1887. + + 44 Willis, "Spinoza: his Ethics, Life, and Influence on Modern + Thought." London, 1870. Pollock, "Spinoza: his Life and Philosophy." + London, 1880. Martineau, "Spinoza." London, 1882. "Spinoza, Four + Essays by Land, Von Floten, Fischer, and Renan." Edited by Prof. + Knight. London, 1884. + + 45 "Locke's Complete Works." 9 vols. London, 1853. Cousin, "Elements of + Psychology: a Critical Examination of Locke's Essay." Edin., 1856. + Webb, "Intellectualism of Locke." London, 1858. + + 46 Guhrauer, "Leibnitz: a Biography." Transl. by Mackie. Boston, 1845. + + 47 Leland, "View of Principal Deistical Writers in England." 2nd ed. 2 + vols. London, 1755. Halyburton, "Natural Religion Insufficient; or, + A Rational Inquiry into the Principles of the Modern Deists." Edin., + 1714. Tulloch, "Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in + England in the 17th Century." 2 vols. Edin., 1872. Cairns, "Unbelief + in the 18th Century," chap, ii., "Unbelief in the 17th Century." + Edin., 1881. + + 48 Lecky, "History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of + Rationalism in Europe." 2 vols. London, 1873. Hagenbach, "German + Rationalism." Edin., 1865. Hagenbach, "History of Church in 18th and + 19th Centuries." 2 vols. London, 1870. Leslie Stephen, "History of + English Thought in the 18th Century." 2 vols. London, 1876. Cairns, + "Unbelief in the 18th Century." Edin., 1881. + + 49 Wilson, "The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work. With a + Sketch of the Life of their Founder, the Venerable Jean Baptiste de + la Salle." London, 1883. + + 50 Neale, "History of the so called Jansenist Church of Holland." + Oxford, 1858. + + 51 Cairns, "Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century," chap, iv., "Unbelief + in France." Edinburgh, 1881. Morley, "Diderot and the + Encyclopedists." 2 vols. London, 1878. Morley, "Voltaire." London, + 1872. Lange, "History of Materialism." 3 vols. London, 1877. + + 52 This saying is usually attributed to Voltaire. He used the + expression in attacking Pierre Bayle.--Erdmann's "Hist. of Phil.," + vol. ii., p. 158. Ueberweg, "Hist. of Phil.," vol. ii., p. 125. + + 53 Pressense, "The Church and the Revolution." London, 1869. Jervis, + "The Gallican Church and the Revolution." London, 1882. + + 54 Hagenbach, "History of Church in the 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. + i., pp. 109, 116. 2 vols. New York, 1869. Dorner, "History of + Protestant Theology," vol. ii., p. 208. + + 55 Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 208-227. + + 56 Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 266-279. + Hagenbach, "History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. i., + pp. 117-127. + + 57 Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 259-261. + Geffcken, "Church and State," 2 vols. Lon., 1887, vol. i., pp. + 456-503. + + 58 Burney, "Life of Handel." London, 1784. + + 59 Kelly, "Life and Work of Von Bogatsky: a Chapter from the Religious + Life of the Eighteenth Century." London, 1889. + + 60 Hough, "The History of Christianity in India." 5 vols. London, 1839. + Sherring, "History of Missions in India," edited by Storrow. London, + 1888. Pearson, "Memoirs, Life, and Correspondence of Chr. Fr. + Schwartz," etc. 2 vols. London, 1834. + + 61 Hagenbach, "History of the Christian Church in the 18th and 19th + Centuries," New York, 1869; Lectures XVIII. and XIX., pp. 398-445. + + 62 Spangenberg, "Life of Count Zinzendorf." London, 1838. + + 63 Spangenberg, "Account of Manner in which the _Unitas Fratrum_ + Propagate the Gospel, and Carry on their Missions among the + Heathen." London, 1788. Holmes, "Historical Sketch of the Missions + of the United Brethren for the Propagation of the Gospel among the + Heathen from their Commencement down to 1817." London, 1827. + + 64 "Tersteegen: Life and Character, with Extracts from His Letters and + Writings." London, 1832. Winkworth, "Christian Singers of Germany." + London, 1869. + + 65 For a slightly different account see Tyerman, vol. i., p. 66. + + 66 Wesley himself continued to preach in the open air till nearly the + end of the year 1790. + + 67 Further details as to the organization of the societies are given in + Tyerman, 1st ed., vol. i., pp. 444, 445. + + 68 Southey, "Life of John Wesley." London, 1820. Isaac Taylor, "Wesley + and Wesleyanism." London, 1851. Tyerman, "Wesley's Life and Times." + 2 vols. 4th ed. London, 1877. Urlin, "Churchman's Life of Wesley." + London, 1880. Abbey and Overton, "English Church in 18th Century." 2 + vols. London, 1879. Lecky, "History of England in the 18th Century." + 2 vols. London, 1878. Stoughton, "History of Religion in England to + End of 18th Century." 6 vols. London, 1882.--Jackson, "Life of + Charles Wesley." 2 vols. London, 1841.--Tyerman, "Life of + Whitefield." 2 vols. London, 1877.--Macdonald, "Fletcher of Madeley." + London.--Smith, "History of Methodism." 3 vols. London, 1857. + Stevens, "History of Methodism." 3 vols. New York, 1858. Stevens, + "History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States." 4 + vols. New York, 1864. Bangs, "History of the Methodist Episcopal + Church." 4 vols. New York, 1839. + + 69 Hagenbach, "History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. i., + pp. 159-164. + + 70 Hagenbach, "History of the Church in the 18th and 19th Centuries," + vol. i., pp. 168-175. + + 71 Tafel, "Documents concerning the Life and Character of Swedenborg." + 3 vols. London, 1875. White, "Emanuel Swedenborg, his Life and + Writings." 2 vols. London. 1867. + + 72 Evans, "Shakers: Compendium of Origin, History, Principles, and + Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second + Coming." New York, 1859. Dixon, "New America." 2 vols. 8th ed. + London, 1869. Nordhoff, "The Communistic Societies of the United + States." London, 1874. + + 73 Pusey, "Historical Inquiry into the Causes of the Prevalence of + Rationalism in Germany." London, 1828. Rose, "The State of + Protestantism in Germany." Oxford, 1829. Saintes, "A Critical + History of Rationalism in Germany, from its Origin till the Present + Time." London, 1849. Lecky, "History of the Rise and Influence of + the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe." 2 vols. London, 1873. Farrar, + "Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the Christian + Religion." London, 1863. Hagenbach, "German Rationalism." Edinburgh, + 1865. Hurst, "History of Rationalism." New York, 1865. Gestwick, + "German Culture and Christianity, their Controversy, 1770-1880." New + York, 1882. + + 74 Stephen, "History of English Thought in the 18th Century." 2 vols. + London, 1876. Cairns, "Unbelief in the 18th Century." Edinburgh, + 1881. Puenjer, "History of Christian Philosophy of Religion from + Reformation to Kant," § 5, "The English Deists." Edinburgh, 1887. + + 75 Halliwell, "The Early History of English Freemasonry." London, 1840. + + 76 Ritschl, "History of Christian Doctr. of Justification and + Reconciliation," pp. 347-426. Dorner, "History of Protestant + Theology," vol. ii., pp. 277-292. Hagenbach, "History of The Church + in The 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. i., pp. 251-321. + + 77 Chalybaeus, "Historical Development of Speculative Philosophy, from + Kant to Hegel." Edin., 1854. Raebiger, "Theological Encyclopaedia," + vol. i., pp. 73-76. + + 78 Stahr, "Lessing: his Life and Works," translated by G. Evans. 2 + vols. Boston, 1866. Sime, "Lessing, his Life and Writings." 2 vols. + London, 1877. Zimmern, "G. E. Lessing: his Life and Works." London, + 1878. Smith, "Lessing as a Theologian," in the _Theological Review_, + July, 1868. + + 79 Russell, "A Short Account of the Life and History of Pestalozzi," + based on De Guemp's "_L'Histoire de Pestalozzi_." London, 1888. To + be followed by a complete English translation of De Guemp's work. + + 80 Marshman, "Life and Times of Marshman, Carey, and Ward." 2 vols. + London, 1859. Smith, "Life of William Carey." London, 1886. Wilson, + "Missionary Voyage of the Ship _Duff_." London, 1799. Morison, + "Fathers and Founders of the London Missionary Society," London, + 1844. + + 81 Baur, "Religious Life in Germany." London, 1872, pp. 177-196. + + 82 Kahnis, "Internal History of German Protestantism since the Middle + of Last Century." Edin., 1856. + + 83 Hagenbach, "History of Church in Eighteenth and Nineteenth + Centuries," vol. ii., pp. 413-416. + + 84 Mombert, "Faith Victorious, being an Account of the Life, Labour, + and Times of Dr. J. W. Ebel, 1714-1861, compiled from authentic + sources." London, 1882. Dixon, "Spiritual Wives." London, 1868. + + 85 Strack, "The Work of Bible Revision in Germany," in _Expositor_, + third series, vol. ii., pp. 178-187. + + 86 See papers by Driver, Cheyne, Davidson, Kirkpatrick, in _Expositor_ + for 1886-1888, on various books in Revised Old Testament. Westcott, + "Some Lessons of Revised Version of New Testament," in _Expositor_, + third series, vol. v., pp. 81, 241, 453. Jennings and Lowe, "Revised + Version of Old Testament: a Critical Estimate," in _Expositor_, + third Series, vol. ii., pp. 57, etc. + + 87 "Schleiermacher's Life in Letters," translated by Rowan. London, + 1860. Baur, "Religious Life in Germany," London, 1872, pp. 197 ff. + Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 374-395. + + 88 Cheyne, "Life and Works of Heinrich Ewald," in _Expositor_, third + series, vol. iv., pp. 241 ff., 361 ff. + + 89 There are English translations of his "Life of Christ," "First + Planting of Christianity," "Antignostikus," "History of Christian + Dogmas," "Christian Life in the Early and Middle Ages," all + published by Bohn. + + 90 Zeller, "David Frederick Strauss, in his Life and Writings." London, + 1874. Translations: "Life of Jesus Critically Treated," 1846; "Life + of Jesus for the German People," 1865; "The Old Faith and the New," + 1874; "Ulrich von Hutten," 1874. + + 91 Simon, "Isaac August Dorner," in _Presbyterian Review_ for October, + 1887, pp. 569-616. + + 92 Rothe, "Still Hours," translated by Miss Stoddard, with Introductory + Essay on Rothe by Rev. J. Macpherson. London, 1886. + + 93 Galloway, "The Theology of Ritschl," in _Presbyterian Review_ for + April, 1889, pp. 192-209. + + 94 Series of papers in _Good Words_ for 1860, pp. 377 ff. + + 95 Fleming Stevenson, "The Blue Flag of Kaiserswerth," in _Good Words_ + for 1861, pp. 121 ff., 143 ff. + + 96 Owen, "History of the First Ten Years of the Bible Society." 3 vols. + London, 1816. + + 97 Wiseman, "Recollections of the Last Four Popes." 3 vols. London, + 1853. Mendham, "Index of Prohibited Books by order of Gregory XVI." + London, 1840. + + 98 Legge, "Pius IX. to the Restoration of 1850." 2 vols. London, 1872. + Trollope, "Life of Pius IX." 2 vols. London, 1877. Shea, "Life and + Pontificate of Pius IX." New York, 1877. + + 99 Geffcken, "Church and State," vol. ii., pp. 269-293: "The Italian + Question and the Papal States." + + 100 Geffcken, "Church and State," vol. ii., pp. 236-238. + + 101 Bridges, "Life of Martin Boos." London, 1836. + + 102 Hamberger, "Sketch of the Character of the Theosophy of Baader," + translated in _American Presbyterian and Theological Review_, 1869. + + 103 Laing, "Notes on the Rise, Progress, etc., of the German Catholic + Church of Ronge and Czerski." London, 1845. + + 104 Manning, "The True History of the Vatican Council." London, 1877. + Pomponio Leto, "The Vatican Council, being the impressions of a + contemporary (Card. Vitelleschi), translated from the Italian with + the original documents." London, 1876. Quirinus, "Letters from Rome + on the Council." London, 1870. Janus, "The Pope and the Council." + London, 1869. Bungener, "Rome and the Council in the Nineteenth + Century." Edinburgh, 1870. Arthur, "The Pope, the Kings, and the + People, a History of the Movement to make the Pope Governor of the + World, 1864-1871." 2 vols. London, 1877. Acton, "History of the + Vatican Council." London, 1871. Friedrich, "_Documenta ad illum. + Conc. Vat._" Noerdling, 1871. Martin (Bishop of Paderborn), "_Omnium + Conc. Vat. quae ad doctr. et discipl. pertin. docum. Collectio_." + 1873. + + 105 Geffcken, "Church and State," vol. ii. pp. 501-531. Smith, "The Falk + Legislation from the Political Point of View," in the _Theological + Review_ for October, 1875. + + 106 Geffcken, "Church and State." 2 vols. London, 1877. Vol. ii., pp. + 488-531. + + 107 The Austrian May Laws were in some respects more sweeping than the + Prussian (§ 197, 5); but the former were framed with reference to + the police, the latter with reference to the law. In Prussia the + decision, judgment, and sentence in all cases of contravention and + collision were assigned to the court of law; in Austria they were + assigned to the court of administration, in the last instance to the + minister. The Austrian laws could thus be urged and ignored at + pleasure. + + 108 Geffeken, "Church and State," vol. ii., pp. 469-488. + + 109 R. J. Sandeman, "Alexander Vinet" in "Evangelical Succession + Lectures," Third Series, Edinburgh, 1884. Dorner, "History of + Protestant Theology," ii., 470, 478. + + 110 Cairns, "The Present Struggle in the National Church of Holland," in + _Presbyterian Review_ for January, 1888, pp. 87-108. Wicksteed, "The + Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland." London. + + 111 Lumsden, "Sweden, its Religious State and Prospects." London, 1855. + + 112 Stoughton, "Religion in England during the First Half of the Present + Century, with a Postscript on Subsequent Events." 2 vols., London + 1876. Molesworth, "History of England from 1830 to 1874." 3 vols., + London. + + 113 Littledale, "Church Parties," art. in the _Contemporary Review_ for + July, 1874, pp. 287-320. Mozley, "Reminiscences of Oriel College." + London, 1882. + + 114 Newman, "_Apologia pro Vita Sua_." London, 1864. Weaver "Puseyism, a + Refutation and Exposure," London, 1843. + + 115 The very confused, wholly inadequate, and in some points positively + incorrect statements in the above paragraph may be supplemented and + amended by reference to the following literature: Buchanan, "Ten + Years' Conflict." 2 vols. Edin., 1852. Moncrieff, "Vindication of + the Claim of Right." Edin., 1877. Moncrieff, "The Free Church + Principle: its Character and History." Edin., 1883. Mackerrow, + "History of the Secession Church." Glasgow, 1841. + + 116 Smith's appointment was to the Lord Almoner's Professorship, with a + merely nominal salary; but he was afterwards elected to the more + remunerative office of University librarian, and more recently has + succeeded Prof. Wright in the Chair of Arabic in the University. + + 117 Jarvis, "The Gallican Church and the Revolution," pp. 324-395. + London, 1882. + + 118 Borrow, "The Bible in Spain." 2 vols. London, 1843. + + 119 Lendrum, "_Ecclesia Pressa_: or, the Lutheran Church in the Baltic + Provinces," in _The Theological Review and Free Church College + Quarterly_, vol. ii. 310-330. C. H. H. Wright, "The Persecution of + the Lutheran Church in the Baltic Provinces of Russia," in the + _British and Foreign Evangelical Review_, January, 1887. + + 120 Baird, "Religion in the United States." Glasgow, 1844. "Progress and + Prospects of Christianity in the United States." London, 1851. + Gorrie, "Churches and Sects in the United States." New York, 1850. + + 121 Stevens, "History of the Episcopal Methodist Church in North + America." Philadelphia, 1868. Gorrie, "History of the Episcopal + Methodist Church in the United States." New York, 1881. + + 122 A full account of the recent development of Protestantism in Brazil + is given in an article in the _Presbyterian Review_ for January, + 1889, pp. 101-106, "The Organization of the Synod of Brazil," by Dr. + J. Aspinwall Hodge.--On 15th November, 1889, the emperor was expelled + and a republic proclaimed. + + 123 Hepworth Dixon, "Free Russia." 2 vols. London, 1870. Heard, "The + Russian Church and Russian Dissent." 2 vols. London, 1887. + + 124 Rowntree, "Quakerism Past and Present." London, 1859. + + 125 Dixon, "New America." 2 vols., 8th edition. London, 1869. Nordhoff, + "The Communistic Societies of the United States." London, 1874. + + 126 Oliphant, "Life of Ed. Irving." 3rd edition. London, 1865. Carlyle, + in "Miscellaneous Essays." Brown, "Personal Reminiscences of Ed. + Irving," in _Expositor_. 3 ser., vol. vi., pp. 216, 257. Miller, + "History and Doctrine of Irvingism," 2 vols. London, 1878. + + 127 Darby, "Personal Recollections," London, 1881. + + 128 Stenhouse, "An Englishwoman in Utah, the story of a Life's + Experience in Mormonism." 2nd ed. London, 1880. Gunnison, "The + Mormons." New York, 1884. Burton, "The City of the Saints." London, + 1861. + + 129 Wilson, "The 'Ever-Victorious Army': a History of the Chinese + Campaign under Lieut.-Col. C. G. Gordon, and of the Suppression of + the Taeping Rebellion." Edinburgh. + + 130 Edmonds, "American Spiritualism." 2 vols. New York, 1858. Cox, + "Spiritualism answered by Science." London, 1872. Crookes, + "Spiritualism and Science." London, 1874. Wallace, "A Defence of + Spiritualism." London, 1874. Owen, "The Debatable Land." New York, + 1872. Carpenter, "Mesmerism, Spiritualism, etc., Historically and + Scientifically Considered." London, 1877. Mahan, "The Phenomena of + Spiritualism Scientifically Explained and Exposed." London, 1875. + Horne, "Incidents in His Life." London, 1863. "Lights and Shadows of + Spiritualism." London, 1877. + + 131 Sinnett, "Esoteric Buddhism." London, 1883. + + 132 Sargent, "Rob. Owen and his Social Philosophy." London, 1860. + Nordhoff, "Communistic Societies in the United States." London, + 1875. + + 133 Onslow-Yorke, "The Secret History of the International Working-Men's + Association." London, 1872. Lissagaray, "History of the Commune of + 1871." Translated by Aveling. London, 1886. + + 134 From the fifteenth century the numbering of the General Councils is + so variable and uncertain that even Catholic historians are not + agreed upon this point. They are at one only about this, that the + anti-papal councils claiming to be oecumenical, of Pisa A.D. 1409, + Basel A.D. 1438, and Pisa A.D. 1511, should be designated + schismatical "_Conciliabula_." Hefele, in his "History of the + Councils," counts eighteen down to the Reformation. He makes the + Constance Council in its first and last sessions the sixteenth, but + does not count the middle session held without the pope. He makes + that of Basel the seventeenth down to A.D. 1438 with its papal + continuation at Ferrara and Florence. Finally, as eighteenth he + gives the fifth Lateran Council of A.D. 1512-1517. But others strike + Basel and Constance out of the list altogether; and many, especially + the Gallicans, reject also the fifth Lateran Council, because + occupied with matters of slight or merely local interest. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH HISTORY, VOL. 3 OF 3*** + + + +CREDITS + + +September 11, 2011 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Jonathan Ingram, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 37404.txt or 37404.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/7/4/0/37404/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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