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diff --git a/37404-0.txt b/37404-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..77e78ed --- /dev/null +++ b/37404-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,29572 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Church History, Volume 3 (of 3), by J. H. Kurtz + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Church History, Volume 3 (of 3) + +Author: J. H. Kurtz + +Release Date: March 17, 2016 [EBook #37404] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH HISTORY, VOLUME 3 (OF 3) *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Ingram, Richard Hulse and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ + │ │ + │ Transcriber’s Notes │ + │ │ + │ │ + │ Punctuation has been standardized. │ + │ │ + │ The Table of Contents has been updated to agree with the │ + │ headings and subheadings of the text. │ + │ │ + │ The † symbol next to a date was not defined in the text. It │ + │ appears to mean approximate year of death. │ + │ │ + │ Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps. │ + │ │ + │ Non-printable characteristics have been given the following │ + │ transliteration: │ + │ Italic text: --> _text_ │ + │ bold text: --> =text=. │ + │ │ + │ Italics have been dropped on leading alpha characters (a. b. │ + │ c.) to improved readability. │ + │ │ + │ This book was written in a period when many words had │ + │ not become standardized in their spelling. Words may have │ + │ multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in │ + │ the text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated │ + │ with a Transcriber’s Note. │ + │ │ + │ Many names appear with multiple spelling variations. The │ + │ most common form used has been added in brackets following │ + │ alternate forms to facilitate document searching. │ + │ │ + │ Latin words and quotations are regularly italicized in the │ + │ text. Italics have been added to words missed by the printer. │ + │ │ + │ Footnotes are numbered consecutively through the 3 volumes │ + │ and are identified in the text with a number in brackets [2] │ + │ and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of │ + │ the text. │ + │ │ + │ Transcriber’s Notes are used when making corrections to the │ + │ text or to provide additional information for the modern │ + │ reader. These notes are not identified in the text, but have │ + │ been accumulated in a single section at the end of the book. │ + │ │ + └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘ + + + + + CHURCH HISTORY. + + BY + PROFESSOR KURTZ. + + + _AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE_ + REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A. + + + IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III. + + + _SECOND EDITION._ + + + London: + HODDER AND STOUGHTON, + 27, PATERNOSTER ROW. + + MDCCCXCIII. + + + + + BUTLER & TANNER, + THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, + FROME, AND LONDON. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + + + THIRD DIVISION. + (Continued.) + + + SECOND SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + + I. Relations between the Different Churches. + + § 152. EAST AND WEST. + (1) Roman Catholic Hopes. + (2) Calvinistic Hopes. + (3) Orthodox Constancy. + + § 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. + (1) Conversions of Protestant Princes. + (2) The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring States. + (3) Livonia and Hungary. + (4) The Huguenots in France. + (5) The Waldensians in Piedmont. + (6) The Catholics in England and Ireland. + (7) Union Efforts. + (8) The Lehnin Prophecy. + + § 154. LUTHERANISM AND CALVINISM. + (1) Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605-1646. + (2) Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602. + (3) The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, A.D. 1613. + (4) Union Attempts. + + § 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM. + (1) The First Two Stuarts. + (2) The Commonwealth and the Protector. + (3) The Restoration and the Act of Toleration. + + + II. The Roman Catholic Church. + + § 156. THE PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. + (1) The Papacy. + (2) The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice. + (3) The Gallican Liberties. + (4) Galileo and the Inquisition. + (5) The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception. + (6) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. + (7) New Congregations and Orders. + 1. Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne. + 2. Benedictine Congregation of St. Maur. + 3. The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus. + 4. The Piarists. + 5. The Order of the Visitation of Mary. + (8) 6. The Priests of the Missions and Sisters + of Charity. + 7. The Trappists. + 8. The English Nuns. + (9) The Propaganda. + (10) Foreign Missions. + (11) In the East Indies. + (12) In China. + (13) Trade and Industry of the Jesuits. + (14) An Apostate to Judaism. + + § 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. + (1) Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal. + (2) Michael Molinos. + (3) Madame Guyon and Fénelon. + (4) Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and Pantheism. + (5) Jansenism in its first Stage. + + § 158. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. + (1) Theological Science. + (2) Church History. + (3) Art and Poetry. + + + III. The Lutheran Church. + + § 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. + (1) Christological Controversies. + 1. The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy. + 2. The Lütkemann Controversy. + (2) The Syncretist Controversy. + (3) The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage. + (4) Theological Literature. + (5) Dogmatics. + + § 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. + (1) Mysticism and Asceticism. + (2) Mysticism and Theosophy. + (3) Sacred Song. + (4) ---- Its 17th Century Transition. + (5) Sacred Music. + (6) The Christian Life of the People. + (7) Missions. + + + IV. The Reformed Church. + + § 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. + (1) Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy. + (2) The Arminian Controversy. + (3) Consequences of the Arminian Controversy. + (4) The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies. + (5) ---- Continued. + (6) Theological Literature. + (7) Dogmatic Theology. + (8) The Apocrypha Controversy. + + § 162. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. + (1) England and Scotland. + (2) ---- Political and Social Revolutionists. + (3) ---- Devotional Literature. + (4) The Netherlands. + (5) ---- Voetians and Cocceians. + (6) France, Germany, and Switzerland. + (7) Foreign Missions. + + + V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties. + + § 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. + (1) The Socinians. + (2) The Baptists of the Continent. + 1. The Dutch Baptists. + 2. The Moravian Baptists. + (3) The English Baptists. + (4) The Quakers. + (5) ---- Continued. + (6) The Quaker Constitution. + (7) Labadie and the Labadists. + (8) ---- Continued. + (9) Fanatical Sects. + (10) Russian Sects. + + § 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. + (1) Philosophy. + (2) ---- Continued. + (3) Freethinkers--England. + (4) ---- Germany and France. + + + THIRD SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. + + + I. The Catholic Church in East and West. + + § 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. + (1) The Popes. + (2) Old and New Orders. + (3) Foreign Missions. + (4) The Counter-Reformation. + (5) In France. + (6) Conversions. + (7) The Second Stage of Jansenism. + (8) The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands. + (9) Suppression of the Order of Jesuits, A.D. 1773. + (10) Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy. + (11) Theological Literature. + (12) In Italy. + (13) The German-Catholic Contribution to the Illumination. + (14) The French Contribution to the Illumination. + (15) The French Revolution. + (16) The Pseudo-Catholics--The Abrahamites or + Bohemian Deists. + (17) ---- The Frankists. + + § 166. THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES. + (1) The Russian State Church. + (2) Russian Sects. + (3) The Abyssinian Church. + + + II. The Protestant Churches. + + § 167. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE “THE ILLUMINATION.” + (1) The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the + Halle University. + (2) ---- Controversial Doctrines. + (3) Theology. + (4) Unionist Efforts. + (5) Theories of Ecclesiastical Law. + (6) Church Song. + (7) Sacred Music. + (8) The Christian Life and Devotional Literature. + (9) Missions to the Heathen. + + § 168. THE CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN. + (1) The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood. + (2) The Founding of the Brotherhood. + (3) The Development of the Brotherhood down to + Zinzendorf’s Death, A.D. 1727-1760. + (4) Zinzendorf’s Plan and Work. + (5) Numerous Extravagances. + (6) Zinzendorf’s Greatness. + (7) The Brotherhood under Spangenberg’s Administration. + (8) The Doctrinal Peculiarities of the Brotherhood. + (9) The Peculiarities of Worship among the Brethren. + (10) Christian Life of the Brotherhood. + (11) Missions to the Heathen. + + § 169. THE REFORMED CHURCH BEFORE THE “ILLUMINATION.” + (1) The German Reformed Church. + (2) The Reformed Church in Switzerland. + (3) The Dutch Reformed Church. + (4) Methodism. + (5) ---- Continued. + (6) Theological Literature. + + § 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. + (1) Fanatics and Separatists in Germany. + (2) The Inspired Societies in Wetterau. + (3) J. C. Dippel. + (4) Separatists of Immoral Tendency. + (5) Swedenborgianism. + (6) New Baptist Sects. + (7) New Quaker Sects. + (8) Predestinarian-Mystical Sects. + + § 171. RELIGION, THEOLOGY, AND LITERATURE OF THE “ILLUMINATION.” + (1) Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church. + 1. The Deists. + 2. The So-called Arians. + 3. The Later Unitarians. + (2) Freemasons. + (3) The German “Illumination.” + 1. Its Precursors. + (4) 2. The Age of Frederick the Great. + (5) 3. The Wöllner Reaction. + (6) The Transition Theology. + (7) The Rationalistic Theology. + (8) Supernaturalism. + (9) Mysticism and Theosophy. + (10) The German Philosophy. + (11) The German National Literature. + (12) Pestalozzi. + + § 172. CHURCH LIFE IN THE PERIOD OF THE “ILLUMINATION.” + (1) The Hymnbook and Church Music. + (2) Religious Characters. + (3) Religious Sects. + (4) The Rationalistic “Illumination” outside of Germany. + (5) Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise. + + + FOURTH SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + + I. General and Introductory. + + § 173. SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + § 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE IN RELATION TO CHRISTIANITY + AND THE CHURCH. + (1) The German Philosophy. + (2) ---- Continued. + (3) The Sciences; Medicine. + (4) Jurists; Historians; Geography; Philology. + (5) National Literature--Germany. + (6) ---- Continued. + (7) ---- Other Countries. + (8) Popular Education. + (9) Art. + (10) Music and the Drama. + + § 175. INTERCOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE CHURCHES. + (1) Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants. + (2) The Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism. + (3) Romish Controversy. + (4) Roman Catholic Union Schemes. + (5) Greek Orthodox Union Schemes. + (6) Old Catholic Union Schemes. + (7) Conversions. + (8) ---- The Mortara Affair. + (9) ---- Other Conversions. + (10) The Luther Centenary, A.D. 1883. + + + II. Protestantism in General. + + § 176. RATIONALISM AND PIETISM. + (1) Rationalism. + (2) Pietism. + (3) The Königsberg Religious Movement, A.D. 1835-1842. + (4) The Bender Controversy. + + § 177. EVANGELICAL UNION AND LUTHERAN SEPARATION. + (1) The Evangelical Union. + (2) The Lutheran Separation. + (3) The Separation within the Separation. + + § 178. EVANGELICAL CONFEDERATION. + (1) The Gustavus Adolphus Society. + (2) The Eisenach Conference. + (3) The Evangelical Alliance. + (4) The Evangelical Church Alliance. + (5) The Evangelical League. + + § 179. LUTHERANISM, MELANCHTHONIANISM, AND CALVINISM. + (1) Lutheranism within the Union. + (2) Lutheranism outside of the Union. + (3) Melanchthonianism and Calvinism. + + § 180. THE “_PROTESTANTENVEREIN_.” + (1) The Protestant Assembly. + (2) The “_Protestantenverein_” Propaganda. + (3) Sufferings Endured. + (4) ---- In Berlin. + (5) ---- In Schleswig Holstein. + + § 181. DISPUTES ABOUT FORMS OF WORSHIP. + (1) The Hymnbook. + (2) The Book of Chorales. + (3) The Liturgy. + (4) The Holy Scriptures. + + § 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. + (1) Schleiermacher, A.D. 1768-1834. + (2) The Older Rationalistic Theology. + (3) Historico-Critical Rationalism. + (4) Supernaturalism. + (5) Rational Supernaturalism. + (6) Speculative Theology. + (7) The Tübingen School. + (8) Strauss. + (9) The Mediating Theology. + (10) Lutheran Theologians. + (11) Old Testament Exegetes. + (12) University Teachers. + (13) The Lutheran Confessional Theology. + (14) ---- Continued. + (15) ---- Continued. + (16) Reformed Confessionalism. + (17) The Free Protestant Theology. + (18) In the Old Testament Department. + (19) Dogmatists. + (20) Ritschl and his School. + (21) ---- Opponents. + (22) Writers on Constitutional Law and History. + + § 183. HOME MISSIONS. + (1) Institutions. + (2) The Order of St. John. + (3) The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in Württemberg. + (4) Bible Societies. + + § 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. + (1) Missionary Societies. + (2) Europe and America. + (3) Africa. + (4) ---- Livingstone and Stanley. + (5) Asia. + (6) China. + (7) Polynesia and Australia. + (8) Missions to the Jews. + (9) Missions among the Eastern Churches. + + + III. Catholicism in General. + + § 185. THE PAPACY AND THE STATES OF THE CHURCH. + (1) The First Four Popes of the Century. + (2) Pius IX., A.D. 1846-1878. + (3) The Overthrow of the Papal States. + (4) The Prisoner of the Vatican, A.D. 1870-1878. + (5) Leo XIII. + + § 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. + (1) The Society of Jesus and Related Orders. + (2) Other Orders and Congregations. + (3) The Pius Verein. + (4) The Various German Unions. + (5) Omnipotence of Capital. + (6) The Catholic Missions. + (7) ---- Mission Societies. + + § 187. LIBERAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS. + (1) Mystical-Irenical Tendencies. + (2) Evangelical-Revival Tendencies. + (3) Liberal-Scientific Tendencies. + (4) Radical-Liberalistic Tendencies. + (5) Attempts at Reform in Church Government. + (6) Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches. + (7) National Italian Church. + (8) The Frenchman, Charles Loyson. + + § 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. + (1) The Ultramontane Propaganda. + (2) Miracles. + (3) Stigmatizations. + (4) ---- Louise Lateau. + (5) Pseudo-Stigmatizations. + (6) Manifestations of the Mother of God in France. + (7) Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany. + (8) Canonizations. + (9) Discoveries of Relics. + (10) The blood of St. Januarius. + (11) The Leaping Procession at Echternach. + (12) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart. + (13) Ultramontane Amulets. + (14) Ultramontane Pulpit Eloquence. + + § 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL. + (1) Preliminary History of the Council. + (2) The Organization of the Council. + (3) The Proceedings of the Council. + (4) Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council. + + § 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS. + (1) Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church + in the German Empire. + (2) ---- Continued. + (3) The Old Catholics in other Lands. + + § 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY, ESPECIALLY IN GERMANY. + (1) Hermes and his School. + (2) Baader and his School. + (3) Günther and his School. + (4) John Adam Möhler. + (5) John Jos. Ignat. von Döllinger. + (6) The Chief Representatives of Systematic Theology. + (7) The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology. + (8) The Chief Representatives of Exegetical Theology. + (9) The Chief Representatives of the New Scholasticism. + (10) The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863. + (11) Theological Journals. + (12) The Popes and Theological Science. + + + IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States. + + § 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. + (1) The Imperial Commission’s Decree, 1803. + (2) The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine. + (3) The Vienna Congress and the Concordat. + (4) The Frankfort Parliament and the Würzburg Bishops’ + Congress of 1848. + + § 193. PRUSSIA. + (1) The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne + Conflict. + (2) The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, 1841-1871. + (3) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to 1848. + (4) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1848-1872. + (5) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1872-1880. + (6) ---- Continued. + (7) The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces. + (8) ---- In Hanover. + (9) ---- In Hesse. + + § 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. + (1) The Kingdom of Saxony. + (2) The Saxon Duchies. + (3) The Kingdom of Hanover. + (4) Hesse. + (5) Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold. + (6) Mecklenburg. + + § 195. BAVARIA. + (1) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under + Maximilian I., 1799-1825. + (2) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under + Louis I., 1825-1848. + (3) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under + Maximilian II., 1848-1864, and Louis II. + (4) Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran Church. + (5) The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the Rhine. + + § 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES AND RHENISH ALSACE + AND LORRAINE. + (1) The Upper Rhenish Church Province. + (2) The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873. + (3) The Protestant Troubles in Baden. + (4) Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau. + (5) In Protestant Württemberg. + (6) The Catholic Church in Württemberg. + (7) The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine + since 1871. + + § 197. THE SO-CALLED KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. + (1) The Aggression of Ultramontanism. + (2) Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old + Catholics, 1871-1872. + (3) Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873. + (4) The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit law, 1871-1872. + (5) The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875. + (6) Opposition in the States to the Prussian May Laws. + (7) Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope. + (8) The Conflict about the Encyclical _Quod nunquam_ + of 1875. + (9) Papal Overtures for Peace. + (10) Proof of the Prussian Government’s willingness + to be Reconciled, 1880-1881. + (11) Conciliatory Negotiations, 1882-1884. + (12) Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures, + 1885-1886. + (13) Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887. + (14) Independent Procedure of the other German Governments. + 1. Bavaria. + 2. Württemberg. + 3. Baden. + (15) 4. Hesse-Darmstadt. + 5. Saxony. + + § 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. + (1) The Zillerthal Emigration. + (2) The Concordat. + (3) The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria. + (4) The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol. + (5) The Austrian Universities. + (6) The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874-1876. + (7) The Protestant Church in the Transleithan Provinces. + + § 199. SWITZERLAND. + (1) The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870. + (2) The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883. + (3) Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, 1870-1880. + (4) The Protestant Church in German Switzerland. + (5) The Protestant Church in French Switzerland. + + § 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. + (1) The United Netherlands. + (2) The Kingdom of Holland. + (3) ---- Continued. + (4) ---- Continued. + (5) The Kingdom of Belgium. + (6) ---- Continued. + (7) ---- Continued. + (8) The Protestant Church. + + § 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. + (1) Denmark. + (2) Sweden. + (3) Norway. + + § 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. + (1) The Episcopal State Church. + (2) The Tractarians and Ritualists. + (3) ---- Continued. + (4) Liberalism in the Episcopal Church. + (5) Protestant Dissenters in England. + (6) Scotch Marriages in England. + (7) The Scottish State Church. + (8) Scottish Heresy Cases. + (9) The Catholic Church in Ireland. + (10) The Fenian Movement. + (11) The Catholic Church in England and Scotland. + (12) German Lutheran Congregations in Australia. + + § 203. FRANCE. + (1) The French Church under Napoleon I. + (2) The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom. + (3) The Catholic Church under Napoleon III. + (4) The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III. + (5) The Catholic Church in the Third French Republic. + (6) The French “Kulturkampf,” 1880. + (7) ---- Continued. + (8) The Protestant Churches under the Third Republic. + + § 204. ITALY. + (1) The Kingdom of Sardinia. + (2) The Kingdom of Italy. + (3) The Evangelization of Italy. + (4) ---- Continued. + + § 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. + (1) Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina. + (2) Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865. + (3) Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885. + (4) The Evangelization of Spain. + (5) The Church in Portugal. + + § 206. RUSSIA. + (1) The Orthodox National Church. + (2) The Catholic Church. + (3) The Evangelical Church. + + § 207. GREECE AND TURKEY. + (1) The Orthodox Church of Greece. + (2) Massacre of Syrian Christians, 1860. + (3) The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle. + (4) The Armenian Church. + (5) The Berlin Treaty, 1878. + + § 208. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. + (1) English Protestant Denominations. + (2) The German Lutheran Denominations. + (3) ---- Continued. + (4) German-Reformed and other German-Protestant + Denominations. + (5) The Catholic Church. + + § 209. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. + (1) Mexico. + (2) In the Republics of Central and Southern America. + (3) Brazil. + + + V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity. + + § 210. SECTARIANS AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC AND + ORTHODOX RUSSIAN DOMAINS. + (1) Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain. + 1. The Order of New Templars. + 2. St. Simonians. + 3. Aug. Comte. + (2) 4. Thomas Pöschl. + 5. Antonians. + 6. Adamites. + 7. David Lazzaretti. + (3) Russian Sects and Fanatics. + (4) ---- Continued. + + § 211. SECTARIES AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. + (1) The Methodist Propaganda. + (2) The Salvation Army. + (3) Baptists and Quakers. + (4) Swedenborgians and Unitarians. + (5) Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations. + (6) Christian Communistic Sects. + 1. Harmonites. + 2. Bible Communists. + (7) Millenarian Exodus Communities. + 1. Georgian Separatists. + 2. Bavarian Chiliasts. + (8) 3. Amen Community. + 4. German Temple Communities. + (9) The Community of “the New Israel.” + (10) The Catholic Apostolic Church of the Irvingites. + (11) The Darbyites and Adventists. + (12) The Mormons or Latter Day Saints. + (13) ---- Continued. + (14) ---- Continued. + (15) The Taepings in China. + (16) ---- Continued. + (17) The Spiritualists. + (18) Theosophism or Occultism. + + § 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM. + (1) The Beginnings of Modern Communism. + (2) St. Simonism. + (3) Owenists and Icarians. + (4) The International Working-Men’s Association. + (5) German Social Democracy. + (6) Russian Nihilism. + + + CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. + + + INDEX. + + + + + THIRD DIVISION. + (Continued.) + + + + + SECOND SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + + + + I. Relations between the Different Churches. + + + § 152. EAST AND WEST. + + The papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern +church, but with at most only transient success. Still more illusory +were the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard +to the Calvinizing of the Greek church. + + § 152.1. =Roman Catholic Hopes.=--The Jesuit missions among the + Turks and schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssinians + some progress was made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit + Paez succeeded, in A.D. 1621, in inducing the Sultan Segued to + abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was made Abyssinian patriarch + by Urban VIII. in A.D. 1626, but the clergy and people repeatedly + rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In A.D. 1642 the next + sultan drove the Jesuits out of his kingdom, and in it henceforth + no traces of Catholicism were to be found.--In Russia the false + Demetrius, in A.D. 1605, working in Polish Catholic interests, + sought to catholicize the empire; but this only convinced the + Russians that he was no true czar’s son. When his Catholic Polish + bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot ensued, in which + Demetrius lost his life.[445] + + § 152.2. =Calvinistic Hopes.=--=Cyril Lucar=, a native of Crete, + then under Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come + to entertain a strong liking to the Reformed church. Expelled + from his situation as rector of a Greek seminary at Ostrog by + Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of Alexandria in + A.D. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained + a regular correspondence with Reformed divines in Holland, + Switzerland, and England. In A.D. 1628 he sent the famous Codex + Alexandrinus as a present to James I. He wrought expressly + for a union of the Greek and Reformed churches, and for this + end sent, in A.D. 1629, to Geneva an almost purely Calvinistic + confession. But the other Greek bishops opposed his union + schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused + him of political faults. Four times the sultan deposed and + banished him, and at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as + a traitor and cast into the sea.--One of his Alexandrian clergy, + Metrophanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. 1616 he had sent for his + education to England, studied several years at Oxford, then + at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, where, + in A.D. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith + of the Greek Orthodox Church. It was pointedly antagonistic to + the Romish doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, while + abandoning nothing essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and + showing signs of the possession of independent speculative power. + Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch of Alexandria, and in + the synod, presided over by Lucar’s successor, Cyril of Berrhoë, + at Constantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal + condemnation of the man who had been already executed.[446] + + § 152.3. =Orthodox Constancy.=--The Russian Orthodox church, + after its emancipation from Constantinople and the erection of + an independent patriarchate at Moscow in A.D. 1589 (§ 73, 4), + had decidedly the pre-eminence over the Greek Orthodox church, + and the Russian czar took the place formerly occupied by the + East Roman emperor as protector of the whole Orthodox church. + The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by schemes of union + with Catholics and Protestants induced the learned metropolitan, + Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to compose a new confession in + catechetical form, which, in A.D. 1643, was formally authorized + by the Orthodox patriarchs as Ὀρθόδοξος ὁμολογία τῆς καθολικῆς + καὶ ἀποστολικῆς ἐκκλησίας τῆς ἀνατολικῆς.--Thirty years later + a controversy on the eucharist broke out between the Jansenists + Nicole and Arnauld, on the one side, and the Calvinists Claude + and Jurieu, on the other (§ 157, 1), in which both claimed to + be in agreement with the Greek church. A synod was convened + under =Dositheus of Jerusalem= in A.D. 1672, at the instigation + of French diplomatists, where the questions raised by Cyril + were again taken into consideration. Maintaining a friendly + attitude toward the Romish church, it directed a violent + polemic against Calvinism. In order to save the character of + the Constantinopolitan chair for constant Orthodoxy, Cyril’s + confession of A.D. 1629 was pronounced a spurious, heretical + invention, and a confession composed by Dositheus, in which + Cyril’s Calvinistic heresies were repudiated, was incorporated + with the synod’s acts. + + + § 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. + + The Jesuit counter-reformation (§ 151) was eminently successful +during the first decades of the century in Bohemia. The Westphalian +Peace restrained its violence, but did not prevent secret machinations +and the open exercise of all conceivable arts of seduction. Next to +the conversion of Bohemia, the greatest triumph of the restoration was +won in France in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Besides such +victories the Catholics were able to glory in the conversion of several +Protestant princes. New endeavours at union were repeatedly made, but +these in every case proved as fruitless as former attempts had done. + + § 153.1. =Conversions of Protestant Princes.=--The first + reigning prince who became a convert to Romanism was the + Margrave =James III. of Baden=. He went over in A.D. 1590 + (§ 144, 4), but as his death occurred soon after, his conduct + had little influence upon his people. Of greater consequence + was the conversion, in A.D. 1614, of the Count-palatine Wolfgang + William of Neuburg, as it prepared the way for the catholicizing + of the whole Palatinate, which followed in A.D. 1685. Much was + made of the passing over to the Catholic church of =Christina + of Sweden=, the highly gifted but eccentric daughter of Gustavus + Adolphus. As she had resigned the crown, the pope gained no + political advantage from his new member, and Alexander VII. + had even to contribute to her support. The Elector of Saxony, + =Frederick Augustus II.=, passed over to the Roman Catholic + church in A.D. 1697, in order to qualify himself for the Polish + crown; but the rights of his Protestant subjects were carefully + guarded. An awkwardness arose from the fact that the prince was + pledged by the directory of the Regensburg Diet of A.D. 1653 to + care for the interests of the evangelical church. Now that he + had become a Catholic, he still formally promised to do so, but + had his duties discharged by a commissioner. Subsequently this + officer was ordered to take his directions from the evangelical + council of Dresden. + + § 153.2. =The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring + States= (§ 151, 1).--Matthias having, in violation of the royal + letter of his predecessor Rudolph II. (§ 139, 19), refused to + allow the Protestants of Bohemia to build churches, was driven + out; the Jesuits also were expelled, and the Calvinistic + Elector-palatine Frederick V. was chosen as prince in A.D. 1619. + Ferdinand II. (A.D. 1619-1637) defeated him, tore up the + royal letter, restored the Jesuits, and expelled the Protestant + pastors. Efforts were made by Christian IV. of Denmark and other + Protestant princes to save Protestantism, but without success. + Ferdinand now issued his =Restitution Edict= of A.D. 1629, + which deprived Protestants of their privileges, and gave to + Catholic nobles unrestricted liberty to suppress the evangelical + faith in their dominions. It was then that Gustavus Adolphus of + Sweden, in religious not less than political interests, made his + appearance as the saviour of Protestantism.[447] The unhappy war + was brought to an end in A.D. 1648 by the publication at Münster + and Osnabrück of the =Peace of Westphalia=, which Innocent X. + in his bull “_Zelo Domus Dei_” of A.D. 1651 pronounced “null + and void, without influence on past, present, and future.” + Germany lost several noble provinces, but its intellectual + and religious freedom was saved. Under Swedish and French + guarantee the Augsburg Religious Peace was confirmed and even + extended to the Reformed, as related to the Augsburg Confession. + The church property was to be restored on January 1st, + A.D. 1624. The political equality of Protestants and Catholics + throughout Germany was distinctly secured. In =Bohemia=, + however, Protestantism was thoroughly extirpated, and in the + other Austrian states the oppression continued down to the time + of Joseph II. In =Silesia=, from the passing of the Restitution + Edict, over a thousand churches had been violently taken from + the evangelicals. No compensation was now thought of, but + rather the persecution continued throughout the whole century + (§ 165, 4), and many thousands were compelled to migrate, for + the most part to Upper Lusatia. + + § 153.3. Also in =Livonia=, from A.D. 1561 under Polish rule, + the Jesuits gained a footing and began the restoration, but + under Gustavus Adolphus from A.D. 1621 their machinations + were brought to an end.--The ruthless =Valteline Massacre= + of A.D. 1620 may be described as a Swiss St. Bartholomew on + a small scale. All Protestants were murdered in one day. The + conspirators at a signal from the clock tower in the early + morning broke into the houses of heretics, and put all to death, + down to the very babe in the cradle. Between four and five + hundred were slaughtered.--In =Hungary=, at the close of the + preceding century only three noble families remained Catholic, + and the Protestant churches numbered 2,000; but the Jesuits, who + had settled there under the protection of Rudolph II. in 1579, + resumed their intrigues, and the Archbishop of Gran, Pazmany, + wrought hard for the restoration of Catholicism. Rakoczy of + Transylvania, in the Treaty of Linz of A.D. 1645, concluded + a league offensive and defensive with Sweden and France, which + secured political and religious liberty for Hungary; but of + the 400 churches of which the Protestants had been robbed only + ninety were given back. The bigoted Leopold I., from A.D. 1655 + king of Hungary, inaugurated a yet more severe persecution, + which continued until the publication of the Toleration Edict + of Joseph II. in A.D. 1781. The 2,000 Protestant congregations + were by this time reduced to 105. + + § 153.4. =The Huguenots in France= (§ 139, 17).--Henry IV. + faithfully fulfilled the promises which he made in the Edict of + Nantes; but under Louis XIII., A.D. 1610-1643, the oppressions + of the Huguenots were renewed, and led to fresh outbreaks. + Richelieu withdrew their political privileges, but granted + them religious toleration in the Edict of Nismes, A.D. 1629. + Louis XIV., A.D. 1643-1715, at the instigation of his confessors, + sought to atone for his sins by purging his land of heretics. + When bribery and court favour had done all that they could do in + the way of conversions, the fearful dragonnades began, A.D. 1681. + The formal =Revocation of the Edict of Nantes= followed in + A.D. 1685, and persecution raged with the utmost violence. + Thousands of churches were torn down, vast numbers of confessors + were tortured, burnt, or sent to the galleys. In spite of the + terrible penal laws against emigrating, in spite of the watch + kept over the frontiers, hundreds of thousands escaped, and were + received with open arms as _refugees_ in Brandenburg, Holland, + England, Denmark, and Switzerland. Many fled into the wilds of + the Cevennes, where under the name of Camisards they maintained + a heroic conflict for years, until at last exterminated by an + army at least ten times their strength. The struggle reached + the utmost intensity of bitterness on both sides in A.D. 1702, + when the fanatical and inhumanly cruel inquisitor, the Abbé + du Chaila, was slain. At the head of the Camisard army was + a young peasant, Jean Cavalier, who by his energetic and skilful + conduct of the campaign astonished the world. At last the + famous Marshal Villars, by promising a general amnesty, release + of all prisoners, permission to emigrate with possessions, + and religious toleration to those who remained, succeeded in + persuading Cavalier to lay down his arms. The king ratified + this bargain, only refusing the right of religious freedom. + Many, however, submitted; while others emigrated, mostly to + England. Cavalier entered the king’s service as colonel; but + distrusting the arrangements fled to Holland, and afterwards + to England, where in A.D. 1740 he died as governor of Jersey. + In A.D. 1707 a new outbreak took place, accompanied by prophetic + fanaticism, in consequence of repeated dragonnades, but it + was put down by the stake, the gallows, the axe, and the wheel. + France had lost half a million of her most pious, industrious, + and capable inhabitants, and yet two millions of Huguenots + deprived of all their rights remained in the land.[448] + + § 153.5. =The Waldensians in Piedmont= (§ 139, 25).--Although + in A.D. 1654 the Duke of Savoy confirmed to the Waldensians + their privileges, by Easter of the following year a bloody + persecution broke out, in which a Piedmontese army, together + with a horde of released prisoners and Irish refugees, + driven from their native land by Cromwell’s severities, to + whom the duke had given shelter in the valleys, perpetrated + the most horrible cruelties. Yet in the desperate conflict + the Waldensians held their ground. The intervention of the + Protestant Swiss cantons won for them again a measure of + toleration, and liberal gifts from abroad compensated them + for their loss of property. Cromwell too sent to the relief + of the sufferers the celebrated Lord Morland in A.D. 1658. + While in the valleys he got possession of a number of MSS. + (§ 108, 11), which he took home with him and deposited in + the Cambridge Library. In A.D. 1685 the persecution and civil + war were again renewed at the instigation of Louis XIV. The + soldiers besieged the valleys, and more than 14,000 captives + were consigned to fortresses and prisons. But the rest of the + Waldensians plucked up courage, inflicted many defeats upon + their enemy, and so moved the government in A.D. 1686 to release + the prisoners and send them out of the country. Some found their + way to Germany, others fled to Switzerland. These last, aided + by Swiss troops, and led by their own pastor, Henry Arnaud, made + an attack upon Piedmont in A.D. 1689, and conquered again their + own country. They continued in possession, notwithstanding all + attempts to dislodge them. + + § 153.6. =The Catholics in England and Ireland.=--When James I., + A.D. 1603-1625, the son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English + throne (§ 139, 11), the Catholics expected from him nothing + short of the complete restoration of the old religion. But + great as James’ inclination towards Catholicism may have been, + his love of despotic authority was still greater. He therefore + rigorously suppressed the Jesuits, who disputed the royal + supremacy over the church; and the bitterness of the Catholics + now reached its height. They organized the so-called =Gunpowder + Plot=, with the intention of blowing up the royal family and + the whole Parliament at the first meeting of the house. At + the head of the conspiracy stood Rob. Catesby, Thomas Percy + of Northumberland, and Guy Fawkes, an English officer in the + Spanish service. The plan was discovered shortly before the day + appointed for its execution. On November 5th, A.D. 1605, Fawkes, + with lantern and matches, was seized in the cellar. The rest of + the conspirators fled, but, after a desperate struggle, in which + Catesby and Percy fell, were arrested, and, together with two + Jesuit accomplices, executed as traitors. Great severities were + then exercised toward the Catholics, not only in England, but + also in Ireland, where the bulk of the population was attached + to the Romish faith. James I. completed the transference of + ecclesiastical property to the Anglican church, and robbed + the Irish nobles of almost all their estates, and gifted them + over to Scottish and English favourites. All Catholics, because + they refused to take the oath of supremacy, _i.e._ to recognise + the king as head of the church, were declared ineligible + for any civil office. These oppressions at last led to the + fearful =Irish massacre=. In October, A.D. 1641, a desperate + outbreak of the Catholics took place throughout the country. + It aimed at the destruction of all Protestants in Ireland. + The conspirators rushed from all sides into the houses of the + Protestants, murdered the inhabitants, and drove them naked and + helpless from their homes. Many thousands died on the roadside + of hunger and cold. In other places they were driven in crowds + into the rivers and drowned, or into empty houses, which were + burnt over them. The number of those who suffered is variously + estimated from 40,000 to 400,000. Charles I., A.D. 1625-1649, + was suspected as instigator of this terrible deed, and it may + be regarded as his first step toward the scaffold (§ 155, 1). + After the execution of Charles, Oliver Cromwell, in A.D. 1649, + at the call of Parliament, took fearful revenge for the Irish + crime. In the two cities which he took by storm he had all + the citizens cut down without distinction. Panic-stricken, the + inhabitants of the other cities fled to the bogs. Within nine + months the whole island was reconquered. Hundreds of thousands, + driven from their native soil, wandered as homeless fugitives, + and their lands were divided among English soldiers and settlers. + During the time of the English Commonwealth, A.D. 1649-1660, + all moderate men, even those who had formerly demanded religious + toleration, not only for all Christian sects, but also for Jews + and Mohammedans, and even atheists, were now at one in excluding + Catholics from its benefit, because they all saw in the + Catholics a party ready at any moment to prove traitors to their + country at the bidding of a foreign sovereign.--The Restoration + under Charles II. could not greatly ameliorate the calamities of + the Irish. Religious persecution indeed ceased, but the property + taken from the Catholic church and native owners still remained + in the hands of the Anglican church and the Protestant occupiers. + To counterbalance the Catholic proclivities of Charles II. + (§ 155, 3), the English Parliament of A.D. 1673 passed the =Test + Act=, which required every civil and military officer to take + the test oaths, condemning transubstantiation and the worship + of the saints, and to receive the communion according to the + Anglican rite as members of the State church. The statements + of a certain Titus Oates, that the Jesuits had organized a plot + for murdering the king and restoring the papacy, led to fearful + riots in A.D. 1678 and many executions. But the reports were + seemingly unfounded, and were probably the fruit of an intrigue + to deprive the king’s Catholic brother, James II., of the right + of succession. When James ascended the throne, in A.D. 1685, + he immediately entered into negotiations with Rome, and + filled almost all offices with Catholics. At the invitation of + the Protestants, the king’s son-in-law, William III. of Orange, + landed in England in A.D. 1688, and on James’ flight was + declared king by the Parliament. The Act of Toleration, issued + by him in A.D. 1689, still withheld from Papists the privileges + now extended to Protestant dissenters (§ 155, 3).[449] + + § 153.7. =Union Efforts.= + + 1. Although =Hugo Grotius= distinctly took the side of + the Remonstrants (§ 160, 2), his whole disposition was + essentially irenical. He attempted, but in vain, not + only the reconciliation of the Arminians and Calvinists, + but also the union of all Protestant sects on a common + basis. Toward Catholicism he long maintained a decidedly + hostile attitude. But through intimate intercourse with + distinguished Catholics, especially during his exile + in France, his feelings were completely changed. He now + invariably expressed himself more favourably in regard + to the faith and the institutions of the Catholic church. + Its semi-Pelagianism was acceptable to him as a decided + Arminian. In his “_Votum pro Pace_” he recommended as the + only possible way to restore ecclesiastical union, a return + to Catholicism, on the understanding that a thorough reform + should be made. But that he was himself ready to pass over, + and was hindered only by his sudden death in A.D. 1645, is + merely an illusion of Romish imagination.[450] + + 2. King Wladislaus [Wladislaw] IV. of Poland thought + a union of Protestants and Catholics in his dominions + not impossible, and with this end in view arranged the + =Religious Conference of Thorn= in A.D. 1645. Prussia + and Brandenburg were also invited to take part in it. + The elector sent his court preacher, John Berg, and asked + from the Duke of Brunswick the assistance of the Helmstadt + theologian, George Calixt. The chief representatives of + the Lutheran side were Abraham Calov, of Danzig, and John + Hülsemann, of Wittenberg. That Calixt, a Lutheran, took + the part of the Reformed, intensified the bitterness of + the Lutherans at the outset. The result was to increase + the split on all sides. The Reformed set forth their + opinions in the “_Declaratio Thorunensis_,” which in + Brandenburg obtained symbolical rank. + + 3. J. B. =Bossuet=, who died in A.D. 1704, Bishop of Meaux, + used all his eloquence to prepare a way for the return of + Protestants to the church in which alone is salvation. In + several treatises he gave an idealized exposition of the + Catholic doctrine, glossed over what was most offensive + to Protestants, and sought by subtlety and sophistry + to represent the Protestant system as contradictory + and untenable.[451] During the same period the Spaniard + =Spinola=, Bishop of Neustadt, who had come into the + country as father confessor of the empress, proposed + a scheme of union at the imperial court. The controverted + points were to be decided at a free council, but the + primacy of the pope and the hierarchical system, as + founded _jure humano_, were to be retained. In prosecuting + his scheme, with the secret support of Leopold I., Spinola, + between A.D. 1676 and 1691, travelled through all Protestant + Germany. He found most success, out of respect for the + emperor, in Hanover, where the Abbot of Loccum, Molanus, + zealously advocated the proposed union, in which on the + Catholic side Bossuet, on the Protestant side the great + philosopher =Leibnitz=, took part. But the negotiations + ended in no practical result. That Leibnitz had himself + been already secretly inclined to Catholicism, some + think to have proved by a manuscript, found after his + death, entitled in another’s hand, “_Systema Theologicum + Leibnitii_.” Favourably disposed as Leibnitz was to + investigate and recognise what was profound and true + even in Catholicism, so that he reached the conviction + that neither of the two churches had given perfect and + adequate expression to Christian truth, he has apparently + sought in this work to make clear to himself what and how + much of specifically Catholic doctrines were justifiable, + and to sketch out a system of doctrine occupying a place + superior to both confessions. In this treatise many + doctrines are expressed in a manner quite divergent from + that of the Tridentine creed, while several expressions + show how clearly he perceived the contradiction between + his own Protestant faith and the Romish system, amid all + his attempts to effect a reconciliation. + + § 153.8. =The Lehnin Prophecy.=--The hope entertained, about + the end of the seventeenth century, by Catholics throughout + Germany of the speedy restoration of the mother church + was expressed in the so called =Vaticinium Lehninense=. + Professedly composed in the thirteenth century by a monk + called Hermann, of the cloister of Lehnin in Brandenburg, + it characterized with historical accuracy in 100 Leonine + verses the Brandenburg princes down to Frederick III., of + whose coronation in A.D. 1701 it is ignorant, and after this + proceeds in a purely fanciful and arbitrary manner. From + Joachim II., who openly joined the Reformation, it enumerates + eleven members, so that the history is just brought down to + Frederick William III. With the eleventh the Hohenzollern + dynasty ends, Germany is united, the Catholic church restored, + and Lehnin raised again to its ancient glory. Under Frederick + William IV., the Catholics diligently sought to prove the + genuineness of the prophecy, and by arbitrary methods to extend + it so as to include this prince. Lately “the deadly sin of + Israel” spoken of in it has been pointed to as a prophecy of + the _Kultur-kampf_ of our own day (§ 197). The first certain + trace of the poem is in A.D. 1693. Hilgenfeld thinks that its + author was a fanatical pervert, Andr. Fromm, who was previously + a Protestant pastor in Berlin, and died in A.D. 1685 as canon + of Leitmeritz, in Bohemia. + + + § 154. LUTHERANISM AND CALVINISM. + + The Reformed church made its way into the heart of Lutheran +Germany (§ 144) by the Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, and by +the adherence of the electoral house of Brandenburg. Renewed attempts +to unite the two churches were equally fruitless with the endeavours +after a Catholic-Protestant union. + + § 154.1. =Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605-1646.=--Philip + the Magnanimous, died 1567, left to his eldest son, William IV., + one half of his territories, comprising Lower Hesse and + Schmalcald, with residence at Cassel; to Louis IV. a fourth + part, _viz._ Upper Hesse, with residence at Marburg; while + his two youngest sons, Philip and George, were made counts, + with their residence at Darmstadt. Philip died in 1583 and + Louis in 1604, both childless; in consequence of which the + greater part of Philip’s territory and the northern half + of Upper Hesse with Marburg fell to Hesse-Cassel, and the + southern half with Giessen to Hesse-Darmstadt.--Landgrave + =William IV.= of Hesse-Cassel sympathised with his father’s + union and levelling tendencies, and by means of general synods + wrought eagerly to secure acceptance for them throughout Hesse + by setting aside the _ubiquitous_ Christology (§ 141, 9) and + the Formula of Concord, while firmly maintaining the _Corpus + Doctrinæ Philippicum_ (§ 141, 10). The fourth and last of + those general synods was held in 1582. Further procedure was + meanwhile rendered impossible by the increase of opposition. + For, on the one hand, Louis IV., under the influence of the + acute and learned but contentious Ægidius Hunnius, professor of + theology at Marburg, 1576-1592, became more and more decidedly + a representative of exclusive Lutheranism; and, on the other + hand, William’s Calvinizing schemes became from day to day more + reckless. His son and successor =Maurice= went forward more + energetically along the same lines as his father, especially + after the death of his uncle Louis in 1604, who bequeathed to + him the Marburg part of his territories. These had been given + him on condition that he should hold by the confession and + its apology as guaranteed by Charles V. in 1530. But in 1605 + he forbad the Marburg theologians to set forth the ubiquity + theology; and when they protested, issued a formal prohibition + of the dogma with its presuppositions and consequences, and + insisted on the introduction of the Reformed numbering of the + commandments of the decalogue, and the breaking of bread at + the communion, and the removal of the remaining images from + the churches (§ 144, 2). The theologians again protested, and + were deprived of their offices. The result was the outbreak + of a popular tumult at Marburg, which Maurice suppressed + by calling in the military. When in several places in Upper + and even in Lower Hesse opposition was persisted in, and the + resisting clergy could not be won over either by persuasion + and threatening or by persecution, Maurice in 1607 convened + consultative diocesan synods at Cassel, Eschwege, Marburg, + St. Goar, and soon after a general synod at Cassel, which, + giving expression on all points to the will of the landgrave, + drew up, besides a new hymnbook and catechism, a new “Christian + and correct confession of faith,” by which they openly and + decidedly declared their attachment to the Reformed church. + Soon Hesse accepted these conclusions, but not the rest of + the state, where the opposition of the nobles, clergy, and + people, in spite of all attempts to enforce this acceptance + by military power, imprisonment, and deposition, could not + be altogether overcome.--Meanwhile George’s son and successor, + =Louis V.=, 1596-1626, had been eagerly seeking to make capital + of those troubles in his cousin’s domains in favour of the + Darmstadt dynasty. He gave his protection to the professors + expelled from Marburg in 1605, founded in 1607 a Lutheran + university at Giessen, and made accusations against his cousin + before the imperial supreme court, which in 1623, on the basis + of the will of Louis IV. and the Religious Peace of Augsburg + (§ 137, 5), declared the inheritance forfeited, and entrusted + the electors of Cologne and Saxony with the execution of the + sentence. These in conjunction with the troops of the league + under Tilly attacked Upper and Lower Hesse; the Lutheran + University of Giessen was transferred to Marburg, and Upper + Hesse, after the banishment of the Reformed pastors, went + over wholly to the Lutheran confession. Maurice, completely + broken down, resigned in favour of his son =William V.=, who + was obliged to make an agreement, according to which he made + over Upper Hesse, Schmalcald, and Katzenelnbogen to =George II.= + of Hesse-Darmstadt, the successor of Louis V. In consequence + of his attachment to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’ + War the ban of the empire was pronounced upon William. He died + in 1637. His widow, =Amalie Elizabeth=, undertook the government + on behalf of her young son William VI., and in 1646, after + repeated victories over George’s troops, made a new agreement + with him, by which the territories taken away in 1627 were + restored to Hesse-Cassel, under a guarantee, however, that + the _status quo_ in matters of religion should be preserved, + and that they should continue predominantly Lutheran. The + university property was divided; Giessen obtained a Lutheran, + Marburg a Reformed institution, and Lower Hesse received + a moderately but yet essentially Reformed ecclesiastical + constitution. + + § 154.2. =Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602.=--Count Simon VI. + of Lippe, in his eventful life, was brought into close relations + with the Reformed Netherlands and with Maurice of Hesse. His + dominions were thoroughly Lutheran, but from A.D. 1602 Calvinism + was gradually introduced under the patronage of the prince. + The chief promoter of this innovation was Dreckmeyer, chosen + general superintendent in A.D. 1599. At a visitation of churches + in A.D. 1602, the festivals of Mary and the apostles, exorcism, + the sign of the cross, the host, burning candles, and Luther’s + catechism were rejected. Opposing pastors were deposed, and + Calvinists put in their place. The city Lemgo stood out longest, + and persevered in its adherence to the Lutheran confession + during an eleven years’ struggle with its prince, from A.D. 1606 + to 1617. After the death of Simon VI., his successor, Simon VII., + allowed the city the free exercise of its Lutheran religion. + + § 154.3. =The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, + A.D. 1613.=--John Sigismund, A.D. 1608-1619, had promised his + grandfather, John George, to maintain his connexion with the + Lutheran church. But his own inclination, which was strengthened + by his son’s marriage with a princess of the Palatinate, and + his connexion with the Netherlands, made him forget his promise. + Also his court preacher, the crypto-Calvinist Solomon Fink, + contributed to the same result. On Christmas Day, A.D. 1613, + he went over to the Reformed church. In order to share in the + Augsburg Peace, he still retained the Augsburg Confession, + naturally in the form known as the _Variata_. In A.D. 1624, + he issued a Calvinist confession of his own, the _Confessio + Sigismundi_ or _Marchica_, which sought to reconcile the + universality of grace with the particularity of election + (§ 168, 1). His people, however, did not follow the prince, + not even his consort, Anne of Prussia. The court preacher, + Gedicke, who would not retract his invectives against the + prince and the Reformed confession, was obliged to flee from + Berlin, as also another preacher, Mart. Willich. But when + altars, images, and baptismal fonts were thrown out of the + Berlin churches, a tumult arose, in A.D. 1615, which was + not suppressed without bloodshed. In the following year the + elector forbade the teaching of the _communicatio idiomatum_ + and the _ubiquitas corporis_ (§ 141, 9) at the University of + Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In A.D. 1614, owing to the publication + of a keen controversial treatise of Hutter (§ 159, 5) he + forbade any of his subjects going to the University of + Wittenberg, and soon afterwards struck out the Formula of + Concord from the collection of the symbolical books of the + Lutheran church of his realm.--Continuation, § 169, 1. + + § 154.4. =Union Attempts.=--Hoë von Hoënegg, of an old Austrian + family, was from A.D. 1612 chief court preacher at Dresden, + and as spiritual adviser of the elector, John George, on the + outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, got Lutheran Saxony to + take the side of the Catholic emperor against the Calvinist + Frederick V. of the Palatinate, elected king of Bohemia. + In A.D. 1621, he had proved that “on ninety-nine points the + Calvinists were in accord with the Arians and the Turks.” At + the Religious Conference of Leipzig of A.D. 1631 a compromise + was accepted on both sides; but no practical result was secured. + The Religious Conference of Cassel, in A.D. 1661, was a well + meant endeavour by some Marburg Reformed theologians and + Lutherans of the school of Calixt (§ 158, 2); but owing to + the agitation caused by the Synergist controversy, no important + advance toward union could be accomplished. The union efforts + of Duke William of Brandenburg, A.D. 1640-1688, were opposed by + Paul Gerhardt, preacher in the church of St. Nicholas in Berlin. + On refusing to abstain from attacks on the Reformed doctrine + he was deposed from his office. He was soon appointed pastor + at Lübben in Lusatia, where he died in A.D. 1676.--The most + zealous apostle of universal Protestant union, embracing even + the Anglican church, was the Scottish Presbyterian John Durie. + From A.D. 1628 when he officiated as pastor of an English colony + at Elbing, till his death at Cassel in A.D. 1640, he devoted his + energies unweariedly to this one task. He repeatedly travelled + through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands, + formed acquaintance with clerical and civil authorities, + had intercourse with them by word and letter, published + a multitude of tracts on this subject; but at last could + only look back with bitter complaints over the lost labours + of a lifetime.[452]--Continuation, § 169, 1. + + + § 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM.[453] + + On the outbreak of the English Revolution, occasioned by the +despotism of the first two Stuarts, crowds of Puritan exiles returned +from Holland and North America to their old home. They powerfully +strengthened their secret sympathisers in their successful struggle +against the episcopacy of the State church (§ 139, 6); but, breaking +up into rival parties, as Presbyterians and Independents (§ 143, 3, 4), +gave way to fanatical extravagances. The victorious party of +Independents also split into two divisions: the one, after the old +Dutch style, simple and strict believers in Scripture; the other, +first in Cromwell’s army, fanatical enthusiasts and visionary saints +(§ 161, 1). The Restoration, under the last two Stuarts, sought to +re-introduce Catholicism. It was William of Orange, by his Act of +Toleration of A.D. 1689, who first brought to a close the Reformation +struggles within the Anglican church. It guaranteed, indeed, all the +pre-eminent privileges of an establishment to the Anglican and Episcopal +church, but also granted toleration to dissenters, while refusing it to +Catholics. + + § 155.1. =The First Two Stuarts.=--=James I.=, dominated by + the idea of the royal supremacy, and so estranged from the + Presbyterianism in which he was brought up (§ 139, 11), as + king of England, A.D. 1603-1625, attached himself to the + national Episcopal church, persecuted the English Puritans, + so that many of them again fled to Holland (§ 143, 4), and + forced Episcopacy upon the Scotch. =Charles I.=, A.D. 1625-1649, + went beyond his father in theory and practice, and thus incurred + the hatred of his Protestant subjects. William Laud, from + A.D. 1633 Archbishop of Canterbury, was the recklessly zealous + promoter of his despotic ideas, representing the Episcopacy, + by reason of its Divine institution and apostolic succession, + as the foundation of the church and the pillar of an absolute + monarchy. Laud used his position as primate to secure the + introduction of his own theory into the public church services, + among other things making the communion office an imitation + as near as possible of the Romish mass. But when he attempted + to force upon the Scotch such “Baal-worship” by the command of + the king, they formed a league in A.D. 1638 for the defence of + Presbyterianism, the so called Great Covenant, and emphasised + their demand by sending an army into England. The king, who had + ruled for eleven years without a Parliament, was obliged now + to call together the representatives of the people. Scarcely + had the Long Parliament, A.D. 1640-1653, in which the Puritan + element was supreme, pacified the Scotch, than oil was anew + poured on the flames by the Irish massacre of A.D. 1641 + (§ 153, 6). The Lower House, in spite of the persistent + opposition of the court, resolved on excluding the bishops + from the Upper House and formally abolishing Episcopacy; + and in A.D. 1643, summoned the Westminster Assembly to + remodel the organization of the English church, at which + Scotch representatives were to have a seat. After long + and violent debates with an Independent minority, till + A.D. 1648, the Assembly drew up a Presbyterian constitution + with a Puritan service, and in the Westminster Confession + a strictly Calvinistic creed. But only in Scotland were these + decisions heartily accepted. In England, notwithstanding their + confirmation by the Parliament, they received only partial and + occasional acceptance, owing to the prevalence of Independent + opinions among the people.--Since A.D. 1642, the tension between + court and Parliament had brought about the Civil War between + Cavaliers and Roundheads. In A.D. 1645, the royal troops were + cut to pieces at Naseby by the parliamentary army under Fairfax + and Cromwell. The king fled to the Scotch, by whom he was + surrendered to the English Parliament in A.D. 1647. But when + now the fanatical Independents, who formed a majority in the + army, began to terrorise the Parliament, it opened negotiations + for peace with the king. He was now ready to make almost + any sacrifice, only on religious and conscientious grounds he + could not agree to the unconditional abandonment of Episcopacy. + Even the Scotch, whose Presbyterianism was now threatened by + the Independents, as before it had been by the Episcopalians, + longed for the restoration of royalty, and to aid in this + sent an army into England in A.D. 1648. But they were defeated + by Cromwell, who then dismissed the Parliament and had all + its Presbyterian members either imprisoned or driven into + retirement. The Independent remnant, known as the Rump + Parliament, A.D. 1648-1653, tried the king for high treason + and sentenced him to death. On January 30th, A.D. 1649, he + mounted the scaffold, on which Archbishop Laud had preceded + him in A.D. 1645, and fell under the executioner’s axe.[454] + + § 155.2. =The Commonwealth and the Protector.=--Ireland had + never yet atoned for its crime of A.D. 1641 (§ 153, 6), and + as it refused to acknowledge the Commonwealth, Cromwell took + terrible revenge in A.D. 1649. In A.D. 1650 at Dunbar, and in + A.D. 1651 at Worcester, he completely destroyed the army of the + Scots, who had crowned Charles II., son of the executed king, + drove out, in April A.D. 1653, the Rump of the Long Parliament, + which had come to regard itself as a permanent institution, + and in July opened, with a powerful speech, two hours in length, + on God’s ways and judgments, the Short or Barebones’ Parliament, + composed of “pious and God-fearing men” selected by himself. + In this new Parliament which, with prayer and psalm-singing, + wrought hard at the re-organization of the executive, the + bench, and the church, the two parties of Independents were + represented, the fanatical enthusiasts indeed predominating, + and so victorious in all matters of debate. To this party + Cromwell himself belonged. His attachment to it, however, + was considerably cooled in consequence of the excesses of + the Levellers (§ 161, 2), and the fantastic policy of the + parliamentarian Saints disgusted him more and more. When + therefore, on December 12th, A.D. 1653, after five months’ + fruitless opposition to the radical demands of the extravagant + majority, all the most moderate members of the Parliament + had resigned their seats and returned their mandates into + Cromwell’s hands, he burst in upon the psalm-singing remnant + with his soldiers, and entered upon his life-long office of + the Protector of the Commonwealth with a new constitution. He + proclaimed toleration of all religious sects, Catholics only + being excepted on political grounds (§ 153, 6), giving equal + rights to Presbyterians, and offering no hindrance to the + revival of Episcopacy. He yet remained firmly attached to + his early convictions. He believed in a kingdom of the saints + embracing the whole earth, and looked on England as destined + for the protection and spread of Protestantism. Zürich greeted + him as the great Protestant champion, and he showed himself + in this _rôle_ in the valleys of Piedmont (§ 153, 5), in + France, in Poland, and in Silesia. He joined with all Protestant + governments into a league, offensive and defensive, against + fanatical attempts of Papists to recover their lost ground. When + Spain and France sued for his alliance, he made it a condition + with the former that, besides allowing free trade with the West + Indies, it should abolish the Inquisition; and of France he + required an assurance that the rights of Huguenots should be + respected. And when in Germany a new election of emperor was + to take place, he urged the great electors that they should by + no means allow the imperial throne to continue with the Catholic + house of Austria. Meanwhile his path at home was a thorny one. + He was obliged to suppress fifteen open rebellions during five + years of his reign, countless secret plots threatened his life + every day, and his bitterest foes were his former comrades in + the camp of the the saints. After refusing the crown offered + him in A.D. 1657, without being able thereby to quell the + discontents of parties, he died on September 3rd, A.D. 1658, + the anniversary of his glorious victories of Dunbar and + Worcester.[455] + + § 155.3. =The Restoration and the Act of Toleration.=--The + Restoration of royalty under =Charles II.=, A.D. 1660-1685, + began with the reinstating of the Episcopal church in all the + privileges granted to it under Elizabeth. The Corporation Act + of December, A.D. 1661, was the first of a series of enactments + for this purpose. It required of all magistrates and civil + officers that they should take an oath acknowledging the royal + supremacy and communicate in the Episcopal church. The Act + of Uniformity of May, A.D. 1662, was still more oppressive. + It prohibited any clergyman entering the English pulpit or + discharging any ministerial function, unless he had been + ordained by a bishop, had signed the Thirty-nine Articles, + and undertook to conduct worship exactly in accordance with + the newly revised Book of Common Prayer. More than 2,000 Puritan + ministers, who could not conscientiously submit to those terms, + were driven out of their churches. Then in June, A.D. 1664, + the Conventicle Act was renewed, enforcing attendance at the + Episcopal church, and threatening with imprisonment or exile + all found in any private religious meeting of more than five + persons. In the following year the Five Mile Act inflicted + heavy fines on all nonconformist ministers who should approach + within five miles of their former congregation or indeed of any + city. All these laws, although primarily directed against all + Protestant dissenters, told equally against the Catholics, whom + the king’s Catholic sympathies would willingly have spared. + When now his league with Catholic France against the Protestant + Netherlands made it necessary for him to appease his Protestant + subjects, he hoped to accomplish this and save the Catholics + by his “Declaration of Indulgence” of A.D. 1672, issued with + the consent of Parliament, which suspended all penal laws + hitherto in force against dissenters. But the Protestant + nonconformists saw through this scheme, and the Parliament + of A.D. 1673 passed the anti-Catholic Test Act (§ 153, 6). + Equally vain were all later attempts to secure greater liberties + and privileges to the Catholics. They only served to develop + the powers of Parliament and to bring the Episcopalians and + nonconformists more closely together. After spending his + whole life oscillating between frivolous unbelief and Catholic + superstition, Charles II., on his death-bed, formally went over + to the Romish church, and had the communion and extreme unction + administered by a Catholic priest. His brother and successor + =James II.=, A.D. 1685-1688, who was from A.D. 1672 an avowed + Catholic, sent a declaration of obedience to Rome, received + a papal nuncio in London, and in the exercise of despotic power + issued, in A.D. 1687, a “Declaration of Freedom of Conscience,” + which, under the fair colour of universal toleration and by the + setting aside of the test oath, enabled him to fill all civil + and military offices with Catholics. This act proved equally + oppressive to the Episcopalians and to Protestant dissenters. + This intrigue cost him his throne. He had, as he himself + said, staked three kingdoms on a mass, and lost all the three. + =William III.= of Orange, A.D. 1689-1702, grandson of Charles I. + and son-in-law of James II., gave a final decision to the rights + of the national Episcopal church and the position of dissenters + in the =Act of Toleration= of A.D. 1689, which he passed with + consent of the Parliament. All penal laws against the latter + were abrogated, and religious liberty was extended to all with + the exception of Catholics and Socinians. The retention of the + Corporation and Test Acts, however, still excluded them from the + exercise of all political rights. They were also still obliged + to pay tithes and other church dues to the Episcopal clergy + of their dioceses, and their marriages and baptisms had to be + administered in the parish churches. Their ministers were also + obliged to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, with reservation + of those points opposed to their principles. The Act of Union + of A.D. 1707, passed under Queen Anne, a daughter of James II., + which united England and Scotland into the one kingdom of Great + Britain, gave legitimate sanction to a separate ecclesiastical + establishment for each country. In Scotland the Presbyterian + churches continued the established church, while the Episcopal + was tolerated as a dissenting body. Congregationalism, however, + has been practically limited to England and North + America.[456]--Continuation, § 202, 5. + + + + + II. The Roman Catholic Church. + + + § 156. THE PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. + + Notwithstanding the regeneration of papal Catholicism since the +middle of the sixteenth century, Hildebrand’s politico-theocratic +ideal was not realized. Even Catholic princes would not be dictated +to on political matters by the vicar of Christ. The most powerful of +them, France, Austria, and Spain, during the sixteenth century, and +subsequently also Portugal, had succeeded in the claim to the right of +excluding objectionable candidates in papal elections. Ban and interdict +had lost their power. The popes, however, still clung to the idea after +they had been obliged to surrender the reality, and issued from time +to time powerless protestations against disagreeable facts of history. +Several new monkish orders were instituted during this century, mostly +for teaching the young and tending the sick, but some also expressly +for the promoting of theological science. Of all the orders, new and +old, the Jesuits were by far the most powerful. They were regarded with +jealousy and suspicion by the other orders. In respect of doctrine the +Dominicans were as far removed from them as possible within the limits +of the Tridentine Creed. But notwithstanding any such mutual jealousies, +they were all animated by one yearning desire to oppose, restrict, and, +where that was possible, to uproot Protestantism. With similar zeal +they devoted themselves with wonderful success to the work of foreign +missions. + + § 156.1. =The Papacy.=--=Paul V.=, A.D. 1605-1621, + equally energetic in his civil and in his ecclesiastical + policy, in a struggle with Venice, was obliged to behold + the powerlessness of the papal interdict. His successor, + =Gregory XV.=, A.D. 1621-1623, founded the Propaganda, + prescribed a secret scrutiny in papal elections, and canonized + Loyola, Xavier, and Neri. He enriched the Vatican Library + by the addition of the valuable treasures of the Heidelberg + Library, which Maximilian I. of Bavaria sent him on his + conquest of the Palatinate. =Urban VIII.=, A.D. 1623-1644, + increased the Propaganda, improved the Roman “Breviary” + (§ 56, 2), condemned Jansen’s _Augustinus_ (§ 156, 5), and + compelled Galileo to recant. But on the other hand, through + his onesided ecclesiastical policy he was led into sacrificing + the interests of the imperial house of Austria. Not only did + he fail to give support to the emperor, but quite openly hailed + Gustavus Adolphus, the saviour of German Protestantism, as the + God-sent saviour from the Spanish-Austrian tyranny. For this he + was pronounced a heretic at the imperial court, and threatened + with a second edition of the sack of Rome (§ 132, 2). At the + same time his soul was so filled with fanatical hatred against + Protestantism, that in a letter of 1631 he congratulated the + Emperor Ferdinand II. on the destruction of Magdeburg as an + act most pleasing to heaven and reflecting the highest credit + upon Germany, and expressed the hope that the glory of so great + a victory should not be restricted to the ruins of a single + city. On receiving the news of the death of Gustavus Adolphus + in 1632 he broke out into loud jubilation, saying that now “the + serpent was slain which with its poison had sought to destroy + the whole world.” His successor, =Innocent X.=, A.D. 1644-1655, + though vigorously protesting against the Peace of Westphalia + (§ 153, 2), was, owing to his abject subserviency to a woman, + his own sister-in-law, reproached with the title of a new + _Johanna Papissa_. =Alexander VII.=, A.D. 1655-1667, had the + expensive guardianship of his godchild Christina of Sweden + (§ 153, 1), and fanned into a flame the spark kindled by his + predecessor in the Jansenist controversy (§ 156, 5), so that his + successor, =Clement IX.=, A.D. 1667-1670, could only gradually + extinguish it. =Clement X.=, A.D. 1670-1676, by his preference + for Spain roused the French king Louis XIV., who avenged himself + by various encroachments on the ecclesiastical administration + in his dominions. =Innocent XI.=, A.D. 1676-1689, was a powerful + pope, zealously promoting the weal of the church and the Papal + States by introducing discipline among the clergy and attacking + the immorality that prevailed among all classes of society. + He unhesitatingly condemned sixty-five propositions from the + lax Jesuit code of morals. Against the arrogant ambassador + of Louis XIV. he energetically maintained his sovereign + rights in his own domains, while he unreservedly refused + the claims of the French clergy, urged by the king on the + ground of the exceptional constitution of the Gallican church. + =Alexander VIII.=, A.D. 1689-1691, continued the fight against + Gallicanism, and condemned the Jesuit distinction between + theological and philosophical sin (§ 149, 10). =Innocent XII.=, + A.D. 1691-1700, could boast of having secured the complete + subjugation of the Gallican clergy after a hard struggle. He + too wrought earnestly for the reform of abuses in the curia. + Specially creditable to him is the stringent bull “_Romanum + decet pontificem_” against nepotism, which extirpated the + evil disease, so that it was never again openly practised as + an acknowledged right.--Continuation, § 165, 1. + + § 156.2. =The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice.=--Venice was + one of the first of the Italian cities to receive the Jesuits + with open arms, A.D. 1530. But the influence obtained by them + over public affairs through school and confessional, and their + vast wealth accumulated from bequests and donations, led the + government, in A.D. 1605, to forbid their receiving legacies + or erecting new cloisters. In vain did Paul V. remonstrate. + He then put Venice under an interdict. The Jesuits sought to + excite the people against the government, and for this were + banished in A.D. 1606. The pious and learned historian of the + Council of Trent and adviser of the State, Paul Sarpi, proved + a vigorous supporter of civil rights against the assumptions + of the curia and the Jesuits. When in A.D. 1607 he refused a + citation of Inquisition, he was dangerously wounded by three + dagger stabs, inflicted by hired bandits, in whose stilettos + he recognised the _stilum curiæ_. He died in A.D. 1623. + After a ten months’ vain endeavour to enforce the interdict, + the pope at last, through French mediation, concluded a peace + with the republic, without, however, being able to obtain either + the abolition of the objectionable ecclesiastico-political laws + or permission for the return of the Jesuits. Only after the + republic had been weakened through the unfortunate Turkish war + of A.D. 1645 was it found willing to submit. Even in A.D. 1653 + it refused the offer of 150,000 ducats from the Jesuit general + for the Turkish campaign; but when Alexander VII. suppressed + several rich cloisters, their revenues were thankfully accepted + for this purpose. In A.D. 1657, on the pope’s promise of further + pecuniary aid, the decree of banishment was withdrawn. The + Jesuit fathers now returned in crowds, and soon regained much + of their former influence and wealth. No pope has ever since + issued an interdict against any country.[457] + + § 156.3. =The Gallican Liberties.=--Although =Louis XIV.= + of France, A.D. 1643-1715, as a good Catholic king, powerfully + supported the claims of papal dogmatics against the Jansenists + (§§ 156, 5; 165, 7), he was by no means unfaithful to the + traditional ecclesiastical polity of his house (§§ 96, 21; + 110, 1, 9, 13, 14), and was often irritated to the utmost + pitch by the pope’s opposition to his political interests. + He rigorously insisted upon the old customary right of + the Crown to the income of certain vacant ecclesiastical + offices, the _jus regaliæ_, and extended it to all bishoprics, + burdened church revenues with military pensions, confiscated + ecclesiastical property, etc. Innocent XI. energetically + protested against such exactions. The king then had an assembly + of the French called together in Paris on March 19th, A.D. 1682, + which issued the famous =Four Propositions of the Gallican + Clergy=, drawn up by Bishop Bossuet of Meaux. These set forth + the fundamental rights of the French church: + + 1. In secular affairs the pope has no jurisdiction over + princes and kings, and cannot release their subjects + from their allegiance; + + 2. The spiritual power of the pope is subject to the higher + authority of the general councils; + + 3. For France it is further limited by the old French + ecclesiastical laws; and, + + 4. Even in matters of faith the judgment of the pope without + the approval of a general assembly of the church is not + unalterable. + + Innocent consequently refused to institute any of the newly + appointed bishops. He was not even appeased by the Revocation + of the Edict of Nantes in A.D. 1685. He was pleased indeed, and + praised the deed, and celebrated it by a _Te Deum_, but objected + to the violent measures for the conversion of Protestants as + contrary to the teaching of Christ. Then also there arose a + keen struggle against the mischievous extension of the right + of asylum on the part of foreign embassies at Rome. On the + pope’s representation all the powers but France agreed to + a restriction of the custom. The pope tolerated the nuisance + till the death of the French ambassador in A.D. 1687, but + then insisted on its abolition under pain of the ban. In + consequence of this Louis sent his new ambassador into Rome + with two companies of cavaliers, threw the papal nuntio in + France into prison, and laid siege to the papal state of + Avignon (§ 110, 4). But Innocent was not thus to be terrorized, + and the French ambassador was obliged, after eighteen months’ + vain demonstrations, to quit Rome. Alexander VIII. repeated the + condemnation of the Four Propositions, and Innocent XIII. also + stood firm. The French episcopate, on the pope’s persistent + refusal to install bishops nominated by the king, was at last + constrained to submit. “Lying at the feet of his holiness,” + the bishops declared that everything concluded in that assembly + was null and void; and even Louis XIV., under the influence of + Madame de Maintenon (§ 157, 3), wrote to the pope in A.D. 1693, + saying that he recalled the order that the Four Propositions + should be taught in all the schools. There still, however, + survived among the French clergy a firm conviction of the + Gallican Liberties, and the _droit de régale_ continued to + have the force of law.[458]--Continuation, § 197, 1. + + § 156.4. =Galileo and the Inquisition.=--Galileo Galilei, + professor of mathematics at Pisa and Padua, who died in + A.D. 1642, among his many distinguished services to the + physical, mathematical, and astronomical sciences, has the + honour of being the pioneer champion of the Copernican system. + On this account he was charged by the monks with contradicting + Scripture. In A.D. 1616 Paul V., through Cardinal Bellarmine, + threatened him with the Inquisition and prison unless he agreed + to cease from vindicating and lecturing upon his heretical + doctrine. He gave the required promise. But in A.D. 1632 + he published a dialogue, in which three friends discussed + the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, without any formal + conclusion, but giving overwhelming reasons in favour of the + latter. Urban VIII., in A.D. 1636, called upon the Inquisition + to institute a process against him. He was forced to recant, + was condemned to prison for an indefinite period, but was soon + liberated through powerful influence. How far the old man of + seventy-two years of age was compelled by torture to retract + is still a matter of controversy. It is, however, quite evident + that it was forced from him by threats. But that Galileo went + out after his recantation, gnashing his teeth and stamping + his feet, muttering, “Nevertheless it moves!” is a legend + of a romancing age. This, however, is the fact, that the + Congregation of the Index declared the Copernican theory to + be false, irrational, and directly contrary to Scripture; and + that even in A.D. 1660 Alexander VII., with apostolic authority, + formally confirmed this decree and pronounced it _ex cathedrâ_ + (§ 149, 4) irrevocable. It was only in A.D. 1822 that the curia + set it aside, and in a new edition of the Index (§ 149, 14) + in A.D. 1835 omitted the works of Galileo as well as those + of Copernicus.[459] + + § 156.5. =The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception= + (§ 112, 4) received a new impulse from the nun =Mary of Jesus, + died 1665, of Agreda=, in Old Castile, superior of the cloister + there of the Immaculate Conception, writer of the “Mystical + City of God.” This book professed to give an inspired account + of the life of the Virgin, full of the strangest absurdities + about the immaculate conception. The Sorbonne pronounced it + offensive and silly; the Inquisition in Spain, Portugal, and + Rome forbad the reading of it; but the Franciscans defended + it as a divine revelation. A violent controversy ensued, which + Alexander VII. silenced in A.D. 1661 by expressing approval + of the doctrine of the immaculate conception set forth in the + book.--Continuation, § 185, 2. + + § 156.6. =The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus.=--The + nun =Margaret Alacoque=, in the Burgundian cloister of _Paray + le Monial_, born A.D. 1647, recovering from a painful illness + when but three years old, vowed to the mother of God, who + frequently appeared to her, perpetual chastity, and in gratitude + for her recovery adopted the name of Mary, and when grown up + resisted temptations by inflicting on herself the severest + discipline, such as long fasts, sharp flagellations, lying + on thorns, etc. Visions of the Virgin no longer satisfied her. + She longed to lavish her affections on the Redeemer himself, + which she expressed in the most extravagant terms. She took the + Jesuit =La Colombière= as her spiritual adviser in A.D. 1675. + In a new vision she beheld the side of her Beloved opened, + and saw his heart glowing like a sun, into which her own was + absorbed. Down to her death in A.D. 1690 she felt the most + violent burning pains in her side. In a second vision she saw + her Beloved’s heart burning like a furnace, into which were + taken her own heart and that of her spiritual adviser. In a + third vision he enjoined the observance of a special “Devotion + of the Sacred Heart” by all Christendom on the Friday after the + octave of the _Corpus Christi_ festival and on the first Friday + of every month. La Colombière, being made director, put forth + every effort to get this celebration introduced throughout the + church, and on his death the idea was taken up by the whole + Jesuit order. Their efforts, however, for fully a century proved + unavailing. At this point, too, their most bitter opponents were + the Dominicans. But even without papal authority the Jesuits + so far succeeded in introducing the absurdities of this cult, + and giving expression to it in word and by images, that by the + beginning of the eighteenth century there were more than 300 + male and female societies engaged in this devotion, and at last, + in A.D. 1765, =Clement XIII.=, the great friend of the Jesuits, + gave formal sanction to this special celebration.--Continuation, + § 188, 12. + + § 156.7. =New Congregations and Orders.= + + 1. At the head of the new orders of this century stands + the =Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne= at Verdun, + founded by Didier de la Cour. Elected Abbot of St. Banne + in A.D. 1596, he gave his whole strength to the reforming + of this cloister, which had fallen into luxurious and + immoral habits. By a papal bull of A.D. 1604 all cloisters + combining with St. Banne into a congregation were endowed + with rich privileges. Gradually all the Benedictine + monasteries of Lorraine and Alsace joined the union. + Didier’s reforms were mostly in the direction of moral + discipline and asceticism; but in the new congregation + scholarship was represented by Calmet, Ceillier, etc., and + many gave themselves to work as teachers in the schools. + + 2. Much more important for the promotion of theological + science, especially for patristics and church history, + was another Benedictine congregation founded in France + in A.D. 1618 by Laurence Bernard, that of =St. Maur=, + named after a disciple of St. Benedict. The members of + this order devoted themselves exclusively to science and + literary pursuits. To them belonged the distinguished + names, Mabillon, Montfaucon, Reinart, Martène, D’Achery, + Le Nourry, Durand, Surius, etc. They showed unwearied + diligence in research and a noble liberality of judgment. + The editions of the most celebrated Fathers issued by + them are the best of the kind, and this may also be said + of the great historical collections which we owe to their + diligence. + + 3. =The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus= are an imitation + of the Priests of the Oratory founded by Philip Neri + (§ 149, 7). Peter of Barylla, son of a member of parliament, + founded it in A.D. 1611 by building an oratory at Paris. + He was more of a mystic than of a scholar, but his order + sent out many distinguished and brilliant theologians; + _e.g._ Malebranche, Morinus, Thomassinus, Rich, Simon, + Houbigant. + + 4. =The Piarists=, _Patres scholarum piarum_, were founded + in Rome in A.D. 1607 by the Spaniard Joseph Calasanza. The + order adopted as a fourth vow the obligation of gratuitous + tuition. They were hated by the Obscurantist Jesuits for + their successful labours for the improvement of Catholic + education, especially in Poland and Austria, and also + because they objected to all participation in political + schemes. + + 5. =The Order of the Visitation of Mary=, or _Salesian Nuns_, + instituted in A.D. 1610 by the mystic Francis de Sales + and Francisca Chantal (§ 157, 1). They visited the poor + and sick in imitation of Elizabeth’s visit to the Virgin + (Luke i. 39); but the papal rescript of A.D. 1618 gave + prominence to the education of children. + + § 156.8. + + 6. =The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity= were + both founded by Vincent de Paul. Born of poor parents, + he was, after completing his education, captured by + pirates, and as a slave converted his renegade master + to Christianity. As domestic chaplain to the noble family + of Gondy he was characterized in a remarkable degree + for unassuming humility, and he wrought earnestly and + successfully as a home missionary. In A.D. 1618 he founded + the order of Sisters of Mercy, who became devoted nurses + of the sick throughout all France, and in A.D. 1627 that + of the Priests of the Missions, or Lazarists, who travelled + the country attending to the spiritual and bodily wants + of men. After the death of the Countess Gondy in A.D. 1625, + he placed at the head of the Sisters of Mercy the widow + Louise le Gras, distinguished equally for qualities of head + and heart. Vincent died in A.D. 1660, and was subsequently + canonized.[460] + + 7. =The Trappists=, founded by De Rancé, a distinguished canon, + who in A.D. 1664 passed from the extreme of worldliness + to the extreme of fanatical asceticism. The order got its + name from the Cistercian abbey La Trappe in Normandy, of + which Rancé was commendatory abbot. Amid many difficulties + he succeeded, in A.D. 1665, in thoroughly reforming the + wild monks, who were called “the bandits of La Trappe.” + His rule enjoined on the monks perpetual silence, only + broken in public prayer and singing and in uttering + the greeting as they met, _Memento mori_. Their bed + was a hard board with some straw; their only food was + bread and water, roots, herbs, some fruit and vegetables, + without butter, fat, or oil. Study was forbidden, and they + occupied themselves with hard field labour. Their clothing + was a dark-brown cloak worn on the naked body, with wooden + shoes. Very few cloisters besides La Trappe submitted to + such severities (§ 185, 2). + + 8. =The English Nuns=, founded at St. Omer, in France, by + Mary Ward, the daughter of an English Catholic nobleman, + for the education of girls. Originally composed of English + maidens, it was afterwards enlarged by receiving those of + other nationalities, with establishments in Germany, Italy, + and the Netherlands. It did not obtain papal confirmation, + and in A.D. 1630 Urban VIII., giving heed to the calumnies + of enemies, formally dissolved it on account of arrogance, + insubordination, and heresy. All its institutions and + schools were then closed, while Mary herself was imprisoned + and given over to the Inquisition in Rome. Urban was + soon convinced of her innocence and set her free. Her + scattered nuns were now collected again, but succeeded only + in A.D. 1703 in obtaining confirmation from Clement XI. + Their chief tasks were the education of youth and care + of the sick. They were arranged in three classes, according + to their rank in life, and were bound by their vows for + a year or at the most three years, after which they might + return to the world and marry. Their chief centre was + Bavaria with the mother cloister in Munich.--Continuation, + § 165, 2. + + § 156.9. =The Propaganda.=--Gregory XV. gave unity and strength + to the efforts for conversion of heretics and heathens by + instituting, in A.D. 1662, the _Congregatio de Propaganda + Fide_. Urban VIII. in A.D. 1627 attached to it a missionary + training school, recruited as far as possible from natives of + the respective countries, like Loyola’s _Collegium Germanicum_ + founded in A.D. 1552 (§ 151, 1). He was thus able every Epiphany + to astonish Romans and foreigners by what seemed a repetition of + the pentecostal miracle of tongues. At this institute training + in all languages was given, and breviaries, mass and devotional + books, and handbooks were printed for the use of the missions. + It was also the centre from which all missionary enterprises + originated.--Continuation, § 204, 2. + + § 156.10. =Foreign Missions.=--Even during this century the + Jesuits excelled all others in missionary zeal. In A.D. 1608 + they sent out from Madrid mission colonies among the wandering + Indians of South America, and no Spaniard could settle there + without their permission. The most thoroughly organized of + these was that of =Paraguay=, in which, according to their + own reports, over 100,000 converted savages lived happily + and contented under the mild, patriarchal rule of the Jesuits + for 140 years, A.D. 1610-1750; but according to another well + informed, though perhaps not altogether impartial, account, + that of Ibagnez, a member of the mission, expelled for advising + submission to the decree depriving it of political independence, + the paternal government was flavoured by a liberal dose of + slave-driver despotism. It was at least an undoubted fact, + notwithstanding the boasted patriarchal idyllic character of + the Jesuit state, that the order amassed great wealth from the + proceeds of the industry of their _protégés_.--Continuation, + § 165, 3. + + § 156.11. =In the East Indies= (§ 150, 1) the Jesuits had + uninterrupted success. In A.D. 1606, in order to make way + among the Brahmans, the Jesuit Rob. Nobili assumed their + dress, avoided all contact with even the converts of low + caste, giving them the communion elements not directly, but + by an instrument, or laying them down for them outside the + door, and as a Christian Brahman made a considerable impression + upon the most exclusive classes.--In =Japan= the mission + prospects were dark (§ 150, 2). Mendicants and Jesuits opposed + and mutually excommunicated one another. The Catholic Spaniards + and Portuguese were at feud among themselves, and only agreed + in intriguing against Dutch and English Protestants. When the + land was opened to foreign trade, it became the gathering point + of the moral scum of all European countries, and the traffic in + Japanese slaves, especially by the Portuguese, brought discredit + on the Christian cause. The idea gained ground that the efforts + at Christianization were but a prelude to conquest by the + Spaniards and Portuguese. In the new organization of the country + by the _shiogun_ Ijejasu all governors were to vow hostility to + Christians and foreigners. In A.D. 1606 he forbad the observance + of the Christian religion anywhere in the land. When the + conspiracy of a Christian daimio was discovered, he caused, + in A.D. 1614, whole shiploads of Jesuits, mendicants, and + native priests to be sent out of the country. But as many + of the banished returned, death was threatened against all + who might be found, and in A.D. 1624 all foreigners, with the + exception of Chinese and Dutch, were rigorously driven out. + And now a bloody persecution of native Christians began. Many + thousands fled to China and the neighbouring islands; crowds + of those remaining were buried alive or burnt on piles made up + of the wood of Christian crosses. The victims displayed a martyr + spirit like those of the early days. Those who escaped organized + in A.D. 1637 an armed resistance, and held the fortress of Arima + in face of the _shiogun’s_ army sent against them. After a three + months’ siege the fortress was conquered by the help of Dutch + cannon; 37,000 were massacred in the fort, and the rest were + hurled down from high rocks. The most severe enactments were + passed against Christians, and the edicts filled with fearful + curses against “the wicked sect” and “the vile God” of the + Christians were posted on all the bridges, street corners, and + squares. Christianity now seemed to be completely stamped out. + The recollection of this work, however, was still retained down + to the nineteenth century. For when French missionaries went + in A.D. 1860 to Nagasaki, they found to their surprise in the + villages around thousands (?) who greeted them joyfully as the + successors of the first Christian missionaries. + + § 156.12. =In China=, after Ricci’s death (§ 150, 1), the + success of the mission continued uninterrupted. In A.D. 1628 + a German Jesuit, Adam Schell, went out from Cologne, who gained + great fame at court for his mathematical skill. Louis XIV. + founded at Paris a missionary college, which sent out Jesuits + thoroughly trained in mathematics. But Dominicans and Franciscans + over and over again complained to Rome of the Jesuits. They + never allowed missionaries of other orders to come near their + own establishments, and actually drove them away from places + where they had begun to work. They even opposed priests, + bishops, and vicars-apostolic sent by the Propaganda, declared + their papal briefs forgeries, forbad their congregations to have + any intercourse with those “heretics,” and under suspicion of + Jansenism brought them before the Inquisition of Goa. Clement X. + issued a firm-toned bull against such proceedings; but the + Jesuits gave no heed to it, and attended only to their own + general. The papal condemnation a century later of the Jesuits’ + accommodation scheme, and their permission of heathen rites + and beliefs to the new converts, complained against by the + Dominicans, was equally fruitless. In A.D. 1645 Innocent X. + forbad this practice on pain of excommunication; but still + they continued it till the decree was modified by Alexander VII. + in A.D. 1656. After persistent complaints by the Dominicans, + Innocent XII. appointed a new congregation in Rome to + investigate the question, but their deliberations yielded no + result for ten years. At last Clement XI. confirmed the first + decree of Innocent X., condemned anew the so called Chinese + rites, and sent the legate Thomas of Tournon in A.D. 1703 to + enforce his decision. Tournon, received at first by the emperor + at Pekin with great consideration, fell into disfavour through + Jesuit intrigues, was banished from the capital, and returned + to Nankin. But as he continued his efforts from this point, + and an attempt to poison him failed in A.D. 1707, he went to + Macao, where he was put in prison by the Portuguese, in which + he died in A.D. 1710. Clement XI., in A.D. 1715, issued his + decree against the Chinese rites in a yet severer form; but + the Franciscan who proclaimed the papal bull was put in prison + as an offender against the laws of the country, and, after + being maltreated for seventeen months, was banished. So proudly + confident had the Jesuits become, that in A.D. 1720 they treated + with scorn and contempt the papal legate Mezzabarba, Patriarch + of Alexandria, who tried by certain concessions to move them + to submit. A more severe decree of Clement XII. of A.D. 1735 + was scoffed at by being proclaimed only in the Latin original. + Benedict XIV. succeeded for the first time, in A.D. 1742, in + breaking down their opposition, after the charges had been + renewed by the Capuchin Norbert. All the Jesuit missionaries + were now obliged by oath to exclude all pagan customs and rites; + but with this all the glory and wonderful success of their + Asiatic missions came to an end.--Continuation, § 165, 3. + + § 156.13. =Trade and Industry of the Jesuits.=--As Christian + missions generally deserve credit, not only for introducing + civilization and culture along with the preaching of the gospel + into far distant heathen lands, but also for having greatly + promoted the knowledge of countries, peoples, and languages + among their fellow countrymen at home, opening up new fields + for colonization and trade, these ends were also served by + the world-wide missionary enterprises of the Jesuits, and + were in perfect accordance with the character and intention of + this order, which aimed at universal dominion. In carrying out + these schemes the Jesuits abandoned the ascetical principles + of their founder and their vow of poverty, amassing enormous + wealth by securing in many parts a practical monopoly of + trade. Their fifth general, Aquaviva (§ 149, 8), secured from + Gregory XIII., avowedly in favour of the mission, exclusive + right to trade with both Indies. They soon erected great + factories in all parts of the world, and had ships laden + with valuable merchandise on all seas. They had mines, farms, + sugar plantations, apothecary shops, bakeries, etc., founded + banks, sold relics, miracle-working amulets, rosaries, healing + Ignatius- and Xavier-water (§ 149, 11), etc., and in successful + legacy-hunting excelled all other orders. Urban VIII. and + Clement XI. issued severe bulls against such abuses, but only + succeeded in restricting them to some extent.--Continuation, + § 165, 9. + + § 156.14. =An Apostate to Judaism.=--Gabriel, or as he was + called after circumcision, =Uriel Acosta=, was sprung from + a noble Portuguese family, originally Jewish. Doubting + Christianity in consequence of the traffic in indulgences, + he at last repudiated the New Testament in favour of the Old. + He refused rich ecclesiastical appointments, fled to Amsterdam, + and there formally went over to Judaism. Instead of the biblical + Mosaism, however, he was disappointed to find only Pharisaic + pride and Talmudic traditionalism, against which he wrote + a treatise in A.D. 1623. The Jews now denounced him to the + civil authorities as a denier of God and immortality. The whole + issue of his book was burnt. Twice the synagogue thundered its + ban against him. The first was withdrawn on his recantation, + and the second, seven years after, upon his submitting to a + severe flagellation. In spite of all he held to his Sadducean + standpoint to his end in A.D. 1647, when he died by his own + hand from a pistol shot, driven to despair by the unceasing + persecution of the Jews. + + + § 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. + + Down to the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Spanish +Mystics (§ 149, 16), and especially those attached to Francis de Sales, +were recognised as thoroughly orthodox. But now the Jesuits appeared as +the determined opponents of all mysticism that savoured of enthusiasm. +By means of vile intrigues they succeeded in getting Molinos, Guyon, +and Fénelon condemned, as “Quietist” heretics, although the founder +of their party had been canonized and his doctrine solemnly sanctioned +by the pope. Yet more objectionable to the Jesuits was that reaction +toward Augustinianism which, hitherto limited to the Dominicans +(§ 149, 13), and treated by them as a theological theory, was +now spreading among other orders in the form of French Jansenism, +accompanied by deep moral earnestness and a revival of the whole +Christian life. + + § 157.1. =Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal.=--Francis Count + de Sales, from A.D. 1602 Bishop of Geneva, _i.e._ _in partibus_, + with Annecy as his residence, had shown himself a good Catholic + by his zeal in rooting out Protestantism in Chablais, on the + south of the Genevan lake. In A.D. 1604 meeting the young + widowed Baroness de Chantal, along with whom at a later period + he founded the Order of the Visitation of Mary (§ 156, 7), + he proved a good physician to her amid her sorrow, doubts, + and temptations. He sought to qualify himself for this task + by reading the writings of St. Theresa. Teacher and scholar + so profited by their mystical studies, that in A.D. 1665 + Alexander VII. deemed the one worthy of canonization and the + other of beatification. In A.D. 1877 Pius IX. raised Francis + to the dignity of _doctor ecclesiæ_. His “Introduction to + the Devout Life” affords a guide to laymen to the life of + the soul, amid all the disturbances of the world resting in + calm contemplation and unselfish love of God. In the Catholic + Church, next to À Kempis’ “Imitation of Christ,” it is the + most appreciated and most widely used book of devotion. In + his “_Theotime_” he leads the reader deeper into the yearnings + of the soul after fellowship with God, and describes the perfect + peace which the soul reaches in God.[461] + + § 157.2. =Michael Molinos.=--After Francis de Sales a great + multitude of male and female apostles of the new mystical + gospel sprang up, and were favourably received by all the + more moderate church leaders. The reactionaries, headed by the + Jesuits, sought therefore all the more eagerly to deal severely + with the Spaniard Michael Molinos. Having settled in Rome in + A.D. 1669, he soon became the most popular of father confessors. + His “Spiritual Guide” in A.D. 1675 received the approval of the + Holy Office, and was introduced into Protestant Germany through + a Latin translation by Francke in A.D. 1687, and a German + translation in A.D. 1699 by Arnold. In it he taught those who + came to the confessional that the way to the perfection of + the Christian life, which consists in peaceful rest in the + most intimate communion with God, is to be found in spiritual + conference, secret prayer, active and passive contemplation, + in rigorous destruction of all self-will, and in disinterested + love of God, fortified, wherever that is possible, by daily + communion. The success of the book was astonishing. It promptly + influenced all ranks and classes, both men and women, lay and + clerical, not only in Italy, but also by means of translations + in France and Spain. But soon a reaction set in. As early + as A.D. 1681 the famous Jesuit =Segneri= issued a treatise, + in which he charged Molinos’ contemplative mysticism with + onesidedness and exaggeration. He was answered by the pious + and learned Oratorian =Petrucci=. A commission, appointed + by the Inquisition to examine the writings of both parties, + pronounced the views of Molinos and Petrucci to be in accordance + with church doctrine and Segneri’s objections to be unfounded. + All that Jesuitism reckoned as foundation, means, and end of + piety was characterized as purely elementary. No hope could + be entertained of winning over Innocent XI., the bitter enemy + of the Jesuits. But Louis XIV. of France, at the instigation + of his Jesuit father confessor, Lachaise, expressed through + his ambassador his surprise that his holiness should, not only + tolerate, but even encourage and support so dangerous a heretic, + who taught all Christendom to undervalue the public services + of the Church. In A.D. 1685 Innocent referred the matter to + the tribunal of the Inquisition. Throughout the two years + during which the investigation proceeded all arts were used to + secure condemnation. Extreme statements of fanatical adherents + of Molinos were not rarely met with, depreciating the public + ordinances and ceremonies, confession, hearing of mass, church + prayers, rosaries, etc. The pope, facile with age, amid groans + and lamentations, allowed things to take their course, and at + last confirmed the decree of the Inquisition of August 28th, + A.D. 1687, by which Molinos was found guilty of spreading + godless doctrine, and sixty-eight propositions, partly from + his own writings, partly from the utterances of his adherents, + were condemned as heretical and blasphemous. The heretic was + to abjure his heresies publicly, clad in penitential garments, + and was then consigned to lifelong solitary confinement in a + Dominican cloister, where he died in A.D. 1697.[462] + + § 157.3. =Madame Guyon and Fénelon.=--After her husband’s + death, =Madame Guyon=, in company with her father confessor, + the Barnabite =Lacombe=, who had been initiated during a long + residence at Rome into the mysteries of Molinist mysticism, + spent five years travelling through France, Switzerland, + Savoy, and Piedmont. Though already much suspected, she won + the hearts of many men and women among the clergy and laity, + and enkindled in them by personal conference, correspondence, + and her literary work, the ardour of mystical love. Her + brilliant writings are indeed disfigured by traces of foolish + exaggeration, fanaticism and spiritual pride. She calls herself + the woman of Revelation xii. 1, and the _mère de la grace_ + of her adherents. The following are the main distinguishing + characteristics of her mysticism: The necessity of turning + away from everything creaturely, rejecting all earthly pleasure + and destroying every selfish interest, as well as of turning + to God in passive contemplation, silent devotion, naked faith, + which dispensed with all intellectual evidence, and pure + disinterested love, which loves God for Himself alone, not + for the eternal salvation obtained through Him. On her return + to Paris with Lacombe in A.D. 1686 the proper martyrdom of + her life began. Her chief persecutor was her step-brother, + the Parisian superior of the Barnabites, La Mothe, who spread + the most scandalous reports about his half-sister and Lacombe, + and had them both imprisoned by a royal decree in A.D. 1688. + Lacombe never regained his liberty. Taken from one prison to + another, he lost his reason, and died in an asylum in A.D. 1699. + Madame Guyon, however, by the influence of Madame de Maintenon, + was released after ten months’ confinement. The favour of + this royal dame was not of long continuance. Warned on all + sides of the dangerous heretic, she broke off all intercourse + with her in A.D. 1693, and persuaded the king to appoint a + new commission, in A.D. 1694, with Bishop =Bossuet= of Meaux + at its head, to examine her suspected writings. This commission + meeting at Issy, had already, in February, A.D. 1695, drawn + up thirty test articles, when =Fénelon=, tutor of the king’s + grandson, and now nominated to the archbishopric of Cambray, + was ordered by the king to take part in the proceedings. He + signed the articles, though he objected to much in them, and + had four articles of his own added. Madame Guyon also did so, + and Bossuet at last testified for her that he had found her + moral character stainless and her doctrine free from Molinist + heresy. But the bigot Maintenon was not satisfied with this. + Bossuet demanded the surrender of this certificate that he + might draw up another; and when Madame Guyon refused, on + the basis of a statement by the crazed Lacombe, she was sent + to the Bastile [Bastille] in A.D. 1696. In A.D. 1697 Fénelon + had written in her defence his “_Explication des Maximes des + Saintes sur la Vie Intérieur_,” showing that the condemned + doctrines of passive contemplation, secret prayer, naked + faith, and disinterested love, had all been previously taught + by St. Theresa, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and other + saints. He sent this treatise for an opinion to Rome. A violent + controversy then arose between Bossuet and Fénelon. The pious, + well-meaning pope, =Innocent XII.=, endeavoured vainly to + bring about a good understanding. Bossuet and the all-powerful + Maintenon wished no reconciliation, but condemnation, and gave + the king and pope no rest till very reluctantly he prohibited + the objectionable book by a brief in A.D. 1699, and condemned + twenty-three propositions from it as heretical. Fénelon, + strongly attached to the church, and a bitter persecutor + of Protestants, made an unconditional surrender, as guilty + of a defective exposition of the truth. But Madame Guyon + continued in the Bastile [Bastille] till A.D. 1701, when she + retired to Blois, where she died in A.D. 1717. Bossuet had + died in A.D. 1704, and Fénelon in A.D. 1715. She published + only two of her writings: “An Exposition of the Song,” and + the “_Moyen Court et très Facile de faire Oraison_.” Many + others, including her translation and expositions of the + Bible, were during her lifetime edited in twenty volumes by + her friend, the Reformed preacher of the Palatinate, Peter + Poiret.[463] + + § 157.4. =Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and + Pantheism.=--=Antoinette Bourignon=, the daughter of a rich + merchant of Lille, in France, while matron of a hospital in + her native city, had in A.D. 1662 gathered around her a party + of believers in her theosophic and fantastic revelations. + She was obliged to flee to the Netherlands, and there, by + the force of her eloquence in speech and writing, spread her + views among the Protestants. Among them she attracted the + great scientist Swammerdam. But when she introduced politics, + she escaped imprisonment only by flight. Down to her death + in A.D. 1680 she earnestly and successfully prosecuted + her mission in north-west Germany. Peter Poiret collected + her writings and published them in twenty-one volumes at + Amsterdam, in A.D. 1679.--Quite of another sort was the + pantheistic mysticism of =Angelus Silesius=. Originally + a Protestant physician at Breslau, he went over to the + Romish church in A.D. 1653, and in consequence received from + Vienna the honorary title of physician to the emperor. He + was made priest in A.D. 1661, and till his death in A.D. 1677 + maintained a keen polemic against the Protestant church + with all a pervert’s zeal. Most of his hymns belong to his + Protestant period. As a Catholic he wrote his “_Cherubinischer + Wandersmann_,” a collection of rhymes in which, with childish + _naïveté_ and hearty, gushing ardour, he merges self into the + abyss of the universal Deity, and develops a system of the most + pronounced pantheism. + + § 157.5. =Jansenism in its first Stage.=--Bishop Cornelius + Jansen, of Ypres, who died in A.D. 1638, gave the fruits + of his lifelong studies of Augustine in his learned work, + “_Augustinus s. doctr. Aug. de humanæ Naturæ Sanitate, + Ægritudine, et Medicina adv. Pelagianos et Massilienses_,” + which was published after his death in three volumes, Louvain, + 1640. The Jesuits induced Urban VIII., in A.D. 1642, to prohibit + it in his bull _In eminenti_. Augustine’s numerous followers + in France felt themselves hit by this decree. Jansen’s pupil + at Port Royal from A.D. 1635, Duvergier de Hauranne, usually + called St. Cyran, from the Benedictine monastery of which he + was abbot, was the bitter foe of the Jesuits and Richelieu, + who had him cast into prison in A.D. 1638, from which he was + liberated after the death of the cardinal in A.D. 1643, and + shortly before his own. Another distinguished member of the + party was Antoine Arnauld, doctor of the Sorbonne, who died in + A.D. 1694, the youngest of twenty children of a parliamentary + advocate, whose powerful defence of the University of Paris + against the Jesuits called forth their hatred and lifelong + persecution. His mantle, as a vigorous polemist, had fallen + upon his youngest son. Very important too was the influence + of his much older sister, Angelica Arnauld, Abbess of the + Cistercian cloister of Port Royal des Champs, six miles from + Paris, which under her became the centre of religious life and + effort for all France. Around her gathered some of the noblest, + most pious, and talented men of the time: the poet Racine, the + mathematician and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Sacy, + the church historian Tillemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine + and determined opponents of the lax morality of the Jesuits. + Arnauld’s book, “_De la fréquente Communion_,” was approved + by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most distinguished + of the French clergy; but in A.D. 1653 Innocent X. condemned + five Jansenist propositions in it as heretical. The Augustinians + now maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the + sense attributed to them by the pope. Arnauld distinguished + the _question du fait_ from the _question du droit_, maintaining + that the latter only were subject to the judgment of the + Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition + and character, expelled him on account of this position from + its corporation in A.D. 1656. About this time, at Arnauld’s + instigation, Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of + “_Pensées sur la Religion_,” began, under the name of Louis + de Montalte to publish his famous “Provincial Letters,” which + in an admirable style exposed and lashed with deep earnestness + and biting wit the base moral principles of Jesuit casuistry. + The truly annihilating effect of these letters upon the + reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by + their being burnt by order of Parliament by the hangman at + Aix in A.D. 1657, and at Paris in A.D. 1660. But meanwhile + the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon a new phase + of its development. Alexander VII. had issued in A.D. 1656 + a bull which denounced the application of the distinction _du + fait_ and _du droit_ to the papal decrees as derogatory to the + holy see, and affirmed that Jansen taught the five propositions + in the sense they had been condemned. In order to enforce the + sentence, Annal, the Jesuit father confessor of Louis XIV., + obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all French clergy, + monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula unconditionally + accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and + fled mostly to the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of + Port Royal at last reluctantly agreed to sign it; but they were + still persecuted, and in A.D. 1664 the new archbishop, Perefixe, + inaugurated a more severe persecution, placed this cloister + under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to other + convents. In A.D. 1669, Alexander’s successor, Clement IX., + secured the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Nicole, and many + of the nuns by a policy of mild connivance. But the hatred + of the Jesuits was still directed against their cloister. In + A.D. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded full and unconditioned + acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and when the nuns + refused, the pope, in A.D. 1708, declared this convent an + irredeemable nest of heresy, and ordered its suppression, which + was carried out in A.D. 1709. In A.D. 1710 cloister and church + were levelled to the ground, and the very corpses taken out of + their graves.[464]--Continuation, § 165, 7. + + + § 158. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. + + Catholic theology flourished during the seventeenth century as it +had never done since the twelfth and thirteenth. Especially in the +liberal Gallican church there was a vigorous scientific life. The +Parisian Sorbonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the +Oratorians, excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and +historical, learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed +theology in France afforded a powerful stimulus. But the best days +of art, especially Italian painting, were now past. Sacred music was +diligently cultivated, though in a secularized style, and many gifted +hymn-writers made their appearance in Spain and Germany. + + § 158.1. =Theological Science= (§ 149, 14).--The parliamentary + advocate, Mich. le Jay, published at his own expense the + Parisian Polyglott in ten folio vols., A.D. 1629-1645, which, + besides complete Syriac and Arabic translations, included also + the Samaritan. The chief contributor was the Oratorian =Morinus=, + who edited the LXX. and the Samaritan texts, which he regarded + as incomparably superior to the Masoretic text corrupted by + the Jews. The Jansenists produced a French translation of + the Bible with practical notes, condemned by the pope, but + much read by the people. It was mainly the work of the brothers + =De Sacy=. The New Testament was issued in A.D. 1667 and the + Old Testament somewhat later, called the Bible of Mons from + the fictitious name of the place of publication. =Richard Simon=, + the Oratorian, who died in A.D. 1712, treated Scripture with + a boldness of criticism never before heard of within the church. + While opposed by many on the Catholic side, the curia favoured + his work as undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture. + =Cornelius à Lapide=, who died A.D. 1637, expounded Scripture + according to the fourfold sense.--In systematic theology + the old scholastic method still held sway. Moral theology + was wrought out in the form of casuistry with unexampled + lasciviousness, especially by the Jesuits (§ 149, 10). The + work of the Spaniard =Escobar=, who died in A.D. 1669, ran + through fifty editions, and that of =Busembaum=, professor in + Cologne and afterwards rector of Münster, who died A.D. 1668, + went through seventy editions. On account of the attempted + assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens in A.D. 1757, with + which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were + charged, the Parliament of Toulouse in A.D. 1757, and of Paris + in A.D. 1761, had Busembaum’s book publicly burnt, and several + popes, Alexander VII., VIII., and Innocent XI., condemned a + number of propositions from the moral writings of these and + other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most distinguished + were =Becanus=, who died in A.D. 1624, and =Bossuet= (§ 153, 7). + Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were + =Nicole= and =Arnauld=, who, in order to escape the reproach of + Calvinism, sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper + to be the same as that of the apostles, and were answered + by the Reformed theologians Claude and Jurieu. In apologetics + the leading place is occupied by =Pascal=, with his brilliant + “_Pensées_.” =Huetius=, a French bishop and editor of Origen, + who died in A.D. 1721, replied to Spinoza’s attacks on the + Pentateuch, and applying to reason itself the Cartesian + principle, that philosophy must begin with doubt, pointed + the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths in the Catholic + church as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit + =Dionysius Petavius=, who died in A.D. 1652, edited Epiphanius + and wrote gigantic chronological works and numerous violent + polemics against Calvinists and Jansenists. His chief work + is the unfinished patristic-dogmatic treatise in five vols. + folio, A.D. 1680, “_De theologicis Dogmatibus_.” The Oratorian + =Thomassinus= wrote an able archæological work: “_Vetus et Nova + Eccl. Disciplina circa Beneficia et Beneficiarios_.” + + § 158.2. In church history, besides those named in § 5, 2, we + may mention Pagi, the keen critic and corrector of Baronius. + The study of sources was vigorously pursued. We have collections + of mediæval writings and documents by Sirmond, D’Achery, + Mabillon, Martène, Baluzius; of acts of councils by Labbé + and Cossart, those of France by =Jac. Sirmond=, and of Spain + by Aguirre; acts of the martyrs by =Ruinart=; monastic rules + by =Holstenius=, a pervert, who became Vatican librarian, + and died at Rome A.D. 1661. =Dufresne Ducange=, an advocate, + who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries of the mediæval and + barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study of + documents belonging to those times. The greatest prodigy of + learning was =Mabillon=, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benedictine + of St. Maur, and historian of his order. =Pet. de Marca=, who + died Archbishop of Paris A.D. 1662, wrote the famous work on + the Gallican liberties “_De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii_.” + The Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, =Elias du Pin=, who died + A.D. 1719, wrote “_Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Auteurs Eccles._” + in forty-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimbourg, died A.D. 1686, + compiled several party histories of Wiclifism, Lutheranism, + and Calvinism; but as a Gallican was deprived of office + by the pope, and afterwards supported by a royal pension. + The Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, Papebroch started, + in A.D. 1643, the gigantic work “_Acta Sanctorum_,” carried + on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known + as =Bollandists=. It was stopped by the French invasion + of A.D. 1794, when it had reached October 15th with the + fifty-third folio vol. The Belgian Jesuits continued the + work from A.D. 1845-1867, reaching in six vols. the end of + October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their + predecessors. In Venice =Paul Sarpi= (§ 155, 2) wrote a history + of the Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical + works of any period. =Leo Allatius=, a Greek convert at Rome, + who died in A.D. 1669, wrote a work to show the agreement of + the Eastern and Western churches. Cardinal =Bona= distinguished + himself as a liturgical writer.--In France pulpit eloquence + reached the highest pitch in such men as Flechier, Bossuet, + Bourdaloue, Fénelon, Massillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna + =Abraham à St. Clara= inveighed in a humorous, grotesque way + against the corruption of manners, with an undercurrent of deep + moral earnestness. Similar in style and spirit, but much more + deeply sunk in Catholic superstition, was his contemporary + the Capuchin =Martin of Cochem=, who missionarized the Rhine + Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issued + a large number of popular religious tracts.--Continuation, + § 165, 14. + + § 158.3. =Art and Poetry= (§ 149, 15).--The greatest master + of the musical school founded by Palestrina was _Allêgri_, + whose _Miserere_ is performed yearly on the Wednesday afternoon + of Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. The oratorio + originated from the application of the lofty music of this + school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely + musical and not theatrical performance. Philip Neri patronized + this music freely in his oratory, from which it took the name. + This new church music became gradually more and more secularized + and approximated to the ordinary opera style.--In =ecclesiastical + architecture= the Renaissance style still prevailed, but debased + with senseless, tasteless ornamentation.--In the Italian school + of =painting= the decline, both in creative power and imitative + skill, was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century. + In Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting + reached a high point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who + died in A.D. 1682, a master in representing calm meditation + and entranced felicity.--The two greatest =poets= of Spain, + the creators of the Spanish drama, =Lope de Vega= (died + A.D. 1635) and =Pedro Calderon= (died A.D. 1681), both at + first soldiers and afterwards priests, flourished during + this century. The elder excelled the younger, not only in + fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 320 autos, + § 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism. + Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 73 festival plays, 200 preludes, + etc., excelled De Vega in artistic expression and beauty of + imagery. Both alike glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally + subordinate Mary and the saints to the great redemption of + the cross.--Specially deserving of notice is the noble German + Jesuit =Friedr. von Spee=, died A.D. 1635. His spiritual songs + show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature, + approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical + hymn-writers. Spee was a keen but unsuccessful opponent of + witch prosecution. Another eminent poetic genius of the age + was the Jesuit =Jac. Balde= of Munich, who died in A.D. 1688. + He is at his best in lyrical poetry. A deep religious vein + runs through all his Latin odes, in which he enthusiastically + appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly passions. + To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion. + + + + + III. The Lutheran Church. + + + § 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES.[465] + + The Formula of Concord commended itself to the hearts and +intelligences of Lutherans, and secured a hundred years’ supremacy of +orthodoxy, notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Gradually, +however, a new dogmatic scholasticism arose, which had the defects +as well as the excellences of the mediæval system. The orthodoxy of +this school deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on +confessional differences, and, on the other, into undue depreciation +of outward forms in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. +These tendencies are represented by the Syncretist and Pietist +controversies. + + § 159.1. =Christological Controversies.= + + 1. =The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy= between the + Giessen and Tübingen theologians, in A.D. 1619, about + Christ’s state of humiliation, led to the publication of + many violent treatises down to A.D. 1626. The Kenotists + of Giessen, with Mentzer and Feuerborn at their head, + assigned the humiliation only to the human nature, and + explained it as an actual κένωσις, _i.e._ a complete but + voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omnipotence + immanent in His divinity (κτῆσις, but not χρῆσις), + yet so that He could have them at His command at any + moment, _e.g._ in His miracles. The Cryptists of Tübingen, + with Luc. Osiander and Thumm at their head, ascribed + humiliation to both natures, and taught that all the + while Christ, even _secundum carnem_, was omnipresent + and ruled both in heaven and earth, but in a hidden + way; the humiliation is no κένωσις, but only a κρύψις. + After repeated unsuccessful attempts to bring about + a reconciliation, John George, Elector of Saxony, in + A.D. 1623, accepted the Kenotic doctrine. But the two + parties still continued their strife.[466] + + 2. =The Lütkemann Controversy= on the humanity of Christ in + death was of far less importance. Lütkemann, a professor + of philosophy at Rostock, affirmed that in death, because + the unity of soul and body was broken, Christ was not true + man, and that to deny this was to destroy the reality and + the saving power of his death. He held that the incarnation + of Christ lasted through death, because the divine nature + was connected, not only with the soul, but also with the + body. Lütkemann was obliged to quit Rostock, but got an + honourable call to Brunswick as superintendent and court + preacher, and there died in A.D. 1655. Later Lutherans + treated the controversy as a useless logomachy. + + § 159.2. =The Syncretist Controversy.=--Since the Hofmann + controversy (§ 141, 15) the University of Helmstadt had shown + a decided humanistic tendency, and gave even greater freedom in + the treatment of doctrines than the Formula of Concord, which + it declined to adopt. To this school belonged =George Calixt=, + and from A.D. 1614 for forty years he laboured in promoting + its interests. He was a man of wide culture and experience, + who had obtained a thorough knowledge of church history, and + acquaintance with the most distinguished theologians of all + churches, during his extensive foreign travels, and therewith + a geniality and breadth of view not by any means common in + those days. He did not indeed desire any formal union between + the different churches, but rather a mutual recognition, + love, and tolerance. For this purpose he set, as a secondary + principle of Christian theology, besides Scripture, as the + primary principle, the consensus of the first five centuries + as the common basis of all churches, and sought to represent + later ecclesiastical differences as unessential or of less + consequence. This was denounced by strict Lutherans as + Syncretism and Cryptocatholicism. In A.D. 1639 the Hanoverian + preacher Buscher charged him with being a secret Papist. After + the Thorn Conference of A.D. 1645, a violent controversy arose, + which divided Lutherans into two camps. On the one side were + the universities of Helmstadt and Königsberg; on the other + hand, the theologians of the electorate of Saxony, Hülsemann + of Leipzig, Waller of Dresden, and Abr. Calov, who died + professor in Wittenberg in A.D. 1686. Calov wrote twenty-six + controversial treatises on this subject. Jena vainly sought to + mediate between the parties. In the _Theologorum Sax. Consensus + repetitus Fidei vera Lutheranæ_ of A.D. 1655, for which the + Wittenberg divines failed to secure symbolical authority, the + following sentiments were branded as Syncretist errors: That + in the Apostles’ Creed everything is taught that is necessary + to salvation; that the Catholic and Reformed systems retain + hold of fundamental truths; that original sin is of a merely + privative nature; that God _indirecte, improprie, et per + accidens_ is the cause of sin; that the doctrine of the Trinity + was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixt + died A.D. 1656 in the midst of most violent controversies. His + son Ulrich continued these, but had neither the ability nor + moderation of his father. Even the peaceably disposed Conference + of Cassel of A.D. 1661 (§ 154, 4) only poured oil on the flames. + The strife lost itself at last in actions for damages between + the younger Calixt and his bitter opponent Strauch of Wittenberg. + Wearied of these fruitless discussions, theologians now turned + their attention to the rising movement of Pietism.[467] + + § 159.3. =The Pietist Controversy in its First + Stage.=--=Philip Jacob Spener= born in Alsace in A.D. 1635, + was in his thirty-first year, on account of his spirituality, + distinguished gifts, and singularly wide scholarship, made + president of a clerical seminary at Frankfort-on-Main. In + A.D. 1686 he became chief court preacher at Dresden, and + provost of Berlin in A.D. 1691, when, on account of his intense + earnestness in pastoral work, he had been expelled from Dresden. + He died in Berlin in A.D. 1705. His year’s attendance at Geneva + after the completion of his curriculum at Strassburg had an + important influence on his whole future career. He there learned + to value discipline for securing purity of life as well as of + doctrine, and was also powerfully impressed by the practical + lectures of Labadie (§ 163, 7) and the reading of the “Practice + of Piety” and other ascetical writings of the English Puritans + (§ 162, 3). Though strongly attached to the Lutheran church, + he believed that in the restoration of evangelical doctrine + by the Wittenberg Reformation, “not by any means had all been + accomplished that needed to be done,” and that Lutheranism in + the form of the orthodoxy of the age had lost the living power + of the reformers, and was in danger of burying its talent in + dead and barren service of the letter. There was therefore a + pressing need of a new and wider reformation. In the Lutheran + church, as the depository of sound doctrine, he recognised + the fittest field for the development of a genuinely Christian + life; but he heartily appreciated any true spiritual movement + in whatsoever church it arose. He went back from scholastic + dogmatics to Holy Scripture as the living source of saving + knowledge, substituted for the external orthodox theology the + theology of the heart, demanded evidence of this in a pious + Christian walk: these were the means by which he sought to + promote his reformation. A whole series of Lutheran theologians + of the seventeenth century (§ 159) had indeed contributed to + this same end by their devotional works, hymns, and sermons. + What was new in Spener was the conviction of the insufficiency + of the hitherto used means and the undue prominence given to + doctrine, and his consequent effort vigorously made to raise + the tone of the Christian life. In his childlike, pious humility + he regarded himself as by no means called to carry out this work, + but felt it his duty to insist upon the necessity of it, and + indicate the means that should be used to realize it. This he + did in his work of A.D. 1675, “_Pia Desideria_.” As it was his + aim to recommend biblical practical Christianity to the heart + of the individual Christian, he revived the almost forgotten + doctrine “Of Spiritual Priesthood” in a separate treatise. + In A.D. 1670 he began to have meetings in his own house for + encouraging Christian piety in the community, which soon + were imitated in other places. Spener’s influence on the + Lutheran church became greater and wider through his position + at Dresden. Stirred up by his spirit, three young graduates of + Leipzig. A. H. Francke, Paul Anton, and J. K. Schade, formed + in A.D. 1686 a private _Collegia Philobiblica_ for practical + exposition of Scripture and the delivery of public exegetical + lectures at the university in the German language. But the + Leipzig theological faculty, with J. B. Carpzov II. at its + head, charged them with despising the public ordinances as + well as theological science, and with favouring the views + of separatists. The _Collegia Philobiblica_ was suppressed, + and the three friends obliged to leave Leipzig in A.D. 1690. + This marked the beginning of the Pietist controversies. + Soon afterwards Spener was expelled from Dresden; but in + his new position at Berlin he secured great influence in the + appointments to the theological faculty of the new university + founded at Halle by the peace-loving elector Frederick III. + of Brandenburg, in opposition to the contentious universities + of Wittenberg and Leipzig. Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt + were made professors of theology. Halle now won the position + which Wittenberg and Geneva had held during the Reformation + period, and the Pietist controversy thus entered upon + a second, more general, and more critical epoch of its + history.[468]--Continuation, § 166, 1. + + § 159.4. =Theological Literature= (§ 142, 6).--The “_Philologia + Sacra_” of =Sol. Glassius= of Jena, published in A.D. 1623, + has ranked as a classical work for almost two centuries. From + A.D. 1620 till the end of the century, a lively controversy was + carried on about the Greek style of the New Testament, in which + Lutherans, and especially the Reformed, took part. The purists + maintained that the New Testament idiom was pure and classical, + thinking that its inspiration would otherwise be endangered. + The first historico-critical introduction to the Scriptures was + the “_Officina Biblica_” of Walther in A.D. 1636. =Pfeiffer= of + Leipzig gained distinction in biblical criticism and hermeneutics + by his “_Critica Sacra_” of A.D. 1680 and “_Hermeneutica_” + of A.D. 1684. Exegesis now made progress, notwithstanding its + dependence on traditional interpretations of doctrinal proof + passages and its mechanical theory of inspiration. The most + distinguished exegetes were =Erasmus Schmidt= of Wittenberg, + who died in A.D. 1637: he wrote a Latin translation of New + Testament with admirable notes, and a very useful concordance + of the Greek New Testament, under the title Ταμεῖον, which + has been revised and improved by Bruder; =Seb. Schmidt= of + Strassburg, who wrote commentaries on several Old Testament + books and on the Pauline epistles; and =Abr. Calov= of + Wittenberg, who died in A.D. 1686, in his 74th year, whose + “_Biblia Illustrata_,” in four vols., is a work of amazing + research and learning, but composed wholly in the interests + of dogmatics.--Little was done in the department of church + history. Calixt awakened a new enthusiasm for historical + studies, and =Gottfried Arnold= (§ 159, 2), pietist, chiliast, + and theosophist, bitterly opposed to every form of orthodoxy, + and finding true Christianity only in sects, separatists, + and heretics, set the whole theological world astir by his + “_Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzer-historie_,” in A.D. 1699 + (§ 5, 3). + + § 159.5. The orthodox school applied itself most diligently to + dogmatics in a strictly scholastic form. =Hutter= of Wittenberg, + who died in A.D. 1616, wrote “_Loci communes theologici_” and + “_Compendium Loc. Theol._” =John Gerhard= of Jena, who died + in A.D. 1637, published in A.D. 1610 his “_Loc. Theologici_” + in nine folio vols., the standard of Lutheran orthodoxy. =J. + Andr. Quenstedt= of Wittenberg, who died A.D. 1688, exhibited + the best and worst of Lutheran scholasticism in his “_Theol. + didactico-polemica_.” The most important dogmatist of the + Calixtine school was Conrad Horneius. Calixt himself is known + as a dogmatist only by his lectures; but to him we owe the + generally adopted distinction between morals and dogmatics + as set forth in his “_Epitome theol. Moralis_.”--Polemics + were carried on vigorously. =Hoë von Hoënegg= of Dresden + (§ 154, 3, 4) and =Hutter= of Wittenberg were bitter opponents + of Calvinism and Romanism. Hutter was styled by his friends + _Malleus Calvinistorum_ and _Redonatus Lutherus_. The ablest + and most dignified polemic against Romanism was that of =John + Gerhard= in his “_Confessio Catholica_.” =Nich. Hunnius=, son + of Ægid. Hunnius, and Hutter’s successor at Wittenberg, from + A.D. 1623 superintendent at Lübeck, distinguished himself as an + able controversialist against the papacy by his “_Demonstratio + Ministerii Lutherani Divini atque Legitimi_.” Against the + Socinians he wrote his “_Examen Errorum Photinianorum_,” + and against the fanatics a “Chr. Examination of the new + Paracelsist and Weigelian Theology.” His principal work is + his “_Διάσκεψις de Fundamentali Dissensu Doctrinæ Luth. et + Calvin_.” His “_Epitome Credendorum_” went through nineteen + editions. The most incessant controversialist was =Abr. Calov=, + who wrote against Syncretists, Papists, Socinians, Arminians, + etc.--Continuation, § 167, 4. + + + § 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. + + The attachment of the Lutheran church of this age to pure doctrine led +to a one-sided over-estimation of it, often ending in dead orthodoxy. +But a succession of able and learned theologians, who recognised the +importance of heart theology as well as sound doctrine, corrected this +evil tendency by Scripture study, preaching, and faithful pastoral work. +A noble and moderate mysticism, which was thoroughly orthodox in its +beliefs, and opposing orthodoxy only where that had become external and +mechanical, had many influential representatives throughout the whole +country, especially during the first half of it. But also separatists, +mystics, and theosophists made their appearance, who were decidedly +hostile to the church. Sacred song flourished afresh amid the troubles +of the Thirty Years’ War; but gradually lost its sublime objective +church character, which was poorly compensated by a more flowing +versification, polished language, and elegant form. A corresponding +advance was also made in church music. + + § 160.1. =Mysticism and Asceticism.=--At the head of the orthodox + mystics stands =John Arndt=. His “True Christianity” and his + “_Paradiesgärtlein_” are the most widely read Lutheran devotional + books, but called forth the bitter hostility of those devoted + to the maintenance of a barren orthodoxy. He died in A.D. 1621, + as general superintendent at Celle. He had been expelled + from Anhalt because he would not condemn exorcism as godless + superstition, and was afterwards in Brunswick publicly charged + by his colleague Denecke and other Lutheran zealots with + Papacy, Calvinism, Osiandrianism, Flacianism, Schwenckfeldism, + Paracelsism, Alchemism, etc. As men of a similar spirit, + anticipators of the school of Spener, may be named =John Gerhard= + of Jena, with his “_Meditationes Sacræ_” and “_Schola pietatis_,” + and =Christian Scriver=, whose “Gotthold’s Emblems” is well known + to English readers. =Rahtmann= of Danzig maintained that the + word of God in Scripture has not in itself the power to enlighten + and convert men except through the gracious influence of God’s + Spirit. He was supported, after a long delay, in A.D. 1626 by + the University of Rostock, but opposed by Königsberg, Jena, + and Wittenberg. In A.D. 1628, the Elector of Saxony obtained + the opinion of the most famous theologians of his realm against + Rahtmann; but his death, which soon followed, brought the + controversy to a close.--The Württemberg theologian, =John + Valentine Andreä=, grandson of one of the authors of the + Formula of Concord, was a man of striking originality, famous + for his satires on the corruptions of the age. His “Order of + Rosicrucians,” published at Cassel in A.D. 1614, ridiculed the + absurdities of astrology and alchemy in the form of a satirical + romance. His influence on the church of his times was great and + wholesome, so that even Spener exclaimed: “Had I the power to + call any one from the dead for the good of the church, it would + be J. V. Andreä.” His later devotional work was almost completely + forgotten until attention was called to it by Herder.[469] + + § 160.2. =Mysticism and Theosophy.=--A mystico-theosophical + tendency, partly in outward connexion with the church, partly + without and in open opposition to it, was fostered by the + alchemist writings of Agrippa and Paracelsus, the theosophical + works of Weigel (§ 146, 2) and by the profound revelations of + the inspired shoemaker of Görlitz, =Jacob Boehme=, _philosophus + teutonicus_, the most talented of all the theosophists. In a + remarkable degree he combined a genius for speculation with the + most unfeigned piety that held firmly by the old Lutheran faith. + Even when an itinerant tradesman, he felt himself for a period + of seven days in calm repose, surrounded by the divine light. But + he dates his profound theosophical enlightenment from a moment in + A.D. 1594, when as a young journeyman and married, thrown into an + ecstasy, he obtained a knowledge of the divine mysteries down to + the ultimate principles of all things and their inmost quality. + His theosophy, too, like that of the ancient gnostics, springs + out of the question about the origin of evil. He solves it by + assuming an emanation of all things from God, in whom fire and + light, bitter and sweet qualities, are thoroughly tempered and + perfectly combined, while in the creature derived by emanation + from him they are in disharmony, but are reconciled and reduced + to godlike harmony through regeneration in Christ. Though opposed + by Calov, he was befriended by the Dresden consistory. Boehme + died in A.D. 1624, in retirement at Görlitz, in the arms of his + family.[470]--In close connexion with Boehmists, separatists, and + Pietists, yet differing from them all, =Gottfried Arnold= abused + orthodoxy and canonized the heretics of all ages. In A.D. 1700 he + wrote “The Mystery of the Divine Sophia.” When Adam, originally + man and woman, fell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, + was taken from him, and in his place a woman of flesh was made + for him out of a rib; in order again to restore the paradisiacal + perfection Christ brought again the male part into a virgin’s + womb, so that the new creature, the regenerate, stands before God + as a “male-virgin;” but carnal love destroys again the connexion + thus secured with the heavenly Sophia. But the very next year he + reached a turning-point in his life. He not only married, but in + consequence accepted several appointments in the Lutheran church, + without, however, signing the Formula of Concord, and applied his + literary skill to the production of devotional tracts. + + § 160.3. =Sacred Song= (§ 142, 3).--The first epoch of the + development of sacred song in this century corresponds to the + period of the Thirty Years’ War, A.D. 1618-1648. The Psalms of + David were the model and pattern of the sacred poets, and the + profoundest songs of the cross and consolation bear the evident + impress of the times, and so individual feeling comes more into + prominence. The influence of Opitz was also felt in the church + song, in the greater attention given to correctness and purity + of language and to the careful construction of verse and rhyme. + Instead of the rugged terseness and vigour of earlier days, we + now find often diffuse and overflowing utterances of the heart. + =John Hermann= of Glogau, who died in A.D. 1647, composed + 400 songs, embracing these: “Alas! dear Lord, what evil hast + Thou done?” “O Christ, our true and only Light;” “Ere yet the + dawn hath filled the skies;” “O God, thou faithful God.” =Paul + Flemming=, a physician in Holstein, who died in A.D. 1640, wrote + on his journey to Persia, “Where’er I go, whate’er my task.” + =Matthew Meyffart=, professor and pastor at Erfurt, who died in + A.D. 1642, wrote “Jerusalem, thou city fair and high.” =Martin + Rinkart=, pastor at Eilenburg in Saxony, who died A.D. 1648, + wrote, “Now thank we all our God.” =Appelles von Löwenstern=, + who died A.D. 1648, composed, “When anguished and perplexed, + with many a sigh and tear.” =Joshua Stegmann=, superintendent + in Rinteln, who died A.D. 1632, wrote, “Abide among us with thy + grace.” =Joshua Wegelin=, pastor in Augsburg and Pressburg, wrote, + “Since Christ is gone to heaven, his home.” =Justus Gesenius=, + superintendent in Hanover, who died in A.D. 1673, wrote, “When + sorrow and remorse.” =Tob. Clausnitzer=, pastor in the Palatinate, + who died A.D. 1648, wrote, “Blessed Jesus, at thy word.” The + poets named mostly belong to the first Silesian school gathered + round Opitz. A more independent position, though not uninfluenced + by Opitz, is taken up by =John Rist=, who died in A.D. 1667. He + composed 658 sacred songs, of which many are remarkable for their + vigour, solemnity, and elevation; _e.g._ “Arise, the kingdom is + at hand;” “Sink not yet, my soul, to slumber;” “O living Bread + from heaven;” “Praise and thanks to Thee be sung.” At the head + of the Königsberg school of the same age stood =Simon Dach=, + professor of poetry at Königsberg, who died in A.D. 1659. He + composed 150 spiritual songs, among which the best known are, + “O how blessed, faithful souls, are ye!” “Wouldest thou inherit + life with Christ on high?” The most distinguished members of this + school are: =Henry Alberti=, organist at Königsberg, author of + “God who madest earth and heaven;” and =George Weissel=, pastor + in Königsberg, who died in A.D. 1655, author of “Lift up your + heads, ye mighty gates.” + + § 160.4. From the middle of the seventeenth century sacred song + became more subjective, and so tended to fall into a diversity + of groups. No longer does the church sing through its poets, but + the poets give direct expression to their individual feelings. + Confessional songs are less frequent, and their place is taken + by hymns of edification with reference to various conditions of + life; songs of death, the cross and consolation, and hymns for + the family become more numerous. With objectivity special features + of the church song disappear in the hymns of the period; but some + of its essential characteristics remain, especially the popular + form and contents, the freshness, liveliness, and simplicity of + diction, the truths of personal experience, the fulness of faith, + etc. We distinguish three groups: + + 1. =The Transition Group=, passing from objectivity to + subjectivity. Its greatest masters, indeed after Luther + the greatest sacred poet of the evangelical church, is + undoubtedly =Paul Gerhardt=, who died A.D. 1676, the + faith witness of the Lutheran faith under the wars and in + persecution (§ 154, 4). In him we find the new subjective + tendency in its noblest form; but there is also present + the old objective style, giving immediate expression to + the consciousness of the church, adhering tenaciously to + the confession, and a grand popular ring that reminds us + of the fulness and power of Luther. His 131 songs, if not + all church songs in the narrower sense, are almost all + genuine poems: _e.g._ “All my heart this night rejoices;” + “Cometh sunshine after rain;” “Go forth, my heart, and + seek delight;” “Be thou content: be still before;” “O world, + behold upon the tree;” “Now all the woods are sleeping;” and + “Ah, wounded head, must thou?” based on Bernard’s _Salve, + caput cruentatum_. To this school also belongs =George + Neumark=, librarian at Weimar, who died in A.D. 1681, author + of “Leave God to order all thy ways.” Also =John Franck=, + burgomaster at Guben in Lusatia, who died A.D. 1677, next + to Gerhardt the greatest poet of his age. His 110 songs are + less popular and hearty, but more melodious than Gerhardt’s; + _e.g._ “Redeemer of the nations, come;” “Ye heavens, oh + haste your dews to shed;” “Deck thyself, my soul, with + gladness.” =George Albinus=, pastor at Naumburg, died + A.D. 1679, wrote: “Not in anger smite us, Lord;” “World, + farewell! Of thee I’m tired.” + + 2. The =next stage= of the sacred song took the Canticles + instead of the Psalter as its model. The spiritual marriage + of the soul is its main theme. Feeling and fancy are + predominant, and often degenerate into sentimentality and + trifling. It obtained a new impulse from the addition of + a mystical element. =Angelus Silesius= (§ 156, 4) was the + most distinguished representative of this school, and while + Protestant he composed several beautiful songs; _e.g._ + “O Love, who formedst me to wear;” “Thou holiest Love, whom + most I love;” “Loving Shepherd, kind and true.” =Christian + Knorr v. Rosenroth=, who died at Sulzbach A.D. 1689, wrote + “Dayspring of eternity.” =Ludämilie Elizabeth=, Countess + of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, who died in A.D. 1672, wrote + 215 “Songs of Jesus.” =Caspar Neumann=, professor and pastor + at Breslau, died A.D. 1715, wrote, “Lord, on earth I dwell + in pain.” + + 3. =Those of Spener’s Time and Spirit=, men who longed for + the regeneration of the church by practical Christianity. + Their hymns are for the most part characterized by healthy + piety and deep godliness. Spener’s own poems are of slight + importance. =J. Jac. Schütz=, Spener’s friend, a lawyer in + Frankfort, who died A.D. 1690, composed only one, but that + a very beautiful hymn: “All praise and thanks to God most + high.” =Samuel Rodigast=, rector in Berlin, died A.D. 1708, + wrote, “Whate’er my God ordains is right.” =Laurentius + Laurentii=, musical director at Bremen, died A.D. 1722, + wrote, “Is my heart athirst to know?” “O thou essential + Word.”--=Gottfried Arnold=, died A.D. 1714, wrote, “Thou + who breakest every chain;” “How blest to all thy followers, + Lord, the road!”-- In Denmark, where previously translations + of German hymns were used, =Thomas Kingo=, from A.D. 1677 + Bishop of Fünen, died A.D. 1703, was the much-honoured + founder of Danish national hymnology.[471]--Continuation, + § 167, 6. + + § 160.5. =Sacred Music= (§ 142, 5).--The church music in the + beginning of the seventeenth century was affected by the Italian + school, just as church song was by the influence of Opitz. The + greatest master during the transition stage was =John Crüger=, + precentor in the church of St. Nicholas in Berlin, died A.D. 1662. + He was to the chorale what Gerhardt was to the church song. + We have seventy-one new melodies of his, admirably adapted to + Gerhardt’s, Hunnius’s, Franck’s, Dach’s, and Rinkart’s songs, and + used in the church till the present time. With the second half + of the century we enter on a new period, in which expression and + musical declamation perish. Choir singing now, to a great extent, + supersedes congregational singing. =Henry Schütz=, organist + to the Elector of Saxony, died A.D. 1672, is the great master + of this Italian sacred concert style. He introduced musical + compositions on passages selected from the Psalms, Canticles, and + prophets, in his “_Symphoniæ Sacræ_” of A.D. 1629. After a short + time a radical reform was made by =John Rosenmüller=, organist + of Wolfenbüttel, died A.D. 1686. A reaction against the exclusive + adoption of the Italian style was made by =Andr. Hammerschmidt=, + organist at Zittau, died A.D. 1675, one of the noblest and most + pious of German musicians. By working up the old church melodies + in the modern style, he brought the old hymns again into favour, + and set hymns of contemporary poets to bright airs suited to + modern standards of taste. The accomplished musician =Rud. + Ahle=, organist and burgomaster at Mühlhausen, died A.D. 1673, + introduced his own beautiful airs into the church music for + Sundays and festivals. His sacred airs are distinguished for + youthful freshness and power, penetrated by a holy earnestness, + and quite free from that secularity and frivolousness which soon + became unpleasantly conspicuous in such music.--Continuation, + § 167, 7. + + § 160.6. =The Christian Life of the People.=--The rich + development of sacred poetry proves the wonderful fulness and + spirituality of the religious life of this age, notwithstanding + the many chilling separatistic controversies that prevailed + during the terrible upheaval of the Thirty Years’ War. The + abundance of devotional literature of permanent worth witnesses + to the diligence and piety of the Lutheran pastors. Ernest the + Pious of Saxe-Gotha, who died A.D. 1675, stands forth as the + ideal of a Christian prince. For the Christian instruction of his + people he issued, in the midst of the confusion and horrors of + the war, the famous Weimar or Ernestine exposition of the Bible, + upon which John Gerhard wrought diligently, along with other + distinguished Jena theologians. It appeared first in A.D. 1641, + and by A.D. 1768 had gone through fourteen large editions. + A like service was done for South Germany by the “Württemberg + Summaries,” composed by three Württemberg theologians at the + request of Duke Eberhard III., a concise, practical exposition + of all the books of Scripture, which for a century and a half + formed the basis of the weekly services (_Bibelstunden_) at + Württemberg.--Continuation, § 167, 8. + + § 160.7. =Missions.=--In the Lutheran church, missionary + enterprise had rather fallen behind (§ 142, 8). Gustavus Adolphus + of Sweden carried on the Lapp mission with new zeal, and Denmark, + too, gave ready assistance. A Norwegian pastor, Thomas Westen, + deserves special mention as the apostle of the mission. A German, + Peter Heyling of Lübeck, went on his own account as a missionary + to Abyssinia in A.D. 1635, while several of his friends at the + same time went to other eastern lands. Of these others no trace + whatever has been found. An Abyssinian abbot who came to Europe + brought news of Heyling. At first he was hindered by the + machinations of the Jesuits; but when these were expelled, he + found favour at court, became minister to the king, and married + one of the royal family. What finally came of him and his work + is unknown. Toward the end of the century two great men, the + philosopher Leibnitz and the founder of the Halle Orphanage, + A. H. Francke, warmly espoused the cause of foreign missions. + The ambitious and pretentious schemes of the philosopher ended in + nothing, but Francke made his orphanages, training colleges and + centres from which the German Lutheran missions to the heathens + were vigorously organized and successfully wrought.--Continuation, + § 167, 9. + + + + + IV. The Reformed Church. + + + § 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. + + The Reformed scholars of France vied with those of St. Maur +and the Oratory, and the Reformed theologians of the Netherlands, +England, and Switzerland were not a whit behind. But an attempt made +at a general synod at Dort to unite all the Reformed national churches +under one confession failed. Opposition to Calvin’s extreme theory of +predestination introduced a Pelagianizing current into the Reformed +church, which was by no means confined to professed Arminians. In the +Anglican church this tendency appeared in the forms of latitudinarianism +and deism (§ 164, 3); while in France it took a more moderate course, +and approximated rather to the Lutheran doctrine. It was a reaction of +latent Zwinglianism against the dominant Calvinism. The Voetian school +successfully opposed the introduction of the Cartesian philosophy, and +secured supremacy to a scholasticism which held its own alongside of +that of the Lutherans. In opposition to it, the Cocceian federal school +undertook to produce a purely biblical system of theology in all its +departments. + + § 161.1. =Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy.=--In the + _Confessio Belgica_ of A.D. 1562 the Protestant Netherlands + had already a strictly Calvinistic symbol, but Calvinism had + not thoroughly permeated the church doctrine and constitution. + There were more opponents than supporters of the doctrine of + predestination, and a Melanchthonian-synergistic (§ 141, 7), + or even an Erasmian-semipelagian, (§ 125, 3) doctrine, of + the freedom of the will and the efficacy of grace, was more + frequently taught and preached than the Augustinian-Calvinistic + doctrine. So also Zwingli’s view of the relation of church + and state was in much greater favour than the Calvinistic + Presbyterial church government with its terrorist discipline. + But the return of the exiles in A.D. 1572, who had adopted + strict Calvinistic views in East Friesland and on the Lower + German Rhine, led to the adoption of a purely Calvinistic creed + and constitution. The keenest opponent of this movement was + Coornhert, notary and secretary for the city of Haarlem, who + combated Calvinism in numerous writings, and depreciated doctrine + generally in the interests of practical living Christianity. + Political as well as religious sympathies were enlisted in + favour of this freer ecclesiastical tendency. The Dutch War + of Independence was a struggle for religious freedom against + Spanish Catholic fanaticism. The young republic therefore + became the first home of religious toleration, which was scarcely + reconcilable with a strict and exclusive Calvinism.--Meanwhile + within the Calvinistic church a controversy arose, which divided + its adherents in the Netherlands into two parties. In opposition + to the strict Calvinists, who as supralapsarians held that the + fall itself was included in the eternal counsels of God, there + arose the milder infralapsarians, who made predestination come + in after the fall, which was not predestinated but only foreseen + by God. + + § 161.2. =The Arminian Controversy.=--In A.D. 1588, James + Arminius (born A.D. 1560), a pupil of Beza, but a declared + adherent of the Ramist philosophy (§ 143, 6), was appointed + pastor in Amsterdam, and ordered by the magistrates to controvert + Coornhert’s universalism and the infralapsarianism of the + ministers of Delft. He therefore studied Coornhert’s writings, + and by them was shaken in his earlier beliefs. This was shown + first in certain sermons on passages from Romans, which made him + suspected of Pelagianism. In A.D. 1603 he was made theological + professor of Leyden, where he found a bitter opponent in his + supralapsarian colleague, Francis Gomarus. From the class-rooms + the controversy spread to the pulpits, and even into domestic + circles. A public disputation in A.D. 1608, led to no pacific + result, and Arminius continued involved in controversies + till his death in A.D. 1609. Although decidedly inclined + toward universalism, he had directed his polemic mainly against + supralapsarianism, as making God himself the author of sin. + But his followers went beyond these limits. When denounced by + the Gomarists as Pelagians, they addressed to the provincial + parliament of Holland and West Friesland, in A.D. 1610, a + remonstrance, which in five articles repudiates supralapsarianism + and infralapsarianism, and the doctrines of the irresistibility + of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally + falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of + grace. They were hence called Remonstrants and their opponents + Contraremonstrants. Parliament, favourably inclined toward + the Arminians, pronounced the difference non-fundamental, + and enjoined peace. When Vorstius, who was practically a + Socinian, was appointed successor to Arminius, Gomarus charged + the Remonstrants with Socinianism. Their ablest theological + representative was Simon Episcopius, who succeeded Gomarus at + Leyden in A.D. 1612, supported by the distinguished statesman, + Oldenbarneveldt, and the great jurist, humanist, and theologian, + Hugo Grotius of Rotterdam. Maurice of Orange, too, for a long + time sided with them, but in A.D. 1617 formally went over to + the other party, whose well-knit unity, strict discipline, and + rigorous energy commended them to him as the fittest associates + in his struggle for absolute monarchy. The republican-Arminian + party was conquered, Oldenbarneveldt being executed in 1619, + Grotius escaping by his wife’s strategem. =The Synod of Dort= + was convened for the purpose of settling doctrinal disputes. + It held 154 sessions, from Nov. 13th, 1618, to May 9th, 1619. + Invitations were accepted by twenty-eight theologians from + England, Scotland, Germany, and Switzerland. Brandenburg took + no part in it (§ 154, 3), and French theologians were refused + permission to go. Episcopius presented a clear and comprehensive + apology for the Remonstrants, and bravely defended their cause + before the synod. Refusing to submit to the decisions of the + synod, they were at the fifty-seventh session expelled, and then + excommunicated and deprived of all ecclesiastical offices. The + Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession were unanimously + adopted as the creed and manual of orthodox teaching. In the + discussion of the five controverted points, the opposition + of the Anglican and German delegates prevented any open and + manifest insertion of supralapsarian theses, so that the synodal + canons set forth only an essentially infralapsarian theory of + predestination.--Remonstrant teachers were now expelled from + most of the states of the union. Only after Maurice’s death + in A.D. 1625 did they venture to return, and in A.D. 1630 they + were allowed by statute to erect churches and schools in all the + states. A theological seminary at Amsterdam, presided over by + Episcopius till his death, in A.D. 1643, rose to be a famous + seat of learning and nursery of liberal studies. The number of + congregations, however, remained small, and their importance + in church history consists rather in the development of an + independent church life than in the revival of a semipelagian + and rationalistic type of doctrine.[472] + + § 161.3. =Consequences of the Arminian Controversy.=--The Dort + decrees were not accepted in Brandenburg, Hesse, and Bremen, + where a moderate Calvinism continued to prevail. In England + and Scotland the Presbyterians enthusiastically approved of the + decrees, whereas the Episcopalians repudiated them, and, rushing + to the other extreme of latitudinarianism, often showed lukewarm + indifferentism in the way in which they distinguished articles + of faith as essential and non-essential. The worthiest of the + latitudinarians of this age was Chillingworth, who sought an + escape from the contentions of theologians in the Catholic church, + but soon returned to Protestantism, seeking and finding peace in + God’s word alone. Archbishop Tillotson was a famous pulpit orator, + and Gilbert Burnet, who died A.D. 1715, was author of a “History + of the English Reformation.” In the French Reformed church, where + generally strict Calvinism prevailed, =Amyrault= of Saumur, who + died A.D. 1664, taught a _universalismus hypotheticus_, according + to which God by a _decretum universale et hypotheticum_ destined + all men to salvation through Jesus Christ, even the heathen, on + the ground of a _fides implicita_. The only condition is that + they believe, and for this all the means are afforded in _gratia + resistibilis_, while by a _decretum absolutum et speciale_ + only to elect persons is granted the _gratia irresistibilis_. + The synods of Alençon, A.D. 1637, and Charenton, A.D. 1644, + supported by Blondel, Daillé, and Claude, declared these doctrines + allowable; but Du Moulin of Sedan, Rivetus and Spanheim of Leyden, + Maresius of Groningen [Gröningen], and others, offered violent + opposition. Amyrault’s colleague, =De la Place=, or _Placæus_, + who died A.D. 1655, went still further, repudiating the + unconditional imputation of Adam’s sin, and representing original + sin simply as an evil which becomes guilt only as our own actual + transgression. The synods just named condemned this doctrine. + Somewhat later Claude =Pajon= of Saumur, who died A.D. 1685, + roused a bitter discussion about the universality of grace, + by maintaining that in conversion divine providence wrought + only through the circumstances of the life, and the Holy + Spirit through the word of God. Several French synods condemned + this doctrine, and affirmed an immediate as well as a mediate + operation of the Spirit and providence.--Genuine Calvinism was + best represented in Switzerland, as finally expressed in the + =Formula Consensus= _Helvetica_ of Heidegger of Zürich, adopted + in A.D. 1675 by most of the cantons. It was, like the _Formula + Concordiæ_, a manual of doctrine rather than a confession. In + opposition to Amyrault and De la Place, it set forth a strict + theory of predestination and original sin, and maintained with + the Buxtorfs, against Cappellus of Saumur, the inspiration of + the Hebrew vowel points. + + § 161.4. =The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies.=--If not + the founder, certainly the most distinguished representative in + the Netherlands of that scholasticism which sought to expound + and defend orthodoxy, was =Voetius=, who died A.D. 1676, + from A.D. 1607 pastor in various places, and from A.D. 1634 + professor at Utrecht. A completely different course was pursued + by =Cocceius= of Bremen, who died A.D. 1669, professor at + Franeker in A.D. 1636, and at Leyden in A.D. 1650. The famous + Zürich theologian, Bullinger (§ 138, 7), had in his “_Compend. + Rel. Chr._” of A.D. 1556, viewed the whole doctrine of saving + truth from the point of view of a covenant of grace between God + and man; and this idea was afterwards carried out by Olevianus + of Heidelberg (§ 144, 1) in his “_De Substantia Fœderis_,” of + A.D. 1585. This became the favourite method of distribution + of doctrine in the whole German Reformed church. In the Dutch + church it was regarded as quite unobjectionable. In England it + was adopted in the Westminster Confession of A.D. 1648 (§ 155, 1), + and in Switzerland in A.D. 1675, in the _Formula Consensus_. + Cocceius is therefore not the founder of the federal theology. + He simply gave it a new and independent development, and freed + it from the trammels of scholastic dogmatics. He distinguished + a twofold covenant of God with man: the _fœdus operum s. naturæ_ + before, and the _fœdus gratiæ_ after the fall. He then subdivided + the covenant of grace into three economies: before the law + until Moses; under the law until Christ; and after the law in + the Christian church. The history of the kingdom of God in the + Christian era was arranged in seven periods, corresponding to the + seven apocalyptic epistles, trumpets, and seals. In his treatment + of his theme, he repudiated philosophy, scholasticism, and + tradition, and held simply by Scripture. He is thus the founder + of a purely biblical theology. He attached himself as closely as + possible to the prevailing predestinationist orthodoxy, but only + externally. In his view the sacred history in its various epochs + adjusted itself to the needs of human personality, and to the + growing capacity for appropriating it. Hence it was not the idea + of election, but that of grace, that prevailed in his system. + Christ is the centre of all history, spiritual, ecclesiastical, + and civil; and so everything in Scripture, history, doctrine, and + prophecy, necessarily and immediately stands related to him. The + O.T. prophecies and types point to the Christ that was to come + in the flesh, and all history after Christ points to his second + coming; and O. and N.T. give an outline of ecclesiastical and + civil history down to the end of time. Thus typology formed the + basis of the Cocceian theology. In exegesis, however, Cocceius + avoided all arbitrary allegorizing. It was with him an axiom in + hermeneutics, _Id significan verba, quod significare possunt in + integra oratione, sic ut omnino inter se conveniant_. Yet his + typology led him, and still more many of his adherents, into + fantastic exegetical errors in the prophetic treatment of the + seven apocalyptic periods. + + § 161.5. A controversy, occasioned by Cocceius’ statement, in his + commentary on Hebrews in A.D. 1658, that the Sabbath, as enjoined + by the O.T. ceremonial law, was no longer binding, was stopped + in A.D. 1659 by a State prohibition. Voetius had not taken + part in it. But when Cocceius, in A.D. 1665, taught from Romans + iii. 25, that believers under the law had not full “ἄφεσις,” + only a “πάρεσις,” he felt obliged to enter the lists against this + “Socinian” heresy. The controversy soon spread to other doctrines + of Cocceius and his followers, and soon the whole populace seemed + divided into Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5). The one hurled + offensive epithets at the other. The Orange political party + sought and obtained the favour of the Voetians, as before they + had that of the Gomarists; while the liberal republican party + coalesced with the Cocceians. Philosophical questions next + came to be mixed up in the discussion. The philosophy of the + French Catholic =Descartes= (§ 164, 1), settled in A.D. 1629 in + Amsterdam, had gained ground in the Netherlands. It had indeed + no connexion with Christianity or church, and its theological + friends wished only to have it recognised as a formal branch of + study. But its fundamental principle, that all true knowledge + starts from doubt, appeared to the representatives of orthodoxy + as threatening the church with serious danger. Even in A.D. 1643 + Voetius opposed it, and mainly in consequence of his polemic, + the States General, in A.D. 1656, forbad it being taught in the + universities. Their common opposition to scholasticism, however, + brought Cocceians and Cartesians more closely to one another. + Theology now became influenced by Cartesianism. Roëll, professor + at Franeker and Utrecht, who died A.D. 1718, taught that the + divinity of the Scriptures must be proved to the reason, since + the _testimonium Spir. s. internum_ is limited to those who + already believe, rejected the doctrine of the imputation + of original sin, the doctrine that death is for believers + the punishment of sin, and the application of the idea of + eternal “generation” to the Logos, to whom the predicate of + sonship belongs only in regard to the decree of redemption + and incarnation. Another zealous Cartesian, Balth. Bekker, not + only repudiated the superstitions of the age about witchcraft + (§ 117, 4), but also denied the existence of the devil and demons. + The Cocceians were in no way responsible for such extravagances, + but their opponents sought to make them chargeable for these. The + stadtholder, William III., at last issued an order, in A.D. 1694, + which checked for a time the violence of the strife. + + § 161.6. =Theological Literature.=--Biblical oriental philology + flourished in the Reformed church of this age. =Drusius= of + Franeker, who died A.D. 1616, was the greatest Old Testament + exegete of his day. The two =Buxtorfs= of Basel, the father + died A.D. 1629, the son A.D. 1664, the greatest Christian + rabbinical scholars, wrote Hebrew and Chaldee grammars, + lexicons, and concordances, and maintained the antiquity and + even inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points against Cappellus + of Saumur. =Hottinger= of Zürich, who died A.D. 1667, vied with + both in his knowledge of oriental literature and languages, and + wrote extensively on biblical philology, and besides found time + to write a comprehensive and learned church history. =Cocceius=, + too, occupies a respectable place among Hebrew lexicographers. + In England, both before and after the Restoration, scholarship + was found, not among the controversial Puritans, but among the + Episcopal clergy. =Brian Walton=, who died A.D. 1661, aided by + the English scholars, issued an edition of the “London Polyglott” + in six vols., in A.D. 1657, which, in completeness of material + and apparatus, as well as in careful textual criticism, leaves + earlier editions far behind. =Edm. Castellus= of Cambridge in + A.D. 1669 published his celebrated “_Lexicon Heptaglottum_.” The + Elzevir printing-house at Amsterdam and Leyden, boldly assuming + the prerogatives of the whole body of theological scholars, + issued a _textus receptus_ of the N.T. in A.D. 1624. The best + established exegetical results of earlier times were collected + by Pearson in his great compendium, the “_Critici Sacri_,” nine + vols. fol., London, 1660; and Matthew Pool in his “_Synopsis + Criticorum_,” five vols. fol., London, 1669. Among the exegetes + of this time the brothers, J. Cappellus of Sedan, who died + A.D. 1624, and Louis Cappellus II. of Saumur, who died A.D. 1658, + were distinguished for their linguistic knowledge and liberal + criticism. =Pococke= of Oxford and =Lightfoot= of Cambridge were + specially eminent orientalists. =Cocceius= wrote commentaries + on almost all the books of Scripture, and his scholar =Vitringa= + of Franeker, who died A.D. 1716, gained great reputation by his + expositions of Isaiah and the Apocalypse. Among the Arminians the + famous statesman =Grotius=, who died A.D. 1645, was the greatest + master of grammatico-historical exposition in the century, and + illustrated Scripture from classical literature and philology. + The Reformed church too gave brilliant contributions to biblical + archæology and history. =John Selden= wrote “_De Syndriis Vett. + Heb._,” “_De diis Syris_,” etc. =Goodwin= wrote “Moses and Aaron.” + =Ussher= wrote “_Annales V. et N.T._” =Spencer= wrote “_De + Legibus Heb._” The Frenchman =Bochart=, in his “_Hierozoicon_” + and “_Phaleg_,” made admirable contributions to the natural + history and geography of the Bible. + + § 161.7. Dogmatic theology was cultivated mainly in the + Netherlands. =Maccovius=, a Pole, who died A.D. 1644, a + professor at Franeker, introduced the scholastic method into + Reformed dogmatics. The Synod of Dort cleared him of the charge + of heresy made against him by Amesius, but condemned his method. + Yet it soon came into very general use. Its chief representatives + were Maresius of Groningen [Gröningen], Voetius and Mastricht + of Utrecht, Hoornbeck [Hoornbeeck] of Leyden, and the German + Wendelin, rector of Zerbst. Among the Cocceians the most + distinguished were Heidanus of Leyden, Alting of Groningen + [Gröningen], and, above all, Hermann Witsius of Franeker, whose + “Economy of the Covenants” is written in a conciliatory spirit. + The most distinguished Arminian dogmatist after Episcopius + was =Phil. Limborch= of Amsterdam, who died A.D. 1712, in + high repute also as an apologist, exegete, and historian. The + greatest dogmatist of the Anglican church was =Pearson=, who died + A.D. 1686, author of “An Exposition of the Creed.” The Frenchman + =Peyrerius= obtained great notoriety from his statement, founded + on Romans v. 12, that Adam was merely the ancestor of the Jews + (Gen. ii. 7), while the Gentiles were of pre-Adamite origin + (Gen. i. 26), and also by maintaining that the flood had been only + partial. He gained release from prison by joining the Catholic + church and recanted, but still held by his earlier views.--Ethics, + consisting hitherto of little more than an exposition of the + decalogue, was raised by =Amyrault= into an independent science. + Amesius dealt with cases of conscience. =Grotius=, in his “_De + Veritate Relig. Chr._” and =Abbadie=, French pastor at Berlin, + and afterwards in London, who died A.D. 1727, in his “_Vérité de + la Rel. Chrét._,” distinguished themselves as apologists. =Claude= + and =Jurieu= gained high reputation as controversialists against + Catholicism and its persecution of the Huguenots.--The Reformed + church also in the interests of polemics pursued historical + studies. Hottinger of Zürich, Spanheim of Leyden, Sam. Basnage + of Zütpfen, and Jac. Basnage of the Hague, produced general + church histories. Among the numerous historical monographs the + most important are =Hospinian’s= “_De Templis_,” “_De Monachis_,” + “_De Festis_,” “_Hist. Sacramentaria_,” “_Historia Jesuitica_;” + =Blondel’s= “_Ps.-Isidorus_,” “_De la Primauté de l’Egl._,” + “_Question si une Femme a été Assisse au Siège Papal_” (§ 82, 6), + “_Apologia sent. Hieron. de Presbyt._” Also =Daillé= of Saumur + on the non-genuineness of the “Apostolic Constitutions” and the + Ps.-Dionysian writings, and his “_De Usu Patrum_” in opposition + to Cave’s Catholicizing over-estimation of the Fathers. We have + also the English scholar =Ussher=, who died A.D. 1656, “_Brit. + Ecclesiarum Antiquitates_;” H. Dodwell, who died A.D. 1711, + “_Diss. Cyprianicæ_,” etc.; Wm. Cave, who died A.D. 1713, “Hist. + of App. and Fathers,” “_Scriptorum Ecclst. Hist. Literaria_,” + etc.--Special mention should be made of =Eisenmenger=, professor + of oriental languages at Heidelberg. In his “_Entdecktes + Judenthum_,” two vols. quarto, moved by the over-bearing + arrogance of the Jews of his day, he made an immense collection + of absurdities and blasphemies of rabbinical theology from Jewish + writings. At his own expense he printed 2,000 copies; for these + the Jews offered him 12,000 florins, but he demanded 30,000. + They now persuaded the court at Venice to confiscate them before + a single copy was sold. Eisenmenger died in A.D. 1704, and his + heirs vainly sought to have the copies of his work given up to + them. Even the appeal of Frederick I. of Prussia was refused. + Only when the king had resolved, in A.D. 1711, at his own expense + to publish an edition from one copy that had escaped confiscation, + was the Frankfort edition at last given back. + + § 161.8. =The Apocrypha Controversy= (§ 136, 4).--In A.D. 1520 + Carlstadt raised the question of the books found only in the + LXX., and answered it in the style of Jerome (§ 59, 1). Luther + gave them in his translation as an appendix to the O.T. with the + title “Apocrypha, _i.e._ Books, not indeed of Holy Scripture, + but useful and worthy to be read.” Reformed confessions took + up the same position. The Belgic Confession agreed indeed that + these books should be read in church, and proof passages taken + from them, in so far as they were in accord with the canonical + Scriptures. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer gives readings + from these books. On the other hand, although at the Synod of + Dort the proposal to remove at least the apocryphal books of Ezra + or Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Bel and the Dragon, was indeed rejected, + it was ordered that in future all apocryphal books should be + printed in smaller type than the canonical books, should be + separately paged, with a special title, and with a preface and + marginal notes where necessary. Their exclusion from all editions + of the Bible was first insisted on by English and Scotch Puritans. + This example was followed by the French, but not by the German, + Swiss, and Dutch Reformed churches.--Continuation, § 182, 4. + + + § 162. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE.[473] + + The religious life in the Reformed church is characterized generally +by harsh legalism, rigorous renunciation of the world, and a thorough +earnestness, coupled with decision and energy of will, which nothing in +the world can break or bend. It is the spirit of Calvin which impresses +on it this character, and determines its doctrine. Only where Calvin’s +influence was less potent, _e.g._ in the Lutheranized German Reformed, +the catholicized Anglican Episcopal Church, and among the Cocceians, +is this tendency less apparent or altogether wanting. On the other +hand, often carried to the utmost extreme, it appears among the English +Puritans (§§ 143, 3; 155, 1) and the French Huguenots (§ 153, 4), where +it was fostered by persecution and oppression. + + § 162.1. =England and Scotland.=--During the period of the + English Revolution (§ 155, 1, 2), after the overthrow of + Episcopacy, Puritanism became dominant; and the incongruous + and contradictory elements already existing within it assumed + exaggerated proportions (§ 143, 3, 4), until at last the opposing + parties broke out into violent contentions with one another. + The ideal of Scottish and English =Presbyterianism= was the + setting up of the kingdom of Christ as a theocracy, in which + church and state were blended after the O.T. pattern. Hence + all the institutions of church and state were to be founded on + Scripture models, while all later developments were set aside + as deteriorations from that standard. The ecclesiastical side of + this ideal was to be realized by the establishment of a spiritual + aristocracy represented in presbyteries and synods, which, + ruling the presbyteries through the synods, and the congregations + through the presbyteries, regarded itself as called and under + obligation to inspect and supervise all the details of the + private as well as public life of church members, and all this + too by Divine right. Regarding their system as alone having + divine institution, Presbyterians could not recognise any other + religious or ecclesiastical party, and must demand uniformity, + not only in regard to doctrine and creed, but also in regard to + constitution, discipline, and worship.[474]--On the other hand, + =Independent Congregationalism=, inasmuch as it made prominent + the N.T. ideas of the priesthood of all believers and spiritual + freedom, demanded unlimited liberty to each separate congregation, + and unconditional equality for all individual church members. + It thus rejected the theocratic ideal of Presbyterianism, strove + after a purely democratic constitution, and recognised toleration + of all religious views as a fundamental principle of Christianity. + Every attempt to secure uniformity and stability of forms + of worship was regarded as a repressing of the Spirit of God + operating in the church, and so alongside of the public services + private conventicles abounded, in which believers sought to + promote mutual edification. But soon amid the upheavals of this + agitated period a fanatical spirit spread among the various sects + of the Independents. The persecutions under Elizabeth and the + Stuarts had awakened a longing for the return of the Lord, and + the irresistible advance of Cromwell’s army, composed mostly + of Independents, made it appear as if the millennium was close + at hand. Thus chiliasm came to be a fundamental principle of + Independency, and soon too prophecy made its appearance to + interpret and prepare the way for that which was coming. From the + _Believers_ of the old Dutch times we now come to the =Saints= of + the early Cromwell period. These regarded themselves as called, + in consequence of their being inspired by God’s Spirit, to form + the “kingdom of the saints” on earth promised in the last days, + and hence also, from Daniel ii. and vii., they were called Fifth + Monarchy Men. The so called Short Parliament of A.D. 1653, in + which these Saints were in a majority, had already laid the + first stones of this structure by introducing civil marriage, + with the strict enforcement, however, of Matthew v. 32, as well + as by the abolition of all rights of patronage and all sorts + of ecclesiastical taxes, when Cromwell dissolved it. The Saints + had not and would not have any fixed, formulated theological + system. They had, however, a most lively interest in doctrine, + and produced a great diversity of Scripture expositions and + dogmatic views, so that their deadly foes, the Presbyterians, + could hurl against them old and new heretical designations + by the hundred. The fundamental doctrine of predestination, + common to all Puritans, was, even with them, for the most part, + a presupposition of all theological speculation. + + § 162.2. At the same time with the _Saints_ there appeared + among the Independents the =Levellers=, political and social + revolutionists, rather than an ecclesiastical and religious sect. + They were unjustly charged with claiming an equal distribution of + goods. Over against the absolutist theories of the Stuarts, all + the Independents maintained that the king, like all other civil + magistrates, is answerable at all times and in all circumstances + to the people, to whom all sovereignty originally and inalienably + belongs. This principle was taken by the Levellers as the + starting-point of their reforms. As their first regulative + principle in reconstructing the commonwealth and determining the + position of the church therein they did not take the theocratic + constitution of the O.T., as the Presbyterians did, nor the + biblical revelation of the N.T., as the moderate Independents + did, nor even the modern professed prophecy of the “Saints,” but + the law of nature as the basis of all revelation, and already + grounded in creation, with the sovereignty of the people as + its ultimate foundation. While the rest of the Independents + held by the idea of a Christian state, and only claimed that + all Christian denominations, with the exception of the Catholics + (§ 153, 6), should enjoy all political rights, the Levellers + demanded complete separation of church and state. This therefore + implied, on the one hand, the non-religiousness of the state, + and, on the other, again with the exception of Catholics, the + absolute freedom, independence, and equality of all religious + parties, even non-Christian sects and atheists. Yet all the + while the Levellers themselves were earnestly and warmly attached + to Christian truth as held by the other Independents.--Roger + Williams (§ 163, 3), a Baptist minister, in A.D. 1631 + transplanted the first seeds of Levellerism from England to North + America, and by his writings helped again to spread those views + in England. When he returned home in A.D. 1651 he found the sect + already flourishing. The ablest leader of the English Levellers + was John Lilburn. In A.D. 1638, when scarcely twenty years old, + he was flogged and sentenced to imprisonment for life, because he + had printed Puritan writings in Holland and had them circulated + in England. Released on the outbreak of the Revolution, he joined + the Parliamentary army, was taken prisoner by the Royalists + and sentenced to death, but escaped by flight. He was again + imprisoned for writing libels on the House of Lords. Set free + by the Rump Parliament, he became colonel in Cromwell’s army, + but was banished the country when it was found that the spread + of radicalism endangered discipline. Till the dissolution of the + Short Parliament his followers were in thorough sympathy with + the Saints. Afterwards their ways went more and more apart; the + Saints drifted into Quakerism (§ 163, 4), while the Levellers + degenerated into deism (§ 164, 3). + + § 162.3. Out of the religious commotion prevailing in England + before, during, and after the Revolution there sprang up a + voluminous =devotional literature=, intended to give guidance + and directions for holy living. Its influence was felt in foreign + lands, especially in the Reformed churches of the continent, and + even German Lutheran Pietism was not unaffected by it (§ 159, 3). + That this movement was not confined to the Puritans, among + whom it had its origin, is seen from the fact that during the + seventeenth century many such treatises were issued from the + University Press of Cambridge. =Lewis Bayly=, Bishop of Bangor + A.D. 1616-1632, wrote one of the most popular books of this + kind, “The Practice of Piety,” which was in A.D. 1635 in its + thirty-second and in A.D. 1741 in its fifty-first edition, and + was also widely circulated in Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, + and Polish translations.--Out of the vast number of important + personages of the Revolution period we name the following three: + + 1. In =John Milton=, the highly gifted poet as well as eloquent + and powerful politician, born A.D. 1608, died A.D. 1674, we + find, on the basis of a liberal classical training received + in youth, all the motive powers of Independency, from the + original Puritan zeal for the faith and Reformation to + the politico-social radicalism of the Levellers, combined + in full and vigorous operation. From Italy, the beloved + land of classical science and artistic culture, he was + called back to England in A.D. 1640 at the first outburst + of freedom-loving enthusiasm (§ 155, 1), and made the + thunder of his controversial treatises ring over the + battlefield of parties. He fought against the narrowness + of Presbyterian control of conscience not less energetically + than against the hierarchism of the Episcopal church; + vindicates the permissibility of divorce (in view, no + doubt, of his own first unhappy marriage); advanced in his + “_Areopagitica_” of A.D. 1644 a plea for the unrestricted + liberty of the press; pulverized in his “_Iconoclastes_” + of A.D. 1649 the Εἰκὼν βασιλική, ascribed to Charles I.; + in several tracts, “_Defensio pro Populo Anglicano_,” etc., + justified the execution of the king against Salmasius’s + “_Defensio Regia pro Carolo I._;” and, even after he + had in A.D. 1652 become incurably blind, he continued + unweariedly his polemics till silenced by the Restoration. + The “_Iconoclastes_” and “_Defensio_” were burned by the + hangman, but he himself was left unmolested. He now devoted + himself to poetry. “Paradise Lost” appeared in A.D. 1665, + and “Paradise Regained” in A.D. 1671. To this period, + when he had probably turned his back on all existing + religious parties, belongs the composition of his “_De + doctrina Christiana_,” a first attempt at a purely biblical + theology, Arian in its Christology and Arminian in its + soteriology.[475] + + 2. =Richard Baxter=, born A.D. 1615, died A.D. 1691, was quite + a different sort of man, and showed throughout a decidedly + ironical tendency. At once attracted and repelled by the + Independent movement in Cromwell’s army, he joined the force + in A.D. 1645 as military chaplain, hoping to moderate, if + not to check, their extravagances. A severe illness obliged + him to withdraw in A.D. 1647. After his recovery he returned + to his former post as assistant-minister at Kidderminster + in Worcestershire, and there remained till driven out by the + Act of Uniformity of A.D. 1662 (§ 155, 3). Those fourteen + years formed the period of his most successful labours. He + then composed most of his numerous devotional works, three + of which, “The Saint’s Everlasting Rest,” “The Reformed + Pastor,” “A Call to the Unconverted,” are still widely read + in the original and in translations. At first he hoped much + from the Restoration; but when, on conscientious grounds, + he refused a bishopric, he met only with persecution, + ill treatment, and imprisonment. Through William’s Act + of Toleration of A.D. 1689, he was allowed to pass the + last year of his life in London. On the doctrine of + predestination he took the moderate position of Amyrault + (§ 161, 3). His ideal church constitution was a blending + of Presbyterianism and Episcopacy, by restoring the original + episcopal constitution of the second century, when even the + smaller churches had each its own bishop with a presbytery + by his side.[476] + + 3. =John Bunyan=, born A.D. 1628, died A.D. 1688, was in his + youth a tinker or brazier, and as such seems to have led + a rough, wild life. On the outbreak of the Civil War in + A.D. 1642, he was drafted into the Parliamentary army.[477] + At the close of the war he married a poor girl from a + Puritan family, whose only marriage portion consisted in + two Puritan books of devotion. It was now that the birthday + of a new spiritual life began to dawn in him. He joined + the Baptist Independents, the most zealous of the Saints of + that time, was baptized by them in A.D. 1655, and travelled + the country as a preacher, attracting thousands around + him everywhere by his glorious eloquence. In A.D. 1660 + he was thrown into prison, from which he was released by + the Indulgence of A.D. 1672 (§ 155, 3). He now settled in + Bedford, and from this time till his death, amid persecution + and oppression, continued his itinerant preaching with + ever-increasing zeal and success. “The Pilgrim’s Progress” + was written by him in prison. It is an allegory of the + freshest and most lively form, worthy to rank alongside + the “Imitation of Christ” (§ 114, 7). In it the fanatical + endeavour of the Saints to rear a millennial kingdom + on earth is transfigured into a struggle overcoming all + hindrances to secure an entrance into the heavenly Zion + above. It has passed through numberless editions, and has + been translated into almost all known languages.[478] + + § 162.4. =The Netherlands.=--From England the Reformed Pietism + was transplanted to the Netherlands, where =William Teellinck= + may be regarded as its founder. After finishing his legal studies + he resided for a while in England, where he made the acquaintance + of the Puritans and their writings, and was deeply impressed with + their earnest and pious family life. He then went to Leyden to + study theology, and in A.D. 1606 began a ministry that soon bore + fruit. He was specially blessed at Middelburg in Zealand, where + he died A.D. 1629. His writings, larger and smaller, more than a + hundred in number, in which a peculiar sweetness of mystical love + for the Redeemer is combined with stern Calvinistic views, after + the style of St. Bernard, were circulated widely in numerous + editions, eagerly read in many lands, and for fully a century + exerted a powerful influence throughout the whole Reformed church. + Teellinck in no particular departed from the prevailing orthodoxy, + but unwittingly toned down its harshness in his tracts, and + with the gentleness characteristic of him counselled brotherly + forbearance amid the bitterness of the Arminian controversy. In + spite of much hostility, which his best efforts could not prevent, + many university theologians stood by his side as warm admirers + of his writings. It will not be wondered at that among these was + the pious Amesius of Franeker (§ 161, 7), the scholar of the able + Perkins (§ 143, 5); but it is more surprising to find here the + powerful champion of scholastic orthodoxy, Voetius of Utrecht, + and his vigorous partisan, Hoornbeeck of Leyden. =Voetius= + especially, who even in his preacademic career as a pastor had + pursued a peculiarly exemplary and godly life, styled Teellinck + the Reformed Thomas à Kempis, and owned his deep indebtedness to + his devout writings. He opened his academic course in A.D. 1634 + with an introductory discourse, “_De Pietate cum Scientia + conjungenda_,” and year after year gave lectures on ascetical + theology, out of which grew his treatise published in A.D. 1664, + “_Τὰ Ἀσκητικὰ s. Exercita Pietatis in usum Juventutis Acad._,” + which is a complete exposition of evangelical practical divinity + in a thoroughly scholastic form. + + § 162.5. During the controversy in the Dutch Reformed Church + between =Voetians and Cocceians=, beginning in A.D. 1658, the + former favoured the pietistic movement. In the German Pietist + controversy the Cocceians were with the Pietists in their + biblical orthodoxy joined with confessional indifferentism, but + with the orthodox in their liberality and breadth on matters of + life and conduct. The earnest, practical piety of the Voetians, + again, made them sympathise with the Lutheran Pietists, and their + zeal for pure doctrine and the Church confession brought them + into relation with the orthodox Lutherans. As discord between + the theologians arose over the obligation of the Sabbath law, + so the difference among the people arose out of the question of + Sabbath observance. The Voetians maintained that the decalogue + prohibition of any form of work on Sabbath was still fully + binding, while the Cocceians, on the ground of Mark ii. 27, + Galatians iv. 9, Colossians ii. 16, etc., denied its continued + obligation, their wives often, to the annoyance of the Voetians, + sitting in the windows after Divine service with their knitting + or sewing. But the opposition did not stop there; it spread + into all departments of life. The Voetians set great value upon + fasting and private meditation, avoided all public games and + plays, dressed plainly, and observed a simple, pious mode of + life; their pastors wore a clerical costume, etc. The Cocceians, + again, fell in with the customs of the time, mingled freely in + the mirth and pastimes of the people, went to public festivals + and entertainments, their women dressed in elegant, stylish + attire, their pastors were not bound by hard and fast symbols, + but had full Scripture freedom, etc.--Continuation, § 169, 2. + + § 162.6. =France, Germany, and Switzerland.=--The Reformed church + of =France= has gained imperishable renown as a martyr-church. + Fanatical excesses, however, appeared among the prophets of the + Cevennes (§ 153, 4), the fruits of which continued down into + the eighteenth century, and appeared now and again in England, + Holland, and Germany (§ 160, 2, 7).--In =Germany= the Reformed + church, standing side by side with the numerically far larger + Lutheran church, had much of the sternness and severity that + characterized the Romanic-Calvinistic party in doctrine, worship, + and life greatly modified; but where the Reformed element was + predominant, as in the Lower Rhine, it was correspondingly + affected by a contrary influence. The Reformed church in + Germany in its service of praise kept to the psalms of Marot and + Lobwasser (§ 143, 2). Maurice of Hesse published Lobwasser’s in + A.D. 1612, accompanied by some new bright melodies, for the use + of the churches in the land. Lutheran hymns, however, gradually + found their way into the Reformed church, which also produced two + gifted poets of its own. =Louisa Henrietta=, Princess of Orange, + wife of the great elector, and Paul Gerhardt’s sovereign, wrote + “Jesus my Redeemer lives;” and =Joachim Neander=, pastor in + Bremen, wrote, “Thou most Highest! Guardian of mankind,” “To + heaven and earth and sea and air,” “Here behold me, as I cast + me.”--In German =Switzerland= the noble =Breitinger= of Zürich, + who died A.D. 1645, the greatest successor of Zwingli and + Bullinger, wrought successfully during a forty years’ ministry, + and did much to revive and quicken the church life. That the + spirit of Calvin and Beza still breathed in the church of Geneva + is proved by the reception given there to such men as Andreä + (§ 160, 1), Labadie (§ 163, 7), and Spener (§ 159, 3). + + § 162.7. =Foreign Missions.=--From two sides the Reformed + church had outlets for its Christian love in the work of foreign + missions; on the one side by the cession of the Portuguese + East Indian colonies to the Netherlands in the beginning of the + seventeenth century, and on the other side by the continuous + formation of English colonies in North America throughout + the whole century. In regard to missionary effort, the + Dutch government followed in the footsteps of her Portuguese + predecessors. She insisted that all natives, before getting + a situation, should be baptized and have signed the Belgic + Confession, and many who fulfilled these conditions remained as + they had been before. But the English Puritans settled in America + showed a zeal for the conversion of the Indians more worthy + of the Protestant name. John Eliot, who is rightly styled the + apostle of the Indians, devoted himself with unwearied and + self-denying love for half a century to this task. He translated + the Bible into their language, and founded seventeen Indian + stations, of which during his lifetime ten were destroyed in + a bloody war. Eliot’s work was taken up by the Mayhew family, + who for five generations wrought among the Indians. The last + of the noble band, Zacharias Mayhew, died on the mission field + in A.D. 1803, in his 87th year.[479]--Continuation, § 172, 5. + + + + + V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties. + + + § 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. + + Socinianism during the first decades of the century made extraordinary +progress in Poland, but then collapsed under the persecution of +the Jesuits. Related to the continental Anabaptists were the English +Baptists, who rejected infant baptism; while the Quakers, who adopted +the old fanatical theory of an inner light, set baptism and the Lord’s +supper entirely aside. In the sect of the Labadists we find a blending +of Catholic quietist mysticism and Calvinistic Augustinianism. Besides +those regular sects, there were various individual enthusiasts and +separatists. These were most rife in the Netherlands, where the free +civil constitution afforded a place of refuge for all exiles on account +of their faith. Here only was the press free enough to serve as a +thoroughgoing propaganda of mysticism and theosophy. Finally the Russian +sects, hitherto little studied, call for special attention. + + § 163.1. =The Socinians= (§ 148, 4).--The most important of the + Socinian congregations in =Poland=, for the most part small and + composed almost exclusively of the nobility, was that at Racau in + the Sendomir Palatinate. Founded in 1569, this city, since 1600 + under James Sieninski, son of the founder, recognised Socinianism + as the established religion; and an academy was formed there + which soon occupied a distinguished position, and gave such + reputation to the place that it could be spoken of as “the + Sarmatian Athens.” But the congregation at Lublin, next in + importance to that of Racau, was destroyed as early as 1627 by + the mob under fanatical excitement caused by the Jesuits. The + same disaster befell Racau itself eleven years later. A couple of + idle schoolboys had thrown stones at a wooden crucifix standing + before the city gate, and had been for this severely punished by + their parents, and turned out of school. The Catholics, however, + made a complaint before the senate, where the Jesuits secured a + sentence that the school should be destroyed, the church taken + from “the Arians,” the printing press closed, but the ministers + and teachers outlawed and branded with infamy. And the Jesuits + did not rest until the Reichstag at Warsaw in 1658 issued decrees + of banishment against “all Arians,” and forbad the profession of + “Arianism” under pain of death.--The Davidist non-adoration party + of =Transylvanian= Unitarians (§ 148, 3) was finally overcome, + and the endeavours after conformity with the Polish Socinians + prevailed at the Diet of Deesch in 1638, where all Unitarian + communities engaged to offer worship to Christ, and to accept + the baptismal formula of Matthew xxviii. 19. And under the + standard of this so called _Complanatio Deesiana_ 106 Unitarian + congregations, with a membership of 60,000 souls, exist in + Transylvania to this day.--In =Germany= Socinianism had, even in + the beginning of the century, a secret nursery in the University + of Altdorf, belonging to the territory of the imperial city of + Nuremberg. Soner, professor of medicine, had been won over to + this creed by Socinians residing at Leyden, where he had studied + in 1597, 1598, and now used his official position at Altdorf + for, not only instilling his Unitarian doctrines by means + of private philosophical conversations into the minds of his + numerous students, who flocked to him from Poland, Transylvania, + and Hungary, but also for securing the adhesion of several German + students. Only after his death in 1612 did the Nuremberg council + come to know about this propaganda. A strict investigation was + then made, all Poles were expelled, and all the Socinian writings + that could be discovered were burned.--The later Polish Exultants + sought and found refuge in Germany, especially in Silesia, + Prussia, and Brandenburg, as well as in the Reformed Palatinate, + and also founded some small Unitarian congregations, which, + however, after maintaining for a while a miserable existence, + gradually passed out of view. They had greater success and spread + more widely in the =Netherlands=, till the states-general of 1653, + in consequence of repeated synodal protests, and on the ground + of an opinion given by the University of Leyden, issued a strict + edict against the Unitarians, who now gradually passed over to + the ranks of the Remonstrants (§ 161, 2) and the Collegiants. + Also in =England=, since the time of Henry VIII., antitrinitarian + confessors and martyrs were to be found. Even in 1611, under + James I., three of them had been consigned to the flames. The + Polish Socinians took occasion from this to send the king a + Racovian Catechism; but in 1614 it was, by order of parliament, + burned by the hands of the hangman. The Socinians were also + excluded from the benefit of the Act of Toleration of 1689, which + was granted to all other dissenters (§ 155, 3). The progress + of deism, however, among the upper classes (§§ 164, 3; 171, 1) + did much to prevent the extreme penal laws being carried into + execution.--The following are the most distinguished among the + numerous learned theologians of the Augustan age of Socinian + scholarship, who contributed to the extending, establishing, and + vindicating of the system of their church by exegetical, dogmatic, + and polemical writings: John Crell, died 1631; Jonas Schlichting, + died 1661; Von Wolzogen, died 1661; and Andr. Wissowatius, + a grandson of Faustus Socinus, died 1678; and with these must + also be ranked the historian of Polish Socinianism, Stanislaus + Lubienicki, died 1675, whose “_Hist. Reformat. Polonicæ_,” etc., + was published at Amsterdam in 1685. + + § 163.2. =The Baptists of the Continent.= + + 1. =The Dutch Baptists= (§ 147, 2). Even during Menno’s + lifetime the Mennonites had split into the _Coarse_ and + the _Fine_. The _Coarse_, who had abandoned much of the + primitive severity of the sect, and were by far the most + numerous, were again divided during the Arminian controversy + into Remonstrants and Predestinationists. The former, from + their leader, were called Galenists, and from having a lamb + as the symbol of their Church, Lambists. The latter were + called Apostoolers from their leader, and Sunists because + their churches had the figure of the sun as a symbol. The + Lambists, who acknowledged no confession of faith, were most + numerous. In A.D. 1800, however, a union of the two parties + was effected, the Sunists adopting the doctrinal position + of the Lambists.--During the time when Arminian pastors + were banished from the Netherlands, three brothers Van der + Kodde founded a sect of =Collegiants=, which repudiated + the clerical office, assigned preaching and dispensation of + sacraments to laymen, and baptized only adults by immersion. + Their place of baptism was Rhynsburg on the Rhine, and hence + they were called Rhynsburgers. Their other name was given + them from their assemblies, which they styled _collegia_. + + 2. =The Moravian Baptists= (§ 147, 3). The Thirty Years’ War + ruined the flourishing Baptist congregations in Moravia, + and the reaction against all non-Catholics that followed + the battle of the White Mountain near Prague, in A.D. 1620, + told sorely against them. In A.D. 1622 a decree for their + banishment was issued, and these quiet, inoffensive men + were again homeless fugitives. Remnants of them fled into + Hungary and Transylvania, only to meet new persecutions + there. A letter of protection from Leopold I., A.D. 1659, + secured them the right of settling in three counties around + Pressburg. But soon these rigorous persecutions broke out + afresh; they were beset by Jesuits seeking to convert them, + and when this failed they were driven out or annihilated. + At last, by A.D. 1757-1762, they were completely broken up, + and most of them had joined the Roman Catholic church. A few + families preserved their faith by flight into South Russia, + where they settled in Wirschenka. When the Toleration Edict + of Joseph II., of A.D. 1781, secured religious freedom to + Protestants in Austria, several returned again to the faith + of their fathers, in the hope that the toleration would be + extended to them; but they were bitterly disappointed. They + now betook themselves to Russia, and together with their + brethren already there, settled in the Crimea, where they + still constitute the colony of Hutersthal. + + § 163.3. =The English Baptists.=--The notion that infant + baptism is objectionable also found favour among the English + Independents. Owing to the slight importance attached to the + sacraments generally, and more particularly to baptism, in + the Reformed church, especially among the Independents, the + supporters of the practice of the church in regard to baptism + to a large extent occupied common ground with its opponents. + The separation took place only after the rise of the fanatical + prophetic sects (§ 161, 1). We must, however, distinguish + from the continental Anabaptists the English Baptists, who + enjoyed the benefit of the Toleration Act of William III., + of A.D. 1689, along with the other dissenters, by maintaining + their Independent-Congregationalist constitution (§ 155, 3). + In A.D. 1691, over the Arminian question, they split up into + Particular and General, or Regular and Free Will, Baptists. + The former, by far the more numerous, held by the Calvinistic + doctrine of _gratia particularis_, while the latter rejected + it. The Seventh-Day Baptists, who observed the seventh instead + of the first day of the week, were founded by Bampfield in + A.D. 1665.[480]--From England the Baptists spread to North + America, in A.D. 1630, where Roger Williams (§ 162, 2), one + of their first leaders, founded the little state of Rhode + Island, and organized it on thoroughly Baptist-Independent + principles.[481]--Continuation, § 170, 6. + + § 163.4. =The Quakers.=--=George Fox=, born A.D. 1624, died + A.D. 1691, was son of a poor Presbyterian weaver in Drayton, + Leicestershire. After scant schooling he went to learn shoemaking + at Nottingham, but in A.D. 1643 abandoned the trade. Harassed by + spiritual conflicts, he wandered about seeking peace for his soul. + Upon hearing an Independent preach on 2 Peter i. 19, he was moved + loudly to contradict the preacher. “What we have to do with,” he + said, “is not the word, but the Spirit by which those men of God + spake and wrote.” He was seized as a disturber of public worship, + but was soon after released. In A.D. 1649 he travelled the + country preaching and teaching, addressing every man as “thou,” + raising his hat to none, greeting none, attracting thousands by + his preaching, often imprisoned, flogged, tortured, hunted like a + wild beast. The core of his preaching was, not Scripture, but the + Spirit, not Christ without but Christ within, not outward worship, + not churches, “steeple-houses,” and bells, not doctrines and + sacraments, but only the inner light, which is kindled by God in + the conscience of every man, renewed and quickened by the Spirit + of Christ, which suddenly lays hold upon it. The number of his + followers increased from day to day. In A.D. 1652 he found, along + with his friends, a kindly shelter in the house of Thomas Fell, + of Smarthmore near Preston, and in his wife Margaret a motherly + counsellor, who devoted her whole life to the cause. They called + themselves “The Society of Friends.” The name Quaker was given as + a term of reproach by a violent judge, whom Fox bad “quake before + the word of God.” After the overthrow of the hopes of the Saints + through the dissolution of the Short Parliament and Cromwell’s + apostasy (§ 155, 2), many of them joined the Quakers, and + led them into revolutionary and fanatical excesses. Confined + hitherto to the northern counties, they now spread in London + and Bristol, and over all the south of England. In January, + A.D. 1655, they held a fortnight’s general meeting at Swannington, + in Leicestershire. Crowds of apostles went over into Ireland, to + North America and the West Indies, to Holland, Germany, France, + and Italy, and even to Constantinople. They did not meet with + great success. In Italy they encountered the Inquisition, and in + North America the severest penal laws were passed against them. + In A.D. 1656 James Naylor, one of their most famous leaders, + celebrated at Bristol the second coming of Christ “in the + Spirit,” by enacting the scene of Christ’s triumphal entry into + Jerusalem. But the king of the new Israel was scourged, branded + on the forehead with the letter B as a blasphemer, had his tongue + pierced with a redhot iron, and was then cast into prison. Many + absurd extravagances of this kind, which drew down upon them + frequent persecutions, as well as the failure of their foreign + missionary enterprises, brought most of the Quakers to adopt more + sober views. The great mother Quakeress, Margaret Fell, exercised + a powerful influence in this direction. George Fox, too, out + of whose hands the movement had for a long time gone, now lent + his aid. Naylor himself, in A.D. 1659, issued a recantation, + addressed “to all the people of the Lord,” in which he made the + confession, “My judgment was turned away, and I was a captive + under the power of darkness.” + + § 163.5. The movement of Quakerism in the direction of sobriety + and common sense was carried out to its fullest extent during + the Stuart Restoration, A.D. 1660-1688. Abandoning their + revolutionary tendencies through dislike to Cromwell’s violence, + and giving up most of their fanatical extravagances, the Quakers + became models of quiet, orderly living. Robert Barclay, by his + “_Catechesis et Fidei Confessio_,” of A.D. 1673, gave a sort of + symbolic expression to their belief, and vindicated his doctrinal + positions in his “_Theologiæ vere Christianæ Apologia_” of + A.D. 1676. During this period many of them laid down their lives + for their faith. On the other side of the sea they formed powerful + settlements, distinguished for religious toleration and brotherly + love. The chief promoter of this new departure was =William Penn=, + A.D. 1644-1718, son of an English admiral, who, while a student + at Oxford, was impressed by a Quaker’s preaching, and led to + attend the prayer and fellowship meetings of the Friends. In + order to break his connexion with this party, his father sent him, + in A.D. 1661, to travel in France and Italy. The frivolity of the + French court failed to attract him, but for a long time he was + spellbound by Amyrault’s theological lectures at Saumur. On his + return home, in A.D. 1664, he seemed to have completely come back + to a worldly life, when once again he was arrested by a Quaker’s + preaching. In A.D. 1668 he formally joined the society. For a + controversial tract, _The Sandy Foundation Shaken_, he was sent + for six months to the Tower, where he composed the famous tract, + _No Cross, no Crown_, and a treatise in his own vindication, + “Innocency with her Open Face.” His father, who, shortly before + his death in A.D. 1670, was reconciled to his son, left him a + yearly income of £1,500, with a claim on Government for £16,000. + In spite of continued persecution and oppression he continued + unweariedly to promote the cause of Quakerism by speech and pen. + In A.D. 1677, in company with Fox and Barclay, he made a tour + through Holland and Germany. In both countries he formed many + friendships, but did not succeed in establishing any societies. + His hopes now turned to North America, where Fox had already + wrought with success during the times of sorest persecution, + A.D. 1671, 1672, In lieu of his father’s claim, he obtained from + Government a large tract of land on the Delaware, with the right + of colonizing and organizing it under English suzerainty. Twice + he went out for this purpose himself, in A.D. 1682 and 1699, and + formed the Quaker state of Pennsylvania, with Philadelphia as its + capital. The first principle of its constitution was universal + religious toleration, even to Catholics.[482] + + § 163.6. =The Quaker Constitution=, as fixed in Penn’s time, + was strictly democratic and congregationalist, with complete + exclusion of a clerical order. At their services any man or + woman, if moved by the Spirit, might pray, teach, or exhort, + or if no one felt so impelled they would sit on in silence. + Their meeting-houses had not the form or fittings of churches, + their devotional services had neither singing nor music. They + repudiated water baptism, alike of infants and adults, and + recognised only baptism of the Spirit. The Lord’s supper, + as a symbolical memorial, is no more needed by those who are + born again. Monthly gatherings of all independent members, + quarterly meetings of deputies of a circuit, and a yearly synod + of representatives of all the circuits, administered or drew up + the regulations for the several societies. =The Doctrinal Belief + of the Quakers= is completely dominated by its central dogma of + the “inner light,” which is identified with reason and conscience + as the common heritage of mankind. Darkened and weakened by the + fall, it is requickened in us by the Spirit of the glorified + Christ, and possesses us as an inner spiritual Christ, an inner + Word of God. The Bible is recognised as the outer word of God, + but is useful only as a means of arousing the inner word. The + Calvinistic doctrine of election is decidedly rejected, and also + that of vicarious satisfaction. But also the doctrines of the + fall, original sin, justification by faith, as well as that of + the Trinity, are very much set aside in favour of an indefinite + subjective theology of feeling. The operation of the Holy Spirit + in man’s redemption and salvation outside of Christendom is + frankly admitted. On the other hand, the ethical-practical + element, as shown in works of benevolence, in the battle for + religious freedom, for the abolition of slavery, etc., is brought + to the front. In regard to =life and manners=, the Quakers have + distinguished themselves in all domestic, civil, industrial, + and mercantile movements by quiet, peaceful industry, strict + integrity, and simple habits, so that not only did they amass + great wealth, but gained the confidence and respect of those + around. They refused to take oaths or to serve as soldiers, or to + engage in sports, or to indulge in any kind of luxury. In social + intercourse they declined to acknowledge any titles of rank, + would not bow or raise the hat to any, but addressed all by the + simple “thou.” Their men wore broad-brimmed hats, a plain, simple + coat, without collar or buttons, fastened by hooks. Their women + wore a simple gray silk dress, with like coloured bonnet, without + ribbon, flower, or feathers, and a plain shawl. Wearing mourning + dress was regarded as a heathenish custom.[483]--Continuation, + § 211, 3. + + § 163.7. =Labadie and the Labadists.=--Jean de Labadie, the + scion of an ancient noble family, born A.D. 1610, was educated + in the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, entered the order, and became a + priest, but was released from office at his own wish in A.D. 1639, + on account of delicate health. Even in the Jesuit college the + principles that manifested themselves in his later life began to + take root in him. By Scripture study he was led to adopt almost + Augustinian views of sin and grace, as well as the conviction of + the need of a revival of the church after the apostolic pattern. + This tendency was confirmed and deepened by the influence of + Spanish Quietism, which even the Jesuits had favoured to some + extent. In the interest of these views he wrought laboriously + for eleven years as Catholic priest in Amiens, Paris, and other + places, amid the increasing hostility of the Jesuits. Their + persecution, together with a growing clearness in his Augustinian + convictions, led him formally to go over to the Reformed church + in A.D. 1650. He now laboured for seven years as Reformed pastor + at Montauban. In A.D. 1657, owing to political suspicions against + him spread by the Jesuits, he withdrew from Montauban, and, + after two years’ labour at Orange, settled at Geneva, where + his preaching and household visitations bore abundant fruit. In + A.D. 1666 he accepted a call to Middelburg, in Zealand. There he + was almost as successful as he had been in Geneva; but there too + it began to appear that in him there burned a fire strange to + the Reformed church. The French Reformed synod took great offence + at his refusal to sign the Belgic Confession. It was found that + at many points he was not in sympathy with the church standards, + that he had written in favour of chiliasm and the Apokatastasis, + that in regard to the nature and idea of the church and its + need of a reformation he was not in accord with the views of the + Reformed church. The synod in 1668 suspended him from office, and, + as he did not confess his errors, in the following year deposed + him. Labadie then saw that what he regarded as his lifework, the + restoration of the apostolic church, was as little attainable + within the Reformed as within the Catholic church. He therefore + organized his followers into a separate denomination, and was, + together with them, banished by the magistrate. The neighbouring + town of Veere received them gladly, but Middelburg now persuaded + the Zealand council to issue a decree banishing them from that + town also. The people of Veere were ready to defy this order, + but Labadie thought it better to avoid the risk of a civil war + by voluntary withdrawal; and so he went, in August, A.D. 1669, + with about forty followers, to Amsterdam, where he laid the + foundations of an apostolic church. This new society consisted of + a sort of monastic household consisting only of the regenerate. + They hired a commodious house, and from thence sent out spiritual + workers as missionaries, to spread the principles of the “new + church” throughout the land. Within a year they numbered 60,000 + souls. They dispensed the sacrament according to the Reformed + rite, and preached the gospel in conventicles. The most important + gain to the party was the adhesion of Anna Maria von Schürman, + born at Cologne A.D. 1607 of a Reformed family, but settled + from A.D. 1623 with her mother in Utrecht, celebrated for her + unexampled attainment in languages, science, and art. When in + A.D. 1670, the government, urged by the synod, forbad attendance + on the Labadists’ preaching, the accomplished and pious + Countess-palatine Elizabeth, sister of the elector-palatine, + and abbess of the rich cloister of Herford, whose intimate friend + Schürman had been for forty years, gave them an asylum in the + capital of her little state. + + § 163.8. In Herford “the Hollanders” met with bitter opposition + from the Lutheran clergy, the magistracy, and populace, and + were treated by the mob with insult and scorn. They themselves + also gave only too good occasion for ridicule. At a sacramental + celebration, the aged Labadie and still older Schürman embraced + and kissed each other and began to dance for joy. In his sermons + and writings Labadie set forth the Quietist doctrines of the + limitation of Christ’s life and sufferings in the mortification + of the flesh, the duty of silent prayer, the sinking of the + soul into the depths of the Godhead, the community of goods, etc. + Special offence was given by the private marriage of the three + leaders, Labadie, Yvon, and Dulignon with young wealthy ladies of + society, and their views of marriage among the regenerate as an + institution for raising up a pure seed free from original sin and + brought forth without pain. The Elector of Brandenburg, hitherto + favourable, as guardian of the seminary was obliged, in answer to + the complaints of the Herford magistracy, to appoint a commission + of inquiry. Labadie wrote a defence, which was published in + Latin, Dutch, and German, in which he endeavoured to harmonize + his mystical views with the doctrines of the Reformed church. But + in A.D. 1671 the magistrates obtained a mandate from the imperial + court at Spires, which threatened the abbess with the ban if she + continued to harbour the sectaries. In A.D. 1672 Labadie settled + in Altona, where he died in A.D. 1674. His followers, numbering + 160, remained here undisturbed till the war between Denmark and + Sweden broke out in A.D. 1675. They then retired to the castle of + Waltha in West Friesland, the property of three sisters belonging + to the party. Schürman died in A.D. 1678, Dulignon in A.D. 1679, + and Yvon, who now had sole charge, was obliged in A.D. 1688 to + abolish the institution of the community of goods, after a trial + of eighteen years, being able to pay back much less than he had + received. After his death in A.D. 1707 the community gradually + fell off, and after the property had gone into other hands on + the death of the last of the sisters in A.D. 1725, the society + finally broke up. + + § 163.9. During this age various =fanatical sects= sprang up. In + Thuringia, =Stiefel= and his nephew =Meth= caused much trouble + to the Lutheran clergy in the beginning of the century by their + fanatical enthusiasm, till convinced, after twenty years, of + the errors of their ways. =Drabicius=, who had left the Bohemian + Brethren owing to differences of belief, and then lived in + Hungary as a weaver in poor circumstances, boasted in A.D. 1638 + of having Divine revelations, prophesied the overthrow of the + Austrian dynasty in A.D. 1657, the election of the French king as + emperor, the speedy fall of the Papacy, and the final conversion + of all heathens; but was put to death at Pressburg in A.D. 1671 + as a traitor with cruel tortures. Even Comenius, the noble + bishop of the Moravians, took the side of the prophets, and + published his own and others’ prophecies under the title “_Lux in + Tenebris_.”--=Jane Leade= of Norfolk, influenced by the writings + of Böhme, had visions, in which the Divine Wisdom appeared to + her as a virgin. She spread her Gnostic revelations in numerous + tracts, founded in A.D. 1670 the Philadelphian Society in + London, and died in A.D. 1704, at the age of eighty-one. The + most important of her followers was =John Pordage=, preacher and + physician, whose theological speculation closely resembles that + of Jac. Böhme. To the Reformed church belonged also =Peter Poiret= + of Metz, pastor from A.D. 1664 in Heidelburg [Heidelberg], and + afterwards of a French congregation in the Palatine-Zweibrücken. + Influenced by the writings of Bourignon and Guyon, he resigned + his pastorate, and accompanied the former in his wanderings + in north-west Germany till his death in 1680. At Amsterdam in + A.D. 1687 he wrote his mystical work, “_L’Économie Divine_” + in seven vols., which sets forth in the Cocceian method the + mysticism and theosophy of Bourignon. He died at Rhynsburg + in A.D. 1719.--From the Lutheran church proceeded Giftheil of + Württemburg [Württemberg], Breckling of Holstein, and Kuhlmann, + who went about denouncing the clergy, proclaiming fanatical views, + and calling for impracticable reforms. Of much greater importance + was =John George Gichtel=, an eccentric disciple of Jac. Böhme, + who in A.D. 1665 lost his situation as law agent in his native + town of Regensburg, his property, and civil rights, and suffered + imprisonment and exile from the city for his fanatical ideas. + He died in needy circumstances in Amsterdam in A.D. 1710. He + had revelations and visions, fought against the doctrine of + justification, and denounced marriage as fornication which + nullifies the spiritual marriage with the heavenly Sophia + consummated in the new birth, etc. His followers called + themselves Angelic Brethren, from Matthew xxii. 20, strove + after angelic sinlessness by emancipation from all earthly lusts, + toils, and care, regarded themselves as a priesthood after the + order of Melchizedec [Melchisedec] for propitiating the Divine + wrath.--Continuation, § 170. + + § 163.10. =Russian Sects.=--A vast number of sects sprang up + within the Russian church, which are all included under the + general name =Raskolniks= or apostates. They fall into two great + classes in their distinctive character, diametrically opposed the + one to the other. + + 1. The =Starowerzi=, or Old Believers. They originated in + A.D. 1652, in consequence of the liturgical reform of the + learned and powerful patriarch Nikon, which called forth + the violent opposition of a large body of the peasantry, who + loved the old forms. Besides stubborn adhesion to the old + liturgy, they rejected all modern customs and luxuries, held + it sinful to cut the beard, to smoke tobacco, to drink tea + and coffee, etc. The Starowerzi, numbering some ten millions, + are to this day distinguished by their pure and simple lives, + and are split up into three parties: + + i. _Jedinowerzi_, who are nearest to the orthodox church, + recognise its priesthood, and are different only in + their religious ceremonies and the habits of their + social life; + + ii. The _Starovbradzi_, who do not recognise the + priesthood of the orthodox church; and + + iii. the _Bespopowtschini_, who have no priests, but only + elders, and are split up into various smaller sects. + + Under the peasant Philip Pustosiwät, a party of Starowerzi, + called from their leader Philippins, fled during the + persecution of A.D. 1700 from the government of Olonez, and + settled in Polish Lithuania and East Prussia, where to the + number of 1,200 souls they live to this day in villages in + the district of Gumbinnen, engaged in agricultural pursuits, + and observing the rites of the old Russian church. + + 2. At the very opposite pole from the Starowerzi stand the + =Heretical Sects=, which repudiate and condemn everything + in the shape of external church organization, and manifest + a tendency in some cases toward fanatical excess, and in + other cases toward rationalistic spiritualism. As the sects + showing the latter tendency did not make their appearance + till the eighteenth century (§ 166, 2), we have here to + do only with those of the former class. The most important + of these sects is that of the =Men of God=, or Spiritual + Christians, who trace their origin from a peasant, Danila + Filipow, of the province of Wladimir. In 1645, say they, + the divine Father, seated on a cloud of flame, surrounded + by angels, descended from heaven on Mount Gorodin in a + chariot of fire, in order to restore true Christianity in + its original purity and spirituality. For this purpose he + incarnated himself in Filipow’s pure body. He commanded + his followers, who in large numbers, mainly drawn from the + peasant class, gathered around him, not to marry, and if + already married to put away their wives, to abstain from all + intoxicating drinks, to be present neither at marriages nor + baptisms, but above all things to believe that there is no + other god besides him. After some years he adopted as his + son another peasant, Ivan Suslow, who was said to have been + born of a woman a hundred years old, by communicating to him + in his thirtieth year his own divine nature. Ivan, as a new + Christ, sent out twelve apostles to spread his doctrine. The + Czar Alexis put him and forty of his adherents into prison; + but neither the knout nor the rack could wring from them the + mysteries of their faith and worship. At last, on a Friday, + the czar caused the new Christ to be crucified; but on + the following Sunday he appeared risen again among his + disciples. After some years the imprisoning, crucifying, and + resurrection were repeated. Imprisoned a third time in 1672, + he owed his liberation to an edict of grace on the occasion + of the birth of the Prince Peter the Great. He now lived + at Moscow along with the divine father Filipow, who had + hitherto consulted his own safety by living in concealment + in the enjoyment of the adoration of his followers + unmolested for thirty years, supported by certain wealthy + merchants. Filipow is said to have ascended up in the + presence of many witnesses, in 1700, into the seventh and + highest heaven, where he immediately seated himself on + the throne as the “Lord of Hosts,” and the Christ, Suslow, + also returned thither in 1716, after both had reached the + hundredth year of the human existence. As Suslow’s successor + appeared a new Christ in Prokopi Lupkin, and after his + death, in 1732, arose Andr. Petrow. The last Christ + manifestation was revealed in the person of the unfortunate + Czar Peter III., dethroned by his wife Catharine II. in 1762, + who, living meanwhile in secret, shall soon return, to + the terrible confusion of all unbelievers. With this the + historical tradition of the earlier sect of the Men of God + is brought to a close, and in the Skopsen, or Eunuchs, who + also venerate the Czar Peter III. as the Christ that is + to come again, a new development of the sect has arisen, + carrying out its principles more and more fully (§ 210, 4). + Other branches of the same party, among which, as also among + the Skopsen, the fanatical endeavour to mortify the flesh is + carried to the most extravagant length, are the Morelschiki + or Self-Flagellators, the Dumbies, who will not, even + under the severest tortures, utter a sound, etc. The + ever-increasing development of this sect-forming craze, + which found its way into several monasteries and nunneries, + led to repeated judicial investigations, the penitent + being sentenced for their fault to confinement in remote + convents, and the obdurate being visited with severe + corporal punishments and even with death. The chief sources + of information regarding the history, doctrine, and customs + of the “Men of God” and the Skopsen are their own numerous + spiritual songs, collected by Prof. Ivan Dobrotworski of + Kasan, which were sung in their assemblies for worship with + musical accompaniment and solemn dances. On these occasions + their prophets and prophetesses were wont to prophesy, and + a kind of sacramental supper was celebrated with bread and + water. The sacraments of the Lord’s supper and baptism, + as administered by the orthodox church, are repudiated + and scorned, the latter as displaced by the only effectual + baptism of the Spirit. They have, indeed, in order to avoid + persecution, been obliged to take part in the services of + the orthodox national church, and to confess to its priests, + avoiding, however, all reference to the sect.[484] + + + § 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS.[485] + + The mediæval scholastic philosophy had outlived itself, even in the +pre-Reformation age; yet it maintained a lingering existence side by +side with those new forms which the modern spirit in philosophy was +preparing for itself. We hear an echo of the philosophical ferment +of the sixteenth century in the Italian Dominican Campanella, and in +the Englishman Bacon of Verulam we meet the pioneer of that modern +philosophy which had its proper founder in Descartes. Spinoza, Locke, +and Leibnitz were in succession the leaders of this philosophical +development. Alongside of this philosophy, and deriving its weapons from +it for attack upon theology and the church, a number of freethinkers +also make their appearance. These, like their more radical disciples in +the following century, regarded Scripture as delusive, and nature and +reason as alone trustworthy sources of religious knowledge. + + § 164.1. =Philosophy.=--=Campanella= of Stilo in Calabria + entered the Dominican order, but soon lost taste for Aristotelian + philosophy and scholastic theology, and gave himself to the + study of Plato, the Cabbala, astrology, magic, etc. Suspected + of republican tendencies, the Spanish government put him in + prison in A.D. 1599. Seven times was he put upon the rack for + twenty-four hours, and then confined for twenty-seven years in + close confinement. Finally, in A.D. 1626, Urban VIII. had him + transferred to the prison of the papal Inquisition. He was set + free in A.D. 1629, and received a papal pension; but further + persecutions by the Spaniards obliged him to fly to his protector + Richelieu in France, where in A.D. 1639 he died. He composed + eighty-two treatises, mostly in prison, the most complete being + “_Philosophia Rationalis_,” in five vols. In his “_Atheismus + Triumphatus_” he appears as an apologist of the Romish system, + but so insufficiently, that many said _Atheismus Triumphans_ was + the more fitting title. His “_Monarchia Messiæ_” too appeared, + even to the Catholics, an abortive apology for the Papacy. In + his “_Civitas Solis_,” an imitation of the “Republic” of Plato, + he proceeded upon communistic principles.--=Francis Bacon of + Verulam=, long chancellor of England, died A.D. 1626, the great + spiritual heir of his mediæval namesake (§ 103, 8), was the + first successful reformer of the plan of study followed by the + schoolmen. With a prophet’s marvellous grasp of mind he organized + the whole range of science, and gave a forecast of its future + development in his “_De Augmentis_” and “_Novum Organon_.” + He rigidly separated the domain of _knowledge_, as that of + philosophy and nature, grasped only by experience, from the + domain of _faith_, as that of theology and the church, reached + only through revelation. Yet he maintained the position: + _Philosophia obiter libata a Deo abducit, plene hausta ad Deum + reducit_. He is the real author of empiricism in philosophy and + the realistic methods of modern times. His public life, however, + is clouded by thanklessness, want of character, and the taking of + bribes. In A.D. 1621 he was convicted by his peers, deprived of + his office, sentenced to imprisonment for life in the Tower, and + to pay a fine of £40,000; but was pardoned by the king.[486]--The + French Catholic =Descartes= started not from experience, but from + self-consciousness, with his “_Cogito, ergo sum_” as the only + absolutely certain proposition. Beginning with doubt, he rose + by pure thinking to the knowledge of the true and certain in + things. The imperfection of the soul thus discovered suggests + an absolutely perfect Being, to whose perfection the attribute + of being belongs. This is the ontological proof for the being of + God.--His philosophy was zealously taken up by French Jansenists + and Oratorians and the Reformed theologians of Holland, while + it was bitterly opposed by such Catholics as Huetius and such + Reformed theologians as Voetius.[487]--=Spinoza=, an apostate + Jew in Holland, died A.D. 1677, gained little influence over his + own generation by his profound pantheistic philosophy, which has + powerfully affected later ages. A violent controversy, however, + was occasioned by his “_Tractatus Theologico-politicus_,” in + which he attacked the Christian doctrine of revelation and the + authenticity of the O.T. books, especially the Pentateuch, and + advocated absolute freedom of thought.[488] + + § 164.2. =John Locke=, died A.D. 1704, with his sensationalism + took up a position midway between Bacon’s empiricism and + Descartes’ rationalism, on the one hand, and English deism and + French materialism, on the other. His “Essay concerning Human + Understanding” denies the existence of innate ideas, and seeks + to show that all our notions are only products of outer or + inner experience, of sensation or reflection. In this treatise, + and still more distinctly in his tract, “The Reasonableness of + Christianity,” intended as an apology for Christianity, and even + for biblical visions and miracles, as well as for the messianic + character of Christ, he openly advocated pure Pelagianism + that knows nothing of sin and atonement.[489]--=Leibnitz=, + a Hanoverian statesman, who died A.D. 1716, introduced the new + German philosophy in its first stage. The philosophy of Leibnitz + is opposed at once to the theosophy of Paracelsus and Böhme and + to the empiricism of Bacon and Locke, the pantheism of Spinoza, + and the scepticism and manichæism of Bayle. It is indeed a + Christian philosophy not fully developed. But inasmuch as at + the same time it adopted, improved upon, and carried out the + rationalism of Descartes, it also paved the way for the later + theological rationalism. The foundation of his philosophy is the + theory of monads wrought out in his “_Theodicée_” against Bayle + and in his “_Nouveaux Essais_,” against Locke. In opposition to + the atomic theory of the materialists, he regarded all phenomena + in the world as eccentricities of so called monads, _i.e._ + primary simple and indivisible substances, each of which is + a miniature of the whole universe. Out of these monads that + radiate out from God, the primary monad, the world is formed + into a harmony once for all admired of God: the theory of + pre-established harmony. This must be the best of worlds, + otherwise it would not have been. In opposition to Bayle, who + had argued in a manichæan fashion against God’s goodness and + wisdom from the existence of evil, Leibnitz seeks to show that + this does not contradict the idea of the best of worlds, nor that + of the Divine goodness and wisdom, since finity and imperfection + belong to the very notion of creature, a metaphysical evil from + which moral evil inevitably follows, yet not so as to destroy the + pre-established harmony. Against Locke he maintains the doctrine + of innate ideas, contests Clarke’s theory of indeterminism, + maintains the agreement of philosophy with revelation, which + indeed is above but not contrary to reason, and hopes to prove + his system by mathematical demonstration.[490]--Continuation, + § 171, 10. + + § 164.3. =Freethinkers.=--The tendency of the age to throw off + all positive Christianity first showed itself openly in England + as the final outcome of Levellerism (§ 162, 2). This movement + has been styled naturalism, because it puts natural in place of + revealed religion, and deism, because in place of the redeeming + work of the triune God it admits only a general providence of the + one God. On philosophic grounds the English deists affirmed the + impossibility of revelation, inspiration, prophecy, and miracle, + and on critical grounds rejected them from the Bible and history. + The simple religious system of deism embraced God, providence, + freedom of the will, virtue, and the immortality of the soul. The + Christian doctrines of the Trinity, original sin, satisfaction, + justification, resurrection, etc., were regarded as absurd and + irrational. Deism in England spread almost exclusively among + upper-class laymen; the people and clergy stood firmly to their + positive beliefs. Theological controversial tracts were numerous, + but their polemical force was in great measure lost by the + latitudinarianism of their authors.--The principal English deists + of the century were + + 1. =Edward Herbert of Cherbury=, A.D. 1581-1648, a nobleman + and statesman. He reduced all religion to five points: Faith + in God, the duty of reverencing Him, especially by leading + an upright life, atoning for sin by genuine repentance, + recompense in the life eternal. + + 2. =Thomas Hobbes=, A.D. 1588-1679, an acute philosophical + and political writer, looked on Christianity as an oriental + phantom, and of value only as a support of absolute monarchy + and an antidote to revolution. The state of nature is a + _bellum omnium contra omnes_; religion is the means of + establishing order and civilization. The state should decide + what religion is to prevail. Every one may indeed believe + what he will, but in regard to churches and worship he must + submit to the state as represented by the king. His chief + work is “Leviathan; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a + Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.” + + 3. =Charles Blount=, who died a suicide in A.D. 1693, a rabid + opponent of all miracles as mere tricks of priests, wrote + “Oracles of Reason,” “_Religio Laici_,” “Great is Diana + of the Ephesians,” and translated Philostratus’ “Life of + Apollonius of Tyana.” + + 4. =Thomas Browne=, A.D. 1635-1682, a physician, who in his + “_Religio Medici_” sets forth a mystical supernaturalism, + took up a purely deistic ground in his “Vulgar Errors,” + published three years later. + + Among the opponents of deism in this age the most notable are + Richard Baxter (§ 162, 3) and Ralph Cudworth, A.D. 1617-1688, + a latitudinarian and Platonist, who sought to prove the leading + Christian doctrines by the theory of innate ideas. He wrote + “Intellectual System of the Universe” in A.D. 1678. The pious + Irish scientist, Robert Boyle, founded in London, in A.D. 1691, + a lectureship of £40 a year for eight discourses against deistic + and atheistic unbelief.[491]--Continuation, § 171, 1. + + § 164.4. A tendency similar to that of the English deists was + represented in Germany by =Matthias Knutzen=, who sought to found + a freethinking sect. The Christian “Coran” contains only lies; + reason and conscience are the true Bible; there is no God, nor + hell nor heaven; priests and magistrates should be driven out of + the world, etc. The senate of Jena University on investigation + found that his pretension to 700 followers was a vain boast.--In + France the brilliant and learned sceptic =Peter Bayle=, + A.D. 1647-1706, was the apostle of a light-hearted unbelief. + Though son of a Reformed pastor, the Jesuits got him over to the + Romish church, but in a year and a half he apostatised again. He + now studied the Cartesian philosophy, as Reformed professor at + Sedan, vindicated Protestantism in several controversial tracts, + and as refugee in Holland composed his famous “_Dictionnaire + Historique et Critique_,” in which he avoided indeed open + rejection of the facts of revelation, but did much to unsettle + by his easy treatment of them.--Continuation, § 171, 3. + + + + + THIRD SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.[492] + + + + + I. The Catholic Church in East and West. + + + § 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. + + During the first half of the century the Roman hierarchy suffered +severely at the hand of Catholic courts, while in the second half storms +gathered from all sides, threatening its very existence. Portugal, +France, Spain, and Italy rested not till they got the pope himself to +strike the deathblow to the Jesuits, who had been his chief supporters +indeed, but who had now become his masters. Soon after the German +bishops threatened to free themselves and their people from Rome, +and what reforms they could not effect by ecclesiastical measures the +emperor undertook to effect by civil measures. Scarcely had this danger +been overcome when the horrors of the French Revolution broke out, which +sought, along with the Papacy, to overthrow Christianity as well. But, +on the other hand, during the early decades of the century Catholicism +had gained many victories in another way by the counter-reformation and +conversions. Its foreign missions, however, begun with such promise of +success, came to a sad end, and even the home missions faded away, in +spite of the founding of various new orders. The Jansenist controversy +in the beginning of the century entered on a new stage, the Catholic +church being driven into open semi-Pelagianism, and Jansenism into +fanatical excesses. The church theology sank very low, and the Catholic +supporters of “_Illumination_” far exceeded in number those who had +fallen away to it from Protestantism. + + § 165.1. =The Popes.=--=Clement XI.=, 1700-1721, protested in + vain against the Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg assuming + the crown as King Frederick I. of Prussia, on Jan. 18th, + A.D. 1701. In the Spanish wars of succession he sought to remain + neutral, but force of circumstances led him to take up a position + adverse to German interests. The new German emperor, Joseph I., + A.D. 1705-1711, scorned to seek confirmation from the pope, and + Clement consequently had the usual prayer for the emperor omitted + in the church services. The relations became yet more strained, + owing to a dispute about the _jus primarum precum_, Joseph + claiming the right to revenues of vacancies as the patron. In + A.D. 1707, the pope had the joy of seeing the German army driven + out, not only of northern Italy, but also of Naples by the French. + Again they came into direct conflict over Parma and Piacenza, + Clement claiming them as a papal, the emperor claiming them as + an imperial, fief. No pope since the time of Louis the Bavarian + had issued the ban against a German emperor, and Clement ventured + not to do so now. Refusing the invitation of Louis XIV. to go + to Avignon, he was obliged either unconditionally to grant the + German claims or to try the fortune of war. He chose the latter + alternative. The miserable papal troops, however, were easily + routed, and Clement was obliged, in A.D. 1708, to acknowledge + the emperor’s brother, the Grand-duke Charles, as king of Spain, + and generally to yield to Joseph’s very moderate demands. Clement + was the author of the constitution _Unigenitus_, which introduced + the second stage in the history of Jansenism. After the short + and peaceful pontificate of =Innocent XIII.= A.D. 1721-1724, + came =Benedict XIII.=, A.D. 1724-1730, a pious, well-meaning, + narrow-minded man, ruled by a worthless favourite, Cardinal + Coscia. He wished to canonize Gregory VII., in the fond hope + of thereby securing new favour to his hierarchical views, + but this was protested against by almost all the courts. All + the greater was the number of monkish saints with which he + enriched the heavenly firmament. He promised to all who on their + death-bed should say, “Blessed be Jesus Christ,” a 2,000 years’ + shortening of purgatorial pains. His successor =Clement XII.=, + A.D. 1730-1740, deprived the wretched Coscia of his offices, made + him disgorge his robberies, imposed on him a severe fine and ten + years’ imprisonment, but afterwards resigned the management of + everything to a greedy, grasping nephew. He was the first pope to + condemn freemasonry, A.D. 1736. =Benedict XIV.=, A.D. 1740-1758, + one of the noblest, most pious, learned, and liberal of the popes, + zealous for the faith of his church, and yet patient with those + who differed, moderate and wise in his political procedure, mild + and just in his government, blameless in life. He had a special + dislike of the Jesuits (§ 156, 12), and jestingly he declared, if, + as the curialists assert, “all law and all truth” lie concealed + in the shrine of his breast, he had not been able to find the key. + He wrote largely on theology and canon law, founded seminaries + for the training of the clergy, had many French and English + works translated into Italian, and was a liberal patron of + art. To check popular excesses he tried to reduce the number + of festivals, but without success.--Continuation, in Paragraphs + § 165, 9, 10, 13. + + § 165.2. =Old and New Orders.=--Among the old orders that of + =Clugny= had amassed enormous wealth, and attempts made by its + abbots at reformation led only to endless quarrels and divisions. + The abbots now squandered the revenues of their cloisters at + court, and these institutions were allowed to fall into disorder + and decay. When, in A.D. 1790, all cloisters in France were + suppressed, the city of Clugny bought the cloister and church + for £4,000, and had them both pulled down.--The most important + new orders were: + + 1. =The Mechitarist Congregation=, originated by Mechitar the + Armenian, who, at Constantinople in A.D. 1701, founded a + society for the religious and intellectual education of his + countrymen; but when opposed by the Armenian patriarch, fled + to the Morea and joined the United Armenians (§ 72, 2). In + A.D. 1712 the pope confirmed the congregation, which, during + the war with the Turks was transferred to Venice, and in + A.D. 1717 settled on the island St. Lazaro [Lazzaro]. Its + members spread Roman Catholic literature in Armenia and + Armenian literature in the West. At a later time there was + a famous Mechitarist college in Vienna, which did much by + writing and publishing for the education of the Catholic + youth. + + 2. =Frères Ignorantins=, or Christian Brothers, founded + in A.D. 1725 by De la Salle, canon of Rheims, for the + instruction of children, wrought in the spirit of the + Jesuits through France, Belgium, and North America. After + the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in A.D. 1724, they + took their place there till themselves driven out by the + Revolution in A.D. 1790.[493] + + 3. The =Liguorians or Redemptorists=, founded in A.D. 1732 + by Liguori, an advocate, who became Bishop of Naples in + A.D. 1762. He died in A.D. 1787 in his ninety-first year, + was beatified by Pius VII. in A.D. 1816, and canonized by + Gregory XVI. in A.D. 1839, and proclaimed _doctor ecclesiæ_ + by Pius IX. in A.D. 1871 as a zealous defender of the + immaculate conception and papal infallibility. His devotional + writings, which exalt Mary by superstitious tales of + miracles, were extremely popular in all Catholic countries. + His new order was to minister to the poor. He declared + the pope’s will to be God’s, and called for unquestioning + obedience. Only after the founder’s death did it spread + beyond Italy.--Continuation, § 186, 1. + + § 165.3. =Foreign Missions.=--In the accommodation controversy + (§ 156, 12), the Dominicans prevailed in A.D. 1742; but the + abolishing of native customs led to a sore persecution in + China, from which only a few remnants of the church were + saved. The Italian Jesuit Beschi, with linguistic talents of + the highest order, sought in India to make use of the native + literature for mission purposes and to place alongside of it + a Christian literature. Here the Capuchins opposed the Jesuits + as successfully as the Dominicans had in China. These strifes + and persecutions destroyed the missions.--The Jesuit state of + Paraguay (§ 156, 10) was put an end to in A.D. 1750 by a compact + between Portugal and Spain. The revolt of the Indians that + followed, inspired and directed by the Jesuits, which kept the + combined powers at bay for a whole year, was at last quelled, + and the Jesuits expelled the country in A.D. 1758.--Continuation + § 186, 7. + + § 165.4. =The Counter-Reformation= (§ 153, 2).--Charles XII. of + Sweden, in A.D. 1707, forced the Emperor Joseph I. to give the + Protestants of =Silesia= the benefits of the Westphalian Peace + and to restore their churches. But in =Poland= in A.D. 1717, + the Protestants lost the right of building new churches, and in + A.D. 1733 were declared disqualified for civil offices and places + in the diet. In the Protestant city of Thorn the insolence of + the Jesuits roused a rebellion which led to a fearful massacre + in A.D. 1724. The Dissenters sought and obtained protection + in Russia from A.D. 1767, and the partition of Poland between + Russia, Austria, and Prussia in A.D. 1772 secured for them + religious toleration. In =Salzburg= the archbishop, Count Firmian, + attempted in A.D. 1729 a conversion of the evangelicals by force, + who had, with intervals of persecution in the seventeenth century, + been tolerated for forty years as quiet and inoffensive citizens. + But in A.D. 1731 their elders swore on the host and consecrated + salt (2 Chron. xiii. 5) to be true to their faith. This “covenant + of salt” was interpreted as rebellion, and in spite of the + intervention of the Protestant princes, all the evangelicals, + in the severe winter of A.D. 1731, 1732, were driven, with + inhuman cruelty, from hearth and home. About 20,000 of them + found shelter in Prussian Lithuania; others emigrated to America. + The pope praised highly “the noble” archbishop, who otherwise + distinguished himself only as a huntsman and a drinker, and by + maintaining a mistress in princely splendour. + + § 165.5. In =France= the persecution of the Huguenots continued + (§ 153, 4). The “pastors of the desert” performed their duties at + the risk of their lives, and though many fell as martyrs, their + places were quickly filled by others equally heroic. The first + rank belongs to Anton Court, pastor at Nismes from A.D. 1715; he + died at Lausanne A.D. 1760, where he had founded a theological + seminary. He laboured unweariedly and successfully in gathering + and organizing the scattered members of the Reformed church, + and in overcoming fanaticism by imparting sound instruction. + Paul Rabaut, his successor at Nismes, was from A.D. 1730 to + 1785 the faithful and capable leader of the martyr church. The + judicial murder of =Jean Calas= at Toulouse in A.D. 1762 presents + a hideous example of the fanaticism of Catholic France. One of + his sons had hanged himself in a fit of passion. When the report + spread that it was the act of his father, in order to prevent + the contemplated conversion of his son, the Dominicans canonized + the suicide as a martyr to the Catholic faith, roused the mob, + and got the Toulouse parliament to put the unhappy father to the + torture of the wheel. The other sons were forced to abjure their + faith, and the daughters were shut up in cloisters. Two years + later Voltaire called attention to the atrocity, and so wrought + on public opinion that on the revision of the proceedings by the + Parisian parliament, the innocence of the ill-used family was + clearly proved. Louis XV. paid them a sum of 30,000 livres; but + the fanatical accusers, the false witnesses, and the corrupt + judges were left unpunished. This incident improved the position + of the Protestants, and in A.D. 1787 Louis XVI. issued the Edict + of Versailles, by which not only complete religious freedom + but even a legal civil existence was secured them, which was + confirmed by a law of Napoleon in A.D. 1802. + + § 165.6. =Conversions.=--Pecuniary interests and prospect of + marriage with a rich heiress led to the conversion, in A.D. 1712, + of Charles Alexander while in the Austrian service; but when he + became Duke of Württemburg [Württemberg] he solemnly undertook + to keep things as they were, and to set up no Catholic services + in the country save in his own court chapel. Of other converts + Winckelmann and Stolberg are the most famous. While Winckelmann, + the greatest of art critics, not a religious but an artistic + ultramontane, was led in A.D. 1754 through religious indifference + into the Romish church, the warm heart of Von Stolberg was + induced, mainly by the Catholic Princess Gallitzin (§ 172, 2) + and a French emigrant, Madame Montague, to escape the + chill of rationalism amid the incense fumes of the Catholic + services.--Continuation, § 175, 7. + + § 165.7. =The Second Stage of Jansenism= (§ 157, 5).--=Pasquier + Quesnel=, priest of the Oratory at Paris, suspected in 1675 of + Gallicanism, because of notes in his edition of the works of + Leo the Great, fled into the Netherlands, where he continued his + notes on the N.T. Used and recommended by Noailles, Archbishop + of Paris, and other French bishops, this “Jansenist” book was + hated by the Jesuits and condemned by a brief of Clement XI. + in A.D. 1708. The Jesuit confessor of Louis XIV., Le Tellier, + selected 101 propositions from the book, and induced the king to + urge their express condemnation by the pope. In the =Constitution + Unigenitus= of A.D. 1713, Clement pronounced these heretical, + and the king required the expulsion from parliament and church + of all who refused to adopt this bull, which caused a division + of the French church into _Acceptants_ and _Appellants_. As many + of the condemned propositions were quoted literally by Quesnel + from Augustine and other Fathers, or were in exact agreement + with biblical passages, Noailles and his party called for an + explanation. Instead of this the pope threatened them with + excommunication. In A.D. 1715 the king died, and under the Duke + of Orleans’ regency in A.D. 1717, four bishops, with solemn + appeal to a general council, renounced the papal constitution + as irreconcilable with the Catholic faith. They were soon + joined by the Sorbonne and the universities of Rheims and Nantes, + Archbishop Noailles, and more than twenty bishops, all the + congregations of St. Maur and the Oratorians with large numbers + of the secular clergy and the monks, especially of the Lazarists, + Dominicans, Cistercians, and Camaldulensians. The pope, after + vainly calling them to obey, thundered the ban against the + Appellants in A.D. 1718. But the parliament took the matter + up, and soon the aspect of affairs was completely changed. The + regent’s favourite, Dubois, hoping to obtain a cardinal’s hat, + took the side of the Acceptants and carried the duke with him, + who got the parliament in 1720 to acknowledge the bull, with + express reservation, however, of the Gallican liberties, and + began a persecution of the Appellants. Under Louis XV. the + persecution became more severe, although in many ways moderated + by the influence of his former tutor, Cardinal Fleury. Noailles, + who died in 1729, was obliged in 1728 to submit unconditionally, + and in A.D. 1730 the parliament formally ratified the bull. Amid + daily increasing oppression, many of the more faithful Jansenists, + mostly of the orders of St. Maur and the Oratory, fled to the + Netherlands, where they gave way more and more to fanaticism. In + 1727 a young Jansenist priest, Francis of Paris, died with the + original text of the appeal in his hands. His adherents honoured + him as a saint, and numerous reports of miracles, which had been + wrought at his grave in Medardus churchyard at Paris, made this a + daily place of pilgrimage to thousands of fanatics. The excited + enthusiasts, who fell into convulsions, and uttered prophecies + about the overthrow of church and state, grew in numbers and, + with that mesmeric power which fanaticism has been found in all + ages to possess powerfully influenced many who had been before + careless and profane. One of these was the member of parliament + De Montgeron, who, from being a frivolous scoffer, suddenly, in + 1732, fell into violent convulsions, and in a three-volumed work, + “_La Vérité des Miracles Opérés par l’Intercession de François + de Paris_,” 1737, came forward as a zealous apologist of the + party. The government, indeed, in 1732 ordered the churchyard + to be closed, but portions of earth from the grave of the saint + continued to effect convulsions and miracles. Thousands of + convulsionists throughout France were thrown into prison, and + in 1752, Archbishop Beaumont of Paris, with many other bishops, + refused the last sacrament to those who could not prove that + they had accepted the constitution. The grave of “St. Francis,” + however, was the grave of Jansenism, for fanatical excess + contains the seeds of dissolution and every manifestation of it + hastens the catastrophe. Yet remnants of the party lingered on + in France till the outbreak of the Revolution, of which they had + prophesied. + + § 165.8. =The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands.=--The + first Jesuits appeared in Holland in A.D. 1592. The form of piety + fostered by superior and inferior clergy in the Catholic church + there, a heritage from the times of the Brethren of the Common + Life (§ 112, 9), was directed to the deepening of Christian + thought and feeling; and this, as well as the liberal attitude + of the Archbishop of Utrecht, awakened the bitter opposition of + the Jesuits. At the head of the local clergy was Sasbold Vosmeer, + vicar-general of the vacant archiepiscopal see of Utrecht. Most + energetically he set himself to thwart the Jesuit machinations, + which aimed at abolishing the Utrecht see and putting the church + of Holland under the jurisdiction of the papal nuncio at Cologne. + On the ground of suspicions of secret conspiracy Vosmeer was + banished. But his successors refused to be overruled or set + aside by the Jesuits. Meanwhile in France the first stage of + the Jansenist controversy had been passed through. The Dutch + authorities had heartily welcomed the condemned book of their + pious and learned countryman; but when the five propositions + were denounced, they agreed in repudiating them, without, however, + admitting that they had been taught in the sense objected to by + Jansen. The Jesuits, therefore, charged them with the Jansenist + heresy, and issued in A.D. 1697 an anonymous pamphlet full of + lying insinuations about the origin and progress of Jansenism + in Holland. Its beginning was traced back to a visit of Arnauld + to Holland in A.D. 1681, and its effects were seen in the + circulation of prayer-books, tracts, and sermons, urging diligent + reading of Scripture, in the depreciation of the worship of Mary, + of indulgences, of images of saints and relics, rosaries and + scapularies (§ 186, 2), processions and fraternities, in the + rigoristic strictness of the confessional, the use of the + common language of the country in baptism, marriage, and extreme + unction, etc. The archbishop of that time, Peter Codde, in order + to isolate him, was decoyed to Rome, and there flattered with + hypocritical pretensions of goodwill, while behind his back his + deposition was carried out, and an apostolic vicar nominated for + Utrecht in the person of his deadly foe Theodore de Cock. But + the chapter refused him obedience, and the States of Holland + forbad him to exercise any official function, and under threat + of banishment of all Jesuits demanded the immediate return of + the archbishop. Codde was now sent down with the papal blessing, + but a formal decree of deposition followed him. Meanwhile the + government pronounced on his rival De Cock, who avoided a trial + for high treason by flight, a sentence of perpetual exile. But + Codde, though persistently recognised by his chapter as the + rightful archbishop, withheld on conscientious grounds from + discharging official duties down to his death in A.D. 1710. Amid + these disputes the Utrecht see remained vacant for thirteen years. + The flock were without a chief shepherd, the inferior clergy + without direction and support, the people were wrought upon + by Jesuit emissaries, and the vacant pastorates were filled by + the nuncio of Cologne. Thus it came about that of the 300,000 + Catholics remaining after the Reformation, only a few thousands + continued faithful to the national party, while the rest became + bitter and extreme ultramontanes, as the Catholic church of + Holland still is. Finally, in A.D. 1723, the Utrecht chapter + took courage and chose a new archbishop in the person of + Cornelius Steenowen. Receiving no answer to their request for + papal confirmation, the chapter, after waiting a year and a + half, had him and also his three successors consecrated by a + French missionary bishop, Varlet, who had been driven away by + the Jesuits. But in order to prevent the threatened loss of + legitimate consecration for future bishops after Varlet’s death + in A.D. 1742, a bishop elected at Utrecht was in that same year + ordained to the chapter of Haarlem, and in A.D. 1758 the newly + founded bishopric of Deventer was so supplied. All these, like + all subsequent elections, were duly reported to Rome, and a + strictly Catholic confession from electors and elected sent + up; but each time, instead of confirmation, a frightful ban + was thundered forth. This, however, did not deter the Dutch + government from formally recognising the elections.--Meanwhile + the second and last act of the Jansenist tragedy had been played + in France. Many of the persecuted Appellants sought refuge in + Holland, and the welcome accorded them seemed to justify the + long cherished suspicion of Jansenism against the people of + Utrecht. They repelled these charges, however, by condemning the + five propositions and the heresies of Quesnel’s book; but they + expressly refused the bull of Alexander VII. and its doctrine + of papal infallibility. This put a stop to all attempts at + reconciliation. The church of Utrecht meanwhile prospered. At + a council held at Utrecht in A.D. 1765 it styled itself “The + Old Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands,” acknowledged the + pope, although under his anathema, as the visible head of the + Christian church, accepted the Tridentine decrees as their creed, + and sent this with all the acts of council to Rome as proof of + their orthodoxy. The Jesuits did all in their power to overturn + the formidable impression which this at first made there; + and they were successful. Clement XIII. declared the council + null, and those who took part in it hardened sons of Belial. + But their church at this day contains, under one archbishop + and two bishops, twenty-six congregations, numbering 6,000 + souls.[494]--Continuation, § 200, 3. + + § 165.9. =Suppression of the Order of Jesuits, A.D. 1773.=--The + Jesuits had striven with growing eagerness and success after + worldly power, and instead of absolute devotion to the interests + of the papacy, their chief aim was now the erection of an + independent political and hierarchical dominion. Their love + of rule had sustained its first check in the overthrow of the + Jesuit state of Paraguay; but they had secured a great part of + the world’s trade (§ 156, 13), and strove successfully to control + European politics. The Jansenist controversy, however, had called + forth against them much popular odium; Pascal had made them + ridiculous to all men of culture, the other monkish orders were + hostile to them, their success in trade roused the jealousy of + other traders, and their interference in politics made enemies + on every hand. The Portuguese government took the first decided + step. A revolt in Paraguay and an attempt on the king’s life were + attributed to them, and the minister Pombal, whose reforms they + had opposed, had them banished from Portugal in A.D. 1759, and + their goods confiscated. =Clement XIII.=, A.D. 1758-1769, chosen + by the Jesuits and under their influence, protected them by a + bull; but Portugal refused to let the bull be proclaimed, led the + papal nuncio over the frontier, broke off all relations with Rome, + and sent whole shiploads of Jesuits to the pope. France followed + Portugal’s example when the general Ricci had answered the king’s + demand for a reform of his orders: _Sint ut sunt, aut non sint_. + For the enormous financial failure of the Jesuit La Valette, + the whole order was made responsible, and at last, in A.D. 1764, + banished from France as dangerous to the state. Spain, Naples, + and Parma, too, soon seized all the Jesuits and transported them + beyond the frontiers. The new papal election on the death of + Clement XIII. was a life and death question with the Jesuits, + but courtly influences and fears of a schism prevailed. The + pious and liberal Minorite Ganganelli mounted the papal throne + as =Clement XIV.=, A.D. 1769-1774. He began with sweeping + administrative reforms, forbad the reading of the bull _In cœna + Domini_ (§ 117, 3), and, pressed by the Bourbon court, issued in + A.D. 1773 the bull _Dominus ac Redemtor Noster_ suppressing the + Jesuit order. The order numbered 22,600 members and the pope felt, + in granting the bull, that he endangered his own life. Next year + he died, not without suspicion of poisoning. All the Catholic + courts, even Austria, put the decree in force. But the heretic + Frederick II. tolerated the order for a long time in Silesia, and + Catherine II. and Paul I. in their Polish provinces.--=Pius VI.=, + A.D. 1775-1799, in many respects the antithesis of his + predecessor, was the secret friend of the exiled and imprisoned + ex-Jesuits. After the outbreak of the French Revolution, a + proposal was made at Rome, in A.D. 1792, for the formal + restoration of the order, as a means of saving the seriously + imperilled church, but it did not find sufficient encouragement. + + § 165.10. =Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and + Italy.=--Even before Joseph II. could carry out his reforms in + ecclesiastical polity, the noble elector =Maximilian Joseph III.=, + A.D. 1745-1777, with greater moderation but complete success, + effected a similar reform in the Jesuit-overrun Bavaria. Himself + a strict Catholic, he asserted the supremacy of the state over a + foreign hierarchy, and by reforming the churches, cloisters, and + schools of his country he sought to improve their position. But + under his successor, Charles Theodore, A.D. 1777-1799, everything + was restored to its old condition.--Meanwhile a powerful voice + was raised from the midst of the German prelates that aimed a + direct blow at the hierarchical papal system. =Nicholas von + Hontheim=, the suffragan Bishop of Treves, had under the name + _Justinus Febronius_ published, in A.D. 1763, a treatise _De + Statu Ecclesiæ_, in which he maintained the supreme authority of + general councils and the independence of bishops in opposition to + the hierarchical pretensions of the popes. It was soon translated + into German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. The book + made a great impression, and Clement XIII. could do nothing + against the bold defender of the liberties of the church. In + A.D. 1778, indeed, Pius VI. had the poor satisfaction of extorting + a recantation from the old man of seventy-seven years, but he + lived to see yet more deadly storms burst upon the church. Urged + by Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, the pope, in A.D. 1785, + had made Munich the residence of a nuncio. The episcopal electors + of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, and the Archbishop of Salzburg, + seeing their archiepiscopal rights in danger, met in congress + at Ems in A.D. 1786, and there, on the basis of the Febronian + proofs, claimed, in the so called =Punctation of Ems=, practical + independence of the pope and the restoration of an independent + German national Catholic church. But the German bishops found + it easier to obey the distant pope than the near archbishops. + So they united their opposition with that of the pope, and the + undertaking of the archbishops came to nothing.--More threatening + still for the existence of the hierarchy was the reign of + =Joseph II.= in Austria. German emperor from A.D. 1765, and + co-regent with his mother Maria Theresa, he began, immediately + on his succession to sole rule in A.D. 1780, a radical reform of + the whole ecclesiastical institutions throughout his hereditary + possessions. In A.D. 1781 he issued his =Edict of Toleration=, + by which, under various restrictions, the Protestants obtained + civil rights and liberty of worship. Protestant places of worship + were to have no bells or towers, were to pay stole dues to the + Catholic priests, in mixed marriages the Catholic father had the + right of educating all his children and the Catholic mother could + claim the education at least of her daughters. By stopping all + episcopal communications with the papal curia, and putting all + papal bulls and ecclesiastical edicts under strict civil control, + the Catholic church was emancipated from Roman influences, set + under a native clergy, and made serviceable in the moral and + religious training of the people, and all her institutions that + did not serve this end were abolished. Of the 2,000 cloisters, + 606 succumbed before this decree, and those that remained were + completely sundered from all connexion with Rome. In vain the + bishops and Pius VI. protested. The pope even went to Vienna in + A.D. 1782; but though received with great respect, he could make + nothing of the emperor. Joseph’s procedure had been somewhat + hasty and inconsiderate, and a reaction set in, led by interested + parties, on the emperor’s early death in A.D. 1790.--The + Grand-duke =Leopold of Tuscany=, Joseph’s brother, with the + aid of the pious Bishop Scipio von Ricci, inclined to Jansenism, + sought also in a similar way to reform the church of his land + at the Synod of Pistoia, in A.D. 1786. But here too at last the + hierarchy prevailed. + + § 165.11. =Theological Literature.=--The Revocation of the Edict + of Nantes, A.D. 1685, gave the deathblow to the French Reformed + theology, but it also robbed Catholic theology =in France= of its + spur and incentive. The Huguenot polemic against the papacy, and + that of Jansenism against the semi-pelagianism of the Catholic + church, were silenced; but now the most rabid naturalism, atheism, + and materialism held the field, and the church theology was so + lethargic that it could not attempt any serious opposition. Yet + even here some names are worthy of being recorded. Above all, + =Bernard de Montfaucon= of St. Maur, the ablest antiquarian of + France, besides his classical works, issued admirable editions of + Athanasius, Chrysostom, Origen’s “_Hexapla_,” and the “_Collectio + Nova Patrum_.” =E. Renaudot=, a learned expert in the oriental + languages, wrote several works in vindication of the “_Perpétuité + de la Foi cath._,” a history of the Jacobite patriarchs of + Alexandria, etc., and compiled a “_Collectio liturgiarum + Oriental_,” in two vols. Of permanent worth is the “_Bibliotheca + Sacra_” of the Oratorian =Le Long=, which forms an admirable + literary-historical apparatus for the Bible. The learned Jesuit + =Hardouin=, who pronounced all Greek and Latin classics, with + few exceptions, to be monkish products of the thirteenth century, + and denied the existence of all pre-Tridentine general councils, + edited a careful collection of Acts of Councils in twelve vols. + folio in Paris, 1715, and compiled an elaborate chronology + of the Old Testament. His pupil, the Jesuit =Berruyer=, wrote + a romancing “_Hist. du Peuple de Dieu_,” which, though much + criticised, was widely read. Incomparably more important was + the Benedictine =Calmet=, died A.D. 1757, whose “_Dictionnaire de + la Bible_” and “_Commentaire Littéral et Critique_” on the whole + Bible are really most creditable for their time. And, finally, + the Parisian professor of medicine, =Jean Astruc=, deserves to + be named as the founder of the modern Pentateuch criticism, whose + “_Conjectures sur les Mémoires Originaux_,” etc., appeared in + Brussels A.D. 1753.--Within the limits of the French Revolution + the noble theosophist =St. Martin=, died A.D. 1805, a warm + admirer of Böhme, wrote his brilliant and profound treatises. + + § 165.12. =In Italy= the most important contributions were in + the department of history. =Mansi=, in his collection of Acts of + Councils in thirty-one vols. folio, A.D. 1759 ff., and =Muratori=, + in his “_Scriptores Rer. Italic._,” in twenty-eight vols., and + “_Antiquitt. Ital. Med. Ævi_,” in six vols., show brilliant + learning and admirable impartiality. =Ugolino=, in a gigantic + work, “_Thesaurus Antiquitt. ss._,” thirty-four folio vols., + A.D. 1744 ff., gathers together all that is most important for + biblical archæology. The three =Assemani=, uncle and two nephews, + cultured Maronites in Rome, wrought in the hitherto unknown + field of Syrian literature and history. The uncle, Joseph Simon, + librarian at the Vatican, wrote “_Bibliotheca Orientalis_,” + in four vols., A.D. 1719 ff., and edited Ephraem’s [Ephraim’s] + works in six vols. The elder nephew, Stephen Evodius, edited + the “_Acta ss. Martyrum Orient. et Occid._,” in two vols., + and the younger, Joseph Aloysius, a “_Codex Liturgicus Eccles. + Univ._,” in thirteen vols. Among dogmatical works the “_Theologia + hist.-dogm.-scholastica_,” in eight vols. folio, Rome, 1739, of + the Augustinian =Berti= deserves mention. =Zaccaria= of Venice, + in some thirty vols., proved an indefatigable opponent of + Febronianism, Josephinism, and such-like movements, and a careful + editor of older Catholic works. The Augustinian =Florez=, died + A.D. 1773, did for =Spain= what Muratori had done for Italy + in making collections of ancient writers, which, with the + continuations of the brethren of his order, extended to fifty + folio volumes.--In =Germany= the greatest Catholic theologian + of the century was =Amort=. Of his seventy treatises the + most comprehensive is the “_Theologia Eclectica, Moralis et + Scholastica_,” in four vols. folio, A.D. 1752. He conducted + a conciliatory polemic against the Protestants, contested + the mysticism of Maria von Agreda (§ 156, 5), and vigorously + controverted superstition, miracle-mongering, and all manner + of monkish extravagances. To the time of Joseph II. belongs the + liberal, latitudinarian supernaturalist =Jahn= of Vienna, whose + “Introduction to the Old Testament,” and “Biblical Antiquities” + did much to raise the standard of biblical learning. For + his anti-clericalism he was deprived of his professorship in + A.D. 1805, and died in A.D. 1816 a canon in Vienna. To this + century also belongs the greatly blessed literary labours of + the accomplished mystic, =Sailer=, beginning at Ingolstadt in + A.D. 1777, and continued at Dillingen from A.D. 1784. Deprived + in A.D. 1794 of his professorship on pretence of his favouring + the Illuminati, it was not till A.D. 1799 that he was allowed to + resume his academic work in Ingolstadt and Landshut. By numerous + theological, ascetical, and philosophical tracts, but far more + powerfully by his lectures and personal intercourse, he sowed + the seeds of rationalism, which bore fruit in the teachings + of many Catholic universities, and produced in the hearts of + many pupils a warm and deep and at the same time a gentle and + conciliatory Catholicism, which heartily greeted, even in pious + Protestants, the foundations of a common faith and life. Compare + § 187, 1.--Continuation, § 191. + + § 165.13. =The German-Catholic Contribution to the + Illumination.=--The Catholic church of Germany was also carried + away with the current of “the Illumination,” which from the + middle of the century had overrun Protestant Germany. While the + exorcisms and cures of Father Gassner in Regensburg were securing + signal triumphs to Catholicism, though these were of so dubious + a kind that the bishops, the emperor, and finally even the curia, + found it necessary to check the course of the miracle worker, + =Weishaupt=, professor of canon law in Ingolstadt, founded, + in A.D. 1776, the secret society of the =Illuminati=, which + spread its deistic ideas of culture and human perfectibility + through Catholic South Germany. Though inspired by deadly + hatred of the Jesuits, Weishaupt imitated their methods, and + so excited the suspicion of the Bavarian government, which, in + A.D. 1785, suppressed the order and imprisoned and banished its + leaders.--Catholic theology too was affected by the rationalistic + movement. But that the power of the church to curse still + survived was proved in the case of the Mainz professor, =Laurence + Isenbiehl=, who applied the passage about Immanuel, in Isaiah + vii. 14, not to the mother of Christ, but to the wife of the + prophet, for which he was deposed in A.D. 1774, and on account + of his defective knowledge of theology was sent back for two + years to the seminary. When in A.D. 1778 he published a learned + treatise on the same theme, he was put in prison. The pope too + condemned his exposition as pestilential, and Isenbiehl “as + a good Catholic” retracted. =Steinbühler=, a young jurist of + Salzburg, having been sentenced to death in A.D. 1781 for some + contemptuous words about the Catholic ceremonies, was pardoned, + but soon after died from the ill-treatment he had received. The + rationalistic movement got hold more and more of the Catholic + universities. In Mainz, =Dr. Blau=, professor of dogmatics, + promulgated with impunity the doctrine that in the course of + centuries the church has often made mistakes. In the Austrian + universities, under the protection of the Josephine edict, a + whole series of Catholic theologians ventured to make cynically + free criticisms, especially in the field of church history. At + Bonn University, founded in A.D. 1786 by the Elector-archbishop + of Cologne, there were teachers like =Hedderich=, who sportively + described himself on the title page of a dissertation as “_jam + quater Romæ damnatus_,” =Dereser=, previously a Carmelite monk, + who followed Eichhorn in his exposition of the biblical miracles, + and =Eulogius Schneider=, who, after having made Bonn too hot + for him by his theological and poetical recklessness, threw + himself into the French Revolution, for two years marched through + Alsace with the guillotine as one of the most dreaded monsters, + and finally, in A.D. 1794, was made to lay his own head on the + block.--At the Austrian universities, under the protection of + the tolerant Josephine legislation, a whole series of Catholic + theologians, Royko, Wolff, Dannenmayr, Michl, etc., criticised, + often with cynical plainness, the proceedings and condition of + the Catholic church. To this class also, in the first stage of + his remarkably changeful and eventful career, belongs Ign. Aur. + =Fessler=. From 1773, a Capuchin in various cloisters, last of + all in Vienna, he brought down upon himself the bitter hatred + of his order by making secret reports to the emperor about the + ongoings that prevailed in these convents. He escaped their + enmity by his appointment, in 1784, as professor of the oriental + languages and the Old Testament at Lemberg, but was in 1787 + dismissed from this office on account of various charges against + his life, teaching, and poetical writings. In Silesia, in 1791, + he went over to the Protestant church, joined the freemasons, + held at Berlin the post of a councillor in ecclesiastical and + educational affairs for the newly won Catholic provinces of + Poland, and, after losing this position in consequence of the + events of the war of 1806, found employment in Russia in 1809; + first, as professor of oriental languages at St. Petersburg, + and afterwards, when opposed and persecuted there also on + suspicion of entertaining atheistical views, as member of a legal + commission in South Russia. Meanwhile having gradually moved from + a deistical to a vague mystical standpoint, he was in 1819 made + superintendent and president of the evangelical consistory at + Saratov, with the title of an evangelical bishop, and after the + abolition of that office in 1833 he became general superintendent + at St. Petersburg, where he died in 1839. His romances and + tragedies as well as his theological and religious writings + are now forgotten, but his “Reminiscences of his Seventy Years’ + Pilgrimage,” published in 1824, are still interesting, and his + “History of Hungary,” in ten volumes, begun in 1812, is of + permanent value. + + § 165.14. =The French Contribution to the Illumination.=--The + age of Louis XIV., with the morals of its Jesuit confessors, the + lust, bigotry, and hypocrisy of its court, its dragonnades and + Bastille polemic against revivals of a living Christianity among + Huguenots, mystics, and Jansenists, its prophets of the Cevennes + and Jansenist convulsionists, etc., called forth a spirit of + freethinking to which Catholicism, Jansenism, and Protestantism + appeared equally ridiculous and absurd. This movement was + essentially different from English deism. The principle of + the English movement was _common sense_, the universal moral + consciousness in man, with the powerful weapon of rational + criticism, maintaining the existence of an ideal and moral + element in men, and holding by the more general principles of + religion. French naturalism, on the other hand, was a philosophy + of the _esprit_, that essentially French lightheartedness + which laughed away everything of an ideal sort with scorn and + wit. Yet there was an intimate relationship between the two. + The philosophy of common sense came to France, and was there + travestied into a philosophy _d’esprit_. The organ of this French + philosophy was the “_Encyclopédie_” of Diderot and D’Alembert, + and its most brilliant contributors, Montesquieu, Helvetius, + Voltaire, and Rousseau. =Montesquieu=, A.D. 1689-1755, whose + “_Esprit des Lois_” in two years passed through twenty-two + editions, wrote the “_Lettres Persanes_,” in which with biting + wit he ridiculed the political, social, and ecclesiastical + condition of France. =Helvetius=, A.D. 1715-1771, had his book, + “_De l’Esprit_,” burnt in A.D. 1759 by order of parliament, + and was made to retract, but this only increased his influence. + =Voltaire=, A.D. 1694-1778, although treating in his writings + of philosophical and theological matters, gives only a hash + of English deism spiced with frivolous wit, showing the same + tendency in his historical and poetical works, giving a certain + eloquence to the commonest and filthiest subjects, as in his + “_Pucelle_” and “_Candide_.” He obtained, however, an immense + influence that extended far past his own days. To the same class + belongs =Jean Jacques Rousseau=, A.D. 1712-1778, belonging to the + Roman Catholic church only as a pervert for seventeen years in + the middle of his life. Of a nobler nature than Voltaire, he + yet often sank into deep immorality, as he tells without reserve, + but also without any hearty penitence, in his _Confessions_. + His whole life was taken up with the conflict for his ideals + of freedom, nature, human rights, and human happiness. In + his “_Contrat Social_” of A.D. 1762, he commends a return + to the natural condition of the savage as the ideal end of + man’s endeavour. His “_Emile_” of A.D. 1761 is of epoch-making + importance in the history of education, and in it he eloquently + sets forth his ideal of a natural education of children, + while he sent all his own (natural) children to a foundling + hospital.--The physician =De la Mettrie=, who died at the court + of Frederick the Great in A.D. 1751, carried materialism to + its most extreme consequences, and the German-Frenchman Baron + =Holbach=, A.D. 1723-1789, wrote the “_Système de la Nature_,” + which in two years passed through eighteen editions.[495] + + § 165.15. These seeds bore fruit in the =French Revolution=. + Voltaire’s cry “_Écrasez l’infame_,” was directed against the + church of the Inquisition, the massacre of St. Bartholomew, + and the dragonnades, and Diderot had exclaimed that the world’s + salvation could only come when the last king had been strangled + with the entrails of the last priest. The constitutional National + Assembly, A.D. 1789-1791, wished to set aside, not the faith of + the people, but only the hierarchy, and to save the state from + a financial crisis by the goods of the church. All cloisters + were suppressed and their property sold. The number of bishops + was reduced to one half, all ecclesiastical offices without + a pastoral sphere were abolished, the clergy elected by the + people paid by the state, and liberty of belief recognised as + an inalienable right of man. The legislative National Assembly, + A.D. 1791, 1792, made all the clergy take an oath to the + constitution on pain of deposition. The pope forbad it under + the same threat. Then arose a schism. Some 40,000 priests who + refused the oath mostly quitted the country. Avignon (§ 110, 4) + had been incorporated in the French territory. The terrorist + National Convention, A.D. 1792-1795, which brought the king + to the scaffold on January 21st, A.D. 1793, and the queen on + October 16th, prohibited all Christian customs, on 5th October + abolished the Christian reckoning of time, and on November 7th + Christianity itself, laid waste 2,000 churches and converted + _Notre Dame_ into a _Temple de la Raison_, where a ballet-dancer + represented the goddess of reason. Stirred up by the fanatical + baron, “Anacharsis” Cloots, “the apostle of human freedom and the + personal enemy of Jesus Christ,” the Archbishop Gobel, now in his + sixtieth year, came forward, proclaiming his whole past life a + fraud, and owning no other religion than that of freedom. On the + other hand, the noble Bishop Gregoire of Blois, the first priest + to support the constitution, who voted for the abolition of + royalty, but not the execution of the king, was not driven by + the terrorism of the convention, of which he was a member, from + a bold and open profession of Christianity, appearing in his + clerical dress and unweariedly protesting against the vandalism + of the Assembly. Robespierre[496] himself said, “_Si Dieu + n’existait pas, il faudrait l’inventer_,” passed in A.D. 1794 + the resolution, _Le peuple français reconnait l’Être suprême et + l’immortalité de l’âme_, and issued an order to celebrate the + _fête de l’Être suprême_. The Directory, A.D. 1795-1799, restored + indeed Christian worship, but favoured the deistical sect of the + =Theophilanthropists=, whose high-swelling phrases soon called + forth public scorn, while in A.D. 1802 the first consul banished + their worship from all churches. But meanwhile, in A.D. 1798, in + order to nullify the opposition of the pope, French armies had + overrun Italy and proclaimed the Church States a Roman Republic. + =Pius VI.= was taken prisoner to France, and died in A.D. 1799 at + Valence under the rough treatment of the French, without having + in the least compromised himself or his office.[497] + + § 165.16. =The Pseudo-Catholics.= + + 1. =The Abrahamites or Bohemian Deists.= When Joseph II. issued + his edict of toleration in A.D. 1781, a sect which had + hitherto kept itself secret under the mask of Catholicism + made its appearance in the Bohemian province of Pardubitz. + The Abrahamites were descended from the old Hussites, + and professed to follow the faith of Abraham before his + circumcision. Their fundamental doctrine was deistic + monotheism, and of the Bible they accepted only the ten + commandments and the Lord’s Prayer. But as they would + neither attend the Jewish synagogue nor the churches of any + existing Christian sect, the emperor refused them religious + toleration, drove them from their homes, and settled them + in A.D. 1783 on the eastern frontiers. Many of them, in + consequence of persecution, returned to the Catholic church, + and even those who remained steadfast did not transmit their + faith to their children. + + § 165.17. + + 2. =The Frankists.=--Jacob Leibowicz, the son of a Jewish rabbi + in Galicia, attached himself in Turkey, where he assumed the + name of =Frank=, to the Jewish sect of the Sabbatarians, who, + repudiating the Talmud, adopted the cabbalistic book Sohar + as the source of their more profound religious teaching. + Afterwards in Podolia, which was then still Polish, he was + esteemed among his numerous adherents as a Messiah sent of + God. Bitterly hated by the rabbinical Jews, and accused of + indulging in vile orgies in their assemblies, many of those + Soharists were thrown into prison at the instigation of + Bishop Dembowski of Kaminetz. But when they turned and + accused their opponents of most serious crimes against + Christendom, and, at Frank’s suggestion, pointing out what + they alleged to be an identity between the book Sohar and + the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and incarnation, made + it known that they were inclined to become converts, they + won the favour of the bishop. He arranged a disputation + between the two parties, pronounced the Talmudists beaten, + confiscated all available copies of the Talmud, dragged + them through the streets tied to the tail of a horse, and + then burnt them. Dembowski, however, died soon after in + A.D. 1757, and the cathedral chapter expelled the Soharists + from Kaminetz. They appealed to King Augustus III. and to + Archbishop Lubienski of Lemberg, renewing their profession + of faith in the Trinity, and promising to be subject to the + pope. In a disputation with the Talmudists lasting three + days they sought to prove that the Talmudists used Christian + blood in their services, which afterwards led to the death + of five of the Jews thus accused. By Frank’s advice, who + took part neither in this nor in the former disputation, + but was the secret leader of the whole movement, they now + formally applied for admission into the Catholic church, + and their leader now entered Lemberg in great state. They + actually submitted to be thus driven by him, and 1,000 of + his adherents were baptized at Lemberg. Frank was baptized + at Warsaw under the name of =Joseph=, the king himself + acting as sponsor. In all Catholic journals this event was + celebrated as a signal triumph for the Catholic church. + But Frank among his own disciples continued to play the + _rôle_ of a miracle-working Messiah. Hence in A.D. 1760 + the Inquisition stepped in. Some of his followers were + imprisoned, others banished, and he himself as a heresiarch + condemned to confinement for life with hard labour, from + which after thirteen years he was liberated on the first + partition of Poland in A.D. 1772, through the favour of + Catherine II., who employed him as secret political agent. + Feeling that his life was insecure in Poland, he went to + Moravia, and at Brünn reorganized his numerous and attached + followers into a well-knit society, by which he was revered + as the incarnation of the Deity, and his beautiful daughter + Eva, brought up by her noble godmother, as “the divine + Emuna.” How he was permitted, under the protection of the + Catholic church, to continue here for sixteen years, playing + the _rôle_ of a Messiah, and to amass such wealth as enabled + him to purchase, in A.D. 1788, from the impoverished prince + of Homburg-Birstein his castle at Offenbach, with all the + privileges attached to it, is an insoluble mystery. He now + called himself Baron von Frank, formed with his followers + from Moravia and Poland a brilliant establishment, which + outwardly adhered to the Roman Catholic church, although he + very seldom attended the Catholic services. Frank died in + A.D. 1791, and was buried with great pomp, but without the + presence of the Catholic clergy. His daughter Eva was able + to maintain the extravagant establishment of her father + for twenty-six years, when the debt resting on the castle + reached three million florins. At last, in A.D. 1817, the + long-threatened catastrophe occurred. Eva died suddenly, + and a coffin said to contain her body was actually with + all decorum laid in the grave. + + + § 166. THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES. + + The oppressed condition of the orthodox church in the Ottoman empire +continued unchanged. It had a more vigorous development in Russia, +where its ascendency was unchallenged. Although the Russian church, +from the time of its obtaining an independent patriarchate at Moscow, +in A.D. 1589, was constitutionally emancipated from the mother church +of Constantinople, it yet continued in close religious affinity with it. +This was intensified by the adoption of the common confession, drawn up +shortly before by Peter Mogilas (§ 152, 3). The patriarchal constitution +in Russia, however, was but short-lived, for Peter I., in 1702, +after the death of the Patriarch Hadrian, abolished the patriarchate, +arrogated to himself as emperor the highest ecclesiastical office, +and in A.D. 1721 constituted “the Holy Synod,” to which, under the +supervision of a procurator guarding the rights of the state, he +assigned the supreme direction of spiritual and ecclesiastical affairs. +To these proposals the Patriarch of Constantinople gave his approval. +In this reform of the church constitution Theophanes Procopowicz, +Metropolitan of Novgorod, was the emperor’s right hand.--The +monophysite church of Abyssinia was again during this period the +scene of Christological controversies. + + § 166.1. =The Russian State Church.=--From the time of the + liturgical reformation of the Patriarch Nikon (§ 163, 10) a + new and peculiar =service of song= took the place of the old + unison style that had previously prevailed in the Russian church. + Without instrumental accompaniment, it was sustained simply by + powerful male voices, and was executed, at least in the chief + cities, with musical taste and charming simplicity. Among + the =theologians=, the above-named Procopowicz, who died in + A.D. 1736, occupied a prominent position. His “Handbook of + Dogmatics,” without departing from the doctrines of his church, + is characterized by learning, clearness of exposition, and + moderation. From the middle of the century, however, especially + among the superior clergy, there crept in a Protestant tendency, + which indeed held quite firmly by the old theology of the + œcumenical synods of the Greek Church, but set aside or laid + little stress upon later doctrinal developments. Even the + celebrated and widely used catechism, drawn up originally for the + use of the Grand-duke Paul Petrovich, by his tutor, the learned + Platón, afterwards Metropolitan of Moscow, was not quite free + from this tendency. It found yet more decided expression in + the dogmatic handbook of Theophylact, archimandrite of Moscow, + published in A.D. 1773.--Continuation, § 206, 1. + + § 166.2. =Russian Sects.=--To the sects of the seventeenth + century (§ 163, 10) are to be added spiritualistic gnostics of + the eighteenth, in which we find a blending of western ideas with + the old oriental mysticism. Among those were the =Malakanen=, or + consumers of milk, because, in spite of the orthodox prohibition, + they used milk during the fasts. They rejected all anointings, + even chrism and priestly consecration, and acknowledged only + spiritual anointing by the doctrine of Christ. They also + volatilized the idea of baptism and the Lord’s supper into that + of a merely spiritual cleansing and nourishing by the word of the + gospel. Otherwise they led a quiet and honourable life. More + important still in regard to numbers and influence were the + =Duchoborzen=. Although belonging exclusively to the peasant + class, they had a richly developed theological system of a + speculative character, with a notable blending of theosophy, + mysticism, Protestantism, and rationalism. They idealized the + doctrine of the sacraments after the style of the Quakers, would + have no special places of worship or an ordained clergy, refused + to take oaths or engage in military service, and led peaceable + and useful lives. They made their first appearance in Moscow in + the beginning of the eighteenth century under Peter the Great, + and spread through other cities of Old Russia.--Continuation, + § 210, 3. + + § 166.3. =The Abyssinian Church= (§§ 64, 1; 73, 2).--About the + middle of the century a monk appeared, proclaiming that, besides + the commonly admitted twofold birth of Christ, the eternal + generation of the Father and the temporal birth of the Virgin + Mary, there was a third birth through anointing with the Holy + Spirit in the baptism in Jordan. He thus convulsed the whole + Abyssinian church, which for centuries had been in a state of + spiritual lethargy. The _abuna_ with the majority of his church + held by the old doctrine, but the new also found many adherents. + The split thus occasioned has continued till the present time, + and has played no unimportant part in the politico-dynastic + struggles of the last ten years (§ 184, 9). + + + + + II. The Protestant Churches. + + + § 167. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE “THE ILLUMINATION.” + + By means of the founding of the University of Halle in A.D. 1694 +a fresh impulse was given to the pietist movement, and too often the +whole German Church was embroiled in violent party strifes, in which +both sides failed to keep the happy mean, and laid themselves open to +the reproach of the adversaries. Spener died in A.D. 1705, Francke in +A.D. 1727, and Breithaupt in A.D. 1732. After the loss of these leaders +the Halle pietism became more and more gross, narrow, unscientific, +regardless of the Church confession, frequently renouncing definite +beliefs for hazy pious feeling, and attaching undue importance to pious +forms of expression and methodistical modes of life. The conventionalism +encouraged by it became a very Pandora’s box of sectarianism and +fanaticism (§ 170, 1). But it had also set up a ferment in the church +and in theology which created a wholesome influence for many years. More +than 6,000 theologians from all parts of Germany had down to Francke’s +death received their theological training in Halle, and carried the +leaven of his spirit into as many churches and schools. A whole series +of distinguished teachers of theology now rose in almost all the +Lutheran churches of the German states, who, avoiding the onesidedness +of the pietists and their opponents, taught and preached pure doctrine +and a pious life. From Calixt they had learnt to be mild and fair +towards the Reformed and Catholic churches, and by Spener they had +been roused to a genuine and hearty piety. Gottfried Arnold’s protest, +onesided as it was, had taught them to discover, even among heretics +and sectaries, partial and distorted truths; and from Calov and Löscher +they had inherited a zeal for pure doctrine. Most eminent among these +were Albert Bengel, of Württemberg, who died in A.D. 1752, and Chr. Aug. +Crusius of Leipzig, who died in A.D. 1775. But when the flood of “the +Illumination” came rushing in upon the German Lutheran Church about the +middle of the century, it overflowed even the fields sown by these noble +men. + + § 167.1. =The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the + Halle University= (§ 159, 3).--Pietism, condemned by the orthodox + universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg, was protected and + encouraged in Halle. The crowds of students flocking to this new + seminary roused the wrath of the orthodox. The Wittenberg faculty, + with Deutschmann at its head, issued a manifesto in A.D. 1695, + charging Spener with no less than 264 errors in doctrine. Nor + were those of Leipzig silent, Carpzov going so far as to style + the mild and peace-loving Spener a _procella ecclesiæ_. Other + leading opponents of the pietists were Schelwig of Dantzig, + Mayer of Wittenberg, and Fecht of Rostock. When Spener died in + A.D. 1705 his opponents gravely discussed whether he could be + thought of as in glory. Fecht of Rostock denied that it could + be. Among the later champions of pure doctrine the worthiest + and ablest was the learned Löscher, superintendent at Dresden, + A.D. 1709-1747, who at least cannot be reproached with dead + orthodoxy. His “_Vollständiger Timotheus Verinus_,” two vols., + 1718, 1721, is by far the most important controversial work + against pietism.[498] Francis Buddeus of Jena for a long time + sought ineffectually to bring about a reconciliation between + Löscher and the pietists of Halle. In A.D. 1710 Francke and + Breithaupt obtained a valorous colleague in Joachim Lange; + but even he was no match for Löscher in controversy. Meanwhile + pietism had more and more permeated the life of the people, and + occasioned in many places violent popular tumults. In several + states conventicles were forbidden; in others, _e.g._ Württemberg + and Denmark, they were allowed. + + § 167.2. The orthodox regarded the pietists as a new sect, + with dangerous errors that threatened the pure doctrine of the + Lutheran Church; while the pietists maintained that they held by + pure Lutheran orthodoxy, and only set aside its barren formalism + and dead externalism for biblical practical Christianity. The + controversy gathered round the doctrines of the new birth, + justification, sanctification, the church, and the millennium. + + a. The new birth. The orthodox maintained that regeneration + takes place in baptism (§ 141, 13), every baptized person + is regenerate; but the new birth needs nursing, nourishment, + and growth, and, where these are wanting, reawakening. + The pietists identified awakening or conversion with + regeneration, considered that it was effected in later + life through the word of God, mediated by a corporeal and + spiritual penitential struggle, and a consequent spiritual + experience, and sealed by a sensible assurance of God’s + favour in the believer’s blessed consciousness. This + inward sealing marks the beginning, introduction into the + condition of babes in Christ. They distinguished a _theologia + viatorum_, _i.e._ the symbolical church doctrine, and a + _theologia regenitorum_, which has to do with the soul’s + inner condition after the new birth. They have consequently + been charged with maintaining that a true Christian who has + arrived at the stage of spiritual manhood may and must in + this life become free from sin. + + b. Justification and Sanctification. In opposition to an + only too prevalent externalizing of the doctrine of + justification, Spener has taught that only living faith + justifies, and if genuine must be operative, though not + meritorious. Only in faith proved to be living by a pious + life and active Christianity, but not in faith in the + external and objective promises of God’s word, lies the sure + guarantee of justification obtained. His opponents therefore + accused him of confounding justification and sanctification, + and depreciating the former in favour of the latter. + And, though not by Spener, yet by many of his followers, + justification was put in the background, and in a onesided + manner stress was laid upon practical Christianity. + Spener and Francke had expressly preached against worldly + dissipation and frivolity, and condemned dancing, the + theatre, card-playing, as detrimental to the progress of + sanctification, and therefore sinful; while the orthodox + regarded them as matters of indifference. Besides this, the + pietists held the doctrine of a day of grace, assigned to + each one within the limit of his earthly life (_terminism_). + + c. The Church and the Pastorate. Orthodoxy regarded word and + sacrament and the ministry which administered them as the + basis and foundation of the church; pietism held that the + individual believers determined the character and existence + of the church. In the one case the church was thought + to beget, nurse, and nourish believers; in the other + believers, constituted, maintained, and renewed the church, + accomplishing this best by conventicles, in which living + Christianity preserved itself and diffused its influence + abroad. The orthodox laid great stress upon clerical + ordination and the grace of office; pietists on the person + and his faith. Spener had taught that only he who has + experienced in his own heart the power of the gospel, + _i.e._ he who has been born again, can be a true preacher + and pastor. Löscher maintained that the official acts of an + unconverted preacher, if only he be orthodox, may be blessed + as well as those of a converted man, because saving power + lies not in the person of the preacher, but in the word of + God which he preaches, in its purity and simplicity, and in + the sacraments which he dispenses in accordance with their + institution. The pietists then went so far as absolutely + to deny that saving results could follow the preaching of + an unconverted man. The proclamation of forgiveness by the + church without the inward sealing had for them no meaning; + yea, they regarded it as dangerous, because it quieted + conscience and made sinners secure. Hence they keenly + opposed private confession and churchly absolution. Of a + special grace of office they would know nothing: the true + ordination is the new birth; each regenerate one, and such + a one only, is a true priest. The orthodox insisted above + all on pure doctrine and the church confession; the pietists + too regarded this as necessary, but not as the main thing. + Spener decidedly maintained the duty of accepting the church + symbols; but later pietists rejected them as man’s work, and + so containing errors. Among the orthodox, again, some went + so far as to claim for their symbols absolute immunity from + error. Spener’s opposition to the compulsory use of fixed + Scripture portions, prescribed forms of prayer, and the + exorcism formulary occasioned the most violent contentions. + On the other hand, his reintroduction of the confirmation + service before the first communion, which had fallen into + general desuetude, was imitated, and soon widely prevailed, + even among the orthodox. + + d. Eschatology. Spener had interpreted the biblical doctrine of + the 1,000 years’ reign as meaning that, after the overthrow + of the papacy and the conversion of heathens and Jews, a + period of the most glorious and undisturbed tranquillity + would dawn for the kingdom of Christ on earth as prelude + to the eternal sabbath. His opponents denounced this as + chiliasm and fanaticism. + + e. There was, finally, a controversy about Divine providence + occasioned by the founding of Francke’s orphan house at + Halle. The pietists pointed to the establishment and growth + of this institution as an instance of immediate divine + providence; while Löscher, by indicating the common means + employed to secure success, reduced the whole affair to the + domain of general and daily providence, without denying the + value of the strong faith in God and the active love that + characterized its founder, as well as the importance of the + Divine blessing which rested upon the work.[499] + + § 167.3. =Theology= (§ 159, 4).--The last two important + representatives of the =Old Orthodox School= were =Löscher=, who, + besides his polemic against pietism, made learned contributions + to biblical philology and church history; and his companion in + arms, =Cyprian= of Gotha, who died in A.D. 1745, the ablest + combatant of Arnold’s “_Ketzerhistorie_,” and opponent of union + efforts and of the papacy.--The =Pietist School=, more fruitful + in practical than scientific theology, contributed to devotional + literature many works that will never be forgotten. The learned + and voluminous writer =Joachim Lange=, who died A.D. 1744, the + most skilful controversialist among the Halle pietists, author + of the “Halle Latin Grammar,” which reached its sixtieth edition + in A.D. 1809, published a commentary on the whole Bible in + seven folio vols. after the Cocceian method. Of importance as + a historian of the Reformation was =Salig= of Wolfenbüttel, + who died in A.D. 1738. =Christian Thomasius= at first attached + himself to the pietists as an opponent of the rigid adherence + to the letter of the orthodox, but was repudiated by them as an + indifferentist. To him belongs the honour of having turned public + opinion against the persecution of witches (§ 117, 4). Out of + the contentions of pietists and orthodox there now rose a =third + school=, in which Lutheran theology and learning were united with + genuine piety and profound thinking, decided confessionalism with + moderation and fairness. Its most distinguished representatives + were =Hollaz= of Pomerania, died 1713 (“_Examen Theologicum + Acroamaticum_”); =Buddeus= of Jena, died 1729 (“_Hist. Ecclst. + V.T._,” “_Instit. Theol. Dogma_,” “_Isagoge Hist. Theol. Univ._”); + =J. Chr. Wolf= of Homburg, died 1739 (“_Biblioth. Hebr._,” “_Curæ + Philol. et Crit. in N.T._”); =Weismann= of Tübingen, died 1747 + (“_Hist. Ecclst._”); =Carpzov= of Leipzig, died A.D. 1767 as + superintendent at Lübeck (“_Critica s. V.T._,” “_Introductio + ad Libros cen. V.T._,” “_Apparatus Antiquitt. s. Codicis_”); + =J. H. Michaelis= of Halle, died 1731 (“_Biblia. Hebr. c. + Variis Lectionibus et Brev. Annott._,” “_Uberiores Annott. in + Hagiograph._”); assisted in both by his learned nephew =Chr. Ben. + Michaelis= of Halle, died 1764; =J. G. Walch= of Jena, died 1755 + (“_Einl. in die Religionsstreitigkeiten_,” “_Biblioth. Theol. + Selecta_,” “_Biblioth. Patristica_,” “_Luther’s Werke_”); =Chr. + Meth. Pfaff= of Tübingen, died 1760 (“_K. G., K. Recht, Dogmatik, + Moral_”); =L. von Mosheim= of Helmstädt [Helmstadt] and Göttingen, + died 1755, the father of modern church history (“_Institt. Hist. + Ecclst._,” “_Commentarii Rebus Christ. ante Constant. M._,” + “_Dissertationes_,” etc.); =J. Alb. Bengel= of Stuttgart, died + 1752 (“_Gnomon N.T._,” a commentary on the N.T. distinguished + by pregnancy of expression and profundity of thought; from + his interpretation of Revelation he expected the millennium to + begin in A.D. 1836); and =Chr. A. Crusius= of Leipzig, died 1775 + (“_Hypomnemata ad Theol. Propheticam._”)--A =fourth= theological + school arose out of the application of the mathematical + method of demonstration by the philosopher =Chr. von Wolff= + of Halle, who died A.D. 1754. Wolff attached himself to + the philosophical system of Leibnitz, and sought to unite + philosophy and Christianity; but under the manipulation of his + logico-mathematical method of proof he took all vitality out of + the system, and the pre-established harmony of the world became + a purely mechanical clockwork. He looked merely to the logical + accuracy of Christian truths, without seeking to penetrate their + inner meaning, gave formal exercise to the understanding, while + the heart was left empty and cold; and thus inevitably revelation + and mystery made way for a mere natural theology. Hence the + charge brought against the system of tending to fatalism and + atheism, not only by narrow pietists like Lange, but by able + and liberal theologians like Buddeus and Crusius, was quite + justifiable. By a cabinet order of Frederick William I. in + A.D. 1723 Wolff was deposed, and ordered within two days, + on pain of death, to quit the Prussian states. But so soon as + Frederick II. ascended the throne, in A.D. 1740, he recalled the + philosopher to Halle from Marburg, where he had meanwhile taught + with great success.[500] =Sig. Jac. Baumgarten=, the pious and + learned professor in Halle, who died in A.D. 1757, was the first + to introduce Wolff’s method into theology. In respect of contents + his theology occupies essentially the old orthodox ground. + The ablest promoter of the system was =John Carpov= of Weimar, + who died in A.D. 1768 (“_Theol. Revelata Meth. Scientifica + Adornata_”). When applied to sermons, the Wolffian method led + to the most extreme insipidity and absurdity. + + § 167.4. =Unionist Efforts.=--The distinguished theologian + Chr. Matt. Pfaff, chancellor of the University of Tübingen, who, + without being numbered among the pietists, recognised in pietism + a wholesome reaction against the barren worship of the letter + which had characterized orthodoxy, regarded a union between + the Lutheran and Reformed churches on their common beliefs, + which in importance far exceeded the points of difference, as + both practicable and desirable; and in A.D. 1720 expressed this + opinion in his “_Alloquium Irenicum ad Protestantes_,” in which + he answered the challenge of the “_Corpus Evangelicorum_” at + Regensburg (§ 153, 1). His proposal, however, found little favour + among Lutheran theologians. Not only Cyprian of Gotha, but even + such conciliatory theologians as Weismann of Tübingen and Mosheim + of Helmstädt [Helmstadt], opposed it. But forty years later a + Lutheran theologian, Heumann of Göttingen, demonstrated that “the + Reformed doctrine of the supper is true,” and proposed, in order + to end the schism, that Lutherans should drop their doctrine + of the supper and the Reformed their doctrine of predestination. + This pamphlet, edited after the author’s death by Sack of Berlin, + in A.D. 1764, produced a great sensation, and called forth a + multitude of replies on the Lutheran side, the best of which + were those of Walch of Jena and Ernesti of Leipzig. Even within + the Lutheran church, however, it found considerable favour. + + § 167.5. =Theories of Ecclesiastical Law.=--Of necessity during + the first century of the Protestant church its government was + placed in the hands of the princes, who, because there were no + others to do so, dispensed the _jura episcopalia_ as _præcipua + membra ecclesiæ_. What was allowed at first in the exigency of + these times came gradually to be regarded as a legal right. + Orthodox theology and the juristic system associated with it, + especially that of Carpzov, justified this assumption in what + is called the =episcopal system=. This theory firmly maintains + the mediæval distinction between the spiritual and civil powers + as two independent spheres ordained of God; but it installs the + prince as _summus episcopus_, combining in his person the highest + spiritual with the highest civil authority. In lands, however, + where more than one confession held sway, or where a prince + belonging to a different section of the church succeeded, the + practical difficulties of this theory became very apparent; as, + _e.g._, when a Reformed or Romish prince had to be regarded as + _summus episcopus_ of a Lutheran church. Driven thus to seek + another basis for the claims of royal supremacy, a new theory, + that of the =territorial system=, was devised, according to + which the prince possessed highest ecclesiastical authority, not + as _præcipuum membrum ecclesiæ_, but as sovereign ruler in the + state. The headship of the church was therefore not an independent + prerogative over and above that of civil government, but an + inherent element in it: _cujus regio, illius et religio_. The + historical development of the German Reformation gave support to + this theory (§ 126, 6), as seen in the proceedings of the Diet of + Spires in A.D. 1526, in the Augsburg and Westphalian Peace. + A scientific basis was given it by Puffendorf of Heidelberg, + died A.D. 1694, in alliance with Hobbes (§ 163, 3). It was + further developed and applied by Christian Thomasius of Halle, + died A.D. 1728, and by the famous J. H. Böhmer in his “_Jus + Ecclesiasticum Potestantium_.” Thomasius’ connexion with the + pietists and his indifference to confessions secured for the + theory a favourable reception in that party. Spener himself + indeed preferred the Calvinistic presbyterial constitution, + because only in it could equality be given to all the three + orders, _ministerium ecclesiasticum_, _magistratus politicus_, + _status œconomicus_. This protest by Spener against the two + systems was certainly not without influence upon the construction + of a third theory, the =collegial system=, proposed by Pfaff of + Tübingen, died A.D. 1760. According to this scheme there belonged + to the sovereign as such only the headship of the church, _jus + circa sacra_, while the _jura in sacra_, matters pertaining to + doctrine, worship, ecclesiastical law and its administration, + installation of clergy, and excommunication, as _jura + collegialia_, belonged to the whole body of church members. The + normal constitution therefore required the collective vote of + all the members through their synods. But outward circumstances + during the Reformation age had necessitated the relegating the + discharge of these collegial rights to the princes, which in + itself was not unallowable, if only the position be maintained + that the prince acts _ex commisso_, and is under obligation to + render an account to those who have commissioned him. This system, + on account of its democratic character, found hearty supporters + among the later rationalists. But as a matter of fact nowhere + was any of the three systems consistently carried out. The + constitution adopted in most of the national churches was a + weak vacillation between all the three.[501] + + § 167.6. =Church Song= (§ 159, 3) received, during the first half + of the century, many valuable contributions. Two main groups of + singers may be distinguished: + + 1. The pietistic school, characterized by a biblical and + practical tendency. The spiritual life of believers, the + work of grace in conversion, growth in holiness, the varying + conditions and experiences of the religious life, were + favourite themes. They were fitted, not so much for use + in the public services, as for private devotion, and few + comparatively have been retained in collections of church + hymns. The later productions of this school sank more and + more into sentimentalism and allegorical and fanciful play + of words. We may distinguish among the Halle pietists an + older school, A.D. 1690-1720, and a younger, A.D. 1720-1750. + The former, coloured by the fervent piety of Francke, + produced simple, hearty, and often profound songs. The most + distinguished representatives were =Freylinghausen=, died + A.D. 1739, Francke’s son-in-law, and director of the Halle + Orphanage, editor in A.D. 1717 of a hymn-book widely used + among the pietists, was author of the hymns “Pure Essence, + spotless Fount of Light,” “The day expires;” =Chr. Fr. + Richter=, physician to the Orphanage, died A.D. 1711, author + of thirty-three beautiful hymns, including “God, whom I as + Love have known;” =Emilia Juliana=, Countess of Schwarzburg + Rudolstadt, died A.D. 1706, who wrote 586 hymns, including + “Who knows how near my end may be?” =Schröder=, pastor in + Magdeburg, died A.D. 1728, wrote “One thing is needful: Let + me deem;” =Winckler=, cathedral preacher of Magdeburg, died + A.D. 1722, author of “Strive, when thou art called of God;” + =Dessler=, rector of Nuremburg, died A.D. 1722, composer + of “I will not let Thee go, Thou help in time of need,” “O + Friend of souls, how well is me;” =Gotter=, died A.D. 1735, + who wrote, “O Cross, we hail thy bitter reign;” =Cresselius=, + pastor in Dusseldorf [Düsseldorf], author of “Awake, O man, + and from thee shake.” The younger Halle school represents + pietism in its period of decay. Its best representatives + are =J. J. Rambach=, professor at Giessen, died A.D. 1735, + who wrote “I am baptized into thy name;” =Allendorf=, court + preacher at Cöthen, died A.D. 1773, editor of a collection + of poetic renderings from the Canticles. + + 2. The poets of the orthodox party, although opposed to the + pietists, are all more or less touched by the fervent piety + of Spener. =Neumeister=, pastor at Hamburg, died A.D. 1756, + was an orthodox hymn-writer of thoroughly conservative + tendencies, zealously opposing the onesidedness of pietism, + with a strong, ardent faith in the orthodox creed, but + without much significance as a poet. =Schmolck=, pastor + at Schweidnitz, died A.D. 1737, wrote over 1,000 hymns, + including “Blessed Jesus, here we stand,” “Hosanna to the + Son of David! Raise,” “Welcome, thou Victor in the strife.” + =Sol. Franck=, secretary to the consistory at Weimar, died + A.D. 1725, wrote over 300 hymns, including “Rest of the + weary, thou thyself art resting now.” The mediating party + between pietism and orthodoxy, represented by Bengel and + Crusius in theology, is represented among hymn-writers + by =J. Andr. Rothe=, died A.D. 1758, and by =Mentzer=, + died A.D. 1734, composer of “Oh, would I had a thousand + tongues!” In A.D. 1750 J. Jac. von Moser collected a + list of 50,000 spiritual songs printed in the German + language.--Continuation, § 171, 1. + + § 167.7. =Sacred Music= (§ 159, 5).--Decadence of musical taste + accompanied the lowering of the poetic standard, and pietists + went even further than the orthodox in their imitation and + adaptation of operatic airs. =Freylinghausen=, not only himself + composed many such melodies, but made a collection from various + sources in A.D. 1704, retaining some of the more popular of the + older tunes.--There now arose, amid all this depravation of taste, + a noble musician, who, like the good householder, could bring + out of his treasure things new and old. =J. Seb. Bach=, the most + perfect organist who ever lived, was musical director of the + School of St. Thomas, Leipzig, and died A.D. 1750. He turned + enthusiastically to the old chorale, which no one had ever + understood and appreciated as he did. He harmonized the old + chorales for the organ, made them the basis for elaborate organ + studies, gave expression to his profoundest feelings in his + musical compositions and in his recitatives, duets, and airs, + reproduced at the sacred concerts many fine old chorales wedded + to most appropriate Scripture passages. He is for all times + the unrivalled master in fugue, harmony, and modulation. In his + passion music we have expression given to the profoundest ideas + of German Protestantism in the noblest music. After Bach comes a + master in oratorio music hitherto unapproached, =G. Fr. Handel= + of Halle, who, from A.D. 1710 till his death in A.D. 1759, + lived mostly in England. For twenty-five years he wrought for + the opera-house, and only in his later years gave himself to + the composing of oratorios. His operas are forgotten, but his + oratorios will endure to the end of time. His most perfect + work is the “Messiah,” which Herder describes as a Christian + epic in music. Of his other great compositions, “Samson,” + “Judas Maccabæus,” and “Jephtha” may be mentioned.[502] + + § 167.8. =The Christian Life and Devotional Literature.=--Pietism + led to a powerful revival of religious life among the people, + which it sustained by zealous preaching and the publication of + devotional works. A similar activity displayed itself among the + orthodox. Francke began his charitable labours with seven florins; + but with undaunted faith he started his Orphanage, writing over + its door the words of Isaiah xl. 31. In faith and benevolence + Woltersdorff was a worthy successor of Francke; and Baron von + Canstein applied his whole means to the founding of the Bible + Institute of Halle. Missions too were now prosecuted with a zeal + and success which witnessed to the new life that had arisen in + the Lutheran church.--A remarkable manifestation of the pietistic + spirit of this age is seen in =The Praying Children in Silesia=, + A.D. 1707. Children of four years old and upward gathered in open + fields for singing and prayer, and called for the restoration of + churches taken away by the Catholics. The movement spread over + the whole land. In vain was it denounced from the pulpits and + forbidden by the authorities. Opposition only excited more and + more the zeal of the children. At last the churches were opened + for their services. The excitement then gradually subsided. It + was, however, long a subject of discussion between the pietists + and the orthodox; the latter denouncing it as the work of the + devil, the former regarding it as a wonderful awakening of God’s + grace.--Best remembered of the many devotional writers of this + period are Bogatsky of Halle, died A.D. 1774, whose “Golden + Treasury” is still highly esteemed;[503] and Von Moser, died + A.D. 1785, who lived a noble and exemplary life at Stuttgart + amid much sore persecution. The great need of simple explanation + of Scripture appears from the great sale of such popular + commentaries as those of Pfaff at Tübingen, 1730, Starke at + Leipzig, 1741, and the Halle Bible of S. J. Baumgarten, 1748. + + § 167.9. =Missions to the Heathen.=--The quickening of + religious life by pietism bore fruit in new missionary activity. + Frederick IV. of Denmark founded in his East Indian possessions + the Tranquebar mission in A.D. 1706, under Ziegenbalg and + Plutschau. Ziegenbalg, who translated the New Testament into + Tamil, died in A.D. 1719. From the Danish possessions this + mission carried its work over into the English Indian territories. + Able and zealous workers were sent out from the Halle Institute, + of whom the greatest was Chr. Fr. Schwartz, who died in A.D. 1798, + after nearly fifty years of noble service in the mission field. + In the last quarter of the century, however, under the influence + of rationalism, zeal for missions declined, the Halle society + broke up, and the English were allowed to reap the harvest + sown by the Lutherans. The Halle professor Callenberg founded + in A.D. 1728 a society for the conversion of the Jews, in the + interests of which Stephen Schultz travelled over Europe, Asia, + and Africa, preaching the Cross among the Jews. Christianity had + been introduced among the Eskimos in Greenland in the eleventh + century (§ 93, 5), but the Scandinavian colony there had been + forgotten, and no trace of the religion which it had taught any + longer remained. This reproach to Christianity lay sore on the + heart of Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, and he found no rest + till, supported by a Danish-Norwegian trading house, he sailed + with his family in A.D. 1721 for these frozen and inhospitable + shores. Amid almost inconceivable hardships, and with at first + but little success, he continued to labour unweariedly, and even + after the trading company abandoned the field he remained. In + A.D. 1733 he had the unexpected joy of welcoming three Moravian + missionaries, Christian David and the brothers Stach. His joy + was too soon dashed by the spiritual pride of the new arrivals, + who insisted on modelling everything after their own Moravian + principles, and separated themselves from the noble Egede, when + he refused to yield, as an unspiritual and unconverted man. Egede, + on the other hand, though deeply offended at their confounding + justification and sanctification, their contempt of pure doctrine, + and their unscriptural views and mode of speech, was ready to + attribute all this to their defective theological training. + He rewarded their unkindness, when they were stricken down in + sore sickness, with unwearied, loving care. In A.D. 1736 he + returned to Denmark, leaving his son Paul to carry on his work, + and continued director of the Greenland Mission Seminary in + Copenhagen till his death in A.D. 1758.[504]--Continuation, + § 171, 5. + + + § 168. THE CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN.[505] + + The highly gifted Count Zinzendorf, inspired even as a boy, out of +fervent love to the Saviour, with the idea of gathering together the +lovers of Jesus, took occasion of the visit of some Moravian Exultants +to his estate to realize his cherished project. On the Hutberg he +dropped the mustard seed of the dream of his youth into fertile soil, +where, under his fervent care, it soon grew into a stately tree, whose +branches spread over all European lands, and thence through all parts +of the habitable globe. The society which he founded was called “The +Society of the United Brethren.” The fact that this society was not +overwhelmed by the extravagances to which for a time it gave way, that +its fraternising with the fanatics, the extravagant talk in which its +members indulged about a special covenant with the Saviour, and their +not over-modest claims to a peculiar rank in the kingdom of God, did not +lead to its utter overthrow in the abyss of fanaticism, and that on the +slippery paths of its mystical marriage theory it was able to keep its +feet, presents a phenomenon, which stands alone in church history, and +more than anything else proves how deeply rooted founder and followers +were in the saving truths of the gospel. The count himself laid aside +many of his extravagances, and what still remained was abandoned by +his sensible and prudent successor Spangenberg, so far as it was not +necessarily involved in the fundamental idea of a special covenant +with the Saviour. The special service rendered by the society was +the protest which it raised against the generally prevailing apostasy. +During this period of declension it saved the faith of many pious souls, +affording them a welcome refuge, with rich spiritual nourishment and +nurture. With the reawakening of the religious life in the nineteenth +century, however, its adherents lost ground in Europe more and more, +by maintaining their old onesidedness in life and doctrine, their +depreciatory estimate of theological science, and the quarrelsome spirit +which they generally manifested. But in one province, that of missions +to the heathen, their energy and success have never yet been equalled. +Their thorough and well-organized system of education also deserves +particular mention. At present the Society of the Brethren numbers half +a million, distributed among 100 settlements or thereabout. + + § 168.1. =The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood=, Nic. Ludwig + Count von =Zinzendorf= and Pottendorf, was born in Dresden in + A.D. 1700. Spener was one of his sponsors at baptism. His father + dying early, and his mother marrying a second time, the boy, + richly endowed with gifts of head and heart, was brought up by + his godly pietistic grandmother, the Baroness von Gersdorf. There + in his earliest youth he learned to seek his happiness in the + closest personal fellowship with the Lord, and the tendency of + his whole future life to yield to the impulses of pious feeling + already began to assert itself. In his tenth year he entered the + Halle Institute under Francke, where the pietistic idea of the + need of the _ecclesiolæ in ecclesia_ took firm possession of his + heart. Even in his fifteenth year he sought its realization by + founding among his fellow students “The Order of the Grain of + Mustard Seed” (Matt. xiii. 31). After completing his school + course, his uncle and guardian, in order to put an end to his + pietistic extravagances, sent him to study law at the orthodox + University of Wittenberg. Here he had at first to suffer a sort + of martyrdom as a rigid pietist swimming against the orthodox + current. His residence at Wittenberg, however, was beneficial + to him in freeing him unconsciously of the Halle pietism, + which had restrained his spiritual development. He did indeed + firmly maintain the fundamental idea of pietism, _ecclesiolæ + in ecclesia_, but in his mind it gained a wider significance + than pietism had given it. His endeavours to secure a personal + conference, and where possible a union, between the Halle + and Wittenberg leaders were unsuccessful. In A.D. 1719 he + left Wittenberg and travelled for two years, visiting the most + distinguished representatives of all confessions and sects. This + too fostered his idea of a grand gathering of all who love the + Lord Jesus. On his return home, in A.D. 1721, at the wish of his + relatives he entered the service of the Saxon government. But a + religious genius like Zinzendorf could find no satisfaction in + such employment. And soon an opportunity presented itself for + carrying out the plan to which his thoughts and longings were + directed.[506] + + § 168.2. =The Founding of the Brotherhood=, A.D. 1722-1727. The + Schmalcald, and still more the Thirty Years’ War, had brought + frightful suffering and persecution upon the Bohemian and + Moravian Brethren. Many of them sought refuge in Poland and + Prussia. One of the refugees was the famous educationist J. Amos + Comenius, who died in A.D. 1671, after having been bishop of the + Moravians at Lissa in Posen from 1648. Those who remained behind + were, even after the Peace of Westphalia, subjected to the + cruellest oppression! Only secretly in their houses and at the + risk of their lives could they worship God according to the faith + of their fathers; and they were obliged publicly to profess their + adherence to the Romish church. Thus gradually the light of the + gospel was extinguished in the homes of their descendants, and + only a tradition, becoming ever more and more faint, remained + as a memory of their ancestral faith. A Moravian carpenter, + Christian David, born and reared in the Romish church, but + converted by evangelical preaching, succeeded in the beginning + of the eighteenth century in fanning into a flame again in some + families the light that had been quenched. This little band of + believers, under David’s leading, went forth in A.D. 1722 and + sought refuge on Zinzendorf’s estate in Lusatia. The count was + then absent, but the steward, with the hearty concurrence of + the count’s grandmother, gave them the Hutberg at Berthelsdorf + as a settlement. With the words of Psalm lxxxiv. 4 on his lips, + Christian David struck the axe into the tree for building the + first house. Soon the little town of Herrnhut had arisen, as + the centre of that Christian society which Zinzendorf now sought + with all his heart and strength to develop and promote. Gradually + other Moravians dropped in, but a yet greater number from far and + near streamed in, of all sorts of religious revivalists, pietists, + separatists, followers of Schwenckfeld, etc. Zinzendorf had no + thought of separation from the Lutheran church. The settlers were + therefore put under the pastoral care of Rothe, the worthy pastor + of Berthelsdorf (§ 167, 6). To organize such a mixed multitude + was no easy task. Only Zinzendorf’s glorious enthusiasm for + the idea of a congregation of saints, his eminent organizing + talents, the wonderful elasticity and tenacity of his will, + the extraordinary prudence, circumspection, and wisdom of his + management, made it possible to cement the incongruous elements + and avoid an open breach. The Moravians insisted upon restoring + their old constitution and discipline, and of the others, each + wished to have prominence given to whatever he thought specially + important. Only on one point were they all agreed, the duty of + refusing to conform to the Lutheran church and its pastor Rothe. + The count, therefore, felt obliged to form a new and separatist + society. Personally he had no special liking for the old Moravian + constitution; but the lot decided in its favour, while the idea + of continuing a pre-Reformation martyr church was not without a + certain charm. Thus Zinzendorf drew up a constitution with old + Moravian forms and names, on the basis of which the colony was + established, August 13th, A.D. 1727, under the name of the United + Brotherhood. + + § 168.3. =The Development of the Brotherhood down to Zinzendorf’s + Death=, A.D. 1727-1760.--With great energy the new society + proceeded to found settlements in Germany, Holland, England, + Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and North America, as well as among + German residents in other lands. In A.D. 1734, Zinzendorf + submitted to examination at Tübingen as candidate for license, + and in A.D. 1737 received episcopal consecration from the Berlin + court preacher, Jablonsky, who was at the same time bishop of + the Moravian Brethren, which the same prelate had two years + previously granted to Dr. Nitschmann, another member of the + society. The efforts of the Brethren to spread their cause now + attracted attention. The Saxon government in A.D. 1736 sent to + Herrnhut a commission, of which Löscher was a member. But in + A.D. 1736, before it submitted its report, which on the whole + was favourable, Zinzendorf quitted the country, probably by the + elector’s command at the instigation of the Austrian government, + which objected to the harbouring of so many Bohemian and Moravian + emigrants. Like all those at this time persecuted on account + of religion he took refuge in Wetterau (§ 170, 2). With his + little family of pilgrims he settled at Ronneburg near Büdingen, + founded the prosperous churches of Marienborn and Herrnhaag, and + travelled extensively in Europe and America. This period of exile + was the period when the society was most successful in spreading + outwardly, but it was also the period when it suffered most from + troubles and dissensions within. It was bitterly attacked by + Lutheran theologians, and much more venomously by apostates from + its own fold. The Brethren at this time afforded only too much + ground for misunderstanding and reproach. To this period belongs + the famous fiction of a special covenant, the Pandora-box + of all other absurdities; the development of the count’s own + theological views and peculiar form of expression in his numerous + works; the composition and introduction of unsavoury spiritual + songs, with their silly conceits and many blasphemous and even + obscene pictures and analogies; the market-crier laudations of + their church, the not always pure methods of propaganda, the + introduction of a marriage discipline fitted to break down all + modest restraints; and, finally, the so-called _Niedlichkeiten_, + or boisterous festivals. Even the pietists opposed these + antinomian excesses. Tersteegen, too (§ 169, 1), whose mystic + tendency inclined him strongly toward pietist views, reproached + the Herrnhuters with frivolity. This polemic, disagreeable as it + was, exercised a wholesome influence upon the society. The count + became more guarded in his language, and more prudent in his + behaviour, while he set aside the most objectionable excrescences + of doctrine and practice that had begun to show themselves in the + community. At last, in A.D. 1747, the Saxon government repeated + the edict of banishment so far as the person of the founder + was concerned, and when, two years later, the society expressly + accepted the Augsburg Confession, it was formally recognised + in Saxony. In this same year, A.D. 1749, an English act of + parliament recognised it as a church with a pure episcopal + succession on equal terms with the Anglican episcopal + church.--Zinzendorf continued down to his death to direct the + affairs of this church, which hung upon him with childlike + affection, reflecting his personality, not only in its + excellences, but also in all its extravagances. He died in + A.D. 1760 in the full enjoyment of that blessedness which his + fervent love for the Saviour had brought him. + + § 168.4. =Zinzendorf’s Plan and Work.=--While Zinzendorf + received his first impulse from pietism, he soon perceived its + onesidedness and narrowness. He would have no conventicle, but + one organized community; no ideal invisible, but a real visible + church; no narrow methodism, but a rich, free administration of + the Christian spirit. He did not, in the first instance, aim at + the conversion of the world, nor even at the reformation of the + church, but at gathering and preserving those belonging to the + Saviour. He hoped, however, to erect a reservoir in which he + might collect every little brooklet of living water, from which + he might again water the whole world. And when he succeeded in + organizing a community, he was quite convinced that it was the + Philadelphia of the Apocalypse (iii. 7 ff.), that it introduced + “the Philadelphian period” of church history, of which all + prophets and apostles had prophesied. His plan had originally + reference to all Christendom, and he even took a step toward + realizing this universal idea. In order to build a bridge + between the Catholic church and his own community, he issued, in + A.D. 1727, a Christo-Catholic hymn-book and prayer-book, and had + even sketched out a letter to the pope to accompany a copy of his + book. He also attempted, by a letter to the patriarchs and then + to Elizabeth, empress of Russia, to interest the Greek church + in his scheme, dwelling upon the Greek extraction of the church + of the Moravian Brethren (§ 79, 2). His gathering of members, + however, was practically limited to the Protestant churches. All + confessions and sects afforded him contingents. He was himself + heartily attached to the distinctive doctrines of the Lutheran + church. But in a society whose distinctive characteristic it was + to be the gathering point for the pious of all nationalities, + doctrine and confession could not be the uniting bond. It could + be only a fellowship of love and not of creed, and the bond + a community of loving sentiment and loving deeds. The inmost + principle of Lutheranism, reconciliation by the blood of Christ, + was saved, indeed was made the characteristic and vital doctrine, + the one point of union between Moravians, Lutherans, and Reformed. + Over the three parties stood the count himself as _ordinarius_; + but this gave an external and not a confessional unity. The + subsequent acceptance of the Augsburg Confession, in A.D. 1749, + was a political act, so as to receive a civil status, and + had otherwise no influence. Instead then of the confession, + Zinzendorf made the =constitution= the bond of union. Its forms + were borrowed from the old Moravian church order, but dominated + and inspired by Zinzendorf’s own spirit. The old Moravian + constitution was episcopal and clerical, and proceeded from + the idea of the church; while the new constitution of Herrnhut + was essentially presbyterial, and proceeded from the idea of + the community, and that as a communion of saints. The Herrnhut + bishops were only titular bishops; they had no diocese, no + jurisdiction, no power of excommunication. All these prerogatives + belonged to the united eldership, in which the lay element + was distinctly predominant. Herrnhut had no pastors, but + only preaching brothers; the pastoral care devolved upon the + elders and their assistants. But beside these half-Lutheran and + pseudo-Moravian peculiarities, there was also a Donatist element + at the basis of the constitution. This lay in the fundamental + idea of absolutely true and pure children of God, and reached + full expression in the concluding of a =special covenant= with + the Saviour at London on Sept. 16th, A.D. 1741. Leonard Dober for + some years administered the office of an elder-general. But at + the London synod it was declared that he had not the requisite + gifts for that office. Dober now wished to resign. While in + confusion as to whom they could appoint, it flashed into the + minds of all to appoint the Saviour Himself. “Our feeling and + heart conviction was, that He made a special covenant with His + little flock, taking us as His peculiar treasure, watching over + us in a special way, personally interesting Himself in every + member of our community, and doing that for us perfectly which + our previous elders could only do imperfectly.” + + § 168.5. Among the =numerous extravagances= which Zinzendorf + countenanced for a time, the following may be mentioned. + + 1. The notion of the motherhood of the Holy Spirit. Zinzendorf + described the holy Trinity as “man, woman, and child.” + The Spirit is the mother in three respects: the eternal + generation of the Son of God, the conception of the Man + Jesus, and the second birth of believers. + + 2. The notion of the fatherhood of Jesus Christ (Isa. ix. 6). + Creation is ascribed solely to the Son, hence Christ is our + special, direct Father. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ + is only, “in the language of men, our father-in-law or + grandfather.” + + 3. In reference to our Lord’s life on earth, Zinzendorf + delighted in using terms of contempt, in order to emphasize + the depths of His humiliation. + + 4. In like manner he uses reproachful terms in speaking of the + style of the sacred Scriptures, and the inspired community + prefers a living Bible. + + 5. The theory and practice of mystical marriage, according to + Ephesians v. 32. The community and each member of it are + spiritual brides of Christ, and the marriage relation and + begetting of children were set forth and spiritualized in + a singularly indelicate manner. + + § 168.6. =Zinzendorf’s greatness= lay in the fervency of his + love of the Saviour, and in the yearning desire to gather under + the shadow of the cross all who loved the Lord. His weakness + consisted not so much in his manifested extravagances, as in his + idea that he had been called to found a society. To the realizing + of this idea he gave his life, talents, heart, and means. The + advantages of rank and culture he also gave to this one task. + He was personally convinced of his Divine call, and as he + did not recognise the authority of the written word, but only + subjective impressions, it is easily seen how he would drift into + absurdities and inconsistencies. The end contemplated seemed to + him supremely important, so that to realize it he did not scruple + to depart from strict truthfulness.--Zinzendorf’s writings, + over one hundred in number, are characterized by originality, + brilliancy, and peculiar forms of expression. Of his 2,000 hymns, + mostly improvised for public services, 700 of the best were + revised and published by Knapp. Two are still found in most + collections, and are more or less reproduced in our English hymns, + “Jesus still lead on,” and “Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness.” + + § 168.7. =The Brotherhood under Spangenberg’s + Administration.=--For its present form the Brotherhood is indebted + to its wise and sensible bishop, =Aug. Gottl. Spangenberg=, who + died A.D. 1792. Born in 1704, he became personally acquainted + with Zinzendorf in 1727, after he had completed his studies at + Jena under Buddæus, and continued ever after on terms of close + intimacy with him and his community. Through the good offices + of G. A. Francke, son and successor of A. H. Francke, he was + called in Sept., 1732, to the office of an assistantship in the + theological faculty at Halle, and appointed school inspector of + the Orphanage; but very soon offence was taken at the brotherly + fellowship which he had, not only with the society of Herrnhut, + but also with other separatists. The misunderstanding that + thus arose led in April, 1733, to his deprivation under a royal + cabinet order, and his expulsion by military power from Halle. + He now formally joined the communion of the Brethren. The first + half of his signally blessed ministry of sixty years among the + Moravians was chiefly devoted to foreign mission work, both in + their colonies abroad and in their stations in heathen lands. + In Holland in 1734, in England and Denmark in 1735, he obtained + official permission for the founding of Moravian colonies in + Surinam, in the American state of Georgia, and in Santa Cruz, + the forming and management of which he himself undertook, besides + directing the mission work in these places. Returning from + America in 1762, he won, after Zinzendorf’s death, so complete + an ascendency in the church in every respect, that he may well + be regarded as its second founder. At the Synod of Marienborn, + in A.D. 1764, the constitution was revised and perfected. + Zinzendorf’s monarchical prerogative was surrendered to the + eldership, and Spangenberg prudently secured the withdrawal of + all excrescences and extravagances. But the central idea of a + special covenant was not touched, and Sept. 16th is still held as + a grand pentecost festival. In the fifth section of the statutes + of the United Brethren at Gnaden, 1819, it distinguishes itself + from all the churches as a “society of true children of God; as + a family of God, with Jesus as its head. ” In the fourth section + of the “Historical Account of the Constitution of the United + Brethren at Gnaden, 1823,” the society is described as “a company + of living members of the invisible body of Jesus Christ;” and in + its litany for Easter morning, it adds as a fourth particular to + the article of the creed: “I believe that our brothers _N. N._, + and our sisters _N. N._ have joined the church above, and have + entered into the joy of the Lord.” The synod of A.D. 1848 + modified this article, and generally the society’s distinctive + views are not made so prominent. This liberal tendency had + dogmatic expression given to it in Spangenberg’s “_Idea Fidei + Fratrum_.” Only a few new settlements have been formed since + Zinzendorf’s death, and none of any importance; while the + hitherto flourishing Moravian settlements in Wetterau were + destroyed and their members banished, in A.D. 1750, by the + reigning prince, Count von Isenburg-Büdingen, on account of + their refusing to take the oath of allegiance.--After the first + attempt to establish societies among the German emigrants in + Livonia and Esthonia in A.D. 1729-1743 had ended in the expulsion + of the Herrnhuters, these regions proved in the second half of + the century a more fruitful field than any other. They secured + there a relation to the national church such as they never + attained unto elsewhere. They had in these parts formally + organized a church within the church, whose members, mostly + peasants, felt convinced that they had been called by the Lord’s + own voice as His chosen little flock, a proceeding which caused + infinite trouble, especially in Livonia, to the faithful pastors, + who perceived the deadly mischief that was being wrought, and + witnessed against them from God’s word. This protest was too + powerful and convincing to be disregarded, and now, not only + too late, but also in too half-hearted a way, Herrnhut began, + in A.D. 1857, to turn back, so as to save its Livonian institute + by inward regeneration from certain overthrow. + + § 168.8. =The doctrinal peculiarities of the Brotherhood= cannot + be quite correctly described as un-Lutheran, or anti-Lutheran. + Bengel smartly characterized them in a single phrase: “They + plucked up the stock of sound doctrine, stripped oft what was + most essential and vital, and retained the half of it,” which not + only then, but even still retains its truth and worth. Salvation + is regarded as proceeding purely from the Son, the God-Man, + so that the relation of the Father and of the Holy Spirit to + redemption is scarcely even nominal; and the redemption of the + God-Man again is viewed one-sidedly as consisting only in His + sufferings and death, while the other side, that is grounded on + His life and resurrection, is either carefully passed over, or + its fruit is represented as borrowed from the atoning death. Thus + not only justification, but sanctification is derived exclusively + from the death of Christ, and this, not so much as a forensic + substitutionary satisfaction, although that is not expressly + denied, but rather as a Divine love-sacrifice which awakens + an answering love in us. The whole of redemption is viewed as + issuing from Christ’s blood and wounds; and since from this mode + of viewing the subject God’s grace and love are made prominent + rather than His righteousness, we hear almost exclusively of + the gospel, and little or nothing of the law. All preaching + and teaching were avowedly directed to the awakening of pious + feelings of love to God, and thus tended to foster a kind of + religious sentimentalism. + + § 168.9. =The peculiarities of worship among the Brethren= + were also directed to the excitement of pious feeling; their + sensuously sweet sacred music, their church hymns, overcharged + with emotion, their richly developed liturgies, their restoration + of the _agape_ with tea, biscuit, and chorale-singing, the + fraternal kiss at communion, in their earlier days also washing + of the feet, etc. The daily watchword from the O.T. and doctrinal + texts from the N.T. were regarded as oracles, and were intended + to give a special impress to the religious feelings of the day. + As early as A.D. 1727 they had a hymn-book containing 972 hymns. + Most of these were compositions of their own, a true reflection + of their religious sentiments at that period. It also contained + Bohemian and Moravian hymns, translated by Mich. Weiss, and + also many old favourites of the evangelical church, often sadly + mutilated. By A.D. 1749 it had received twelve appendices and + four supplements. In these appendices, especially in the twelfth, + the one-sided tendency to give prominence to feeling was carried + to the most absurd lengths of caricature in the use of offensive + and silly terms of endearment as applied to the Saviour. + Zinzendorf admitted the defects of this production, and had + it suppressed in 1751, and in London prepared a new, expurgated + edition of the hymn-book. Under Spangenberg’s presidency + Christian Gregor issued, in A.D. 1778, a hymn-book, containing + 542 from Zinzendorf’s book and 308 of his own pious rhymes. He + also published a chorale book in A.D. 1784. Among their sacred + poets Zinzendorf stands easily first. His only son, Christian + Renatus, who died A.D. 1752, left behind him a number of sacred + songs. Their hymns were usually set to the melodies of the Halle + pietists. + + § 168.10. In regard to the =Christian life=, the Brotherhood + withdrew from politics and society, adopted stereotyped forms of + speech and peculiar usages, even in their dress. They sought to + live undisturbed by controversy, in personal communion with the + Saviour. Their separatism as a covenanted people may be excused + in view of the unbelief prevailing in the Protestant church, but + it has not been overcome by the reawakening of spiritual life + in the Church. As to their =ecclesiastical constitution=, Christ + Himself, as the Chief Elder of the church, should have in it the + direct government. The leaders, founding upon Proverbs xvi. 33 + and Acts i. 26, held that fit expression was given to this + principle by the use of the lot; but soon opposition to this + practice arose, and with its abandonment the “special covenant” + theory lost all its significance. The lot was used in election of + office-bearers, sending of missionaries, admission to membership, + etc. But in regard to marriage, it was used only by consent + of the candidates for marriage, and an adverse result was not + enforced. The administration of the affairs of the society + lay with the conference of the united elders. From time to + time general synods with legislative power were summoned. The + membership was divided into groups of married, widowed, bachelors, + maidens, and children, with special duties, separate residences, + and also special religious services in addition to those common + to all. The church officers were bishops, presbyters, deacons, + deaconesses, and acolytes. + + § 168.11. =Missions to the Heathen.=--Zinzendorf’s meeting with + a West Indian negro in Copenhagen awakened in him at an early + period the missionary zeal. He laid the matter before the church, + and in A.D. 1732 the first Herrnhut missionaries, Dober and + Nitschmann, went out to St. Thomas, and in the following year + missions were established in Greenland, North America, almost + all the West Indian islands, South America, among the Hottentots + at the Cape, the East Indies, among the Eskimos of Labrador, + etc. Their missionary enterprise forms the most brilliant and + attractive part of the history of the Moravians. Their procedure + was admirably suited to uncultured races, and only for such. In + the East Indies, therefore, they were unsuccessful. They were + never wanting in self-denying missionaries, who resigned all from + love to the Saviour. They were mostly pious, capable artisans, + who threw themselves with all their hearts into their new work, + and devoted themselves with affectionate tenderness to the + advancement of the bodily and spiritual interests of those + among whom they laboured. One of the noblest of them all was the + missionary patriarch Zeisberger, who died in A.D. 1808, after + toiling among the North American Indians for sixty-three years. + These missions were conducted at a surprisingly small outlay. The + Brethren also interested themselves in the conversion of the Jews. + In A.D. 1738 Dober wrought among the Jews of Amsterdam; and with + greater success in A.D. 1739, Lieberkühn, who also visited the + Jews in England and Bohemia, and was honoured by them with the + title of “rabbi.”[507] + + + § 169. THE REFORMED CHURCH BEFORE THE “ILLUMINATION.” + + The sharpness of the contest between Calvinism and Lutheranism was +moderated on both sides. The union efforts prosecuted during the first +decades of the century in Germany and Switzerland were always defeated +by Lutheran opposition. In the Dutch and German Reformed Churches, even +during the eighteenth century, Cocceianism was still in high repute. +After it had modified strict Calvinism, the opposition between Reformed +orthodoxy and Arminian heterodoxy became less pronounced, and more and +more Arminian tendencies found their way into Reformed theology. What +pietism and Moravianism were for the Lutheran church of Germany, +Methodism was, in a much greater measure, and with a more enduring +influence, for the episcopal church of England. + + § 169.1. =The German Reformed Church.=--The Brandenburg dynasty + made unwearied efforts to effect a =union= between the Lutheran + and Reformed churches throughout their territories (§ 154, 4). + Frederick I. (III.) instituted for this purpose in A.D. 1703 a + _collegium caritativum_, under the presidency of the Reformed + court preacher Ursinus (ranked as bishop, that he might officiate + at the royal coronation), in which also, on the side of the + Reformed, Jablonsky, formerly a Moravian bishop, and, on the part + of the Lutherans, the cathedral preacher Winkler of Magdeburg and + Lüttke, provost of Cologne-on-the-Spree, took part. Spener, who + wanted not a made union but one which he himself was making, gave + expression to his opinion, and soon passed over. Lüttke after a + few _sederunts_ withdrew, and when Winkler in A.D. 1703 published + a plan of union, _Arcanum regium_, which the Lutheran church + merely submitted for the approval of the Reformed king, such a + storm of opposition arose against the project, that it had to + be abandoned. In the following year the king took up the matter + again in another way. Jablonsky engaged in negotiations with + England for the introduction of the Anglican episcopal system + into Prussia, in order by it to build a bridge for the union with + Lutheranism. But even this plan failed, in consequence of the + succession of Frederick William I. in A.D. 1713, whose shrewd + sense strenuously opposed it.--The vacillating statements of + the _Confessio Sigismundi_ (§ 154, 3) regarding =predestination= + made it possible for the Brandenburg Reformed theologians to + understand it as teaching the doctrine of particular as well as + universal grace, and so to make it correspond with Brandenburg + Reformed orthodoxy. The rector of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in + Berlin, Paul Volkmann, in A.D. 1712, interpreted it as teaching + universal grace, and so in his _Theses theologicæ_ he constructed + a system of theology, in which the divine foreknowledge of the + result, as the reconciling middle term between the particularism + and universalism of the call, was set forth in a manner + favourable to the latter. The controversy that was aroused over + this, in which even Jablonsky argued for the more liberal view, + while on the other side Barckhausen, Volkmann’s colleague, in + his _Amica Collatio Doctrinæ de Gratia, quam vera ref. confitetur + Ecclesia, cum Doctr. Volkmanni_, etc., came forward under the + name of _Pacificus Verinus_ as his most determined opponent, was + put a stop to in A.D. 1719 by an edict of Frederick William I., + which enjoined silence on both parties, without any result having + been reached.--One of the noblest mystics that ever lived was + =Gerhard Tersteegen=, died A.D. 1769. He takes a high rank as a + sacred poet. Anxious souls made pilgrimages to him from far and + near for comfort, counsel, and refreshment. Though not exactly a + separatist, he had no strong attachment to the church.[508]--The + prayer-book of =Conrad Mel=, pastor and rector at Hersfeld in + Hesse, died A.D. 1733, continues to the present day a favourite + in pious families of the Reformed communion. + + § 169.2. =The Reformed Church in Switzerland.=--=The Helvetic + Confession=, with its strict doctrine of predestination and its + peculiar inspiration theory (§ 161, 3), had been indeed accepted, + in A.D. 1675, by all the Reformed cantons as the absolute + standard of doctrine in church and school; but this obligation + was soon felt to be oppressive to the conscience, and so + the Archbishop of Canterbury and the kings of England and + Prussia repeatedly interceded for its abrogation. In Geneva, + though vigorously opposed by a strictly orthodox minority, the + _Vénérable Compagnie_ succeeded, in A.D. 1706, with the rector + of the Academy at its head, J. A. Turretin, whose father had + been one of the principal authors of the formula, in modifying + the usual terms of subscription, _Sic sentio, sic profiteor, + sic docebo, et contrarium non docebo_, into _Sic docebo quoties + hoc argumentum tractandum suscipiam, contrarium non docebo, + nec ore, nec calamo, nec privatim, nec publice_; and afterwards, + in A.D. 1725, it was entirely set aside, and adhesion to the + Scriptures of the O. and N.T., and to the catechism of Calvin, + made the only obligation. More persistent on both sides was the + struggle in Lausanne; yet even there it gradually lost ground, + and by the middle of the century it had no longer any authority + in Switzerland.--The =union efforts= made by the Prussian dynasty + found zealous but unsuccessful advocates in the chancellor Pfaff + of Lutheran Württemberg (§ 167, 4), and in Reformed Switzerland + in J. A. Turretin of Geneva. + + § 169.3. =The Dutch Reformed Church.=--Toward the end of the + seventeenth century, in consequence of threats on the part + of the magistrates, the passionate violence of the =dispute + between= Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5) was moderated; but + in the beginning of the eighteenth century the flames burst + forth anew, reaching a height in 1712, when a marble bust of + Cocceius was erected in a Leyden church. An obstinate Voetian, + Pastor Fruytier of Rotterdam, was grievously offended at this + proceeding, and published a controversial pamphlet full of the + most bitter reproaches and accusations against the Cocceians, + which, energetically replied to by the accused, was much more + hurtful than useful to the interests of the Voetians. At last + a favourable hearing was given to a word of peace which a highly + respected Voetian, the venerable preacher of eighty years of + age, _J. Mor. Mommers_, addressed to the parties engaged in + the controversy. He published in A.D. 1738, under the title of + “_Eubulus_,” a tract in which he proved that neither Cocceius + himself nor his most distinguished adherents had in any essential + point departed from the faith of the Reformed church, and that + from them, therefore, in spite of all differences that had + since arisen, the hand of fellowship should not be withheld. + In consequence of this, the magistrates of Gröningen first of + all decided, that forthwith, in filling up vacant pastorates, a + Cocceian and Voetian should be appointed alternately; a principle + which gradually became the practice throughout the whole country. + At the same time also care was now taken that in the theological + faculties both schools should have equal representation. But + meanwhile also new departures had been made in each of the two + parties. Among the Voetians, after the pattern formerly given + them by Teellinck (§ 162, 4), followed up by the Frisian preacher + Theod. Brakel, died A.D. 1669, and further developed by Jodocus + von Lodenstein of Utrecht, died A.D. 1677, mysticism had made + considerable progress; and the Cocceians, in the person of + Hermann Witsius, drew more closely toward the pietism of the + Voetians and the Lutherans. The most distinguished representative + of this conciliatory party was F. A. Lampe of Detmold, afterwards + professor in Utrecht, previously and subsequently pastor in + Bremen, in high repute in his church as a hymn-writer, but best + known by his commentary on John.--These conciliatory measures + were frustrated by the publication, in A.D. 1740, of a work by + =Schortinghuis= of Gröningen, which pronounced the Scriptures + unintelligible and useless to the natural man, but made fruitful + to the regenerate and elect by the immediate enlightenment of the + Holy Spirit, evidenced by deep groanings and convulsive writhings. + It was condemned by all the orthodox. The author now confined + himself to his pastorate, where he was richly blessed. He died in + A.D. 1750. His notions spread like an epidemic, till stamped out + by the united efforts of the civil and ecclesiastical authorities + in A.D. 1752. + + § 169.4. =Methodism.=--=In the episcopal church of England= the + living power of the gospel had evaporated into the formalism of + scholastic learning and a mechanical ritualism. A reaction was + set on foot by =John Wesley=, born A.D. 1703, a young man of + deep religious earnestness and fervent zeal for the salvation + of souls. During his course at Oxford, in A.D. 1729, along with + some friends, including his brother Charles, he founded a society + to promote pious living.[509] Those thus leagued together were + scornfully called Methodists. From A.D. 1732, =George Whitefield=, + born in A.D. 1714, a youth burning with zeal for his own and his + fellow men’s salvation, wrought enthusiastically along with them. + In A.D. 1735 the brothers Wesley went to America to labour for + the conversion of the Indians in Georgia. On board ship they met + Nitschmann, and in Savannah Spangenberg, who exercised a powerful + influence over them. John Wesley accepted a pastorate in Savannah, + but encountered so many hindrances, that he decided to return to + England in A.D. 1738. Whitefield had just sailed for America, but + returned that same year. Meanwhile Wesley visited Marienborn and + Herrnhut, and so became personally acquainted with Zinzendorf. He + did not feel thoroughly satisfied, and so declined to join the + society. On his return he began, along with Whitefield, the great + work of his life. In many cities they founded religious societies, + preached daily to immense crowds in Anglican churches, and when + the churches were refused, in the open air, often to 20,000 + or even 30,000 hearers. They sought to arouse careless sinners + by all the terrors of the law and the horrors of hell, and by + a thorough repentance to bring about immediate conversion. An + immense number of hardened sinners, mostly of the lower orders, + were thus awakened and brought to repentance amid shrieks and + convulsions. Whitefield, who divided his attentions between + England and America, delivered in thirty-four years 18,000 + sermons; Wesley, who survived his younger companion by twenty-one + years, dying in A.D. 1791, and was wont to say the world was + his parish, delivered still more. Their association with the + Moravians had been broken off in A.D. 1740. To the latter, not + only was the Methodists’ style of preaching objectionable, but + also their doctrine of “Christian perfection,” according to + which the true, regenerate Christian can and must reach a perfect + holiness of life, not indeed free from temptation and error, + but from all sins of weakness and sinful lusts. Wesley in turn + accused the Herrnhuters of a dangerous tendency toward the errors + of the quietists and antinomians. Zinzendorf came himself to + London to remove the misunderstanding, but did not succeed. + The great Methodist leaders were themselves separated from one + another in A.D. 1741. Whitefield’s doctrine of grace and election + was Calvinistic; Wesley’s Arminian.--From A.D. 1748 the =Countess + of Huntingdon= attached herself to the Methodists, and secured an + entrance for their preaching into aristocratic circles. With all + her humility and self-sacrifice she remained aristocrat enough + to insist on being head and organizer. Seeing she could not + play this _rôle_ with Wesley, she attached herself closely to + Whitefield. He became her domestic chaplain, and with other + clergymen accompanied her on her travels. Wherever she went she + posed as a “queen of the Methodists,” and was allowed to preach + and carry on pastoral work. She built sixty-six chapels, and in + A.D. 1768 founded a seminary for training preachers at Trevecca in + Wales, under the oversight of the able and gentle John Fletcher, + reserving supreme control to herself. After Whitefield’s death, + in A.D. 1770, the opposition between the Calvinistic followers + of Whitefield and the Arminian Wesleyans burst out in a much more + violent form. Fletcher and his likeminded fellow labourers were + charged with teaching the horrible heresy of the universality of + grace, and were on that account discharged by the countess from + the seminary of Trevecca. They now joined Wesley, around whom the + great majority of the Methodists had gathered. + + § 169.5. The Methodists did not wish to separate from + the episcopal church, but to work as a leaven within it. + Whitefield was able to maintain this connexion by the aid of + his aristocratic countess and her relationship with the higher + clergy; but Wesley, spurning such aid, and trusting to his great + powers of organization, felt driven more and more to set up + an independent society. When the churches were closed against + him and his fellow workers, and preaching in the open air was + forbidden, he built chapels for himself.[510] The first was + opened in Bristol, in A.D. 1739. When his ordained associates + were too few for the work, he obtained the assistance of lay + preachers. He founded two kinds of religious societies: The + _united societies_ embraced all, the _band societies_ only the + tried and proved of his followers. Then he divided the _united + societies_ again into _classes_ of from ten to twenty persons + each, and the _class-leaders_ were required to give accurate + accounts of the spiritual condition and progress of those under + their care. Each member of the _united_ as well as the _band + societies_ held a _society ticket_, which had to be renewed + quarterly. The outward affairs of the societies were managed by + _stewards_, who also took care of the poor. A number of local + societies constituted a _circuit_ with a superintendent and + several itinerant preachers.[511] Wesley superintended all + the departments of oversight, administration, and arrangement, + supported from A.D. 1744 by an annual conference. Daily preaching + and devotional exercises in the chapels, weekly class-meetings, + monthly watchnights, quarterly fasts and lovefeasts, an + annual service for the renewing of the covenant, and a great + multiplication of prayer-meetings, gave a special character + to Methodistic piety. Charles Wesley composed hymns for their + services. They carefully avoided collision with the services + of the state church. The American Methodists, who had been up + to this time supplied by Wesley with itinerant missionaries, in + A.D. 1784, after the War of Independence, gave vigorous expression + to their wish for a more independent ecclesiastical constitution, + which led Wesley, in opposition to all right order, to ordain for + them by his own hand several preachers, and to appoint, in the + person of Thomas Coke, a superintendent, who assumed in America + the title of bishop. Coke became the founder of the Methodist + Episcopal Church of America, which soon outstripped all other + denominations in its zeal for the conversion of sinners, and + in consequent success. The breach with the mother church was + completed by the adoption of a creed in which the Thirty-nine + Articles were reduced to twenty-five. At the last conference + presided over by Wesley, A.D. 1790, it was announced that they + had in Britain 119 circuits, 313 preachers, and in the United + States 97 circuits and 198 preachers. After Wesley’s death, + in A.D. 1791, his autocratic supremacy devolved, in accordance + with the Methodist “Magna Charta,” the _Deed of Declaration_ + of A.D. 1784, upon a fixed conference of 100 members, but its + hierarchical organization has been the cause of many subsequent + splits and divisions.[512] + + § 169.6. =Theological Literature=--=Clericus=, of Amsterdam, died + A.D. 1736, an Arminian divine, distinguished himself in biblical + criticism, hermeneutics, exegesis, and church history. =J. J. + Wettstein= was in A.D. 1730 deposed for heresy, and died in + A.D. 1754 as professor at the Remonstrant seminary at Amsterdam. + His critical edition of the N.T. of A.D. 1751 had a great + reputation. =Schultens= of Leyden, died A.D. 1750, introduced a + new era for O.T. philology by the comparative study of related + dialects, especially Arabic. He wrote commentaries on Job and + Proverbs. Of the Cocceian exegetes we mention, =Lampe= of Bremen, + died A.D. 1729, “Com. on John,” three vols., etc., and =J. Marck= + of Leyden, died A.D. 1731, “Com. on Minor Prophets.” In biblical + antiquity, =Reland= of Utrecht, died A.D. 1718, wrote “_Palæstina + ex vett. monum. Illustr. Antiquitt. ss._;” in ecclesiastical + antiquity, Bingham, died A.D. 1723, “Origines Ecclest.; or, + Antiquities of the Christian Church,” ten vols., 1724, a + masterpiece not yet superseded. Of English apologists who + wrote against the deists, =Leland=, died A.D. 1766, “Advantage + and Necessity of the Christian Revelation;” =Stackhouse=, died + A.D. 1752, “History of the Bible.” Of dogmatists, =Stapfer= of + Bern, died A.D. 1775, and =Wyttenbach= of Marburg, died A.D. 1779, + who followed the Wolffian method. Among church historians, + =J. A. Turretin= of Geneva, died A.D. 1757, and =Herm. Venema= of + Franeker, died A.D. 1787.--The most celebrated of the writers of + sacred songs in the English language was the Congregationalist + preacher =Isaac Watts=, died A.D. 1748, whose “Hymns and Spiritual + Songs,” which first appeared in A.D. 1707, still hold their + place in the hymnbooks of all denominations, and have largely + contributed to overthrow the Reformed prejudice against using + any other than biblical psalms in the public service of praise. + + + § 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. + + The pietism of the eighteenth century, like the Reformation of the +sixteenth, was followed by the appearance of all sorts of fanatics and +extremists. The converted were collected into little companies, which, +as _ecclesiolæ in ecclesia_, preserved the living flame amid prevailing +darkness, and out of these arose separatists who spoke of the church as +Babylon, regarded its ordinances impure, and its preaching a mere jingle +of words. They obtained their spiritual nourishment from the mystical +and theosophical writings of Böhme, Gichtel, Guyon, Poiret, etc. Their +chief centre was Wetterau, where, in the house of Count Casimir von +Berleburg, all persecuted pietists, separatists, fanatics, and sectaries +found refuge. The count chose from them his court officials and personal +servants, although he himself belonged to the national Reformed church. +There was scarcely a district in Protestant Germany, Switzerland, and +the Netherlands where there were not groups of such separatists; some +mere harmless enthusiasts, others circulated pestiferous and immoral +doctrines. Quite apart from pietism Swedenborgianism made its appearance, +claiming to have a new revelation. Of the older sects the Baptists and +the Quakers sent off new swarms, and even predestinationism gave rise to +a form of mysticism allied to pantheism. + + § 170.1. =Fanatics and Separatists in Germany.=--Juliana =von + Asseburg=, a young lady highly esteemed in Magdeburg for her + piety, declared that from her seventh year she had visions and + revelations, especially about the millennium. She found a zealous + supporter in Dr. J. W. Petersen, superintendent of Lüneburg. + After his marriage with Eleonore von Merlau, who had similar + revelations, he proclaimed by word and writing a fantastic + chiliasm and the restitution of all things. He was deposed in + A.D. 1692, and died in A.D. 1727.[513] =Henry Horche=, professor + of theology at Herborn, was the originator of a similar movement + in the Reformed church. He founded several Philadelphian societies + (§ 163, 9) in Hesse, and composed a “mystical and prophetical + bible,” the so called “Marburg Bible,” A.D. 1712. Of other + fanatical preachers of that period one of the most prominent + was =Hochmann=, a student of law expelled from Halle for his + extravagances, a man of ability and eloquence, and highly + esteemed by Tersteegen. Driven from place to place, he at last + found refuge at Berleburg, and died there in A.D. 1721. In + Württemberg the pious court chaplain, =Hedinger=, of Stuttgart, + died A.D. 1703, was the father of pietism and separatism. The + most famous of his followers were =Gruber= and =Rock=, who, + driven from Württemberg, settled with other separatists at + Wetterau, renouncing the use of the sacraments and public worship. + Of those gathered together in the court of Count Casimir, the + most eminent were =Dr. Carl=, his physician, the French mystic + =Marsay=, and =J. H. Haug=, who had been expelled from Strassburg, + a proficient in the oriental languages. They issued a great + number of mystical works, chief of all the Berleburg Bible, + in eight vols., 1726-1742, of which Haug was the principal + author. Its exposition proceeded in accordance with the threefold + sense; it vehemently contended against the church doctrine of + justification, against the confessional writings, the clerical + order, the dead church, etc. It showed occasionally profound + insight, and made brilliant remarks, but contained also + many trivialities and absurdities. The mysticism which is + prominent in this work lacks originality, and is compiled from + the mystico-theosophical writings of all ages from Origen down + to Madame Guyon. + + § 170.2. =The Inspired Societies in Wetterau.=--After the + unfortunate issue of the Camisard War in A.D. 1705 (§ 153, 4) + the chief of the prophets of the Cevennes fled to England. They + were at first well received, but were afterwards excommunicated + and cast into prison. In A.D. 1711 several of them went to + the Netherlands, and thence made their way into Germany. Three + brothers, students at Halle, named Pott, adopted their notion + of the gift of inspiration, and introduced it into Wetterau in + A.D. 1714. =Gruber= and =Rock=, the leaders of the separatists + there, were at first opposed to the doctrine, but were overpowered + by the Spirit, and soon became its most enthusiastic champions. + Prayer-meetings were organized, immense lovefeasts were held, and + by itinerant brethren an _ecclesia ambulatoria_ was set on foot, + by which spiritual nourishment was brought to believers scattered + over the land and the children of the prophets were gathered from + all countries. The “utterances” given forth in ecstasy were calls + to repentance, to prayer, to the imitation of Christ, revelations + of the divine will in matters affecting the communities, + proclamations of the near approach of the Divine judgment upon a + depraved church and world, but without fanatical-sensual chiliasm. + Also, except in the contempt of the sacraments, they held by the + essentials of the church doctrine. In A.D. 1715 a split occurred + between the _true_ and the _false_ among the inspired. The true + maintained a formal constitution, and in A.D. 1716 excluded all + who would not submit to that discipline. By A.D. 1719 only Rock + claimed the gift of inspiration, and did so till his death in + A.D. 1749. Gruber died in A.D. 1728, and with him a pillar of + the society fell. Rock was the only remaining prop. A new era of + their history begins with their intercourse with the Herrnhuters. + Zinzendorf sent them a deputation in A.D. 1730, and paid them + a visit in person at Berleberg [Berleburg]. Rock’s profound + Christian personality made a deep impression upon him. But he + was offended at their contempt of the sacraments, and at the + convulsive character of their utterances. This, however, did not + hinder him from expressing his reverence for their able leader, + who in return visited Zinzendorf at Herrnhut in A.D. 1732. In the + interests of his own society Zinzendorf shrank from identifying + himself with those of Wetterau. Rock denounced him as a new + Babylon-botcher, and he retaliated by calling Rock a false + prophet. When the Herrnhuters were driven from Wetterau in + A.D. 1750 (§ 168, 3, 7), the inspired communities entered on + their inheritance. But with Rock’s death in A.D. 1749 prophecy had + ceased among them. They sank more and more into insignificance, + until the revival of spiritual life, A.D. 1816-1821, brought them + into prominence again. Government interference drove most of them + to America. + + § 170.3. Quite a peculiar importance belongs to =J. C. Dippel=, + theologian, physician, alchemist, discoverer of Prussian blue and + _oleum dippelii_, at first an orthodox opponent of pietism, then, + through Gottfr. Arnold’s influence, an adherent of the pietists, + and ultimately of the separatists. In A.D. 1697, under the name + of _Christianus Democritus_, he began to write in a scoffing + tone of all orthodox Christianity, with a strange blending + of mysticism and rationalism, but without any trace profound + Christian experience. Persecuted on every hand, exiled or + imprisoned, he went hither and thither through Germany, Holland, + Denmark, and Sweden, and found a refuge at last at Berleberg + [Berleburg] in A.D. 1729. Here he came in contact with the + inspired, who did everything in their power to win him over; but + he declared that he would rather give himself to the devil than + to this Spirit of God. He was long intimate with Zinzendorf, but + afterwards poured out upon him the bitterest abuse. He died in + the count’s castle at Berleberg [Berleburg] in A.D. 1734.[514] + + § 170.4. =Separatists of Immoral Tendency.=--One of the worst was + the =Buttlar sect=, founded by Eva von Buttlar, a native of Hesse, + who had married a French refugee, lived gaily for ten years at + the court of Eisenach, and then joined the pietists and became + a rigid separatist. Separated from her husband, she associated + with the licentiate Winter, and founded a Philadelphian society + at Allendorf in A.D. 1702, where the foulest immoralities were + practised. Eva herself was reverenced as the door of paradise, + the new Jerusalem, the mother of all, Sophia come from heaven, + the new Eve, and the incarnation of the Spirit. Winter was + the incarnation of the Father, and their son Appenfeller the + incarnation of the Son. They pronounced marriage sinful; sensual + lusts must be slain in spiritual communion, then even carnal + association is holy. Eva lived with all the men of the sect + in the most shameless adultery. So did also the other women + of the community. Expelled from Allendorf after a stay of six + weeks, they sought unsuccessfully to gain a footing in various + places. At Cologne they went over to the Catholic church. + Their immoralities reached their climax at Lüde near Pyrmont. + Winter was sentenced to death in A.D. 1706, but was let off + with scourging. Eva escaped the same punishment by flight, + and continued her evil practices unchecked for another year. + She afterwards returned to Altona, where with her followers + leading outwardly an honourable life, she attached herself + to the Lutheran church, and died, honoured and esteemed, in + A.D. 1717.--In a similar way arose in A.D. 1739 the =Bordelum + sect=, founded at Bordelum by the licentiates Borsenius and Bär; + and the =Brüggeler sect=, at Brüggeler in Canton Bern, where + in A.D. 1748 the brothers Kohler gave themselves out as the + two witnesses (Rev. xi.). Of a like nature too was the =sect + of Zionites= at Ronsdorf in the Duchy of Berg. Elias Eller, a + manufacturer at Elberfeld, excited by mystical writings, married + in A.D. 1725 a rich old widow, but soon found more pleasure in a + handsome young lady, Anna von Buchel, who by a nervous sympathetic + infection was driven into prophetic ecstasy. She proclaimed the + speedy arrival of the millennium; Eller identified her with the + mother of the man-child (Rev. xii. 1). When his wife had pined + away through jealousy and neglect and died, he married Buchel. + The first child she bore him was a girl, and the second, a boy, + soon died. When a strong opposition arose in Elberfeld against + the sect, he, along with his followers, founded Ronsdorf, as + a New Zion, in A.D. 1737. The colony obtained civil rights, + and Eller was made burgomaster. Anna having died in A.D. 1744, + Eller gave his colony a new mother, and practised every manner + of deceit and tyranny. After the infatuation had lasted a long + time, the eyes of the Reformed pastor Schleiermacher, grandfather + of the famous theologian, were at last opened. By flight to the + Netherlands he escaped the fate of another revolter, whom Eller + persuaded the authorities at Düsseldorf to put to death as a + sorcerer. Every complaint against himself was quashed by Eller’s + bribery of the officials. After his death in A.D. 1750 his + stepson continued this Zion game for a long time. + + § 170.5. =Swedenborgianism.=--=Emanuel von Swedenborg= was born + at Stockholm, in A.D. 1688, son of the strict Lutheran bishop + of West Gothland, Jasper Swedberg. He was appointed assessor + of the School of Mines at Stockholm, and soon showed himself to + be a man of encyclopædic information and of speculative ability. + After long examination of the secrets of nature, in a condition + of magnetic ecstasy, in which he thought that he had intercourse + with spirits, sometimes in heaven, sometimes in hell, he became + convinced, in A.D. 1743, that he was called by these revelations + to restore corrupted Christianity by founding a church of the + New Jerusalem as the finally perfected church. He published the + apocalyptic revelations as a new gospel: “_Arcana Cœlestia in + Scr. s. Detecta_,” in seven vols.; “_Vera Chr. Rel._,” two vols. + After his death, in A.D. 1772, his “_Vera Christiana Religio_” + was translated into Swedish, but his views never got much hold + in his native country. They spread more widely in England, where + John Clowes, rector of St. John’s Church, Manchester, translated + his writings, and himself wrote largely in their exposition and + commendation. Separate congregations with their own ministers, + and forms of worship, sprang up through England in A.D. 1788, + and soon there were as many as fifty throughout the country. + From England the New Church spread to America.--In Germany it + was specially throughout Württemberg that it found adherents. + There, in A.D. 1765, Oetinger (§ 171, 9) recognised Swedenborg’s + revelations, and introduced many elements from them into + his theosophical system.--Swedenborg’s religious system was + speculative mysticism, with a physical basis and rationalizing + results. The aim of religion with him is the opening of an + intimate correspondence between the spiritual world and man, + and giving an insight into the mystery of the connexion between + the two. The Bible (excluding the apostolic epistles, as merely + expository), pre-eminently the Apocalypse, is recognised by him + as God’s word; to be studied, however, not in its literal but + in its spiritual or inner sense. Of the church dogmas there is + not one which he did not either set aside or rationalistically + explain away. He denounces in the strongest terms the church + doctrine of the Trinity. God is with him only one Person, + who manifests Himself in three different forms: the Father is + the principle of the manifesting God; the Son, the manifested + form; the Spirit, the manifested activity. The purpose of the + manifestation of Christ is the uniting of the human and Divine; + redemption is nothing more than the combating and overcoming of + the evil spirits. But angels and devils are spirits of dead men + glorified and damned. He did not believe in a resurrection of the + flesh, but maintained that the spiritual form of the body endures + after death. The second coming of Christ will not be personal + and visible, but spiritual through a revelation of the spiritual + sense of Holy Scripture, and is realized by the founding of the + church of the New Jerusalem.[515] + + § 170.6. =New Baptist Sects= (§ 163, 3).--In Wetterau about + A.D. 1708 an anabaptist sect arose called =Dippers=, because they + did not recognise infant baptism and insisted upon the complete + immersion of adult believers. They appeared in Pennsylvania + in A.D. 1719, and founded settlements in other states. Of the + “perfect” they required absolute separation from all worldly + practices and enjoyments and a simple, apostolic style of dress. + To baptism and the Lord’s supper they added washing the feet + and the fraternal kiss and anointing the sick. The =Seventh-day + Baptists= observe the seventh instead of the first day of the + week, and enjoin on the “perfect” celibacy and the community of + goods. New sects from England continued to spread over America. + Of these were the =Seed= or =Sucker Baptists=, who identified the + non-elect with the seed of the serpent, and on account of their + doctrine of predestination regarded all instruction and care of + children useless. A similar predestinarian exaggeration is seen + in the =Hard-shell Baptists=, who denounce all home and foreign + missions as running counter to the Divine sovereignty. Many, + sometimes called Campbellites from their founder, reject any + party name, claiming to be simply =Christians=, and acknowledge + only so much in Scripture as is expressly declared to be “the + word of the Lord.” The =Six-Principles-Baptists= limit their + creed to the six articles of Hebrews vi. 1, 2. The brothers + Haldane, about the middle of the eighteenth century, founded + in Scotland the Baptist sect of =Haldanites=, which has with + great energy applied itself to the practical cultivation of + the Christian life.--Continuation, §§ 208, 1; 211, 3. + + § 170.7. =New Quaker Sects.=--The =Jumpers=, who sprang up among + the Methodists of Cornwall about A.D. 1760, are in principle + closely allied to the early Quakers (§ 163, 4). They leaped + and danced after the style of David before the ark and uttered + inarticulate howls. They settled in America, where they have + adherents still.--The =Shakers= originated from the prophets of + the Cevennes who fled to England in A.D. 1705. They converted + a Quaker family at Bolton in Lancashire named Wardley, and the + community soon grew. In A.D. 1758 Anna Lee, wife of a farrier + Stanley, joined the society, and, as the apocalyptic bride, + inaugurated the millennium. She taught that the root of all sin + was the relationship of the sexes. Maltreated by the mob, she + emigrated to America, along with thirty companions, in A.D. 1774. + Though persecuted here also, the sect increased and formed in the + State of New York the _Millennial Church_ or _United Society of + Believers_. Anna died in A.D. 1784; but her prophets declared + that she had merely laid aside the earthly garb and assumed the + heavenly, so that only then the veneration of “Mother Anna” came + into force. As Christ is the Son of the eternal Wisdom, Anna is + the daughter; as Christ is the second Adam, she is the second + Eve, and spiritual mother of believers as Christ is their father. + Celibacy, community of goods, common labour (chiefly gardening), + as a pleasure, not a burden, common domestic life as brothers + and sisters, and constant intercourse with the spirit world, are + the main points in her doctrine. By the addition of voluntary + proselytes and the adoption of poor helpless children the sect + has grown, till now it numbers 3,000 or 4,000 souls in eighteen + villages. The capital is New Lebanon in the State of New York. + The name Shakers was given them from the quivering motion of + body in their solemn dances. In their services they march about + singing “On to heaven we will be going,” “March heavenward, yea, + victorious band,” etc. Like the Quakers (§ 163, 6) they have + neither a ministry nor sacraments, and their whole manner of life + is modelled on that of the Quakers. The purity of the relation of + brothers and sisters has always been free from suspicion.[516] + + § 170.8. =Predestinarian-Mystical Sects.=--The =Hebræans=, + founded by Verschoor, a licentiate of the Reformed church of + Holland deposed under suspicion of Spinozist views, in the end + of the seventeenth century, hold it indispensably necessary + to read the word of God in the original. They were fatalists, + and maintained that the elect could commit no sin. True faith + consisted in believing this doctrine of their own sinlessness. + About the same time sprang up the =Hattemists=, followers of + _Pontiaan von Hattem_, a preacher deposed for heresy, with + fatalistic views like the Hebræans, but with a strong vein + of pantheistic mysticism. True piety consisted in the believer + resting in God in a purely passive manner, and letting God alone + care for him. The two sects united under the name of Hattemists, + and continued to exist in Holland and Zealand till about A.D. 1760. + + + § 171. RELIGION, THEOLOGY, AND LITERATURE OF + THE “ILLUMINATION.”[517] + + In England during the first half of the century deism had still +several active propagandists, and throughout the whole century efforts, +not altogether unsuccessful, were made to spread Unitarian views. +From the middle of the century, when the English deistic unbelief had +died out, the “Illumination,” under the name of rationalism, found an +entrance into Germany. Arminian pelagianism, recommended by brilliant +scholarship, English deism, spread by translations and refutations, +and French naturalism, introduced by a great and much honoured king, +were the outward factors in securing this result. The freemason lodges, +carried into Germany from England, a relic of mediævalism, aided the +movement by their endeavour after a universal religion of a moral +and practical kind. The inward factors were the Wolffian philosophy +(§ 167, 3), the popular philosophy, and the pietism, with its +step-father separatism (§ 170), which immediately prepared the soil +for the sowing of rationalism. Orthodoxy, too, with its formulas that +had been outlived, contributed to the same end. German rationalism is +essentially distinguished from Deism and Naturalism by not breaking +completely with the Bible and the church, but eviscerating both by its +theories of accommodation and by its exaggerated representations of +the limitations of the age in which the books of Scripture were written +and the doctrines of Christianity were formulated. It thus treats the +Bible as an important document, and the church as a useful religious +institution. Over against rationalism arose supernaturalism, appealing +directly to revelation. It was a dilution of the old church faith by +the addition of more or less of the water of rationalism. Its reaction +was therefore weak and vacillating. The temporary success of the +vulgar rationalism lay, not in its own inherent strength, but in the +correspondence that existed between it and the prevailing spirit of the +age. The philosophy, however, as well as the national literature of the +Germans, now began a victorious struggle against these tendencies, and +though itself often indifferent and even hostile to Christianity, it +recognised in Christ a school-master. Pestalozzi performed a similar +service to popular education by his attempts to reform effete systems. + + § 171.1. =Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church.= + + 1. =The Deists= (§ 164, 3). With Locke’s philosophy (§ 164, 2) + deism entered on a new stage of its development. It is + henceforth vindicated on the ground of its reasonableness. + The most notable deists of this age were =John Toland=, + an Irishman, first Catholic, then Arminian, died A.D. 1722, + author of “Christianity not Mysterious,” “Nazarenus, or + Jewish, Gentile, and Mohametan Christianity,” etc. The Earl + of =Shaftesbury=, died A.D. 1713, wrote “Characteristics of + Men,” etc. =Anthony Collins=, J.P. in Essex, died A.D. 1729, + author of “Priestcraft in Perfection,” “Discourse of + Freethinking,” etc. =Thomas Woolston=, fellow of Cambridge, + died in prison in A.D. 1733, author of “Discourse on the + Miracles of the Saviour.” =Mandeville= of Dort, physician in + London, died A.D. 1733, wrote “Free Thoughts on Religion.” + =Matthew Tindal=, professor of law in Oxford, died A.D. 1733, + wrote “Christianity as Old as the Creation.” =Thomas + Morgan=, nonconformist minister, deposed as an Arian, then + a physician, died A.D. 1743, wrote “The Moral Philosopher.” + =Thomas Chubb=, glover and tallow-chandler in Salisbury, died + A.D. 1747, author of popular compilations, “The True Gospel + of Jesus Christ.” Viscount =Bolingbroke=, statesman, charged + with high treason and pardoned, died A.D. 1751, writings + entitled, “Philosophical Works.”--Along with the deists + as an opponent of positive Christianity may be classed the + famous historian and sceptic =David Hume=, librarian in + Edinburgh, died A.D. 1776, author of “Inquiry concerning + the Human Understanding,” “Natural History of Religion,” + “Dialogues concerning Natural Religion,” etc.[518]--Deism + never made way among the people, and no attempt was made + to form a sect. Among the numerous opponents of deism these + are chief: Samuel Clarke, died A.D. 1729; Thomas Sherlock, + Bishop of London, died A.D. 1761; Chandler, Bishop of Durham, + died A.D. 1750; Leland, Presbyterian minister in Dublin, + died A.D. 1766, wrote “View of Principal Deistic Writers,” + three vols., 1754; Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, + died A.D. 1779; Nath. Lardner, dissenting minister, + died A.D. 1768, wrote “Credibility of the Gospel History,” + seventeen vols., 1727-1757. With these may be ranked + the famous pulpit orator of the Reformed church of France, + Saurin, died A.D. 1730, author of _Discours hist., crit., + theol., sur les Evénements les plus remarkables du V. et N.T._ + + 2. =The So-called Arians.= In the beginning of the century + several distinguished theologians of the Anglican church + sought to give currency to an Arian doctrine of the + Trinity. Most conspicuous was =Wm. Whiston=, a distinguished + mathematician, physicist, and astronomer of the school of + Sir Isaac Newton, and his successor in the mathematical + chair at Cambridge. Deprived of this office in A.D. 1708 + for spreading his heterodox views, he issued in A.D. 1711 a + five-volume work, “Primitive Christianity Revived,” in which + he justified his Arian doctrine of the Trinity as primitive + and as taught by the ante-Nicene Fathers, and insisted upon + augmenting the N.T. canon by the addition of twenty-nine + books of the apostolic and other Fathers, including the + apostolic “Constitutions” and “Recognitions” which he + maintained were genuine works of Clement. Subsequently + he adopted Baptist views, and lost himself in fantastic + chiliastic speculations. He died A.D. 1752. More sensible + and moderate was =Samuel Clarke=, also distinguished + as a mathematician of Newton’s school and as a classical + philologist. As an opponent of deism in sermons and + treatises he had gained a high reputation as a theologian, + when his work, “The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity,” + in A.D. 1712, led to his being accused of Arianism by + convocation; but by conciliatory explanations he succeeded + in retaining his office till his death in A.D. 1729. But the + excitement caused by the publication of his work continued + through several decades, and was everywhere the cause of + division. His ablest apologist was Dan. Whitby, and his + keenest opponent Dan. Waterland. + + 3. =The Later Unitarians.= The anti-trinitarian movement + entered on a new stage in A.D. 1770. After Archdeacon + Blackburne of London, in A.D. 1766, had started the idea, + at first anonymously, in his “Confessional,” he joined + in A.D. 1772 with other freethinkers, among whom was his + son-in-law =Theophilus Lindsey=, in presenting to Parliament + a petition with 250 signatures, asking to have the clergy of + the Anglican church freed from the obligation of subscribing + to the Thirty-nine Articles and the Liturgy, and to have the + requirement limited to assent to the Scriptures. This prayer + was rejected in the Lower House by 217 votes against 71. + Lindsey now resigned his clerical office, announced his + withdrawal from the Anglican church, founded and presided + over a Unitarian congregation in London from A.D. 1774, and + published a large number of controversial Unitarian tracts. + He died in A.D. 1808. The celebrated chemist and physicist + =Joseph Priestley=, A.D. 1733-1806, who had been a + dissenting minister in Birmingham from A.D. 1780, joined + the Unitarian movement in 1782, giving it a new impetus by + his high scientific reputation. He wrote the “History of + the Corruptions of Christianity,” and the “History of Early + Opinions about Jesus Christ,” denying that there is any + biblical foundation for the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, + and seeking to show that it had been forced upon the church + against her will from the Platonic philosophy. These and + a whole series of other controversial writings occasioned + great excitement, not only among theologians, but also + among the English people of all ranks. At last the mob rose + against him in A.D. 1791. His house and all his scientific + collections and apparatus were burnt. He narrowly escaped + with his life, and soon after settled in America, where he + wrote a church history in four vols. Of his many English + opponents the most eminent was Bishop Sam. Horsley, a + distinguished mathematician and commentator on the works + of Sir Isaac Newton. + + § 171.2. =Freemasons.=--The mediæval institution of freemasons + (§ 104, 13) won much favour in England, especially after the Great + Fire of London in A.D. 1666. The first step toward the formation + of freemason lodges of the modern type was taken about the end of + the sixteenth century, when men of distinction in other callings + sought admission as honorary members. After the rebuilding + of London and the completion of St. Paul’s in A.D. 1710, most + of the lodges became defunct, and the four that continued to + exist united in A.D. 1717 into one grand lodge in London, which, + renouncing material masonry, assumed the task of rearing the + temple of humanity. In A.D. 1721 the Rev. Mr. Anderson prepared + a constitution for this reconstruction of a trade society into + a universal brotherhood, according to which all “free masons” + faithfully observing the moral law as well as all the claims of + humanity and patriotism, came under obligation to profess the + religion common to all good men, transcending all confessional + differences, without any individual being thereby hindered from + holding his own particular views. Although, in imitation of the + older institution, all members by reason of their close connexion + were bound to observe the strictest secrecy in regard to their + masonic signs, rites of initiation and promotion, and forms + of greeting, it is not properly a secret society, since the + constitution was published in A.D. 1723, and members publicly + acknowledge that they are such.--From London the new institute + spread over all England and the colonies. Lodges were founded + in Paris in A.D. 1725, in Hamburg in A.D. 1737, in Berlin in + A.D. 1740. This last was raised in A.D. 1744 into a grand lodge, + with Frederick II. as grand master. But soon troubles and disputes + arose, which broke up the order about the end of the century. + Rosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and alchemists, pretending to hold the + secrets of occult science, Jesuits (§ 210, 1), with Catholic + hierarchical tendencies, and “Illuminati” (§ 165, 13), with + rationalistic and infidel tendencies, as well as adventurers of + every sort, had made the lodges centres of quackery, juggling, + and plots.[519] + + § 171.3. =The German “Illumination.”= + + 1. =Its Precursors.= One of the first of these, following in + the footsteps of Kuntzen and Dippel, was =J. Chr. Edelmann= + of Weissenfels, who died A.D. 1767. He began in A.D. 1735 + the publication of an immense series of writings in a rough + but powerful style, filled with bitter scorn for positive + Christianity. He went from one sect to another, but never + found what he sought. In A.D. 1741 he accepted Zinzendorf’s + invitation, and stayed with the count for a long time. He + next joined the Berleberg [Berleburg] separatists, because + they despised the sacraments, and contributed to their + Bible commentary, though Haug had to alter much of his work + before it could be used. This and his contempt for prayer + brought the connexion between him and the society to an + end. He then led a vagabond life up and down through Germany. + Edelmann regarded himself as a helper of providence, and at + least a second Luther. Christianity he pronounced the most + irrational of all religions; church history a conglomeration + of immorality, lies, hypocrisy, and fanaticism; prophets + and apostles, bedlamites; and even Christ by no means + a perfect pattern and teacher. The world needs only one + redemption--redemption from Christianity. Providence, + virtue, and immortality are the only elements in religion. + No less than 166 separate treatises came from his facile + pen.--=Laurence Schmidt= of Wertheim in Baden, a scholar + of Wolff, was author of the notorious “Wertheimer Bible + Version,” which rendered Scripture language into the dialect + of the eighteenth century, and eviscerated it of all positive + doctrines of revelation. This book was confiscated by the + authorities, and its author cast into prison. + + § 171.4. + + 2. =The Age of Frederick the Great.= Hostility to all positive + Christianity spread from England and France into Germany. + The writings of the English deists were translated and + refuted, but mostly in so weak a style that the effect + was the opposite of that intended. Whilst English deism + with its air of thoroughness made way among the learned, + the poison of frivolous French naturalism committed + its ravages among the higher circles. The great king of + Prussia =Frederick II.=, A.D. 1740-1786, surrounded by + French freethinkers Voltaire, D’Argens, La Metrie, etc., + wished every man in his kingdom to be saved after his own + fashion. In this he was quite earnest, although his personal + animosity to all ecclesiastical and pietistic religion made + him sometimes act harshly and unjustly. Thus, when Francke + of Halle (son of the famous A. H. Francke) had exhorted + his theological students to avoid the theatre, the king, + designating him “hypocrite” Francke, ordered him to attend + the theatre himself and have his attendance attested by the + manager. His bitter hatred of all “priests” was directed + mainly against their actual or supposed intolerance, + hypocrisy, and priestly arrogance; and where he met with + undoubted integrity, as in Gellert and Seb. Bach, or simple, + earnest piety, as in General Ziethen, he was not slow in + paying to it the merited tribute of hearty acknowledgment + and respect. His own religion was a philosophical + deism, from which he could thoroughly refute Holbach’s + materialistic “_Système de la Nature_.”--Under the name + of the German popular philosophy (Moses Mendelssohn, + Garve, Eberhard, Platner, Steinbart, etc.), which started + from the Wolffian philosophy, emptied of its Christian + contents, there arose a weak, vapoury, and self-satisfied + philosophizing on the part of the common human reason. + Basedow was the reformer of pedagogy in the sense of the + “Illumination,” after the style of Rousseau, and crying + up his wares in the market made a great noise for a while, + although Herder declared that he would not trust calves, far + less men, to be educated by such a pedagogue. The “Universal + German Library” of the Berlin publisher Nicolai, 106 vols. + A.D. 1765-1792, was a literary Inquisition tribunal against + all faith in revelation or the church. The “Illumination” + in the domain of theology took the name of rationalism. + Pietistic Halle cast its skin, and along with Berlin took + front rank among the promoters of the “Illumination.” In the + other universities champions of the new views soon appeared, + and rationalistic pastors spread over all Germany, to preach + only of moral improvement, or to teach from the pulpit about + the laws of health, agriculture, gardening, natural science, + etc. The old liturgies were mutilated, hymn-books revised + after the barbarous tastes of the age, and songs of mere + moral tendency substituted for those that spoke of Christ’s + atonement. An ecclesiastical councillor, Lang of Regensburg, + dispensed the communion with the words: “Eat this bread! The + Spirit of devotion rest on you with His rich blessing! Drink + a little wine! The virtue lies not in this wine; it lies in + you, in the divine doctrine, and in God.” The Berlin provost, + W. Alb. Teller, declared publicly: “The Jews ought on + account of their faith in God, virtue, and immortality, to + be regarded as genuine Christians.” C. Fr. Bahrdt, after he + had been deposed for immorality from various clerical and + academical offices, and was cast off by the theologians, + sought to amuse the people with his wit as a taphouse-keeper + in Halle, and died there of an infamous disease in A.D. 1792. + + § 171.5. + + 3. =The Wöllner Reaction.=--In vain did the Prussian government, + after the death of Frederick the Great, under Frederick + William II., A.D. 1786-1797, endeavour to restore the church + to the enjoyment of its old exclusive rights by punishing + every departure from its doctrines, and insisting that + preaching should be in accordance with the Confession. + At the instigation of the Rosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and of + the minister Von Wöllner, a country pastor ennobled by the + king, the =Religious Edict of 1788= was issued, followed + by a statement of severe penalties; then by a _Schema + Examinationis Candidatorum ss. Ministerii rite Instituendi_; + and in A.D. 1791, by a commission for examination under the + Berlin chief consistory and all the provincial consistories, + with full powers, not only over candidates, but also over + all settled pastors. But notwithstanding all the energy + with which he sought to carry out his edict, the minister + could accomplish nothing in the face of public opinion, + which favoured the resistance of the chief consistory. + Only one deposition, that of Schulz of Gielsdorf, near + Berlin, was effected, in A.D. 1792. Frederick William III., + A.D. 1797-1840, dismissed Wöllner in A.D. 1798, and set + aside the edict as only fostering hypocrisy and sham piety. + + § 171.6. =The Transition Theology.=--Four men, who endeavoured to + maintain their own belief in revelation, did more than all others + to prepare the way for rationalism: Ernesti of Leipzig, in the + department of N.T. exegesis; Michaelis of Göttingen, in O.T. + exegesis; Semler of Halle, in biblical and historical criticism; + and Töllner of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in dogmatics. =J. A. + Ernesti=, A.D. 1707-1781, from A.D. 1734 rector of St. Thomas’ + School, from A.D. 1742 professor at Leipzig, colleague to Chr. A. + Crusius (§ 167, 3), was specially eminent as a classical scholar, + and maintained his reputation in that department, even after + becoming professor of theology in A.D. 1758. His _Institutio + Interpretis N.T._, of A.D. 1761, made it an axiom of exegesis + that the exposition of Scripture should be conducted precisely + as that of any other book. But even in the domain of classical + literature there must be an understanding of the author as a + whole, and the expositor must have appreciation of the writer’s + spirit, as well as have acquaintance with his language and the + customs of his age. And just from Ernesti’s want of this, his + treatise on biblical hermeneutics is rationalistic, and he became + the father of rationalistic exegesis, though himself intending + to hold firmly by the doctrine of inspiration and the creed of + the church.--What Ernesti did for the N.T., =J. D. Michaelis=, + A.D. 1717-1791, son of the pious and orthodox Chr. Bened. + Michaelis, did for the O.T. He was from A.D. 1750 professor + at Göttingen, a man of varied learning and wide influence. He + publicly acknowledged that he had never experienced anything of + the _testimonium Sp. s. internum_, and rested his proofs of the + divinity of the Scriptures wholly on external evidences, _e.g._ + miracles, prophecy, authenticity, etc., a spider’s web easily + blown to pieces by the enemy. No one has ever excelled him in the + art of foisting his own notions on the sacred authors and making + them utter his favourite ideas. A conspicuous instance of this is + his “Laws of Moses,” in six vols.--In a far greater measure than + either Ernesti or Michaelis did =J. Sol. Semler=, A.D. 1725-1791, + pupil of Baumgarten, and from A.D. 1751 professor at Halle, help + on the cause of rationalism. He had grown up under the influence + of Halle pietism in the profession of a customary Christianity, + which he called his private religion, which contributed to his + life a basis of genuine personal piety. But with a rare subtlety + of reasoning as a man of science, endowed with rich scholarship, + and without any wish to sever himself from Christianity, he + undermined almost all the supports of the theology of the church. + This he did by casting doubt on the genuineness of the biblical + writings, by setting up a theory of inspiration and accommodation + which admitted the presence of error, misunderstanding, and pious + fraud in the Scriptures, by a style of exposition which put aside + everything unattractive in the N.T. as “remnants of Judaism,” + by a critical treatment of the history of the church and its + doctrines, which represented the doctrines of the church as the + result of blundering, misconception, and violence, etc. He was a + voluminous author, leaving behind him no less than 171 writings. + He sowed the wind, and reaped the whirlwind, by which he himself + was driven along. He firmly withstood the installation of Bahrdt + at Halle, opposed Basedow’s endeavours, applied himself eagerly + to refute the “Wolfenbüttel Fragments” of Reimarus, edited by + Lessing in 1774-1778, which represented Christianity as founded + upon pure deceit and fraud, and defended even the edict of + Wöllner. But the current was not thus to be stemmed, and Semler + died broken-hearted at the sight of the heavy crop from his own + sowing.--J. Gr. Töllner, A.D. 1724-1774, from A.D. 1756 professor + at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, was in point of learning and influence + by no means equal to those now named; yet he deserves a place + alongside of them, as one who opened the door to rationalism in + the department of dogmatics. He himself held fast to the belief + in revelation, miracles, and prophecy, but he also regarded it + as proved that God saves men by the revelation of nature; the + revelation of Scripture is only a more sure and perfect means. He + also examined the divine inspiration of Scripture, and found that + the language and thoughts were the authors’ own, and that God + was concerned in it in a manner that could not be more precisely + determined. Finally, in treating of the active obedience of + Christ, he gives such a representation of it as sets aside the + doctrine of the church. + + § 171.7. =The Rationalistic Theology.=--From the school of + these men, especially from that of Semler, went forth crowds + of rationalists, who for seventy years held almost all the + professorships and pastorates of Protestant Germany. At their + head stands =Bahrdt=, A.D. 1741-1792, writer at first of orthodox + handbooks, who, sinking deeper and deeper through vanity, want of + character, and immorality, and following in the steps of Edelmann, + wrote 102 vols., mostly of a scurrilous and blasphemous character. + The rationalists, however, were generally of a nobler sort: + =Griesbach= of Jena, A.D. 1745-1812, distinguished as textual + critic of the N.T.; =Teller= of Berlin, published a lexicon + to the N.T., which substituted “leading another life” for + regeneration, “improvement” for sanctification, etc.; Koppe of + Göttingen, and Rosenmüller of Leipzig wrote _scholia_ on N.T., + and Schulze and Bauer on the O.T. Of far greater value were the + performances of =J. G. Eichhorn= of Göttingen, A.D. 1752-1827, + and =Bertholdt= of Erlangen, A.D. 1774-1822, who wrote + introductions to the O.T. and commentaries. In the department + of church history, =H. P. C. Henke= of Helmstädt and the + talented statesman, =Von Spittler= of Württemberg, wrote + from the rationalistic standpoint. Steinbart and Eberhardt + [Eberhard] wrote more in the style of the popular philosophy. + The subtle-minded =J. H. Tieftrunk=, A.D. 1760-1837, professor + of philosophy at Halle, introduced into theology the Kantian + philosophy with its strict categories. Jerusalem, Zollikofer, + and others did much to spread rationalistic views by their + preaching.[520] + + § 171.8. =Supernaturalism.=--Abandoning the old orthodoxy without + surrendering to rationalism, the supernaturalists sought to + maintain their hold of the Scripture revelation. Many of them + did so in a very uncertain way: their revelation had scarcely + anything to reveal which was not already given by reason. Others, + however, eagerly sought to preserve all essentially vital truths. + Morus of Leipzig, Ernesti’s ablest student, Less of Göttingen, + Döderlein of Jena, Seiler of Erlangen, and Nösselt of Halle, + were all representatives of this school. More powerful opponents + of rationalism appeared in =Storr= of Tübingen, A.D. 1746-1805, + who could break a lance even with the philosopher of Königsberg, + =Knapp= of Halle, and =Reinhard= of Dresden, the most famous + preacher of his age. Reinhard’s sermon on the Reformation + festival of A.D. 1800 created such enthusiasm in favour of the + Lutheran doctrine of justification, that government issued an + edict calling the attention of all pastors to it as a model. The + most distinguished apologists were the mathematician =Euler= of + St. Petersburg, the physiologist, botanist, geologist, and poet + =Haller= of Zürich and the theologians =Lilienthal= of Königsberg + and =Kleuker= of Kiel. The most zealous defender of the faith was + the much abused =Goeze= of Hamburg, who fought for the palladium + of Lutheran orthodoxy against his rationalistic colleagues, + against the theatre, against Barth, Basedow, and such-like, + against the “Wolfenbüttel Fragments,” against the “Sorrows of + Werther,” etc. His polemic may have been over-violent, and he + certainly was not a match for such an antagonist as Lessing; he + was, however, by no means an obscurantist, ignoramus, fanatic, + or hypocrite, but a man in solemn earnest in all he did. In + the field of church history important services were rendered + by =Schröckh= of Wittenberg and =Walch= of Göttingen, laborious + investigators and compilers, =Stäudlin= and =Planck= of Göttingen, + and =Münter= of Copenhagen.--Among English theologians of this + tendency toward the end of the century, the most famous was + =Paley= of Cambridge, A.D. 1743-1805, whose “Principles of Moral + and Political Philosophy” and “Evidences of Christianity” were + obligatory text-books in the university. His “_Horæ Paulinæ_” + prove the credibility of the Acts of the Apostles from the + epistles, and his “Natural Theology” demonstrates God’s being + and attributes from nature. + + § 171.9. =Mysticism and Theosophy.=--=Oetinger= of Württemburg + [Württemberg], the _Magus_ of the South, A.D. 1702-1782, + takes rank by himself. He was a pupil of Bengel (§ 167, 3), + well grounded in Scripture, but also an admirer of Böhme and + sympathising with the spiritualistic visions of Swedenborg. But + amid all, with his biblical realism and his theosophy, which held + corporeity to be the end of the ways of God, he was firmly rooted + in the doctrines of Lutheran orthodoxy.--The best mystic of the + Reformed church was =J. Ph. Dutoit= of Lausanne, A.D. 1721-1793, + an enthusiastic admirer of Madame Guyon; he added to her quietist + mysticism certain theosophical speculations on the original + nature of Adam, the creation of woman, the fall, the necessity + of the incarnation apart from the fall, the basing of the + sinlessness of Christ upon the immaculate conception of his + mother, etc. He gathered about him during his lifetime a large + number of pious adherents, but after his death his theories were + soon forgotten. + + § 171.10. =The German Philosophy.=--As Locke accomplished the + descent from Bacon to deism and materialism, so =Wolff= effected + the transition from Leibnitz to the popular philosophy. =Kant=, + A.D. 1724-1804, saved philosophy from the baldness and self- + sufficiency of Wolffianism, and pointed it to its proper element + in the spiritual domain. Kant’s own philosophy stood wholly + outside of Christianity, on the same platform with rationalistic + theology. But by deeper digging in the soil it unearthed many a + precious nugget, of whose existence the vulgar rationalism had + never dreamed, without any intention of becoming a schoolmaster + to lead to Christ. Kant showed the impossibility of a knowledge + of the supernatural by means of pure reason, but admitted + the ideas of God, freedom, and immortality as postulates of + the practical reason and as constituting the principle of all + religion, whose only content is the moral law. Christianity and + the Bible are to remain the basis of popular instruction, but + are to be expounded only in an ethical sense. While in sympathy + with rationalism, he admits its baldness and self-sufficiency. + His keen criticism of the pure reason, the profound knowledge of + human weakness and corruption shown in his doctrine of radical + evil, his categorical imperative of the moral law, were well + fitted to awaken in more earnest minds a deep distrust of + themselves, a modest estimate of the boasted excellences of + their age, and a feeling that Christianity could alone meet their + necessities.--=F. H. Jacobi=, A.D. 1743-1819, “with the heart a + Christian, with the understanding a pagan,” as he characterized + himself, took religion out of the region of mere reason into the + depths of the universal feelings of the soul, and so awakened a + positive aspiration.--=J. G. Fichte=, A.D. 1762-1814, transformed + Kantianism, to which he at first adhered, into an idealistic + science of knowledge, in which only the _ego_ that posits itself + appears as real, and the _non-ego_, only by its being posited by + the _ego_; and thus the world and nature are only a reflex of the + mind. But when, accused of atheism in A.D. 1798, he was expelled + from his position in Jena, he changed his views, rushing from the + verge of atheism into a mysticism approaching to Christianity. In + his “Guide to a Blessed Life,” A.D. 1806, he delivered religion + from being a mere servant to morals, and sought the blessedness + of life in the loving surrender of one’s whole being to the + universal Spirit, the full expression of which he found in + John’s Gospel. Pauline Christianity, on the other hand, with its + doctrine of sin and redemption, seemed to him a deterioration, + and Christ Himself only the most complete representative of + the incarnation of God repeated in all ages and in every pious + man.--In the closing years of the century, =Schelling= brought + forward his theory of _identity_, which was one of the most + powerful instruments in introducing a new era.[521] + + § 171.11. =The German National Literature.=--When the powerful + strain of the evangelical church hymn had well-nigh expired in + the feeble lispings of =Gellert’s= sacred poetry, =Klopstock= + began to chant the praises of the Messiah in a higher strain. But + the pathos of his odes met with no response, and his “Messiah,” + of which the first three cantos appeared in A.D. 1748, though + received with unexampled enthusiasm, could do nothing to exorcise + the spirit of unbelief, and was more praised than read. The + theological standpoint of =Lessing=, A.D. 1729-1781, is set forth + in one of his letters to his brother. “I despise the orthodox + even more than you do, only I despise the clergy of the new style + even more. What is the new-fashioned theology of those shallow + pates compared with orthodoxy but as dung-water compared with + dirty water? On this point we are at one, that our old religious + system is false; but I cannot say with you that it is a patchwork + of bunglers and half philosophers. I know nothing in the world + upon which human ingenuity has been more subtly exercised than + upon it. That religious system which is now offered in place of + the old is a patchwork of bunglers and half philosophers.” He is + offended at men hanging the concerns of eternity on the spider’s + thread of external evidences, and so he was delighted to hurl + the Wolfenbüttel “Fragments” at the heads of theologians and the + Hamburg pastor Goeze, whom he loaded with contumely and scorn. + Thoroughly characteristic too is the saying in the “_Duplik_:” + That if God holding in his right hand all truth, and in his + left hand the search after truth, subject to error through all + eternity, were to offer him his choice, he would humbly say, + “Father the left, for pure truth is indeed for thee alone.” In + his “_Nathan_” only Judaism and Mohammedanism are represented by + truly noble and ideal characters, while the chief representative + of Christianity is a gloomy zealot, and the conclusion of the + parable is that all three rings are counterfeit. In another + work he views revelation as one of the stages in “The Education + of the Human Race,” which loses its significance as soon as + its purpose is served. In familiar conversation with Jacobi + he frankly declared his acceptance of the doctrine of Spinoza: + Ἓν καὶ πᾶν.[522] =Wieland=, A.D. 1733-1813, soon turned + from his youthful zeal for ecclesiastical orthodoxy to the + popular philosophy of the cultured man of the world. =Herder=, + A.D. 1744-1803, with his enthusiastic appreciation of the + poetical contents of the Bible, especially of the Old Testament, + was not slow to point out the insipidity of its ordinary + treatment. =Goethe=, A.D. 1749-1832, profoundly hated the + vandalism of neology, delighted in “The Confessions of a + Fair Soul” (§ 172, 2), had in earlier years sympathy with the + Herrnhuters, but in the full intellectual vigour of his manhood + thought he had no need of Christianity, which offended him by + its demand for renunciation of self and the world. =Schiller=, + A.D. 1759-1805, enthusiastically admiring everything noble, + beautiful and good, misunderstood Christianity, and introduced + into the hearts of the German people Kantian rationalism clothed + in rich poetic garb. His lament on the downfall of the gods of + Greece, even if not so intended by the poet himself, told not so + much against orthodox Christianity as against poverty-stricken + deism, which banished the God of Christianity from the world + and set in his place the dead forces of nature. And if indeed + he really thought that for religion’s sake he should confess + to no religion, he has certainly in many profoundly Christian + utterances given unconscious testimony to Christianity.--The + Jacobi philosophy of feeling found poetic interpreters in =Jean + Paul Richter=, A.D. 1763-1825, and =Hebel=, died A.D. 1826, in + whom we find the same combination of pious sentiment which is + drawn toward Christianity and the sceptical understanding which + allied itself to the revolt against the common orthodoxy. =J. H. + Voss=, a rough, powerful Dutch peasant, who in his “_Luise_” + sketched the ideal of a brave rationalistic country parson, and, + with the inexorable rigour of an inquisitor, hunted down the + night birds of ignorance and oppression. But alongside of those + children of the world stood two genuine sons of Luther, =Matthias + Claudius=, A.D. 1740-1815, and =J. G. Hamann=, A.D. 1730-1788, + the “Magus of the North” and the Elijah of his age, of whom Jean + Paul said that his commas were planetary systems and his periods + solar systems, to whom the philosopher Hemsterhuis erected in + the garden of Princess Gallitzin a tablet with the inscription: + “To the Jews a stumbling- block, to the Greeks foolishness.” With + them may also be named two noble sons of the Reformed church, the + physiognomist =Lavater=, A.D. 1741- 1801, and the devout dreamer, + =Jung-Stilling=, A.D. 1740-1817. The famous historian, =John von + Müller=, A.D. 1752- 1809, well deserves mention here, who more + than any previous historian made Christ the centre and summit + of all times; and also the no less famous statesman =C. F. von + Moser=, the most German of the Germans of this century, who, + with noble Christian heroism, in numerous political and patriotic + tracts, battled against the prevailing social and political vices + of his age. + + § 171.12. The great Swiss educationist =Pestalozzi=, + A.D. 1746-1827, assumed toward the Bible, the church, and + Christianity an attitude similar to that of the philosopher of + Königsberg. The conviction of the necessity and wholesomeness + of a biblical foundation in all popular education was rooted + in his heart, and he clearly saw the shallowness of the popular + philosophy, whether presented under the eccentric naturalism of + Rousseau or the bald utilitarianism of Basedow. His whole life + issued from the very sanctuary of true Christianity, as seen in + his self-sacrificing efforts to save the lost, to strengthen the + weak, and to preach to the poor by word and deed the gospel of + the all-merciful God whose will it is that all should be saved. + He began his career as an educationist in A.D. 1775 by receiving + into his house deserted beggar children, and carried on his + experiments in his educational institutions at Burgdorf till + A.D. 1798, and at Isserten till A.D. 1804. His writings, which + circulated far and wide, gained for his methods recognition and + high approval.[523] + + + § 172. CHURCH LIFE IN THE PERIOD OF THE “ILLUMINATION.” + + The ancient faith of the church had even during this age of prevailing +unbelief its seven thousand who refused to bow the knee to Baal. The +German people were at heart firmly grounded in the Christianity of the +Bible and the church, and where the pulpit failed had their spiritual +wants supplied by the devout writings of earlier days. Where the modern +vandalism of the “Illumination” had mutilated and watered down the books +of praise, the old church songs lingered in the memories of fathers and +mothers, and were sung with ardour at family worship. For many men of +culture, who were more exposed to danger, the Society of the Brethren +afforded a welcome refuge. But even among the most accomplished of the +nation many stood firmly in the old paths. Lavater and Stilling, Haller +and Euler, the two Mosers, father and son, John von Müller and his +brother J. G. Müller, are not by any means the only, but merely the best +known, of such true sons of the church. In Württemberg and Berg, where +religious life was most vigorous, religious sects were formed with new +theological views which made a deep impression on the character and +habits of the people. Also toward the end of the century an awakened +zeal in home and foreign missions was the prelude of the glorious +enterprises of our own days. + + § 172.1. =The Hymnbook and Church Music.=--Klopstock, followed + by Cramer and Schlegel, introduced the vandalism of altering + the old church hymns to suit modern tastes and views. But a + few, like Herder and Schubert, raised their voices against such + philistinism. The “Illuminist” alterations were unutterably + prosaic, and the old pathos and poetry of the sixteenth and + seventeenth century hymns were ruthlessly sacrificed. The + spiritual songs of the noble and pious Gellert are by far + the best productions of this period.--=Church Music= too now + reached its lowest ebb. The old chorales were altered into modern + forms. A multitude of new, unpopular melodies, difficult of + comprehension, with a bald school tone, were introduced; the last + trace of the old rhythm disappeared, and a weary monotony began + to prevail, in which all force and freshness were lost. As a + substitute, secular preludes, interludes, and concluding pieces + were brought in. The people often entered the churches during the + playing of operatic overtures, and were dismissed amid the noise + of a march or waltz. The church ceased to be the patron and + promoter of music; the theatre and concert room took its place. + The opera style thoroughly depraved the oratorio. For festival + occasions, cantatas in a purely secular, effeminate style were + composed. A true ecclesiastical music no longer existed, so that + even Winterfeld closed his history of church music with Seb. Bach. + It was, if possible, still worse with the mass music of the Roman + Catholic church. Palestrina’s earnest and capable school was + completely lost sight of under the sprightly and frivolous opera + style, and with the organ still more mischief was done than in + the Protestant church. + + § 172.2. =Religious Characters.=--The pastor of Ban de la Roche + in Steinthal of Alsace, “the saint of the Protestant church,” + =J. Fr. Oberlin=, A.D. 1740-1826, deserves a high place of honour. + During a sixty years’ pastorate “Father Oberlin” raised his + poverty-stricken flock to a position of industrial prosperity, + and changed the barren Steinthal into a patriarchal paradise. The + same may be said of a noble Christian woman of that age, =Sus. + Cath. von Klettenberg=, Lavater’s “Cordata,” Goethe’s “Fair Soul,” + whose genuine confessions are wrought into “_Wilhelm Meister_,” + the centre of a beautiful Christian circle in Frankfort, where + the young Goethe received religious impressions that were never + wholly forgotten.--Community of religious yearnings brought + together pious Protestants and pious Catholics. The Princess von + Gallitzin, her chaplain Overberg, and minister Von Fürstenberg + formed a noble group of earnest Catholics, for whom the ardent + Lutheran Hamann entertained the warmest affection. + + § 172.3. =Religious Sects.=--In Württemberg there arose out of + the pietism of Spener, with a dash of the theosophy of Oetinger, + the party of the =Michelians=, so named from a layman, Michael + Hahn, whose writings show profound insight into the truths of the + gospel. He taught the doctrine of a double fall, in consequence + of which he depreciated though he did not forbid marriage; of a + restitution of all things; while he subordinated justification + to sanctification, the Christ for us to the Christ in us, etc. + As a reaction against this extreme arose the =Pregizerians=, who + laid exclusive stress upon baptism and justification, declared + assurance and heart-breaking penitence unnecessary, and imparted + to their services as much brightness and joy as possible. Both + sects spread over Württemberg and still exist, but in their + common opposition to the destructive tendencies of modern times, + they have drawn more closely together. In their chiliasm and + restitutionism they are thoroughly agreed.--The =Collenbuschians= + in Canton Berg propounded a dogmatic system in which Christ + empties Himself of His divine attributes, and assumes with sinful + flesh the tendencies to sin that had to be fought against, the + sufferings of Christ are attributed to the wrath of Satan, and + His redemption consists in His overcoming Satan’s wrath for us + and imparting His Spirit to enable us to do works of holiness. + The most distinguished adherents of Collenbusch were the two + Hasencamps and the talented Bremen pastor Menken. + + § 172.4. =The Rationalistic “Illumination” outside of + Germany.=--In Amsterdam, in A.D. 1791, a =Restored Lutheran + Church= or =Old Light= was organized on the occasion of the + intrusion of a rationalistic pastor. It now numbers eight Dutch + congregations with 14,000 adherents and 11 pastors. Under the + name of =Christo Sacrum= some members of the French Reformed + church at Delft, in A.D. 1797, founded a denomination which + received adherents of all confessions, holding by the divinity + of Christ and His atonement, and treating all confessional + differences as non-essential and to be held only as private + opinions. In their public services they adopted mainly the forms + of the Anglican episcopal church. Though successful at first, it + soon became rent by the incongruity of its elements. In England + the dissenters and Methodists provided a healthy protest against + the lukewarmness of the State church. In =William Cowper=, + A.D. 1731-1800, we have a noble and brilliant poet of high + lyrical genius, whose life was blasted by the terrorism of a + predestinarian doctrine of despair and the religious melancholy + produced by Methodistic agonies of soul. + + § 172.5. =Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise.=--In + order to arouse interest in the idea of a grand union for + practical Christian purposes, the Augsburg elder, John Urlsperger, + travelled through England, Holland, and Germany. The Basel + Society for Spreading Christian Truth, founded in A.D. 1780, was + the firstfruits of his zeal, and branches were soon established + throughout Switzerland and Southern Germany. The Basel Bible + Society was founded in A.D. 1804, and the Missionary Society + in A.D. 1816.--At a meeting of English Baptist preachers at + Kettering, in Northamptonshire, in A.D. 1792, William Carey was + the means of starting the Baptist Missionary Society. Carey was + himself its first missionary. He sailed for India in A.D. 1793, + and founded the Serampore Mission in Bengal. The work of the + society has now spread over the East and West Indies, the Malay + Archipelago, South Africa, and South America. A popular preacher, + Melville Horne, who had been himself in India, published “Letters + on Missions,” in A.D. 1794, in which he earnestly counselled a + union of all true Christians for the conversion of the heathen. + In response to this appeal a large number of Christians of all + denominations, mostly Independents, founded in A.D. 1795, the + London Missionary Society, and in the following year the first + missionary ship, _The Duff_, under Captain Wilson, sailed for the + South Seas with twenty-nine missionaries on board. Its operations + now extend to both Indies, South Africa, and North America; + but its chief hold is in the South Seas. In the Society Islands + the missionaries wrought for sixteen years without any apparent + result, till at last King Pomare II. of Tahiti sought baptism as + the first-fruits of their labours. A victory gained over a pagan + reactionary party in A.D. 1815 secured complete ascendency to + Christianity. The example of the London Society was followed by + the founding of two Scottish societies in A.D. 1796 and a Dutch + society in A.D. 1797, and the Church Missionary Society in London + in A.D. 1799, for the English possessions in Africa, Asia, etc. + The Danish Lutheran (§ 167, 9) and the Herrnhut (§ 168, 11) + societies still continued their operations.[524]--Continuation, + §§ 183, 184. + + + + + FOURTH SECTION. + + CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + + + + I. General and Introductory. + + + § 173. SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + A reaction had set in against the atheistic spirit of the French +Revolution, and the victories of A.D. 1813, 1815, encouraged the +pious in their Christian confidence. Princes and people were full of +gratitude to God. Alexander I., Francis I., and Frederick William III., +representing the three principal churches, in A.D. 1815, after the +political situation had been determined by the Congress of Vienna, +formed “the Holy Alliance,” a league of brotherly love for mutual +defence and maintenance of peace, to which all the European princes +adhered with the exception of the pope, the sultan, and the king of +England. Through Metternich’s arts it ultimately degenerated into an +instrument of repression and tyranny.--Incongruous elements were present +everywhere. The restoration of the papacy in A.D. 1814 had given a new +impulse to ultramontanism, as did also the Reformation centenary of +A.D. 1817 to Protestantism; while supernaturalism and pietism prevailing +in the Lutheran and Reformed churches led to renewed attempts at union. +Old sects were strengthened and new sects arose. Pantheism, materialism, +and atheism, as well as socialism and communism, without concealment +attacked Christianity; while pauperism and vagabondage, on the one hand, +and the Stock Exchange swindling of capitalists, on the other, spread +moral consumption through all classes of society. The ultramontanes, led +by the Jesuits, reasserted the most arrogant claims of the papacy. The +climax was reached when Pius IX. obtained a decree of council affirming +his infallibility, while by the Nemesis of history the royal crown was +torn from his head. + + + § 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE IN RELATION TO + CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH. + + Down to A.D. 1840, when zeal for it began to abate, philosophy +exercised an important influence on the religious development of the +age, both in the departments of science and of life. While rationalism +was not able to transcend the standpoint of Kant, the other theological +tendencies were more or less determined formally, and even materially +by the philosophical movements of this period. Alongside of philosophy, +literature, itself to a great extent coloured by contemporary philosophy, +exerted a powerful influence on the religious opinions of the more +cultured among the people. The sciences, too, came into closer relations, +partly friendly, partly hostile, to Christianity; and art in some of its +masterpieces paid a noble tribute to the church. + + § 174.1. =The German Philosophy= (§ 171, 10).--=Fries=, whose + philosophy was Kantian rationalism, modified by elements borrowed + from Jacobi, influenced such theologians as De Wette. =Schelling=, + in his “Philosophy of Identity,” had advanced from Fichte’s + idealism to a pantheistic naturalism. From Fichte he had learned + that this world is nothing without spirit; but while Fichte + recognised this world, the _non-ego_, as reality only in so far + as man seizes upon it and penetrates it by his spirit, and so + raises it into real being, Schelling regards spirit as nothing + else than the life of nature itself. In the lower stages of this + nature-life spirit is still slumbering and dreaming, but in man + it has attained unto consciousness. The nature-life as a whole, + or the world-soul, is God; man is the reflex of God and the + world in miniature, a microcosmos. In the world’s development God + comes into objective being and unfolds his self-consciousness; + Christianity is the turning point in the world’s history; its + fundamental dogmas of revelation, trinity, incarnation, and + redemption are suggestive attempts to solve the world’s riddle. + Schelling’s poetic view of the world penetrated all the sciences, + and gave to them a new impulse. Though hateful to the old + rationalists, this system found ardent admirers among the younger + theologians. As Schelling to Fichte, so =Hegel= was attached + to Schelling, and wrought his pantheistic naturalism into a + pantheistic spiritualism. Not so much in the life of nature as in + the thinking and doing of the human spirit, the divine revelation + is the unfolding of the divine self-consciousness from non-being + into being. Judaism and Christianity are progressive stages of + this process; Judaism stands far below classic paganism; but in + Christianity we have the perfect religion, to be developed into + the highest form of philosophy. The Protestant church doctrine + was now again accorded the place of honour. Marheincke developed + Lutheran orthodoxy into a system of speculative theology based on + Hegelian principles; while Göschel infused into it a pietist + spirit, which made many hail the new departure as the long-sought + reconciliation of theology and philosophy. But after Hegel’s + death in A.D. 1831 the condition of matters suddenly changed. + His school split into an orthodox wing following the master’s + ecclesiastical tendencies, and a heterodox wing which deified the + human spirit. Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach led this heterodox + party in theology, and Ruge in reference to social, æsthetic, + and political questions. Persecuted by the state in A.D. 1843, + the Young Hegelians joined the rationalists, whom they had before + sneered at as “antediluvian theologians.” =Schelling=, who had + been silent for almost thirty years, took Hegel’s chair in Berlin + as his decided opponent in A.D. 1841, and with his dualistic + doctrine of potencies, from which he finally advanced to a + Christian gnosticism, obtained a temporary influence among the + younger theologians. He died at the baths of Ragaz in Switzerland + in A.D. 1854. He flashed for a moment like a meteor, and as + suddenly his light was quenched. + + § 174.2. The domination of the Hegelian philosophy was overthrown + by the split in the school and the radicalism of the adherents + of the left wing, and Schelling in the second stage of his + philosophical development had not succeeded in founding any + proper school of his own. A group of younger philosophers, with + I. H. Fichte at their head, starting from the Hegelian dialectic, + have striven to free philosophy from the reproach of pantheism + and to develop a speculative theism in touch with historical + Christianity. Other members of this school are Weisse, Braniss, + Chalibæus, Ulrici, Wirth, Romang, etc.--=Herbart= renounces all + that philosophers from Fichte senior to Fichte junior had done, + and declares the metaphysical end of their systems beyond the + horizon of philosophy, which must limit itself to the province of + experience. His realism is in diametrical opposition to Hegel’s + idealism. Toward Christianity his philosophy occupies a position + of indifference. Influenced by Kant’s theory of knowledge as + well as by the Fichte-Schelling-Hegel idealism and Herbart’s + realism, with an infusion of Leibnitz’s monad doctrine, =Hermann + Lotze= of Göttingen has, since A.D. 1844, set forth a system of + “teleological idealism.” He develops his metaphysical principles + from what we have by immediate experience internal and external, + and the invariability of the causal mechanism in everything that + happens in the inner and outer world he explains as the realizing + of moral purposes.--=Schopenhauer’s= philosophy, which only in + the later years of his life (died A.D. 1860) began to attract + attention, is in spirit utterly opposed to the religion and + ethics of Christianity. Its task is to describe “The World as + Will and Idea;” first at that stage of entering into visibility + which is represented in man does will, the thing-in-itself, + become joined with idea, and makes its appearance now with it + over against the world as a conscious subject. But since idea + is regarded as a pure illusion of the will, this leads to a + pessimism which takes absolute despair as the only legitimate + moral principle. =E. von Hartmann= went still further in the + same direction in his “Philosophy of the Unconscious,” published + in 1869, of which an English translation in three vols. appeared + in 1884. He identifies the will with matter and idea with spirit, + demands in addition to the absolute despair of the individual + here and hereafter, the complete surrender of the personality to + the world-process in order to the attainment of its end, the + annihilation of the world. This dissolution of the world consists + in the complete withdrawal of the will into the absolute as + the only unconscious, so that at last the wrong and misery of + being produced by the irrational will are abolished in this + withdrawal. From this philosophical standpoint Hartmann attempted + in A.D. 1874 to take Christianity to pieces, showing some favour + to Vatican Catholicism, but pouring out the vials of his wrath + upon Protestantism. His “religion of the future” consists in a + yearning for freedom from all the burden and misery of being and + share in the world-process by relapsing into the blessedness of + non-being.--In France, England, and America much favour has been + shown to the atheistic-sensual Positivism of =Aug. Comte=, which, + excluding every form of theology and morals, requires only the + so-called exact sciences as the object of philosophy. On his later + notions of a “religion of humanity,” see § 210, 1. On essentially + similar lines proceeds =Herbert Spencer=, in his “System of + Synthetic Philosophy,” to whose school also Darwin belonged. + His followers are styled agnostics, because they regard all + knowledge of God and divine things as absolutely impossible, + and evolutionists, because their master endeavours to construct + all the sciences on the basis of the evolution theory. + + § 174.3. =The Sciences.=-Schelling’s profound theories were of + all the more significance from their not being restricted to + the philosophical strivings of his time, but inspiring the other + sciences with the breath of a new life. To the fullest extent + the natural sciences exposed themselves to this influence. There + was not wanting indeed a certain shadowy mysticism, to which + especially the fancies of mesmeric magnetism largely contributed; + but this fog gradually cleared away, and the Christian elements + were purified from their pantheistic surroundings. Steffens + and Von Schubert taught that the divine book of nature is to be + regarded as the reflex and expansion of the divine revelation in + Scripture. The Hegelian philosophy, too, seemed at first likely + to infuse a Christian spirit into the other sciences. In Göschel, + at least, there was a thinker who imparted to jurisprudence a + Christian character, and to Christianity a juristic construction. + In other respects Hegel’s philosophy in its application to the + other departments of science gave in many ways a predominance to + an abstruse dialectic tendency. Its adherents of the extreme left + sought to construct all sciences _a priori_ from the pure idea, + and at the same time to root out from them the last vestiges of + the Christian spirit. + + The greatest names in natural science, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, + Haller, Davy, Cuvier, etc., are household words in Christian + circles. All these and many more were firmly convinced that there + was no conflict between their most brilliant discoveries and + Christian truth. In A.D. 1825 the Earl of Bridgwater founded a + lectureship, and treatises on the power, wisdom, and goodness of + God as manifested in the creation, have been written by Buckland, + Chalmers, Whewell, Bell, etc. It was otherwise in Germany. + Even Schleiermacher, in his “Letters to Lücke,” in A.D. 1829, + expressed his fears of the prophesied overthrow of all Christian + theories of the world by the incontrovertible results of physical + research, and Bretschneider in his “Letters to a Statesman,” in + A.D. 1830, proclaimed to the world without regret that already + what Schleiermacher only feared had actually come to pass. + Physicists, awakening from the glamour of the Schelling nature + philosophy, pronounced all speculation contraband, and declared + pure empiricism, the simple investigation of actual things, the + only permissible object of their labour. And although they handed + over to theologians and philosophers questions about spirit in + and over nature, as not belonging to their province, a younger + generation maintained that spirit was non-existent, because it + could not be discovered by the microscope and dissecting knife. + Carl Vogt defined thought to be a secretion of the brain, + and Moleschott regarded life as a mere mode of matter and + man’s existence after life only as the manuring of the fields. + Feuerbach proclaimed that “man is what he eats,” and Buchner + [Büchner] popularized these views into a gospel for social + democrats and nihilists. Oersted, the famous discoverer of + electro-magnetism, had sought “the spirit in nature,” but the + spirit which he found was not that of the Bible and the church. + The grandmaster of German scientific research, Alex. von Humboldt, + saw in the world a cosmos of noble harmony as a whole and in its + parts, but of Christian ideas in God’s great book of nature he + finds no trace. In A.D. 1859 the great English naturalist Darwin, + died A.D. 1882, introduced into the arena the theory of “Natural + Selection,” by means of which the modification and development of + the few primary animal forms through the struggle for existence + and the survival of the fittest by sexual selection is supposed, + in millions, perhaps milliards, of years, to have brought + forth the present variety and manifoldness of animal species. + Multitudes of naturalists now accept his theory of the descent + of men and apes from a common stem.--In =Medicine= De Valenti on + the Protestant side, with pietistic earnestness, maintains that + Christian faith is a vehicle of healing power; while a circle in + Munich on the Catholic side make worship of saints and the host a + _conditio sine qua non_ of all medicine. A more moderate attitude + is assumed by the Roman Catholic Dr. Capellmann of Aachen, in his + “Pastoral Medicine.” + + § 174.4. Of Christian =Jurists= we have, on the Protestant + side, Stahl, Savigny, Puchta, Jacobson, Richter, Meier, Scheuerl, + Hinschius, etc.; and on the Catholic side, Walther, Philipps, etc. + Among =Historians=, the greatest in modern times is Leopold von + Ranke, who, with his disciples, occupies a thoroughly Christian + standpoint. There has appeared, however, on the part of many + Protestant historians, such as Voigt, Leo, Mentzel, Vorreiter, + Hurter, Gfroerer [Gfrörer], etc., a tendency in the most + conspicuous manner to recognise and admire the brilliant + phenomena of mediæval Catholicism, even going to the length + of renouncing the vital principles of Protestantism, and + glorifying a Boniface, a Gregory VII., and an Innocent III., + and characterizing the Reformation as a revolution. Ultramontanes + have been only too ready to turn to their own use all such + concessions, but show no inclination to make similar admissions + damaging to their side, so that with them history consists rather + in the abuse of everything Protestant as vile and perfidious, + instead of being a record of independent research. Janssen + [Jansen] of Frankfort stands out prominently above the billows + of the “_Kulturkampf_” (§ 197), as the greatest master of this + ultramontane style of history making.--=Geography=, first raised + to the rank of a science by Carl Ritter, received from its great + founder a Christian impress and owes much of its development to + the researches of Christian missionaries. Finally, =Philology=, + in the hands of Creuzer, Görres, Sepp, etc., unfolds in a + Christian spirit the religion and mythology of classical paganism; + and in the hands of Nägelsbach and Lübker expounds the religious + life of the ancient world in relation to Christian truth. + + § 174.5. =National Literature= (§ 171, 11).--To some extent + Goethe, but much more decidedly the romantic school of poets, was + attached to Schelling’s philosophy of nature. The romanticists + developed a deep religiousness of feeling, as shown in Novalis + and La Motte Fouqué, and violent opposition to rationalistic + theology as shown in Tieck, which in the case of Fr. Schlegel ran + to the other extreme of moral frivolity as seen in his “Lucinde.” + The romantic school as thus represented by Schlegel was joined by + the party of Young Germany with its gospel of the rehabilitation + of the flesh. Its mouthpiece was the gifted poet Heine. + The pantheistic deification of nature by Schelling, and + the self-deification of the Hegelian school obtained poetic + expression in Leop. Schafer’s _Laienbrevier und Weltpriester_, + as well as in Sallet’s _Laienevangelium_; while the sympathies + of the young Hegelians with the revolutionary movements gained + utterance in the poems of Herwegh, and in a more serious + tone in those of Freiligrath. More recently the views of + the _Protestantenverein_ (§ 180) have found their poetical + representative in Nic. Eichhorn, whose “Jesus of Nazareth,” a + tragical drama, 1880, deals with the life, works, and sufferings + of the “historical Christ,” after the style of free Protestant + science, with rich psychological analysis of the character in a + brilliant imaginative production. Though composed with a view to + theatrical representation, it has never yet been put on the stage. + + § 174.6. The Christian element was present in the noble patriotic + songs of E. M. Arndt[525] and Max. von Schenkendorf much more + distinctly than in the romantic school. Enthusiasm in the + struggle for freedom awakened faith in the living God. Uhland’s + lovely lyrics, with their enthusiasm for the present interests + of the Fatherland, entitle him to rank among patriotic poets, and + their brilliant and profound rendering of the old German legends + places him in the romantic school, which, however, in clearness + and depth he leaves far behind. Without being a distinctively + Christian poet, his warm sympathy with the life of the German + people gives him a genuine interest in the Christian religion. + The same may be said of Rückert’s highly finished poems, which + transplanted the fragrant flowers of oriental sensuousness + and contemplativeness into the garden of German poetry. A more + decided Christian consecration of poetic genius is seen in the + noble and beautiful lyrics of Emanuel Geibel, died 1884, the + greatest and most Christian of the secular poets of the present. + Of those ordinarily ranked as sacred poets may be named Knapp, + Döring, Spitta, Garve, Vict. Strauss, etc., who for the most + part contributed their sacred songs to Knapp’s “_Christoterpe_” + (1833-1853). A later publication of equal merit, called the + “_Neue Christoterpe_,” has been edited since 1880 by Kögel, Baur, + and Frommel. But with all the Christian depth and spirituality, + freshness and warmth, which we meet with in the productions of + these Christian poets, none of them has been able to rise to + the noble simplicity, power, popular force, and fitting them for + church use, objectivity which are present in the old evangelical + church hymns. In this respect they all bear too conspicuously the + signature of their age, with its subjective tone and the noise + and turmoil of present conflicts. Of all modern poets, Rückert + alone approaches in his advent hymn the measure and spirit of the + old church song.--In the department of novels and romance there + has been shown an almost invariable hostility toward Christianity, + religion being either entirely avoided or held up to contempt by + having as its representatives, simpletons, hypocrites, or knaves. + + § 174.7. In =France=, Chateaubriand in his “_Genie du + Christianisme_” pronounces an eloquent eulogy on the half-pagan + Christianity of the Middle Ages. In another work he makes the + representatives of heathenism in the age of Constantine act like + Homeric heroes, and those of Christianity speak “like theologians + of the age of Bossuet.” Lamartine may be described as a Christian + romanticist. Victor Hugo, Balzac, George Sand, Sue, Dumas, + etc., influenced by the Revolution, developed an antichristian + tendency; while naked naturalism, photographic realism in + depicting the lowest side of Parisian life, especially adultery + and prostitution, is represented by Flaubert, Daudet, De Goncourt, + Zola, etc.--In =Italy=, the amiable Manzoni gave noble expression + to Christian feeling in his “_Inni Sacri_,” and in his masterly + romance “_Promessi Sposi_;” and the famous poet Silvio Pellico, + in his “_La mia Prigioni_,” affords a noble example of the + sustaining power of true religion during ten years’ rigorous + imprisonment in an Austrian dungeon. The most gifted of modern + Italian poets, Giacomo Leopardi, sank into despairing pessimism, + which expressed itself in the domain of religion in biting + satire and savage irony. Among the poets of the present who, + with glowing patriotism, not only yearned for the deliverance + and unity of Italy, but also lived to see these accomplished, + and have since given expression, though from different political + and religious standpoints, to the desire for the reconciliation + of the free united kingdom with the irreconcilable church, the + most distinguished are Aleardi, Carducci, Imbriani, Guercini, + Cavalotti.--In =Spain=, Caecilia Böhl von Faber, although + the daughter of a German father, and educated in Germany, + introduced, under the name Fernan Caballero, the modern romance + in a thoroughly national Spanish style, and in a purely moral and + catholic Christian spirit. In the =Flemish Provinces=, Hendrik + Conscience, the able novelist, has described Flemish village + life in a spirit fully in sympathy with Christianity.--=England= + had in Lord Byron a poet of the first rank, who more than any + other poet had experience in himself of the convulsions and + contradictions of his age. In powerful and impressive tones he + sets forth the unreconciled disharmonies of nature and of human + life. Incurable pain, despair, weariness of life, and hatred + of mankind, without hope, yet without desire for reconciliation, + enthusiastic admiration of the ancient world, passionate love of + liberty and titanic pride in human might mingle with scenes of + grumbling, misery, and profligacy. On the other hand, the rich + and mostly solid English novel literature is prevailingly + inspired by a Christian spirit. + + § 174.8. =Popular Education.=--While the poetic national + literature for the most part found entrance only among the + cultured and adult circles, this age, almost as fond of + writing as of reading, produced an enormous quantity of books + for the people and for children. But only a few succeeded in + catching the proper tone for the masses and the youth, and + still fewer supplied their readers with what was genuinely pious. + Pestalozzi’s “_Lienhard und Gertrud_,” Hebel’s “_Schatzkästlein_,” + and Tschokke’s “_Goldmacherdorf_,” respected at least the + Christian feeling of the people, although they did not strengthen + or foster it. But, on the other hand, in recent years a number of + writers have appeared, thoroughly popular, and at the same time + thoroughly Christian, who, as popular poets and novelists, have + become apostles of Christian views, morals, and customs to the + people. The most distinguished of these are Jeremiah Gotthelf + (Albert Bitzius, died 1854), whose “Kate the Grandmother” was + translated in the _Sunday Magazine_ for 1865, Von Horn, Carl + Stöber, Wildenhahn, Nathusius, Frommel, Weitbrecht, etc. In the + Catholic church Albanus Stoltz, died 1883, developed a wonderful + power of popular composition, which, however, he subsequently put + at the service of a fanatical ultramontanism, and so sacrificed + much of its nobility and worth. From the enormous mass of + children’s books only extremely few attain their aim. In the + front rank stands the brilliant patriarch of Christian tale + writing, Von Schubert, died 1860. After him are Barth, the author + of “Poor Henry,” Stöber, and the Swiss Spyri, and the Catholic + Christian Schmid, author of the “Easter Eggs.”--The =Public + Schools=, especially under Dinter (died 1831), member of the + consistory and schoolboard of Königsberg, were for a long time + nurseries of the tame, flat, and self-satisfied rationalism of + the _ancien régime_; but since 1830, and more particularly in + consequence of the violent agitations of the seminary director + Diesterweg, who died in 1866, put to silence in 1847, but + still for his work in connexion with education always highly + respected, many of the teachers took a higher flight in the + naturalistic-democratic direction. By word and pen Diesterweg + carried on a propaganda in favour of a free and liberal education + for the people. His disciples, wanting his earnest Christian + spirit, carried out recklessly his radical tendencies, and now + the Christian faith has no more persistent foes than the teachers + of the public schools. In A.D. 1870, a Teachers’ Association in + Vienna gave a vote of 6,000 in favour of radicalism. At a Hamburg + meeting in A.D. 1872 of 5,100 teachers, progress was shown by + individuals raising their voices in defence of Christianity, + which, however, were generally drowned in shrieks and hisses. + A Teachers’ Evangelical Association held its ninth assembly + at Hamburg in A.D. 1881 with 1,500 members. Christian opinions + are now ably represented in schools, educational journals, + and literature. A burning question at present is whether the + national school should be preferred to the denominational school. + Liberals in church and state say it should; conservatives say + it should not; while both parties think their views supported by + the experience of the past. The Prussian minister of education, + Falk, A.D. 1872-1879, firmly insisted upon the development of the + national system, but his successors Von Puttkamer and Von Gossler + reverted to the denominational system. The German Evangelical + School Congress of Hamburg in October, 1882, demanded that both + elementary and secondary schools should have a confessional + character. + + § 174.9. =Art.=--The intellectual quickening called forth with + the opening of the new century imparted new spirit and life to + the cultivation of the arts. Winckelmann, died A.D. 1768, had + opened the way to an understanding of pagan classical art, and + romanticism awakened appreciation of and enthusiasm for mediæval + Christian art. The greatest masters of =Architecture= were + Schinckel, Klenze, and Heideloff. The foundation stone of the + final part of the Cologne cathedral was laid by a Protestant king, + Frederick William IV., in A.D. 1842, and the work was finished + by a Protestant builder in A.D. 1880. =Statuary= had three great + masters, who gave expression to profound Christian ideas in + bronze and marble, the Italian Canova, the German Dannecker, + and greatest of all, the Dane Thorwaldsen, whose Christ and the + Apostles and other works form a main attraction to visitors in + Copenhagen. Three younger German masters of the art, who have + heired their fame, are Rauch, Rietschl, and Drake.--In =Painting= + too a new era now began. A group of gay German artists in Rome, + with Overbeck at their head, formed a Society in A.D. 1813, and + mostly became perverts to Romanism. Peter Cornelius, the ablest + of the school, himself born a Catholic, answered his friends’ + request to place Luther in a picture of the last judgment, + in hell: “Yes, but with the Bible in his hands and the devils + trembling before him”; and in a subsequent picture of the + judgment, he gave the German reformer his place among the saints + in heaven. His pupil, Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld is well known + by his “_Bibel in Bildern_.” Ludwig Richter, the Albert Dürer + of the nineteenth century and creator of the modern woodcut, + has filled German houses with his artistic and poetic creations, + which breathe of God, nature, and the family fireside. The + Frenchman, Gustave Doré of Strassburg, has also illustrated the + Bible in a manner worthy of ranking alongside of Schnorr, though + a characteristically French striving for effect is everywhere + discernible.--=Painted Glass= (§ 104, 14) for church windows + had during the eighteenth century passed almost wholly out of + use, but again in the nineteenth came into favour, and was made + at Dresden, Nuremberg, and Munich. The most eminent artist in + this department was Ainmiller of Munich, specimens of whose + workmanship are to be seen in all parts of the world. + + § 174.10. =Music and the Drama.=--In Vienna the three great + masters of musical composition, Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, + produced in the department of sacred music some of their noblest + works. Mendelssohn, in his St. Paul and Elijah and in his Psalms, + sought to reproduce the power and truth of the simple word of + God. An early death prevented him giving expression to his ideal + of Christ in music. The Hungarian virtuoso Liszt sacrifices + sacred calmness and dignity to theatrical effect. His son-in-law, + Richard Wagner, inspired by Schopenhauer’s philosophy, a richly + endowed poet and composer, proclaimed by his followers as the + Messiah of the music of the future, going back to mediæval legend, + has produced a _quasi_-Christian musical drama, in which the + gospel of pessimism takes the place of the gospel of the grace of + God.--Quite different is the Passion Play of the Bavarian village + Oberammergau, which is a reproduction of the mediæval mysteries + (§ 115, 12). It originated in a vow made in 1633 on the occasion + of a plague which visited the place, and is repeated every + ten years on the Sundays from the end of May to the middle + of September. The history of the Saviour’s passion is here + represented with interludes from Messianic Old Testament passages + explained by a chorus like that of the classical tragedy, with + appropriate scenery, drapery, and musical accompaniment. In + the presence of an immense concourse of strangers for whose + accommodation a large amphitheatre was been built, almost all the + villagers, men, women, and children, take part in the performance + and show rare artistic power. The text of the drama for the + most part agrees with the gospel narrative, only occasionally + interspersed with legend, and quite free from ultramontane + hagiology and mariolatry. The performance of A.D. 1850, and still + more that of A.D. 1880, attracted crowds of pilgrims and tourists + to the quiet and remote valley. An independent exhibition, + falling little behind the original in the artistic character + of its composition and production, was given, in 1883, on the + Sundays of July and August in the Tyrolese village of Brixlegg, + and was visited by similar crowds. + + + § 175. INTERCOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE CHURCHES. + + Protestants could recognise, as Catholics could not, elements of +truth and beauty in the creeds of their opponents. When a peaceful and +conciliatory spirit was shown by individual Catholic clergymen, it was +the occasion of suspicion and persecution on the part of the old Romish +party. Schemes of union were entertained by the Old Catholics (§ 190), +and negotiations were entered on by the Greek Orthodox church, on +the one hand, and the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, on the +other, but in both cases without any practical result. On the union +negotiations between the different Protestant sects, see § 178; +and on the Prusso-Anglican bishopric of Jerusalem, see § 184, 8. +Of the numerous conversions from Protestantism to Catholicism and +from Catholicism to Protestantism, we can here mention only such as +have excited public interest in some special way. + + § 175.1. =Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants.=--Not only + in England, where an important high-church party embraced a more + than half-Catholic Puseyism (§ 202, 2), but even in Protestant + Germany a Romanizing current set in on many sides. A taste for + the romantic, artistic, historical (§ 174, 5, 9, 4), as well + as feudalist-aristocratic and hyper-Lutheran ecclesiastical + tendencies led the way in this direction. Many sought rest in + the bosom of the church “where alone salvation is found,” while + others, too deeply rooted in evangelical truth, bewailed the + loss of “noble and venerable” institutions in the worship, life, + and constitution of the church, but were unable to accept the + various unevangelical accretions which made void the doctrine + of justification by faith alone. This was the position of Löhe + of Neuendettelsau, in point of doctrine a strict Lutheran, + who published a selection of Catholic legends as patterns of + self-denial for his deaconesses, wished to restore anointing of + the sick, etc. Some Protestant pastors expressed warm sympathy + with the Pope during his misfortunes in A.D. 1860, and approved + of the continuance of the papacy and the pope’s temporal dominion. + A conference of Catholics (Count Stolberg, Dr. Michelis, etc.) + and Protestants (Leo, Bindewald, etc.) at Erfurt in A.D. 1860, + on the basis of a common recognition of the moral advantages of + the papacy, sought to bring about a union of the churches. Still + more remarkable is the story told by the Old Catholic professor + Friedrich. Just before the opening of the Vatican Council, + certain evangelical pastors of Saxony wrote letters to Bishop + Martin of Paderborn, which Friedrich himself read, urging that at + the council permission should be given to priests to marry and to + give the cup in the communion to the laity, and promising that in + that case they themselves and many like-minded pastors would join + the Romish church. That the letters were written and received is + unquestionable; but it is doubtful whether folly and imbecility + or a wish to hoax and mystify, directed the pen. The writer or + writers, as the examination before the consistory of the locality + proved, are not to be sought among the pastors whose names are + appended. How far the Protestant ultra-conservative reactionary + party goes with the ultramontanes and how far it would aid the + overthrow and undermining of the Protestant state and evangelical + church, is shown by the conduct of the Privy Councillor and + Chief Justice Ludwig von Gerlach (§ 176, 1), who, in 1872, in + the Prussian House of Representatives, took his place among + the ultramontane party of the centre, hostile to the empire + and friendly to the Poles, and in his pamphlet “_Kaiser und + Papst_” of 1872 described the new German empire as an incarnate + antichrist. Also the Lutheran Guelphs of Hanover are zealous + supporters of all the demands of the centre in the Prussian + parliament and in the German Reichstag. + + § 175.2. =The Attitude of Catholicism toward + Protestantism.=--Every Catholic bishop has still on assuming + office to take the oath, _Hæreticos pro posse persequar_. The + Jesuits, restored in A.D. 1814, soon pervaded every section with + their intolerant spirit. The huge lie that Protestantism is in + matters of State as well as of church essentially revolutionary, + while Catholicism is the bulwark of the State against revolution + and democracy, was affirmed with such audacity that even + Protestant statesmen believed it. The Roman Jesuit Perrone + (§ 191, 9) taught the Catholic youth in a controversial Italian + catechism that “they should feel a creeping horror come over them + at the mere mention of the word Protestantism, more even than + when a murderous attack was made upon them, for Protestantism and + its defenders are in the religious and moral world just the same + as the plague and plague-stricken are in the physical world, and + in all lands Protestants are the scum of all that is vile and + immoral,” etc. In a pastoral of A.D. 1855, Von Ketteler, Bishop + of Mainz, compared the Germans, who by the Reformation rent + the unity of the church, to the Jews who crucified the Messiah. + Romish prelates have vied with one another in their abuse + of Protestants and Protestantism. In A.D. 1881, Leo XIII. + speaking of the spread of Russian nihilism, charged Protestant + missionaries with spreading the dominion of the prince of + darkness. Prof. Hohoff of Paderborn, in his “Hist. Studies on + Protestantism and Socialism,” Paderb., 1881, reiterated the + accusation: “Yes, it is so, Protestantism has begotten atheism, + materialism, scepticism, nihilism. The Reformation was the + murderer of all science, the greatest foe of culture and learning, + and the falsifier of all history.... Melanchthon’s _Loci_ may + be styled the most unscientific production in the domain of + dogmatics.... Yes, the Reformation has proved a prime source of + superstition, a step backward in the history of civilization.... + The Catholic church has been the champion of conscience, + reason, and freedom.... No one is thoroughly capable of judging + historical facts without prejudice as the believing Catholic + Christian.”--But while the vast majority of Catholic writers + thus abuse Protestantism, others like Seltmann of Eberswald seek + to win over to the ranks of the Romish church those who can be + befooled by fair speeches. The “Protestant” correspondents in + Seltmann’s periodical write under the cloak of anonymity.--In + Spain the Reformation was long attributed to the Augustinians, + who were jealous of the Dominicans as the only dispensers of + indulgences, and to Luther’s desire to marry; but the poet Nuñez + de Arca in his “_Vision de Fray Martin_,” attributed it to the + corruption of the church and papacy of its time, and regarded + with sympathy the spiritual struggles of the reformer. Though as + a good Catholic he concludes his poem with the ban of the church + against Luther, he yet describes him as a just and well-deserving + man. + + § 175.3. =Romish Controversy.=--In the beginning of A.D. 1872 + the Waldensian Professor Sciarelli published as a challenge + the thesis that the Apostle Peter never set foot in Rome, and + Pius IX. with childlike simplicity gave his consent to a public + disputation, which came off at Rome on 9th and 10th February. + Three Protestant champions, with Sciarelli at their head, were + confronted by three Catholics, headed by Fabiani, before 125 + auditors admitted by ticket. Both sides claimed the victory; but + the shorthand reports were more widely read through Italy than + could be agreeable to the papal court. + + § 175.4. =Roman Catholic Union Schemes.=--While American + Protestant missionaries strove zealously for the conversion of + the schismatical Eastern Churches, Rome with equal diligence but + little success endeavoured to win over these and the orthodox + Greeks to her own communion. There was great joy over the + conversion of the =Bulgarians= to Romanism in A.D. 1860. + Taking advantage of a national movement for the restoration + of a patriarchate independent of Constantinople (§ 207, 3), + some French Jesuits succeeded in persuading a small number of + malcontents to agree to a union with Rome. In 1861 the pope + consecrated an old Bulgarian priest, Jos. Sokolski, archbishop + of the united Bulgarian church. Very soon, however, he and almost + all his followers returned to their allegiance to the Greek + Orthodox church. Leo XIII. in his _encyclical_ of A.D. 1880, by + giving conspicuous honour to Cyril and Methodius, and uttering + kind sentiments about the Christian church in the East, and + conferring high rank on dignitaries of the Eastern church, + seeks to smooth the way for a union of the two great churches. + + § 175.5. =Greek Orthodox Union Schemes.=--In A.D. 1867 the + Archbishop of Canterbury addressed a letter to the Patriarch + of Constantinople and the whole Eastern church, to open the way + to a common understanding and union of the churches, sending a + modern Greek translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and asking + their assistance at the consecration of an Anglican church at + Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius [Gregory] granted this + request, and answered the letter in a friendly manner, passing + over the Anglican’s warnings against superstitious additions + to the doctrine, _e.g._ mariolatry, but characterizing all the + contrary doctrines of the Thirty-nine Articles as “very modern.” + At the same time vigorous measures were being taken with a + similar object by members of the Russian and of the Anglican + churches. In 1870 Professor Overbeck of Halle undertook to act + as intermediary in these negotiations. He had in 1865 published, + in answer to the papal encyclical with syllabus of December 8th, + 1864 (§ 185, 2), a tract with the motto _Ex oriente lux_, in + which he placed the claims of the Orthodox eastern church before + the Roman Catholic as well as Protestant. On the opening of the + Vatican Council in 1869 he advocated in a pamphlet the breaking + up of the papal church and the formation of Catholic national + churches. In North America Professor Bjerring, of the Catholic + seminary for priests at Baltimore, took the same position. In + March, 1871, he went to St. Petersburg, was there ordained as + an Orthodox priest, and on his return to New York instituted a + Sunday service in the English language according to the Greek + rite. Of any further advance in this direction of union nothing + is known. + + § 175.6. =Old Catholic Union Schemes.=--Döllinger (§ 191, 5) in + A.D. 1871 was hopeful of a union not only with the Greek, but + also with the Anglican church, and similar hopes were entertained + in England and Russia, and distinguished representatives of both + communions took part in the Old Catholic congresses (§ 190, 1). + On the invitation of Döllinger, as president of the committee + commissioned by the Freiburg Congress of A.D. 1874 to treat + about union with the Anglican church, forty friends of union from + Germany, England, Denmark, France, Russia, Greece, and America + met in conference at Bonn. After a lively debate the cleft + between East and West was bridged over by a compromise treating + the _filioque_ as an unnecessary addition to the Nicene symbol, + and asserting that, however desirable a mutual understanding + on doctrinal questions might be, existing differences in + constitution, discipline, and worship presented no bar to + union. The Catholics presented the Anglicans with fourteen + theses essential to union, in which the anti-Protestant doctrines + were for the most part toned down, but transubstantiation + distinctly asserted. Subsequent conferences never got beyond + these preliminaries. It was, however, agreed that, in case of + necessity, Anglicans and Old Catholics might dispense the supper + to one another. + + § 175.7. =Conversions.=--The most famous converts of the century + were Hurter, the biographer of Innocent III., the Countess Ida + von Hahn-Hahn, writer of religious romances, Gfroerer [Gfrörer], + the church historian, the radical Hegelian Daumer, the historian + of ante-tridentine theology Hugo Lämmer, and Dr. Ed. Preuss, who + had written against the immaculate conception and for criminal + conduct had to flee the country. In A.D. 1844 Carl Haas, a + Protestant pastor, went over to the Romish church, but the two + new dogmas of Pius IX. led him to study the works of Luther. He + now returned to the Lutheran church, vindicating his procedure + in a treatise entitled, “To Rome, and from Rome back again to + Wittenberg, 1881.” Also the Mecklenburg Lutheran pastor, Dr. A. + Hager, who, after his conversion, had undertaken the editorship + of an ultramontane newspaper in Breslau in 1873, was obliged + in a few years to resign the appointment. His return to the + evangelical church was being talked about, when he suddenly died + in 1883, after having received the last sacrament in the Catholic + church. The climax of abuse of Luther and the Lutheran church was + reached by the Hanoverian Evers, who had gone over in 1880; in + all his scandalous and vituperative writings he describes himself + on the title page as “formerly Lutheran pastor.” His mud-throwing, + however, was carried so far, that even the ultramontane _Köln. + Volkszeitung_ was constrained to advise him to write more + decently. + + § 175.8. The Mortara affair of A.D. 1858 attracted special + attention. The eight-year old son of the Jew Mortara of Bologna + was violently taken from his parents to Rome because his + Christian nurse said that two years before, during a dangerous + illness, she had baptized him. The church answered the entreaties + of the parents and the universal outcry by saying that the + sacrament had an indelible character, and that the pope could not + change the law. Again in A.D. 1864, the ten-year old Jewish boy, + Joseph Coën, apprentice weaver in Rome, was decoyed by a priest + to his cloister and there persuaded to receive baptism. In vain + his mother, the Jewish community, and even the French ambassador, + urged his restoration; and when, in A.D. 1870, the temporal power + of the pope was overthrown, the lad, now sixteen years old, had + himself become such a fanatical Catholic that he refused to have + anything to do with his mother as an unbeliever. + + § 175.9. In the Tyrol in A.D. 1830 there were numerous + conversions from Catholicism to Protestantism (§ 198, 1). + A Catholic priest in Baden, Henhöfer of Mühlhausen, influenced + by the writings of Sailer and Boos, went over to the Lutheran + church in A.D. 1823, and continued down to his death in A.D. 1862 + a vigorous opponent of the prevailing rationalism. Count Leopold + von Seldnitzsky, formerly Prince-Bishop of Breslau, felt obliged + in 1840, in consequence of the conscientious objections he had + to perform his official duties toward church and state during + the ecclesiastico-political controversies of 1830 (§ 193, 1), + to resign his appointments. He was subsequently led in A.D. 1863, + through reading the Scriptures and Luther’s works, after a sore + struggle, to join the evangelical Church. He devoted all his + means to the founding of Protestant educational institutions at + Berlin and Breslau. He died in A.D. 1871, in his eighty-fourth + year. The proclamation by the Vatican of the dogma of + infallibility drove many pious and earnest Catholics out of the + Romish communion. Of these Carl von Richthofen, Canon of Breslau, + engages our special interest. Son of a pious Lutheran mother, and + trained up under Gossner’s mild spiritual direction (§ 187, 2), + his gentle and deeply religious nature had attached itself to + the Roman Catholic church of his father only under the illusion + that the Romish doctrine of justification was not wholly + irreconcilable with the evangelical doctrine. He at first + submitted to but soon renounced the Vatican decree; was + excommunicated by Archbishop Förster, voluntarily resigned + his emoluments; joined the Old Catholics in A.D. 1873, and + the separated Old Lutherans in A.D. 1875. In the following + year he died a painful death from the explosion of a petroleum + lamp.--Upon the whole Rome has made most converts in America + and England; and she has suffered losses more or less severe + in France, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Bohemia. + + § 175.10. =The Luther Centenary, A.D. 1883.=--The celebration of + Luther’s birth was carried out with great enthusiasm throughout + all Germany, more than a thousand tracts on Luther and the + Reformation were published, statues were erected, special + services were held in all Lutheran churches, high schools, and + universities, and brilliant demonstrations were made at Jena, + Worms, Wittenberg, and Eisleben. There were founded at Kiel a + Luther-house, at Worms and at the Wartburg Luther libraries, in + Leipzig and Berlin Luther churches. At Eisleben a bronze statue + of the reformer was solemnly unveiled representing his tearing + the papal bull with his right hand and pressing the Bible to his + heart with his left. Another noble monument was raised by the + munificence of the emperor by the issuing during this year of + the first volume of pastor Knaake’s critical edition of Luther’s + works. A “German Luther Institute” aims at assisting children + of the poorer clergy and teachers, and a “Reformation History + Society” has undertaken the task of issuing popular tracts on the + persons, events and principles of that and the succeeding period + based upon original documents. Protestants of all lands, with the + exception of the English high-church party, contributed liberally; + the Americans had a copy of the great Luther statue of the Worms + monument (§ 178, 1) made and erected in Washington. Even in + Italy the liberal press eulogised Luther, while the ultramontanes + loaded his memory with unmeasured calumny and reproach. The + threatened counter-demonstrations of German ultramontanes fell + quite flat and harmless. The =Zwingli Centenary= of January 1st, + A.D. 1884, was celebrated with enthusiasm throughout the Reformed + church, especially in Switzerland. On the other hand, the + celebration of the five-hundredth anniversary of Wiclif’s death + on December 31st, 1884, created comparatively little interest. + + + + + II. Protestantism in General.[526] + + + § 176. RATIONALISM AND PIETISM. + + At the beginning of the century rationalism was generally prevalent, +but philosophy and literature soon weakened its foundations, and the +war of independence moved the hearts of the people toward the faith of +their fathers. Pietism entered the lists against rationalism, and the +Halle controversy of A.D. 1830 marked the crisis of the struggle. The +rationalists were compelled to make appeal to the people by popular +agitators. During A.D. 1840 they managed to found several “free +churches,” which, however, had for the most part but a short and +unprosperous existence. They were more successful in A.D. 1860 with +the _Protestantenverein_ as the instrument of their propaganda (§ 180). + + § 176.1. The old =Rationalism= was attacked by the disciples + of Hegel and Schelling, and in A.D. 1834 Röhr of Weimar found + Hase of Jena as keen an opponent as any pietist or orthodox + controversialist. That recognised leader of the old rationalists + had coolly attempted to substitute a new and rational form + of doctrine, worship, and constitution for the antiquated + formularies of the Reformation, and drew down upon himself the + rebuke even of those who sympathized with him in his doctrinal + views.--In A.D. 1817 Claus Harms of Kiel, on the occasion of + the Reformation centenary, opened an attack upon those who had + fallen away from the faith of their fathers, by the publication + of ninety-five new theses, recalling attention to Luther’s almost + forgotten doctrines. In A.D. 1827 Aug. Hahn in an academical + discussion at Leipzig maintained that the rationalists should + be expelled from the church, and Hengstenberg started his + _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_. The jurist Von Gerlach in + A.D. 1830 charged Gesenius and Wegscheider of Halle with open + contempt of Christian truth, and called for State interference. + In all parts of Germany, amid the opposition of scientific + theologians and the scorn of philosophers, pietism made way + against rationalism, so that even men of culture regarded it + as a reproach to be reckoned among the rationalists. Unbelief, + however, was widespread among the masses. When Sintenis, + preacher in Magdeburg in A.D. 1840, declared the worship of + Christ superstitious, and was reprimanded by the consistory, + his neighbours, the pastors Uhlich and König, founded the society + of the “Friends of Light,” whose assembly at Köthen then was + attended by thousands of clergymen and laymen. In one of these + assemblies in A.D. 1844, Wislicenus of Halle, by starting the + question, Whether the Scriptures or the reason is to be regarded + as the standard of faith? shattered the illusion that rationalism + still occupied the platform of the church and Scripture. The + left wing of the school of Schleiermacher took offence at the + severe measures demanded by Hengstenberg and his party, and + in 1846 issued in Berlin a manifesto with eighty-eight signatures + against the paper pope of antiquated Reformation confessions and + the inquisitorial proceedings of the _Kirchenzeitung_ party, as + inimical to all liberty of faith and conscience, wishing only to + maintain firm hold of the truth that Jesus Christ is yesterday, + to-day, and for ever the one and only ground of salvation. The + Friends of Light, combining with the German Catholics and the + Young Hegelians, founded Free churches at Halle, Königsberg, + and many other places. Their services and sermons void of + religion, in which the Bible, the living Christ, and latterly + even the personal God, had no place, but only the naked worship + of humanity, had temporary vitality imparted them by the + revolutionary movements of A.D. 1848. This gave the State an + excuse, long wished for, to interfere, and soon scarcely a trace + of their churches was to be found. + + § 176.2. =Pietism= had not been wholly driven out of the + evangelical church during the period of ecclesiastical + impoverishment, but, purified from many eccentric excesses, + and seeking refuge and support for the most part by attaching + itself to the community of the Moravian Brethren, it had, even + in Württemberg, established itself independently and in an + essentially theosophical-chiliastic spirit. There too a kind + of spiritualism was introduced by the physician and poet Justin + Kerner of Weinsberg, and the philosopher Eschenmayer of Tübingen, + with spirit revelations from above and below. Amid the religious + movements of the beginning of the century Pietism gained a + decided advantage. It took the form of a protest against the + rationalism prevailing among the clergy. The earnest and devout + sought spiritual nourishment at conventicles and so-called + _Stunden_ addressed by laymen, mostly of the working class, + well acquainted with Scripture and works in practical divinity. + Persecuted by the irreligious mob, the rationalist clergy, + and sometimes by the authorities, they by-and-by secured + representatives among the younger clergy and in the university + chairs, and carried on vigorous missions at home and abroad. + This pietism was distinctly evangelical and Protestant. It did + not oppose but endeavoured simply to restore the orthodoxy of + the church confession. Yet it had many of the characteristics + of the earlier pietism: over-estimation of the invisible to + the disparagement of the visible church, of sanctification + over justification, a tendency to chiliasm, etc.--Of no less + importance in awakening the religious life throughout Germany, + and especially in Switzerland, was the missionary activity of + Madame de Krüdener of Riga. This lady, after many years of a + gay life, forsook the world, and began in A.D. 1814 her travels + through Europe, preaching repentance, proclaiming the gospel + message in the prisons, the foolishness of the cross to the + wise of this world, and to kings and princes the majesty of + Christ as King of kings. Wherever she went she made careless + sinners tremble, and drew around her crowds of the anxious and + spiritually burdened of every sort and station. Honoured by + some as a saint, prophetess, and wonder-worker, ridiculed by + others as a fool, persecuted as a dangerous fanatic or deceiver, + driven from one country to another, she died in the Crimea in + A.D. 1824.[527] + + § 176.3. =The Königsberg Religious Movement, + A.D. 1835-1842.=--The pious theosophist, J. H. Schönherr of + Königsberg, starting from the two primitive substances, fire + and water, developed a system of theosophy in which he solved + the riddles of the theogony and cosmogony, of sin and redemption, + and harmonized revelation with the results of natural science. + At first influenced by these views, but from A.D. 1819 expressly + dissenting from them, J. W. Ebel, pastor in the same city, + gathered round him a group of earnest Christian men and women, + Counts Kanitz and Finkenstein and their wives, Von Tippelskirch, + afterwards preacher to the embassy at Rome, the theological + professor H. Olshausen, the pastor Dr. Diestel, and the medical + doctor Sachs. After some years Olshausen and Tippelskirch + withdrew, and dissensions arose which gave opportunity to + the ecclesiastical authorities to order an investigation. Ebel + was charged with founding a sect in which impure practices were + encouraged. He was suspended in A.D. 1835, and at the instigation + of the consistory a criminal process was entered upon against him. + Dr. Sachs, who had been expelled from the society, was the chief + and almost only witness, but vague rumours were rife about mystic + rites and midnight orgies. Ebel and Diestel were deposed in + A.D. 1839, and pronounced incapable of holding any public office; + and as a sect founder Ebel was sentenced to imprisonment in the + common jail. On appeal to the court of Berlin, the deposition was + confirmed, but all the rest of the sentence was quashed, and the + parties were pronounced capable of holding any public offices + except those of a spiritual kind. Two reasons were alleged for + deposition: + + 1. That Ebel, though not from the pulpit or in the public + instruction of the young, yet in private religious teaching, + had inculcated his theosophical views. + + 2. That both of them as married men had given expression to + opinions injurious to the purity of married life. + + In general they were charged with spreading a doctrine which was + in conflict with the principles of Christianity, and making such + use of sexual relations as was fitted to awaken evil thoughts + in the minds of hearers. Ebel was pronounced guiltless of + sectarianism.--Kanitz wrote a book in defence, which represents + Ebel and Diestel as martyrs to their pure Christian piety in + an age hostile to every pietistic movement; whereas Von Wegnern, + followed by Hepworth Dixon, in a romancing and frivolous style, + lightly give currency to evil surmisings without offering any + solid basis of proof. The whole affair still waits for a patient + and unprejudiced investigation.[528] + + § 176.4. =The Bender Controversy.=--At the Luther centenary + festival of A.D. 1883, Prof. Bender of Bonn declared that in + the confessional writings of the Reformation evangelical truth + had been obscured by Romish scholasticism, introduced by subtle + jurists and sophistical theologians. This called forth vigorous + opposition, in which two of his colleagues, 38 theological + students, 59 members of the Rhenish synod, took part. + General-Superintendent Baur, also, in a new year’s address, + inveighed against Bender’s statements. On the other hand, + 170 students of Bonn, 32 of these theological students, gave a + grand ovation to the “brave vindicator of academic freedom.” + The Rhenish and Westphalian synods bewailed the offence given by + Bender’s address, and protested against its hard and unfounded + attacks upon the confessional writings. At the Westphalian synod, + Prof. Mangold said that the faculty was as much offended at the + address as the church had been, but that its author, when he + found how his words had created such feeling, sought in every + way to repress the agitation, and had intended only to pass a + scientific judgment on ecclesiastical and theological developments. + + + § 177. EVANGELICAL UNION AND LUTHERAN SEPARATION. + + From A.D. 1817 Prussia favoured and furthered the scheme for union +between the two evangelical churches, and over this question a split +arose in the camp of pietism. On the one hand were the confessionalists, +determined to maintain what was distinctive in their symbols, and on the +other, those who would sacrifice almost anything for union. For the most +part both churches cordially seconded the efforts of the royal head of +the church; only in Silesia did a Lutheran minority refuse to give way, +which still maintains a separate existence. + + § 177.1. =The Evangelical Union.=--Circumstances favoured + this movement. Both in the Lutheran and in the Reformed + church comparatively little stress was laid upon distinctive + confessional doctrines, and pietism and rationalism, for + different reasons, had taught the relative unimportance of dogma. + And so a general accord was given to the king’s proposal, at + the Reformation centenary of A.D. 1817, to fortify the Protestant + church by means of a =Union= of Lutherans and Calvinists. The + new Book of Common Order of A.D. 1822, in the preparation of + which the pious king, Frederick William III., had himself taken + part, was indeed condemned by many as too high-church, even + Catholicizing in its tendency. A revised edition in A.D. 1829, + giving a wider choice of formularies, was legally authorized, + and the union became an accomplished fact. There now existed in + Prussia an evangelical national church with a common government + and liturgy, embracing within it three different sections: + a Lutheran, and a Reformed, which held to their distinctive + doctrines, though not regarding these as a cause of separation, + and a real union party, which completely abandoned the points of + difference. But more and more the union became identified with + doctrinal indifferentism and slighting of all church symbols, + and those in whom the church feeling still prevailed were driven + into opposition to the union (§ 193). The example of Prussia + in sacking the union of the two churches was followed by Nassau, + Baden, Rhenish Bavaria, Anhalt, and to some extent in Hesse + (§§ 194, 196). + + § 177.2. =The Lutheran Separation.=--Though the union denied + that there was any passing over from one church to another, it + practically declared the distinctive doctrines to be unessential, + and so assumed the standpoint of the Reformed church. Steffens + (§ 174, 3), the friend of Scheibel of Breslau, who had been + deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1832 for his determined + opposition to the union, and died in exile in 1843 (§ 195, 2), + headed a reaction in favour of old Lutheranism. Several suspended + clergymen in Silesia held a synod at Breslau in A.D. 1835, + to organize a Lutheran party, but the civil authorities bore + so heavily upon them that most of them emigrated to America + and Australia. Guericke of Halle, secretly ordained pastor, + ministered in his own house to a small company of Lutheran + separatists, was deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1835, + and only restored in A.D. 1840, after he had apologised for his + conduct. From A.D. 1838, the laws were modified by Frederick + William IV., imprisoned clergymen were liberated in A.D. 1840, + and a Lutheran church of Prussia independent of the national + church was constituted by a general synod at Breslau in A.D. 1841, + which received recognition by royal favour in A.D. 1845. The + affairs are administered by a supreme council resident in + Breslau, presided over by the distinguished jurist Huschke. Other + separations were prevented by timely concessions on the part of + the national church. The separatists claim 50,000 members, with + fifty pastors and seven superintendents. + + § 177.3. =The Separation within the Separation.=--Differences + arose among the separate Lutherans, especially over the question + of the visible church. The majority, headed by Huschke, defined + the visible church as an organism of various offices and orders + embracing even unbelievers, which is to be sifted by the divine + judgment. To it belongs the office of church government, which + is a _jus divinum_, and only in respect of outward form a _jus + humanum_. The opposition understood visibility of the preaching + of the word and dispensation of sacraments, and held that + unbelievers belonged as little to the visible as to the invisible + church. The distribution of orders and offices is a merely human + arrangement without divine appointment, individual members are + quite independent of one another, the church recognises no other + government than that of the unfettered preaching of the word, and + each pastor rules in his own congregation. Diedrich of Jabel and + seven other pastors complained of the papistical assumptions of + the supreme council, and at a general synod in A.D. 1860 refused + to recognise the authority of that council, or of a majority of + synods, and in A.D. 1861, along with their congregations, they + formally seceded and constituted the so called Immanuel Synod. + + + § 178. EVANGELICAL CONFEDERATION. + + The union had only added a third denomination to the two previously +existing, and was the means of even further dissension and separation. +Thus the interests of Protestantism were endangered in presence of the +unbelief within her own borders and the machinations of the ultramontane +Catholics without. An attempt was therefore made in A.D. 1840 to combine +the scattered Protestant forces, by means of confederation, for common +work and conflict with common foes. + + § 178.1. =The Gustavus Adolphus Society.=--In A.D. 1832, on the + two hundredth anniversary of the birth of the saviour of German + Protestantism, on the motion of Superintendent Grossman of + Leipzig, a society was formed for the help of needy Protestant + churches, especially in Catholic districts. At first almost + confined to Saxony, it soon spread over Germany, till only + Bavaria down to A.D. 1849, and Austria down to A.D. 1860, were + excluded by civil enactment from its operations. The masses + were attracted by the simplicity of its basis, which was simply + opposition to Catholicism, and the demagogical Friends of Light + soon found supremacy in its councils. Because of opposition to + the expulsion of Rupp, in A.D. 1846, as an apostate from the + principle of protestantism, great numbers with church leanings + seceded, and attempted to form a rival union in A.D. 1847. After + recovering from the convulsions of A.D. 1848, under the wise + guidance of Zimmermann of Darmstadt, the society regained a solid + position. In A.D. 1883 it had 1,779 branches, besides 392 women’s + and 11 students’ unions, and a revenue for the year of about + £43,000.--The same feeling led to the erection of the =Luther + Monument at Worms=. This work of genius, designed by Rietschel, + and completed after his death in A.D. 1857 by his pupils, and + inaugurated on 25th June, A.D. 1868, represents all the chief + episodes in the Reformation history. It was erected at a cost + of more than £20,000, raised by voluntary contributions, and + the scheme proved so popular that there was a surplus of £2,000, + which was devoted to the founding of bursaries for theological + students. + + § 178.2. =The Eisenach Conference.=--The other German states + borrowed the idea of confederation from Prussia and Württemberg. + It took practical shape in the meetings of deputies at Eisenach, + begun in A.D. 1852, and was held for a time yearly, and + afterwards every second year, to consult together on matters of + worship, discipline and constitution. Beyond ventilating such + questions the conference yielded no result. + + § 178.3. =The Evangelical Alliance.=--An attempt was made in + England, on the motion of Dr. Chalmers (§ 202, 7), at a yet more + comprehensive confederation of all Protestant churches of all + lands against the encroachments of popery and puseyism (§ 202, 2). + After several preliminary meetings the first session of the + =Evangelical Alliance= was held in London in August, A.D. 1846. + Its object was the fraternizing of all evangelical Christians on + the basis of agreement upon the fundamental truths of salvation, + the vindication and spread of this common faith, and contention + for liberty of conscience and religious toleration. Nine articles + were laid down as terms of membership: Belief in the inspiration + of Scripture, in the Trinity, in the divinity of Christ, + in original sin, in justification by faith alone, in the + obligatoriness of the two sacraments, in the resurrection of the + body, in the last judgment, and in the eternal blessedness of the + righteous and the eternal condemnation of the ungodly. It could + thus include Baptists, but not Quakers. In A.D. 1855 it held its + ninth meeting at the great Paris Industrial Exhibition as a sort + of church exhibition, the representatives of different churches + reporting on the condition of their several denominations. The + tenth meeting, of A.D. 1857, was held in Berlin. The council of + the Alliance, presided over by Sir Culling Eardley, presented + an address to King Frederick William IV., in which it was said + that they aimed a blow not only against the sadduceanism, but + also against the pharisaism of the German evangelical church. + The confessional Lutherans, who had opposed the Alliance, + regarded this latter reference as directed against them. The + king, however, received the deputation most graciously, while + declaring that he entertained the brightest hopes for the future + of the church, and urged cordial brotherly love among Christians. + Though many distinguished confessionalists were members of + the Alliance none of them put in an appearance. The members of + the “Protestantenverein” (§ 180) would not take part because + the articles were too orthodox. On the other hand, numerous + representatives of pietism, unionism, Melanchthonianism, as well + as Baptists, Methodists, and Moravians, crowded in from all parts, + and were supported by the leading liberals in church and state. + While there was endless talk about the oneness and differences + of the children of God, about the universal priesthood, about the + superiority of the present meeting over the œcumenical councils + of the ancient church, about the want of spiritual life in + the churches, even where the theology of the confessions was + professed, etc., with denunciations of half-Catholic Lutheranism + and its sacramentarianism and officialism, and many a true + and admirable statement of what the church’s needs are, Merle + d’Aubigné introduced discord by the hearty welcome which + he accorded his friend Bunsen, which was intensified by the + passionate manner in which Krummacher reported upon it. The + gracious royal reception of the members of the Alliance, at which + Krummacher gave expression to his excited feelings in the words, + “Your Majesty, we would all fall not at your feet, but on your + neck!” was described by his brother, Dr. F. W. Krummacher, as a + sensible prelude to the solemn scenes of the last judgment. Sir + Culling Eardley declared, “There is no more the North Sea.” Lord + Shaftesbury said in London that with the Berlin Assembly a new + era had begun in the world’s history; and others who had returned + from it extolled it as a second Pentecost. + + § 178.4. =The Evangelical Church Alliance.=--After the revolution + of A.D. 1848, the most distinguished theologians, clergymen and + laymen well-affected toward the church, sought to bring about + a confederation of the Lutheran, Reformed, United, and Moravian + churches. When they held their second assembly at Wittenberg, + A.D. 1849, many of the strict Lutherans had already withdrawn, + especially those of Silesia. The Lutheran congress, held shortly + before at Leipzig under the presidency of Harless, had pronounced + the confederation unsatisfactory. The political reaction in + favour of the church had also taken away the occasion for such + a confederation. Yet the yearly deliberations of this council + on matters of practical church life did good service. An attempt + made at the Berlin meeting of A.D. 1853 to have the _Augustana_ + adopted as the church confession awakened keen opposition. At + the Stuttgart meeting of A.D. 1857 there were violent debates + on foreign missions and evangelical Catholicity between the + representatives of confessional Lutheranism who had hitherto + maintained connection with the confederation and the unionist + majority. The Lutherans now withdrew. The attempt made at + the Berlin October assembly of A.D. 1871, amid the excitement + produced by the glorious issue of the Franco-Prussian War and the + founding of the new German empire with a Protestant prince, to + draw into the confederation confessional Lutherans and adherents + of the “Protestantenverein,” in order to form a grand German + Protestant national church, miscarried, and a meeting of + the confederation in the old style met again at Halle in the + following year. But it was now found that its day was past. + + § 178.5. =The Evangelical League.=--At a meeting of the Prussian + evangelical middle party in autumn, 1886, certain members, + “constrained by grief at the surrender of arms by the Prussian + government in the _Kulturkampf_,” gathered together for private + conference, and resolved in defence of the threatened interests + of the evangelical church to found an “Evangelical League” out + of the various theological and ecclesiastical parties. Prominent + party leaders on both sides being admitted, a number of moderate + representatives of all schools were invited to a consultative + gathering at Erfurt. On January 15th, 1887, a call to join + the membership of the league was issued. It was signed by + distinguished men of the middle party, such as Beyschlag, Riehm + of Halle, etc., moderate representatives of confessionalism and + the positive union, such as Kawerau of Kiel, Fricke of Leipzig, + Witte, Warneck, etc., and liberal theologians like Lipsius and + Nippold of Jena, etc.; and it soon received the addition of + about 250 names. It recognised Jesus Christ, as the only begotten + Son of God, as the only means of salvation, and professed the + fundamental doctrines of the Reformation. It represented the + task of the League as twofold: on the one hand the defending + at all points the interests of the evangelical church against + the advancing pretensions of Rome, and, on the other hand, the + strengthening of the communal consciousness of the Christian + evangelical church against the cramping influence of party, + as well as in opposition to indifferentism and materialism. For + the accomplishment of this task the league organized itself under + the control of a central board with subordinate branches over all + Germany, each having a committee for representing its interests + in the press, and with annual general assemblies of all the + members for common consultation and promulgating of decrees. + + + § 179. LUTHERANISM, MELANCHTHONIANISM, AND CALVINISM. + + Widespread as the favourable reception of the Prussian union had +been, there were still a number of Lutheran states in which the Reformed +church had scarcely any adherents, _e.g._ Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, +Mecklenburg, and Schleswig-Holstein; and the same might be said of the +Baltic Provinces and of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Also in Austria, +France, and Russia the two denominations kept apart; and in Poland, the +union of A.D. 1828 was dissolved in A.D. 1849 (§ 206, 3). The Lutheran +confessional reaction in Prussia afforded stimulus to those who had +thus stood apart. In all lands, amid the conflict with rationalism, the +confessional spirit both of Lutheran and Reformed became more and more +pronounced. + + § 179.1. =Lutheranism within the Union.=--After the Prussian + State church had been undermined by the revolution of A.D. 1848, + an unsuccessful attempt was made to have a pure Lutheran + confessional church set up in its place. At the October assembly + in Berlin, in A.D. 1871, an ineffectual effort was made by the + United Lutherans to co-operate with those who were unionists + on principle. During the agitation caused by the May Laws + (§ 197, 5) and the Sydow proceedings (§ 180, 4), the first general + evangelical Lutheran conference was held in August, A.D. 1873, in + Berlin. It assumed a moderate conciliatory tone toward the union, + pronounced the efforts of the “Protestantenverein” (§ 180) an + apostasy from the fundamental doctrines of the gospel, bewailed + the issuing of the May Laws, protested against their principles, + but acknowledged the duty of obedience, and concluded an address + to the emperor with a petition on behalf of a democratic church + constitution and civil marriage.--The literary organs of the + United Lutherans are the “_Evang. Kirchenzeitung_,” edited by + Hengstenberg, and now by Zöckler, and the “_Allgem. konserv. + Monatsschrift für die christl. Deutschl._,” by Von Nathusius. + + § 179.2. =Lutheranism outside of the Union.=--A general Lutheran + conference was held under the presidency of Harless, in July, + A.D. 1868, at which the sentiments of Kliefoth, denouncing a union + under a common church government without agreement about doctrine + and sacraments, met with almost universal acceptance. At the + Leipzig gathering of A.D. 1870, Luthardt urged the duty of firmly + maintaining doctrinal unity in the Lutheran church. The assembly + of the following year agreed to recognise the emperor as head + of the church only in so far as he did not interfere with the + dispensation of word and sacrament, admitted the legality of + a merely civil marriage but maintained that despisers of the + ecclesiastical ordinance should be subjected to discipline, that + communion fellowship is to be allowed neither to Reformed nor + unionists if fixed residents, but to unionists faithful to the + confession if temporary residents, even without expressly joining + their party; and also with reference to the October assembly of + the previous year the union of the two Protestant churches of + Germany under a mixed system of church government was condemned. + The third general conference of Nüremburg [Nuremberg], in + A.D. 1879, dealt with the questions: Whether the church should + be under State control or free? Whether the schools should + be denominational or not? and in both cases decided in favour + of the latter alternative.--Its literary organ is Luthardt’s + “_Allg. Luth. Kirchenzeitung_.” + + § 179.3. =Melancthonianism [Melanchthonianism] and + Calvinism.=--The Reformed church of Germany has maintained a + position midway between Lutheranism and Calvinism very similar to + the later Melanchthonianism. Ebrard indeed sought to prove that + strict predestinarianism was only an excrescence of the Reformed + system, whereas Schweitzer, purely in the interests of science + (§ 182, 9, 16), has shown that it is its all-conditioning nerve + and centre, to which it owes its wonderful vitality, force, and + consistency. Heppe of Marburg went still further than Ebrard + in his attempt to combine Lutheranism and Calvinism in a + =Melancthonian [Melanchthonian] church= (§ 182, 16), by seeking + to prove that the original evangelical church of Germany was + Melanchthonian, that after Luther’s death the fanatics, more + Lutheran than Luther, founded the so-called Lutheran church + and completed it by issuing the Formula of Concord; that the + Calvinizing of the Palatinate, Hesse, Brandenburg, Anhalt was + only a reaction against hyper- or pseudo-Lutheranism, and that + the restoration of the original Melanchthonianism, and the modern + union movement were only the completion of that restoration. + Schenkel’s earlier contributions to Reformation history moved + in a similar direction. Ebrard also, in A.D. 1851, founded a + “_Ref. Kirchenzeitung_.”--But even the genuine strict =Calvinism= + had zealous adherents during this century, not only in Scotland + (§ 202, 7) and the Netherlands (§ 200, 2), but also in Germany, + especially in the Wupperthal. G. D. Krummacher, from A.D. 1816 + pastor in Elberfeld, and his nephew F. W. Krummacher of Barmen, + were long its chief representatives. When Prussia sought in + A.D. 1835 to force the union in the Wupperthal, and threatened + the opposing Reformed pastors with deposition, the revolt here + proved almost as serious as that of the Lutherans in Silesia. The + pastors, with the majority of their people agreed at last to the + union only in so far as it was in accordance with the Reformed + mode of worship. But a portion, embracing their most important + members, stood apart and refused all conciliation. The royal + Toleration Act of A.D. 1847 allowed them to form an independent + congregation at Elberfeld with Dr. Kohlbrügge as their minister. + This divine, formerly Lutheran pastor at Amsterdam, was driven + out owing to a contest with a rationalising colleague, and + afterwards, through study of Calvin’s writings, became an ardent + Calvinist. This body, under the name of the Dutch Reformed + church, constituted the one anti-unionist, strictly Calvinistic + denomination in Prussia.--The De Cock movement (§ 200, 2), out + of which in A.D. 1830 the separate “Chr. Ref. Church of Holland” + sprang, spread over the German frontiers and led to the founding + there of the “Old Ref. Church of East Frisia and Bentheim,” which + has now nine congregations and seven pastors.--At the meeting + of the Evangelical Alliance in New York in A.D. 1873, the + Presbyterians present resolved to convoke an œcumenical Reformed + council. A conference in London in A.D. 1875 brought to maturity + the idea of a Pan-Presbyterian assembly. The council is to meet + every third year; the members recognise the supreme authority + of the Old and New Testament in matters of faith and practice, + and accept the consensus of all the Reformed confessions. + The first “=General Presbyterian Council=” met in Edinburgh + from 3rd to 10th July, A.D. 1877, about 300 delegates being + present. The proceedings consisted in unmeasured glorification + of presbyterianism “drawn from the whole Scripture, from the + seventy elders of the Pentateuch to the twenty-four elders + of the Apocalypse.” The second council met at Philadelphia in + A.D. 1880, and boasted that it represented forty millions of + Presbyterians. It appointed a committee to draw up a consensus + of the confessions of all Reformed churches. The third council of + 305 members met at Belfast in A.D. 1884, and after a long debate + declined, by a great majority, to adopt a strictly formulated + consensus of doctrine as uncalled for and undesirable, and by the + reception of the Cumberland Presbyterians they even surrendered + the Westminster Confession (§ 155, 1) as the only symbol + qualifying for membership of the council. The fourth council met + in London in A.D. 1887.--An œcumenical Methodist congress was + held in London in A.D. 1881, attended by 400 delegates. + + + § 180. THE “PROTESTANTENVEREIN.” + + Rationalists of all descriptions, adherents of Baur’s school, as well +as disciples of Hegel and Schleiermacher of the left wing, kept far off +from every evangelical union. But the common negation of the tendencies +characterizing the evangelical confederations and the common endeavour +after a free, democratic, non-confessional organization of the German +Protestant church, awakened in them a sense of the need of combination +and co-operation. While in North Germany this feeling was powerfully +expressed from A.D. 1854, in the able literary organ the “_Protest. +Kirchenzeitung_,” in South Germany, with Heidelberg as a centre and Dean +Zittel as chief agitator, local “_Protestantenvereine_” were formed, +which combined in a united organization in the Assembly of Frankfort, +A.D. 1863. After long debates the northern and southern societies +were joined in one. In June, A.D. 1865, the first general Protestant +assembly was held at Eisenach, and the nature, motive, and end of the +associations were defined. To these assemblies convened from year to +year members of the society crowded from all parts of Germany in order +to encourage one another to persevere in spreading their views by word +and pen, and to take steps towards the founding of branch associations +for disseminating among the people a Christianity which renounces the +miraculous and sets aside the doctrines of the church. + + § 180.1. =The Protestant Assembly.=--The first general + German Protestant Assembly, composed of 400 clerical and lay + notabilities, met at Eisenach in A.D. 1865, under the presidency + of the jurist Bluntschli of Heidelberg and the chief court + preacher Schwarz of Gotha. A peculiar lustre was given to + the meeting by the presence of Rothe of Heidelberg. Of special + importance was Schwarz’s address on “The Limits of Doctrinal + Freedom in Protestantism,” which he sought not in the confession, + not in the authority of the letter of Scripture, not even + in certain so called fundamental articles, but in the one + religious moral truth of Christianity, the gospel of love + and the divine fatherhood as Christ taught it, expounded it in + his life and sealed it by his death. In Berlin, Osnabrück, and + Leipzig, the churches were refused for services according to the + _Protestantenverein_. In A.D. 1868 fifteen heads of families in + Heidelberg petitioned the ecclesiastical council to grant them + the use of one of the city churches where a believing clergyman + might conduct service in the old orthodox fashion. This request + was refused by fifty votes against four. Baumgarten denounced + this intolerance, and declared that unless repudiated by the + union it would be a most serious stain upon its reputation. + In A.D. 1877 he publicly withdrew from the society. + + § 180.2. =The “_Protestantenverein_” Propaganda.=--The views + of the union were spread by popular lectures and articles in + newspapers and magazines. The “_Protestanten-Bibel_,” edited + by Schmidt and Holtzendorff in A.D. 1872, of which an English + translation has been published, giving the results of New + Testament criticism, “laid the axe at the root of the dogmatics + and confessionalism,” and proved that “we are still Christians + though our conception of Christianity diverges in many points + from that of the second century, and we proclaim a Christianity + without miracles and in accordance with the modern theory of + the universe.” The success of such efforts to spread the broad + theology has been greatly over-estimated. Enthusiastic partisans + of the union claimed to have the whole evangelical world at their + back, while Holtzendorff boasted that they had all thoughtful + Germans with them. + + § 180.3. =Sufferings Endured.=--In many instances members of + the society were disciplined, suspended and deposed. In October, + A.D. 1880, =Beesenmeyer= of Mannheim, on his appointment to + Osnabrück, was examined by the consistory. He confessed an + economic but not an essential Trinity, the sinlessness and + perfect godliness but not the divinity of Christ, the atoning + power of Christ’s death but not the doctrine of vicarious + satisfaction. He was pronounced unorthodox, and so unfit to hold + office. =Schroeder=, a pastor in the consistory of Wiesbaden in + A.D. 1871, on his refusing to use the Apostles’ Creed at baptism + and confirmation, was deposed, but on appealing to the minister + of worship, Dr. Falk, he was restored in the beginning of + A.D. 1874. The Stettin consistory declined to ordain Dr. =Hanne= + on account of his work “_Der ideale u. d. geschichtl. Christus_,” + and an appeal to the superior court and another to the king were + unsuccessful. Several members of the church protested against + the call of Dr. =Ziegler= to Liegnitz in A.D. 1873, on account + of his trial discourse and a previous lecture on the authority + of the Bible, and the consistory refused to sustain the call. + The Supreme Church Council, however, when appealed to, declared + itself satisfied with Ziegler’s promise to take unconditionally + the ordination vow, which requires acceptance of the fundamental + doctrines of the gospel and not the peculiar theological system + of the symbols. + + § 180.4. The conflicts in =Berlin= were specially sharp. + In A.D. 1872 the aged pastor of the so called New Church, + Dr. =Sydow=, delivered a lecture on the miraculous birth of + Jesus, in which he declared that he was the legitimate son + of Joseph and Mary. His colleague, Dr. =Lisco=, son of the + well-known commentator, spoke of legendary elements in the + Apostles’ Creed, and denied its authority. Lisco was reprimanded + and cautioned by the consistory. Sydow was deposed. He appealed, + together with twenty-six clergymen of the province of Brandenburg, + and twelve Berlin pastors, to the Supreme Church Council. The + Jena theologians also presented a largely signed petition to + Dr. Falk against the procedure of the consistory, while the Weimar + and Württemberg clergy sent a petition in favour of maintaining + strict discipline. The superior court reversed the sentence, on + the ground that the lecture was not given in the exercise of his + office, and severely reprimanded Sydow for giving serious offence + by its public delivery. At a Berlin provincial synod in A.D. 1877, + an attack was made by pastor =Rhode= on creed subscription. + =Hossbach=, preaching in a vacant church, declared that he + repudiated the confessional doctrine of the divinity of Christ, + regarded the life of Jesus in the gospels as a congeries of + myths, etc. Some loudly protested and others as eagerly pressed + for his settlement. The consistory accepted Rhode’s retractation + and annulled Hossbach’s call. The Supreme Church Council supported + the consistory, and issued a strict order to its president to + suffer no departure from the confession. The congregation next + chose Dr. =Schramm=, a pronounced adherent of the same party, who + was also rejected. In A.D. 1879 =Werner=, biographer of Boniface, + a more moderate disciple of the same school, holding a sort of + Arian position, received the appointment. When, in A.D. 1880, + the Supreme Church Council demanded of Werner a clear statement + of his belief regarding Scripture, the divinity and resurrection + of Christ, and the Apostles Creed, and on receiving his reply + summoned him to a conference at Berlin, he resigned his office. + + § 180.5. The conflicts in Schleswig Holstein also caused + considerable excitement. Pastor =Kühl= of Oldensworth had + published an article at Easter, A.D. 1880, entitled, “The Lord + is Risen indeed,” in which the resurrection was made purely + spiritual. He was charged with violating his ordination vow, + sectaries pointed to his paper as proof of their theory that + the state church was the apocalyptic Babylon, and petitions from + 115 ministers and 2,500 laymen were presented against him to + the consistory of Kiel. The consistory exhorted Kühl to be more + careful and his opponents to be more patient. In the same year, + however, he published a paper in which he denied that the order + of nature was set aside by miracles. He was now advised to give + up writing and confine himself to his pastoral work. A pamphlet + by Decker on “The Old Faith and the New,” was answered by =Lühr=, + and his mode of dealing with the ordination vow was of such a + kind as to lead pastor Paulsen to speak of it as a “chloroforming + of his conscience.” + + + § 181. DISPUTES ABOUT FORMS OF WORSHIP. + + During the eighteenth century the services of the evangelical church +had become thoroughly corrupted and disordered under the influence +of the “Illumination,” and were quite incapable of answering to the +Christian needs and ecclesiastical tastes of the nineteenth century. +Whenever there was a revival in favour of the faith of their fathers, +a movement was made in the direction of improved forms of worship. The +Rationalists and Friends of Light, however, prevented progress except +in a few states. Even the official Eisenach Conference did no more than +prepare the way and indicate how action might afterwards be taken. + + § 181.1. =The Hymnbook.=--Traces of the vandalism of the + Illumination were to be seen in all the hymnbooks. The noble poet + Ernst Moritz Arndt was the first to enter the lists as a restorer; + and various attempts were made by Von Elsner, Von Raumer, Bunsen, + Stier, Knapp, Daniel, Harms, etc., to make collections of sacred + songs answerable to the revived Christian sentiment of the people. + These came to be largely used, not in the public services, but + in family worship, and prepared the way for official revisal of + the books for church use. The Eisenach Conference of A.D. 1853 + resolved to issue 150 classical hymns with the old melodies as + an appendix to the old collection and a pattern for further work. + Only with difficulty was the resolution passed to make A.D. 1750 + the _terminus ad quem_ in the choice of pieces. Wackernagel + insisted on a strict adherence to the original text and retired + from the committee when this was not agreed to. Only in a few + states has the Eisenach collection been introduced; _e.g._ in + Bavaria, where it has been incorporated in its new hymnbook. + + § 181.2. =The Book of Chorales.=--In A.D. 1814, Frederick + William III. of Prussia sought to secure greater prominence + to the liturgy in the church service. In A.D. 1817, Natorp of + Münster expressed himself strongly as to the need of restoring + the chorale to its former position, and he was followed by the + jurist Thibaut, whose work on “The Purity of Tone” has been + translated into English. The reform of the chorale was carried + out most vigorously in Württemberg, but it was in Bavaria that + the old chorale in its primitive simplicity was most widely + introduced. + + § 181.3. =The Liturgy.=--Under the reign of the Illuminists the + liturgy had suffered even more than the hymns. The Lutherans now + went back to the old Reformation models, and liturgical services, + with musical performances, became popular in Berlin. Conferences + held at Dresden did much for liturgical reform, and the able + works and collections of Schöberlein supplied abundant materials + for the practical carrying out of the movement. + + § 181.4. =The Holy Scriptures.=--The Calw Bible in its fifth + edition adopted somewhat advanced views on inspiration, the canon + and authenticity, while maintaining generally the standpoint + of the most reverent and pious students of scripture. Bunsen’s + commentary assumed a “mediating” position, and the “Protestant + Bible” on the New Testament, translated into English, that of + the advanced school. Besser’s expositions of the New Testament + books, of which we have in English those on John’s gospel, had + an unexampled popularity. The Eisenach Conference undertook + a revision of Luther’s translation of the Bible. The revised + New Testament was published in A.D. 1870, and accepted by some + Bible societies. The much more difficult task of Old Testament + revision was entrusted to a committee of distinguished university + theologians, which concluded its labours in A.D. 1881. A “proof” + Bible was issued in A.D. 1883, and the final corrected rendering + in A.D. 1886. A whole legion of pamphlets were now issued + from all quarters. Some bitterly opposing any change in the + Luther-text, others severely criticising the work, so that the + whole movement seems now at a standstill.[529]--In England, in + May, 1885, the work of revision of the English version of the + Bible, undertaken by order of convocation, was completed after + fifteen years’ labour, and issued jointly by the two universities + of Oxford and Cambridge. The revised New Testament, prepared + four years previously, had been telegraphed in short sections to + America by the representative of the _New York Herald_, so that + the complete work appeared there rather earlier than in England. + But in the case of the Old Testament revision such freebooting + industry was prevented by the strict and careful reserve of all + concerned in the work. The revised New Testament had meanwhile + never been introduced into the public services; whether the + completed Bible will ever succeed in overcoming this prejudice + remains to be seen.[530] + + + § 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. + + The real founder of modern Protestant theology, the Origen of the +nineteenth century, is Schleiermacher. His influence was so powerful +and manysided that it extended not merely to his own school, but +also in almost all directions, even to the Catholic church, embracing +destructive and constructive tendencies such as appeared before +in Origen and Erigena. Alongside of the vulgar rationalism, which +still had notable representatives, De Wette founded the new school +of historico-critical rationalism, and Neander that of pietistic +supernaturalism, which soon overshadowed the two older schools of +rational and supra-rational supernaturalism. On the basis of Schelling’s +and Hegel’s philosophy Daub founded the school of speculative theology +with an evangelical tendency; but after Hegel’s death it split into +a right and left wing. As the former could not maintain its position, +its adherents by-and-by went over to other schools; and the latter, +setting aside speculation and dogmatics, applied itself to the critical +investigation of the early history of Christianity, and founded the +school of Baur at Tübingen. Schleiermacher’s school also split into a +right and left wing. Each of them took the union as its standard; but +the right, which claimed to be the “German” and the “Modern” theology, +wished a union under a consensus of the confessions, and sought to +effect an accommodation between the old faith and the modern liberalism; +whereas the left wished union without a confession, and unconditioned +toleration of “free science.” This latter tendency, however, secured +greater prominence and importance from A.D. 1854, through combination +with the representatives of the historico-critical and the younger +generation of the Baurian school, from which originated the “free +Protestant” theology. On the other hand, under the influence of pietism, +there has arisen since A.D. 1830, especially in the universities +of Erlangen, Leipzig, Rostock, and Dorpat, a Lutheran confessional +school, which seeks to develop a Lutheran system of theology of the +type of Gerhard and Bengel. A similar tendency has also shown itself +in the Reformed church. The most recent theological school is that +founded by Ritschl, resting on a Lutheran basis but regarded by the +confessionalists as rather allied to the “free Protestant” theology, +on account of its free treatment of certain fundamental doctrines of +Lutheranism.--Theological contributions from Scandinavia, England, +and Holland are largely indebted to German theology. + + § 182.1. =Schleiermacher, A.D. 1768-1834.=--Thoroughly grounded + in philosophy and deeply imbued with the pious feeling of the + Moravians among whom he was trained, Schleiermacher began his + career in A.D. 1807 as professor and university preacher at Halle, + but, to escape French domination, went in the same year to Berlin, + where by speech and writing he sought to arouse German patriotism. + There he was appointed preacher in A.D. 1809, and professor + in A.D. 1810, and continued to hold these offices till his + death in A.D. 1834. In A.D. 1799 he published five “_Reden + über d. Religion_.” In these it was not biblical and still + less ecclesiastical Christianity which he sought with glowing + eloquence to address to the hearts of the German people, but + Spinozist pantheism. The fundamental idea of his life, that God, + “the absolute unity,” cannot be reached in thought nor grasped + by will, but only embraced in feeling as immediate consciousness, + and hence that feeling is the proper seat of religion, appears + already in his early productions as the centre of his system. In + the following year, A.D. 1800, he set forth his ethical theory + in five “Monologues:” every man should in his own way represent + humanity in a special blending of its elements. The study and + translation of Plato, which occupied him now for several years, + exercised a powerful influence upon him. He approached more and + more towards positive Christianity. In a Christmas Address in + A.D. 1803 on the model of Plato’s Symposium, he represents Christ + as the divine object of all faith. In A.D. 1811 he published his + “Short Outline of Theological Study,” which has been translated + into English, a masterly sketch of theological encyclopædia. In + A.D. 1821 he produced his great masterpiece, “_Der Chr. Glaube_,” + which makes feeling the seat of all religion as immediate + consciousness of absolute dependence, perfectly expressed in + Jesus Christ, whose life redeems the world. The task of dogmatics + is to give scientific expression to the Christian consciousness + as seen the life of the redeemed; it has not to prove, + but only to work out and exhibit in relation to the whole + spiritual life what is already present as a fact of experience. + Thus dogmatics and philosophy are quite distinct. He proves + the evangelical Protestant character of the doctrines thus + developed by quotations from the consensus of both confessions. + Notwithstanding his protest, many of his contemporaries still + found remnants of Spinozist pantheism. On certain points too, + he failed to satisfy the claims of orthodoxy; _e.g._ in his + Sabellian doctrine of the Trinity, his theory of election, his + doctrine of the canon, and his account of the beginning and + close of our Lord’s life, the birth and the ascension.[531] + + § 182.2. =The Older Rationalistic Theology.=--The older, + so-called vulgar rationalism, was characterized by the + self-sufficiency with which it rejected all advances from + philosophy and theology, science and national literature. The + new school of historico-critical rationalism availed itself + of every aid in the direction of scientific investigation. The + father of the vulgar rationalism of this age was =Röhr= of Weimar, + who exercised his ingenuity in proving how one holding such + views might still hold office in the church. To this school also + belonged =Paulus= of Heidelberg, described by Marheineke as one + who believes he thinks and thinks he believes but was incapable + of either; =Wegscheider= of Halle, who in his “_Institutions + theol. Christ. dogmaticæ_” repudiates miracles; =Bretschneider= + of Gotha, who began as a supernaturalist and afterwards went over + to extreme rationalism; and =Ammon= of Dresden, who afterwards + passed over to rational supernaturalism. + + § 182.3. The founder of =Historico-critical Rationalism= was + =De Wette=; a contemporary of Schleiermacher in Berlin University, + but deprived of office in A.D. 1819 for sending a letter of + condolence to the mother of Sands, which was regarded as an + apology for his crime. From A.D. 1822 till his death in A.D. 1849 + he continued to work unweariedly in Basel. His theological + position had its starting point in the philosophy of his friend + Fries, which he faithfully adhered to down to the end of his life. + His friendship with Schleiermacher had also a powerful influence + upon him. He too placed religion essentially in feeling, + which, however, he associated much more closely with knowledge + and will. In the church doctrines he recognised an important + symbolical expression of religious truths, and so by the out and + out rationalist he was all along sneered at as a mystic. But his + chief strength lay in the sharp critical treatment which he gave + to the biblical canon and the history of the O.T. and N.T. His + commentaries on the whole of the N.T. are of permanent value, and + contain his latest thoughts, when he had approached most nearly + to positive Christianity. His literary career began in A.D. 1806 + with a critical examination of the books of Chronicles. He also + wrote on the Psalms, on Jewish history, on Jewish archæology, + and made a new translation of the Bible. His Introductions to + the O.T. and N.T. have been translated into English.--=Winer= + of Leipzig is best known by his “Grammar of New Testament Greek,” + first published in A.D. 1822, of which several English and + American translations have appeared, the latest and best that of + Dr. Moulton, made in A.D. 1870, from the sixth German edition. He + also edited an admirable “_Bibl. Reallexicon_,” and wrote a work + on symbolics which has been translated into English under the + title “A Comparative View of the Doctrines and Confessions of the + Various Communities of Christendom” (Edin., 1873).--=Gesenius= + of Halle, who died A.D. 1842, has won a high reputation by + his grammatical and lexicographical services and as author of + a commentary on Isaiah--=Hupfeld= of Marburg and Halle, who died + A.D. 1866, best known by his work in four vols. on the Psalms, + in his critical attitude toward the O.T., belonged to the same + party.--=Hitzig= of Zürich and Heidelberg, who died A.D. 1875, + far outstripped all the rest in genius and subtlety of mind and + critical acuteness. He wrote commentaries on most of the prophets + and critical investigations into the O.T. history.--=Ewald= of + Göttingen, A.D. 1803-1875, whose hand was against every man and + every man’s hand against him, held the position of recognised + dictator in the domain of Hebrew grammar, and uttered oracles as + an infallible expounder of the biblical books. In his _Journal + for Biblical Science_, he held an annual _auto da fe_ of all + the biblico-theological literature of the preceding year; + and, assuming a place alongside of Isaiah and Jeremiah, he + pronounced in every preface a prophetic burden against the + theological, ecclesiastical, or political ill doers of his time. + His exegetical writings on the poetical and prophetical books + of the O.T., his “History of Israel down to the Post-Apostolic + Age,” and a condensed reproduction of his “Bible Doctrine of + God,” under the title: “Revelation, its Nature and Record” and + “Old and New Testament Theology,” have all appeared in English + translations, and exhibit everywhere traces of brilliant genius + and suggestive originality.[532] + + § 182.4. =Supernaturalism= of the older type (§ 171, 8) was + now represented by Storr, Reinhard, Planck, Knapp, and Stäudlin. + In Württemberg Storr’s school maintained its pre-eminence + down to A.D. 1830. Neander, Tholuck, and Hengstenberg may + be described as the founders and most powerful enunciators + of the more recent =Pietistic Supernaturalism=. Powerfully + influenced by Schleiermacher, his colleague in Berlin, =Neander=, + A.D. 1789-1850, exercised an influence such as no other + theological teacher had exerted since Luther and Melanchthon. + Adopting Schleiermacher’s standpoint, he regarded religion as + a matter of feeling: _Pectus est quod theologum facit_. By his + subjective pectoral theology he became the father of modern + scientific pietism, but it incapacitated him from understanding + the longing of the age for the restoration of a firm objective + basis for the faith. He was adverse to the Hegelian philosophy + no less than to confessionalism. Neander was so completely a + pectoralist, that even his criticism was dominated by feeling, + as seen in his vacillations on questions of N.T. authenticity + and historicity. His “Church History,” of which we have + admirable English translations, was an epoch-making work, and + his historical monographs were the result of careful original + research.[533]--=Tholuck=, A.D. 1799-1877, from A.D. 1826 + professor at Halle, at first devoted to oriental studies, + roused to practical interests by Baron von Kottwitz of Berlin, + gave himself with all his wide culture by preaching, lecturing + and conversing to lead his students to Christ. His scientific + theology was latitudinarian, but had the warmth and freshness + of immediate contact with the living Saviour. His most important + works are apologetical and exegetical. In his “Preludes to + the History of Rationalism” he gives curious glimpses into the + scandalous lives of students in the seventeenth century; and he + afterwards confessed that these studies had helped to draw him + into close sympathy with confessionalism. While always lax in his + views of authenticity, he came to adopt a very decided position + in regard to revelation and inspiration.--=Hengstenberg=, + A.D. 1802-1869, from A.D. 1826 professor in Berlin, had quite + another sort of development. Rendered determined by innumerable + controversies, in none of which he abated a single hair’s breadth, + he looked askance at science as a gift of the Danaides, and set + forth in opposition to rationalism and naturalism a system of + theology unmodified by all the theories of modern times. Born in + the Reformed church and in his understanding of Scripture always + more Calvinist than Lutheran, rationalising only upon miracles + that seemed to detract from the dignity of God, and in his + later years inclined to the Romish doctrine of justification, he + may nevertheless claim to be classed among the confessionalists + within the union. He deserves the credit of having given a great + impulse to O.T. studies and a powerful defence of O.T. books, + though often abandoning the position of an apologist for that + of an advocate. His “Christology of the Old Testament,” in + four vols., “Genuineness of the Pentateuch and Daniel,” three + vols., “Egypt and the Books of Moses,” commentaries on Psalms, + Ecclesiastes, Ezekiel, the Gospel of John, Revelation, and his + “History of the Kingdom of God in the Old Testament,” have all + been translated into English. + + § 182.5. The so called =Rational Supernaturalism= admits the + supernatural revelation in holy scripture, and puts reason + alongside of it as an equally legitimate source of religious + knowledge, and maintains the rationality of the contents of + revelation. Its chief representative was =Baumgarten-Crusius= + of Jena. Of a similar tendency, but more influenced by æsthetic + culture and refined feeling, and latterly inclining more and + more to the standpoint of “free Protestantism,” =Carl Hase=, + after seven years’ work in Tübingen, opened his Jena career in + A.D. 1830, which he closed by resigning his professorship in + A.D. 1883, after sixty years’ labour in the theological chair. + In his “Life of Jesus,” first published A.D. 1829, he represents + Christ as the ideal man, sinless but not free from error, endowed + with the fulness of love and the power of pure humanity, as + having truly risen and become the author of a new life in the + kingdom of God, of which the very essence is most purely and + profoundly expressed in the gospel of the disciple who lay upon + the Master’s heart. The latest revision of this work, issued + in A.D. 1876 under the title “_Geschichte Jesu_,” treats the + fourth gospel as non-Johnannine in authorship and mythical in its + contents, and explains the resurrection by the theory of a swoon + or a vision. In his “_Hutterus Redivivus_,” A.D. 1828, twelfth + edition 1883, he seeks to set forth the Lutheran dogmatic as + Hutter might have done had he lived in these days. This led to + the publication of controversial pamphlets in A.D. 1834-1837, + which dealt the deathblow to the _Rationalismus Vulgaris_. His + “Church History,” distinguished by its admirable little sketches + of leading personalities, was published in A.D. 1834, and the + seventh edition of A.D. 1854 has been translated into English. + + § 182.6. =Speculative Theology.=--Its founder was =Daub=, + professor at Heidelberg from A.D. 1794 till his death in + A.D. 1836. Occupying and writing from the philosophical + standpoints of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling successively, he + published in A.D. 1816 “Judas Iscariot,” an elaborate discussion + of the nature of evil, but passed over in A.D. 1833, with his + treatise on dogmatics, to the Hegelian position. He exerted + great influence as a professor, but his writings proved to most + unintelligible.--=Marheineke= of Berlin in the first edition + of his “Dogmatics” occupied the standpoint of Schelling, but in + the second set forth Lutheran orthodoxy in accordance with the + formulæ of the Hegelian system.--After Hegel’s death in A.D. 1831 + his older pupils =Rosenkranz= and =Göschel= sought to enlist his + philosophy in the service of orthodoxy. =Richter= was the first + to give offence, by his “Doctrine of the Last Things,” in which + he denounced the doctrine of immortality in the sense of personal + existence after death. =Strauss=, A.D. 1808-1874, represented + the “Life of Jesus,” in his work of A.D. 1835, as the product + of unintentional romancing, and in his “_Glaubenslehre_” of + A.D. 1840, sought to prove that all Christian doctrines are + put an end to by modern science, and openly taught pantheism + as the residuum of Christianity. =Bruno Bauer=, after passing + from the right to the left Hegelian wing, described the gospels + as the product of conscious fraud, and =Ludwig Feuerbach=, + in his “Essence of Christianity,” A.D. 1841, set forth in all + its nakedness the new gospel of self-adoration. The breach + between the two parties in the school was now complete. Whatever + Rosenkranz and Schaller from the centre, and Göschel and Gabler + from the right, did to vindicate the honour of the system, + they could not possibly restore the for ever shattered illusion + that it was fundamentally Christian. Those of the right fell + back into the camps of “the German theology” and the Lutheran + confessionalism; while in the latest times the left has no + prominent theological representative but Biedermann of Zürich. + + § 182.7. =The Tübingen School.=--Strauss was only the advanced + skirmisher of a school which was proceeding under an able leader + to subject the history of early Christianity to a searching + examination. =Fred. Chr. Baur= of Tübingen, A.D. 1792-1860, + almost unequalled among his contemporaries in acuteness, + diligence, and learning, a pupil of Schleiermacher and Hegel, + devoted himself mainly to historical research about the + beginnings of Christianity. In this department he proceeded to + reject almost everything that had previously been believed. He + denied the genuineness of all the New Testament writings, with + the exception of Revelation and the Epistles to the Romans, + Galatians, and Corinthians; treating the rest as forgeries of + the second century, resulting from a bitter struggle between + the Petrine and Pauline parties. This scheme was set forth in + a rudimentary form in the treatise on “The So-called Pastoral + Epistles of the Apostle Paul,” A.D. 1835. His works, “Paul, the + Apostle,” and the “History of the First Three Centuries,” have + been translated into English. He had as collaborateurs in this + work, Schwegler, Zeller, Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, etc. =Ritschl=, + who was at first an adherent of the school, made important + concessions to the right, and in the second edition of his + great work, “_Die Entstehung d. alt-kath. Kirche_,” of A.D. 1857, + announced himself as an opponent. =Hilgenfeld= of Jena, too, + marked out new lines for himself in New Testament Introduction + and in the estimate of early church doctrine, modifying in + various ways the positions of Baur. The labours of this school + and its opponents have done signal service in the cause of + science. + + § 182.8. =Strauss=, who had meanwhile occupied himself with the + studies of Von Hutten, Reimarus, and Lessing’s “Nathan,” feeling + that the researches of the Tübingen school had antiquated his + “Life of Jesus,” and stimulated by Renan’s “Life of Jesus,” + written with French elegance and vivacity, in which he described + Christ as an amiable hero of a Galilæan village story, undertook + in 1864 a semi-jubilee reproduction of his work, addressed to + “the German people.” This was followed by a severe controversial + pamphlet, “The Half and the Whole,” in which he lashed the + halting attempts of Schenkel as well as the uncompromising + conservatism of Hengstenberg. He now pointed out cases of + intentional romancing in the gospel narratives; the resurrection + rests upon subjective visions of Christ’s disciples. His + “Lectures on Voltaire” appeared in A.D. 1870, and in A.D. 1872 + the most radical of all his books, “The Old and the New Faith,” + which makes Christianity only a modified Judaism, the history + of the resurrection mere “humbug,” and the whole gospel story + the result of the “hallucinations” of the early Christians. The + question whether “we” are still Christians he answers openly + and honourably in the negative. He has also surmounted the + standpoint of pantheism. The religion of the nineteenth century + is _pancosmism_, its gospel the results of natural science + with Darwin’s discoveries as its bible, its devotional works + the national classics, its places of worship the concert rooms, + theatres, museums, etc. The most violent attacks on this book + came from the _Protestantenverein_. Strauss had said, “If + the old faith is absurd, then the modernized edition of the + ‘_Protestantenverein_’ and the school of Jena is doubly, trebly + so. The old faith only contradicts reason, not itself; the + new contradicts itself at every point, and how can it then + be reconciled with reason?”[534] + + § 182.9. =The Mediating Theology.=--This tendency originated + from the right wing of the school of Schleiermacher, still + influenced more or less by the pectoralism of Neander. It adopted + in dogmatics a more positive and in criticism a more conservative + manner. It earnestly sought to promote the interests of the + union not merely as a combination for church government, but as + a communion under a confessional consensus. Its chief theological + organs were the “_Studien und Kritiken_,” started in A.D. 1828, + edited by Ullmann and Umbreit in Heidelberg, afterwards by + Riehm and Köstlin in Halle, and the “_Jahrbücher für deutsche + Theologie_” of Dorner and Leibner, A.D. 1856-1878.--Although the + mediating theology sought to sink all confessional differences, + denominational descent was more or less traceable in most of its + adherents. Its leading representatives from the =Reformed church= + were: =Alexander Schweizer=, who most faithfully preserved the + critical tendency of Schleiermacher, and, in a style far abler + and subtler than any other modern theologian, expounded the + Reformed system of doctrine in its rigid logical consistency. + In his own system he gives a scientific exposition of the + evangelical faith from the unionist standpoint, with many pious + reflections on Scripture and the confession as well as results of + Christian experience, based upon the threefold manifestation of + God set forth without miracle in the physical order of the world, + in the moral order of the world, and in the historical economy + of the kingdom of God.--=Sack=, one of the oldest and most + positive of Schleiermacher’s pupils, professor at Bonn, then + superintendent at Magdeburg, wrote on apologetics and polemics. + =Hagenbach= of Basel, A.D. 1801-1874, is well-known by his + “Theological Encyclopædia and Methodology,” “History of the + Reformation,” and “History of the Church in the Eighteenth + and Nineteenth Centuries,” all of which are translated into + English.--=John Peter Lange= of Bonn, A.D. 1802-1884, a man + of genius, imaginative, poetic, and speculative, with strictly + positive tendencies, widely known by his “Life of Christ” and the + commentary on Old and New Testament, edited and contributed to by + him.--=Dr. Philip Schaff= may also be named as the transplanter + of German theology of the Neander-Tholuck type to the American + soil. Born in Switzerland, he accepted a call as professor to the + theological seminary of the German Reformed church at Mercersburg + in 1843. He soon fell under suspicion of heresy, but was + acquitted by the Synod of New York in 1845. In 1869 he accepted + a call to a professorship in the richly endowed Presbyterian + Union Theological Seminary of New York. Writing first in German + and afterwards in English, his works treat of almost all the + branches of theological science, especially in history and + exegesis. He is also president of several societies engaged + in active Christian work. + + § 182.10. Among those belonging originally to the =Lutheran + church= were Schleiermacher’s successor in Berlin, =Twesten=, + whose dogmatic treatise did not extend beyond the doctrine of + God, a faithful adherent of Schleiermacher’s right wing on the + Lutheran side; =Nitzsch=, professor in Bonn A.D. 1822-1847, and + afterwards of Berlin till his death in A.D. 1868, best known by + his “System of Christian Doctrine,” and his Protestant reply to + Möhler’s “Symbolism,” a profound thinker with a noble Christian + personality, and one of the most influential among the consensus + theologians. =Julius Müller= of Halle, A.D. 1801-1878, if we + except his theory of an ante-temporal fall, occupied the common + doctrinal platform of the confessional unionists. His chief work, + “The Christian Doctrine of Sin,” is a masterpiece of profound + thinking and original research. =Ullmann=, A.D. 1796-1865, + professor in Halle and Heidelberg, a noble and peace-loving + character, distinguished himself in the domain of history by his + monograph on “Gregory Nazianzen,” his “Reformers before the + Reformation,” and most of all by his beautiful apologetical + treatise on the “Sinlessness of Jesus.”--=Isaac Aug. Dorner=, + A.D. 1809-1884, born and educated in Württemberg, latterly + professor in Berlin, applied himself mainly to the elaborating + of Christian doctrine, and gave to the world, in his “Doctrine of + the Person of Christ,” in A.D. 1839, a work of careful historical + research and theological speculation. The fundamental ideas of + his Christology are the theory favoured by the “German” theology + generally of the necessity of the incarnation even apart from sin + (which Müller strongly opposed), and the notion of the archetypal + Christ, the God-Man, as the collective sum of humanity, in whom + “are gathered the patterns of all several individualities.” His + “System of Christian Doctrine” formed the copestone of an almost + fifty years’ academical career. Christ’s virgin birth is admitted + as the condition of the essential union in Him of divinity and + humanity; but the incarnation of the Logos extends through the + whole earthly life of the Redeemer; it is first completed in + his exaltation by means of his resurrection; it was therefore + an operation of the Logos, as principle of all divine movement, + _extra carnem_. His “System of Christian Ethics” was edited + after his death by his son.[535]--=Richard Rothe=, A.D. 1799-1867, + appointed in A.D. 1823 chaplain to the Prussian embassy at Rome, + where he became intimately acquainted with Bunsen. In A.D. 1828 + he was made ephorus at the preachers’ seminary of Wittenberg, + and afterwards professor in Bonn and Heidelberg. Rothe was one + of the most profound thinkers of the century, equalled by none + of his contemporaries in the grasp, depth, and originality of + his speculation. Though influenced by Schleiermacher, Neander, + and Hegel, he for a long time withdrew like an anchoret from the + strife of theologians and philosophers, and took up a position + alongside of Oetinger in the chamber of the theosophists. His + mental and spiritual constitution had indeed much in common with + that great mystic. In his first important work, “_Die Anfänge + der chr. Kirche_,” he gave expression to the idea that in its + perfected form the church becomes merged into the state. The same + thought is elaborated in his “Theological Ethics,” a work which + in depth, originality, and conclusiveness of reasoning is almost + unapproached, and is full of the most profound Christian views + in spite of its many heterodoxies. In his later years he took + part in the ecclesiastical conflicts in Baden (§ 196, 3) with + the _Protestantenverein_ (§ 180, 1), and entered the arena of + public ecclesiastical life.[536]--=Beyschlag= of Halle, in his + “_Christologie d. N. T._,” A.D. 1866, carried out Schleiermacher’s + idea of Christ as only man, not God and man but the ideal of + man, not of two natures but only one, the archetypal human, which, + however, as such is divine, because the complete representation + of the divine nature in the human. From this standpoint, too, + he vindicates the authenticity of John’s Gospel, and from Romans + ix.-xi. works out a “Pauline Theodicy.”--=Hans Lassen Martensen=, + A.D. 1808-1884, professor at Copenhagen, Bishop of Zealand + and primate of Denmark, with high speculative endowments and + a considerable tincture of theosophical mysticism, has become + through his “Christian Dogmatics,” “Christian Ethics,” in three + vols., etc., of a thoroughly Lutheran type, one of the best known + theologians of the century. + + § 182.11. Among =Old Testament exegetes= the most distinguished + are: =Umbreit=, A.D. 1795-1860, of Heidelberg, who wrote from + the supernaturalist standpoint, influenced by Schleiermacher + and Herder, commentaries on Solomon’s writings and those of the + prophets, and on Job; =Bertheau= of Göttingen, of Ewald’s school, + wrote historico-critical and philological commentaries on the + historical books; and =Dillmann=, Hengstenberg’s successor in + Berlin, specially distinguished for his knowledge of the Ethiopic + language and literature, has written critical commentaries on + the Pentateuch and Job.--Among =New Testament exegetes= we may + mention: =Lücke= of Göttingen, known by his commentary on John’s + writings; =Bleek=, the able New Testament critic and commentator + on the Epistle to the Hebrews; =Meyer=, A.D. 1800-1873, most + distinguished of all, whose “Critical and Exegetical Commentary + on the New Testament,” begun in A.D. 1832, in which he was + aided by Huther, Lunemann, and Düsterdieck, is well-known in its + English edition as the most complete exegetical handbook to the + New Testament; =Weiss= of Kiel and Berlin, author of treatises + on the doctrinal systems of Peter and of John, “The Biblical + Theology of the New Testament,” “Life of Christ,” “Introduction + to New Testament,” revises and rewrites commentaries on Mark, + Luke, John, and Romans, in the last edition of the Meyer + series.--A laborious student in the domain of New Testament + textual criticism was =Constant. von Tischendorff [Tischendorf]= + of Leipzig, A.D. 1815-1874, who ransacked all the libraries + of Europe and the East in the prosecution of his work. The + publication of several ancient codices, _e.g._ the _Cod. + Sinaiticus_, a present from the Sinaitic monks to the czar on + the thousandth anniversary of the Russian empire in A.D. 1862, + the _Cod. Vaticanus N.T._, a new edition of the LXX., the most + complete collection of New Testament apocrypha and pseudepigraphs, + and finally a whole series of editions of the New Testament (from + A.D. 1841-1873 there appeared twenty-four editions, of which the + _Editio Octava Major_ of 1872 is the most complete in critical + apparatus), are the rich and ripe fruits of his researches. + A second edition, compared throughout with the recensions of + Tregelles and Westcott and Hort, was published by =Von Gebhardt=, + and a third volume of Prolegomena was added by C. R. Gregory. + As a theologian he attached himself, especially in later years, + to the Lutheranism of his Leipzig colleagues, and on questions + of criticism and introduction took up a strictly conservative + position as seen in his well known tract, “When were our Gospels + written?” + + § 182.12. Among the university teachers of his time =John Tob. + Beck=, A.D. 1804-1878, assumed a position all his own. After + a pastorate of ten years he began in A.D. 1836 his academical + career in Basel, and went in A.D. 1843 to Tübingen, where he + opposed to the teaching of Baur’s school a purely biblical and + positive theology, with a success that exceeded all expectations. + A Württemberger by birth, nature, and training, he quite ignored + the history of the church and its dogmas as well as modern + criticism, and set forth a system of theology drawn from a + theosophical realistic study of the Bible. He took little + interest in the excited movements of his age for home and foreign + missions, union, confederation, and alliances, in questions about + liturgies, constitution, discipline, and confessions, in all + which he saw only the form of godliness without the power. Better + times could be hoped for only as the result of the immediate + interposition of God. His “Pastoral Theology” and “Biblical + Psychology” have been translated into English. + + § 182.13. =The Lutheran Confessional Theology.=--=Sartorius=, + A.D. 1797-1859, from A.D. 1822 professor in Dorpat, then from + A.D. 1835 general superintendent at Königsberg, made fresh and + vigorous attacks upon rationalism, and supported the union as + preserving “the true mean” of Lutheranism. He is best known by + his “Doctrine of Divine Love.” =Rudelbach=,--a Dane by birth and + finally settled in Copenhagen, occupying the same ground, became + a violent opponent of the union.--=Guericke= of Halle, beginning + as a pietist, passed through the union into a rigorous Lutheran, + and joined Rudelbach in editing the journal afterwards conducted + by Luthardt of Leipzig.--Alongside of these older representatives + of Lutheran orthodoxy there arose a =second generation= which + from A.D. 1840 has fallen into several groups. Their divergencies + were mainly on two points: + + 1. On the place and significance of the clerical order, some + viewing it as based on the general priesthood of believers + and resting on the call of the congregation for the orderly + administration of the means of grace, others regarding it + as a divine institution, yet without adopting the Romanizing + and Anglican theory of apostolic succession; and + + 2. On the more important question of biblical prophecy, where + one party maintained the spiritualistic, widely favoured + since the time of Jerome, and another party, attaching + itself to Crusius and Bengel, insisted upon a realistic + interpretation. + + At the head of the =first group=, which maintained the old + Protestant theory of church and office and looked askance + at chiliastic theories, supporting the old doctrines by all + available materials from modern science, stands =Harless=, + A.D. 1806-1879, professor in Erlangen and Leipzig, the chief + ecclesiastical commissioner in Dresden, and finally at Munich. + His theological reputation rests upon his “Commentary on + Ephesians,” A.D. 1835, his “Christian Ethics,” A.D. 1842. + Alongside of him =Thomasius= of Erlangen, A.D. 1802-1875, wrought + in a similar direction.--=Keil=, A.D. 1807-1888, from A.D. 1833 + professor in Dorpat, since A.D. 1858 living retired in Leipzig, + of all Hengstenberg’s students has most faithfully preserved + his master’s exegetical and critical conservatism. He began + in A.D. 1861 in connexion with Delitzsch his “Old Testament + Commentary” on strictly conservative lines. We have an English + translation of that work, and also of his “Introduction to the + Old Testament” and his “Old Testament Archæology.”--=Philippi=, + A.D. 1809-1882, son of Jewish parents, during his academic + career in Dorpat, A.D. 1841-1852, exercised a powerful influence + in securing for strict Lutheranism a very widespread ascendency + among the clergy of Livonia. From A.D. 1852 till his death in + A.D. 1882 he resided in Rostock. As exegete and dogmatist, he + has, like a John Gerhard and Quenstedt of the nineteenth century, + reproduced the Lutheran theology of the seventeenth century, + unmodified by the developments of modern thought. He is known to + English readers by his “Commentary on Romans.” His chief work is + “_Kirchl. Glaubenslehre_,” in six vols.--Alongside of him, and + scarcely less important, stands =Theodosius Harnack=, who went + from Dorpat in A.D. 1853 to Erlangen, but returned to Dorpat + in A.D. 1866, and retired in A.D. 1873. He has written upon + the worship of the church of the post-apostolic age, on Luther’s + theology, and practical theology. + + § 182.14. At the head of the =second group=, characterized + by a decided biblical realism and inclined to a biblical + chiliasm, stands =Von Hofmann= of Erlangen, A.D. 1810-1877, whose + “_Weissagung und Erfüllung_,” 1841, represents the very antipodes + of Hengstenberg’s view of the Old Testament, placing history and + prophecy in vital relation to one another, and studying prophecy + in its historical setting. In his “_Schriftbeweis_” we have + an entirely new system of doctrine drawn from Scripture, the + doctrine of the atonement being set forth in quite a different + form from that generally approved, but vindicated by its author + against Philippi as “a new way of teaching old truth.” In his + commentary on the New Testament, he takes up a conservative + position on questions of criticism and introduction.--=Franz + Delitzsch=, in Rostock, A.D. 1846, Erlangen, A.D. 1850, + in Leipzig since A.D. 1867, more intimately acquainted with + rabbinical literature than any other Christian theologian, became + an enthusiastic adherent of Hofmann’s position. His theology, + however, has a more decidedly theosophical tendency, while + his critical attitude is more liberal. He is well known by his + “Biblical Psychology,” commentary on Psalms, Isaiah, Solomon’s + writings, Job, Hebrews, and a new commentary on Genesis in + which he accepts many of the positions of the advanced school + of biblical criticism.--=Luthardt= of Leipzig in the domain of + New Testament exegesis and dogmatics works from the standpoint of + Hofmann. His “Commentary on John’s Gospel,” “Authorship of Fourth + Gospel,” and “Apologetical Lectures on the Fundamental, Saving + and Moral Truths of Christianity,” are well known.--Hofmann’s + conception of Old Testament doctrine is admirably carried out + by =Oehler=, A.D. 1812-1872, with learning and speculative + power, in his “Theology of the Old Testament,” and in various + important monographs on Old Testament doctrines.--The most + important representatives of the =third group=, which strongly + emphasizes the extreme Lutheran theory of the church and office, + are =Kliefoth= of Schwerin, liturgist and biblical commentator; + and =Vilmar=, who opened his academic career at Marburg, in + 1856, with a controversial programme entitled “The Theology + of Facts against the Theology of Rhetoric.” Vilmar’s lectures, + able, though sketchy and incomplete, were published after his + death in A.D. 1868 by some of his disciples. To the same school + belonged =Von Zezschwitz= of Erlangen, A.D. 1825-1886, whose + “_Catechetics_” is a treasury of solid learning. + + § 182.15. Among Lutheran theologians taking little or nothing to + do with these controversial questions, =Kahnis=, A.D. 1814-1888, + from A.D. 1850 professor at Leipzig, occupied a strict Lutheran + confessional standpoint, diverging only in the adoption of a + subordinationist doctrine on the person of Christ, a Sabellian + theory of the Trinity, and a theory of the Lord’s supper in + some points differing from that of the strict Lutherans. His + historical sketches are vigorous and lively.--=Zöckler= of + Giessen and Greifswald has made important contributions to + church history, exegesis, and dogmatics, and especially to the + theory and history of natural theology. In 1886 he began the + publication of a short biblical commentary contributed to by the + most distinguished positive theologians, he himself editing the + New Testament and Strack the Old Testament. It is to be in twelve + vols., and is being translated into English.--=Von Oetingen= + of Dorpat has devoted himself to social problems and moral + statistics.--=Frank= of Erlangen has proved a powerful apologist + for old Lutheranism, and in his “System of Christian Evidence” + has introduced a new branch of theology, in which the subjective + Christian certitude which the believer has with his faith is + made the basis of the scientific exposition of the truth set + forth in his “System of Christian Truth,” a thoughtful and + speculative treatise on doctrine, followed by “The System + of Christian Morals” as the conclusion of his theological + work.--Lutheran theology had also zealous representatives in + several distinguished jurists: =Göschel=, president of the + consistory of Magdeburg, who wrote against Strauss, sought + to derive profound Christian teaching from Goethe and Dante, + and wrote on the last things, and on man in respect of body, + soul, and spirit; =Stahl=, A.D. 1802-1861, professor of law at + Erlangen and Berlin, leader since A.D. 1849 of the high-church + aristocratic reactionary party in the Prussian chamber, supported + his views by reference to the Scripture doctrine of the divine + origin of magisterial authority. + + § 182.16. As zealous representatives of =Reformed + Confessionalism= who set aside the dogma of predestination + and so show no antagonism to the union, may be named: =Heppe=, + opponent of Vilmar in Marburg, who devoted much of his career + as a historian to the undermining of Lutheranism, then wrought + upon the histories of provincial churches, of Catholic mysticism + and pietism, etc.; and =Ebrard=, A.D. 1818-1887, a brilliant + believing theologian who combated rationalism and Catholicism, + professor from A.D. 1847 of Reformed theology at Erlangen, known + by his “Gospel History: a Compendium of Critical Investigations + in Support of the Historical Church of the Four Gospels,” his + “Apologetics,” in 3 vols., “Commentary on Hebrews,” etc. + + § 182.17. =The Free Protestant Theology.=--This school originated + in the left wing of Schleiermacher’s following, and has as its + literary organs, Hilgenfeld’s _Zeitschrift_ and the _Jahrbücher + für prot. Theologie_.--The distinguished statesman, =Von Bunsen=, + A.D. 1791-1860, ambassador at Rome and afterwards at London, at + first stood at the head of the revival of the church interests + and life; but in his “Church of the Future,” conceived a + constitutional idea on a democratic basis, for which he sought + support in historical studies on the Ignatian age, etc., and + the historical refutation of the orthodox Christology and + trinitarianism. His elaborate work on “Egypt’s Place in the + World’s History,” full of arbitrary criticism, negative and + positive, on the chronological and historical data of the + Old Testament, seeks to show that, by restoring the Egyptian + chronology, we for the first time make the Bible history fit + into general history. “The Signs of the Times” comprise glowing + philippics against the hierarchical pretensions of Papists + and even more dangerous Lutherans, insists on Scripture being + translated out of the Semitic into the Japhetic mode of speech, + to which end he devoted his last great works, “God in History” + and his “Bible Commentary,” the latter finished after his + death by Kamphausen and Holtzmann.--=Schenkel=, A.D. 1813-1885, + professor at Heidelberg from A.D. 1851 till his resignation in + A.D. 1884, from the right wing of the mediating school, through + unionism and Melanchthonianism advanced to the standpoint of his + “_Charakterbild Jesu_,” which strips Christ of all supernatural + features, yet proclaims him the redeemer of the world, and + strives to save his resurrection as a historical and saving + truth, and explains his appearances after the resurrection as + “real manifestations of the personality living and glorified + after death.” In later years he sought to draw yet more + closely to positive Christianity. =Keim= of Zürich and Giessen, + A.D. 1825-1878, the ablest of all recent historians of the + life of Jesus, and with all his radicalism preserving some + conservative tendencies, is best known by his “Jesus of Nazareth,” + in six vols.--=Holtzmann= of Heidelberg and Strassburg, passed + from the mediating school over to that of Tübingen, from which in + important points he has now departed.--To the same rank belongs + =Hausrath= of Heidelberg, whose “History of the New Testament + Times” is well known. Under the pseudonym of George Taylor he + has composed several highly successful historical romances.--The + organs of this school are Hilgenfeld’s _Zeitschrift_, and since + 1875 the Jena “_Jahrbücher für protest. Theologie_.” + + § 182.18. =In the Old Testament Department= a liberal critical + school has arisen which has reversed the old relation of “the law + and the prophets,” treating the origin of the law as post-exilian, + and as in not coming at the beginning, but at the end of the + Jewish history. =Reuss=, whose “History of the New Testament + Books” marked an epoch in New Testament introduction, was the + first who moved in this direction, in his lectures begun at + Strassburg in A.D. 1834, the results of which are given us in + his “History of the Theology of the Apostolic Age” and in his + “History of the Canon.” Meanwhile =Vatke= of Berlin had, in + A.D. 1835, undertaken to prove that the patriarchal religion was + pure Semitic nature worship, and that the prophets were the first + to raise it into a monotheistic Jehovism. Little success attended + his efforts. Greater results were obtained by Reuss’ two pupils, + =Graf= in A.D. 1866, and =Kayser= in A.D. 1874. The most brilliant + exposition of this theory was given by =Julius Wellhausen= + of Greifswald, transferred in A.D. 1882 to the Philosophical + Faculty of Halle, in his “History of Israel.” In his “Prolegomena + to History of Israel,” and article “Israel” in “_Encyclopædia + Britannica_,” he gives expression with clearness and force to + his radical negative criticism, and develops a purely naturalist + conception of the Old Testament. Professor Kuenen of Leyden + transplanted these views to the Netherlands, and Robertson Smith + has introduced them into Scotland and England, while in Germany + they are taught by a number of the younger teachers, Stade in + Giessen, Merx in Heidelberg, Smend in Basel, etc. And now at last + in A.D. 1882 the venerable master of the school, =Edward Reuss=, + has himself in his “_Geschichte d. h. Schr. d. A. Test._” given a + brilliant and in many points modified exposition of these radical + theories. The history of Israel, according to him, divides itself + into the four successive periods of the heroes, of the prophets, + of the priests, and of the scribes, characterized respectively + by individualism, idealism, formalism, and traditionalism. Even + before the close of prophetism the priestly influence began + to assert itself, but it was only in the post-exilian period + under the domination of the priests that the construction and + codification of the law began to make impression on the Jewish + people. So too in the age of the kings there existed a Levitical + tradition about rites and worship, which traced back its first + outlines to the time of Moses, though at this period there could + have been no written official codex of any kind. In regard to + Moses, we are to think not only of his person as historical, + but also of his career as that of a man inspired by the + divine spirit and recognised as such by his contemporaries and + fellow-countrymen.--Also =Wellhausen=, who has hitherto concerned + himself only with the critical introduction to the Old Testament + books, not with their historical or theological interpretation, + supplied this defect to some extent by his “Prolegomena to the + History of Israel.” He admits that much of the history of Israel + related in the Old Testament is credible. He even goes so far as + to allow that this history was a preparation and forerunner of + Christianity, but without miracle and prophecy, and without any + immediate interposition of God in the affairs of Israel. + + § 182.19. Among the most distinguished free-thinking =dogmatists= + of recent times, =Biedermann= of Zürich, A.D. 1819-1885, + has occupied the most advanced position. His principal work, + “_Christliche Dogmatik_,” A.D. 1869, defined God and the origin + of the world as the self-development of the Absolute Idea + according to the Hegelian scheme, recognises in the person of + Christ the first realization of the Christian principle of the + divine sonship in a personal life, then proceeds with free + exposition of the Scripture and church doctrines, and combats + openly the doctrines of the church and through them also those + of Scripture, as setting religion purely in the domain of the + imagination.--=Lipsius= of Leipzig, Kiel, and Jena, in his + earliest treatise on the Pauline Doctrine of Justification in + A.D. 1853, held the position of the mediating theology, but under + the influence of Kant, Hegel, and Baur has been led to adopt + the standpoint of the “Free Protestant” school. His history of + gnosticism and his researches in early apocryphal literature + are important contributions to our knowledge of primitive + Christianity. His “_Lehrbuch d. ev. prot. Dogmatik_,” 1876, + 2nd ed., 1879, on the basis of Kant and Schleiermacher, fixing + the limits of science with the former, and maintaining with the + latter the necessity of religious faith and life, not rejecting + metaphysics generally, but only its speculations on God and + divine things lying quite outside of human experience, seeks + from the common faith of the Christian church of all ages, as + it is expressed in the Scriptures and in the confessions, by + the application of the freest subjective criticism of the letter + of revelation, to secure a theory of the world in harmony with + modern views.--=Pfleiderer=, Twesten’s successor in Berlin, + in his “Paulinism,” “Influence of Paul on Development of + Christianity” and “History of the Philosophy of Religion,” + occupies more the Hegelian speculative standpoint than that + of Kantian criticism. + + § 182.20. =Ritschl and his School.=--=Ritschl=, 1822-1889, from + A.D. 1846 in Bonn, from A.D. 1864 in Göttingen, on his withdrawal + from the Tübingen party, applied himself to dogmatic studies + and founded a school, the adherents of which, divided into + right and left wings, have secured quite a number of academical + appointments. After the completion of his great dogmatic work + on “Justification and Reconciliation,” Ritschl resumed his + historical studies in a “History of Pietism,” which he traces + back through the persecuted anabaptists of the Reformation age + to the Tertiaries of the Franciscan order and the mysticism + of St. Bernard. He earnestly maintains his adherence to the + confessions of the Lutheran church, and regards it as the task + of his life to disentangle the pure Lutheran doctrine from the + accretions of scholastic metaphysics. Even more decidedly than + Schleiermacher, he banishes all philosophy from the domain of + theology. The grand significance of Kant’s doctrine of knowledge, + with its assertion of the incomprehensibility of all transcendent + truth except the ethical postulates of God, freedom and + immortality, as set forth in a more profound manner by Lotze, + is indeed admitted, but only as a methodological basis of all + religious inquiries, and with determined rejection of every + material support from Kant’s construction of religion within the + limits of the pure reason. Ritschl rather pronounces in favour + of the formal principle of Protestantism, and declares distinctly + that all religious truth must be drawn directly from Scripture, + primarily from the New Testament as the witness of the early + church uncorrupted by the Platonic-Aristotelian metaphysic, but + also secondarily from the Old Testament as the record of the + content of revelation made to the religious community of Israel. + The truthfulness of the biblical, especially of the New Testament, + system of truth, rests, however, not on any theory of inspiration, + but on its being an authentic statement of the early church of + the doctrine of Christ, inasmuch as to this witness the necessary + degree of _fides humana_ belongs. Ritschl’s Christology rests on + the witness of Christ to himself in the synoptists, through which + he proclaims himself the one prophet who in the divine purpose + of grace for mankind has received perfect consecration, sent by + God into the world to represent the founding of the kingdom of + God on earth foreshadowed in the Old Testament revelation; but + no attempt is made to explain how Christ became possessed of + the secrets of the divine decree. To him, as the first and only + begotten Son of God, standing in essential union with the Father, + belongs the attribute of deity and the right of worship. But of + an eternal pre-existence of Christ we can speak only in so far + as this is meant of the eternal gracious purpose of God to redeem + the world through him by means of the complete unfolding of the + kingdom of God in the fellowship of love. Whatever goes beyond + this in the fourth gospel, its Johannine authenticity not being + otherwise contested, as well as in Paul’s epistles and in the + Epistle to the Hebrews, resulted from the necessity felt by their + writers for assigning a sufficient reason for the assumption of + such incomparable glory on the part of Christ. As the archetype + of humanity destined for the kingdom of God, Christ is the + original object of the divine love, so that the love of God to + the members of his kingdom comes to them only through him. And + as the earthly founding, so also the heavenly completion, of + the kingdom of God is assigned to Christ, and hence after his + resurrection all power was given to him, of the transcendent + exercise of which, however, we can know nothing. The universality + of human sin is admitted by Ritschl as a fact of experience, + but he despairs of reaching any dogmatic statement as to the + origin of sin through the temptation of a superhuman evil + power. But that sin is inherited and as original guilt is + under the condemnation of God, is not taught or pre-supposed + by the teaching either of Christ or of the apostles. Redemption + (reconciliation and justification) consists in the forgiveness of + sins, by which the guilt that estranges from God is removed and + the sinner is restored into the fellowship of the kingdom of God. + Forgiveness, however, is not given on condition of the vicarious + penal sufferings of Christ, whose sufferings and death are of + significance rather because his life and works were a complete + fulfilment of his calling, and witnessed to as such by God’s + raising him from the dead. Justification secures the reception + of the penitent sinner into the fellowship of the kingdom of + God, preached and perfectly developed by Christ, and the sonship + enjoyed in its membership, prefigured in Christ himself, which + contains in itself the desire as well as the capacity to do good + works out of love to God.--The school of Ritschl is represented + in Göttingen by its founder and by =Schultz= and =Wendt=, + in Marburg by =Herrmann=, in Bonn by =Bender=, in Giessen by + =Gottschick= and =Kattenbusch=, in Strassburg by =Lobstein=, + in Basel by =Kaftan=, formerly of Berlin.[537] + + § 182.21. Opponents and critics of the school of Ritschl, + especially from the confessional Lutheran ranks, have appeared in + considerable numbers. Luthardt of Leipzig in A.D. 1878 opened the + campaign against Ritschilianism, followed by Bestmann, charging + it with undermining Christianity. The Hanoverian synod of + A.D. 1882 decided by a large majority that the scientific results + of theological science must be ruled by the confessions of the + evangelical church. The chief theme at the following Hanoverian + Pentecost Conference was the “Incarnation of the Son of God,” the + discussion being led by Professor Dieckhoff of Rostock, against + whom no voice was raised in favour of the views of Ritschl. + Not long after, Professor Fricke of Leipzig published a lecture + given by him at the Meissen Conference, on the Present Relations + of Metaphysics and Theology, followed by utterances of Kübel of + Tübingen, Grau of Königsberg, Kreibig and H. Schmidt at Berlin, + all unfavourable to Ritschl’s theology.--The main objections + are, according to =Bestmann=: idolatry of Kant, depreciation + of the religious factor in Christianity in favour of the ethical + by laying out a moral foreground without providing a dogmatic + background, reducing the objective fundamental truths of the + confession into subjective ethical ideas, etc.; according to + =Luthardt=: Ritschl’s position that it does not matter so much + what the facts of the Christian faith are in themselves, as what + they mean for us, makes his whole dogmatic system hang in the + air, if in Christianity we have to do not with what God, Christ, + the resurrection are, but only what significance we attach to + them, Christianity is stript of all importance, the significance + of a thing must have its foundation in the thing itself, etc.; + according to =Dieckhoff=: Ritschl on his accepting the divinity + of Christ lays down the rule that the special content of what is + meant by the term divinity must be transferable to the believer, + and so for Ritschl, Christ is a mere man who in his person was + the first to represent a relation to God which is destined for + all men in like measure, etc.; according to =Fricke=: new Kantian + scepticism with regard to ideals and transcendentals, reducing + religious elements to moral, with Ritschl’s removal of all + metaphysical facts the chief verities of our Christian faith + are taken away, at least in the scientific form in which we have + them, _e.g._ the doctrine of the Trinity, our Christology, our + theory of satisfaction, in place of which comes the Catholic + _justitia infusa_, etc.; according to =Münchmayer=: “the object + of justification with Ritschl is not the individual but the + community, it is no act of God upon the individual but an eternal + purpose of God for the community, its effect on the individual + is not objective divine forgiveness of guilt but a subjective act + of incorporation of the individual into the redeemed community; + Christ and his work are not the ground of justification, + but only the means of revealing the eternal justifying will + of God, and therefore finally a continuation of the historical + work of Christ by means of his church takes the place of the + personal intercession of the exalted Redeemer for the penitent + sinner.” Kreibig and Schmidt express themselves in a similar + manner.--Ritschl has not himself undertaken any reply, but + his disciples have sought to remove what they regard as + misunderstandings, and generally to vindicate the system of + their master. + + § 182.22. =Writers on Constitutional Law and History.=--The most + distinguished writers on the constitutional law of the church + are Eichhorn and Dove of Göttingen, Jacobsen of Königsberg, + Wasserschleben of Giessen, Richter and Hinschius of Berlin, + Friedberg of Leipzig, who belong to the unionist party; while + Bickell of Marburg, Mejer of Göttingen and Hanover, Von Scheuerl + of Erlangen, and Sohm of Strassburg belong to the confessional + Lutherans.--Of ecclesiastical historians (§ 5, 4, 5) the number + is so great that we cannot even enumerate their names.--The + “_Theologische Literaturzeitung_” of Schürer and Harnack + is a liberal scientific journal, distinguished for its fair + criticisms by writers whose names are given. + + + § 183. HOME MISSIONS. + + In regard to home mission work, the Protestant church long lagged +behind the Catholic, which had wrought vigorously through its monkish +orders. England first entered with zeal into the field, especially +dissenters and members of the low church party, and subsequently also +the high church ritualistic party (§ 202, 1, 3), which now takes an +active interest in this work. Germany, in view of the scanty means at +the disposal of the pietists and the church party, made noble efforts. +In other continental countries, but especially in North America, much +was done for home missions. Soon the whole Protestant world began +to organize benevolent and evangelistic institutions. The laborious +Wichern, in A.D. 1849, went through all Germany to arouse interest +in home missions, and started a yearly congress on the subject in +Wittenberg. Till his death in A.D. 1881, Wichern continued to direct +this congress and further the interests which it represented. + + § 183.1. =Institutions.=--The earliest charity school was that + founded at Düsselthal by Count Recke-Volmarstein, in A.D. 1816, + followed by Zeller’s at Beuggen in A.D. 1820. One of the most + famous of these institutions was the =Rauhe Haus= of Wichern, + at Horn, near Hamburg, A.D. 1833.[538] Fliedner’s Deaconess + Institute at Kaiserswerth is the pride of the evangelical church. + It has now 190 branches, with 625 sisters, in the four continents. + There are many independent institutions modelled upon it in + Germany, England, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, and France. + In A.D. 1881 there were in Germany 31, and in the cities of other + lands 22, principal deaconess institutions of this German order, + with 4,751 sisters and 1,491 fields of labour outside of the + institution. The original institute of Kaiserswerth comprises + a hospital with 600 patients, a refuge for fallen women and + liberated prisoners, an orphanage for girls, a seminary for + governesses, and a home for female imbeciles.[539] Löhe founded + the deaconess institute of =Neuendettelsau=, on strict Lutheran + principles, with hospital, girls’ school, and asylum for imbecile + children. In France a most successful institution was founded by + pastor Bost of Laforce, in A.D. 1848, for foundlings, imbeciles, + and epileptics. In England, George Müller, a poor German student + of Halle, a pupil of Tholuck, beginning in A.D. 1832, founded at + Bristol five richly endowed orphanages after the pattern of that + of A. H. Francke, in which thousands of destitute street children + have been educated, and for this and other purposes has spent + nearly £1,000,000 without ever asking any one for a contribution, + acting on the belief that “the God of Elijah still lives.” + The London City Mission employs 600 missionaries. In New York, + since A.D. 1855, about 60,000 street children have been placed, + by the Society for Poor Children, in Christian families, and + 21 Industrial schools are maintained with 10,000 scholars.--Tract + Societies in London, Hamburg, Berlin, etc., send out millions + of tracts for Christian instruction and awakening. The Society + for North Germany successfully pursues a similar work; the Calw + Publication Society circulates Christian text-books with woodcuts + at a remarkably small price. In Berlin the Evangelical Book + Society issues reprints of the older tracts on practical divinity. + Christian women, like the English Quakeress Elizabeth Fry, the + noble Amalie Sieveking of Hamburg, Miss Florence Nightingale, the + heroine of the Crimean war, and the brave Maria Simon of Dresden, + who organized the female nursing corps of the wars of 1866, + 1870, 1871, helped on the work of home missions in all lands, + especially in the departments of tending the poor and the sick. + + § 183.2. The =Order of St. John=, secularized in A.D. 1810, + was reorganized by Frederick William IV. in A.D. 1852 into + an association for the care of the sick and poor. Under a + grand-master it has 350 members and 1,500 associates. Its + revenues are formed from entrance fees and annual contributions. + It has thirty hospitals. In A.D. 1861 it founded a hospital for + men in Beyrout during the persecution of Christians in Syria, and + in A.D. 1868 gave aid during the famine that followed the typhus + epidemic in East Prussia, and did noble service in the wars of + A.D. 1864, 1866, and 1870. + + § 183.3. =The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in + Württemberg.=--Abandoning his charge in A.D. 1840, Werner began + his itinerant labours, and during the year formed more than a + hundred groups of adherents over all Württemberg. His preaching + was allegorical and eschatological, and avoided the doctrines of + satisfaction and justification. On his repudiating the Augsburg + Confession, the church boards refused to recognise him, and + he went hither and thither preaching a Christian communism. In + A.D. 1842 he bought a site in Reutlingen, built a house, and + founded a school for eighty children. In order to develop his + views of carrying on industrial arts on a Christian basis, he + bought, in A.D. 1850, the paper factory at Reutlingen for £4,000, + and subsequently transferred it to Dettingen on a larger scale, + at an outlay of £20,000. By A.D. 1862 he had established no less + than twenty-two branches, in which manufacturing was carried + on, with institutions of all kinds for education, pastoral work, + rescuing the lost and raising the fallen. Each member lives and + works for the whole; none receives wages; surplus income goes + to increase the number and extent of the institutions. Vast + multitudes of sunken and destitute families have been by these + means restored to respectable social positions and to a moral + religious life. + + § 183.4. =Bible Societies.=--The Bible societies constitute + an independent branch of the home mission. Modern efforts to + circulate Scripture began in England. As a necessary adjunct to + missionary societies, the great British and Foreign Bible Society + was founded in London in A.D. 1804, embracing all Protestant + sects, excepting the Quakers. It circulates Bibles without note + or comment. The Apocryphal controversy of A.D. 1825-1827 resulted + in the society resolving not to print the Apocrypha in its + issues. In consequence of this decision, fifty German societies, + including the present society of Berlin, seceded. The New York + Association, founded in A.D. 1817, is in thorough accord with + the London society. The Baden Missionary Society revived the + discussion in A.D. 1852 by making it the subject of essay + for a prize, which was won by the learned work of Keerl, who, + along with the stricter Lutherans, condemned the Apocrypha. + The other side was taken by Stier and Hengstenberg, and most + of the consistories advised adherence to the old practice, + as all misunderstanding was prevented by Luther’s preface and + the prohibition against using passages from the Apocrypha as + sermon texts.--Bible societies altogether have issued during + the century 180,000,000 Bibles and New Testaments in 324 + different languages.[540] + + + § 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. + + Protestant zeal for missions to the heathen has gone on advancing +since the end of last century (§ 172, 5). Missionary societies increase +from year to year. In A.D. 1883 there were seventy independent societies +with innumerable branches, which contribute annually about £1,500,000, +or five times as much as the Romish church, and maintain 2,000 mission +stations, 2,940 European and American missionaries, and 1,000 ordained +native pastors and 25,000 native teachers and assistants, having under +their care 2,214,000 converts from heathenism. In missionary enterprise +England holds the first place, next comes America, and then Germany. +Among Protestant sects the Methodists and Baptists are most zealous +in the cause of missions, and the Moravian Brethren have wrought +most successfully in this department. The missions also did much to +prepare the way for the suppression of the slave trade by the European +powers in A.D. 1830, and the emancipation of all slaves in the British +possessions in A.D. 1834, at a cost of £20,000,000. The noble English +philanthropist, William Wilberforce, unweariedly laboured for these +ends.--Also in England, Germany, Russia, and France new associations +were formed for missions to the Jews, and the work was carried on with +admirable patience, though the visible results were very small. + + § 184.1. =Missionary Societies.=--The great American Missionary + Society was founded at Boston in A.D. 1810, the English Wesleyan + in A.D. 1814, the American Methodist in A.D. 1819, the American + Episcopal in A.D. 1820, and the Society of Paris in A.D. 1824. + The new German societies were on confessional lines: that of + Basel in A.D. 1816, of Berlin in A.D. 1823, the Rhenish with the + mission seminary at Barmen in A.D. 1829, the North German, on + the basis of the Augsburg Confession, in A.D. 1836. The Dresden + Society, which resumed the old Lutheran work in the East Indies + (§ 167, 9), founded a seminary at Leipzig in A.D. 1849, in order + to get the benefit of the university. Lutheran societies, mostly + affiliated with that of Leipzig, were started in Sweden, Denmark, + Norway, Russia, Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Hesse, and America. + The Neuendettelsau Institute wrought through the Iowa Synod among + the North American Indians, and through the Immanuel Synod among + the aborigines of Australia. The Hermannsburg Institute under + Harms prosecuted mission work with great zeal. In A.D. 1853, + Harms sent out in his own mission ship eight missionaries and as + many Christian colonists. It has been objected to this mission, + that endeavours after social elevation and industrial training + have driven to the background the main question of individual + conversion.--The advanced liberal school in Switzerland and + Germany sought in A.D. 1883 to start a mission on their own + particular lines. They do not propose any opposition to existing + agencies, and intend to make their first experiment among the + civilized races of India and Japan. + + § 184.2. =Europe and America.=--The Swedish mission in Lapland + (§ 160, 7) was resumed in A.D. 1825 by Stockfleth. The Moravians + carried on their work among the Eskimos in Greenland, which had + now become a wholly Christian country, and also in Labrador, + which was almost in the same condition. The chaplain of the + Hudson Bay Company, J. West, founded a successful mission in + that territory in A.D. 1822. Among the natives and negro slaves + in the British possessions, the United States, and West Indies, + Moravians, Methodists, Baptists, and Anglican Episcopalians + patiently and successfully carried on the work. Among the natives + and bush negroes, descendants of runaway slaves, in Guiana, the + Moravians did a noble work.--Catholic South America remained + closed against Protestant missions. But the ardent zeal of + Capt. Allen Gardiner led him to choose the inhospitable shores of + Patagonia as a field of labour. He landed there in A.D. 1850 with + five missionaries, but in the following year their corpses only + were found. The work, however, was started anew in A.D. 1856, and + prosecuted with success under the direction of an Anglican bishop. + + § 184.3. =Africa.=--The Moravians have laboured among the + Hottentots, the Berlin missionaries among the wild Corannas, + and the French Evangelical Society among the Bechuanas. Hahn + of Livonia is the apostle of the Hereros. On the East Coast the + London Missionary Society has wrought among the warlike Kaffirs, + and other British societies are labouring in Natal among the + Zulus. On the West Coast the English colony of Sierra Leone was + founded for the settling and Christianizing of liberated slaves, + and farther south is Liberia, a similar American colony; both in + a flourishing condition, under the care of Methodists, Baptists, + and Anglican Episcopalians. The Basel missionaries labour on the + Gold Coast, Baptists in Old Calabar, and the American and North + German Societies on the Gaboon River.--The London missionaries + won Radama of Madagascar to Christianity in A.D. 1818, but his + successor Ranavalona instituted a bloody persecution of the + Christians in A.D. 1835, during which David Jones, the apostle + of the Malagassy, suffered martyrdom in A.D. 1843. In the island + of Mauritius, where there is an Anglican bishop, many Malagassy + Christians found refuge. After the queen’s death in A.D. 1861, + her Christian son Radama II. recalled the Christian exiles + and the missionaries. He soon became the victim of a palace + revolution. His wife and successor Rosaherina continued a heathen + till her death in A.D. 1868, but put no obstacle in the way of + the gospel. But her cousin Ranavalona II. overthrew the idol + worship, was baptized in A.D. 1869, and in the following year + burned the national idols. Protestantism now made rapid strides, + till interrupted by French Jesuit intrigues, which have been + favoured by the recent French occupation. + + § 184.4. Livingstone and Stanley have made marvellous + contributions to our geographical knowledge of =Central Africa= + and to Christian missions there. The Scottish missionary, David + Livingstone, factory boy, afterwards physician and minister, + wrought, A.D. 1840-1849, under the London Missionary Society in + South Africa, and then entered on his life work of exploration + in Central Africa. During his third exploring journey into the + interior in A.D. 1865 as a British consul, he was not heard of + for a whole year. H. M. Stanley, of the _New York Herald_, was + sent in A.D. 1871, and found him in Ujiji on Lake Tanganyiká. + Livingstone died of dysentery on the southern bank of this lake + in A.D. 1873. Still more important was Stanley’s second journey, + A.D. 1874-1877, which yielded the most brilliant scientific + results, and was epoch-making in the history of African missions. + He got the greatest potentate in those regions, King Mtesa of + Uganda, who had been converted by the Arabs to Mohammedanism, to + adopt Christianity and permit a Christian church to be built in + his city. Stanley’s letters from Africa roused missionary fervour + throughout England. The Church Missionary Society in A.D. 1877 + set up a mission station in the capital, and put a steamer + on the Victoria Nyanza. The church services were regularly + attended, education and the work of civilization zealously + prosecuted, Sunday labour and the slave trade prohibited, etc. + French Jesuits entered in A.D. 1879, insinuating suspicions + of the English missionaries into the ear of the king, and the + machinations of the Arab slave-dealers made their position + dangerous. Missionaries arrived by way of Egypt with flattering + recommendations from the English foreign secretary in the name + of the queen. But the traders, by means of an Arabic translation + of a letter purporting to be from the English consul at Zanzibar, + cast suspicion on the document as a forgery, and represented its + bearers as in the pay of the hostile Egyptians. Mtesa’s wrath + knew no bounds, and only his favour for the missionary physician + saved the mission and led him to send an embassy of three chiefs + and two missionaries to England in June, A.D. 1879, to discover + the actual truth. His anger meanwhile cooled, and the work of + the mission was resumed. He was preparing to put an utter end + to the national heathenism, when suddenly a report spread that + the greatest of all the Lubaris or inferior deities, that of + the Nyanza Lake, had become incarnate in an old woman, in order + to heal the king and restore the ancient religion. The whole + populace was in an uproar; Mtesa, under threat of deposition, + restored heathenism, with human sacrifice, man stealing, and the + slave trade. Then the Lubari excitement cooled down. Mtesa, moved + by a dream, declared himself again a Mohammedan, and converted + the Christian church into a mosque. The English missionaries, + stripped of all means, starved, and subjected to all sorts of + privations, did not flinch. At last, in January, A.D. 1881, + the embassy, sent eighteen months before to England, reached + home again, and, by the story of their reception, caused a + revulsion of feeling in favour of the English mission, which + again flourished under the protection of the king. But Mtesa died + in 1884. His son and successor, Mwanga, a suspicious, peevish + young despot, addicted to all forms of vice, began again the + most cruel persecution, of which Bishop Hannington, sent out + from England, with fifty companions, were the victims. Only + four escaped. + + § 184.5. =Asia.=--The most important mission field in + Asia is =India=. The old Lutheran mission there had great + difficulties to contend against: the system of caste distinctions, + the proud self-sufficiency of the pantheistic Brahmans, the + politico-commercial interests of the East India Company, etc. + The Leipzig Society has sixteen stations among the Tamuls, and + alongside are English, American, and German missionaries of + every school. The Gossner Society works among the Kohls of Chota + Nagpore, where a rival mission has been started by the puseyite + bishop of Calcutta, Dr. Milman, to which, in A.D. 1868, six + of the twelve German missionaries and twelve of the thirty-six + chapels were transferred. The Basel missionaries labour in Canara + and Malabar. The military revolt in Northern India in A.D. 1857 + interrupted missionary operations for two years; but the work was + afterwards resumed with great vigour. The Christian benevolence + shown during the famine of A.D. 1878, in which three millions + perished, made a great impression in favour of the Protestant + church. In the preceding years throughout all India only between + 5,000 and 10, 000 souls were annually added; but in A.D. 1878 the + number of new converts rose to 100,000, and in A.D. 1879 there + were 44,000.--The island of =Ceylon= was, under Portuguese and + Dutch rule, in great part nominally Christianized; but when + compulsion was removed under British rule, this sham profession + was at an end. Multitudes fell back into heathenism, and in the + first ten years of the British dominion 900 new idol temples + were erected. From A.D. 1812 Baptist, Methodist, and Anglican + missionaries have toiled with small appearance of fruit. In + =Farther India= the American missionaries have wrought since + A.D. 1813. Judson and his heroic wife did noble work among the + Karens and the Burmans. Also in Malacca, Singapore, and Siam + the Protestant missions have had brilliant success. The work in + Sumatra has been retarded by the opposition of the Malays and + deadly malarial fever. The preaching of the gospel was eminently + successful in =Java=, where since A.D. 1814 Baptist missionaries + and agents of the London Society have wrought heroically. + In Celebes the Dutch missionaries found twenty Christian + congregations of old standing, greatly deteriorated for want + of pastoral care, but still using the Heidelberg Catechism. At + Banjermassin, in A.D. 1835 the Rhenish Society founded their + first station in Borneo, and wrought not unsuccessfully among + the heathen Dyaks. But in A.D. 1859 a rebellion of the Mohammedan + residents led to the expulsion of the Dutch and the murder of all + Christians. Only a few of the missionaries escaped martyrdom, and + subsequently settled in Sumatra. + + § 184.6. The work in =China= began in A.D. 1807, when the London + Missionary Society settled Morrison in Canton, where he began the + study of the language and the translation of the Bible. Gutzlaff + of Pomerania, in A.D. 1826, conceived the plan of evangelizing + China through the Chinese converts, but, though he continued his + efforts till his death in A.D. 1854, the scheme failed through + the unworthiness of many of the professors. The war against the + opium traffic, A.D. 1839-1842, opened five ports to the mission, + and led to the transference of Hongkong to the English. The + Chinese mission now made rapid strides; but the interior was + still untouched. The conflict between the governor of Canton + and the English, French, and Americans, and the chastisement + administered to the Chinese in A.D. 1857, led the emperor, in + A.D. 1858, to make a treaty with the three powers and also with + Russia, by which the whole land was opened up for trade and + missions, and full toleration granted to Christianity. Popular + hatred of strangers, and especially of missionaries, however, + occasioned frequently bloody encounters, and in A.D. 1870 there + was a furious outburst directed against the French missionaries. + During a terrible famine in North China, in A.D. 1878, when more + than five millions perished, the heroic and self-sacrificing + conduct of the missionaries brought them into high favour. + Throughout China there are now 320 organized Christian + congregations with 50,000 adherents under 238 foreign + missionaries.--After seclusion for three centuries, =Japan=, + about the same time as China, was opened by treaty to European + and American commerce, notwithstanding the opposition of the + old feudal nobility, the so-called Daimios. In A.D. 1871 the + mikado’s government succeeded in overcoming completely the power + of the daimios and setting aside the shiogun or military vizier, + who had exercised supreme executive power. European customs were + introduced, but the rigorous enactments against native converts + to Christianity were still enforced. A cruel persecution + of native Christians was carried on in A.D. 1867, but the + Protestant missionaries continued to work unweariedly, preparing + dictionaries and reading books. The Buddhist priests sought + to get up a rival mission to send agents to America and Europe, + whereas many of the leading newspapers expressed the opinion that + Japan must soon put Christianity in the place of Buddhism as the + state religion. + + § 184.7. =Polynesia and Australia.=--The flourishing Protestant + church of Tahiti, the largest and finest of the Society Islands + (§ 172, 5), suffered from the appearance of two French Jesuits + in A.D. 1836. When Queen Pomare compelled them to withdraw, + the French government, resenting this as an indignity to + their nation, sent a fleet to attack the defenceless people, + proclaimed a French protectorate, and introduced not only + Catholic missionaries, but European vices. Amid much persecution, + however, the Protestants held their own. In December, 1880, + Pomare V. resigned, and the Society Islands became a dependency + of France.--In the south-east groups great opposition was shown, + but in the north-west Christianity made rapid progress. The + island of Raiatea was the centre of the South Sea missions. There + from A.D. 1819 John Williams, the apostle of the South Seas, + wrought till he met a martyr’s death in A.D. 1839. He went from + place to place in a mission ship built by his own hands. The + Harvey Group were Christianized in A.D. 1821, and the Navigator + Group in A.D. 1830. The French took the Marquesas Islands in + A.D. 1838, and introduced Catholic missionaries. The attempt + to evangelize the New Hebrides led to the death of Williams + and two of his companions. Missionaries of the London Society, + A.D. 1797-1799, had failed in the Friendly Islands through the + savage character of the natives, but in A.D. 1822 the Methodists + made a successful start. The gospel was carried thence to Fiji, + which is now under British rule. Both groups have become almost + wholly Christianized. The =Sandwich Islands= form a third mission + centre, wrought by the American board. Kamehameha I. gladly + adopted the elements of Christian civilization, though rejecting + Christianity: while his successor Kamehameha II. in A.D. 1829 + abolished tabu and overthrew the idol temples. In A.D. 1851 + Christianity was adopted as the national religion. The work was + more difficult in =New Zealand=, where the Church Missionary + Society, represented by Samuel Marsden, the apostle of New + Zealand, began operations in A.D. 1814. For ten years the + position of the missionaries was most hazardous; yet they held + on, and the conversion of the most bloodthirsty of the chiefs + did much to advance their cause. In New Guinea the London Society + has been making steady progress. Among the stolid natives of the + continent of New Holland, the so called Papuans, the labours of + the Moravians since A.D. 1849 have not yielded much fruit. Since + A.D. 1875 the German-Australian Immanuel Synod, supported by + Neuendettelsau, has laboured for the conversion of the heathen + in the inland districts. + + § 184.8. =Missions to the Jews.=--In A.D. 1809 the London Society + for Promoting Christianity among the Jews (§ 172, 5) was formed + by a union of all denominations, but soon passed into the hands + of the Anglicans. By the circulation of the Scriptures and + tracts, and by the sending out of missionaries, mostly Jewish + converts, the work was persevered in amid many discouragements. + In A.D. 1818 Poland was opened to its missionaries, and there + some 600 Jews were baptized. The society carried on its operations + also in Germany, Holland, France, and Turkey. The work in Poland + was interrupted by the Crimean war, and was not resumed till + A.D. 1875. In Bessarabia Faltin has laboured successfully among + the Jews since A.D. 1860. He was joined in the work in A.D. 1867 + by the converted Rabbi Gurland, who had studied theology at Halle + and Berlin. In A.D. 1871 Gurland accepted a call to similar work + in Courland and Lithuania, and since A.D. 1876 has been Lutheran + pastor at Mitau. In A.D. 1841 the evangelical bishopric of + St. James was founded in Jerusalem by the English and Prussian + governments conjointly, presentations to be made alternately, but + the ordination to be according to the Anglican rite. The first + bishop was Alexander, a Jewish convert. He died in A.D. 1845 and + was succeeded by the zealous missionary Gobat, elected by the + Prussian government. He died in A.D. 1879 and was succeeded + by Barclay, who died in A.D. 1881. It was now again Prussia’s + turn to make an appointment. The English demand to have Lutheran + ministers ordained successively deacon, presbyter, and bishop + had given offence, and so no new appointment has been made. In + June 1886 the English-Prussian compact was formally cancelled + and a proposal made to found an independent Prussian Evangelical + bishopric. + + § 184.9. =Missions among the Eastern Churches.=--In A.D. 1815 + the Church Missionary Society founded a missionary emporium in + the island of Malta, as a tract depôt for the evangelizing the + East; and in A.D. 1846 the Malta Protestant College was erected + for training native missionaries, teachers, physicians, etc., for + work in the various oriental countries. In the Ionian islands, in + Constantinople, and in Greece, British and American missionaries + began operations in A.D. 1819 by erecting schools and circulating + the scriptures. At first the orthodox clergy were favourable, but + as the work progressed they became actively hostile, and only two + mission schools in Syra and Athens were allowed to continue. In + Syria the Americans made Beyrout their head quarters in A.D. 1824, + but the work was interrupted by the Turco-Egyptian conflicts. + Subsequently, however, it flourished more and more, and, before + the Syrian massacre of A.D. 1860 (§ 207, 2), there were nine + prosperous stations in Syria. The founding of the Jerusalem + bishopric in A.D. 1841, and the issuing of the Hatti-Humayun + in A.D. 1856 (§ 207, 2), induced the Church Missionary Society + to make more vigorous efforts which, however, were afterwards + abandoned for want of success. Down to the outbreak of the + persecution of Syrian Christians in A.D. 1860, this society + had five flourishing stations. From A.D. 1831 the Americans + had wrought zealously and successfully among the Armenians in + Constantinople and neighbourhood, but in A.D. 1845 the Armenian + patriarch excited a violent persecution which threatened + the utter overthrow of the work. The British ambassador, + Sir Stratford de Redcliffe, however, insisted upon the Porte + recognising the rights of the Protestant Armenians as an + independent religious denomination, and since then the missions + have prospered. Among the Nestorians in Turkey and Persia the + Americans, with Dr. Grant at their head, began operations in + A.D. 1834; but through Jesuit intrigues the suspicions of the + Kurds and Turks were excited, and in A.D. 1843 and 1846 a war + of extermination was waged against the mountain Nestorians, + which annihilated the Protestant missions among them. Operations, + however, have been recommenced with encouraging success. Among + the deeply degraded Copts in Egypt, and extending from them into + Abyssinia, the Moravians had been working without any apparent + result from A.D. 1752 to A.D. 1783. In A.D. 1826 the Church + Missionary Society, under German missionaries trained at Basel + (Gobat, Irenberg, Krapf [Krapff], etc.), took up the work, till + it was stopped by the government in A.D. 1837. In A.D. 1855 + the Basel missionaries began again to work in Abyssinia with + the approval of King Theodore. This state of things soon changed. + Theodore’s ambition was to conquer Egypt and overthrow Islam. + But when in A.D. 1863 this scheme only called forth threats from + London and Paris, he gave loose rein to his natural ferocity + and put the English consul and the German missionaries in chains. + By means of an armed expedition in A.D. 1868, England compelled + the liberation of the prisoners, and Theodore put an end to his + own life. After the withdrawal of the English the country was + desolated by civil wars, and at the close of these troubles in + A.D. 1878 the mission resumed its operations. + + + + + III. Catholicism in General. + + + § 185. THE PAPACY AND THE STATES OF THE CHURCH. + + The papacy, humiliated but not destroyed by Napoleon I., was in +A.D. 1814 by the aid of princes of all creeds restored to the full +possession of its temporal and spiritual authority, and amid many +difficulties it reasserted for the most part successfully its +hierarchical claims in the Catholic states and in those whose +Protestantism and Catholicism were alike tolerated. Many severe +blows indeed were dealt to the papacy even in the Roman states by +revolutionary movements, yet political reaction generally by-and-by put +the church in a position as good if not better than it had before. But +while on this side the Alps, especially since the outbreak of A.D. 1848, +ultramontanism gained one victory after another in its own domain, in +Italy, it suffered one humiliation after another; and while the Vatican +Council, which put the crown upon its idolatrous assumptions (§ 189, 3), +was still sitting, the whole pride of its temporal sovereignty was +shattered: the States of the Church were struck out of the number of the +European powers, and Rome became the capital and residence of the prince +of Sardinia as king of United Italy. But reverence for the pope now +reached a height among catholic nations which it had never anywhere +attained before. + + § 185.1. =The First Four Popes of the Century.=--Napoleon as + First Consul of the French Republic, in A.D. 1801 concluded a + concordat with =Pius VII.=, A.D. 1800-1823, who under Austrian + protection was elected pope at Venice, whereby the pope was + restored to his temporal and spiritual rights, but was obliged + to abandon his hierarchical claims over the church of France + (§ 203, 1). He crowned the consul emperor of the French at Paris + in A.D. 1804, but when he persisted in the assertion of his + hierarchical principles, Napoleon in A.D. 1808 entered the papal + territories, and in May, A.D. 1809, formally repudiated the + donation of “his predecessor” Charlemagne. The pope treated the + offered payment of two million francs as an insult, threatened + the emperor with the ban, and in July, A.D. 1809, was imprisoned + at Savona, and in A.D. 1812 was taken to Fontainebleau. He + refused for a time to give canonical institution to the bishops + nominated by the emperor, and though at last he yielded and + agreed to reside in France, he soon withdrew his concession, + and the complications of A.D. 1813 constrained the emperor, on + February 14th, to set free the pope and the Papal States. In May + the pope again entered Rome. One of his first official acts was + the restoration of the Jesuits by the bull _Sollicitudo omnium_, + as by the unanimous request of all Christendom. The Congregation + of the Index was again set up, and during the course of the year + 737 charges of heresy were heard before the tribunal of the holy + office. All sales of church property were pronounced void, and + 1,800 monasteries and 600 nunneries were reclaimed. In A.D. 1815 + the pope formally protested against the decision of the Vienna + Congress, especially against the overthrow of the spiritual + principalities in the German empire (§ 192, 1). Equally fruitless + was his demand for the restoration of Avignon (§ 165, 15). + In A.D. 1816 he condemned the Bible societies as a plague to + Christendom, and renewed the prohibition of Bible translations. + His diplomatic schemes were determined by his able secretary + Cardinal Consalvi, who not only at the Vienna Congress, but also + subsequently by several concordats secured the fullest possible + expression to the interests and claims of the curia.--His + successor was =Leo XII.=, A.D. 1823-1829, who, more strict in + his civil administration than his predecessor, condemned Bible + societies, renewed the Inquisition prosecutions, for the sake + of gain celebrated the jubilee in A.D. 1825, ordered prayers + for uprooting of heresy, rebuilt the Ghetto wall of Rome, + overturned during the French rule (§ 95, 3), which marked off + the Jews’ quarter, till Pius IX. again threw it down in A.D. 1846. + After the eight months’ reign of =Pius VIII.=, A.D. 1829-1830, + =Gregory XVI.=, A.D. 1831-1846, ascended the papal throne, and + sought amid troubles at home and abroad to exalt to its utmost + pitch the hierarchical idea. In A.D. 1832 he issued an encyclical, + in which he declared irreconcilable war against modern science + as well as against freedom of conscience and the press, and his + whole pontificate was a consistent carrying out of this principle. + He encountered incessant opposition from liberal and revolutionary + movements in his own territory, restrained only by Austrian + and French military interference, A.D. 1832-1838, and from the + rejection of his hierarchical schemes by Spain, Portugal, Prussia, + and Russia.[541] + + § 185.2. =Pius IX., A.D. 1846-1878.=--Count Mastai Feretti in + his fifty-fourth year succeeded Gregory on 16th June, and took + the name of Pius IX. While in ecclesiastical matters he seemed + willing to hold by the old paths and distinctly declared against + Bible societies, he favoured reform in civil administration + and encouraged the hopes of the liberals who longed for the + independence and unity of Italy. But this only awakened the + thunder storm which soon burst upon his own head. The far + resounding cry of the jubilee days, “_Evviva Pio Nono!_” ended + in the pope’s flight to Gaeta in November, 1848; and in February, + 1849, the Roman Republic was proclaimed. The French Republic, + however, owing to the threatening attitude of Austria, hastened + to take Rome and restore the temporal power of the pope. Amid the + convulsions of Italy, Pius could not return to Rome till April, + 1850, where he was maintained by French and Austrian bayonets. + Abandoning his liberal views, the pope now put himself more and + more under the influence of the Jesuits, and his absolutist and + reactionary politics were directed by Card. Antonelli. From his + exile at Gaeta he had asked the opinion of the bishops of the + whole church regarding the immaculate conception of the blessed + Virgin, to whose protection he believed that he owed his safety. + The opinions of 576 were favourable, resting on Bible proofs: + Genesis iii. 15, Song of Sol. iv. 7, 12, and Luke i. 28; but some + French and German bishops were strongly opposed. The question was + now submitted for further consideration to various congregations, + and finally the consenting bishops were invited to Rome to settle + the terms of the doctrinal definition of the new dogma. After + four secret sessions it was acknowledged by acclamation, and + on 8th December, 1854 (§ 104, 7), the pope read in the Sixtine + chapel the bull _Ineffabilis_ and placed a brilliant diadem + on the head of the image of the queen of heaven. The disciples + of St. Thomas listened in silence to this aspersion of their + master’s orthodoxy; no heed was paid to two isolated individual + voices that protested; the bishops of all Catholic lands + proclaimed the new dogma, the theologians vindicated it, and the + spectacle-loving people rejoiced in the pompous Mary-festival. + The pope’s next great performance was the encyclical, _Quanta + cura_, of December 8th, 1864, and the accompanying syllabus + cataloguing in eighty-four propositions all the errors of the + day, by which not only the antichristian and anti-ecclesiastical + tendencies, but also claims for freedom of belief and worship, + liberty of the press and science, the state’s independence of the + church, the equality of the laity and clergy in civil matters, in + short all the principles of modern political and social life, were + condemned as heretical. Three years later the centenary of Peter + (§ 16, 1) brought five hundred bishops to Rome, with other clergy + and laymen from all lands. The enthusiasm for the papal chair + was such that the pope was encouraged to convoke an œcumenical + council. The jubilee of his consecration as priest in A.D. 1869 + brought him congratulatory addresses signed by one and a half + millions, filled the papal coffers, attracted an immense number + of visitors to Rome, and secured to all the votaries gathered + there a complete indulgence. On the Vatican Council which met + during that same year, see § 189.[542] + + § 185.3. =The Overthrow of the Papal States.=--In the Peace of + Villafranca of 1859, which put an end to the short Austro-French + war in Italy, a confederation was arranged of all the Italian + princes under the honorary presidency of the pope for drawing up + the future constitution of Italy. During the war the Austrians + had vacated Bologna, but the French remained in Rome to protect + the pope. The revolution now broke out in Romagna. Victor Emanuel, + king of Sardinia, was proclaimed dictator for the time over that + part of the Papal States and a provisional government was set + up. In vain did the pope remind Christendom in an encyclical + of the necessity of maintaining his temporal power, in vain + did he thunder his _excommunicatio major_ against all who would + contribute to its overthrow. A pamphlet war against the temporal + power now began, and About’s letters in the _Moniteur_ described + with bitter scorn the incapacity of the papal government. In his + pamphlet, “_Le Pope et le Congrès_,” Laguéronnière proposed to + restrict the pope’s sovereignty to Rome and its neighbourhood, + levy a tax for the support of the papal court on all Catholic + nations, and leave Rome undisturbed by political troubles. On + December 31st, 1859, Napoleon III. exhorted the pope to yield + to the logic of facts and to surrender the provinces that refused + any longer to be his. The pope then issued a rescript in which + he declared that he could never give up what belonged not to + him but to the church. The popular vote in Romagna went almost + unanimously for annexation to Sardinia, and this, in spite of + the papal ban, was done. A revolution broke out in Umbria and + the March of Ancona, and Victor Emanuel without more ado attached + these states also to his dominion in A.D. 1860, so that only + Rome and the Campagna were retained by the pope, and even these + only by means of French support. At the September convention of + A.D. 1864 Italy undertook to maintain the papal domain intact, + to permit the organization of an independent papal army, and to + contribute to the papal treasury; while France was to quit Roman + territory within at the latest two years. The pope submitted + to what he could not prevent, but still insisted upon his most + extreme claims, answered every attempt at conciliation with + his stereotyped _non possumus_, and in A.D. 1866 proclaimed + St. Catherine of Siena (§ 112, 4) patron of the “city.” When + the last of the French troops took ship in A.D. 1866 the radical + party thought the time had come for freeing Italy from papal rule, + and roused the whole land by public proclamation. Garibaldi again + put himself at the head of the movement. The Papal State was + soon encircled by bands of volunteers, and insurrections broke + out even within Rome itself. Napoleon pronounced this a breach + of the September convention, and in A.D. 1867 the volunteers + were utterly routed by the French at Mentana. The French guarded + Civita Vecchia and fortified Rome. But in August, 1870, their own + national exigencies demanded the withdrawal of the French troops, + and after the battle of Sedan the Italians to a man insisted + on having Rome as their capital, and Victor Emanuel acquiesced. + The pope sought help far and near from Catholic and non-Catholic + powers, but he received only the echo of his own words, _non + possumus_. After a four hours’ cannonade a breach was made in the + walls of the eternal city, the white flag appeared on St. Angelo, + and amid the shouts of the populace the Italian troops entered + on September 20th, 1870. A plebiscite in the papal dominions gave + 133,681 votes in favour of annexation and 1,507 against; in Rome + alone there were 40,785 for and only 46 against. The king now + issued the decree of incorporation; Rome became capital of united + Italy and the Quirinal the royal residence. + + § 185.4. =The Prisoner of the Vatican, A.D. 1870-1878.=--The + dethroned papal king could only protest and utter denunciations. + No result followed from the adoption of St. Joseph as guardian + and patron of the church, nor from the solemn consecration of the + whole world to the most sacred heart of Jesus, at the jubilee of + June 16th, A.D. 1875. The measures of A.D. 1871, by which Cavour + sought to realize his ideal of a “free church in a free state,” + were pronounced absurd, cunning, deceitful, and an outrage on + the apostles Peter and Paul. By these measures the rights and + privileges of a sovereign for all time had been conferred on the + pope: the holiness and inviolability of his person, a body-guard, + a post and telegraph bureau, free ambassadorial communication + with foreign powers, the _ex-territoriality_ of his palace of + the Vatican, embracing fifteen large saloons, 11,500 rooms, + 236 stairs, 218 corridors, two chapels, several museums, archives, + libraries, large beautiful gardens, etc., as also of the Lateran + and the summer palace of Castle Gandolpho, with all appurtenances, + also an annual income, free from all burdens and taxes, of three + and a quarter million francs, equal to the former amount of + his revenue, together with unrestricted liberty in the exercise + of all ecclesiastical rights of sovereignty and primacy, and + the renunciation of all state interference in the disposal of + bishoprics and benefices. The right of the inferior clergy to + exercise the _appellatio ab abusu_ to a civil tribunal was set + aside, and of all civil rights only that of the royal _exequatur_ + in the election of bishops, _i.e._ the mere right of investing + the nominee of the curia in the possession of the revenues of + his office, was retained.--To the end of his life Pius every year + returned the dotation as an insult and injury, and “the starving + holy father in prison, who has not where to lay his head,” + received three or four times more in Peter’s pence contributed + by all Catholic Christendom. Playing the _rôle_ of a prisoner + he never passed beyond the precincts of the Vatican. He reached + the semi-jubilee of his papal coronation in A.D. 1871, being + the first pope who falsified the old saying, _Annos Petri non + videbit_. He rejected the offer of a golden throne and the + title of “the great,” but he accepted a Parisian lady’s gift of + a golden crown of thorns. In support of the prison myth, straws + from the papal cell were sold in Belgium for half a franc per + stalk, and for the same price photographs of the pope behind + an iron grating. As once on a time the legend arose about the + disciple whom Jesus loved that he would not die, so was it + once said about the pope; and on his eighty-third birthday, in + A.D. 1874, a Roman Jesuit paper, eulogising the moral purity of + his life, put the words in his mouth, “Which of you convinceth + me of sin?” But he himself by constantly renewed rescripts, + encyclicals, briefs, allocutions to the cardinals and to numerous + deputations from far and near, unweariedly fanned the flame of + enthusiasm and fanaticism throughout papal Christendom, and + thundered threatening prophecies not only against the Italian, + but also against foreign states, for with most of them he lived + in open war. A collection of his “Speeches delivered at the + Vatican” was published in 1874, commented on by Gladstone in + the _Contemporary Review_ for January, 1875, who gives abundant + quotations showing papal assumptions, maledictions, abuse and + misunderstanding of the Scriptures with which they abound. On + the fiftieth anniversary of the pope’s episcopal consecration, + in June, 1877, crowds from all lands assembled to offer their + congratulations, with costly presents and Peter’s pence amounting + to sixteen and a half million francs. He died February 8th, 1878, + in the eighty-sixth year of his age and thirty-second of his + pontificate. His heirs claimed the unpaid dotations of twenty + million lire, but were refused by the courts of law.[543]--His + secretary Antonelli, descended from an old brigand family, + who from the time of his stay at Gaeta was his evil demon, + predeceased him in A.D. 1876. Though the son of a poor herdsman + and woodcutter, he left more than a hundred million lire. His + natural daughter, to the great annoyance of the Vatican, sought, + but without success, in the courts of justice to make good her + claims against her father’s greedy brothers. + + § 185.5. =Leo XIII.=--After only two days’ conclave the + Cardinal-archbishop of Perugia, Joachim Pecci, born in A.D. 1810, + was proclaimed on February 20th, 1878, as Leo XIII. In autograph + letters he intimated his accession to the German and Russian + emperors, but not to the king of Italy, and expressed his + wish for a good mutual understanding. To the government of the + Swiss Cantons he declared his hope that their ancient friendly + relations might be restored. At Easter, 1878, he issued an + encyclical to all patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, + in which he required of them that they should earnestly entreat + the mediation of the “immaculate queen of heaven” and the + intercession of St. Joseph, “the heavenly shield of the church,” + and also failed not to make prominent the infallibility of + the apostolic chair, and to condemn all the errors condemned + by his predecessors, emphasizing the necessity of restoring the + temporal power of the pope, and confirming and renewing all the + protests of his predecessor Pius IX., of sacred memory, against + the overthrow of the Papal States. On the first anniversary of + his elevation he proclaimed a universal jubilee, with the promise + of a complete indulgence. He still persisted in the prison + myth of his predecessor, and like him sent back the profferred + contribution of his “jailor.” In the conflicts with foreign + powers inherited from Pius, as well as in his own, he has + employed generally moderate and conciliatory language.--He has + not hesitated to take the first step toward a good understanding + with his opponents, for which, while persistently maintaining + the ancient principles of the papal chair, he makes certain + concessions in regard to subordinate matters, always with + the design and expectation of seeing them outweighed on the + other side by the conservation of all the other hierarchical + pretensions of the curial system. It was, however, only in + the middle of A.D. 1885 that it became evident that the pope + had determined, without allowing any misunderstanding to arise + between himself and his cardinals, to break through the trammels + of the irreconcilable zealots in the college. And indeed after + the conclusion of the German _Kulturkampf_ (§ 197, 13, 15), + brought about by these means, in an allocution with reference + thereto addressed to the cardinals in May, 1887, he gave an + unexpected expression to his wish and longing in regard to an + understanding with the government on the Italian question, which + involved an utter renunciation of his predecessor’s dogged _Non + possumus_, the attitude hitherto unfalteringly maintained. “Would + that peaceful counsels,” says he, “embracing all our peoples + should prevail in Italy also, and that at last once that unhappy + difference might be overcome without loss of privilege to the + holy see!” Such harmony, indeed, is only possible when the pope + “is subjected to no authority and enjoys perfect freedom,” which + would cause no loss to Italy, “but would only secure its lasting + peace and safety.” That he counts upon the good offices of the + German emperor for the effecting of this longed-for restoration + of such a _modus vivendi_ with the Italian government, he + has clearly indicated in his preliminary communications to the + Prussian centre exhorting to peace (§ 197, 14). The _Moniteur + de Rome_ (§ 188, 1), however, interpreted the words of the pope + thus: “Italy would lose nothing materially or politically, if + it gave a small corner of its territory to the pope, where he + might enjoy actual sovereignty as a guarantee of his spiritual + independence.”--On Leo’s contributions to theological science + see § 191, 12; on his attitude to Protestantism and the Eastern + Church, see § 175, 2, 4. He expressed himself against the + freemasons in an encyclical of A.D. 1884 with even greater + severity than Pius. Consequently the Roman Inquisition issued + an instruction to all bishops throughout the Catholic world + requiring them to enjoin their clergy in the pulpit and the + confessional to make it known that all freemasons are _eo ipso_ + excommunicated, and by Catholic associations of every sort, + especially by the spread of the third order of St. Francis + (§ 186, 2), the injunction was carried out. At the same time a + year’s reprieve was given to the freemasons, during which the + Roman heresy laws, which required their children, wives, and + relatives to denounce them to all clergy and laymen, were to be + suspended. Should the guilty, however, allow this day of grace + to pass, these laws were to be again fully enforced, and then it + would be only for the pope to absolve them from their terrible sin. + + + § 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. + + The order of the Jesuits restored in A.D. 1814 by Pius VII. +impregnated all other orders with its spirit, gained commanding +influence over Pius IX., made the bishops its agents, and turned the +whole Catholic church into a Jesuit institution. An immense number +of societies arose aiming at the accomplishment of home mission work, +inspired by the Jesuit spirit and carrying out unquestioningly the +ultramontane ideas of their leaders. Also zeal for foreign missions +on old Jesuit lines revived, and the enthusiasm for martyrdom was due +mainly to the same cause. + + § 186.1. =The Society of Jesus and Related Orders.=--After the + suppression of their order by Clement XIV. the Jesuits found + refuge mainly among the =Redemptorists= (§ 165, 2), whose + headquarters were at Vienna, from which they spread through + Austria and Bavaria, finding entrance also into Switzerland, + France, Belgium, and Holland, and after 1848 into Catholic + Prussia, as well as into Hesse and Nassau. The =Congregation + of the Sacred Heart= was founded by ex-Jesuits in Belgium + in A.D. 1794, and soon spread in Austria and Bavaria.--The + =restored Jesuit order= was met with a storm of opposition from + the liberals. The July revolution of A.D. 1830 drove the Jesuits + from France, and when they sought to re-establish themselves, + Gregory XVI., under pressure of the government, insisted that + their general should abolish the French institutions in A.D. 1845. + An important branch of the order had settled in Catholic + Switzerland, but the unfavourable issue of the Separated Cantons’ + War of 1847 drove its members out of that refuge. The revolution + of 1848 threatened the order with extinction, but the papal + restoration of A.D. 1850 re-introduced it into most Catholic + countries. Since then the sons of Loyola have renewed their + youth like the eagle. They have forced their way into all lands, + even in those on both sides of the ocean that had by legislative + enactments been closed against them, spreading ultramontane views + among Catholics, converting Protestants, and disseminating their + principles in schools and colleges. Even Pius IX., under whose + auspices Aug. Theiner had been allowed, in A.D. 1853, in his + “History of the Pontificate of Clement XIV.” to bring against + them the heavy artillery drawn from “the secret archives of the + Vatican,” again handed over to them the management of public + instruction, and surrendered himself even more and more to their + influence, so that at last he saw only by their eyes, heard only + with their ears, and resolved only according to their will.[544] + The founding of the Italian kingdom under the Prince of Sardinia + in A.D. 1860 led to their expulsion from all Italy, with the + exception of Venice and the remnants of the Papal States. When, + in A.D. 1866, Venice also became an Italian province, they + migrated thence into the Tyrol and other Austrian provinces, + where they enjoyed the blessings of the concordat (§ 198, 2). + Spain, too, on the expulsion of Queen Isabella in A.D. 1868, and + even Mexico and several of the States of Central and Southern + America, drove out the disciples of Loyola. On the other hand, + they made brilliant progress in Germany, especially in Rhenish + Hesse and the Catholic provinces of Prussia. But under the + new German empire the Reichstag, in A.D. 1872, passed a law + suppressing the Jesuits and all similar orders throughout the + empire (§ 197, 4). They were also formally expelled from France + in A.D. 1880 (§ 203, 6). Still, however, in A.D. 1881 the order + numbered 11,000 members in five provinces, and according to + Bismarck’s calculation in A.D. 1872 their property amounted to + 280 million thalers. In A.D. 1853 John Beckx of Belgium was made + general. He retired in A.D. 1884 at the age of ninety, Anderlady, + a Swiss, having been appointed in A.D. 1883 his colleague and + successor.--The hope which was at first widely entertained + that Leo XIII. would emancipate himself from the domination of + the order seems more and more to be proved a vain delusion. In + July, 1886, he issued, on the occasion of a new edition of the + institutions of the order, a letter to Anderlady, in which he, + in the most extravagant manner, speaks of the order as having + performed the most signal services “to the church and society,” + and confirms anew everything that his predecessors had said and + done in its favour, while expressly and formally he recalls anew + anything that any of them had said and done against it. + + § 186.2. =Other Orders and Congregations.=--After the storms of + the revolution religious orders rapidly recovered lost ground. + France decreed, on November 2nd, 1789, the abolition of all + orders, and cloisters and in 1802, under Napoleon’s auspices, + they were also suppressed in the German empire and the friendly + princes indemnified with their goods. Yet on grounds of utility + Napoleon restored the Lazarists, as well as the Sisters of Mercy, + whose scattered remnants he collected in A.D. 1807 in Paris into + a general chapter, under the presidency of the empress-mother. + But new cloisters in great numbers were erected specially in + Belgium and France (in opposition to the law of 1789, which was + unrepealed), in Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Rhenish Hesse, etc., + as also in England and America. In 1849 there were in Prussia + fifty monastic institutes; in 1872 there were 967. In Cologne one + in every 215, in Aachen one in every 110, in Münster one in every + sixty-one, in Paderborn one in every thirty-three, was a Catholic + priest or member of an order. In Bavaria, between 1831 and 1873 + the number of cloisters rose from 43 to 628, all, with the + exception of some old Benedictine monasteries, inspired and + dominated by the Jesuits. Even the Dominicans, originally such + determined opponents, are now pervaded by the Jesuit spirit. The + restoration of the =Trappist order= (§ 156, 8) deserves special + mention. On their expulsion from La Trappe in A.D. 1791 the + brothers found an asylum in the Canton Freiburg, and when driven + thence by the French invasion of A.D. 1798, Paul I. obtained from + the czar permission for them to settle in White Russia, Poland, + and Lithuania. But expelled from these regions again in A.D. 1800 + they wandered through Europe and America, till after Napoleon’s + defeat they purchased back the monastery of La Trappe, and made + it the centre of a group of new settlements throughout France + and beyond it.--Besides regular orders there were also numerous + =congregations= or religious societies with communal life + according to a definite but not perpetually binding rule, and + without the obligation of seclusion, as well as =brotherhoods= + and =sisterhoods= without any such rule, which after the + restoration of A.D. 1814 in France and after A.D. 1848 in Germany, + were formed for the purposes of prayer, charity, education, + and such like. From France many of these spread into the Rhine + Provinces and Westphalia.--In Spain and Portugal (§ 205, 1, 5) + all orders were repeatedly abolished, subsequently also in + Sardinia and even in all Italy (§ 204, 1, 2), and also in several + Romish American states (§ 209, 1, 2), as also in Prussia and + Hesse (§ 197, 8, 15). Finally the third French Republic has + enforced existing laws against all orders and congregations not + authorized by the State (§ 203, 6).--On the 700th anniversary of + the birth of St. Francis, in September, 1882, Leo XIII. issued an + encyclical declaring the institute of the Franciscan Tertiaries + (§ 98, 11) alone capable of saving human society from all the + political and social dangers of the present and future, which had + some success at least in Italy. + + Of what inhuman barbarity the superiors of cloisters are still + capable is shown _instar omnium_ in the horrible treatment of the + nun =Barbara Ubryk=, who, avowedly on account of a breach of her + vow of chastity, was confined since A.D. 1848 in the cloister of + the Carmelite nuns at Cracow in a dark, narrow cell beside the + sewer of the convent, without fire, bed, chair, or table. It was + only in A.D. 1869, in consequence of an anonymous communication + to the law officers, that she was freed from her prison in a + semi-animal condition, quite naked, starved, and covered with + filth, and consigned to an asylum. The populace of Cracow, + infuriated at such conduct, could be restrained from demolishing + all the cloisters only by the aid of the military. + + § 186.3. =The Pius Verein.=--A society under the name of the Pius + Verein was started at Mainz in October, 1848, to further Catholic + interests, advocating the church’s independence of the State, + the right of the clergy to direct education, etc. At the annual + meetings its leading members boasted in grossly exaggerated terms + of what had been accomplished and recklessly prophesied of what + would yet be achieved. At the twenty-eighth general assembly + at Bonn in A.D. 1881, with an attendance of 1,100, the same + confident tone was maintained. Windhorst reminded the Prussian + government of the purchase of the Sibylline books, and declared + that each case of breaking off negotiations raised the price + of the peace. Not a tittle of the ultramontane claims would be + surrendered. The watchword is the complete restoration of the + _status quo ante_. Baron von Loë, president of the Canisius + Verein, concluded his triumphant speech with the summons to + raise the membership of the union from 80,000 to 800,000, yea + to 8,000,000; then would the time be near when Germany should + become again a Catholic land and the church again the leader of + the people. At the assembly at Düsseldorf in A.D. 1883, Windhorst + declared, amid the enthusiastic applause of all present, that + after the absolute abrogation of the May laws the centre would + not rest till education was again committed unreservedly to the + church. In the assembly at Münster in A.D. 1885, he extolled + the pope (notwithstanding all confiscation and imprisoning for + the time being) as the governor and lord of the whole world. + The thirty-third assembly at Breslau in A.D. 1886, with special + emphasis, demanded the recall of all orders, including that of + the Jesuits. + + § 186.4. =The various German unions= gradually fell under + ultramontane influences. The Borromeo Society circulated Catholic + books inculcating ultramontane views in politics and religion. + The Boniface Union, founded by Martin, Bishop of Paderborn, + aided needy Catholic congregations in Protestant districts. Other + unions were devoted to foreign missions, to work among Germans in + foreign lands, etc. In all the universities such societies were + formed. In Bavaria patriot peasant associations were set on foot, + as a standing army in the conflict of the ultramontane hierarchy + with the new German empire. For the same purpose Bishop Ketteler + founded in A.D. 1871 the Mainz Catholic Union, which in A.D. 1814 + had 90,000 members. The Görres Society of 1876 (§ 188, 1) and + the Canisius Society of 1879 (§ 151, 1) were meant to promote + education on ultramontane lines.--In =Italy= such societies + have striven for the restoration of the temporal power and the + supremacy of the church over the State. The unions of =France= + were confederated in A.D. 1870, and this general association + holds an annual congress. The several unions were called + “_œuvres_.” The _Œuvre du Vœu National_, _e.g._, had the task + of restoring penitent France to the “sacred heart of Jesus” + (§ 188, 12); the _Œuvre Pontifical_ made collections of Peter’s + pence and for persecuted priests; the _Œuvre de Jesus-Ouvrier_ + had to do with the working classes, etc. + + § 186.5. The knowledge of the omnipotence of =capital= in + these days led to various proposals for turning it to account + in the interests of Catholicism. The Catholic Bank schemes of + the Belgian Langrand-Dumonceau in 1872 and the Munich bank were + pure swindles; and that of Adele Spitzeder 1869-1872, pronounced + “holy” by the clergy and ultramontane press, collapsed with + a deficit of eight and a quarter million florins.--Archbishop + Purcell of Cincinnati invited church members to avoid risk to + bank with him. He invested in land, advanced money for building + churches, cloisters, schools, etc., and in A.D. 1878 found + himself bankrupt with liabilities amounting to five million + dollars. He then offered to resign his office, but the pope + refused and gave him a coadjutor, whereupon the archbishop + retired into a cloister where he died in his eighty-third year. + In the _Union Générale_ of Paris, founded in 1876, which came + to a crash in 1882, the French aristocracy, the higher clergy + and members of orders lost hundreds of millions of francs. + + § 186.6. =The Catholic Missions.=--The impulse given to Catholic + interests after 1848 was seen in the zeal with which missions + in Catholic lands, like the Protestant Methodist revival and + camp-meetings (§ 208, 1), began to be prosecuted. An attempt was + thus made to gather in the masses, who had been estranged from + the church during the storms of the revolution. The Jesuits and + Redemptorists were prominent in this work. In bands of six they + visited stations, staying for three weeks, hearing confessions, + addressing meetings three times a day, and concluding by a + general communion. + + § 186.7. Besides the Propaganda (§ 156, 9), fourteen societies in + Rome, three in Paris, thirty in the whole of Catholic Christendom, + are devoted to the dissemination of Catholicism among =Heretics= + and =Heathens=. The Lyons Association for the spread of the faith, + instituted in 1822, has a revenue of from four to six million + francs. Specially famous is the =Picpus Society=, so called from + the street in Paris where it has its headquarters. Its founder + was the deacon Coudrin, a pupil of the seminary for priests + at Poictiers [Poitiers] broken up in A.D. 1789. Amid the evils + done to the church and the priests by the Revolution, in his + hiding-place he heard a divine call to found a society for the + purpose of training the youth in Catholic principles, educating + priests, and bringing the gospel to the heathen “by atoning for + excesses, crimes, and sins of all kinds by an unceasing day and + night devotion of the most holy sacrament of the altar.” Such a + society he actually founded in A.D. 1805, and Pius VII. confirmed + it in A.D. 1817. The founder died in A.D. 1837, after his + society had spread over all the five continents. Its chief aim + henceforth was missions to the heathen. While the Picpus society, + as well as the other seminaries and monkish orders, sent forth + crowds of missionaries, other societies devoted themselves to + collecting money and engaging in prayer. The most important of + these is the =Lyonese Society= for the spread of the faith of + A.D. 1822. The member’s weekly contribution is 5 cents, the + daily prayer-demand a paternoster, an angel greeting, and a + “St. Francis Xavier, pray for us.” The fanatical journal of the + society had a yearly circulation of almost 250,000 copies, in + ten European languages. The popes had showered upon its members + rich indulgences.--After Protestant missions had received such + a powerful impulse in the nineteenth century, the Catholic + societies were thereby impelled to force in wherever success had + been won and seemed likely to be secured, and wrought with all + conceivable jesuitical arts and devices, for the most part under + the political protection of France. The Catholic missions have + been most zealously and successfully prosecuted in North America, + China, India, Japan, and among the schismatic churches of the + Levant. Since 1837 they have been advanced by aid of the French + navy in the South Seas (§ 184, 7) and in North Africa by the + French occupation of Algiers, and most recently in Madagascar. + In South Africa they have made no progress.--In A.D. 1837-1839 + a bloody persecution raged in Tonquin and Cochin China; in + A.D. 1866 Christianity was rooted out of Corea, and over 2,000 + Christians slain; two years later persecution was renewed in + Japan. In China, through the oppressions of the French, the + people rose against the Catholics resident there. This movement + reached a climax in the rebellion of 1870 at Tientsin, when all + French officials, missionaries, and sisters of mercy were put to + death, and the French consulate, Catholic churches and mission + houses were levelled to the ground. Also in Further India since + the French war of A.D. 1883 with Tonquin, over which China + claimed rights of suzerainty, the Catholic missions have again + suffered, and many missionaries have been martyred. + + + § 187. LIBERAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS. + + Alongside of the steady growth of ultramontanism from the time of the +restoration of the papacy in A.D. 1814, there arose also a reactionary +movement, partly of a mystical-irenical, evangelical- revival and +liberal-scientific, and partly of a radical-liberalistic, character. +But all the leaders in such movements sooner or later succumbed before +the strictly administered discipline of the hierarchy. The Old Catholic +reaction (§ 190), on the other hand, in spite of various disadvantages, +still maintains a vigorous existence. + + § 187.1. =Mystical-Irenical Tendencies.=--=J. M. Sailer=, + deprived in A.D. 1794 of his office at Dillingen (§ 165, 12), was + appointed in A.D. 1799 professor of moral and pastoral theology + at Ingolstadt, and was transferred to Landshut in A.D. 1800. + There for twenty years his mild and conciliatory as well as + profoundly pious mysticism powerfully influenced crowds of + students from South Germany and Switzerland. Though the pope + refused to confirm his nomination by Maximilian as Bishop of + Augsburg in A.D. 1820, he so far cleared himself of the suspicion + of mysticism, separatism, and crypto-calvinism, that in A.D. 1829 + no opposition was made to his appointment as Bishop of Regensburg. + Sailer continued faithful to the Catholic dogmatic, and none + of his numerous writings have been put in the Index. Yet he lay + under suspicion till his death in A.D. 1832, and this seemed to + be justified by the intercourse which he and his disciples had + with Protestant pietists. His likeminded scholar, friend, and + vicar-general, the Suffragan-bishop =Wittmann=, was designated + his successor in Regensburg, but he died before receiving papal + confirmation. Of all his pupils the most distinguished was the + Westphalian Baron von =Diepenbrock=, over whose wild, intractable, + youthful nature Sailer exercised a magic influence. In A.D. 1823 + he was ordained priest, became Sailer’s secretary, remaining his + confidential companion till his death, was made vicar-general + to Sailer’s successor in A.D. 1842, and in A.D. 1845 was + raised to the archiepiscopal chair of Breslau, where he joined + the ultramontanes, and entered with all his heart into the + ecclesiastico-political conflicts of the Würzburg episcopal + congress (§ 192, 4). His services were rewarded by a cardinal’s + hat from Pius IX. in A.D. 1850. His pastoral letters, however, + as well as his sermons and private correspondence, show that he + never altogether forgot the teaching of his spiritual father. He + delighted in the study of the mediæval mystics, and was specially + drawn to the writings of Suso. + + § 187.2. =Evangelical-Revival Tendencies.=--A movement much + more evangelical than that of Sailer, having the doctrine of + justification by faith alone as its centre, was originated by + a simple Bavarian priest, =Martin Boos=, and soon embraced sixty + priests in the diocese of Augsburg. The spiritual experiences + of Boos were similar to those of Luther. The words of a poor old + sick woman brought peace to his soul in A.D. 1790, and led him + to the study of Scripture. His preaching among the people and his + conversations with the surrounding clergy produced a widespread + revival. Amid manifold persecutions, removed from one parish + to another, and flying from Bavaria to Austria and thence into + Rhenish Prussia, where he died in A.D. 1825 as priest of Sayn, + he lighted wherever he went the torch of truth. Even after his + conversion Boos believed that he still maintained the Catholic + position, but was at last to his own astonishment convinced of + the contrary through intercourse with Protestant pietists and the + study of Luther’s works. But so long as the mother church would + keep him he wished not to forsake her.[545] So too felt his + like-minded companions =Gossner= and =Lindl=, who were expelled + from Bavaria in A.D. 1829 and settled in St. Petersburg. Lindl, + as Provost of South Russia, went to reside in Odessa, where he + exercised a powerful influence over Catholics and Protestants and + among the higher classes of the Russians. The machinations of the + Roman Catholic and Greek churches caused both Gossner and Lindl + to leave Russia in A.D. 1824. They then joined the evangelical + church, Lindl in Barmen and Gossner in Berlin. Lindl drifted + more and more into mystico-apocalyptic fanaticism; but Gossner, + from A.D. 1829 till his death in A.D. 1858 as pastor of the + Bohemian church in Berlin, proved a sincere evangelical and a + most successful worker.--The Bavarian priest Lutz of Carlshuld, + influenced by Boos, devoted himself to the temporal and spiritual + well-being of his people, preached Christ as the saviour of + sinners, and exhorted to diligent reading of the Bible. In + A.D. 1831, with 600 of his congregation, he joined the Protestant + church; but to avoid separation from his beloved people, he + returned again after ten months, and most of his flock with him, + still retaining his evangelical convictions. He was not, however, + restored to office, and subsequently in A.D. 1857, with three + Catholic priests of the diocese, he attached himself to the + Irvingites, and was with them excommunicated. + + § 187.3. =Liberal-Scientific Tendencies.=--=Von Wessenberg=, + as vicar-general of the diocese of Constance introduced such + drastic administrative reforms as proved most distasteful to + the nuncio of Lucerne and the Romish curia. He also endeavoured + unsuccessfully to restore a German national Catholic church. + In the retirement of his later years he wrote a history of the + church synods of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which + gave great offence to the ultramontanes.--=Fr. von Baader= of + Munich expressed himself so strongly against the absolutism + of the papal system that the ultramontane minister, Von Abel, + suspended his lectures on the philosophy of religion in A.D. 1838. + He gave still greater offence by his work on Eastern and Western + Catholicism, in which he preferred the former to the latter.[546] + The talented =Hirscher= of Freiburg more interested in what is + Christian than what is Roman Catholic, could not be won over + to yield party service to the ultramontanes. They persecuted + unrelentingly =Leop. Schmid=, whose theosophical speculation + had done so much to restore the prestige of theology at Giessen, + and had utterly discredited their pretensions. When his enemies + successfully opposed his consecration as Bishop of Mainz + in A.D. 1849, he resigned his professorship and joined the + philosophical faculty. Goaded on by the venomous attacks of his + opponents he advanced to a more extreme position, and finally + declared “that he was compelled to renounce the specifically + Roman Catholic church so long as she refused to acknowledge the + true worth of the gospel.” + + § 187.4. =Radical-Liberalistic Tendencies.=--The brothers + =Theiner= of Breslau wrote in A.D. 1828 against the celibacy + of the clergy; but subsequently John attached himself to the + German-Catholics, and in A.D. 1833 Augustine returned to his + allegiance to Rome (§ 191, 7).--During the July Revolution in + Paris, the priest Lamennais, formerly a zealous supporter of + absolutism, became the enthusiastic apostle of liberalism. His + journal _L’Avenir_, A.D. 1830-1832, was the organ of the party, + and his _Paroles d’un Croyant_, A.D. 1834, denounced by the + pope as unutterably wicked, made an unprecedented sensation. The + endeavour, however, to unite elements thoroughly incongruous led + to the gradual breaking up of the school, and Lamennais himself + approximated more and more to the principles of modern socialism. + He died in A.D. 1854. One of his most talented associates on + the staff of the _Avenir_ was the celebrated pulpit orator + =Lacordaire=, A.D. 1802-1861. Upon Gregory’s denunciation of + the journal in A.D. 1832 Lacordaire submitted to Rome, entered + the Dominican order in A.D. 1840, and wrote a life of Dominic + in which he eulogised the Inquisition; but his eloquence still + attracted crowds to _Notre Dame_. Ultimately he fell completely + under the influence of the Jesuits. + + § 187.5. =Attempts at Reform in Church Government.=--In A.D. 1861 + =Liverani=, pope’s chaplain and apostolic notary, exposed the + scandalous mismanagement of Antonelli, the corruption of the + sacred college, the demoralization of the Roman clergy, and the + ambitious schemes of the Jesuits, recommended the restoration + of the holy Roman empire, not indeed to the Germans, but to + the Italians: the pope should confer on the king of Italy by + divine authority the title and privileges of Roman emperor, who, + on his part, should undertake as papal mandatory the political + administration of the States of the Church. But in A.D. 1873 he + sought and obtained papal forgiveness for his errors. The Jesuit + =Passaglia= expressed enthusiastic approval of the movements of + Victor Emanuel and of Cavour’s ideal of a “free church in a free + state.” He was expelled from his order, his book was put into + the Index, but the Italian Government appointed him professor of + moral philosophy in Turin. At last he retracted all that he had + said and written. In the preface to his popular exposition of the + gospels of 1874, the Jesuit father =Curci= urged the advisability + of a reconciliation between the Holy See and the Italian + government, and expressed his conviction that the Church States + would never be restored. That year he addressed the pope in + similar terms, and refusing to retract, was expelled his order in + A.D. 1877. Leo XIII. by friendly measures sought to move him to + recant, but without success. The condemnation of his books led + to their wider circulation. In A.D. 1883 he charged the Holy See + with the guilt of the unholy schism between church and state; but + in the following year he retracted whatever in his writings the + pope regarded as opposed to the faith, morals, and discipline of + the Catholic church. + + § 187.6. =Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches.=--After + the July Revolution of A.D. 1830 the Abbé =Chatel= of Paris + had himself consecrated bishop of a new sect by a new-templar + dignitary (§ 210, 1) and became primate of the =French Catholic + Church=, whose creed recognised only the law of nature and viewed + Christ as a mere man. After various congregations had been formed, + it was suppressed by the police in A.D. 1842. The Abbé =Helsen= + of Brussels made a much more earnest endeavour to lead the church + of his fatherland from the antichrist to the true Christ. His + =Apostolic Catholic Church= was dissolved in A.D. 1857 and its + remnants joined the Protestants. The founding of the =German + Catholic Church= in A.D. 1844 promised to be more enduring. In + August of that year, Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves, exhibited the + holy coat preserved there, and attracted one and a half millions + of pilgrims to Treves (§ 188, 2). A suspended priest, =Ronge=, in + a letter to the bishop denounced the worship of relics, seeking + to pose as the Luther of the nineteenth century. =Czerski= of + Posen had in August, 1844, seceded from the Catholic church, and + in October founded the “Christian Catholic Apostolic Church,” + whose creed embodied the negations without the positive beliefs + of the Protestant confessions, maintaining in other respects + the fundamental articles of the Christian faith. Ronge meanwhile + formed congregations in all parts of Germany, excepting Bavaria + and Austria. A General Assembly held at Leipzig in March, 1845, + brought to light the deplorable religious nihilism of the leaders + of the party. Czerski, who refused to abandon the doctrine of + Christ’s divinity, withdrew from the conference, but Ronge held + a triumphal procession through Germany. His hollowness, however, + became so apparent that his adherents grew ashamed of their + enthusiasm for the new reformer. His congregations began to break + up; many withdrew, several of the leaders threw off the mask + of religion and adopted the _rôle_ of political revolutionists. + After the settlement that followed the disturbances of A.D. 1848 + the remnants of this party disappeared.[547] + + § 187.7. The inferior clergy of Italy, after the political + emancipation of Naples from the Bourbon domination in A.D. 1860, + longed for deliverance from clerical tyranny, and founded in + A.D. 1862 a society with the object of establishing a =national + Italian church= independent of the Romish curia. Four Neapolitan + churches were put at the disposal of the society by the minister + Ricasoli, but in 1865, an agreement having been come to between + the curia and the government, the bishops were recalled and the + churches restored. Thousands, to save themselves from starvation, + gave in their submission, but a small party still remained + faithful. Encouraged by the events of 1870 (§§ 135, 3; 189, 3), + they were able in 1875 to draw up a “dogmatic statement” for + the “Church of Italy independent of the Roman hierarchy,” which + indeed besides the Holy Scriptures admitted the authority of + the universal church as infallible custodian and interpreter + of revealed truth, but accepted only the first seven œcumenical + councils as binding. In the same year Bishop Turano of Girgenti + excommunicated five priests of the Silician town Grotta as + opponents of the syllabus and the dogma of infallibility. The + whole clergy of the town, numbering twenty-five, then renounced + their obedience to the bishop, and with the approval of the + inhabitants declared themselves in favour of the “statement.” + North of Rome this movement made little progress; but in 1875 + three villages of the Mantuan diocese claimed the ancient + privilege of choosing their own priest, and the bishop and + other authorities were obliged to yield. The Neapolitan movement, + however, as a whole seems to be losing itself in the sand. + + § 187.8. =The Frenchman, Charles Loyson=, known by his Carmelite + monkish name of _Père Hyacinthe_, was protected from the Jesuits + by Archbishop Darboy when he inveighed against the corruptions + of the church, and even Pius IX. on his visit to Rome in 1868 + treated him with favour. The general of his order having imposed + silence on him, he publicly announced his secession from the + order and appeared as a “preacher of the gospel,” claiming + from a future General Council a sweeping reform of the church, + protesting against the falsifying of the gospel of the Son of God + by the Jesuits and the papal syllabus. He was then excommunicated. + In A.D. 1871 he joined the German Old Catholics (§ 190, 1); + and though he gave offence to them by his marriage, this did + not prevent the Old Catholics of Geneva from choosing him as + their pastor. But after ten months, because “he sought not the + overthrow but the reform of the Catholic church, and reprobated + the despotism of the mob as well as that of the clergy, the + infallibility of the state as well as that of the pope,” he + withdrew and returned to Paris, where he endeavoured to establish + a French National Church free of Rome and the Pope. The clerical + minister Broglie, however, compelled him to restrict himself to + moral-religious lectures. In February, 1879, he built a chapel + in which he preaches on Sundays and celebrates mass in the French + language. He sought alliance with the Swiss Christian Catholics, + whose bishop, Herzog, heartily reciprocated his wishes, and with + the Anglican church, which gave a friendly response. But that + this “seed corn” of a “Catholic Gallican Church” will ever grow + into a fully developed plant was from the very outset rendered + more than doubtful by the peculiar nature of the sower, as well + as of the seed and the soil. + + + § 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. + + The restoration of the Jesuit order led, during the long pontificate +of Pius IX., to the revival and hitherto unapproached prosperity of +ultramontanism, especially in France, whose bishops cast the Gallican +Liberties overboard (§§ 156, 3; 203, 1), and in Germany, where with +strange infatuation even Protestant princes gave it all manner of +encouragement. Even the lower clergy were trained from their youth +in hierarchical ideas, and under the despotic rule of their bishops, +and a reign of terror carried on by spies and secret courts, were +constrained to continue the profession of the strictest absolutism. + + § 188.1. =The Ultramontane Propaganda.=--In =France= + ultramontanism revived with the restoration. Its first and ablest + prophet was Count =de Maistre=, A.D. 1754-1821, long Sardinian + ambassador at St. Petersburg. He wrote against the modern + views of the relations of church and state, supporting the + infallibility, absolutism, and inviolability of the pope. He + was supported by Bonald, Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Lamennais, + Lacordaire, and Montalembert. Only Bonald maintained this + attitude. Between him and Chateaubriand a dispute arose over + the freedom of the press; Lamennais and Lacordaire began to + blend political radicalism with their ultramontanism; Lamartine + involved himself in the February revolution of 1848 as the + apostle of humanity; and Montalembert took up a half-way position. + In 1840 Louis =Veuillot= started the _Univers Religieux_ in place + of the _Avenir_, in which, till his death in 1883, he vindicated + the extremest ultramontanism.--In =Germany= ultramontane views + were disseminated by romancing historians and poets mostly + converts from Protestantism. =Görres=, professor of history in + Munich, represented the Reformation as a second fall, and set + forth the legends of ascetics in his “History of Mysticism” as + sound history. The German bishops set themselves to train the + clergy in hierarchical views, and by a rule of terror prevented + any departure from that theory. The ultramontanising of the + masses was carried on by missions, and by the establishment + of brotherhoods and sisterhoods. In the beginning of A.D. 1860 + there were only thirteen ultramontane journals with very + few subscribers, while in January, 1875, there were three + hundred. The most important was _Germania_, founded at Berlin in + 1871.--The _Civiltà Cattolica_ of Rome was always revised before + publication by Pius IX., and under Leo XIII. a similar position + is held by the _Moniteur de Rome_, while the _Osservatore Romano_ + and the _Voce della verità_ have also an official character. + + § 188.2. =Miracles.=--Prince =Hohenlohe= went through many parts + of Germany, Austria, and Hungary, performing miraculous cures; + but his day of favour soon passed, and he settled down as a + writer of ascetical works.--Pilgrimages to wonder-working shrines + were encouraged by reports of cures wrought on the grand-niece + of the Bishop of Cologne (§ 193, 1), cured of knee-joint + disease before the holy coat of Treves (§ 187, 6). Subjected to + examination, the pretended seamless coat was found to be a bit + of the gray woollen wrapping of a costly silk Byzantine garment + 1½ feet broad and 1 foot long. + + § 188.3. =Stigmatizations.=--In many cases these marks were + found to have been fraudulently made, but in other cases it was + questionable whether we had not here a pathological problem, + or whether hysteria created a desire to deceive or pre-disposed + the subject to being duped under clerical influence. =Anna Cath. + Emmerich=, a nun of Dülmen in Westphalia, in 1812, professed + to have on her body bloody wound-marks of the Saviour. For five + years down to her death in 1824, the poet Brentano sat at her + feet, venerating her as a saint and listening to her ecstatic + revelations on the death and sufferings of the Redeemer and his + mother. Overberg, Sailer, and Von Stolberg were also satisfied of + the genuineness of her revelations and of the miraculous marking + of her body. The physician Von Drussel examined the wound-prints + and certified them as miraculous; but Bodde, professor of + chemistry at Münster, pronounced the blood marks spots produced + by dragon’s-blood. Competent physicians declared her a hysterical + woman incapable of distinguishing between dream and reality, + truth and lies, honesty and deceit. Others famous in the same + line were Maria von Wörl, Dominica Lazzari, and =Crescentia + Stinklutsch=; also Dorothea Visser of Holland and Juliana + Weiskircher from near Vienna. + + § 188.4. Of a very doubtful kind were the miraculous marks on + =Louise Lateau=, daughter of a Belgian miner. On 24th April, 1868, + it is said she was marked with the print of the Saviour’s wounds + on hands, feet, side, brow, and shoulders. In July, A.D. 1868, + she fell into an ecstasy, from which she could be awakened + only by her bishop or one authorized by him. Trustworthy + physicians, after a careful medical examination, reported + that she laboured under a disease which they proposed to call + “stigmatic neuropathy.” Chemical analysis proved the presence of + food which had been regularly taken, probably in a somnambulistic + trance. In the summer of 1875 her sister for a time put an end + to the affair by refusing the clergy entrance into the house, + and she was then obliged to eat, drink, and sleep like other + Christians, so that the Friday bloody marks disappeared. But + now, say ultramontane journals, Louise became dangerously ill, + and clergy were called in to her help, and the marks were again + visible. Her patron Bishop Dumont of Tournay being deposed by + the pope in 1879, she took part against his successor, and was + threatened with excommunication (§ 200, 7). She was now deserted + by the ultramontanes and Belgian clergy, and treated as a poor, + weak-minded invalid. She died neglected and in obscurity in + A.D. 1883. + + § 188.5. Of pseudo-stigmatizations there has been no lack even + in the most recent times. In 1845 =Caroline Beller=, a girl of + fifteen years, in Westphalia, was examined by a skilful physician. + On Thursday he laid a linen cloth over the wound-prints, and sure + enough on Friday it was marked with blood stains; but also strips + of paper laid under, without her knowledge, were pricked with + needles. The delinquent now confessed her deceit, which she had + been tempted to perpetrate from reading the works of Francis of + Assisi, Catherine of Siena, and Emmerich. Theresa Städele in 1849, + Rosa Tamisier in 1851, and Angela Hupe in 1863, were convicted of + fraudulently pretending to have stigmata. The latter was proved + to have feigned deafness and lameness for a whole year, to have + diligently read the writings of Emmerich in 1861, to have shown + the physician fresh bleeding wounds on hands, feet, and side, and + to have affirmed that she had neither eaten nor drunk for a year. + Four sisters of mercy were sent to attend her, and they soon + discovered the fraud. In 1876 the father confessor of Ernestine + Hauser was prosecuted for damages, having injured the girl’s + health by the severe treatment to which she was subjected in + order to induce ecstasy and obtain an opportunity for impressing + the stigmata. =Sabina Schäfer= of Baden, in her eighteenth year, + had for two years borne the reputation of a wonder-working saint, + who every Friday showed the five wound prints, and in ecstasy + told who were in hell and who in purgatory. She professed + to live without food, though often she betook herself to the + kitchen to pray alone, and even carried food with her to give + to her guardian angel to carry to the distant poor. When under + surveillance in 1880 she sought to bribe her guardian to bring + her meat and drink, fragments of food were found among her + clothes, and also a flask with blood and an instrument for + puncturing the skin. She confessed her guilt, and was sentenced + by the criminal court of Baden to ten weeks’ imprisonment. The + ultramontane _Pfälzer Bote_ complained that so-called liberals + should ruthlessly encroach on the rights of the church and the + family. + + § 188.6. =Manifestations of the Mother of God in France.=--The + most celebrated of these manifestations occurred in 1858 at + =Lourdes=, where in a grotto the Virgin repeatedly appeared to a + peasant girl of fourteen years, almost imbecile, named Bernadette + Soubirous, saying “_Je suis l’Immaculée Conception_,” and urging + the erection of a chapel on that spot. A miracle-working well + sprang up there. Since 1872 the pilgrimages under sanction of the + hierarchy have been on a scale of unexampled magnificence, and + the cures in number and significance far excelling anything heard + of before.--At the village of =La Salette= in the department of + Isère, in 1846 two poor children, a boy of fifteen and a girl of + eleven years, saw a fair white-dressed lady sitting on a stone + and shedding tears, and, lo, from the spot where her foot rested + sprang up a well, at which innumerable cures have been wrought. + The epidemic of visions of the Virgin reached a climax in Alsace + Lorraine in 1872. In a wood near the village of =Gereuth= crowds + of women and children gathered, professing to see visions of + the mother of God; but when the police appeared to protect the + forest, the manifestation craze spread over the whole land, and + at thirty-five stations almost daily visions were enjoyed. The + epidemic reached its crisis in Mary’s month, May, 1874, and + continued with intervals down to the end of the year. In some + cases deceit was proved; but generally it seemed to be the + result of a diseased imagination and self-deception fostered + by speculative purveyors and the ultramontane press and clergy. + + § 188.7. =Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany.=--In + the summer of 1876 three girls of eight years old in the village + of =Marpingen=, in the department of Treves, saw by a well a + white-robed lady, with the halo over her head and with a child + in her arms, who made herself known as the immaculate Virgin, + and called for the erection of a chapel. A voice from heaven + said, This is my beloved Son, etc. There were also processions + and choirs of angels, etc. The devil, too, appeared and ordered + them to fall down and worship him. Thousands crowded from far + and near, and the water of the fountain wrought miraculous cures. + The surrounding clergy made a profitable business of sending + the water to America, and the _Germania_ of Berlin unweariedly + sounded forth its praises. Before the court of justice the + children confessed the fraud, and were sentenced to the house of + correction; and though on technical grounds this judgment was set + aside, the supreme court of appeal in 1879 pronounced the whole + thing a scandalous and disgraceful swindle.--Weichsel, priest + of =Dittrichswald= in Ermland, who gained great reputation as an + exorcist, made a pilgrimage to Marpingen in the summer of 1877, + and on his return gave such an account of what he had seen to + his communicants’ class that first one and then another saw the + mother of God at a maple tree, which also became a favourite + resort for pilgrims. + + § 188.8. =Canonizations.=--When in 1825 Leo XII. canonized a + Spanish monk Julianus, who among other miracles had made roasted + birds fly away off the spit, the Roman wits remarked that they + would prefer a saint who would put birds on the spit for them. + St. Liguori was canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839. Pius IX. + canonized fifty-two and beatified twenty-six of the martyrs + of Japan. The Franciscans had sought from Urban VIII. in 1627 + canonization for six missionaries and seventeen Japanese converts + martyred in 1596 (§ 150, 2), but were refused because they would + not pay 52,000 Roman thalers for the privilege. Pius IX. granted + this, and included three Jesuit missionaries. At Pentecost, 1862, + the celebration took place, amid acclamations, firing of cannons, + and ringing of bells. In 1868 the infamous president of the + heretic tribunal Arbúes [Arbires] (§ 117, 2) received the + distinction. The number of _doctores ecclesiæ_ was increased by + Pius IX. by the addition of Hilary of Poitiers in 1851, Liguori + in 1870, and Francis de Sales in 1877. And Leo XIII. canonized + four new saints, the most distinguished of whom was the French + mendicant, Bened. Jos. Labre, who after having been dismissed + by Carthusians, Cistercians, and Trappists as unteachable, made + a pilgrimage to Rome, where he stayed fifteen years in abject + poverty, and died in 1783 in his thirty-sixth year. + + § 188.9. =Discoveries of Relics.=--The Roman catacombs continued + still to supply the demand for relics of the saints for newly + erected altars. Toward the end of A.D. 1870 the Archbishop of + St. Iago de Compostella (§ 88, 4) made excavations in the crypt + of his cathedral, in consequence of an old tradition that the + bones of the Apostle James the Elder, the supposed founder of the + church, had been deposited there, and he succeeded in discovering + a stone coffin with remains of a skeleton. The report of this + made to Pius IX. gave occasion to the appointment of a commission + of seven cardinals, who, after years of minute examination of + all confirmatory historical, archæological, anatomical, and + local questions, submitted their report to Leo XIII., whereupon, + in November, 1884, he issued an “Apostolic Brief,” by which + he (without publishing the report) declared the unmistakable + genuineness of the discovered bones as _ex constanti et + pervulgato apud omnes sermone jam ab Apostolorum ætate memoriæ + prodita_, pronounced the relics generally _perennes fontes_, + from which the _dona cælestia_ flow forth like brooks among the + Christian nations, and calls attention to the fact that it is + just in this century, in which the power of darkness has risen + up in conflict against the Lord and his Christ, these and also + many other relics “_divinitus_” have been discovered, as _e.g._ + the bones of St. Francis, of St. Clara, of Bishop Ambrose, of the + martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, of the Apostles Philip and James + the Less, the genuineness of which had been avouched by his + predecessors Pius VII. and Pius IX. + + § 188.10. =The blood of St. Januarius=, a martyr of the age + of Diocletian, liquefies thrice a year for eight days, and on + occasion of earthquakes and such-like calamities in Naples, the + blood is brought in two vials by a matron near to the head of the + saint; if it liquefies the sign is favourable to the Neapolitans, + if it remains thick unfavourable; but in either case it forms + a powerful means of agitation in the hands of the clergy. + Unbelievers venture to suggest that this _precioso sangue del + taumaturgo S. Gennaro_ is not blood, but a mixture that becomes + liquid by the warmth of the hand and the heat of the air in the + crowded room, some sort of cetaceous product coloured red. + + § 188.11. About 100 clergy, twenty colour-bearers, 150 musicians, + 10,000 leapers, 3,000 beggars, and 2,000 singers take part + in the =Leaping Procession at Echternach= in Luxemburg, which + is celebrated yearly on Whit-Tuesday. It was spoken of in the + sixteenth century as an ancient custom. After an “exciting” + sermon, the procession is formed in rows of from four to six + persons bound together by pocket-handkerchiefs held in their + hands; Wilibrord’s dance is played, and all jump in time to the + music, five steps forward and two backward, or two backward and + three forward, varied by three or four leaps to the right and + then as many to the left. Thus continually leaping the procession + goes through the streets of the city to the parish church, up + the sixty-two steps of the church stair and along the church + aisles to the tomb of Wilibrord (§ 78, 3). The dance is kept up + incessantly for two hours. The performers do so generally because + of a vow, or as penance for some fault, or to secure the saint’s + intercession for the cure of epilepsy and convulsive fits, + common in that region, mainly no doubt owing to such senseless + proceedings. The origin of the custom is obscure. Tradition + relates that soon after the death of Wilibrord a disease appeared + among the cattle which jumped incessantly in the stalls, till + the people went leaping in procession to Wilibrord’s tomb, and + the plague was stayed! But the custom is probably a Christian + adaptation of an old spring festival dance of pagan times + (§ 75, 3; comp. 2 Sam. vi. 14). + + § 188.12. =The Devotion of the Sacred Heart.=--Even after the + suppression of the Jesuit order the devotion of the Sacred Heart + (§ 156, 6) was zealously practised by the ex-Jesuits and their + friends. On the restoration of the order numerous brotherhoods + and sisterhoods, especially in France, devoted themselves to this + exercise, and the _revanche_ movement of A.D. 1870 used this as + one of its most powerful instruments. Crowds of pilgrims flocked + to Paray le Monial, and there, kneeling before the cradle of + Bethlehem, they besought the sacred heart of Jesus to save France + and Rome, and the refrain of all the pilgrim songs, “_Dieu, de + la clemence ... sauvez Rome et la France au nom du sacré-cœur_,” + became the spiritual Marseillaise of France returning to the + Catholic fold. From the money collected over the whole land a + beautiful church _du Sacré-Cœur_ has been erected on Montmartre + in Paris. The gratifying news was then brought from Rome that + the holy father had resolved on July 16th, 1875, the twenty-ninth + anniversary of his ascending the papal throne and the two + hundredth anniversary of the great occurrences at Paray le + Monial, that the whole world should give adoration to the sacred + heart. In France this day was fixed upon for the laying of the + foundation stone of the church at Montmartre, and the Archbishop + of Cologne, Paul Melchers, commanded Catholic Germany to show + greater zeal in the adoration of the sacred heart, “ordained by + divine revelation” two hundred years before. + + § 188.13. =Ultramontane Amulets.=--The Carmelites adopted a brown, + the Trinitarians a white, the Theatines a blue, the Servites + a black, and the Lazarites a red, scapular, assured by divine + visions that the wearing of them was a means of salvation. A + tract, entitled “_Gnaden und Ablässe des fünffachen Skapuliers_,” + published by episcopal authority at Münster in 1872, declared + that any layman who wore the five scapulars would participate + in all the graces and indulgences belonging to them severally. + The most useful of all was the Carmelite scapular, impenetrable + by bullets, impervious to daggers, rendering falls harmless, + stilling stormy seas, quenching fires, healing the possessed, the + sick, the wounded, etc.--The Benedictines had no scapulars, but + they had Benedict-medals, from which they drew a rich revenue. + This amulet first made its appearance in the Bavarian Abbey of + Metten. The tract, entitled, “_St. Benediktusbüchlein oder die + Medaille d. h. Benediktus_,” published at Münster in 1876, tells + how it cures sicknesses, relieves toothache, stops bleeding + at the nose, heals burns, overcomes the craving for drink, + protects from attacks of evil spirits, restrains skittish horses, + cures sick cattle, clears vineyards of blight, secures the + conversion of heretics and godless persons, etc.--In A.D. 1878 + there appeared at Mainz, with approval of the bishop, a book in + its third edition, entitled, “_Der Seraphische Gürtel und dessen + wunderbare Reichtümer nach d. Franz. d. päpstl. Hausprälaten + Abbé v. Segur_,” according to which Sixtus V. in 1585 founded + the Archbrotherhood of the Girdle of St. Francis. It also affirms + that whoever wears this girdle day and night and repeats the six + enjoined paternosters, participates in all the indulgences of + the holy land and of all the basilicas and sanctuaries of Rome + and Assisi, and is entitled to liberate 1,000 souls a day from + purgatory.--Great miracles of healing and preservation from all + injuries to body and soul, property and goods, are attributed by + the Jesuits to the “_holy water of St. Ignatius_” (§ 149, 11), + the sale of which in Belgium, France, and Switzerland has proved + to them a lucrative business. But the mother of God has herself + favoured them with a still more powerful miracle-working water in + the fountains of Lourdes and Marpingen. + + § 188.14. We give in conclusion a specimen of =Ultramontane + pulpit eloquence=. A Bavarian priest, Kinzelmann, said in a + sermon in 1872: “We priests stand as far above the emperor, kings, + and princes as the heaven is above the earth.... Angels and + archangels stand beneath us, for we can in God’s stead forgive + sins. We occupy a position superior to that of the mother of God, + who only once bare Christ, whereas we create and beget him every + day. Yea, in a sense, we stand above God, who must always and + everywhere serve us, and at the consecration must descend from + heaven upon the mass,” etc.--An apotheosis of the priesthood + worthy of the Middle Ages. + + + § 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL.[548] + + Immediately after Pius IX. had, at the centenary of St. Peter in 1867, +given a hint that a general council might be summoned at an early date, +the _Civiltà Cattolica_ of Rome made distinct statements to the effect +that the most prominent questions for discussion would be the confirming +of the syllabus (§ 185, 2), the sanctioning of the doctrine of papal +absolutism in the spirit of the bull _Unam sanctam_ of Boniface VIII. +(§ 110, 1), and the proclamation of papal infallibility. The _Civiltà_ +had already taught that “when the pope thinks, it is God who thinks in +him.” When the council opened on the day of the immaculate conception, +December 8th, 1869, all conceivable devices of skilful diplomacy +were used by the Jesuit Camarilla, and friendly cajoling and violent +threatening on the part of the pope, in order to silence or win +over, and, in case this could not be done, to stifle and suppress +the opposition which even already was not inconsiderable in point +of numbers, but far more important in point of moral, theological, +and hierarchical influence. The result aimed at was secured. Of the +150 original opponents only fifty dared maintain their opposition to +the end, and even they cowardly shrank from a decisive conflict, and +wrote from their respective dioceses, as their Catholic faith obliged +them to do, notifying their most complete acquiescence. + + § 189.1. =Preliminary History of the Council.=--When Pius IX. on + the centenary of St. Peter made known to the assembled bishops + his intention to summon a general council, they expressed their + conviction that by the blessing of the immaculate Virgin it would + be a powerful means of securing unity, peace, and holiness. The + formal summons was issued on the day of St. Peter and St. Paul + of the following year, June 29th, 1868. The end for which the + council was convened was stated generally as follows: The saving + of the church and civil society from all evils threatening them, + the thwarting of the endeavours of all who seek the overthrow + of church and state, the uprooting of all modern errors and the + downfall of all godless enemies of the apostolical chair. In + Germany the Catholic General Assembly which met at Bamberg soon + after this declared that from this day a new epoch in the world’s + history would begin, for “either the salvation of the world would + result from this council, or the world is beyond the reach of + help.” This hopefulness prevailed throughout the whole Catholic + world. Fostered by the utterances of the _Civiltà Cattolica_, the + excitement grew from day to day. The learned bishop _in partibus_ + Maret, dean of the theological faculty of Paris, now came + forward as an eloquent exponent of the Gallican liberties; + even the hitherto so strict Catholic, the Count Montalembert, + to the astonishment of everybody, assumed a bold and independent + attitude in regard to the council, and energetically protested + in a publication of March 7th, 1870, six days before his death, + against the intrigues of the Jesuits and the infallibility dogma + which it was proposed to authorize. But the greatest excitement + was occasioned by the work “_Der Papst und das Konzil_,” + published in Leipzig, 1869, under the pseudonym _Janus_, of which + the real authors were Döllinger, Friedrich, and Huber of Munich, + who brought up the heavy artillery of the most comprehensive + historical scholarship against the evident intentions of the + curia. The German bishops gathered at the tomb of St. Boniface + at Fulda in September, 1869, and issued from thence a general + pastoral letter to their disturbed flocks, declaring that it + was impossible that the council should decide otherwise than + in accordance with holy Scripture and the apostolic traditions + and what was already written upon the hearts of all believing + Catholics. Also the papal secretary, Card. Antonelli, quieted + the anxiety of the ambassadors of foreign powers at Rome by the + assurance that the Holy See had in view neither the confirming of + the syllabus nor the affirming of the dogma of infallibility. In + vain did the Bavarian premier, Prince Hohenlohe, insist that the + heads of other governments should combine in taking measures to + prevent any encroachment of the council upon the rights of the + state. The great powers resolved to maintain simply a watchful + attitude, and only too late addressed earnest expostulations and + threats. + + § 189.2. =The Organization of the Council.=--Of 1,044 prelates + entitled to take part in the council 767 made their appearance, + of whom 276 were Italians and 119 bishops _in partibus_, all + pliable satellites of the curia, as were also the greater number + of the missionary bishops, who, with their assistants in the + propaganda, were supported at the cost of the holy father. The + sixty-two bishops of the Papal States were doubly subject to the + pope, and of the eighty Spanish and South American bishops it was + affirmed in Rome that they would be ready at the bidding of the + holy father to define the Trinity as consisting of four persons. + Forty Italian cardinals and thirty generals of orders were + equally dependable. The Romance races were represented by no less + than 600, the German by no more than fourteen. For the first time + since general councils were held was the laity entirely excluded + from all influence in the proceedings, even the ambassadors of + Catholic and tolerant powers. The order of business drawn up + by the pope was arranged in all its details so as to cripple + the opposition. The right of all fathers of the council to make + proposals was indeed conceded, but a committee chosen by the pope + decided as to their admissibility. From the special commissions, + whose presidents were nominated by the pope, the drafts of + decrees were issued to the general congregation, where the + president could at will interrupt any speaker and require him + to retract. Instead of the unanimity required by the canon law + in matters of faith, a simple majority of votes was declared + sufficient. A formal protest of the minority against these and + similar unconstitutional proposals was left quite unheeded. The + proceedings were indeed taken down by shorthand reporters, but + not even members of council were allowed to see these reports. + The conclusions of the general congregation were sent back for + final revision to the special commissions, and when at last + brought up again in the public sessions, they were not discussed, + but simply voted on with a _placet_ or a _non-placet_. The right + transept of St. Peter’s was the meeting place of the council, + the acoustics of which were as bad as possible, but the pope + refused every request for more suitable accommodation. Besides, + the various members spoke with diverse accents, and many had but + a defective knowledge of Latin. Although absolute secresy was + enjoined on pain of falling into mortal sin, under the excitement + of the day so much trickled out and was in certain Romish circles + so carefully gathered and sifted, that a tolerably complete + insight was reached into the inner movements of the council. From + such sources the author of the “_Römischen Briefe_,” supposed + to have been Lord Acton, a friend and scholar of Döllinger, drew + the material for his account, which, carried by trusty messengers + beyond the bounds of the Papal State, reached Munich, and + there, after careful revision by Döllinger and his friends, were + published in the _Augsburg Allg. Zeitung_. Also Prof. Friedrich + of Munich, who had accompanied Card. Hohenlohe to Rome as + theological adviser, collected what he could learn in episcopal + and theological circles in a journal which was published at a + later date. + + § 189.3. =The Proceedings of the Council.=--The first public + session of December 8th, 1869, was occupied with opening + ceremonies; the second, of January 6th, with the subscription + of the confession of faith on the part of each member. The first + preliminary was the _schema_ of the faith, the second that on + church discipline. Then followed the _schema_ on the church and + the primacy of the pope in three articles: the legal position + of the church in reference to the state, the absolute supremacy + of the pope over the whole church on the principles of the + Pseudo-Isidore (§ 87, 2) and the assumptions of Gregory VII., + Innocent III. and Boniface VIII., reproduced in the principal + propositions of the syllabus (§ 184, 2), and the outlines of a + catechism to be enforced as a manual for the instruction of youth + throughout the church. On March 6th there was added by way of + supplement to the _schema_ of the church a fourth article in the + form of a sketch of the decree of infallibility. Soon after the + opening of the council an agitation in this direction had been + started. An address to the pope emanating from the Jesuit college + petitioning for this was speedily signed by 400 subscribers. + A counter address with 137 signatures besought the pope not to + make any such proposal. At the head of the agitation in favour of + infallibility stood archbishops Manning of Westminster, Deschamps + of Mechlin, Spalding of Baltimore, and bishops Fessler of + St. Pölten, secretary of the council, Senestrey of Regensburg, + the “overthrower of thrones” (§ 197, 1), Martin of Paderborn, and, + as bishop _in partibus_, Mermillod of Geneva. Among the leaders + of the opposition the most prominent were cardinals Rauscher of + Vienna, Prince Schwarzenberg of Prague and Matthieu of Besançon, + Prince-bishop Förster of Breslau, archbishops Scherr of Munich, + Melchers of Cologne, Darboy of Paris, and Kenrick of St. Louis, + the bishops Ketteler of Mainz, Dinkel of Augsburg, Hefele + of Rottenburg, Strossmayer of Sirmium, Dupanloup of Orleans, + etc.--Owing to the discussions on the =Schema of the Faith= there + occurred on March 22nd a stormy scene, which in its wild uproar + reminds one of the disgraceful _Robber Synod of Ephesus_ + (§ 52, 4). When Bishop Strossmayer objected to the statement + made in the preamble, that the indifferentism, pantheism, atheism, + and materialism prevailing in these days are chargeable upon + Protestantism, as contrary to truth, the furious fathers of the + majority amid shouts and roars, shaking of their fists, rushed + upon the platform, and the president was obliged to adjourn the + sitting. At the next session the objectionable statement was + withdrawn and the entire _schema_ of the faith was unanimously + adopted at the third public sitting of the council on April 24th. + =The Schema of the Church= came up for a consideration on + May 10th. The discussion turned first and mainly on the fourth + article about the infallibility of the pope. Its biblical + foundation was sought in Luke xxii. 32, its traditional basis + chiefly in the well-known passage of Irenæus (§ 34, 8) and on + its supposed endorsement by the general councils of Lyons and + Florence (§ 67, 4, 6), but the main stress was laid on its + necessarily following from the position of the pope as the + representative of Christ. The opposition party had from the + outset their position weakened by the conduct of many of their + adherents who, partly to avoid giving excessive annoyance to the + pope, and partly to leave a door open for their retreat, did not + contest the correctness of the doctrine in question, but all the + more decidedly urged the inopportuneness of its formal definition + as threatening the church with a schism and provocative of + dangerous conflicts with the civil power. The longer the decision + was deferred by passionate debates, the more determinedly did + the pope throw the whole weight of his influence into the scales. + By bewitching kindliness he won some, by sharp, angry words he + terrified others. He denounced opponents as sectarian enemies of + the church and the apostolic chair, and styled them ignoramuses, + slaves of princes, and cowards. He trusted the aid of the blessed + Virgin to ward off threatened division. To the question whether + he himself regarded the formulating of the dogma as opportune, + he answered: “No, but as necessary.” Urged by the Jesuits, he + confidently declared that it was notorious that the whole church + at all times taught the absolute infallibility of the pope; + and on another occasion he silenced a modest doubt as to a + sure tradition with the dictatorial words, _La tradizione + sono io_, adding the assurance, “As Abbáte Mastai I believe in + infallibility, as pope I have experienced it.” On July 13th the + final vote was called for in the general congregation. There were + 371 who voted simply _placet_, sixty-one _placet juxta modum_, + _i.e._ with certain modifications, and eighty-eight _non placet_. + After a last hopeless attempt by a deputation to obtain the + pope’s consent to a milder formulating of the decree, Bishop + Ketteler vainly entreating on his knees, to save the unity and + peace of the church by some small concession, the fifty hitherto + steadfast members of the minority returned home, after emitting + a written declaration that they after as well as before must + continue to adhere to their negative vote, but from reverence and + respect for the person of the pope they declined to give effect + to it at a public session. On the following day, July 18th, + the fourth and last public sitting was held: 547 fathers voted + _placet_ and only two, Riccio of Cajazzo and Fitzgerald of Little + Rock, _non placet_. A violent storm had broken out during the + session and amid thunder and lightning, Pius IX., like “a second + Moses” (Exod. xix. 16), proclaimed in the _Pastor æternus_ the + absolute plenipotence and infallibility of himself and all his + predecessors and successors.--It was on the evening preceding + the proclamation of this new dogma that Napoleon III. proclaimed + war with Prussia, in consequence of which the pope lost the + last remnants of temporal sovereignty and every chance of its + restoration. Under the influence of the fever-fraught July sun, + the council now dwindled down to 150 members, and, after the + whole glory of the papal kingdom had gone down (§ 185, 3), on + October 20th, its sittings were suspended until better times. + The _schema_ of discipline and the preliminary sketch of a + catechism were not concluded; a subsequently introduced _schema_ + on apostolic missions was left in the same state; and a petition + equally pressed by the Jesuits for the defining of the corporeal + ascension of Mary had not even reached the initial stage. + + § 189.4. =Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council.=--All + protests which during the council the minority had made + against the order of business determined on and against all + irregularities resulting from it, because not persisted in, + were regarded as invalid. Equally devoid of legal force was + their final written protest which they left behind, in which + they expressly declined to exercise their right of voting. And + the assent which they ultimately without exception gave to the + objective standpoint of the law and the faith of the Catholic + church, was not in the least necessary in order to make it appear + that the decisions of the council, drawn up with such unanimity + as had scarcely ever before been seen, were equally valid with + any of the decrees of the older councils. Thus the bishops + of the minority, if they did not wish to occasion a split of + unexampled dimensions and incalculable complications, quarrels, + and contentions in the church that boasted of a unity which had + hitherto been its strength and stay, could do nothing else than + yield at the twelfth hour to the pope’s demand that “_sacrificio + dell’intelletto_” which at the eleventh hour they had refused. + The German bishops, who had proved most steadfast at the council, + were now in the greatest haste to make their submission. Even + by the end of August, at Fulda, they joined their infallibilist + neighbours in addressing a pastoral letter, in which they most + solemnly declared that all true Catholics, as they valued their + soul’s salvation, must unconditionally accept the conclusions of + the council unanimously arrived at which are in no way prejudiced + by the “differences of opinion” elicited during the discussion. + At the same time they demanded of theological professors, + teachers of religion, and clergymen throughout the dioceses a + formal acceptance of these decrees as the inviolable standpoint + of their doctrinal teaching; they also took measures against + those who refused to yield, and excommunicated them. Even + Bishop Hefele, who did not sign this pastoral and was at + first determined not to yield nor swerve, at last gave way. + In his pastoral proclaiming the new dogma he gave it a quite + inadmissible interpretation: As the infallibility of the church, + so also that of the pope as a teacher, extends only to the + revealed doctrines of faith and morals, and even with reference + to them only the definitions proper and not the introductory + statements, grounds, and applications, belong to the infallible + department. But subsequently he cast himself unreservedly into + the arms of his colleagues assembled once again at Fulda in + September, 1872, where he also found his like-minded friend, + Bishop Haneberg of Spires. Yet he forbore demanding an express + assent from his former colleagues at Tübingen and his clergy, and + thus saved Württemberg from a threatened schism. Strossmayer held + out longest, but even he at last threw down his weapons. But many + of the most cultured and scholarly of the theological professors, + disgusted with the course events were taking, withdrew from the + field and continued silently to hold their own opinions. The + inferior clergy, for the most part trained by ultramontane bigots, + and held in the iron grasp of strict hierarchical discipline, + passed all bounds in their extravagant glorification of the new + dogma. And while among the liberal circles of the Catholic laity + it was laughed at and ridiculed, the bigoted nobles and the + masses who had long been used to the incensed atmosphere of an + enthusiastic adoration of the pope, bowed the knee in stupid + devotion to the papal god. But the brave heart of one noble + German lady broke with sorrow over the indignity done by the + Vatican decree and the characterlessness of the German bishops to + the church of which to her latest breath she remained in spirit a + devoted member. Amalie von Lasaulx, sister of the Munich scholar + Ernst von Lasaulx (§ 174, 4), from 1849 superioress of the + Sisters of Mercy in St. John’s Hospital at Bonn, lay beyond hope + of recovery on a sick-bed to which she had been brought by her + self-sacrificing and faithful discharge of the duties of her + calling, when there came to her from the lady superior of the + order at Nancy the peremptory demand to give in her adhesion to + the infallibility dogma. As she persistently and courageously + withstood all entreaties and threats, all adjurations and cruelly + tormenting importunings, she was deposed from office and driven + from the scene of her labours, and when, soon thereafter, in 1872, + she died, the habit of her order was stripped from her body. The + Old Catholics of Bonn, whose proceedings she had not countenanced, + charged themselves with securing for her a Christian burial.--No + state as such has recognised the council. Austria answered it by + abolishing the concordat and forbidding the proclamation of the + decrees. Bavaria and Saxony refused their _placet_; Hesse, Baden, + and Württemberg declared that the conclusions of the council + had not binding authority in law. Prussia indeed held to its + principle of not interfering in the internal affairs of the + Catholic church, but, partly for itself, partly as the leading + power of the new German empire, passed a series of laws in + order to resume its too readily abandoned rights of sovereignty + over the affairs of the Catholic church, and to insure itself + against further encroachments of ultramontanism upon the domain + of civil life (§ 197). The Romance states, on the other hand, + pre-eminently France, were prevented by internal troubles and + conflicts from taking any very decisive steps. + + + § 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS. + + A most promising reaction, mainly in Germany, led by men highly +respected and eminent for their learning, set in against the Vatican +Council and its decrees, in the so-called Old Catholic movement of the +liberal circles of the Catholic people, which went the length, even +in 1873, of establishing an independent and well organized episcopal +church. Since then, indeed, it has fallen far short of the all too +sanguine hopes and expectations at first entertained; but still +within narrower limits it continues steadily to spread and to rear for +itself a solid structure, while carefully, even nervously, shrinking +from anything revolutionary. More in touch with the demands of the +_Zeitgeist_ in its reformatory concessions, yet holding firmly in every +particular to the positive doctrines of orthodoxy, the Old Catholic +movement has made progress in Switzerland, while in other Catholic +countries its success has been relatively small. + + § 190.1. =Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church + in the German Empire.=--In the beginning of August, 1870, the + hitherto exemplary Catholic professor Michelis of Braunsberg + (§ 191, 6), issued a public charge against Pius IX. as a heretic + and devourer of the church, and by the end of August several + distinguished theologians (Döllinger and Friedrich of Munich, + Reinkens, Weber, and Baltzer of Breslau, Knoodt of Bonn, and + the canonist Von Schulte of Prague) joined him at Nuremberg + in making a public declaration that the Vatican Council could + not be regarded as œcumenical, nor its new dogma as a Catholic + doctrine. This statement was subscribed to by forty-four Catholic + professors of the university of Munich with the rector at their + head, but without the theologians. Similarly, too, several + Catholic teachers in Breslau, Freiburg, Würzburg, and Bonn + protested, and still more energetically a gathering of Catholic + laymen at Königswinter. Besides the Breslau professors already + named, the Bonn professors Reusch, Langen, Hilgers, and Knoodt + refused to subscribe the council decrees at the call of their + bishop; whereas the Munich professors, with the exception of + Döllinger and Friedrich, yielded. A repeated injunction of his + archbishop in January, 1871, drew from Döllinger the statement + that he as a Christian, a theologian, a historian, and a citizen, + was obliged to reject the infallibility dogma, while at the + same time he was prepared before an assembly of bishops and + theologians to prove that it was opposed to Scripture, the + Fathers, tradition, and history. He was now literally overwhelmed + with complimentary addresses from Vienna, Würzburg, Munich, and + almost all other cities of Bavaria; and an address to government + on the dangers to the state threatened by the Vatican decrees + that lay at the Munich Museum, was quickly filled with 12,000 + signatures. On April 14th, Döllinger was excommunicated, and + Professor Huber sent an exceedingly sharp reply to the archbishop. + After several preliminary meetings, the =first congress= of the + Old Catholics was held in Munich in September, 1871, attended + by 500 deputies from all parts of Germany. A programme was + unanimously adopted which, with protestation of firm adherence + to the faith, worship, and constitution of the ancient Catholic + church, maintained the invalidity of the Vatican decrees and the + excommunication occasioned by them, and, besides recognising the + Old Catholic church of Utrecht (§ 165, 8), expressed a hope of + reunion with the Greek church, as well as of a gradual progress + towards an understanding with the Protestant church. But when at + the second session the president, Dr. von Schulte, proposed the + setting up of independent public services with regular pastors, + and the establishing as soon as possible of an episcopal + government of their own, Döllinger contested the proposal as + a forsaking of the safe path of lawful opposition, taking the + baneful course of the Protestant Reformation, and tending toward + the formation of a sect. As, however, the proposal was carried + by an overwhelming majority, he declined to take further part + in their public assemblies and retired more into the background, + without otherwise opposing the prevailing current or detaching + himself from it. The second congress was held at Cologne in + the autumn of 1872. From the episcopal churches of England and + America, from the orthodox church of Russia, from France, Italy, + and Spain, were sent deputies and hearty friendly greetings. + Archbishop Loos of Utrecht, by the part which he took in the + congress, cemented more closely the union with the Old Catholics + of Holland. Even the German “_Protestantenverein_” was not + unrepresented. A committee chosen for the purpose drew up an + outline of a synodal and congregational order, which provides + for the election of bishops at an annual meeting at Pentecost + of a synod, of which all the clergy are members and to which the + congregations send deputies, one for every 200 members. Alongside + of the bishop stands a permanent synodal board of five priests + and seven laymen. The bishop and synodal board have the right of + vetoing doubtful decrees of synod. The choice of pastors lies + with the congregation; its confirmation belongs to the bishop. + In July, 1873, a bishop was elected in the Pantaleon church + of Cologne by an assembly of delegates, embracing twenty-two + priests and fifty-five laymen. The choice fell upon Professor + Reinkens, who, as meanwhile Bishop Loos of Utrecht had died, was + consecrated on August 11th, at Rotterdam, by Bishop Heykamp of + Deventer, and selected Bonn as his episcopal residence. + + § 190.2. The first synod of the German Old Catholics, consisting + of thirty clerical and fifty-nine lay members, met at Bonn in + May, 1874. It was agreed to continue the practice of auricular + confession, but without any pressure being put upon the + conscience or its observance being insisted upon at set times. + Similarly the moral value of fasting was recognised, but all + compulsory abstinence, and all distinctions of food as allowable + and unallowable, were abolished. The second synod, with reference + to the marriage law, took the position that civil regular + marriages ought also to have the blessing of the church; only + in the case of marriages with non-Christians and divorced parties + should this be refused. The third synod introduced a German + ritual in which the exorcism was omitted, while the Latin mass + was provisionally retained. The fourth synod allowed to such + congregations as might wish it the use of the vernacular in + several parts of the service of the mass. At all these synods the + lay members had persistently repeated the proposal to abolish the + obligatory celibacy of the clergy. But now the agitation, + especially on the part of the Baden representatives, had become + so keen, that at the fifth synod of 1878, in spite of the + warning read by Bishop Reinkens from the Dutch Old Catholics, + who threatened to withdraw from the communion, the proposal + was carried by seventy-five votes against twenty-two. The Bonn + professors, Langen and Menzel, foreseeing this result, had + absented themselves from the synod, Reusch immediately withdrew + and resigned his office as episcopal vicar-general, Friedrich + protested in the name of the Bavarian Old Catholics. Reinkens, + too, had vigorously opposed the movement; whereas Knoodt, + Michelis, and Von Schulte had favoured it. The synod of 1883 + resolved to dispense the supper in both kinds to members of the + Anglican church residing in Germany, but among their own members + to follow meanwhile the usual practice of _communio sub una_. + The number of Old Catholic congregations in the German empire + is now 107, with 38,507 adherents and 56 priests.--Even at their + first congress the German Old Catholics, in opposition to the + unpatriotic and law-defying attitude of German ultramontanism, + had insisted upon love of country and obedience to the laws + of the state as an absolute Christian duty. Their newly chosen + bishop Reinkens, too, gave expression to this sentiment in + his first pastoral letter, and had the oath of allegiance + administered him by the Prussian, Baden, and Hessian governments. + But Bavaria felt obliged, on account of the terms of its + concordat, to refuse. At first the Old Catholics had advanced the + claim to be the only true representatives of the Catholic church + as it had existed before July 18th, 1870. At the Cologne congress + they let this assumption drop, and restricted their claims upon + the state to equal recognition with “the New Catholics,” equal + endowments for their bishop, and a fair proportion of the + churches and their revenues. Prussia responded with a yearly + episcopal grant of 16,000 thalers; Baden added about 6,000. It + proved more difficult to enforce their claim to church property. + A law was passed in Baden in 1874, which not only guaranteed + to the Old Catholic clergy their present benefices and incomes, + freed them from the jurisdiction of the Romish hierarchy, and + gave them permission to found independent congregations, but also + granted them a mutual right of possessing and using churches and + church furniture as well as sharing in church property according + to the numerical proportion of the two parties in the district. + A similar measure was introduced into the Prussian parliament, + and obtained the royal assent in July, 1875. Since then, however, + the interest of the government in the Old Catholic movement has + visibly cooled. In Baden, in 1886 the endowment had risen to + 24,000 marks. + + § 190.3. =The Old Catholics in other Lands.=--=In Switzerland= + the Old, or rather, as it has there been called, the Christian, + Catholic movement, had its origin in 1871 in the diocese + of Basel-Solothurn, whence it soon spread through the whole + country. The national synod held at Olten in 1876 introduced + the vernacular into the church services, abolished the compulsory + celibacy of the clergy and obligatory confession of communicants, + and elected Professor Herzog bishop, Reinkens giving him + episcopal consecration. In 1879 the number of Christian Catholics + in German Switzerland amounted to about 70,000, with seventy-two + pastors. But since then, in consequence of the submission of the + Roman Catholics to the church laws condemned by Pius IX. they + have lost the majority in no fewer than thirty-nine out of the + forty-three congregations of Canton Bern, and therewith the + privileges attached. A proposal made in the grand council of + the canton in 1883 for the suppression of the Christian Catholic + theological faculty in the University of Bern, which has existed + since 1874, was rejected by one hundred and fifty votes against + thirteen.--=In Austria=, too, strong opposition was shown + to the infallibility dogma. At Vienna the first Old Catholic + congregation was formed in February, 1872, under the priest Anton; + and soon after others were established in Bohemia and Upper + Austria. But it was not till October, 1877, that they obtained + civil recognition on the ground that their doctrine is that + which the Catholic church professed before 1870. In June, 1880, + they held their first legally sanctioned synod. The provisional + synodical and congregational order was now definitely adopted, + and the use of the vernacular in the church services, the + abolition of compulsory fasting, confession, and celibacy, + as well as of surplice fees, and the abandoning of all but the + high festivals, were announced on the following Sunday. The + bitter hatred shown by the Czechs and the ultramontane clergy + to everything German has given to the Old Catholic movement for + some years past a new impulse and decided advantage.--=In France= + the Abbé Michaud of Paris lashed the characterlessness of the + episcopate and was excommunicated, and the Abbés Mouls and Junqua + of Bordeaux were ordered by the police to give up wearing the + clerical dress. Junqua, refusing to obey this order, was accused + by Cardinal Donnet, Bishop of Bordeaux, before the civil court, + and was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment. Not till 1879 + did the ex-Carmelite Loyson of Paris lay the foundation of a + Catholic Gallican church, affiliated with the Swiss Old Catholics + (§ 187, 8).--=In Italy= since 1862, independently of the German + movement, yet on essentially the same grounds, a national Italian + church was started with very promising beginnings, which were + not, however, realized (§ 187, 7). Rare excitement was caused + throughout Italy by the procedure of Count Campello, canon of + St. Peter’s in Rome, who in 1881 publicly proclaimed his creed + in the Methodist Episcopal chapel, there renouncing the papacy, + and in a published manifesto addressed to the cathedral chapter + justified this step and made severe charges against the papal + curia; but soon after, in a letter to Loyson, he declared that + he, remaining faithful to the true Catholic church, did not + contemplate joining any Protestant sect severed from Catholic + unity, and in a communication to the Old Catholic Rieks of + Heidelberg professed to be in all points at one with the German + Old Catholics. Accordingly he sought to form in Rome a Catholic + reform party, whose interests he advocated in the journal _Il + Labaro_. The pope’s domestic chaplain, Monsignor Savarese, has + adopted a similar attitude. In December, 1883, he was received + by the pastor of the American Episcopal church at Rome into the + Old Catholic church on subscribing the Nicene Creed. In 1886 they + were joined by another domestic chaplain of the pope, Monsignor + Renier, formerly an intimate friend of Pius IX., who publicly + separated himself from the papal church, and with them took his + place at the head of a Catholic “_Congregation of St. Paul_” in + Rome.--Also the Episcopal _Iglesia Española_ in Spain (§ 205, 4), + and the Mexican _Iglesia de Jesus_ (§ 209, 1), must be regarded + as essentially of similar tendencies to the Old Catholics. + + + § 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY, ESPECIALLY IN GERMANY. + + Catholic theology in Germany, influenced by the scientific spirit +prevailing in Protestantism, received a considerable impulse. From +latitudinarian Josephinism it gradually rose toward a strictly +ecclesiastical attitude. Most important were its contributions in +the department of dogmatic and speculative theology. Besides and after +the schools of Hermes, Baader, and Günther, condemned by the papal +chair, appeared a whole series of speculative dogmatists who kept their +speculations within the limits of the church confession. Also in the +domain of church history, Catholic theology, after the epoch-making +productions of Möhler and Döllinger, has aided in reaching important +results, which, however, owing to the “tendency” character of +their researches, demand careful sifting. Least important are their +contributions to biblical criticism and exegesis. In general, however, +the theological _docents_ at the German universities give a scientific +character to their researches and lectures in respect of form and also +of matter, so far as the Tridentine limits will allow. But the more the +Jesuits obtained influence in Germany, the more was that scholasticism, +which repudiated the German university theology and opposed it with +perfidious suspicions and denunciations, naturalized, especially in the +episcopal seminaries, while it was recommended by Rome as the official +theology. The attempt, however, at the Munich Congress of Scholars +in 1863 to come to an understanding between the two tendencies failed, +owing to the contrariety of their principles and the opposition of +the Jesuits.--Outside of Germany, French theology, especially in the +department of history, manifested a praiseworthy activity. In Spain +theology has never outgrown the period of the Middle Ages. In Italy, +on the other hand, the study of Christian antiquities flourished, +stimulated by recent discoveries of treasures in catacombs, museums, +archives, and libraries. + + § 191.1. =Hermes and his School.=--The Bonn professor, =George + Hermes=, influenced in youth by the critical philosophy, passed + the Catholic dogma of Trent, assured it would stand the test, + through the fire of doubt and the scrutiny of reason, because + only what survives such examination could be scientifically + vindicated. He died in A.D. 1831, and left a school named after + him, mainly in Treves, Bonn, and Breslau. Gregory XVI. in 1835 + condemned his writings, and the new Archbishop of Cologne, + Droste-Vischering, forbad students at Bonn attending the lectures + of Hermesians. These made every effort to secure the recall of + the papal censure. Braun and Elvenich went to Rome, but their + declaration that Hermes had not taught what the pope condemned + profited them as little as a similar statement had the Jansenists. + There now arose on both sides a bitter controversy, which + received new fuel from the Prusso-Cologne ecclesiastical strife + (§ 193, 1). Finally in 1844 professors Braun and Achterfeld of + Bonn were deprived of office by the coadjutor-Archbishop Geissel, + and the Prussian government acquiesced. The professors of the + Treves seminary and Baltzer of Breslau, the latter influenced + by Günther’s theology, retracted.--A year before Hermes’ + condemnation the same pope had condemned the opposite theory of + Abbé =Bautain= of Strassburg, that the Christian dogmas cannot + be proved but only believed, and that therefore all use of reason + in the appropriation of the truths of salvation is excluded. + Bautain, as an obedient son of the church, immediately retracted, + “_laudabiliter se subjecit_.” + + § 191.2. =Baader and his School.=--Catholic theology for a long + time paid no regard to the development of German philosophy. + Only after Schelling, whose philosophy had many points of contact + with the Catholic doctrine, a general interest in such studies + was awakened as forming a speculative basis for Catholicism. To + the theosophy of Schelling based on that of the Görlitz shoemaker + (§ 160, 2), =Francis von Baader=, professor of speculative + dogmatics at Munich, though not a professional theologian, but + a physician and a mineralogist, attached himself. In his later + years he went over completely to ultramontanism. His scholar + =Franz Hoffmann= of Würzburg has given an exposition of Baader’s + speculative system. At Giessen this system was represented by + Leop. Schmid (§ 187, 3). All the Catholic adherents of this + school are distinguished by their friendly attitude toward + Protestantism. + + § 191.3. =Günther and his School.=--A theology of at least + equal speculative power and of more decidedly Catholic contents + than that of Baader, was set forth by the secular priest =Anton + Günther= of Vienna, a profound and original thinker of combative + humour, sprightly wit, and a roughness of expression sometimes + verging upon the burlesque. He recognised the necessity of going + up in philosophical and theological speculation to Descartes, + who held by the scholastic dualism of God and the creature, the + Absolute and the finite, spirit and nature, while all philosophy, + according to him, had been ever plunging deeper into pantheistic + monism. Thence he sought to solve the two problems of Christian + speculation, creation and incarnation, and undertook a war of + extermination against “all monism and semimonism, idealistic and + realistic pantheism, disguised and avowed semipantheism,” among + Catholics and Protestants. His first great work, “_Vorschule zur + Spekul. Theologie_,” published in 1828, treating of the theory + of creation and the theory of incarnation, was followed by a + long series of similar works. His most eminent scholars were + =Pabst=, doctor of medicine in Vienna, who gave clear expositions + of his master’s dark and aphoristic sayings, and =Veith=, who + popularized his teachings in sermons and practical treatises. + Some of the Hermesians, such as Baltzer of Breslau, entered the + rank of his scholars. The historico-political papers, however, + charged him with denying the mysteries of Christianity, rejecting + the traditional theology, etc., and Clemens, a _privatdocent_ + of philosophy in Bonn, became the mouthpiece of this party. Thus + arose a passionate controversy, which called forth the attention + of Rome. We might have expected Günther to meet the fate of + Hermes twenty years before; but the matter was kept long under + consideration, for strong influence from Vienna was brought + to bear on his behalf. At last in January, 1857, the formal + reprobation of the Güntherian philosophy was announced, and + all his works put in the Index. Günther humbly submitted to the + sentence of the church. So too did =Baltzer=. But being suspected + at Rome, he was asked voluntarily to resign. This Baltzer refused + to do. Then Prince-Bishop Förster called upon the government + to deprive him; and when this failed, he withdrew from him the + _missio canonica_ and a third of his canonical revenues, and in + 1870, on his opposing the infallibility dogma, he withheld the + other two-thirds. His salary from the State continued to be paid + in full till his death in A.D. 1871. + + § 191.4. =John Adam Möhler.=--None of all the Catholic + theologians of recent times attained the importance and influence + of Möhler in his short life of forty-two years. Stimulated + to seek higher scientific culture by the study mainly of + Schleiermacher’s works and those of other Protestants, and + putting all his rich endowments at the service of the church, + he won for himself among Catholics a position like that of + Schleiermacher among Protestants. His first treatise of 1825, + on the unity of the church, was followed by his “Athanasius the + Great,” and the work of his life, the “Symbolics” of 1832, in + its ninth edition in 1884, which with the apparatus of Protestant + science combats the Protestant church doctrine and presented + the Catholic doctrine in such an ennobled and sublimated form, + that Rome at first seriously thought of placing it in the Index. + Hitherto Protestants had utterly ignored the productions of + Catholic theology, but to overlook a scientific masterpiece like + this would be a confession of their own weakness. And in fact, + during the whole course of the controversy between the two + churches, no writing from the Catholic camp ever caused such + commotion among the Protestants as this. The ablest Protestant + replies are those of Nitsch [Nitzsch] and Baur. In 1835 Möhler + left Tübingen for Munich; but sickness hindered his scientific + labours, and, in 1838, in the full bloom of manhood, the Catholic + church and Catholic science had to mourn his death. He can + scarcely be said to have formed a school; but by writings, + addresses, and conversation he produced a scientific ferment in + the Catholic theology of Germany, which continued to work until + at last completely displaced by the scholasticism reintroduced + into favour by the Jesuits. + + § 191.5. =John Jos. Ignat. von Döllinger.=--Of all Catholic + theologians in Germany, alongside of and after Möhler, by far the + most famous on either side of the Alps was the church historian + Döllinger, professor at Munich since 1826. His first important + work issued in that same year was on the “Doctrine of the + Eucharist in the First Three Centuries.” His comprehensive + work, “The History of the Christian Church,” of 1833 (4 vols., + London, 1840), was not carried beyond the second volume; and + his “Text-book of Church History” of 1836, was only carried + down to the Reformation. The tone of his writings was strictly + ecclesiastical, yet without condoning the moral faults of + the popes and hierarchy. Great excitement was produced by his + treatise on “The Reformation,” in which he gathered everything + that could be found unfavourable to the Reformers and their work, + and thus gained the summit of renown as a miracle of erudition + and a master of Catholic orthodoxy. Meanwhile in 1838 he had + taken part in controversies about mixed marriages (§ 193, 1), and + in 1843 over the genuflection question (§ 195, 2), with severely + hierarchical pamphlets. As delegate of the university since 1845 + he defended with brilliant eloquence in the Bavarian chamber the + measures of the ultramontane government and the hierarchy, became + in 1847 Provost of St. Cajetan, but was also in the same year + involved in the overthrow of the Abel ministry, and was deprived + of his professorship. In the following year he was one of the + most distinguished of the Catholic section in the Frankfort + parliament, where he fought successfully in the hierarchical + interest for the unconditional freedom and independence of the + church. King Maximilian II. restored him to his professorship + in 1849. From this time his views of confessional matters became + milder and more moderate. He first caused great offence to his + ultramontane admirers at Easter, 1861, when he in a series of + public lectures delivered one on the Papal States then threatened, + in which he declared that the temporal power of the pope, the + abuses of which he had witnessed during a journey to Rome in 1857, + was by no means necessary for the Catholic church, but was rather + hurtful. The papal nuncio, who was present, ostentatiously left + the meeting, and the ultramontanes were beside themselves with + astonishment, horror, and wrath. Döllinger gave some modifying + explanations at the autumn assembly of the Catholic Union at + Munich in 1861. But soon thereafter appeared his work, “The + Church and the Churches” (London, 1862), which gave the lecture + slightly modified as an appendix. The “Fables respecting the + Popes of the Middle Ages” (London, 1871), was as little to the + taste of the ultramontanes. Indeed in these writings, especially + in the first named, the polemic against the Protestant Church + had all its old bitterness; but he is at least more just toward + Luther, whom he characterizes as “the most powerful man of the + people, the most popular character, which Germany ever possessed.” + And while he delivers a glowing panegyric on the person of the + pope, he lashes unrelentingly the misgovernment of the Papal + States. At the Congress of Scholars at Munich he contended for + the freedom of science. Döllinger as president of the congress + sent the pope a telegram which satisfied his holiness. But the + Jesuits looked deeper, and immediately “_il povero Döllinger_” + was loaded by the _Civiltà Cattolica_ with every conceivable + reproach. In A.D. 1868 nominated to the life office of imperial + councillor, he voted with the bishops against the liberal + education scheme of the government. But his battle against + the council and infallibility made the rent incurable, and his + angry archbishop hurled against him the great excommunication. + Then Vienna made him doctor of philosophy, Marburg, Oxford, + and Edinburgh gave him LL.D., and the senate of his university + unanimously elected him rector in 1871. But his tabooed lecture + room became more and more deserted. He took no prominent part + in the organizing of the Old Catholic church (§ 190, 1), but all + the more eagerly did he seek to promote its union negotiations + (§ 175, 6). + + § 191.6. =The Chief Representatives of Systematic + Theology.=--=Klee=, A.D. 1800-1840, of Bonn and Munich, + was a positivist of the old school, and during the Hermesian + controversy a supporter of the theology of the curia. =Hirscher=, + 1788-1865, of Freiburg, numbered by the liberals as one of + their ornaments and by the fanatical ultramontanes as a heretic, + did much to promote a conciliatory and moderate Catholicism, + equally free from ultramontane and rationalistic tendencies, + abandoning nothing essential in the Catholic doctrine. =Hilgers=, + the Hermesian, afterwards joined the Old Catholics of Bonn. + =Staudenmaier= and =Sengler= of Freiburg and =Berlage= of Münster + held a distinguished rank as speculative theologians. In the same + department, =Kuhn= and =Drey= of Tübingen, =Ehrlich= of Prague, + =Deutinger= of Dillingen, a disciple of Schelling and Baader, + and as such persecuted, though a pious believing Catholic, + =Oischinger= of Munich, who in despair at the proclamation of the + Vatican decree suddenly stopped his fruitful literary activity, + =Dieringer= of Bonn, who for the same reason not only ceased to + write but also in 1871 resigned his professorship and retired to + a small country pastorate, and finally, =Hettinger= of Würzburg, + best known by his “_Apologie d. Christenthums_.”--While the + above-named, though suspected and opposed by the scholastic party, + strove to preserve intact their ecclesiastical Catholic character, + other representatives of this tendency by their struggles against + scholasticism and then against the Vatican Council, were driven + away from their orthodox position. Thus =Frohschammer= of Munich, + when his treatise on “The Origin of the Soul,” in which he + supported the theory of Generationism in opposition to the + Catholic doctrine of creationism, and other works were placed + in the Index, asked for a revision on the ground that he taught + nothing contrary to Catholic doctrine. He was stripped of all his + clerical functions, and students were prohibited attending his + lectures. He protested, and his rooms were more crowded than + ever. Subsequently, however, repudiated even by the Old Catholics, + he drifted more and more, not only from the church, but even + from belief in revelation. Against Strauss’ last work he wrote + a tract in which he sought to prove that “the old faith is + indeed untenable,” but that also “the new science” cannot take + its place, that a “new faith” must be introduced by going back + to the Christianity of Christ. =Michelis=, a man of wide culture + in the department of natural science and philology, as well as + theology and philosophy, had in his earlier position as professor + in Paderborn, Münster, and Braunsberg, supported by word and pen + a strictly ecclesiastical tendency; but the Vatican Council made + him one of the first and most zealous leaders of the Old Catholic + movement. His most important work is his “Catholic Dogmatics,” + of 1881, in which the Old Catholic conception of Christianity is + represented as the purified higher unity of the Protestant and + Vatican systems of doctrine. + + § 191.7. =The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology.=--The + first place after Möhler and Döllinger belongs to Möhler’s + scholar Hefele, from 1840 professor at Tübingen and from 1869 + Bishop of Rottenburg, distinguished by the liberal spirit of his + researches. His treatises on the Honorius controversy made him + one of the most dangerous opponents of the infallibility dogma, + to which, however, he at last submitted (§ 189, 4). His most + important work is the “History of the Councils.” Hase criticised + the second edition of the work, severely but not without + sufficient grounds, by saying that in it “the bishop chokes + the scholar.” =Werner= of Vienna is a prolific writer in the + department of the history of theological literature; while + =Bach= of Munich and the Dominican =Denifle= have written on + the mediæval mystics, the latter also on the universities of + the Middle Ages. =Hergenröther= of Würzburg, by his monograph + on “Photius and the Greek Schism,” written in the interests of + his party, and by his polemic against the anti-Vatican movement, + and specially by his “Handbook of Church History,” rendered such + service to the papacy and the papal church, that Leo XIII. in + 1879 made him a cardinal and librarian of the Vatican, with + the task of reorganizing the library.--Among the Old Catholics, + =Friedrich= of Munich, besides his historical account of the + Vatican Council, had written on Wessel, Huss, and the church + history of Germany. =Huber= of Munich, whose “Philosophy of the + Church Fathers” of 1859 was put in the Index, while his much + more liberal work on Erigena of 1861 passed without censure, in + later years wrote an exhaustive account of the Jesuit order and + a critical reply to Strauss’ “Old and New Faith.” =Pichler= of + Munich, by his conscientious research and criticism, drew down + upon him the papal censure, and his book on the “History of the + Division of the Eastern and Western Churches” had the honour + of being placed in the Index. His later studies and writings + estranged him more and more from Romanism, inspired him with the + idea of a national German church, and fostered in him a love for + the _Protestantenverein_ movement; but his unbridled bibliomania + while assistant in the Royal Library of St. Petersburg in 1871, + brought his public career to a sad and shameful end. The Old + Catholic Professor =Langen= of Bonn, wrote a four-volume work + against the Vatican dogma, discussed the “Trinitarian Doctrinal + Differences between the Eastern and Western Churches,” in the + interests of a union with the Greek church, and published an + able monograph on “John of Damascus,” as well as a thorough and + impartial “History of the Roman Church down to Nicholas I.,” + two vols., 1881, 1885.--In Rome the Oratorian =Aug. Theiner= + atoned for the literary errors of his youth (§ 187, 4) by his + zealous vindication of papal privileges. His chief works were the + continuation of the “_Annales Ecclesiastici_” of Baronius, and + the editing of the historical documents of the various Christian + nations. The Jesuits charged him with giving the anti-Vaticanists + aid from the library and sought to influence the pope against + him so as to deprive him of his office of prefect of the Vatican + archives. He was suspended from his duties, and though he + still retained his title and occupied his official residence + in the Vatican, the doors from it into the library were built + up. His edition of the “Acts of the Council of Trent,” which + was commenced, was also prohibited. But he succeeded in making + a transcript at Agram in Croatia, where in 1874 a portion of it, + the official protocol of the secretary of the Council, Massarelli, + was printed by the help of Bishop Strossmayer in an elegant + style but abbreviated, and therefore unsatisfactory. Cardinal + Angelo =Mai=, as principal Vatican librarian, distinguished + himself by his palimpsest studies in old classical as well as + patristic literature. And quite worthy of ranking with either + in carefulness, diligence, and patience was =De Rossi=, who + has laboured in the department of Christian archæology, and + is well known by his great work, “_Roma sotteranea cristiana_,” + published in 1864 ff.--=Xavier Kraus=, when his “Handbook” had + been adversely criticised, hastened to Rome, submitted all his + utterances to the judgment of the pope, and proclaimed on his + return that in the next edition he would explain what had been + misunderstood and withdraw what was objected to. The question + now rises, whether the more recent work of =Xav. Funk= can + escape a similar censure. + + Among Catholic writers on canon lay the most notable are + =Walters= of Bonn, =Phillips= of Vienna, =Von Schulte= of Prague + and Bonn, who till the Vatican Council was one of the most zealous + advocates of the strict Catholic tendency, since then openly on + the side of the opposition, a keen supporter, and by word and pen + a vigorous promoter, of the Old Catholic movement, and =Vering= + of Prague, who occupies the ultramontane Vatican standpoint. + + § 191.8. =The Chief Representatives of Exegetical + Theology.=--=Hug= of Freiburg, in his “Introduction,” occupies + the biblical but ecclesiastically latitudinarian attitude of + Jahn. Leaving dogma unattacked and so himself unattacked, =Mövers= + of Breslau, best known by his work on the Phœnicians, a Richard + Simon of his age, developed a subtlety of destructive criticism + of the canon and history of the Old Testament which astonished + even the father of Protestant criticism, De Wette. =Kaulen= of + Bonn wrote an “Introduction to the Old and New Testament,” in + a fairly scientific spirit from the Vatican standpoint; while + =Maier= of Freiburg, wrote an introduction to the New Testament + and commentaries on some New Testament books.--The Old Catholic + =Reusch= of Bonn wrote “Introduction to the Old Testament,” and + “Nature and the Bible” (2 vols., Edin., 1886). =Sepp= of Munich, + silent since 1867, began his literary career with a “Life of + Christ,” a “History of the Apostles,” etc., in the spirit of + the romantic mystical school of Görres. His “Sketch of Church + Reform, beginning with a Revision of the Bible Canon,” caused + considerable excitement. With humble submission to the judgment + of his church, he demanded a correction of the Tridentine decrees + on Scripture in accordance with the results of modern science, + but the only response was the inclusion of his book in the Index. + + § 191.9. =The Chief Representatives of the New + Scholasticism.=--The official and most masterly representative of + this school for the whole Catholic world was the Jesuit =Perrone=, + 1794-1876, professor of dogmatics of the _Collegium Romanum_, + the most widely read of the Catholic polemical writers, but not + worthy to tie the shoes of Bellarmin [Bellarmine], Bossuet, and + Möhler. In his “_Prælectiones Theologicæ_,” nine vols., which has + run through thirty-six editions, without knowing a word of German, + he displayed the grossest ignorance along with unparalleled + arrogance in his treatment of Protestant doctrine, history, and + personalities (§ 175, 2). The German Jesuit =Kleutgen= who, under + Pius IX., was the oracle of the Vatican in reference to German + affairs, introduced the new Roman scholasticism by his work “_Die + Theologie der Vorzeit_,” into the German episcopal seminaries, + whose teachers were mostly trained in the _Collegium Germanicum_ + at Rome. Alongside of Perrone and Kleutgen, in the domain of + morals, the Jesuit =Gury= holds the first place, reproducing + in his works the whole abomination of probabilism, _reservatio + mentalis_, and the old Jesuit casuistry (§ 149, 10), with the + usual lasciviousness in questions affecting the sexes. Among + theologians of this tendency in German universities we mention + next =Denzinger= of Würzburg, who seeks in his works “to + lead dogmatics back from the aberrations of modern philosophic + speculations into the paths of the old schools.” His zealous + opposition to Güntherism did much to secure its emphatic + condemnation. + + § 191.10. =The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863.=--In + order if possible to heal the daily widening cleft between the + scientific university theologians and the scholastic theologians + of the seminaries, and bring about a mutual understanding and + friendly co-operation between all the theological faculties, + Döllinger and his colleague Haneberg summoned a congress + at Munich, which was attended by about a hundred Catholic + scholars, mostly theologians. After high mass, accompanied with + the recitation of the Tridentine creed, the four days’ conference + began with a brilliant presidential address by Döllinger “On the + Past and Present of Catholic Theology.” The liberal views therein + enunciated occasioned violent and animated debates, to which, + however, it was readily admitted as a religious duty that all + scientific discussions and investigations should yield to the + dogmatic claims of the infallible authority of the church, as + thereby the true freedom of science can in no way be prejudiced. + A telegraphic report to the pope drawn up in this spirit by + Döllinger was responded to in a similar manner on the same + day with the apostolic blessing. But after the proceedings + _in extenso_ had become known, a papal brief was issued which + burdened the permission to hold further yearly assemblies with + such conditions as must have made them utterly fruitless. They + were indeed acquiesced in with a bad grace at the second and + last congress at Würzburg in 1864, but the whole scheme was + thus brought to an end. + + § 191.11. =Theological Journals.=--The most severely scientific + journal of this century is the Tübingen _Theol. Quartalschrift_, + which, however, since the Vatican Council has been struggling + to maintain a neutral position between the extremes of the Old + and the New Catholicism. In order if possible to displace it the + Jesuits Wieser and Stenstrup of Innsbruck [Innsbrück] started in + 1877 their _Zeitschrift für Kath. Theologie_. The ably conducted + _Theol. Litteraturblatt_, started in 1866 by Prof. Reusch of Bonn, + had to be abandoned in 1878, after raising the standard of Old + Catholicism. + + § 191.12. =The Popes and Theological Science.=--What kind + of theology =Pius IX.= wished to have taught is shown by his + proclaiming St. Liguori (§ 165, 2) and St. Francis de Sales + (§ 157, 1) _doctores ecclesiæ_. =Leo XIII.=, on the other hand, + in 1879 recommended in the encyclical _Æterni patris_, in the + most urgent way, all Catholic schools to make the philosophy + of the angelical Aquinas (§ 103, 6) their foundation, founded + in 1880 an “Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas,” three out of its + thirty members being Germans, Kleutgen, Stöckl, and Morgott, and + gave 300,000 lire out of Peter’s pence for an edition of Aquinas’ + works with the commentaries of “the most eminent expositors,” + setting aside “all those books which, while professing to be + derived from St. Thomas are really drawn from foreign and unholy + sources;” _i.e._, in accordance with the desires of the Jesuits, + omitting the strictly Thomist expositors (§ 149, 13), and giving + currency only to Jesuit interpretations. No wonder that the + Jesuit General Beckx in such circumstances submitted himself + “humbly,” being praised for this by the pope as a saint. But a + much greater, indeed a really great, service to the documentary + examination of the history of the Christian church and state has + been rendered by the same pope, undoubtedly at the instigation of + Cardinal Hergenröther, by the access granted not only to Catholic + but also to Protestant investigators to the exceedingly rich + treasures of the Vatican archives. Though still hedged round with + considerable limitations, the concession seems liberality itself + as compared with the stubborn refusal of Pius IX. to facilitate + the studies of any inquirer. With honest pride the pope could + inscribe on his bust placed in the library: “_Leo XIII. Pont. + Max. historiæ studiis consulens tabularii arcana reclusit a + 1880_.”--But what the ends were which he had in view and what + the hopes that he cherished is seen from the rescript of August, + 1883, in which he calls upon the cardinals De Luca, Pitra, and + Hergenröther, as prefects of the committee of studies, of the + library and archives, while proclaiming the great benefits which + the papacy has secured to Italy, to do their utmost to overthrow + “the lies uttered by the sects” on the history of the church, + especially in reference to the papacy, for, he adds, “we desire + that at last once more the truth should prevail.” Therefore + archives and library are to be opened to pious and learned + students “for the service of religion and science in order that + the historical untruths of the enemies of the church which have + found entrance even into the schoolbooks should be displaced by + the composition of good writings.” The firstfruits of the zeal + thus stimulated were the “_Monunenta ref. Lutheranæ ex tabulariis + S. Sedis_,” Ratisbon, 1883, published by the assistant keeper of + the archives P. Balan as an extinguisher to the Luther Jubilee of + that year. But this performance came so far short of the wishes + and expectations of the Roman zealots that by their influence the + editor was removed from his official position. The next attempt + of this sort was the edition by Hergenröther of the papal + _Regesta_ down to Leo X. + + + + + IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States. + + + § 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. + + The Peace of Luneville of 1801 gave the deathblow to the old German +empire, by the formal cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, +indemnifying the secular princes who were losers by this arrangement +with estates and possessions on the right of the Rhine, taken from the +neutral free cities of the empire and the secularized ecclesiastical +principalities, institutions, monasteries, and orders. An imperial +commission sitting at Regensburg arranged the details of these +indemnifications. They were given expression to by means of the +imperial commission’s decree or recess of 1803. The dissolution of +the constitution of the German empire thus effected was still further +carried out by the Peace of Presburg of 1805, which conferred upon the +princes of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden, in league with Napoleon, +full sovereignty, and to the two first named the rank of kings, and was +completed by the founding of the Confederation of the Rhine of 1806, +in which sixteen German princes formally severed themselves from the +emperor and empire and ranked themselves as vassals of France under the +protectorate of Napoleon. Francis II., who already in 1804 had assumed +the title of Emperor of Austria as Francis I., now that the German +empire had actually ceased to exist, renounced also the name of +German emperor. The unhappy proceedings of the Vienna Congress of the +German Confederation and its permanent representation in the Frankfort +parliament during 1814 and 1815, after Napoleon’s twice repeated defeat, +led finally to the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. + + § 192.1. =The Imperial Commission’s Decree, 1803.=--The + significance of this for church history consists not merely + in the secularization of the ecclesiastical principalities + and corporations, but even still more in the alteration + caused thereby in the ecclesiastical polity of the territorial + governments. With the ecclesiastical principalities the most + powerful props of the Catholic church in Germany were lost, + and Protestantism obtained a decided ascendency in the council + of the German princes. The Catholic prelates were now simply + paid servants of the state, and thus their double connexion with + the curia and the state brought with it in later times endless + entanglements and complications. On the other hand, in states + hitherto almost exclusively Protestant, _e.g._ Württemberg, Baden, + Hesse, there was a great increase of Catholic subjects, which + attracted but little serious attention when the confessional + particularism in the consciousness of the age was more unassuming + and tolerant than ever it has been before or since. + + § 192.2. =The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the + Rhine.=--Baron Carl Theod. von Dalberg, distinguished for his + literary culture and his liberal patronage of art and science, + was made in 1802 Elector of Mainz and Lord High Chancellor of the + German empire. When by the recess of 1803 the territories of the + electorate on the left of the Rhine were given over to France and + those on the right secularized, the electoral rank was abolished. + The same happened with respect to the lord high chancellorship + through the creation of the Rhenish Confederation. Dalberg was + indemnified for the former by the favour of Napoleon by the + gift of a small territory on the right of the Rhine, and for the + latter by the renewal of the prince-primacy of the Confederation + of the Rhine with a seat in the Federal council. He still + retained his episcopal office and fixed its seat at Regensburg. + The founding of a metropolitan chapter at Regensburg embracing + the whole domain of the Rhenish Confederation he did not succeed + in carrying out, and in 1813 he felt compelled to surrender also + his territorial possessions. His spiritual functions, however, + as Archbishop of Regensburg, he continued to discharge until his + death in 1817. + + § 192.3. =The Vienna Congress and the Concordat.=--The Vienna + Congress of 1814, 1815, had assigned it the difficult task of + righting the sorely disturbed political affairs of Europe and + giving a new shape to the territorial and dynastic relations. But + never had an indispensably necessary redistribution of territory + been made more difficult or more complicated by diplomatic + intrigues than in Germany. Instead of the earlier federation of + states, the restoration of which proved impossible, the federal + constitution of June 8th, 1815, created under the name of the + German Confederation a union of states in which all members + of the confederation as such exercised equal sovereign rights. + Their number then amounted to thirty-eight, but in the course + of time by death or withdrawal were reduced to thirty-four. The + new distribution of territory, just as little as the Luneville + Peace, took into account confessional homogeneity of princes and + territories, so that the combination of Catholic and Protestant + districts with the above referred to consequences, occurred in + a yet larger measure. But the federal constitution secured in + Article XVI. full toleration for all Christian confessions in + the countries of the confederation. The claims of the Romish + curia, which advanced from the demand for the restoration of all + ecclesiastical principalities and the return of all impropriated + churches and monasteries to their original purposes, to the + demand for the restoration of the holy Roman-German empire in the + mediæval and hierarchical sense, as well as the solemn protest + against its conclusions laid upon the table of the congress by + the papal legate Consalvi, were left quite unheeded. But also + a proposal urgently pressed by the vicar-general of the diocese + of Constance, Baron von Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), to found a German + Catholic national church under a German primate found no favour + with the congress; and an article recommended by Austria and + Prussia to be incorporated in the acts of the confederation by + which the Catholic church in Germany endeavoured to secure a + common constitution under guarantee of the confederation, was + rejected through the opposition of Bavaria. And since in the + Frankfort parliament neither Wessenberg with his primacy and + national church idea nor Consalvi with a comprehensive concordat + answering to the wishes of the curia, was able to carry through + a measure, it was left to the separate states interested to make + separate concordats with the pope. Bavaria concluded a concordat + in 1817 (§ 195, 1); Prussia in 1821 (§ 193, 1). Negotiations with + the other German states fell through owing to the excessiveness + of the demands of the hierarchy, or led to very unsatisfactory + results, as in Hanover in 1824 (§ 194, 1) and the states + belonging to the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine + in 1837 (§ 196, 1). In the time of reaction against the + revolutionary excesses of 1848 the curia first secured any real + advance. Hesse-Darmstadt opened the list in 1854 with a secret + convention (§ 196, 4); then Austria followed in 1855 with a + model concordat (§ 198, 2) which served as the pattern for the + concordats with Württemberg in 1857 (§ 196, 6), and with Baden + in 1859 (§ 196, 2), as well as for the episcopal convention with + Nassau in 1861 (§ 196, 4). But the revived liberal current of + 1860 swept away the South German concordats; the Vatican Council + by its infallibility dogma gave the deathblow to that of Austria, + and the German “_Kulturkampf_” sent the Prussian concordat to the + winds, and only that of Bavaria remained in full force. + + § 192.4. =The Frankfort Parliament and the Würzburg Bishops’ + Congress of 1848.=--As in the March diets of 1848 the magic + word “freedom” roused through Germany a feverish excitement, + it found a ready response among the Catholics, whose church + was favoured in the highest degree by the movement. In the + Frankfort parliament the ablest leaders of Catholic Germany + had seats. Among the Catholic population there were numerous + religio-political societies formed (§ 186, 3), and the German + bishops, avowedly for the celebration of the 600th anniversary of + the building of Cologne cathedral, set alongside of the Frankfort + people’s parliament a German bishops’ council. After they had at + Frankfort declared themselves in favour of unconditional liberty + of faith, conscience, and worship, the complete independence + of all religious societies in the ordering and administering + of their affairs, but also of freeing the schools from all + ecclesiastical control and oversight, as well as of the + introduction of obligatory civil marriage, the bishops’ council + met in October at Würzburg under the presidency of Archbishop + Geissel of Cologne with nineteen episcopal assistants and several + able theological advisers. In thirty-six sessions they reached + the conclusion that complete separation between church and state + is not to be desired so long as the state does not refuse to + the church the place of authority belonging to it. On the other + hand, by all means in their power they are to seek the abrogation + of the _placet_ of the sovereign, the full independence of + ecclesiastical legislation, administration and jurisdiction, with + the abolition of the _appellatio tanquam ab abusu_, the direction + and oversight of the public schools as well as the control of + religious instruction in higher schools to be given only by + teachers licensed for the purpose by the bishops, and finally to + demand permission to erect educational institutions of their own + of every kind, etc., and to forward a copy of these decisions + to all German governments. The main object of the Würzburg + assembly to secure currency for their resolutions in the new + Germany sketched out at the Frankfort parliament, was indeed + frustrated by that parliament’s speedy overthrow. Nevertheless + in the several states concerned it proved of great and lasting + importance in determining the subsequent unanimous proceedings + of the bishops. + + + § 193. PRUSSIA. + + To the pious king Frederick William III. (1797-1840) it was a matter +of heart and conscience to turn to account the religious consciousness +of his people, re-awakened by God’s gracious help during the war of +independence, for the healing of the three hundred years’ rent in the +evangelical church by a union of the two evangelical confessions. The +jubilee festival of the Reformation in 1817 seemed to him to offer the +most favourable occasion. The king also desired to see the Catholic +church in his dominions restored to an orderly and thriving condition, +and for this end concluded a concordat with Rome in 1821. But it was +broken up in 1836 over a strife between canon and civil law in reference +to mixed marriages. Frederick William IV. was dominated by romantic +ideas, and his reign (1840-1858), notwithstanding all his evangelical +Christian decidedness, was wanting in the necessary firmness and +energetic consistency. In the Catholic church the Jesuits were allowed +unhindered to foster ultramontane hierarchical principles, and in +the evangelical church the troubles about constitution, union, and +confession could not be surmounted either by its own proper guardian, +the episcopate, or by the superior church councils created in 1850. +And although the notifications of William I. on his entrance upon the +sole government in 1858 were hailed by the liberals as giving assurance +that a new era had dawned in the development of the evangelical national +church, this hope proved to be premature. With the exaltation of the +victory-crowned royal house of Prussia to the throne of the newly +erected German Empire on January 18th, 1871, a new era was actually +opened for ecclesiastical developments and modifications throughout +the land. + + § 193.1. =The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne + Conflict.=--The government of =Frederick William III.= entered + into negotiations with the papal curia, not so much for the old + provinces in which everything was going well, but rather in the + interests of the Rhine provinces annexed in 1814, whose bishops’ + sees were vacant or in need of circumscription. The first + Prussian ambassador to the Roman curia (1816-1823) was the famous + historian Niebuhr. Although a true Protestant and keen critic + and restorer of the history of old pagan Rome he was no match + for the subtle and skilful diplomacy of Consalvi. In presence + of the claims of the curia he manifested to an almost incredible + extent trustful sympathy and acquiescence, even taking to do with + matters that lay outside of Prussian affairs, eagerly silencing + and opposing any considerations suggested from the other side. A + complete concordat, however, defining in detail all the relations + between church and state was not secured, but in 1821 an + agreement was come to, with thankful acknowledgment of the “great + magnanimity and goodness” shown by the king, by the bull _De + salute animarum_, sanctioned by the king through a cabinet order + (“in the exercise of his royal prerogative and without detriment + to these rights”), according to which two archbishoprics, Cologne + and Posen, and six bishoprics, Treves, Münster, Paderborn, + Breslau, Kulm, and Ermeland, with a clerical seminary, were + erected in Prussia and furnished with rich endowments. The + cathedral chapter was to have the free choice of the bishop; but + by an annexed note it was recommended to make sure in every such + election that the one so chosen would be a _grata persona_ to the + king. The union thus effected between church and state was of but + short duration. The decree of Trent forbade Catholics to enter + into mixed marriages with non-Catholics. A later papal bull + of 1741, however, permitted it on condition of an only passive + assistance of the clergy at the wedding and an engagement by the + parents to train up the children as Catholics. The law of Prussia, + on the other hand, in contested cases made all the children + follow the religion of their fathers. As this was held in 1825 + to apply to the Rhine provinces, and as the bishops there had, in + 1828, appealed to the pope, Pius VIII. when negotiations with the + Prussian ambassador Bunsen (1824-1838) proved fruitless, issued + in 1830 a brief which permitted Catholic priests to give the + ecclesiastical sanction to mixed marriages only when a promise + was given that the children should be educated as Catholics, but + otherwise to give only passive assistance. When all remonstrances + failed to overcome the obstinacy of the curia, the government + turned to the Archbishop of Cologne, Count =Spiegel=, a zealous + friend and promoter of the Hermesian theology (§ 191, 1), and + arranged in 1834 a secret convention with him, which by his + influence all his suffragans joined. In it they promised to give + such an interpretation to the brief that its observance would be + limited to teaching and exhortation, but would by no means extend + to the obligation of submitting the children to Catholic baptism, + and that the mere _assistentia passiva_ would be resorted to as + rarely as possible, and only in cases where absolutely required. + Spiegel died in November, 1835. In 1836 the Westphalian Baron + =Clement Droste von Vischering= was chosen as his successor. + Although before his elevation he had unhesitatingly agreed to + the convention, soon after his enthronization he strictly forbad + all the clergy celebrating any marriage except in accordance with + the brief, and blamed himself for having believed the agreement + between convention and brief affirmed by the government, and + having only subsequently on closer examination discovered the + disagreement between the two. At the same time, in order to give + effect to the condemnation that had been meanwhile passed on + the Hermesian theology, he gave orders that at the confessional + the Bonn students should be forbidden to attend the lectures + of Hermesians. When the archbishop could not be prevailed on + to yield, he was condemned in 1837 as having broken his word + and having incited to rebellion, and sent to the fortress of + Minden. =Gregory XIV.= addressed to the consistory a fulminating + allocution, and a flood of controversial tracts on either + side swept over Germany. Görres designated the archbishop “the + Athanasius of the nineteenth century.” The government issued + a state paper justifying its procedure, and the courts of + law sentenced certain refractory priests to several years’ + confinement in fortresses or prisons. The moderate peaceful + tone of the cathedral chapter did much to quell the disturbance, + supporting as it did the state rather than the archbishop. The + example of Cologne encouraged also =Dunin=, Archbishop of Gnesen + and Posen, to issue in 1838 a pastoral in which he threatened + with suspension any priest in his diocese who would not yield + unconditional obedience to the papal brief. For this he was + deposed by the civil courts and sentenced to half a year’s + imprisonment in a fortress, but the king prevented the execution + of the sentence. But Dunin fled from Berlin, whither he had + been ordered by the king, to Posen, and was then brought in 1839 + to the fortress of Kolberg. While matters were in this state + Frederick William IV. came to the throne in 1840. Dunin was + immediately restored, after promising to maintain the peace. + Droste also was released from his confinement with public marks + of respect, but received in 1841, with his own and the pope’s + approval, in the former Bishop of Spires, Geissel, a coadjutor, + who in his name and with the right of succession administered the + diocese. The government gave no aid to the Hermesians. The law + in regard to mixed marriages continued indeed in force, but + was exercised so as to put no constraint of conscience upon + the Catholic clergy. Of his own accord the king declined + further exercise of the royal prerogative, allowing the bishops + direct intercourse with the papal see, whereas previously all + correspondence had to pass through royal committees, with this + proviso by the minister Eichhorn, “that this display of generous + confidence be not abused,” and with the expectation that the + bishops would not only communicate to the government the contents + of their correspondence with the pope, but also the papal replies + which did not deal exclusively with doctrine, and would not speak + and act against the wish and will of the government. But Geissel, + recommended by Louis of Bavaria to his son-in-law Frederick + William IV. instead of Baron von Diepenbrock (§ 187, 1) who was + first thought of, by his skilful and energetic manœuvring, going + on from victory to victory, raised ultramontanism in Prussia to + the very summit of its influence and glory. + + § 193.2. =The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, + 1841-1871.=--In the Cologne-Posen conflict Rome had won an almost + complete victory, and with all its satellites now thought only + of how it might in the best possible manner turn this victory to + account, in which the all too trustful government sought to aid + it to the utmost. This movement received a further impulse in + the revolution of 1848 (§ 192, 4). In Prussia as well as in other + German lands, and there in a special degree, the Catholic church + managed to derive from the revolutionary movements of those times, + and from the subsequent reaction, substantial advantage. The + constitution of 1850 declared in Article xv.: “The evangelical + and the Roman Catholic Church as well as every other religious + society regulates and administers its affairs independently;” + in Article xvi.: “The correspondence of religious societies + with their superiors is unrestricted, the publication of + ecclesiastical ordinances is subject only to those limitations + which apply to all other documents;” in Article xviii.: + “The right of nomination, proposal, election, and institution + to spiritual office, so far as it belongs to the state, is + abolished;” and in Article xxiv.: “The respective religious + societies direct religious instruction in the public schools.” + Under the screen of these fundamental privileges the Catholic + episcopate now claimed one civil prerogative after another, + emancipated itself wholly from the laws of the state, and, on + the plea that God must be obeyed rather than man, made the canon + law, not only in purely ecclesiastical but also in mixed matters, + the only standard, and the decision of the pope the final appeal. + At last nothing was left to the state but the obligation of + conferring splendid endowments upon the bishops, cathedral + chapters, and seminaries for priests, and the honour of being at + home the executioner of episcopal tyranny, and abroad the avenger + of every utterance unfavourable in the doctrine and worship, + customs and enactments of the Catholic church. With almost + incredible infatuation the Catholic hierarchy was now regarded + as a main support of the throne against the revolutionary + tendencies of the age and as the surest guarantee for the loyalty + of subjects in provinces predominantly Catholic. Under protection + of the law allowing the formation of societies and the right + of assembling, the order of Jesuits set up one establishment + after another, and made up for defects or insufficient energy + of ultramontane pastoral work, agitation and endeavour at + conversion on the part of other peaceably disposed parish + priests, by numerous missions conducted in the most ostentatious + manner (§ 186, 6). Although according to Article xiii. of the + constitution religious societies could obtain corporative rights + only by special enactments, the bishops, on their own authority, + without regarding this provision, established religious orders + and congregations wherever they chose. As these were generally + placed under foreign superiors male or female, to whom in Jesuit + fashion unconditional obedience was rendered, each member being + “like a corpse,” without any individual will, they spread without + hindrance, so that continually new cloisters and houses of the + orders sprang up like mushrooms over the Protestant metropolis + (§ 186, 2). Education in Catholic districts fell more and more + into the hands of religious corporations, and even the higher + state educational institutions, so far as they dealt with the + training of the Catholic youth (theological faculties, gymnasia, + and Training schools), were wholly under the control of the + bishops. From the boys’ convents and priests’ seminaries, + erected at all episcopal residences, went forth a new generation + of clergy reared in the severest school of intolerance, who, + first of all acting as chaplains, by espionage, the arousing + of suspicion and talebearing, were the dread of the old parish + priests, and, as “chaplains at large,” stirred up fanaticism + among the people, and secured the Catholic press to themselves + as a monopoly. For the purposes of Catholic worship and education + the government had placed state aid most liberally at their + disposal, without requiring any account from the bishops as to + their disposal of the money. Although the number of Catholics + in the whole country was only about half that of the Protestants, + the endowment of the Catholic was almost double that of the + evangelical church. The civil authority readily helped the + bishops to enforce any spiritual penalties, and thus the inferior + clergy were brought into absolute dependence upon their spiritual + superiors. In the government department of Public Worship, from + 1840 to 1848 under the direction of Eichhorn, there was since + 1841 a subsection for dealing with the affairs of the Catholic + church which, although restricted to the guarding of the rights + of the king over against the curia and that of the state over + against the hierarchy, came to be in an entirely opposite + sense “the civil department of the pope in Prussia.” Under Von + Mühler’s ministry, 1862-1872, it obtained absolute authority + which it seems to have exercised in removing unfavourable acts + and documents from the imperial archives. And thus the Catholic + church, or rather the ultramontane party dominant in it since + 1848, grew up into a power that threatened the whole commonwealth + in its very foundations.--By the annexation of Hanover, Hesse, + and Nassau in 1866, four new bishoprics, those of Hildesheim, + Osnabrück, Fulda and Limburg were added to the previous + eight.--Continuation § 197. + + § 193.3. =The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to + 1848.=--On the accomplishment of the union by Frederick + William III. and the confusions arising therefrom, see § 177. + =Frederick William IV.= on his accession declared his wish in + reference to the national evangelical church, that the supreme + control of the church should be exercised only in order to secure + for it in an orderly and legal way the independent administration + of its own affairs. The realization of this idea, after a church + conference of the ordinary clergy from almost all German states + had been held in Berlin without result, was attempted at Berlin + by a general synod, opened on Whitsunday, 1846. The synod at + its eighteenth session entered upon the consideration of the + difficult question of doctrine and the confession. The result + of this was the approval of an ordination formula drawn up by + Dr. Nitzsch (§ 182, 10), according to which the candidate for + ordination was to make profession of the great fundamental + and saving truths instead of the church confession hitherto + enforced. And since among these fundamental truths the doctrines + of creation, original sin, the supernatural conception, the + descent into hell and the ascension of Christ, the resurrection + of the body, the last judgment, everlasting life and everlasting + punishment were not included, and therefore were not to be + enforced, since further by this ordination formula the special + confessions of Lutheran and Reformed were really set aside, + and therewith the existence of a Lutheran as well as a Reformed + church within the union seemed to be abolished, a small number + of decided Lutherans in the synod protested; still more decided + and vigorous protests arose from outside the synod, to which + the _Evang. Kirchenzeitung_ opened its columns. The government + gave no further countenance to the decisions of the synod, and + opponents exercised their wit upon the unfortunate _Nicænum_ of + the nineteenth century, which as a _Nitzschenum_ had fallen into + the water. In March, 1847, the king issued a patent of toleration, + by which protection was assured anew to existing churches, but + the formation of new religious societies was allowed to all who + found not in these the expression of their belief. + + § 193.4. =The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, + 1848-1872.=--When the storms of revolution broke out in 1848, + the new minister of worship, =Count Schwerin=, willingly aided + in reorganizing the church according to the mind of the masses + of the people by a constitutional synod. But before it had met + the reaction had already set in. The transition ministry of + =Ladenberg= was assured by consistories and faculties of the + danger of convoking such a synod of representatives of the people. + Instead of the synod therefore a =Supreme Church Council= was + assembled at Berlin in 1850, which, independent of the ministry, + and only under the king as _præcipuum membrum ecclesiæ_, should + represent the freedom of the church from the state as something + already realized. On March 6th, 1852, the king issued a cabinet + order, in consequence of which the Supreme Church Council + administered not only the affairs of the evangelical national + church as a whole, but also was charged with the interests of the + Lutheran as well as the Reformed church in particular, and was + to be composed of members from both of those confessions, who + should alone have to decide on questions referring to their own + confession. On the _Itio in partes_ thus required in this board, + only Dr. Nitzsch remained over, as he declared that he could find + expression for his religious convictions in neither of the two + confessions, but only in a consensus of both. The difficulty + was overcome by reckoning him a representative equally of both + denominations. Encouraged by such connivance in high places to + entertain still bolder hopes, the Lutheran societies in 1853 + presented to the king a petition signed by one hundred and sixty + one clergymen, for restoring Lutheran faculties and the Lutheran + church property. But this called forth a rather unfavourable + cabinet order, in which the king expressed his disapproval of + such a misconception of the ordinances of the former year, and + made the express declaration that it never was his intention to + break up or weaken the union effected by his father, that he only + wished to give the confession within the union the protection + to which it was undoubtedly entitled. After this the separate + Lutheran interest so long highly favoured fell into manifest and + growing disfavour. Still the ministerial department of worship + under =Von Raumer=, 1850-1858, continued to conduct the affairs + of schools and universities in the spirit of the ecclesiastical + orthodox reaction, and issued the endless school regulations + conceived in this spirit of the privy councillor Stiehl. The + Supreme Church Council also exhibited a rare activity and passed + many wholesome ordinances. The evangelical church won great + credit by the care it took of its members scattered over distant + lands, in supplying them with clergy and teachers. The evident + favour with which Frederick William IV. furthered the efforts of + the Evangelical Alliance of 1857 (§ 178, 3) was the last proof + of decided aversion from the confessional movement which he was + to be allowed to give. A long and hopeless illness, of which he + died in 1861, obliged him to resign the government to his brother + =William I.= When this monarch in October, 1855, began to rule + in his own name, he declared to his newly appointed ministers + that it was his firm resolve that the evangelical union, whose + beneficent development had been obstructive to an orthodoxy + incompatible with the character of the evangelical church, and + which had thus almost caused its ruin, should be maintained + and further advanced. But in order that the task might be + accomplished, the organs for its administration must be carefully + chosen and to some extent changed. All hypocrisy and formalism, + which that orthodoxy had fostered, is wherever possible to be + removed. The “new era,” however, marked by the appearance of + liberal journals, by no means answered to the expectations which + those words excited. The ministry of =Von Bethmann-Hollweg=, + 1858-1862, filled some theological and spiritual offices in this + liberal spirit; Stahl withdrew from the Supreme Church Council; + the proceedings against the free churches, as well as the severe + measures against the re-marriage of divorced parties, were + relaxed. But the marriage law laid down by the ministry with + permission of civil marriage was rejected by the House of Peers, + and the hated school regulations had to be undertaken by the + minister himself. The ecclesiastically conservative ministry of + =Von Mühler=, 1862-1872, which, however, wanted a fixed principle + as well as self-determined energy of will, and was therefore + often vacillating and losing the respect of all parties, was + utterly unfit to realize these expectations. The Supreme Church + Council published in 1867 the outlines of a provincial synodal + constitution for the six East Provinces which were still without + this institution, which the Rhine Provinces and Westphalia had + enjoyed since 1835. For this purpose he convened in autumn, 1869, + an extraordinary provincial synod, which essentially approved + the sketch submitted, whereupon it was provisionally enacted. + + § 193.5. =The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, + 1872-1880.=--After the removal of Von Mühler, the minister of + worship, in January, 1872, his place was taken by =Dr. Falk=, + 1872-1879. The hated school regulations were now at last set + aside and replaced by new moderate prescriptions, conceived in + an almost unexpectedly temperate spirit. On September 10th, 1873, + the king issued a congregational and synodal constitution + for the eastern provinces, with the express statement that the + position of the confession and the union should thereby be in no + way affected. It prescribed that in every congregation presided + over by a pastor, elected by the ecclesiastically qualified + church members, _i.e._ those of honourable life who had taken + part in public worship and received the sacraments, there should + be a church council of from four to twelve persons, and for + more important matters, _e.g._ the election of a pastor, a + congregational committee of three times the size, half of which + should be reappointed every third year. To the district synod, + presided over by the superintendent, each congregation sends as + delegates besides the pastor a lay representative chosen by the + church council from among its members or from the congregational + committee. According to the same principle the District Synods + choose from their members a clerical and a lay representative to + the provincial synod, to which also the evangelical theological + faculty of the university within the bounds sends a deputy, and + the territorial lord nominates a number of members not exceeding + a sixth part of the whole. The general synod, in which also the + two western provinces, the Rhenish and Westphalian, take part, + consists of one hundred and fifty delegates from the provincial + synods, and thirty nominated by the territorial lords, to which + the faculties of theology and law of the six universities within + the bounds send each one of their members. Although this royal + decree had proclaimed itself final, and only remitted to an + =Extraordinary General Synod= to be called forthwith the task of + arranging for future ordinary general synods, yet at the meeting + of this extraordinary synod in Berlin, on November 24th, 1875, + a draft was submitted of a constitution modified in various + important points. Of the three demands of the liberal party + now violently insisted upon-- + + 1. Substitution of the “filter” system in the election of + provincial and general synod members for that of the + community electorate. + + 2. Strengthening of the lay element in all synods; and + + 3. Abolition of the equality of small village communities with + large town communities + + the first was by far the most important and serious in its + consequences, but the other two bore fruit through the decree + that two-thirds of the members of the district and provincial + synods should be laymen, and the other one-third should be freely + elected to the district synod from the populous town communities, + for the provincial synods from the larger district synods. + Also in reference to the rights belonging to the several grades + of synods, considerable modifications were made, whereby the + privileges of communities were variously increased (_e.g._ to + them was given the right of refusing to introduce the catechisms + and hymn-books sanctioned by the provincial synods), while those + of the district and provincial synods were lessened in favour + of the general synod, and those of the latter again in favour + of the high church council and the minister of public worship. + After nearly four weeks’ discussion the bill without any serious + amendments was passed by the assembly, and on January 20th, 1876, + received the royal assent and became an ecclesiastical law. + But in order to give it also the rank of a law of the state, + a decision of the States’ Parliament on the relation of church + and state was necessary. The parliament had already in 1874, + when the original congregational and synodal constitution was + submitted to it, in order to advance the movement, approved + only the congregational constitution with provisional refusal + of everything going beyond that. In May, 1876, the bill already + raised by the king into an ecclesiastical law, passed both houses + of parliament, and had here also some amendments introduced with + the effect of increasing and strengthening the prerogative of + the state. The main points in the law as then passed are these: + The general synod, whose members undertake to fulfil their + duties agreeably to the word of God and the ordinances of the + evangelical national church, has the task of maintaining and + advancing the state church on the basis of the evangelical + confession. The laws of the state church must receive its assent, + but any measure agreed upon by it cannot be laid before the king + for his sanction without the approval of the minister of public + worship. It meets every sixth year; in the interval it, as well + as the provincial synods, is represented by a synodal committee + chosen from its members. The head of the church government is + the Supreme Church Council, whose president countersigns the + ecclesiastical laws approved by the king. The right of appointing + to this office lies with the minister of public worship; in + the nomination of other members the president makes proposals + with consent of the minister. Taxation of the general synod for + parliamentary purposes needs the assent of the minister of state, + and must, if it exceeds four per cent. of the class and income + tax, be agreed to by the Lower House, which also annually has + to determine the expenditure on ecclesiastical administration. + + § 193.6. When preparations were being made for the extraordinary + general synod, the king had repeatedly given vigorous expression + to his positive religious standpoint, and from the proposed + lists of members for that synod submitted by the minister of + public worship all names belonging to the _Protestantenverein_ + were struck out. Still more decidedly in 1877 did he show + his disapproval in the Rhode-Hossbach troubles (§ 180, 4), by + declaring his firm belief in the divinity of Christ, and when the + then president of the Brandenburg consistory, Hegel, tendered his + resignation, owing to differences with the liberal president of + the Supreme Church Council, Hermann, the king refused to accept + it, because he could not then spare any such men as held by + the apostolic faith. In May, 1878, Hermann was at last, after + repeated solicitations, allowed to retire, Dr. Hermes, member of + the Supreme Church Council, was nominated his successor, and the + positive tendency of the Supreme Church Council was strengthened + by the admission of the court preachers, Kögel and Baur. His + proposals again disagreeing with the royal nominations for the + provincial synod and for the =First Ordinary General Synod= of + autumn, 1879, led the minister of public worship, Dr. Falk, at + last, after repeated solicitation, to accept his resignation. + It was granted him in July, 1879, and the chief president of the + province of Silesia, =Von Puttkamer=, a more decided adherent + of the positive union party, was named as his successor; + but in June, 1881, he was made minister of the interior, and + the undersecretary of the department of public worship, =Von + Gossler=, was made minister. The general synod, October 10th + till November 3rd, consisted of fifty-two confessionalists, + seventy-six positive-unionists, fifty-six of the middle party + or evangelical unionist, and nine from the ranks of the left, + the _Protestantenverein_; three confessionalists, twelve + positive-unionists, and fifteen of the middle party were + nominated by the king. The measures proposed by the Supreme + Church Council: + + 1. A marriage service without reference to the preceding civil + marriage, with two marriage formulæ, the first a joint + promise, the second a benediction; + + 2. A disciplinary law against despisers of baptism and marriage, + which threatened such with the loss of all ecclesiastical + electoral rights, and eventually with exclusion from the + Lord’s supper and sponsor rights; and + + 3. A law dealing with _Emeriti_, + + were adopted by the synod and then approved by the king. On the + other hand a series of independent proposals conceived in the + interests of the high-church party remained in suspense. The last + effected elections for the general synod committee resulted in + the appointment of three positive-unionist members, including the + president, two confessionalists, and two of the middle party.[549] + + § 193.7. =The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces.=--In + 1866 the provinces of Hanover, Hesse and Schleswig-Holstein were + incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia. In these political + particularism, combined with confessional Lutheranism, suspicion + of every organized system of church government as intended + to introduce Prussian unionism, even to the extreme of open + rebellion, led to violent conflicts. The king, indeed, personally + gave assurance in Cassel, Hanover and Kiel that the position of + the church confession should in no way be endangered. “He will + indeed support the union where it already existed as a sacred + legacy to him from his forefathers; he also hopes that it may + always make further progress as a witness to the grand unity of + the evangelical church; but compulsion is to be applied to no + man.” The consistories of these provinces were still to continue + independent of the Supreme Church Council. But the ministerial + order for the restoration of representative synodal constitution + increasingly prevailed, although the wide-spread suspicion and + individual protests against the system of church government, + such as the temporary prohibition of the Marburg consistory of + the mission festival, as avowedly used for agitation against + the intended synodal constitution, helped to intensify the + bitterness of feeling. But on the other hand many preachers by + their unbecoming pulpit harangues, and their refusal to take + the oath of allegiance or service, to pray in church for their + new sovereign, and to observe the general holiday appointed + to be held in 1869 on November 10th (Luther’s birthday), + etc., compelled the ecclesiastical authorities to impose fines, + suspension, penal transportation, and deposition. In the Lutheran + =Schleswig-Holstein= a new congregational constitution was + introduced in 1869 by the minister Von Mühler, as the basis of a + future synodal constitution, which was adopted by the _Vorsynode_ + of Rendsburg in 1871, preserving the confessional status laid + down, without discussion. In 1878 an advance was made by the + institution of district or provostship synods, and in February, + 1880, the first General Synod was held at Rendsburg. As in Old + Prussia so also here the conservative movement proved victorious. + The laity obtained majorities in all synods, and the supremacy + of the state was secured by the subordination of the church + government under the minister of public worship. + + § 193.8. =In Hanover=, where especially Lichtenberg, president of + the upper consistory, and Uhlhorn, member of the upper consistory + (since 1878 abbot of Loccum), although many Lutheran extremists + long remained dissatisfied, temperately and worthily maintained + the independence and privileges of the Lutheran church, the first + national synod could be convened and could bring to a generally + peaceful conclusion the question of the constitution only in + the end of 1869, after the preliminary labour of the national + synod committee. In 1882 the Reformed communities of 120,000 + souls, hitherto subject to Lutheran consistories, obtained an + independent congregational and synodal constitution. Against + the new marriage ordinance enacted in consequence of the + civil marriage law (§ 197, 5), Theod. Harms (brother, and from + 1865 successor of L. Harms, § 184, 1), pastor and director of + Hermannsburg missionary seminary, rebelled from the conviction + that civil marriage did not deserve to be recognised as marriage. + He was first suspended, then in 1877 deposed from office, and + with the most of his congregation retired and founded a separate + Lutheran community, to which subsequently fifteen other small + congregations of 4,000 souls were attached. As teacher and pupils + of the seminary made it a zealous propaganda for the secession, + the missionary journals and missionary festivals were misused + for the same purpose, and as Harms answered the questions of the + consistory in reference thereto, partly by denying, partly by + excusing, that court, in December, 1878, forbad the missionary + collections hitherto made throughout the churches at Epiphany + for Hermannsburg, and so completely broke off the connection + between the state church and the institution which had hitherto + been regarded as “its pride and its preserving salt.” A reaction + has since set in in favour of the seminary and its friends on + the assurance that the interests of the separation would not be + furthered by the seminary, and that several other objectionable + features, _e.g._ the frequent employment in the mission service + of artisans without theological training, the sending of them out + in too great numbers without sufficient endowment and salary, so + that missionaries were obliged to engage in trade speculations, + should be removed as far as possible; but since the seminary + life was always still carried on upon the basis of ecclesiastical + secession, it could lead to no permanent reconciliation with the + state church. Harms died in 1885. His son Egmont was chosen his + successor, and as the consistory refused ordination, he accepted + consecration at the hands of five members of the Immanuel Synod + at Magdeburg. + + § 193.9. =In Hesse= the ministry of Von Mühler sought to bring + about a combination of the three consistories of Hanau, Cassel, + and Marburg, as a necessary vehicle for the introduction of a + new synodal constitution. In the province itself an agitation + was persistently carried on for and against the constitutional + scheme submitted by the ministers, which wholly ignored the old + church order (§ 127, 2), which, though in the beginning of the + seventeenth century through the ecclesiastical disturbances of + the time (§ 154, 1), it had passed out of use, had never been + abrogated and so was still legally valid. A _Vorsynode_ convened + in 1870 approved of it in all essential points, but conventions + of superintendents, pastoral conferences and lay addresses + protested, and the Prussian parliament, for which it was not yet + liberal enough, refused the necessary supplies. As these after + Von Mühler’s overthrow were granted, his successor, Dr. Falk, + immediately proceeded in 1873 to set up in Cassel the court + that had been objected to so long. It was constituted after the + pattern of the Supreme Church Council, of Lutheran, Reformed, and + United members with _Itio in partes_ on specifically confessional + questions. The clergy of Upper Hesse comforted themselves + with saying that the new courts in which the confessions were + combined, if not better, were at least no worse than the earlier + consistories in which the confessions were confounded; and they + felt obliged to yield obedience to them, so long as they did not + demand anything contradictory the Lutheran confession. On the + other hand, many of the clergy of Lower Hesse saw in the advance + from a merely eventual to an actual blending of the confessional + status in church government an intolerable deterioration. And so + forty-five clergyman of Lower and one of Upper Hesse laid before + the king a protest against the innovation as destructive of the + confessional rights of the Hessian church contrary to the will + of the supreme majesty of Jesus Christ. They were dismissed with + sharp rebuke, and, with the exception of four who submitted, were + deposed from office for obstinate refusal to obey. There were + about sixteen congregations which to a greater or less extent + kept aloof from the new pastors appointed by the consistories, + and without breaking away from the state church wished to remain + true to the old pastor “appointed by Jesus Christ himself.”--In + autumn, 1884, the movement on behalf of the restoration of a + presbyterial and synodal constitution of the Hessian evangelical + church, which had been delayed for fourteen years, was resumed. + A sketch of a constitution, which placed it under three + general superintendents (Lutheran, Reformed, United) and + thirteen superintendents, and, for the fair co-operation of + the lay element in the administration of church affairs (the + confession status, however, being beyond discussion), provided + suitable organs in the shape of presbyteries and synods, with a + predominance of the lay element, was submitted to a _Vorsynode_ + that met on November 12th, consisting of two divisions, like a + Lower and Upper House, sitting together. The first division, as + representative of the then existing church order, embraced, in + accordance with the practice of the old Hessian synods, all the + members of the consistory, _i.e._ the nine superintendents and + thirteen pastors elected by the clergy; the second, consisting at + least of as many lay as clerical members, was chosen by the free + election of the congregation. The royal assent was given to the + decrees of the _Vorsynode_ in the end of December, 1885, and the + confessional status was thereby expressly guaranteed. + + + § 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. + + In most of the smaller North German states, owing to the very slight +representation of the Reformed church, which was considerable only +in Bremen, Lippe-Detmold, and a part of Hesse and East Friesland, the +union met with little favour. Yet only in a few of those provinces did a +sharply marked confessional Lutheranism gain wide and general acceptance. +This was so especially and most decidedly in Mecklenburg, but also in +Hanover, Hesse, and Saxony. On the other hand, since the close of 1860, +in almost all those smaller states a determined demand was made for a +representative synodal constitution, securing the due co-operation of +the lay element.--The Catholic church was strongest in Hanover, and next +come some parts of Hesse, which had been added to the ecclesiastical +province of the Upper Rhine (§ 196, 1), but in the other North German +smaller states it was only represented here and there. + + § 194.1. =The Kingdom of Saxony.=--The present kingdom of Saxony, + formerly an electoral principality, has had Catholic princes + since 1679 (§ 153, 1), but the Catholic church could strike its + roots again only in the immediate neighbourhood of the court. + Indeed those belonging to it did not enjoy civil and religious + equality until 1807, when this distinction was set aside. The + erection of cloisters and the introduction of monkish orders, + however, continued even then forbidden, and all official + publications of the Catholic clergy required the _placet_ of + the government. The administration of the evangelical church, + so long as the king is Catholic, lies, according to agreement, + in the hands of the ministers commissioned _in evangelicis_. + Although several of these have proved defenders of ecclesiastical + orthodoxy, the rationalistic Illumination became almost + universally prevalent not only among the clergy but also + among the general populace. Meanwhile a pietistic reaction + set in, especially powerful in Muldenthal, where Rudelbach’s + labours impressed on it a Lutheran ecclesiastical character. + The religious movement, on the other hand, directed by Martin + Stephan, pastor of the Bohemian church in Dresden, came to a + sad and shameful end. As representative and restorer of strict + Lutheran views he had wrought successfully in Dresden from 1810, + but, through the adulation of his followers, approaching even + to worship, he fell more and more deeply into hierarchical + assumption and neglect of self-vigilance. When the police in + 1837 restricted his nightly assemblies, without, however, having + discovered anything immoral, and suspended him from his official + duties, he called upon his followers to emigrate to America. Many + of them, lay and clerical, blindly obeyed, and founded in 1835, + in Missouri, a Lutheran church communion (§ 208, 2). Stephan’s + despotic hierarchical assumptions here reached their fullest + height; he also gave his lusts free scope. Women oppressed or + actually abused by him at length openly proclaimed his shame in + 1839, and the community excommunicated him. He died in A.D. 1846. + Taught by such experiences, and purged of the Donatist-separatist + element, a church reaction against advancing rationalism made + considerable progress under a form of church that favoured it, + and secured also influential representatives in members of the + theological faculty of the university of Leipzig distinguished + for their scientific attainments. After repeated debates in + the chamber over a scheme of a new ecclesiastical and synodal + order submitted by the ministry, the first evangelical Lutheran + state synod met in Dresden, in May, 1871. On the motion of + the government, the law of patronage was here modified so that + the patron had to submit three candidates to the choice of the + ecclesiastical board. It was also decided to form an upper or + state consistory, to which all ecclesiastical matters hitherto + administered by the minister of public worship should be given + over; the control of education was to remain with the ministry, + and the state consistory was to charge itself with the oversight + only of religious instruction and ethico-religious training. The + most lively debates were those excited by the proposal to abolish + the obligation resting upon all church teachers to seem to adhere + to the confession of the Lutheran church, led by Dr. Zarncke, + the rector of the state university. The commission of inquiry + sent down, under the presidency of Professor Luthardt, demanded + the absolute withdrawal of this proposal, which aimed at perfect + doctrinal freedom. On the other hand, Professor G. Baur made the + mediate proposal to substitute for the declaration on oath, the + promise to teach simply and purely to the best of his knowledge + and according to conscience the gospel of Christ as it is + contained in Scripture, and witnessed in the confessions of the + Lutheran church. And as even now Luthardt, inspired by the wish + not to rend the first State Synod at its final sitting by an + incurable schism, agreed to this suggestion, it was carried + by a large majority. In consequence of this decision, a number + of “Lutherans faithful to the confession,” withdrew from the + State church, and on the anniversary of the Reformation in 1871, + constituted themselves into an Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, + associated with the Missouri synod (§ 208, 2), from which, on + the suggestion of some of the members of the community who had + returned from America, they chose for themselves a pastor called + Ruhland. There were five such congregations in Saxony: at Dresden, + Planitz, Chemnitz, Frankenberg, and Krimmitschau, to which some + South German dissenters at Stenden, Wiesbaden, Frankfort, and + Anspach attached themselves. + + § 194.2. =The Saxon Duchies.=--The Stephan emigration had + also decoyed a number of inhabitants from Saxe-Altenburg. In + a rescript to the Ephorus Ronneburg, in 1838, the consistory + traced back this separatist movement to the fact that the + religious needs of the congregations found no satisfaction in the + rationalistic preaching, and urged a more earnest presentation + from the pulpit of the fundamental and central doctrines of + evangelical Christianity. This rescript was the subject of + violent denunciation. The government took the opinion of four + theological faculties on the procedure of the consistory and + its opponents, who published it simply with the praise and blame + contained therein, and thus prevented any investigation. Also + in =Weimar= and =Gotha= the rationalism of Röhr and Bretschneider, + which had dominated almost all pulpits down to the middle of + the century, began gradually to disappear, and the more recent + parties of Confessional, Mediation, and Free Protestant theology + to take its place. The last named party found vigorous support + in the university of Jena. A petition addressed to it in 1882 + from the Thuringian Church Conference of Eisenach, to call + to Jena also a representative of the positive Lutheran theology, + was decidedly refused, and, in a controversial pamphlet by + Superintendent Braasch, condemned as “the Eisenach outrage” + (_Attentat_). In =Meiningen= the _Vorsynode_ convened there + in 1870 sanctioned the sketch of a moderately liberal synodal + constitution submitted to it, which placed the confession indeed + beyond the reach of legislative interference, but also secured + its rights to free inquiry. The first State Synod, however, did + not meet before 1878. In =Weimar= the first synod was held in + 1873, the second in 1879. + + § 194.3. =The Kingdom of Hanover.=--Although the union found no + acceptance in Hanover, after the overthrow of the rationalism of + the _ancien régime_, the union theology became dominant in the + university. The clergy, however, were in great part carried along + by the confessional Lutheran current of the age. The Preachers’ + Conference at Stade in 1854 took occasion to call the attention + of the government to the “manifest divergence” between the union + theology of the university and the legal and actual Lutheran + confession of the state church, and urged the appointment + of Lutheran teachers. The faculty, on the other hand, issued + a memorial in favour of liberty of public teaching, and the + curators filled the vacancies again with union theologians. + When in April, 1862, it was proposed to displace the state + catechism introduced in 1790, which neither theologically nor + catechetically satisfied the needs of the church, by a carefully + sifted revision of the Walther catechism in use before 1790, + approved of by the Göttingen faculty, the agitation of the + liberal party called forth an opposition, especially in city + populations, which expressed itself in insults to members of + consistories and pastors, and in almost daily repeated bloody + street fights with the military, and obliged the government at + last to give way.--The negotiations about a concordat with Rome + reached up further in 1824 than obtaining the circumscription + bull _Impensa Romanorum_, by which the Catholic church obtained + two bishoprics, those of Hildesheim and Osnabrück.--In 1886, + Hanover was incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia (§ 193, 8). + + § 194.4. =Hesse.=--Landgrave Maurice, 1592-1627, had forced upon + his territories a modified Melanchthonian Calvinism (§ 154, 1), + but a Lutheran basis with Lutheran modes of viewing things and + Lutheran institutions still remained, and the Lutheran reaction + had never been completely overcome, not even in Lower Hesse, + although there the name of the Reformed Church with Reformed + modes of worship had been gradually introduced in most of the + congregations. The communities of Upper Hesse and Schmalcald, + however, by continuous opposition saved for the most part their + Lutheranism, which in 1648 was guaranteed to them anew by the + Darmstadt Recess, and secured an independent form of church + government in the Definitorium at Marburg. The union movement, + which issued from Prussia in 1817, met with favour also in Hesse, + but only in the province of Hanau in 1818 got the length of a + formal constituting of a church on the basis of the union. In + 1821, however, the elector issued the so-called Reorganization + edict, by which the entire evangelical church of the electorate, + without any reference to the confession status, but simply in + accordance with the political divisions of the state, was put + under the newly instituted consistories of Cassel, Marburg, + and Hanau, in the formation of which the confession of the + inhabitants had not been considered. The Marburg Definitorium + indeed protested, but in vain, against this despotic act, which + was felt a grievance, less on account of the wiping out of the + confession than on account of the loss of independent church + government which it occasioned. The government appointed pastors, + teachers and professors without enquiring much about their + confession. In 1838 the hitherto required subscription of the + clergy to the confessional writings, the Augsburg Confession and + its Apology, was modified into a formula declaring conscientious + regard for them. But in this Bickell, professor of law at Marburg, + saw a loss to the church in legal status, an endangering of the + evangelical church; the theological professor, Hupfeld, also + in the further course of the controversy took his side, while + the advocate, Henkel, in Cassel, as a popular agitator opposed + him and demanded a State Synod for the formal abolishing of all + symbolical books. The government ignored both demands, and the + vehement conflict was quieted by degrees. With 1850 a new era + began in the keen controversy over the question, which confession, + whether Lutheran or Reformed, was legally and actually that + of the state. The ministry of Hassenpflug from 1850, which + suppressed the revolution, considered it as legally the Lutheran, + and determined the ecclesiastical arrangements in this sense, + and in this course Dr. Vilmar, member of the Consistory, was the + minister’s right hand. But the elector was from the beginning + personally opposed to this procedure, and on the overthrow of + the ministry in 1855, Vilmar (died 1868) was also transferred to + a theological professorship at Marburg. This, however, only gave + a new impulse to the confessional Lutheran movement in the state, + for the spirit and tendency of the highly revered theological + teacher powerfully influenced the younger generation of the + Hessian clergy. In consequence of the German war, Hesse was + annexed to Prussia in 1866 (§ 193, 9).--On the Catholic church + in this state, compare § 196, 1. + + § 194.5. =Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold.=--Much + ado was made also in =Brunswick= over the introduction of a new + constitution for the Lutheran state church in 1869, and at last + in 1871 a synodal ordinance was passed by which the State Synod, + consisting of fourteen clerical and eighteen lay members, was + to meet every four years, so as not to be a too offensive factor + in the ecclesiastical administration and legislation, which + therefore has left untouched the content of the confession. The + first synod of 1872 began by rejecting the injunction to open + the sessions with prayer and reading of scripture. =Oldenburg=, + which in 1849, by a synod whose membership had been chosen by the + original electorate, had been favoured with a democratic church + constitution wholly separate from the state, accepted in 1854 + without opposition a new constitution which restored the headship + of the church to the territorial lords, the administration of the + church to a Supreme Church Council and ecclesiastical legislation + to a State Synod consisting of clerical and lay members.--The + prince in the exercise of his sovereign rights gave a charter + in 1878 to the evangelical church of the Duchy of =Anhalt= to + a synodal ordinance which, though approved by the _Vorsynode_ of + 1876, had been rejected by parliament, and afterwards it gained + the assent of the national representatives.--In the Reformed + =Lippe-Detmold= there were in 1844 still five preachers who, + wearied of the illuminationist catechism of the state church, had + gone back to the Heidelberg catechism and protested against the + abolition of acceptance on oath of the symbols, as destructive + of the peace of the church. The democratic church constitution + of 1851, however, was abrogated in 1854, and instead of it, the + old Reformed church order of 1684 was again made law. At the same + time, religious pardon and equality were guaranteed to Catholics + and Lutherans. The first Reformed State Synod was constituted + in 1878. + + § 194.6. =Mecklenburg.=--Mecklenburg-Schwerin from 1848 was + in possession of a strictly Lutheran church government under + the direction of Kliefoth, and its university at Rostock + had decidedly Lutheran theologians. When the chamberlain Von + Kettenburg, on going over to the Catholic church, appointed + a Catholic priest on his estate, the government in 1852, on + the ground that the laws of the state did not allow Catholic + services which extended beyond simple family worship, held that + he had overstepped the limits. A complaint, in reference thereto, + presented to the parliament and then to the German _Bund_, was + in both cases thrown out. Even in 1863 the Rostock magistrates + refused to allow tower and bells in the building of a Catholic + church.--An extraordinary excitement was caused by the removal + from office in January, 1858, of Professor M. Baumgarten of + Rostock. An examination paper set by him on 2 Kings xi. by which + the endeavour was made to win scripture sanction for a violent + revolution, obliged the government even in 1856 to remove him + from the theological examination board. At the same time his + polemic addressed to a pastoral conference at Parchim, against + the doctrine of the Mecklenburg state catechism on the ceremonial + law, especially in reference to the sanctification of the Sabbath, + increased the distrust which the clergy of the state, on account + of his writings, had entertained against his theological position + as one which, from a fanatical basis, diverged on all sides into + fundamental antagonism to the confession and the ordinances of + the Lutheran state church. The government finally deposed him + in 1858 (leaving him, however, in possession of his whole salary, + also of the right of public teaching), on the ground and after + the publication of a judgment of the consistory which found him + guilty of heretical alteration of all the fundamental doctrines + of the Christian faith and the Lutheran confession, and sought to + prove this verdict from his writings. As might have been foreseen, + this step was followed by a loud outcry by all journals; but even + Lutherans, like Von Hofmann, Von Scheurl [Scheuerl], and Luthardt, + objected to the proceedings of the government as exceeding the + law laid down by the ecclesiastical ordinance and the opinion + of the consistory as resting upon misunderstanding, arbitrary + supposition and inconsequent conclusion. + + + § 195. BAVARIA. + + Catholic Bavaria, originally an electorate, but raised in 1806, by +Napoleon’s favour, into a royal sovereignty, to which had been adjudged +by the Vienna Congress considerable territories in Franconia and the +Palatine of the Rhine with a mainly Protestant population, attempted +under Maximilian Joseph (IV.) I., after the manner of Napoleon, +despotically to pass a liberal system of church polity, but found +itself obliged again to yield, and under Louis I. became again the +chief retreat of Roman Catholic ecclesiasticism of the most pronounced +ultramontane pattern. It was under the noble and upright king, +Maximilian II., that the evangelical church of the two divisions of +the kingdom, numbering two-thirds of the population, first succeeded in +securing the unrestricted use of their rights. Nevertheless, Catholic +Bavaria remained, or became, the unhappy scene of the wildest demagogic +agitation of the Catholic clergy and of the Bavarian “Patriots” who +played their game, whose patriotism consisted only in mad hatred of +Prussia and fanatical ultramontanism. Yet King Louis II., after the +brilliant successes of the Franco-German war, could not object to the +proposal of November 30th, 1870, to found a new German empire under a +Prussian and therefore a Protestant head. + + § 195.1. =The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian I., + 1799-1825.=--Bavaria boasted with the most unfeigned delight + after the uprooting of Protestantism in its borders as then + defined (§ 151, 1), that it was the most Catholic, _i.e._ the + most ultramontane and most bigoted, of German-speaking lands, and, + after a short break in this tradition by Maximilian Joseph III. + (§ 165, 10), went forth again with full sail, under Charles + Theodore, 1777-1779, on the old course. But the thoroughly + new aspect which this state assumed on the overthrow of the + old German empire, demanded an adapting territorially of the + civil and ecclesiastical life in accordance with the relations + which it owed to its present political position. The new elector + Maximilian Joseph IV., who as king styled himself Maximilian I., + transferred the execution of this task to his liberal, energetic, + and thoroughly fearless minister, Count Montgelas, 1799-1817. + In January, 1802, it was enacted that all cloisters should + be suppressed, and that all cathedral foundations should be + secularized; and these enactments were immediately carried out + in an uncompromising manner. Even in 1801 the qualification + of Protestants to exercise the rights of Bavarian citizens + was admitted, and a religious edict of 1803 guaranteed to all + Christian confessions full equality of civil and political + privileges. To the clergy was given the control of education, + and to the gymnasia and universities a considerable number of + foreigners and Protestants received appointments. In all respects + the sovereignty of the state over the church and the clergy was + very decidedly expressed, the episcopate at all points restricted + in its jurisdiction, the training of the clergy regulated + and supervised on behalf of the state, the patronage of all + pastorates and benefices usurped by the government, even + public worship subjected to state control by the prohibition + of superstitious practices, etc. But amid many other infelicities + of this autocratic procedure was specially the gradual dying out + of the old race of bishops, which obliged the government to seek + again an understanding with Rome; and so it actually happened + in June, 1817, after Montgelas’ dismissal, that a concordat was + drawn up. By this the Roman Catholic apostolic religion secured + throughout the whole kingdom those rights and prerogatives which + were due to it according to divine appointment and canonical + ordinances, which, strictly taken, meant supremacy throughout the + land. In addition, two archbishoprics and seven bishoprics were + instituted, the restoration of several cloisters was agreed to, + and the unlimited administration of theological seminaries, the + censorship of books, the superintendance of public schools and + free correspondence with the holy see were allowed to the bishops. + On the other hand, the king was given the choice of bishops (to + be confirmed by the pope), the nomination of a great part of + the priests and canons, and the _placet_ for all hierarchical + publications. After many vain endeavours to obtain amendments, + the king at last, on October 17th, ratified this concordat; + but, to mollify his highly incensed Protestant subjects, he + delayed the publication of it till the proclamation of the new + civil constitution on May 18th following. The concordat was + then adopted, as an appendage to an edict setting forth the + ecclesiastical supremacy of the state, securing perfect freedom + of conscience to all subjects, as well as equal civil rights to + members of the three Christian confessions, and demanding from + them equal mutual respect. The irreconcilableness of this edict + with the concordat was evident, and the newly appointed bishops + as well as the clerical parliamentary deputies, declared by papal + instruction that they could not take the oath to the constitution + without reservation, until the royal statement of Tegernsee, + September 21st, that the oath taken by Catholic subjects simply + referred to civil relations, and that the concordat had also the + validity of a law of the state, induced the curia to agree to + it. But the government nevertheless continued to insist as before + upon the supremacy of the state over the church, enlarged the + claims of the royal _placet_, put the free intercourse with + Rome again under state control, arbitrarily disposed of church + property and supervised the theological examinations of the + seminarists, made the appointment of all clergy dependent on + its approbation, and refused to be misled in anything by the + complaints and objections of the bishops. + + § 195.2. =The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Louis I., + 1825-1848.=--Zealous Catholic as the new king was, he still + held with unabated tenacity to the sovereign rights of the crown, + and the extreme ultramontane ministry of Von Abel from 1837 + was the first to wring from him any relaxations, _e.g._ the + reintroduction of free intercourse between the bishops and the + holy see without any state control. But it could not obtain the + abolition of the _placet_, and just as little the eagerly sought + permission of the return of the Jesuits. On the other hand the + allied order of Redemptorists was allowed, whose missions among + the Bavarian people, however, the king soon made dependent + on a permission to be from time to time renewed. His tolerant + disposition toward the Protestants was shown in 1830, by his + refusing the demand of the Catholic clergy for a Reverse in + mixed marriages, and recognising Protestant sponsors at Catholic + baptisms. But yet his honourable desire to be just even to + the Protestants of his realm was often paralysed, partly by + his own ultramontane sympathies, partly and mainly by the + immense influence of the Abel ministry, and the religious + freedom guaranteed them by law in 1818 was reduced and restricted. + Among other things the Protestant press was on all sides gagged + by the minister, while the Catholic press and preaching enjoyed + unbridled liberty. Great as the need was in southern Bavaria the + government had strictly forbidden the taking of any aid from the + _Gustavus Adolphus Verein_. Louis saw even in the name of this + society a slight thrown on the German name, and was specially + offended at its vague, nearly negative attitude towards the + confession. Yet he had no hesitation in affording an asylum in + Catholic Bavaria to the Lutheran confessor Scheibel (§ 177, 2) + whom Prussian diplomacy had driven out of Lutheran Saxony, + and did not prevent the university of Erlangen, after its dead + orthodoxy had been reawakened by the able Reformed preacher + Krafft (died 1845), becoming the centre of a strict Lutheran + church consciousness in life as well as science for all + Germany. The adoration order of 1838, which required even the + Protestant soldiers to kneel before the host as a military salute, + occasioned great discontent among the Protestant population, + and many controversial pamphlets appeared on both sides. When + finally the parliament in 1845 took up the complaint of the + Protestants, a royal proclamation followed by which the usually + purely military salute formerly in use was restored. In 1847 the + ultramontane party, with Abel at its head, fell into disfavour + with the king, on account of its honourable attitude in the + scandal which the notorious Lola Montez caused in the circle of + the Bavarian nobility; but in 1848 Louis was obliged, through the + revolutionary storm that burst over Bavaria, to resign the crown. + + § 195.3. =The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian II., + 1848-1864, and Louis II.= (died 1886).--Much more thoroughly + than his father did Maximilian II. strive to act justly toward + the Protestant as well as the Catholic church, without however + abating any of the claims of constitutional supremacy on the + part of the state. In consequence of the Würzburg negotiations + (§ 192, 4), the Bavarian bishops assembled at Freysing, in + November, 1850, presented a memorial, in which they demanded the + withdrawal of the religious edict included in the constitution + of 1818, as in all respects prejudicial to the rights of the + church granted by the concordat, and set forth in particular + those points which were most restrictive to the free and + proper development of the catholic church. The result was + the publication in April, 1852, of a rescript which, while + maintaining all the principles of state administration hitherto + followed, introduced in detail various modifications, which, + on the renewal of the complaints in 1854, were somewhat further + increased as the fullest and final measure of surrender.--The + change brought about 1866 in the relation of Bavaria to North + Germany led the government under Louis II. to introduce liberal + reforms, and the offensive and defensive alliance which the + government concluded with the heretical Prussia, the failure of + all attempts on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war to force + it in violation of treaty to maintain neutrality, and then to + prevent Bavaria becoming part of the new German empire founded in + 1871 at the suggestion of her own king, roused to the utmost the + wrath of the Bavarian clerical patriots. In the conflicts of the + German government, in 1872, against the intolerable assumptions, + claims and popular tumults of the ultramontane clergy, the + department of public worship, led by Lutz, inclined to take + an energetic part. But this was practically limited to the + passing of the so-called _Kanzelparagraphen_ (§ 197, 4) in + the _Reichstag_. Comp. § 197, 14. + + § 195.4. =Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran + Church.=--Since 1852, Dr. von Harless (§ 182, 13), as president + of the upper consistory at Munich, stood at the head of the + Lutheran church of Bavaria. Under his presidency the general + synod at Baireuth in 1853 showed a vigorous activity in the + reorganization of the church. On the basis of its proceedings + the upper consistory ordered the introduction of an admirable + new hymnbook. This occasioned considerable disagreement. But when, + in 1856, the upper consistory issued a series of enactments on + worship and discipline, a storm, originating in Nuremberg, burst + forth in the autumn of that same year, which raged over the whole + kingdom and attacked even the state church itself. The king was + assailed with petitions, and the spiritual courts went so far in + faint-heartedness as to put the acceptance and non-acceptance of + its ordinances to the vote of the congregations. Meanwhile the + time had come for calling another general synod (1857). An order + of the king as head of the church abolished the union of the + two state synods in a general synod which had existed since 1849, + and forbad all discussion of matters of discipline. Hence instead + of one, two synods assembled, the one in October at Anspach, the + other in November at Baireuth. Both, consisting of equal numbers + of lay and clerical members, maintained a moderate attitude, + relinquishing none of the privileges of the church or the + prerogatives of the upper consistory, and yet contributed greatly + to the assuaging of the prevalent excitement. Also the lay and + clerical members of the subsequent reunited general synods held + every fourth year for the most part co-operated successfully + on moderate church lines. The synod held at Baireuth in 1873 + unanimously rejected an address sent from Augsburg inspired by + “Protestant Union” sympathies, as to their mind “for the most + part indistinct and where distinct unevangelical.” + + § 195.5. =The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the + Rhine.=--In the Bavarian =Palatine of the Rhine= the union had + been carried out in 1818 on the understanding that the symbolical + books of both confessions should be treated with due respect, but + no other standard recognised than holy scripture. When therefore + the Erlangen professor, Dr. Rust, in 1832 appeared in the + consistory at Spires and the court for that time had endeavoured + to fill up the Palatine union with positive Christian contents, + 204 clerical and lay members of the Diocesan Synod presented + to the assembly of the states of the realm, opportunely meeting + in 1837, a complaint against the majority of the consistory. + As this memorial yielded practically no result, the opposition + wrought all the more determinedly for the severance of the + Palatine church from the Munich Upper Consistory. This was first + accomplished in the revolutionary year 1848. An extraordinary + general synod brought about the separation, and gave to the + country a new democratic church constitution. But the reaction + of the blow did not stop there. The now independent consistory at + Spires, from 1853 under the leadership of Ebrard, convened in the + autumn of that year a general synod, which made the _Augustana + Variata_ of 1540 as representing the consensus between the + _Augustana_ of 1530 and the Heidelberg as well as the Lutheran + catechism, the confessional standard of the Palatine church, + and set aside the democratic election law of 1848. When now the + consistory, purely at the instance of the general synod of 1853, + submitted to the diocesan synod in 1856 the proofs of a new + hymnbook, the liberal party poured out its bitter indignation + upon the system of doctrine which it was supposed to favour. + But the diocesan synods admitted the necessity of introducing + a new hymnbook and the suitability of the sketch submitted, + recommending, however, its further revision so that the recension + of the text might be brought up to date and that an appendix + of 150 new hymns might be added. The hymnbook thus modified was + published in 1859, and its introduction into church use left to + the judgment of presbyteries, while its use in schools and in + confirmation instruction was insisted upon forthwith. This called + forth protest after protest. The government wished from the + first to support the synodal decree, but in presence of growing + disturbance, changed its attitude, recommended the consistory + to observe decided moderation so as to restore peace, and + in February, 1861, called a general synod which, however, in + consequence of the prevailingly strict ecclesiastical tendencies + of its members, again expressed itself in favour of the new + hymnbook. Its conclusions were meanwhile very unfavourably + received by the government. Ebrard sought and obtained liberty + to resign, and even at the next synod, in 1869, the consistory + went hand in hand with the liberal majority. + + + § 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES AND + RHENISH ALSACE AND LORRAINE. + + The Protestant princely houses of South Germany had by the Lüneville +[Luneville] Peace obtained such an important increase of Catholic +subjects, that they had to make it their first care to arrange their +delicate relations by concluding a concordat with the papal curia in a +manner satisfactory to state and church. But all negotiations broke down +before the exorbitant claims of Rome, until the political restoration +movements of 1850 led to modifications of them hitherto undreamed of. +The concordats concluded during this period were not able to secure +enforcement over against the liberal current that had set in with +redoubled power in 1860, and so one thing after another was thrown +overboard. Even in the Protestant state churches this current made +itself felt in the persistent efforts, which also proved successful, to +secure the restoration of a representative synodal constitution which +would give to the lay element in the congregations a decided influence. + + § 196.1. =The Upper Rhenish Church Province.=--The governments + of the South German States gathered in 1818 at Frankfort, to + draw up a common concordat with Rome. But owing to the utterly + extravagant pretensions nothing further was reached than a new + delimitation in the bull “_Provida sollersque_,” 1821, of the + bishoprics in the so-called Upper Rhenish Church Province: the + archbishopric of Freiburg for Baden and the two Hohenzollern + principalities, the bishoprics of Mainz for Hesse-Darmstadt, + Fulda for Hesse-Cassel, Rottenburg for Württemberg, Limburg for + Nassau and Frankfort; and even this was given effect to only + in 1827, after long discussions, with the provision (bull _Ad + dominicæ gregis custodiam_) that the choice of the bishops should + issue indeed from the chapter, but that the territorial lord + might strike out objectionable names in the list of candidates + previously submitted to him. The actual equality of Protestants + and Catholics which the pope had not been able to allow in the + concordat, was now in 1880 proclaimed by the princes as the + law of the land. Papal and episcopal indulgences had to receive + approval before their publication; provincial and diocesan + synods could be held only with approval of the government and + in presence of the commissioners of the prince; taxes could not + be imposed by any ecclesiastical court; appeal could be made to + the civil court against abuse of spiritual power; those preparing + for the priesthood should receive scientific training at the + universities, practical training in the seminaries for priests, + etc. The pope issued a brief in which he characterized these + conditions as scandalous novelties, and reminded the bishops of + Acts v. 29. But only the Bishop of Fulda followed this advice, + with the result that the Catholic theological faculty at Marburg + was after a short career closed again, and the education of the + priests given over to the seminary at Fulda. Hesse-Darmstadt + founded a theological faculty at Giessen in 1830; Baden had one + already in Freiburg, and Würtemberg [Württemberg] had in 1817 + affiliated the faculty at Ellwanger with the university of + Tübingen, and endowed it with the revenues of a rich convent. In + all these faculties alongside of rigorous scientific exactness + there prevailed a noble liberalism without the surrender of + the fundamental Catholic faith. The revolutionary year, 1848, + first gave the bishops the hope of a successful struggle for + the unconditional freedom of the church. In order to enforce the + Würzburg decrees (§ 192, 4), the five bishops issued in 1851 a + joint memorial. As the governments delayed their answer, they + declared in 1852 that they would immediately act as if all had + been granted them; and when at last the answer came, on most + points unfavourable, they said in 1853, that, obeying God rather + than man, they would proceed wholly in accordance with canon law. + + § 196.2. =The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873.=--The + Grand Duchy of Baden, with two-thirds of its population Catholic, + where in 1848 the revolution had shattered all the foundations + of the state, and where besides a young ruler had taken the + reins of government in his hands only in 1852, seemed in spite + of the widely prevalent liberality of its clergy, the place best + fitted for such an attempt. The Archbishop of Freiburg, =Herm. + von Vicari=, in 1852, now in his eighty-first year, began by + arbitrarily stopping, on the evening of May 9th, the obsequies of + the deceased grand-duke appointed by the Catholic Supreme Church + Council for May 10th, prohibiting at the same time the saying + of mass for the dead (_pro omnibus defunctis_) usual at Catholic + burials, but in Baden and Bavaria hitherto not refused even to + Protestant princes. More than one hundred priests, who disobeyed + the injunction, were sentenced to perform penances. In the + following year he openly declared that he would forthwith carry + out the demands of the episcopal memorial, and did so immediately + by appointing priests in the exercise of absolute authority; + and by holding entrance examinations to the seminary without + the presence of royal commissioners as required by law. As a + warning remained unheeded, the government issued the order that + all episcopal indulgences must before publication be subscribed + by a grand-ducal special commissioner appointed for the purpose. + Against him, as well as against all the members of the Supreme + Church Council, the archbishop proclaimed the ban, issued a + fulminating pastoral letter, which was to have been read with + the excommunication in all churches, and ordered preaching for + four weeks for the instruction of the people on these matters. + At the same time he solemnly protested against all supremacy + of the state over the church. The government drove the Jesuits + out of the country, forbad the reading of the pastoral, and + punished disobedient priests with fines and imprisonment. + But the archbishop, spurred on by Ketteler, Bishop of Mainz, + advanced more boldly and recklessly than ever. In May, 1854, + the government introduced a criminal process against him, + during the course of which he was kept prisoner in his own house. + The attempts of his party to arouse the Catholic population + by demonstrations had no serious result. At the close of the + investigation the archbishop was released from his confinement + and continued the work as before. The government, however, still + remained firm, and punished every offence. In June, 1855, however, + a provisional agreement was published, and finally in June, 1859, + a formal concordat, the bull _Æterni patris_, was concluded with + Rome, its concessions to the archbishop almost exceeding even + those of Austria (§ 198, 2). In spite of ministerial opposition + the second chamber in March, 1860, brought up the matter before + its tribunal, repudiated the right of the government to conclude + a convention with Rome without the approbation of the states of + the realm, and forbad the grand-duke to enforce it. He complied + with this demand, dismissed the ministry, insisted, in answer + to the papal protest, on his obligation to respect the rights of + the constitution, and on October 9th, 1860, sanctioned jointly + with the chambers a law on the legal position of the Catholic and + Protestant churches in the state. The archbishop indeed declared + that the concordat could not be abolished on one side, and still + retain the force of law, but in presence of the firm attitude + of the government he desisted, and satisfied himself with giving + in 1861 a grudging acquiescence, by which he secured to himself + greater independence than before in regard to imposing of dues + and administration of the church property. Conflicts with the + archbishop, however, and with the clerical minority in the + chamber, still continued. The archbishop died in 1868. His see + remained vacant, as the chapter and the government could not + agree about the list of candidates; the interim administration + was carried on by the vicar-general, Von Kübel (died 1881), + as administrator of the archdiocese, quite in the spirit of + his predecessor. The law of October 9th, 1860, had prescribed + evidence of general scientific culture as a condition of + appointment to an ecclesiastical office in the Protestant as well + as the Catholic church. Later ordinances required in addition: + Possession of Baden citizenship, having passed a favourable + examination on leaving the university, a university course of at + least two and half years, attendance upon at least three courses + of lectures in the philosophical faculty, and finally also an + examination before a state examining board, within one and half + years of the close of the university curriculum, in the Latin + and Greek languages, history of philosophy, general history, + and the history of German literature (later also the so called + _Kulturexamen_). The Freiburg curia, however, protested, and in + 1867 forbad clergy and candidates to submit to this examination + or to seek a dispensation from it. The result was, that forthwith + no clergymen could be definitely appointed, but up to 1874 no + legal objection was made to interim appointments of parochial + administrators. The educational law of 1868 abolished the + confessional character of the public schools. In 1869 state + recognition was withdrawn from the festivals of Corpus Christi, + the holy apostles, and Mary, as also, on the other hand, from the + festivals of Maundy Thursday and Good Friday. In 1870 obligatory + civil marriage was introduced, while all compulsion to observe + the baptismal, confirmational, and funeral rites of the church + was abolished, and a law on the legal position of benevolent + institutions was passed to withdraw these as much as possible + from the administration of the ecclesiastical authorities. On + the subsequent course of events in Baden, see § 197, 14. + + § 196.3. =The Protestant Troubles in Baden.=--The union of the + Lutheran and Reformed churches was carried out in the Grand Duchy + of Baden in 1821. It recognised the normative significance of the + _Augustana_, as well as the Lutheran and Heidelberg catechisms, + in so far as by it the free examination of scripture as the + only source of Christian faith, is again expressly demanded + and applied. A synod of 1834 provided this state church with + union-rationalistic agenda, hymnbook, and catechism. When there + also a confessional Lutheran sentiment began again in the + beginning of 1850 to prevail, the church of the union opposed + this movement by gensdarmes, imprisonment and fines. The pastor + Eichhorn, and later also the pastor Ludwig, with a portion + of their congregations left the state church and attached + themselves to the Breslau Upper Church Conference, but amid + police interference could minister to their flocks only under + cloud of night. After long refusal the grand-duke at last in + 1854 permitted the separatists the choice of a Lutheran pastor, + but persistently refused to recognise Eichhorn as such. Pastor + Haag, who would not give up the Lutheran distribution formula + at the Lord’s supper, was after solemn warning deposed in 1855. + On the other hand the positive churchly feeling became more + and more pronounced in the state church itself. In 1854 the old + rationalist members of the Supreme Church Council were silenced, + and Ullmann of Heidelberg was made president. Under his auspices + a general synod of 1855 presented a sketch of new church and + school books on the lines of the union consensus, with an + endeavour also to be just to the Lutheran views. The grand-duke + confirmed the decision and the country was silent. But when in + 1858 the Supreme Church Council, on the ground of the Synodal + decision of 1855, promulgated the general introduction of a + new church book, a violent storm broke out through the country + against the liturgical novelties contained therein (extension + of the liturgy by confession of sin and faith, collects, + responses, Scripture reading, kneeling at the supper, the making + a confession of their faith by sponsors), the Heidelberg faculty, + with Dr. Schenkel at its head, leading the opposition in the + Supreme Church Council. Yet Hundeshagen, who in the synod had + opposed the introduction of a new agenda, entered the lists + against Schenkel and others as the apologist of the abused church + book. The grand-duke then decided that no congregation should be + obliged to adopt the new agenda, while the introduction of the + shorter and simpler form of it was recommended. The agitations + these awakened caused its rejection by most of the congregations. + Meanwhile in consequence of the concordat revolution in 1860, a + new liberal ministry had come into power, and the government now + presented to the chambers a series of thoroughly liberal schemes + for regulating the affairs of the evangelical church, which + were passed by large majorities. Toward the end of the year the + government, by deposing the Supreme Church Councillor Heintz, + began to assume the patronage of the supreme ecclesiastical court. + Ullmann and Bähr tendered their resignations, which were accepted. + The new liberal Supreme Church Council, including Holtzmann, + Rothe, etc., now published a sketch of a church constitution on + the lines of ecclesiastical constitutionalism, which with slight + modifications the synod of July, 1861, adopted and the grand-duke + confirmed. It provided for annual diocesan synods of lay and + clerical members, and a general synod every five years. The + latter consists of twenty-four clerical and twenty-four lay + members, and six chosen by the grand-duke, besides the prelate, + and is represented in the interval by a standing committee of + four members, who have also a seat and vote in the Supreme Church + Council.--Dr. Schenkel’s “_Leben Jesu_” of 1864 led the still + considerable party among the evangelical clergy who adhered to + the doctrine of the church to agitate for his removal from his + position as director of the Evangelical Pastors’ Seminary at + Heidelberg; but it resulted only in this, that no one was obliged + to attend his lectures. The second synod, held almost a year + behind time in 1867, passed a liberal ordination formula. At the + next synod in 1871, the orthodox pietistic party had evidently + become stronger, but was still overborne by the liberal party, + whose strength was in the lay element. Meanwhile a praiseworthy + moderation prevailed on both sides, and an effort was made + to work together as peaceably as possible.--In Heidelberg a + considerable number attached to the old faith, dissatisfied + with the preaching of the four “Free Protestant” city pastors, + after having been in 1868 refused their request for the joint use + of a city church for private services in accordance with their + religious convictions (§ 180, 1), had built for this purpose a + chapel of their own, in which numerously attended services were + held under the direction of Professor Frommel of the gymnasium. + When a vacancy occurred in one of the pastorates in 1880, this + believing minority, anxious for the restoration of unity and + peace, as well as the avoidance of the separation, asked to + have Professor Frommel appointed to the charge. At a preliminary + assembly of twenty-one liberal church members this proposal was + warmly supported by the president, Professor Bluntschli, by all + the theological professors, with the exception of Schenkel and + eighteen other liberal voters, and agreed to by the majority of + the two hundred liberals constituting the assembly. But when the + formal election came round the proposal was lost by twenty-seven + to fifty-one votes. + + § 196.4. =Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau.=--In 1819 the government + of the Grand Duchy of =Hesse= recommended the union of all + =Protestant= communities under one confession. Rhenish Hesse + readily agreed to this, and there in 1822 the union was + accomplished. In the other provinces, however, it did not take + effect, although by the rationalism fostered at Giessen among the + clergy and by the popular current of thought in the communities, + the Lutheran as well as the Reformed confession had been robbed + of all significance. But since 1850 even there a powerful + Lutheran reaction among the younger clergy, zealously furthered + by a section of the aristocracy of the state, set in, especially + in the district on the right bank of the Rhine, which has eagerly + opposed the equally eager struggles of the liberal party to + introduce a liberal synodal representative constitution for the + evangelical church of the whole state. These endeavours, however, + were frustrated, and at an extraordinary state synod of 1873, on + all controverted questions, the middle party gave their vote in + favour of the absorptive union. The state church was declared + to be the united church. The clause that had been added to the + government proposal: “Without prejudice to the status of the + confessions of the several communities,” was dropped; the place + of residence and not the confession was that which determined + qualifications in the community; the ordination now expressed + obligation to the Reformation confessions generally, etc. The + members of the minority broke off their connection with the + synod, and seventy-seven pastors presented to the synod a protest + against its decisions. The grand-duke then, on the basis of + these deliberations, gave forthwith a charter to the church + constitution, in which indeed the Lutheran, Reformed, and United + churches were embraced in one evangelical state church with + a common church government; but still also, by restoring the + phrase struck out by the synod from § 1, the then existing + confessional status of the several communities was preserved and + the confession itself declared beyond the range of legislation. + Yet fifteen Lutheran pastors represented that they could not + conscientiously accept this, and the upper consistory hastened to + remove them from office shortly before the shutting of the gates, + _i.e._, before July 1st, 1875, when by the new law (§ 197, 15) + depositions of clergy would belong only to the supreme civil + court. The opposing congregations now declared, in 1877, their + withdrawal from the state church, and constituted themselves as + a “free Lutheran church in Hesse.”--The =Catholic= church in the + Grand Duchy of Hesse, had under the peaceful bishops of Mainz, + Burg (died 1833) and Kaiser (died 1849), caused the government no + trouble. But it was otherwise after Kaiser’s death. Rome rejected + Professor Leopold Schmid of Giessen, favoured at Darmstadt + and regularly elected by the chapter (§ 187, 3), and the + government yielded to the appointment of the violent ultramontane + Westphalian, Baron von Ketteler. His first aim was the extinction + of the Catholic faculty at Giessen (§ 191, 2); he rested not + until the last student had been transferred from it to the + newly erected seminary at Mainz (1851). No less energetic and + successful were his endeavours to free the Catholic church from + the supremacy of the state in accordance with the Upper Rhenish + episcopal memorial. The Dalwigk ministry, in 1854, concluded a + “provisional agreement” with the bishop, which secured to him + unlimited autonomy and sovereignty in all ecclesiastical matters, + and, to satisfy the pope with his desiderata, these privileges + were still further extended in 1856. To this convention, first + made publicly known in 1860, the ministry, in spite of all + addresses and protests, adhered with unfaltering tenacity, + although long convinced of its consequences. The political events + of 1886, however, led the grand-duke in September of that year + to abrogate the hateful convention. But the minister as well + as the bishop considered this merely to refer to the episcopal + convention of 1850, and treated the agreement with the pope of + 1856 as always still valid. So everything went on in the old way, + even after Ketteler’s supreme influence in the state had been + broken by the overthrow of Dalwigk in 1871. Comp. § 197, 15.--The + Protestant church in the Duchy of =Nassau= attached itself to + the union in 1817. The conflict in the Upper Rhenish church + overflowed even into this little province. The Bishop of Limburg, + in opposition to law and custom, appointed Catholic clergy on + his own authority, and excommunicated the Catholic officers + who supported the government, while the government arrested the + temporalities and instituted criminal proceedings against bishop + and chapter. After the conclusion of the Württemberg and Baden + concordats, the government showed itself disposed to adopt a + similar way out of the conflict, and in spite of all opposition + from the States concluded in 1861 a convention with the bishop, + by which almost all his hierarchical claims were admitted. Thus + it remained until the incorporation of Nassau in the Prussian + kingdom in 1866. + + § 196.5. In =Protestant Württemberg= a religious movement among + the people reached a height such as it attained nowhere else. + Pietism, chiliasm, separatism, the holding of conventicles, + etc., assumed formidable dimensions; solid science, philosophical + culture, and then also philosophical and destructive critical + tendencies issuing from Tübingen affected the clergy of this + state. Dissatisfaction with various novelties in the liturgy, + the hymnbook, etc., led many formally to separate from the + state church. After attempts at compulsion had proved fruitless, + the government allowed the malcontents under the organizing + leadership of the burgomaster, G. W. Hoffman (died 1846), to form + in 1818 the community of Kornthal, with an ecclesiastical and + civil constitution of its own after the apostolic type. Others + emigrated to South Russia and to North America (§ 211, 6, 7). + Out of the pastoral work of pastor Blumhardt at Möttlingen, who + earnestly preached repentance, there was developed, in connection + with the healing of a demoniac, which had been accompanied with a + great awakening in the community, the “gift” of healing the sick + by absolution and laying on of hands with contrite believing + prayer. Blumhardt, in order to afford this gift undisturbed + exercise, bought the Bad Boll near Göppingen, and officiated + there as pastor and miraculous healer in the way described. He + died in 1880.--After the way to a synodal representation of the + whole evangelical state church had been opened up in 1851 by + the introduction, according to a royal ordinance, of parochial + councils and diocesan synods, the consistory having also in + 1858 published a scheme referring thereto, the whole business + was brought to a standstill, until at last in 1867, by means + of a royal edict, the calling of a State Synod consisting of + twenty-five clerical and as many lay members was ordered, and + consequently in February, 1869, such a synod met for the first + time. Co-operation in ecclesiastical legislation was assigned + to it as its main task, while it had also the right to advise + in regard to proposals about church government, also to make + suggestions and complaints on such matters, but the confession + of the evangelical church was not to be touched, and lay entirely + outside of its province. A liberal enactment with regard to + dissenters was sanctioned by the chamber in 1870. + + § 196.6. =The Catholic Church in Württemberg.=--Even after + the founding of the bishopric of Rottenberg [Rottenburg] the + government maintained strictly the previously exercised rights of + sovereignty over the Catholic church, to which almost one-third + of the population belonged, and the almost universally prevalent + liberalism of the Catholic clergy found in this scarcely any + offence. A new order of divine service in 1837, which, with the + approval of the episcopal council, recommended the introduction + of German hymns in the services, dispensing the sacraments in + the German language, restriction of the festivals, masses, and + private masses, processions, etc., did indeed cause riots in + several places, in which, however, the clergy took no part. But + when in 1837, in consequence of the excitement caused throughout + Catholic Germany by the Cologne conflict (§ 193, 1), the hitherto + only isolated cases of lawless refusal to consecrate mixed + marriages had increased, the government proceeded severely to + punish offending clergymen, and transported to a village curacy + a Tübingen professor, Mack, who had declared the compulsory + celebration unlawful. Called to account by the nuncio of Munich + for his indolence in all these affairs and severely threatened, + old Bishop Keller at last resolved, in 1841, to lay before + the chamber a formal complaint against the injury done to the + Catholic church, and to demand the freeing of the church from + the sovereignty of the state. In the second chamber this motion + was simply laid _ad acta_, but in the first it was recommended + that the king should consider it. The bishop, however, and the + liberal chapter could not agree as to the terms of the demand, + contradictory opinions were expressed, and things remained + as they were. But Bishop Keller fell into melancholy and died + in 1845. His successor took his stand upon the memorial and + declaration of the Upper Rhenish bishops, and immediately in 1853 + began the conflict by forbidding his clergy, under threats of + severe censure, to submit as law required to civil examinations. + The government that had hitherto so firmly maintained its + sovereign rights, under pressure of the influence which a lady + very nearly related to the king exercised over him, gave in + without more ado, quieted the bishop first of all by a convention + in 1854, and then entered into negotiations with the Roman curia, + out of which came in 1857 a concordat proclaimed by the bull + _Cum in sublimi_, which, in surrender of a sovereign right of + the state over the affairs of the church, far exceeds that of + Austria (§ 198, 2). The government left unheeded all protests and + petitions from the chambers for its abolition. But the example + of Baden and the more and more decided tone of the opposition + obliged the government at last to yield. The second chamber + in 1861 decreed the abrogation of the concordat, and a royal + rescript declared it abolished. In the beginning of 1862 a bill + was submitted by the new ministry and passed into law by both + chambers for determining the relations of the Catholic church to + the state. The royal _placet_ or right of permitting or refusing, + is required for all clerical enactments which are not purely + inter-ecclesiastical but refer to mixed matters; the theological + endowments are subject to state control and joint administration; + boys’ seminaries are not allowed; clergymen appointed to office + must submit to state examination; according to consuetudinary + rights, about two-thirds of the benefices are filled by the + king, one-third by the bishops on reporting to the civil court, + which has the right of protest; clergy who break the law are + removable by the civil court, etc. The curia indeed lodged + a protest, but the for the most part peace-loving clergy reared, + not in the narrowing atmosphere of the seminaries but amid + the scientific culture of the university, in the halls of + Tübingen, submitted all the more easily as they found that in + all inter-ecclesiastical matters they had greater freedom and + independence under the concordat than before. + + § 196.7. =The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine + since 1871.=--After Alsace with German Lorraine had again, in + consequence of the Franco-Prussian war, been united to Germany + and as an imperial territory had been placed under the rule + of the new German emperor, the secretary of the Papal States, + Cardinal Antonelli, in the confident hope of being able to secure + in return the far more favourable conditions, rights and claims + of the Catholic church in Prussia with the autocracy of the + bishops unrestricted by the state, declared in a letter to the + Bishop of Strassburg, that the concordat of 1801 (§ 203, 1) was + annulled. But when the imperial government showed itself ready + to accept the renunciation, and to make profit out of it in the + opposite way from that intended, the cardinal hasted in another + letter to explain how by the incorporation with Germany a new + arrangement had become necessary, but that clearly the old must + remain in force until the new one has been promulgated. Also a + petition of the Catholic clergy brought to Berlin by the bishop + himself, which laid claim to this unlimited dominion over all + Catholic educational and benevolent institutions, failed of + its purpose. The clergy therefore wrought for this all the + more zealously by fanaticizing the Catholic people in favour of + French and against German interests. On the epidemic about the + appearance of the mother of God called forth in this way, see + § 188, 7. In 1874 the government found itself obliged to close + the so-called “little seminaries,” or boys’ colleges, on account + of their fostering sentiments hostile to the empire. Yet in + 1880 the newly appointed imperial governor, Field-marshal von + Manteuffel (died 1885), at the request of the States-Committee, + allowed Bishop Räss of Strassburg to reopen the seminary at + Zillisheim, with the proviso that his teachers should be approved + by the government, and that instruction in the German language + should be introduced. Manteuffel has endeavoured since, by + yielding favours to the France-loving Alsatians and Lorrainers, + and to their ultramontane clergy, to win them over to the idea of + the German empire, even to the evident sacrifice of the interests + of resident Germans and of the Protestant church. But such + fondling has wrought the very opposite result to that intended. + + + § 197. THE SO-CALLED KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE.[550] + + Ultramontanism had for the time being granted to the Prussian state, +which had not only allowed it absolutely free scope but readily aided +its growth throughout the realm (§ 193, 2), an indulgence for that +offence which is in itself unatoneable, having a Protestant dynasty. +Pius IX. had himself repeatedly expressed his satisfaction at the +conduct of the government. But the league which Prussia made in 1866 +with the “church-robbing Sub-alpine,” _i.e._ Italian, government, was +not at all to the taste of the curia. The day of Sadowa, 3rd July, 1866, +called from Antonelli the mournful cry, _Il mondo cessa_, “The world has +gone to ruin,” and the still more glorious day of Sedan, 2nd September, +1870, completely put the bottom out of the Danaid’s vessel of +ultramontane forbearance and endurance. This day, 18th January, 1871, +had as its result the overthrow of the temporal power of the papacy as +well the establishment of a new and hereditary German empire under the +Protestant dynasty of the Prussian Hohenzollerns. German ultramontanism +felt itself all the more under obligation to demand from the new +emperor as the first expiation for such uncanonical usurpation, the +reinstatement of the pope in his lost temporal power. But when he did +not respond to this demand, the ultramontane party, by means of the +press favourable to its claims, formally declared war against the German +empire and its governments, and applied itself systematically to the +mobilization of its entire forces. But the empire and its governments, +with Prussia in the van, with unceasing determination, supported by +the majority of the States’ representatives, during the years 1871-1875 +proceeded against the ultramontanes by legislative measures. The +execution of these by the police and the courts of law, owing to the +stubborn refusal to obey on the part of the higher and lower clergy, led +to the formation of an opposition, commonly designated after a phrase +of the Prussian deputy, Professor Virchow, “_Kulturkampf_,” which was +in some degree modified first in 1887. The imperial chancellor, Prince +Bismarck, uttered at the outset the confident, self-assertive statement, +“We go not to Canossa,”--and even in 1880, when it seemed as if a +certain measure of submission was coming from the side of the papacy, +and the Prussian government also showed itself prepared to make +important concessions, he declared, “We shall not buy peace with Canossa +medals; such are not minted in Germany.” Since 1880, however, the +Prussian government with increasing compliance from year to year set +aside and modified the most oppressive enactments of the May laws, so as +actually to redress distresses and inconveniences occasioned by clerical +opposition to these laws, without being able thereby to obtain any +important concession on the part of the papal curia, until at last in +1887, after the government had carried concession to the utmost limit, +the pope put his seal to definitive terms of peace by admitting the +right of giving information on the part of the bishops regarding +appointments to vacant pastorates, as well as the right of protest +on the part of the government against those thus nominated. + + § 197.1. =The Aggression of Ultramontanism.=--Even in the + revolution year, 1848, German ultramontanism, in order to obtain + what it called the freedom of the church, had zealously seconded + many of the efforts of democratic radicalism. Nevertheless, in + the years of reaction that followed, it succeeded in catching + most of the influential statesmen on the limed twig of the + assurance that the episcopal hierarchy, with its unlimited sway + over the clergy and through them over the feelings of the people, + constituted the only certain and dependable bulwark against the + revolutionary movements of the age, and this idea prevailed down + to 1860, and in Prussia down to 1871. But the overthrow of the + concordat in Baden, Württemberg and Darmstadt by the states of + the realm after a hard conflict, the humiliation of Austria in + 1866, and the growth in so threatening a manner since of the + still heretical Prussia, produced in the whole German episcopate + a terrible apprehension that its hitherto untouched supremacy + in the state would be at an end, and in order to ward off this + danger it was driven into agitations and demonstrations partly + secret and partly open. On 8th October, 1868, the papal nuncio in + Munich, Monsignor Meglia, uttered his inmost conviction regarding + the Württemberg resident thus: “Only in America, England, and + Belgium does the Catholic church receive its rights; elsewhere + nothing can help us but the revolution.” And on 22nd April, 1869, + Bishop Senestray [Senestrey] of Regensburg declared plainly in a + speech delivered at Schwandorff: “If kings will no longer be of + God’s grace, I shall be the first to overthrow the throne.... + Only a war or revolution can help us in the end.” And war at + last came, but it helped only their opponents. Although at + its outbreak in 1870 the ultramontane party in South Germany, + especially in Bavaria, for the most part with unexampled + insolence expressed their sympathy with France, and after the + brilliant and victorious close of the war did everything to + prevent the attachment of Bavaria to the new German empire, their + North German brethren, accustomed to the boundless compliance of + the Prussian government, indulged the hope of prosecuting their + own ends all the more successfully under the new regime. Even + in November, 1870, Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen visited the + victorious king of Prussia at Versailles, in order to interest + him personally in the restoration of the Papal States. In + February, 1871, in the same place, fifty-six Catholic deputies of + the Prussian parliament presented to the king, who had meanwhile + been proclaimed Emperor of Germany, a formal petition for + the restoration of the temporal power of the pope, and soon + afterwards a deputation of distinguished laymen waited upon + him “in name of all the Catholics of Germany,” with an address + directed to the same end. The _Bavarian Fatherland_ (Dr. Sigl) + indeed treated it with scorn as a “belly-crawling-deputation, + which crawled before the magnanimous hero-emperor, beseeching + him graciously to use said deputation as his spittoon.” And the + _Steckenberger Bote_, inspired by Dr. Ketteler, declared: “We + Catholics do not entreat it as a favour, but demand it as our + right.... Either you must restore the Catholic church to all + its privileges or not one of all your existing governments will + endure.” At the same time as the insinuation was spread that the + new German empire threatened the existence of the Catholic church + in Germany, a powerful ultramontane election agitation in view of + the next Reichstag was set on foot, out of which grew the party + of the “Centre,” so called from sitting in the centre of the hall, + with Von Ketteler, Windthorst, Mallinkrodt (died 1874), and the + two Reichenspergers, as its most eloquent leaders. Even in the + debate on the address in answer to the speech from the throne + this party demanded intervention, at first indeed only diplomatic, + in favour of the Papal States. In the discussion on the new + imperial constitution A. Reichensperger sought to borrow from + the abortive German landowners’ bill of 1848, condemned indeed as + godless by the syllabus (§ 185, 2), principles that might serve + the turn of ultramontanism regarding the unrestricted liberty + of the press, societies, meetings, and religion, with the most + perfect independence of all religious communities of the State. + Mallinkrodt insisted upon the need of enlarged privileges for + the Catholic church owing to the great growth of the empire + in Catholic territory and population. All these motions were + rejected by the Reichstag, and the Prussian government answered + them by abolishing in July, 1871, the Catholic department of + the Ministry of Public Worship, which had existed since 1841 + (§ 193, 2). The _Genfer Korrespondenz_, shortly before highly + praised by the pope, declared: If kings do not help the papacy + to regain its rights, the papacy must also withdraw from them + and appeal directly to the hearts of the people. “Understand + ye the terrible range of this change? Your hours, O ye princes, + are numbered!” The Berlin _Germania_ pointed threateningly to + the approaching _revanche_ war in France, on the outbreak of + which the German empire would no longer be able to reckon on + the sympathy of its Catholic subjects; and the _Ellwanger kath. + Wochenblatt_ proclaimed openly that only France is able to guard + and save the Catholic church from the annihilating projects + of Prussia. And in this way the Catholic people throughout all + Germany were roused and incited by the Catholic press, as well as + from the pulpit and confessional, in home and school, in Catholic + monasteries and nunneries, in mechanics’ clubs and peasants’ + unions, in casinos and assemblies of nobles. Bishop Ketteler + founded expressly for purposes of such agitations the Mainz + Catholic Union, in September, 1871, which by its itinerant + meetings spread far and wide the flame of religious fanaticism; + and a Bavarian priest, Lechner, preached from the pulpit that + one does not know whether the German princes are by God’s or by + the devil’s grace. + + § 197.2. =Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old Catholics, + 1871-1872.=--That the Prussian government refused to assist + the bishops in persecuting the Old Catholics, and even retained + these in their positions after excommunication had been hurled + against them, was regarded by those bishops as itself an act + of persecution of the Catholic church. To this opinion they + gave official expression, under solemn protest against all + encroachments of the state upon the domain of Catholic faith and + law, in a memorial addressed to the German emperor from Fulda, on + September 7th, 1871, but were told firmly and decidedly to keep + within their own boundaries. Even before this Bishop =Krementz + of Ermeland= had refused the _missio canonica_ to Dr. Wollmann, + teacher of religion at the Gymnasium of Braunsberg, on account + of his refusing to acknowledge the dogma of infallibility, and + had forbidden Catholic scholars to attend his instructions. + The minister of public worship, Von Mühler, decided, because + religious instruction was obligatory in the Prussian gymnasia, + that all Catholic scholars must attend or be expelled from the + institution. The Bavarian government followed a more correct + course in a similar case that arose about the same time; for + it recognised and protected the religious instructions of the + anti-infallibilist priest, Renftle in Mering, as legitimate, but + still allowed parents who objected to withhold their children + from it. And in this way the new Prussian minister, Falk, + corrected his predecessor’s mistake. But all the more decidedly + did the government proceed against Bishop Krementz, when + he publicly proclaimed the excommunication uttered against + Dr. Wollmann and Professor Michelis, which had been forbidden by + Prussian civil law on account of the infringement of civil rights + connected therewith according to canon law. As the bishop could + not be brought to an explicit acknowledgment of his obligation + to obey the laws of the land, the minister of public worship + on October 1st, 1872, stripped him of his temporalities. + But meanwhile a second conflict had broken out. The Catholic + field-provost of the Prussian army and bishop _in partibus_, + Namszanowski, had under papal direction commanded the + Catholic divisional chaplain, Lünnemann of Cologne, on pain + of excommunication, to discontinue the military worship in the + garrison chapel, which, by leave of the military court, was + jointly used by the Old Catholics, and so was desecrated. He + was therefore brought before a court of discipline, suspended + from his office in May, 1872, and finally, by royal ordinance + in 1873, the office of field-provost was wholly abolished. + + § 197.3. =Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873.=--In + the formerly Polish provinces of the Prussian kingdom the + Polonization of resident Catholic Germans had recently assumed + threatening proportions. The archbishop of Posen and Gnesen, + Count =Ledochowski=, whom the pope during the Vatican Council + appointed primate of Poland, was the main centre of this + agitation. In the Posen priest seminary he formed for himself, + in a fanatically Polish clergy, the tools for carrying it out, + and in the neighbouring Schrimm he founded a Jesuit establishment + that managed the whole movement. Where previously Polish and + German had been preached alternately, German was now banished, + and in the public schools, the oversight of which, as throughout + all Prussia, lay officially in the hands of the clergy, all means + were used to discourage the study of the German language, and + to stamp out the German national sentiment. But even in the two + western provinces the Catholic public schools were made by the + clerical school inspectors wholly subservient to the designs of + ultramontanism. In order to stem such disorder the government, + in February, 1872, sanctioned the =School Inspection Law= + passed by the parliament, by which the right and duty of school + inspection was transferred from the church to the state, so that + for the sake of the state the clerical inspectors hostile to the + government were set aside, and where necessary might be replaced + by laymen. A pastoral letter of the Prussian bishops assembled + at Fulda in April of that year complained bitterly of persecution + of the church and unchristianizing of the schools, but advised + the Catholic clergy under no circumstances voluntarily to resign + school inspection where it was not taken from them. By a rescript + of the minister of public worship in June, the exclusion of all + members of spiritual orders and congregations from teaching in + public schools was soon followed by the suppression of the Marian + congregations in all schools, and it was enjoined in March, 1873, + that in Polish districts, where other subjects had been taught in + the higher educational institutions in the German language, this + also would be obligatory in religious instruction. Ledochowski + indeed directed all religious teachers in his diocese to use the + Polish language after as they had done before, but the government + suspended all teachers who followed his direction, and gave + over the religious instruction to lay teachers. The archbishop + now erected private schools for the religious instruction of + gymnasial teachers, and the government forbad attendance at them. + + § 197.4. =The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit law, + 1871-1872.=--While thus the Prussian government took more and + more decided measures against the ultramontanism that had become + so rampant in its domains, on the other hand, its mobile band + of warriors in cassock, dress coat, and blouse did not cease to + labour, and the imperial government passed some drastic measures + of defence applicable to the whole empire. At the instance of + the Bavarian government, which could not defend itself from + the violence of its “patriots,” the Federal Council asked the + Reichstag to add a new article to the penal code of the empire, + threatening any misuse of the pulpit for political agitation + with imprisonment for two years. The Bavarian minister of public + worship, Lutz, undertook himself to support this bill before + the Reichstag. “For several decades,” he said, “the clergy + in Germany have assumed a new character; they are become the + simple reflection of Jesuitism.” The Reichstag sanctioned the + bill in December, 1871. Far more deeply than this so-called + =Kanzelparagraph=, the operation of which the agitation of the + clergy by a little circumspection could easily elude, did the + =Jesuit Law=, published on July 4th, 1872, cut into the flesh + of German ultramontanism. Already in April of that year had a + petition from Cologne demanding the expulsion of the Jesuits + been presented to the Reichstag. Similar addresses flowed in + from other places. The Centre party, on the other hand, organized + a regular flood of petitions in favour of the Jesuits. The + Reichstag referred both to the imperial chancellor, with the + request to introduce a law against the movements of the Jesuits + as dangerous to the State. The Federal Council complied with this + request, and so the law was passed which ordained the removal + of the Jesuits and related orders and congregations, the closing + of their institutions within six months, and prohibited the + formation of any other orders by their individual members, and + the government authorised the banishment of foreign members and + the interning of natives at appointed places. A later ordinance + of the Federal Council declared the Redemptorists, Lazarists, + Priests of the Holy Ghost, and the Society of the Heart of Jesus + to be orders related to the Society of Jesus. Those affected + by this law anticipated the threatened interning by voluntarily + removing to Belgium, Holland, France, Turkey, and America. + + § 197.5. =The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875.=--In + order to be able to check ultramontanism, even in its pædagogical + breeding places, the episcopal colleges and seminaries, and at + the same time to restrict by law the despotic absolutism of the + bishops in disciplinary and beneficiary matters, the Prussian + government brought in other four ecclesiastical bills, which in + spite of violent opposition on the part of the Centre and the + Old Conservatives, were successively passed by both houses of + parliament, and approved by the king on May 11th, 12th, 13th, + and 14th, 1873. Their most important provisions are: As a + condition for admission to a spiritual office the state requires + citizenship of the German empire, three years’ study at a German + university, and, besides an exit gymnasial examination preceding + the university course, a state examination in general knowledge + (in philosophy, history, and German literature), in addition to + the theological examination. The episcopal boys’ seminaries and + colleges are abolished. The priest seminaries, if the minister + of worship regards them as fit for the purpose, may take the + place of the university course, but must be under regular state + inspection. The candidates for spiritual offices, which must + never be left vacant more than a year, are to be named to the + chief president of the province, and he can for cogent reasons + lodge a protest against them. Secession from the church is + freely allowed, and releases from all personal obligations + to pay ecclesiastical dues and perform ecclesiastical duties. + Excommunication is permissible, but can be proclaimed only + in the congregation concerned, and not publicly. The power of + church discipline over the clergy can be exercised only by German + superiors and in accordance with fixed processional procedure. + Corporal punishment is not permissible, fines are allowed + to a limited extent, and restraint by interning in so-called + _Demeriti_ houses, but only at furthest of three months, and when + the party concerned willingly consents. Church servants, whose + remaining in office is incompatible with the public order, can + be deposed by civil sentence. And as final court of appeal in all + cases of complaint between ecclesiastical and civil authorities + as well as within the ecclesiastical domain, a royal court + of justice for ecclesiastical affairs is constituted, whose + proceedings are open and its decision final.--But even the + May Laws soon proved inadequate for checking the insolence of + the bishops and the disorders among the Catholic population + occasioned thereby. In December, 1873, therefore, by sovereign + authority there was prescribed a new formula of the episcopal + Oath of Allegiance, recognising more distinctly and decisively + the duty of obedience to the laws of the state. Then next a bill + was presented to the parliament, which had been kept in view in + the original constitution, demanding obligatory civil marriage + and abolition of compulsory baptism, as well as the conducting + of civil registration by state officials. In February, 1874, it + was passed into law. On the 20th and 21st =May, 1874=, two other + bills brought in for extending the May Laws of the previous + year, in consequence of which a bishop’s see vacated by death, + a judicial sentence, or any other cause, must be filled within + the space of a year, and the chapter must elect within ten days + an episcopal administrator, who has to be presented to the chief + president, and to undertake an oath to obey the laws of the + state. If the chapter does not fulfil these requirements, a lay + commissioner will be appointed to administer the affairs of the + diocese. During the episcopal vacancy, all vacant pastorates, as + well as all not legally filled, can be at once validly supplied + by the act of the patron, and, where no such right exists, + by congregational election. Parochial property, on the illegal + appointment of a pastor, is given over to be administered by a + lay commissioner.--The empire also came to the help of the May + Laws by an imperial enactment of May 4th, 1874, sanctioned by the + emperor, which empowers the competent state government to intern + all church officers discharged from their office and not yielding + submission thereto, as well as all punished on account of + incompetence in their official duties, and, if this does not help, + to condemn them to loss of their civil rights and to expulsion + from the German federal territory.--Also in its next session the + imperial house of representatives again gave legislative sanction + to the _Kulturkampf_; for in January, 1875, it passed a bill + presented by the Federal Council on the deposition on oath as + to personal rank, and on divorce with obligatory civil marriage, + which, going far beyond the Prussian civil law of the previous + year, and especially ridding Bavaria of its strait-jacket canon + marriage law enforced by the concordat, abolished the spiritual + jurisdiction in favour of that of the civil courts, and gave it + to the state to determine the qualifications for, as well as the + hindrances to, divorce, without, however, touching the domain of + conscience, or entrenching in any way upon the canon law and the + demands of the church. + + § 197.6. =Opposition in the States to the Prussian May + Laws.=--Bishop Martin of Paderborn had even beforehand refused + obedience to the May Laws of 1873. After their promulgation, all + the Prussian bishops collectively declared to the ministry that + “they were not in a position to carry out these laws,” with the + further statement that they could not comply even with those + demands in them which in other states, by agreement with the pope, + are acknowledged by the church, because they are administered + in a one-sided way by the state in Prussia. On these lines also + they proceeded to take action. First of all, the refractoriness + of several of the seminaries drew down upon them the loss of + endowment and of the right of representation; and in the next + place, the refusal of the bishops to notify their appointment of + clergymen led to their being frequently fined, while the church + books and seals were taken away from clergymen so appointed, + all the official acts performed by them were pronounced invalid + in civil law, and those who performed them were subjected to + fines. But here, too, again Bishop Martin, well skilled in church + history (he had been previously professor of theology in Bonn), + had beforehand in a pastoral instructed his clergy that “since + the days of Diocletian there had not been seen so violent + a persecution of the name of Jesus Christ.” Soon after this + Archbishop Ledochowski, in an official document addressed to + the Chief President of Poland, compared the demand to give + notification of clerical appointments with the demand of ancient + Rome upon Christian soldiers to sacrifice to the heathen gods. + And by order of the pope prayers were offered in all churches for + the church so harshly and cruelly persecuted. And yet the whole + “persecution” then consisted in nothing more than this, that a + newly issued law of the state, under threat of fine in case of + disobedience, demanded again of the bishops paid by the state + what had been accepted for centuries as unobjectionable in the + originally Catholic Bavaria, and also for a long while in France, + Portugal, and other Romish countries, what all Prussian bishops + down to 1850 (§ 193, 2) had done without scruple, what the + bishops of Paderborn and Münster even had never refused to + do in the extra-Prussian portion of these dioceses (Oldenburg + and Waldeck), as also the Prince-Bishop of Breslau, since the + issuing of the similar Austrian May Laws (§ 198, 4) in the + Austro-Silesian part of his diocese, what the episcopal courts + of Württemberg and Baden had yielded to, although in almost all + these states the demand referred to broke up the union with the + papal curia. Yet before a year had passed the cases of punishment + for these offences had so increased that the only very inadequate + fines that could be exacted by the seizure of property had to + be changed into equivalent sentences of imprisonment. The first + prelate who suffered this fate was Archbishop Ledochowski, in + February, 1874. Then followed in succession: Eberhard of Treves, + Melchers of Cologne, Martin of Paderborn, and Brinkmann of + Münster. The ecclesiastical court of justice expressly pronounced + deposition against Ledochowski in April, 1874; against Martin in + January, 1875, and against the Prince-Bishop Förster of Breslau + in October, 1875, who alone had dared to proclaim in his diocese + the encyclical _Quod nunquam_ (§ 197, 7). But the latter had + even beforehand withdrawn the diocesan property to the value + of 900,000 marks to his episcopal castle, Johannisberg, in + Austro-Silesia, where with a truly princely income from Austrian + funds he could easily get over the loss of the Prussian part + of his revenues. Martin, who had been interned at Wesel, fled + in August, 1875, under cloud of night, to Holland, from whence + he transferred his agitations into Belgium, and finally to + London (died 1879). Ledochowski found a residence in the Vatican. + Brinkmann was deposed in March, and Melchers in June, 1876, + after both had beforehand proved their enjoyment of martyrdom + by escaping to Holland. Eberhard of Treves anticipated his + deposition from office by his death in May, 1876. Blum of Limburg + was deposed in June, 1877, and Beckmann of Osnabrück died in + 1878.--In the Prussian parliament and German Reichstag the Centre + party, supported by Guelphs, Poles, and the Social Democrats, had + meanwhile with anger, scorn, and vituperation, with and without + wit, fought not only against all ecclesiastical, but also against + all other legislative proposals, whose acceptance was specially + desired by the government. And all the representatives of the + ultramontane press within and without Europe vied with one + another in violent denunciation of the ecclesiastical laws, and + in unmeasured abuse of the emperor and the empire. But almost + without exception the Roman Catholic officials in Prussia, as + well as the Protestants and Old Catholics, carried out “the + Diocletian persecution of Christians” in the judicial and police + measures introduced by the church laws. A number of Catholic + notables of the eastern provinces of their own accord, in a + dutiful address to the emperor, expressly accepted the condemned + laws, and won thereby the nickname of “State Catholics.” The + great mass of the Catholic people, high and low, remained + unflinchingly faithful to the resisting clergy in, for the most + part, only a passive opposition, although even, as the Berlin + _Germania_ expressed it, “the Catholic rage at the Bismarckian + ecclesiastical polity could condense itself into one Catholic + head” in a murderous attempt on the chancellor in quest of health + at Kissingen, on July 13th, 1874. It was the cooper, Kullmann, + who, fanaticised by exciting speeches and writings in the + Catholic society of Salzwedel, sought to take vengeance, as + he himself said, upon the chancellor for the May Laws and “the + insult offered to his party of the Centre.”--In the further + course of the Prussian _Kulturkampf_, however, fostered by + the aid of the confessional, the insinuating assiduity of + the clerical press, and the all-prevailing influence of the + thoroughly disciplined Catholic clergy over the popish masses, + the Centre grew in number and importance at the elections from + session to session, so that from the beginning of 1880, by the + unhappy division of the other parties in the Reichstag as well + as Chamber, it united sometimes with the Conservatives, sometimes + and most frequently with the Progressionists and Democrats + renouncing the _Kulturkampf_, and was supported on all questions + by Poles, Danes, Guelphs, and Alsatian-Lorrainers, as clerical + interest and ultramontane tactics required, in accordance with + the plan of campaign of the commander-in-chief, especially of + the quondam Hanoverian minister, Windthorst, dominated far more + by Guelphic than by ultramontane tendencies. The Centre was thus + able to turn the scale, until, at least in the Reichstag, after + the dissolution and new election of 1887, its dominatory power + was broken by the closer combination of the conservative and + national liberal parties. + + § 197.7. =Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope.=--=Pius IX.= + had congratulated the new emperor in 1871, trusting, as he + wrote, that his efforts directed to the common weal “might bring + blessing not only to Germany, but also to all Europe, and might + contribute not a little to the protection of the liberty and + rights of the Catholic religion.” And when first of all the + Centre party, called forth by the election agitation of German + ultramontanism, opened its politico-clerical campaign in the + Reichstag, he expressed his disapproval of its proceedings upon + Bismarck’s complaining to the papal secretary Antonelli. Yet + a deputation of the Centre sent to Rome succeeded in winning + over both. In order to build a bridge for the securing an + understanding with the curia, now that the conflict had grown + in extent and bitterness, the imperial government in May, 1872, + appointed the Bavarian Cardinal Prince Hohenlohe to the vacant + post of ambassador to the Vatican. But the pope, with offensive + recklessness, rejected the well-meant proposal, and forbade + the cardinal to accept the imperial appointment. From that time + he gave free and public expression on every occasion to his + senseless bitterness against the German empire and its government. + In an address to the German Reading Society at Rome in July, 1872, + he allowed himself to use the most violent expressions against + the German chancellor, and closed with the prophetic threatening: + “Who knows but the little stone shall soon loose itself from + the mountain (Dan. ii. 34), which shall break in pieces the foot + of the colossus?” But even this diatribe was cast in the shade + by the Christmas allocution of that year, in which he was not + ashamed to characterize the procedure of the German statesmen + and their imperial sovereign as “_impudentia_.” And after the + publication of the first May Laws he addressed a letter to the + emperor, in which, founding upon the fact that even the emperor + like all baptized persons belonged to him, the pope, he cast in + his teeth that “all the measures of his government for some time + aimed more and more at the annihilation of Catholicism,” and + added the threatening announcement that “these measures against + the religion of Jesus Christ can have no other result than + the overthrow of his own throne.” The emperor in his answer + made expressly prominent his divinely appointed call as well as + his own evangelical standpoint, and with becoming dignity and + earnestness decidedly repudiated the unmeasured assumptions of + the papacy, and published both letters. In the same style of + immoderate pretension the pope again, in November, 1875, in one + encyclical after another, gave vent to his anger against emperor + and empire, especially its military institutions. In place of + the deposed and at that time imprisoned archbishop, Ledochowski, + he appointed in 1874 a native apostolic legate, who was at last + ascertained to be the Canon Kurowski, when he was in October, + 1875, condemned to two years’ imprisonment. But the pope took + the most decided and successful step by the =Encyclical _Quod + nunquam_, of 5th February, 1875=, addressed to the Prussian + episcopate, in which he characterized the Prussian May Laws as + “not given to free citizens to demand a reasonable obedience, + but as laid upon slaves, in order to force obedience by fears of + violence,” and, “in order to fulfil the duties of his office,” + declared quite openly to all whom it concerns and to the + Catholics throughout the world: “_Leges illas irritas esse, + utpote quæ divinæ Ecclesiæ constitutioni prorsus adversantur_;” + but upon those “godless” men who make themselves guilty of the + sin of assuming spiritual office without a divine call, falls _eo + ipso_ the great excommunication. On the other hand he rewarded, + in March, 1875, Archbishop Ledochowski, then still in prison, but + afterwards, in February, 1876, settled in Rome, for his sturdy + resistance of those laws, with a cardinal’s hat, and to the not + less persistent Prince-Bishop Förster of Breslau he presented + on his jubilee as priest the archiepiscopal pall. In the next + Christmas allocution he romanced about a second Nero, who, while + in one place with a lyre in his hand he enchanted the world by + lying words, in other places appeared with iron in his hand, + and, if he did not make the streets run with blood, he fills + the prisons, sends multitudes into exile, seizes upon and with + violence assumes all authority to himself. Also to the German + pilgrims who went in May, 1877, to his episcopal jubilee at Rome, + he had still much that was terrible to tell about this “modern + Attila,” leaving it uncertain whether he intended Prince Bismarck + or the mild, pious German emperor himself. + + § 197.8. =The Conflict about the Encyclical _Quod nunquam_ of + 1875.=--By this encyclical the pope had completely broken up the + union between the Prussian state and the curia, resting upon the + bull _De salute animarum_ (§ 193, 1); for he, bluntly repudiating + the sovereign rights of the civil authority therein expressly + allowed, by pronouncing the laws of the Prussian state invalid, + authorized and promoted the rebellion of all Catholic subjects + against them. The Prussian government now issued three new laws + quickly after one another, cutting more deeply than all that went + before, which without difficulty received the sanction of all the + legislative bodies. + + I. The so called =Arrestment Act= (_Sperrgesetz_) of + April 22nd, 1875, which ordered the immediate suspension + of all state payments to the Roman Catholic bishoprics and + pastorates until those who were entitled to them had in + writing or by statement declared themselves ready to yield + willing obedience to the existing laws of the state. + + II. A law of May 31st, 1875, ordering the =Expulsion of + all Orders and such like Congregations= within eight + months, the minister of public worship, however, being + authorized to extend this truce to four years in the case + of institutions devoted to the education of the young, + while those which were exclusively hospital and nursing + societies were allowed to remain, but were subject to + state inspection and might at any time be suppressed by + royal order. + + III. A law of June 12th, 1875, declaring the formal =Abrogation + of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Eighteenth Articles of + the Constitution= (§ 193, 2). + + And finally in addition there came the enforcement during this + session of the Chamber of laws previously introduced on the + rights of the Old Catholics (§ 190, 2), and, on June 20th, 1875, + on the administration of church property in Catholic parishes. + The latter measures aimed at withdrawing the administration + referred to from the autocratic absolutism of the clergy, and + transferring it to a lay commission elected by the community + itself, of which the parish priest was to be a member, but not + the president. Although the Archbishop of Cologne in name of + all the bishops before its issue had solemnly protested against + this law, because by it “essential and inalienable rights of + the Catholic church were lost,” and although the recognition + of it actually involved recognition of the May Laws and the + ecclesiastical court of justice, yet all the bishops declared + themselves ready to co-operate in carrying out the arrangements + for surrendering the church property to the administration + of a civil commission. They thus indeed secured thoroughly + ultramontane elections, but at the same time put themselves + into a position of self-contradiction, and admitted that the + one ground of their opposition to the May Laws, that they were + one-sidedly wrought by the state, was null and void. + + § 197.9. =Papal Overtures for Peace.=--=Leo XIII.=, since 1878, + intimated his accession to the Emperor William, and expressed his + regret at finding that the good relations did not continue which + formerly existed between Prussia and the holy see. The Emperor’s + answer expressed the hope that by the aid of his Holiness + the Prussian bishops might be induced to obey the laws of the + land, as the people under their pastoral care actually did; + and afterwards while in consequence of the attempt on his life + of June 2nd, 1873, he lay upon a sickbed, the crown prince on + June 10th answered other papal communications by saying, that + no Prussian monarch could entertain the wish to change the + constitution and laws of his country in accordance with the + ideas of the Romish church; but that, even though a thorough + understanding upon the radical controversy of a thousand + years could not be reached, yet the endeavour to preserve a + conciliatory disposition on both sides would also for Prussia + open a way to peace which had never been closed in other states. + Three weeks later the Munich nuntio Masella was at Kissingen and + conferred with the chancellor, Prince Bismarck, who was residing + there, about the possibility of a basis of reconciliation. + Subsequently negotiations were continued at Gastein, and then + in Vienna with the there resident nuntio Jacobini, but were + suspended owing to demands by the curia to which the state could + not submit. Still the pope attempted indirectly to open the way + for renewed consultation, for he issued a brief dated February + 24th, 1880, to “Archbishop Melchers of Cologne” (deposed by + the royal court of justice), in which he declared his readiness + to allow to the respective government boards notification + of new elected priests before their canonical institution. + Thereupon a communication was sent to Cardinal Jacobini that the + state ministry had resolved, so soon as the pope had actually + implemented this declaration of his readiness, to make every + effort to obtain from the state representatives authority to + set aside or modify those enactments of the May Laws which were + regarded by the Romish church as harsh. But the pope received + this compromise of the government very ungraciously and showed + his dissatisfaction by withdrawing his concession, which besides + referred only to the unremovable priests, therefore not to + _Hetzkaplane_ and succursal or assistant priests, and presupposed + the obtaining the “_agrément_,” _i.e._ the willingly accorded + consent, of the state, without by any means allowing the setting + aside of the party elected. + + § 197.10. =Proof of the Prussian Government’s willingness to be + Reconciled, 1880-1881.=--Notwithstanding this brusque refusal + on the part of the papal curia, the government, at the instance + of the minister of public worship, Von Puttkamer (§ 193, 6), + resolved in May, 1880, to introduce a bill which gave a wide + discretionary power for moderating the unhappy state of matters + that had prevailed since the passing of the May Laws, throughout + Catholic districts, where 601 pastorates stood wholly vacant and + 584 partly so, and nine bishoprics, some by death and others by + deposition. Although the need of peace was readily admitted on + both sides, the Liberals opposed these “Canossa proposals” as far + too great; the Centre, Poles, and Guelphs as far too small. Yet + it obtained at last in a form considerably modified, through a + compromise of the conservatives with a great part of the national + liberals the consent of both chambers. This law, sanctioned on + =July 14th, 1880=, embraced these provisions: + + 1. The royal court shall no longer depose from office + any church officers, but simply pronounce incapable of + administering the office; + + 2-4. The ministry of the state is authorized to give the + episcopal administrator charged by the church with + the interim administration of a vacant bishopric a + dispensation from the taking of the prescribed oath; + further, an administration by commission of ecclesiastical + property may be revoked as well as appointed; also state + endowments that had been withdrawn are to be restored for + the benefit of the whole extent of the diocese; + + 5. Spiritual official acts of a duly appointed clergyman by + way merely of assistance in another vacant parish are to + be allowed; + + 6. The minister of the interior and of public worship are + empowered to approve of the erection of new institutions + of religious societies which are devoted wholly to the + care of the sick, as to allow revocably to them the care + and nurture of children not yet of school age; and more + recently added were + + 7. The particular, according to which Articles 2, 3, and 4 + cease to operate after January 1st, 1882. + + The government was particularly careful to carry out the + provisions temporarily recognised in Article 3, for the + restoration of orderly episcopal administration by regularly + elected episcopal administrators in bishoprics made vacant by + death. Fulda, which was longest vacant, from October, 1873, had + to be left out of account, since in that case there was only + one member of the chapter left and so a canonical election + was impossible. But without difficulty in March, 1881, the + Vicar-General Dr. Höting for Osnabrück and Canon Drobe for + Paderborn, without taking the oath of allegiance, succeeded in + obtaining independent administration of the property as well as + the restoration of state pay for the entire dioceses, though they + did not give the notification required by the May Laws for the + interim administration. In October, 1881, the deposed Prince + Bishop Förster of Breslau died, and the suffragan bishop, Gleich, + elected by the chapter, undertook with consent of the government + the office of episcopal administrator.--Meanwhile the pope, + by a hearty letter of congratulation to the emperor on his + birthday, March 22nd, had given new life to the suspended + peace negotiations. And now also, when the respective chapters + transferred their right of election to the pope, the orderly + appointments of the Canon Dr. Korum of Metz, a pupil of the + Jesuit faculty of Innspruck [Innsbrück], very warmly recommended + by Von Manteuffel, governor of Alsace and Lorraine, to the + episcopal see of Treves, in August, 1881, of Vicar-General + Kopp of Hildesheim to Fulda in December, 1881, of the episcopal + administrators Höting and Drobe, in March and May, 1882, + respectively to Osnabrück and Paderborn, were duly carried + into effect. For Breslau the chapter drew up a list of seven + candidates, but the government pointed out the Berlin provost, + Rob. Herzog, as a mild and conciliatory person. The chapter now + laid its right of election in the hands of the pope, and in May, + 1882, Herzog was raised to the dignity of prince-bishop. There + now remained vacant only the sees of Cologne, Posen, Limburg + and Münster, which had been emptied by the depositions of the + civil courts.--Meanwhile, too, the negotiations carried on at + the instance of the government by privy councillor Von Schlözer, + with the curia at Rome for the restoration of the embassy to the + Vatican had been brought to a close. The chamber voted for this + purpose an annual sum of 90,000 marks, and Schlözer himself was + appointed to the post in March, 1882. + + § 197.11. =Conciliatory Negotiations, 1882-1884.=--With January + 1st, 1882, the three enactments of the July law of 1880, which + might be enforced at the discretion of the government, ceased to + operate. Von Gossler, minister of public worship since June, 1881, + on behalf of government, introduced a new bill into the Chamber + on January 16th, 1882, for their re-enactment and extension, + which by a compromise between the Conservatives and the Centre, + after various modifications secured a majority in both houses. + This second revised law embraced the following points: + + 1. Renewal of the three above-named enactments till + April 1st, 1884; + + 2. Restoration of the “Bishop’s Paragraph,” lost in 1880, in + this new form: If the king has pardoned a bishop set aside + by the ecclesiastical court, he becomes again the bishop of + his diocese recognised by the state; + + 3. The setting aside of the examination in general knowledge + (_Kulturexamen_) for those who bring a certificate of + having passed the Gymnasium exit examination, or have + attended with diligence lectures on philosophy, history + and German literature during a three years’ course at a + German university, or at a Prussian seminary of equal rank, + and have given proof of this by presenting evidence to the + chief president; + + 4. The setting aside of the rights of the patron and + congregation of themselves filling the vacant pastorates + during a vacancy in the episcopal see. + + The new law obtained royal sanction on =May 31st, 1882=. But its + two most important articles, 2 and 3, remained for a long time + a dead letter, and even Article 1 was only carried out by the + resumption of the state emoluments for the Hohenzollerns and the + five newly instituted bishoprics (§ 197, 10), but not for the + other seven. But the ill humour of the ultramontane Hotspurs was + raised to the boiling point by the fate of the bill introduced by + the Centre into the Reichstag to set aside the Expatriation Law + of May 4th, 1874, which seemed to the government indispensable + on account of its applicability to the agitations against the + empire of the Polish clergy. This bill, after violent debates, + was carried on January 18th, 1882, by a two-thirds majority; + but it was cast out by the Federal Council on June 6th, almost + unanimously, only Bavaria and Reuss _jüngere Linie_ voting in + its favour. This was the result mainly of the failure of all the + attempts of Von Schlözer to render the government’s concessions + acceptable to the papal curia.--On the other hand, the government + of its own accord brought in a third revision scheme in June, + 1883, by which it sought to relieve as far as possible the + troubles of the Catholic church. By adopting this law: + + 1. The obligation of notification on the part of the bishops + and the right of the state to protest on the change of + temporary assistants and substitutes into regular spiritual + officers, were abolished; as also + + 2. the competence of the court for ecclesiastical affairs in + appeals against the protest of the chief president, which + now therefore, according to the generally prevailing rule, + are referred to the minister of worship, the whole ministry, + the parliament, the king; + + 3. the immunity from punishment in the execution of their + office guaranteed in Article 5 of the July law of 1880 + (§ 197, 10) was extended to all spiritual offices whether + vacant or not; + + 4. the ordaining of individual candidates in vacant dioceses + by bishops recognised by the state was declared to be legal. + + In spite of repeated declarations of the curia that it could and + would agree to the notification only after a previous sufficient + guarantee of perfectly free training of the clergy and free + administration of the spiritual office, the king while residing + at the Castle of Mainau on Lake Constance, on July 11th, 1883, + sanctioned the so-called Mainau Law that had passed both houses, + and on the 14th, the minister of public worship demanded that + the Prussian bishops, without making notification, should fill up + vacancies in pastorates by appointing assistants, and should name + those candidates who were eligible for such appointment under + the conditions of the May Law of the previous year (§ 197, 3). + The pope at last, in September, 1883, allowed the dispensation + required, but for that time only and without prejudice for the + future. By the end of May, 1,884 applications had been made to + the senior of the Prussian episcopate appointed to receive such, + Marnitz of Kulm, by 1,443 clergymen, of whom the government + rejected only 178 who had studied at the Jesuit institutions of + Rome, Louvain, and Innsbrück.--In December, 1883, Bishop Blum of + Limburg, and in January, 1884, Brinkmann of Münster were restored + by royal grace, and for both dioceses, as well as for Ermeland, + Kulm and Hildesheim, and at last also on March 31st, shortly + before the closing of the door, even for Cologne, in this case, + however, revocably, the arrest of salaries ceased, so that only + the two archiepiscopal sees of Cologne and Posen remained vacant, + and only Posen continued bereft of its endowments. On the other + hand the government allowed the three discretionary enactments + that were in operation till April 1st, 1884, to lapse without + providing for their renewal. Also the proposal for abolishing + the Expatriation Law of November, 1884, introduced anew by the + Centre and again adopted by the Reichstag by a great majority, + was thrown out by the Federal Council; but in the beginning + of December, on the opening of the new Reichstag, it was again + brought in by the Centre and passed, but was left quite unnoticed + by the Federal Council. The repeated motions of the Centre for + payment of the bishops’ salaries from the state exchequer, as + well as for immunity to those who read mass and dispensed the + sacraments, were again thrown out by the House of Deputies in + April, 1885. + + § 197.12. =Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures, + 1885-1886.=--The next subject of negotiation with the curia was + the re-institution of the archiepiscopal see of Posen-Gnesen. + In March, 1884, the pope had nominated Cardinal Ledochowski + secretary of the committee on petitions, in which capacity he + had to remain in Rome. He now declared himself willing to accept + Ledochowski’s resignation of the archbishopric if the Prussian + government would allow a successor who would possess the + confidence of the holy see as well as of the Polish inhabitants + of the diocese. But of the three noble Polish chauvinists + submitted by the Vatican the government could accept none. Since + further no agreement could be reached on the question of the + bishop’s obligation to make notification and the state’s right + to protest, the negotiations were for a long time at a standstill, + and were repeatedly on the point of being broken off. But from + the middle of 1885, a conciliatory movement gained power, through + the counsels of the more moderate party among the cardinals. + Archbishop Melchers, who lived as an exile in Maestricht, was + called to Rome, and as a reward for his assistance was made + cardinal, and the pope consecrated as his successor in the + archbishopric of Cologne, Bishop Krementz of Ermeland (§ 197, 2), + who also was acknowledged by the Prussian government and + introduced to Cologne on December 15th, 1885, with great pomp, + with 20,000 torches and twenty bands of music. After a long + list of candidates had been set aside by one side and the other, + some here, some there, the pope at last fell from his demand for + one of Polish nationality, and in March, 1886, appointed to the + vacant see Julius Dinder, dean of Königsberg, a German by nation + but speaking the Polish language.--Meanwhile at other points + advance was made in the peaceful, yea, even friendly, relations + between the pope and the Prussian government. The diplomatist + Leo showed his admiring regard for the diplomatist Bismarck + by sending him a valuable oil-painting of himself by a Münich + [Munich] master, and the latter astonished the world by making + the pope umpire in a threatening conflict with Spain on the + possession of the Caroline islands. His decision on the main + question was indeed in favour of Spain, but not unimportant + concessions were also made to Germany. The pope sent the prince + two Latin poems as _pretium affectionis_, and conferred upon + him, the first Protestant that had ever been so honoured, at + the close of 1885 or beginning of 1886, the highest papal order, + the insignia of the Order of Christ, with brilliants, after the + cardinal secretary of state Jacobini as president of the papal + court of arbitration had been rewarded with the Prussian order + of the Black Eagle, and the other members of the court with other + high Prussian orders; and at the end of April, 1886, the German + emperor sent the pope himself thanks for his mediation, with an + artistic and costly Pectoral (§ 59, 7) worth 10,000 marks.--The + government had, meanwhile, on February 15th, 1886, brought in + a new proposal of revision of church polity, the fourth, and in + order to secure the advice of a distinguished representative of + the Prussian episcopate, called Bishop Kopp of Fulda to the House + of Peers. But as his demands for concessions, suggested to him, + not by the pope, but by the Centre, went far beyond what was + proposed, they were for the most part decidedly opposed by the + minister of worship and rejected by the house. The law confirmed + by the king on May 24th, 1886, made the following changes: + Complete abolition of the examination in general culture; + freeing of the seminaries recognised by the minister as suitable + for clerical training, as well as faculties established in + universities, seminaries and gymnasia from any special state + inspection (as laid down in the May Laws), and subjecting such + to the common laws affecting all similar educational institutions. + Removal of restrictions requiring ecclesiastical disciplinary + procedure to be only before German ecclesiastical courts; + Abolition of the Court for Ecclesiastical Affairs and + transference of its functions partly to the ministry of worship, + which now as court of appeal in matters of church discipline + dealt only with those cases which entailed a loss or reduction + of official income, partly to the Berlin supreme court, which + has jurisdiction in case of a breach of the law of the state by + a church officer as well as in case of a refusal to fulfil the + oath of obedience; The discretionary enactments of the government + of 1880 (§ 197, 10) are again enforced and the modifications + of these in Article 6 of that law are extended to all other + institutions engaged on the home propaganda; All reading of + private masses and dispensing of sacraments are no longer + subjected to the infliction of penalties.--Some weeks before + royal sanction was given to this law, Cardinal Jacobini had, + at the instance of the pope, expressed his profound satisfaction + with the success of the advice in the House of Peers, as also + particularly at the prospect of other concessions promised by the + government. In an official communication to the president of the + House of Deputies, he proposed the addition that the notification + of new appointments to vacant pastorates should begin from that + date. In August there followed, on the part of the government, + the hitherto refused dispensation for those trained by the + Jesuits in Rome and Innsbrück, and in November, with consent of + the minister of public worship, the re-opening of the episcopal + seminaries at Fulda and Treves. + + § 197.13. =Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887.=--In February, + 1887, the state journal published a new form of oath for the + bishops, sanctioned by royal ordinance, in which the obligation + hitherto enforced “to conscientiously observe the laws of the + state,” was omitted, and the asseveration added, “that I have + not, by the oath, taken to his Holiness the pope and the church, + undertaken any obligation which can be in conflict with the oath + of fidelity as a subject of his Royal Majesty.”--The promised + fifth revision, meanwhile accepted by the pope in its several + particulars and acknowledged by him as sufficient basis for + a definitive peace, was on February 13th, 1887, contrary to + precedent, first laid before the House of Peers. Bishop Kopp + proposed a great number of changes and additions, of which + several of a very important nature were accepted. The most + important provisions of this law, which was passed on =April + 29th, 1887=, are the following: The obligation on bishops to + make notification applies only to the conferring of a spiritual + office for life, and the right of protest by the state must + rely upon a basis named and belonging to the civil domain; + All state compulsion to lifelong reinstatement in a vacant + office is unlawful; The previously insured immunity for reading + mass and dispensing the sacraments is now applied to members + of all spiritual orders again allowed in the kingdom; The + duty of ecclesiastical superiors to communicate disciplinary + decisions to the Chief President is given up. Those orders and + congregations which devote themselves to aiding in pastoral work, + the administering of Christian benevolence, and, on Bishop Kopp’s + motion, those which engage in educational work in girl’s high + schools and similar institutions, as well as those which lead + a private life, are to be allowed and are to be also restored + to the enjoyment of their original possessions; The training of + missionaries for foreign work and the erection of institutions + for this purpose are to be permitted to the privileged orders + and congregations.--Bishop Kopp, and also the pope, with lively + gratitude, accepted these ordinances as making the reconciliation + an accomplished fact; but they also expressed the hope that + the success of this peaceful arrangement will be such as shall + lead to further important concessions to the rightful claims + of the Catholic church. After this conclusive revision, besides + the extremely contracted obligation of notification by the + bishops and the almost completely insignificant right of civil + protest, there remain of the _Kulturkampf_ laws only: the + _Kanzelparagraph_, the Jesuit and the exile enactments (all + of them imperial and not Prussian laws), and the abrogation + of the three articles of the Prussian constitution (§ 197, 8). + Insignificant as the concessions of the papal curia may seem + in comparison to the almost complete surrender of the Prussian + government, it can hardly be said that Bismarck has been untrue + to his promise not to go to Canossa. With him the main thing + ever was to restore within the German empire the peace that + was threatened by thunderclouds gathering from day to day in + the political horizon in east and west, and thus, as also by + nurturing and developing the military forces, to set aside the + danger of war from without. But for this end, the sovereignty + of the Centre, which hampered him on every side, allying itself + with all elements in the Chamber and Reichstag hostile to the + government and the empire, must be broken. But this was possible + only if he succeeded in breaking up the unhallowed artificial + amalgamation of Catholic church interests for which the Centre + contended with the political tendencies of the party hostile + to the empire, by recognising those interests in a manner + satisfactory to the pope and to all right-minded loyal German + Catholics, and so estranging them from the political schemes of + the leader of the Centre. This indeed would have scarcely been + possible with Pius IX., but with the much clearer and sharper + Leo XIII. there was hope of success. And the statesmanlike + insight and self-denial of the prince succeeded, though at first + only in a limited measure, and this was a much more important + gain for the state than the papal concessions of episcopal + notification and the state’s right of protest.--When in the + beginning of 1887, at the same time that the fear was greatest of + a war with France and Russia, the renewal and enlargement of the + military budget, hitherto for seven years, was necessary, and its + refusal by the Centre and its adherents was regarded as certain, + Bismarck prevailed on the pope to intervene in his favour. The + pope did it in a confidential communication to the president + of the Centre, in which he urged acceptance of the septennial + act in the Reichstag for the security of the Fatherland and the + conserving of peace on the continent, expressly referring to the + friendly and promising attitude of the imperial government to + the papacy and the Catholic church. But the president kept the + communication secret from the members of his party, and they + continued strenuously and unanimously opposed to the Septennate. + The Reichstag was consequently dissolved. The pope now published + this correspondence with the leaders of the Centre, thirty-seven + Rhenish nobles separated from the party, and the new elections to + the Reichstag were mainly favourable to the government. Although + the Deputy Windthorst as chief leader of the Prussian _Ecclesia + militans_ had on every occasion protested his and his party’s + profoundest reverence for and conditional submission to every + expression of the papal will, and shortly before (§ 186, 3) had + styled the pope “Lord of the whole world,” he opposed himself, + as he had done on the Septennate question, on the fifth revision + of the ecclesiastical laws, to the will of the infallible pope + by publishing a memorial proving the absolute impossibility of + accepting this proposed law, which, however, this time also he + failed to carry out. + + § 197.14. =Independent Procedure of the other German Governments.= + + 1. =Bavaria’s= energy in the struggle against ultramontanism + (§ 197, 4) soon cooled. Yet in 1873 the Redemptorists were + instructed to discontinue their missionary work (§ 186, 6), + and all theological students were forbidden to attend the + Jesuit German College at Rome (§ 151, 1). Also in 1875, + the jubilee processions organized by the episcopate without + obtaining the royal _Placet_ were inhibited. + + 2. =Württemberg=, which since 1862 possessed more civil + jurisdiction over Catholic church affairs and exercised it + more freely (§ 196, 6) than Prussia laid claim to in 1873, + could all the more easily maintain ecclesiastical peace, + since its peaceful Bishop Hefele (§ 189, 3, 4; 191, 7) + avoided all occasion of conflict and strife. + + 3. In =Baden= the _Kulturkampf_ that had here previously + broken out (§ 196, 2) was continued all the more keenly. + In 1873 public teaching, holding of missions and assisting + in pastoral work, had been refused to all religious orders + and fraternities. But the main blow, followed by the + comprehensive church legislation of February 19th, 1874, + which closed all boys’ seminaries and episcopal institutions, + allowed none to hold a clerical office or discharge any + ecclesiastical function without a three years’ course + at a German university and a state examination in general + culture (§ 196, 2), strictly forbad all influencing of + public elections by the clergy, and made deposition follow + the second conviction of a church officer. The expedient + hitherto resorted to of appointing mere deputy priests so + as to avoid the examination, was consequently frustrated. + The rapid increase of vacant pastorates, after five years’ + opposition, at last moved the episcopal curia to sue for + peace at the hands of the government, and when the latter + showed an exceedingly conciliatory spirit, the curia + with consent of the pope in February, 1880, withdrew its + prohibition of the request for dispensation from the state + examination, and the government now on its part with the + Chambers passed a law, by which the obligation to undergo + this examination was abolished, and the certificate of + the exit examination, three years’ attendance at a German + university, and diligent attention to at least three + courses of the philosophical faculty, was held as sufficient + evidence of general culture. The Baden _Kulturkampf_ seems + to have been definitely concluded by the election and + recognition of Dr. Orbin to the see of Freiburg, vacant for + fourteen years, when he without scruple took the oath of + allegiance. This, however, did not check, far less put an + end to the tumults of the fanatical ultramontane Irredenta. + + § 197.15. + + 4. =Hesse-Darmstadt= in 1874 followed the example of Prussia + and Baden in excluding all spiritual orders from teaching + in public schools, and on April 23rd, 1875, issued five + ecclesiastical laws which were directed to restoring under + penal sanctions the state of the law, which before 1850 + (§ 196, 4) had been unquestioned. Essentially in harmony with + the Prussian May Laws of 1873 and 1874, they go beyond these + in several particulars. All clergymen receiving appointments, + _e.g._, must have gone through a full university course; + all religious orders and congregations were to be allowed + to die out; public roads and squares could be used + for ecclesiastical festivals only by permission of the + government to be renewed on each occasion. The “contentious” + Bishop Ketteler of Mainz, who stirred up the fire to the + utmost with the Prussian brand, and had kindled also a + similar flame in Hesse over the proposal of this law, held + still that to view martyrdom at a distance was the better + part, and carefully avoided any overt act of disobedience. + But he immediately refused to co-operate in restoring the + Catholic theological faculty at Giessen, and the government + consequently abandoned the idea. The Mainz see after + Ketteler’s death in 1877 remained long vacant, as the + government felt obliged to reject the electoral list + submitted by the chapter. A candidate satisfactory to the + Vatican and the government was only found in May, 1886, in + the person of Dr. Haffner, a member of the chapter. After + Prussia had concluded its definitive peace with Rome, the + Hessian government, in May, 1887, laid before the house of + representatives a revision of ecclesiastical legislation of + 1875, like that of Prussia, only not going so far, for which + meanwhile the approval of the papal curia had been obtained. + It agrees to the erection of a Catholic clerical seminary, + and Catholic students’ residences in this seminary and + in the state-gymnasia; erection of independent boys’ + institutions preparatory to the seminary for priests is, + however, still refused; the existing duty of bishops to + make notification, and the right of the state to protest + in regard to appointments to vacant pastorates are also + retained. There is no word of rehabilitating religious + orders and congregations, nor of any limitation of the law + about the exercise of ecclesiastical punishment and means + of discipline. + + 5. Last of all among the German states affected by the + _Kulturkampf_, the kingdom of =Saxony=, with only 73,000 + Catholic inhabitants, at the instance of the second Chamber + in 1876, came forward with a Catholic church law modelled + upon the Prussian May Laws, with its several provisions + modified, in spite of the contention of the talented heir + to the throne, Prince George, that the power of the state + in relation to the Catholic church could only be determined + by a concordat with the Roman curia. + + + § 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. + + To the emperor of Austria there was left, after the re-organization +of affairs by the Vienna Congress, of the Roman empire, only the +name of defender of the papal see, and the Catholic church, and the +presidency of the German Federal Council. The remnants of the Josephine +ecclesiastical constitution were gradually set aside and Catholicism +firmly established as the state religion; yet the government asserted +its independence against all hierarchical claims, and granted, though +only in a very limited degree, toleration to Protestantism. The +revolution year 1848 removed indeed some of these limits, but the +period of reaction that followed gave, by means of a concordat concluded +with the curia in 1855, to the ultramontane hierarchy of the country +an unprecedented power in almost all departments of civil life, and +prejudicial also to the interests of the Protestant church. After the +disastrous issue of the Italian war in 1859, and still more that of the +German war in 1866, the government was obliged to make an honest effort +to introduce and develop liberal institutions. And after an imperial +patent of 1861 had secured religious liberty, self-administration, and +equal rights to the Protestant church, the constitutional legislation +of 1868 freed Catholic as well as Protestant civil, educational, and +ecclesiastical matters from the provisions of the concordat that most +seriously threatened them, and by the declaration of papal infallibility +in 1870 the government felt justified in regarding the entire concordat +as antiquated and declaring it abolished. In its place a Catholic church +act was passed by the state in 1874. But the _Kulturkampf_ struggle +which was thus made imminent also for Austria was avoided by pliancy on +both sides. + + § 198.1. =The Zillerthal Emigration.=--In the Tyrolese + =Zillerthal= the knowledge of evangelical truth had spread + among several families by means of Protestant books and Bibles. + When the Catholic clergy from 1826 had pushed to its utmost + the clerical guardianship by means of auricular confession, an + opposition arose which soon from the refusal to confess passed on + to the rejection of saint worship, masses for the dead, purgatory, + indulgences, etc., and ended in the formal secession of many to + the evangelical church in 1830, with a reference to the Josephine + edict of toleration. The emperor Francis I., to whom on the + occasion of his visit to Innsbrück in 1832 they presented their + petition, promised them toleration. But the Tyrolese nobles + protested, and the official decision, given at last in 1834, + ordered removal to Transylvania or return to the Catholic church. + The petitioners now applied, as those of Salzburg had previously + done (§ 165, 4), by a deputation to the king of Prussia, who, + after by diplomatic communications securing the emperor’s + consent to emigration, assigned them his estate of Erdmannsdorf + in Silesia for colonization. There now the exiles, 399 in number, + settled in 1837, and, largely aided by the royal munificence, + founded a new Zillerthal. + + § 198.2. =The Concordat.=--After the revolution year 1848, + the government were far more yielding toward the claims of the + hierarchy than under the old Metternich _régime_. In April, 1850, + an imperial patent relieved the papal and episcopal decrees of + the necessity of imperial approval, and on August 18th, 1855, + a concordat with the pope was agreed to, by which unprecedented + power and independence was granted to the hierarchy in Austria + for all time to come. The first article secured to the Roman + Catholic religion throughout the empire all rights and privileges + which they claimed by divine institution and the canon law. + The others gave to the bishops the right of unrestricted + correspondence with Rome, declared that no papal ordinance + required any longer the royal _placet_, that prelates are + unfettered in the discharge of their hierarchical obligations, + that religious instruction in all schools is under their + supervision, that no one can teach religion or theology without + their approval, that in catholic schools there can be only + catholic teachers, that they have the right of forbidding all + books which may be injurious to the faithful, that all cases + of ecclesiastical law, especially marriage matters, belong to + their jurisdiction, yet the apostolic see grants that purely + secular law matters of the clergy are to be decided before a + civil tribunal, and the emperor’s right of nomination to vacant + episcopal sees is to continue, etc. The inferior clergy, who + were now without legal protection against the prelates, only + reluctantly bowed their necks to this hard yoke; the liberal + Catholic laity murmured, sneered, and raged, and the native press + incessantly urged a revision of the concordat, the necessity of + which became ever more apparent from concessions made meanwhile + willingly or grudgingly to the “Non-Catholics.” But only after + Austria, by the issue of the German war of 1866, was restricted + to her own domain, and finally freed from the drag of its + ultramontane Italian interests, found herself obliged to make + every effort to reconcile the opposing parties within her own + territories, could these views prove successful. But since the + government nevertheless held firmly by the principle that the + concordat, as a state contract regularly concluded between two + sovereigns, could be changed only by mutual consent, the liberal + majority of the house of deputies resolved to make it as harmless + as possible by means of domestic legislation, and on June 11th, + 1867, the deputy Herbst moved the appointment of a committee for + drawing up three bills for restoring civil marriage, emancipation + of schools from the church, and equality of all confessions + in the eye of the law. The motion was carried by a hundred and + thirty-four votes against twenty-two. The Cisleithan (_i.e._ + Austrian excluding Hungary) episcopate, with Cardinal Rauscher + of Vienna at their head, presented an address to his apostolic + majesty demanding the most rigid preservation of the concordat, + denouncing civil marriage as concubinage, and the emancipation + of schools as their dechristianizing. An imperial autograph + letter to Rauscher rebuked with earnest words the inflammatory + proceedings of the bishops, and at the same time the ultramontane + ambassador to Rome, Baron Hübner, was recalled. After the + arrangement with Hungary was completed, the first Cisleithan, the + so-called Burger, ministry was constituted under the presidency + of Prince Auersperg, composed of the most distinguished leaders + of the parliamentary majority. All the three bills were passed + by a large majority, and obtained imperial sanction on =May 25th, + 1868=. The papal nuncio of Vienna protested, the pope in an + allocution denounced the new Austrian constitution as _nefanda + sane_ and the three confessional laws as _abominabiles leges_. + “We repudiate and condemn these laws,” he says, “by apostolic + authority, as well as everything done by the Austrian government + in matters of church policy, and determine in the exercise of + the same authority that these decrees with all their consequences + are and shall be null and void.” But all Vienna, all Austria + held jubilee, and the Chancellor von Beust rejected with energy + the assumptions of the curia over the civil domain. The bishops + indeed issued protests and inflammatory pastorals, and forbad the + publication of the marriage act, but submitted to the threats of + compulsion by the supreme court, and Bishop Rudigier of Linz, who + went furthest in inciting to opposition, was in 1869 taken into + court by the police, and sentenced to twelve days’ imprisonment, + but pardoned by the emperor. Toward the Vatican Council Austria + assumed at first a waiting policy, then in vain remonstrated, + warned, threatened, and finally, on July 30th, 1870, after the + proclamation of infallibility, declared that the concordat was + antiquated and abolished, because by this dogma the position of + one of the contracting parties had undergone a complete change. + + § 198.3. =The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria.=--Down to + 1848 Protestantism of both confessions in Austria enjoyed only a + very limited toleration. The storms of this year first set aside + the hated official name of “Non-Catholics,” and won permission + for Protestant places of worship to have bells and towers. + But the repeated petitions for permission to found branches + of the _Gustavus Adolphus Union_, the persistently maintained + law that Catholic clergymen, even after they had formally become + Protestants, could not marry, because the _character indelibilis_ + of priestly consecration attached itself even to apostates, and + many such facts, prove that the government was far from intending + to grant to the Protestants civil equality with the Catholics. + But the unfortunate result of the Sardinian-French war of 1859, + and the fear thereby increased of the falling asunder of the + whole Austrian federation, induced the government to address + itself earnestly to the introduction of liberal institutions, + and also to do justice to the Protestant church. The presidency + of the two Protestant consistories in Vienna, hitherto given to + a Catholic, was now assigned to a Protestant; meetings of the + Gustavus Adolphus Union were now allowed, and a share was given + to the Protestant party in the ministry of public worship by + the appointment of three evangelical councillors. After the + entrance on office of the liberal minister Von Schmerling, + an imperial patent was issued on April 8th, 1864, by which + unrestricted liberty of faith, independent administration of + all ecclesiastical, educational, and charitable matters, free + election of pastors, even from abroad, full exercise of civil and + political rights, and complete equality with Catholics was given + to the Protestants of the German and Slavonian crown territories. + Also in 1868, under the reactionary ministry of Belcredi, + on the expiry of the legal term of the Evangelical Supreme + Church Council, it was reorganized, two evangelical school + councillorships were created, and the pecuniary position of + the evangelical clergy considerably improved. But in spite of + all privileges legally granted to the evangelical church, it + continued in many cases, in presence of the concordat, which + down to 1870 still remained in force, exposed to the whims and + caprice, sometimes of the imperial courts, sometimes of the + Catholic clergy. + + § 198.4. =The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol.=--In the + =Tyrol=, after the publication of the imperial patent of April, + 1861, a violent movement was set on foot by clerical agitation. + The Landtag, by a great majority, pronounced the issuing of it + the most serious calamity which the country, hitherto honest, + true, and happy in its undivided attachment to the Catholic faith, + could have suffered, and concluded that Non-Catholics in the + Tyrol should only by way of dispensation be allowed, but that + publicity of Protestant worship and formation of Protestant + congregations should be still forbidden. The Schmerling ministry, + indeed, refused to confirm these resolutions. The agitation + of the clergy, however, which fanned in all possible ways the + fanaticism of the people, grew from year to year, until at last + the Belcredi ministry of 1866 came to an agreement with the + Landtag, sanctioned by the emperor, according to which the + creation of an evangelical landed proprietary in the Tyrol was + not indeed formally forbidden, but permission for an evangelical + to possess land had in each case to be obtained from the Landtag. + The ecclesiastical laws of 1868 next called forth new conflicts. + Twice was the Landtag closed because of the opposition thus + awakened, until finally in September, 1870, the estates took + the oath to the new constitution with reservation of conscience. + But now, when in December, 1875, the ministry of worship + gave approval to the formal constituting of two evangelical + congregations in the Tyrol, at Innsbrück and Meran, the clerical + press was filled with burning denunciations, and the majority + of the Landtag meeting in the following March thought to give + emphasis to their protest by leaving the chamber, and so bringing + the assembly to a sudden close. In June, 1880, the three bishops + of the Tyrol uttered in the Landtag a fanatical protest against + the continuance of the meanwhile established congregations, which + the Landtag majority renewed in July, 1883. + + § 198.5. =The Austrian Universities.=--Stremayr, minister + of public worship, introduced in 1872 a scheme of university + reorganization, by which the exclusively Catholic character which + had hitherto belonged to the Austrian universities, especially + those of Vienna and Prague, should be removed. Up to this time + a Non-Catholic could there obtain no sort of academical degree, + but this was now to be obtainable apart from any question of + confession. The office of chancellor, held by the archbishops + of Prague and Vienna, was restricted to the theological faculty, + to the state was assigned the right of nominating all professors, + even in the theological faculty, and the German language + was recommended as the medium of instruction. Candidates of + theology have to pass through a full and comprehensive course + of theological science in a three years’ university curriculum, + before they can be admitted into an episcopal seminary for + practical training. In spite of the opposition of the superior + clergy, the bill passed even in the House of Peers, and became + law in 1873.--In Innsbrück, where according to ancient custom + the rector was chosen from the four faculties in succession, the + other faculties protested against the election when, in 1872, + the turn came to the theological (Jesuit) faculty, and they + carried their point. The new organization law gave the choice + of rector to the whole professoriate, and a subsequent imperial + order withdrew from the general of the Jesuits the right of + nominating all theological professors.--Much was done, too, for + the elevation of the evangelical theological faculty in Vienna + by bringing able scholars from Germany, by giving a right to + the promotion to the degree of doctor of theology, etc. But its + incorporation in the university, though often moved for, was + hindered by the continued opposition of the Catholic theologians + as well as philosophers, and in 1873 it did not meet with + sufficient support in the House of Peers. Even the use of certain + halls in the university buildings, promised by the minister, + could not yet be obtained. + + § 198.6. =The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874-1876.=--At last + the government in January, 1874, introduced the long-promised + Catholic church legislation into the Reichstag, intended to + supply blanks occasioned by the setting aside of the concordat. + Its main contents are these: + + I. The concordat, hitherto only diplomatically dealt with, + is now legislatively annulled; the bishops have to present + all their manifestoes not before but upon publication to + the state government for its cognisance; every vacancy of + an ecclesiastical office, as well as every new appointment + to such, is to be notified to the civil court, which + can raise objections against such appointment within + thirty days; the minister of worship then decides on the + admissibility or inadmissibility of the candidate; legal + deposition of a church officer involves withdrawal of the + emoluments; the performance of unusual practices in public + worship of a demonstrative character can be prohibited by + the civil court; any misuse of ecclesiastical authority in + restraining any one from obeying the laws of the land or + from exercising his civil rights is strictly interdicted. + + II. The ecclesiastical revenues and the income of the + cloisters are subjected to a progressive taxation on + behalf of a religious fund, mainly for improving the + condition of the lower clergy, for which the episcopate + hitherto, in spite of all entreaties, had done practically + nothing. + + III. Newly formed religious societies received state + recognition if their denomination and principles contain + nothing contrary to law and morality or offensive to those + of another faith. + + IV. The state grants or refuses its approval of the + establishment of spiritual orders, congregations, and + ecclesiastical societies; institutions and legacies for + them amounting to over three thousand gulden require + state sanction; any member is free to quit any order; + all orders must report annually on the personal changes + and disciplinary punishments that have taken place; at any + time when occasion calls for it they may be subjected to + a visitation by the civil court.[551] + + In vain did the pope by an encyclical seek to rouse the + episcopate to violent opposition, in vain did he adjure the + emperor in a letter in his own hand not to suffer the church + to be put into such disgraceful bondage; the House of Deputies + approved the four bills, and the emperor in =May, 1874=, + confirmed at least the first three, while the fourth was being + debated in the House of Peers. The bishops now issued a joint + declaration that they could obey these laws only in so far as + they “were in harmony with the demands of justice as stated + in the concordat.” But it did not go to the length of actual + conflict. Neither to the pope and episcopate, nor to the + government was such a thing convenient at the time. Hence the + attitude of reserve on both sides, which kept everything as + it had been. And when notwithstanding Bishop Rudigier of Linz, + threatened with fines on account of his refusal to notify the + newly appointed priests, appealed to the pope, he obtained + through the Vienna nuncio permission to yield on this point, + “_non dissentit tolerari posse_.” But all the more urgently did + the nuncio strive to prevent the passing of the sweeping cloister + law. In January, 1876, it was passed in the House of Peers with + modifications, to which, however, the emperor refused his assent. + Also the revised marriage law of the same date, which removed + the hindrances to marriage incorporated even in the book of civil + law, and no longer recognised differences of religion, Christians + and non-Christians, the remarriage of separated parties of whom + at the time of the first marriage only one party belonged to the + Catholic church, higher consecration and the vows of orders, did + not pass the House of Peers. + + § 198.7. =The Protestant Church in the Transleithan + Provinces.=--In =Hungary= since 1833 the Reichstag had by bold + action won for the Protestants full equality with the Catholics, + but in consequence of the revolution, the military lordship + of the Protestant Haynau in 1850 again put in fetters all + independent life in both Protestant churches. The Haynau decree + was, indeed, again abrogated in 1854, but full return to the + earlier autonomy of the church, in spite of all petitions and + deputations, could never be regained, all the less as Hungary in + all too decided a manner rejected the constitutional proposals + submitted by the Government in 1856. The liberal imperial patent + of September 1st, 1859, which secured independent administration + and development to the Protestant church in the crown possessions + of Hungary, got no better reception. In the German-Slavonian + districts of North Hungary, as well as in Croatia, Slavonia, and + Austrian Servia, it was greeted with jubilation and gratitude, + but the Magyar Hungarians declined on many, for the most part + frivolous, grounds, mainly because it emanated from the emperor, + and did not originate in an autonomous synod. When the government + showed its intention of going forward with it, the opposition was + carried to the utmost extreme, so that the emperor was obliged + temporarily to suspend proceedings in May, 1860. Still the + ecclesiastical joined with the political movement continued + to increase until in 1867 the imperial chancellor, Von Beust, + succeeded in quieting both for a time by the Hungarian Agreement. + On June 8th of that year, the emperor, Francis Joseph, on + ratifying the agreement, was solemnly crowned King of Hungary. + The hated patent had been shortly before revoked by an + imperial edict, with the direction to order church matters + in a constitutional way. After a complete reconciliation, at + a General Protestant Convention in December, 1867, with the + Patent congregations, hitherto denounced as unpatriotic, it was + concluded that to the state belonged only a right of protection + and oversight of the church, which is autonomous in all its + internal affairs, but to all confessions perfect freedom in law, + and that there should be not a separate religious legislation + for each, but a common one for all confessions. A committee + first appointed in 1873 for this purpose, with the motto, “A + Free Church in a Free State,” constituted, and then adjourned + _ad kalendas Græcas_. + + + § 199. SWITZERLAND. + + The Catholic church of Switzerland, after long continued troubles, +obtained again a regular hierarchical organization in 1828. Since that +time the Jesuits settled there in crowds, and assumed to themselves in +most of the Catholic cantons the whole direction of church and schools. +The unfortunate issue of the cantonal war of 1847 led indeed to their +banishment by law, but, favoured by the bishops, they knew how still to +re-enter by back doors and secretly to regain their earlier influence. +The city of Calvin was the centre of their plots, not only for +Switzerland, but also for all Cisalpine Europe, until at last the +overstrained bow broke, and the Swiss governments became the most +decided and uncompromising opponents of the ultramontane claims. In +1873 the papal nuncio, in consequence of a papal encyclical insulting +the government, was banished.--In Protestant Switzerland, besides the +destructive influence of the Illumination, antagonistic to the church, +and radical liberalism, there appeared a soil receptive of pietism, +separatism, and fanaticism, whose first cultivation has been ascribed +to Madame Krüdener (§ 176, 2). In the Protestant church of German +Switzerland the religious and theological developments stood regularly +in lively connexion with similar movements in Germany, while those in +the French cantons received their impulse and support from France and +England. From France, to which they were allied by a common language, +they learned the unbelief of the encyclopædists (§ 165, 14), while +travelling Englishmen and those residing in the country for a longer +period introduced the fervour and superstition of Methodism and other +sects. + + § 199.1. =The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870.=--The + ecclesiastical superintendence of Catholic Switzerland was + previously subject to the neighbouring foreign bishoprics. + But for immediate preservation of its interests the curia had + appointed a nunciature at Lucerne in 1588. When now, in 1814, the + liberal Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), already long suspected of heresy, + was called as coadjutor to Constance, the nuncio manœuvred with + the Catholic confederates till these petitioned the pope for the + establishment of an independent and national bishopric. But when + each of the cantons interested claimed to be made the episcopal + residence negotiations were at last suspended, and in 1828 six + small bishoprics were erected under immediate control of Rome. + At the end of 1833 the diocesan representatives of Basel and + St. Gall assembled in Baden to consult about the restoration + of a national Swiss Metropolitan Union and a common state + church constitution for securing church and state against the + encroachments of the Romish hierarchy. But Gregory XIV. condemned + the articles of conference here agreed upon, which would have + given to Switzerland only what other states had long possessed, + as false, audacious, and erroneous, destructive of the church, + heretical, and schismatic, and among the Catholic people a revolt + was stirred up by ultramontane fanaticism, under the influence + of which the whole action was soon frustrated. On the occasion of + a revision of the constitution of the canton of Aargau, a revolt, + led by the cloisters, broke out in 1841. But the rebels were + defeated, and the grand council resolved upon the closing of all + cloisters, eight in number. Complaint made against this at the + diet was regarded as satisfied by the Aargau Agreement of 1843 + restoring three nunneries. An opposition was organized against + the revision of the constitution of Canton =Lucerne= in 1841. + The liberal government was overthrown, and the new constitution, + in which the state insisted on its _placet_ in ecclesiastical + matters and the granting of cantonal civil rights to those + only who professed attachment to the Roman Catholic church, was + submitted to the pope for approval. At last, in 1844, the academy + of Lucerne was given over to the Jesuits, for which Joseph Leu, + the popular agitator, as member of the grand council, had wrought + unweariedly since 1839. In Canton =Vaud= the parties of old or + clerical and young Switzerland contended with one another for + the mastery. The latter suffered an utter defeat in 1844, and the + constitution which was then carried allowed the right of public + worship only to the Catholic church. In consequence of this + victory of the clerical party Catholic Switzerland with Lucerne + at its head became a main centre of ultramontanism and Jesuitism. + At the diet of 1844, indeed, Aargau, supported by numerous + petitions from the people, moved for the banishment of all + Jesuits from all Switzerland, but the majority did not consent. + The Jesuit opponents expelled from Lucerne now organized twice + over a free volunteer corps to overthrow the ultramontane + government and force the expulsion of the Jesuits, but on both + occasions, in 1844 and 1845, it suffered a sore defeat. In face + of the threateningly growing increase of the excitement, which + made them fear a decisive intervention of the diet, the Catholic + cantons formed in 1845 a =separate league= (_Sonderbund_) for + the preservation of their faith and their sovereign rights. This + proceeding, irreconcilable with the Act of Federation, led to + a civil war. The members of the _Sonderbund_ were defeated, the + ultramontane governments had to resign, and the Jesuits departed + in 1847. The new Federal constitution which Switzerland adopted + in 1848, secured unconditional liberty of conscience and equality + of all confessions, and the expulsion of the Jesuits in terms + of the law. But since that time ultramontanism has gained the + supremacy in Catholic Switzerland, and in spite of the existing + law against the Jesuits all the threads of the ultramontane + clerical movements in Switzerland were in the Jesuits’ hands. + These were never more successful than in Canton =Geneva=, where + the radical democratic agitator Fazy leagued himself closely with + ultramontanism to compass the destruction of the old Calvinistic + aristocracy, and by bringing in large numbers the lower class + Catholics from the neighbouring France and Savoy he obtained a + considerable Catholic majority in the canton, and in the capital + itself made Catholics and Protestants nearly equal. + + § 199.2. =The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883.=--The Catholic church + of Canton Geneva, on the founding of the six Swiss bishoprics + by a papal bull, had been incorporated “for all time to + come,” after the style of the concordat, with the bishopric of + Freiburg-Lausanne. But the government made no objection when the + newly elected priest of Geneva, Mermillod, a Jesuit of the purest + water, assumed the title and rank of an episcopal vicar-general + for the whole canton. But when in 1864 the pope nominated him + bishop of Hebron _in partibus_ and auxiliary bishop of Geneva, it + made a protest. Nevertheless, when, in the following year, Bishop + Marilley of Freiburg by papal orders transferred to him absolute + power for the canton with personal responsibility, and in 1870 + formally renounced all episcopal rights over it, so that the pope + now appointed the auxiliary bishop independent bishop of Geneva, + it was evident a step had been taken that could not be recalled. + The government renewed its protest and made it more vehement, in + consequence of which, in January, 1873, by a papal brief which + was first officially communicated to the government after it + had already been proclaimed from all Catholic pulpits, Mermillod + was appointed apostolic vicar-general with unlimited authority + for Canton Geneva, and the district was thus practically made + a Catholic mission field. A demand made of him by the state + to resign this office and title and divest himself of every + episcopal function, was answered by the declaration that he + would obey God rather than man. The _Bund_ then expelled him + from Federal territory until he would yield to that demand. + From Ferney, where he settled, he unceasingly stirred up the + fire of opposition among the Genevan clergy and people, but the + government decidedly rejected all protests, and by a popular vote + obtained sanction for a Catholic church law which restricted the + rights of the diocesan bishop who might reside in Switzerland, + but not in Canton Geneva, and without consent of the government + could not appoint there any episcopal vicar, and transferred the + election of priests and priests’ vicars to the congregations. The + next elections returned Old Catholics, since the Roman Catholic + population did not acknowledge the law condemned by the pope and + took no part in the voting. By decision of the grand council of + 1875 the abolition of all religious corporations was next enacted, + and all religious ceremonies and processions in public streets + and squares forbidden. Leo XIII. made an attempt to still + the conflict, for in 1879 he gave Bishop Marilley the asked + for discharge, and confirmed his elected successor, Cosandry, + as bishop of Freiburg, Lausanne, and Geneva, without however + removing Mermillod from his office of vicar apostolic of Geneva. + But this actually took place after the death of Cosandry in 1882 + by the appointment of Mermillod as his successor in 1883. As + he now ceased to style himself a vicar apostolic, the Federal + council removed the decree of banishment as the occasion of + it had ceased, but left each canton free as to whether or not + it should accept him as bishop. Freiburg, Neuenburg, and Vaud + accepted him, and Mermillod had a brilliant entry into Freiburg, + which he made his episcopal residence. But Geneva refused to + recognise him, because it had already officially attached itself + to the Old Catholic Bishop Herzog of Berne, and Mermillod went so + far in his ostentatious love of peace as to declare that he would + not in future enter Genevan territory. + + § 199.3. =Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, + 1870-1880.=--Bishop Lachat of Soleure, whose diocese comprised + the Cantons Bern, Soleure, Aargau, Basel, Thurgau, Lucerne, and + Zug, had been previously in conflict with the diocesan conference, + _i.e._ the delegates of the seven cantons entrusted with the + oversight of the ecclesiastical administration, on account of + introducing the prohibited handbook on morals of the Jesuit Gury + (§ 191, 9), which ended in the closing of the seminary aided + by the government, and the erection of a new seminary at his + own cost. Although the diocesan conference next forbad the + proclamation of the new Vatican dogma, the bishop threatened + excommunicated Egli in Lucerne in 1871, and Geschwind in + Starrkirch in 1872, who refused. The conference ordered the + withdrawal of this unlawful act, and on the bishop’s refusal, + deposed him in January, 1873. The dissenting cantons, Lucerne and + Zug, indeed declared that after as well as before they would only + recognise Lachat as lawful bishop, the chapter refused to make + the required election of administrator of the diocese, the clergy + in Soleure and in =Bernese Jura= without exception took the + side of the bishop, as also by means of a popular vote the + great majority of Catholics in Thurgau. But amid all this the + conference did not yield in the least. Lachat was compelled by + the police to quit his episcopal residence, and withdrew to a + village in Canton Lucerne. The council of the Bernese government + resolved to recall the refractory clergy of the Jura, took their + names off the civil register and forbad them to exercise any + clerical functions. The outbreaks incited by rebel clergy in + the Jura were put down by the military, sixty-nine clergymen + were exiled, and, so far as the means allowed, replaced by + liberal successors introduced by the Old Catholic priest Herzog + (§ 190, 3) in Olten. In November, 1875, permission to return home + was granted to the exiles in consequence of the revised Federal + constitution of 1874, according to which the banishment of Swiss + burghers was no longer allowed. The Bernese government felt all + the more disposed to carry out this enactment of the National + Council, as it believed that it had obtained the legal means for + checking further rebellion and obstinacy among those who should + return. On January, 1874, by popular vote a law was sanctioned + reorganizing the whole ecclesiastical affairs of the =Canton + Bern=. By it all clergy, Catholic as well as Protestant, are + ranked as civil officers, the choice of whom rests with the + congregations, the tenure of office lasting for six years. All + purely ecclesiastical affairs for the canton rest in the last + instance with a synod of the particular denomination, for the + several congregations with a church committee, both composed of + freely elected lay and clerical members. But if a dispute in a + particular congregation should arise about a synodal decree, the + congregational assembly decides on its validity or non-validity + for the particular congregation. All decrees of higher church + courts and pastorals must have state approval, which must never + be refused on dogmatic grounds. If a congregation splits over any + question, the majority claims the church property and pastor’s + emoluments, etc. And this law was next extended in October 31st, + 1875, in the matter of penal law by the so-called Police + Worship Law. It imposes heavy fines up to 1000 francs or a + year’s imprisonment for any clerical agitation against the law, + institutions or enactments of the civil courts, as well as for + every outbreak of hostilities against members of other religious + bodies, refuses to allow any interference of foreign spiritual + superiors without leave granted by government in each particular + case, forbids all processions and religious ceremonies outside + of the fixed church locality, etc. In the same year the first + Catholic Cantonal Synod declared its attachment to the Christian + or Old Catholic church of Switzerland. But it was otherwise + after the newly elected Grand Council of the canton of its + own accord, on September 12th, 1878, granted the returned Jura + clergy complete amnesty for all the past, and on the assumption + of future submission to existing laws of state, recognised + them again eligible for election to spiritual offices which had + previously been denied them. Not only did the Roman Catholic + people regularly take part in elections of priests, church + councils, and synods, undoubtedly with the approval of the new + pope Leo XIII., who had in February addressed a conciliatory + letter to the members of the Federal Council, but also the + extremest of the Jura now submitted without scruple to the new + election required by the law, and won therein for the most part + the majority of votes. In the Catholic Cantonal Synod convened in + Bern, in January, 1880, were found seventy-five Roman Catholics + and only twenty-five Old Catholic deputies. The latter were + naturally defeated in all controversies. The synod declared + that the connexion with the Christian Catholic national bishopric + was annulled, that auricular confession was obligatory, that + marriages of priests were forbidden, etc. Since now the law + assigns the state pay of the priest as well as all the church + property in the case of a split to the majority for the time + being, the inevitable consequence was that Old Catholics of the + Jura district were deprived of all share in these privileges, + and had to make provision for their own support. Also in Canton + =Soleure=, the law that all pastors must be re-elected after + the expiry of six years, came in force in 1872, and then the + thirty-two Roman Catholic clergymen concerned were with only two + exceptions re-elected, while, on the other hand, the Old Catholic + priest Geschwind of Starrkirch was rejected.--But all efforts + to restore the bishopric of Basel-Soleure came to grief over the + person of Bishop Lachat, whom the curia would not give up and the + Federal Council would not again allow, until at last a way out of + the difficulty was found. The canton Tessin, which previously in + church matters belonged to the Italian dioceses of Milan and Como, + was, in 1859, by decree of the Federal Council, detached from + these. But Tessin insisted on the founding of a bishopric of its + own, while the Federal Council wished to join it to the bishopric + of Chur. Thus the matter remained undecided, till in September, + 1884, the papal curia came to an understanding with the Federal + Council that Lachat should be appointed vicar-apostolic for + the newly founded bishopric of Tessin, and that to the vacated + bishopric of Basel-Soleure the “learned as well as mild” Provost + Fiala of Soleure should be called. In this way all the cantons + referred to, with the exception of Bern, were won.[552] + + § 199.4. =The Protestant Church in German Switzerland.=--Among + all the German cantons, =Basel= (§ 172, 5), which unweariedly + prosecuted the work of home and foreign missions, fell most + completely under the influence of rationalism and then of the + liberal Protestant theology. While pietism obtained powerful + support and encouragement in its missionary institutions and + movements, and there, though developing itself on Reformed soil, + assumed, in consequence of its manifold connection with Germany, + a colour almost more Lutheran than Reformed, the university by + eminent theological teachers of scientific ability represented + the Mediation school in theology of a predominantly Reformed type. + In the Canton =Zürich=, on the other hand, the advanced theology, + theoretical and practical, obtained an increasing and finally + an almost exclusive mastery in the university and church. But + yet, when in 1839 the Grand Council called Dr. David Strauss + to a theological professorship, the Zürich people rose to a man + against the proposal, the appointment was not enforced, the Grand + Council was overthrown, and Strauss pensioned. The victory and + ascendency of this reaction, however, was not of long continuance. + Theological and ecclesiastical radicalism again won the upper + hand and maintained it unchecked. In the other German cantons the + most diverse theological schools were represented alongside of + one another, yet with steadily increasing advantage to liberal + and radical tendencies. The theological faculty at =Bern= + favoured mainly a liberal mediation theology, and an attempt + of the orthodox party in 1847, to set aside the appointment of + Professor E. Zeller by means of a popular tumult, miscarried. + From 1860 ecclesiastical liberalism prevailed in German + Protestant Switzerland, frequently going the length of + the extremest radicalism and showing its influence even in + the cantonal and synodal legislation. The starting of the + “_Zeitstimmen für d. ref. Schweiz_,” in 1859, by Henry Lang, + who had fled in 1848 from Württemberg to Switzerland, and died + in 1876 as pastor in Zürich, marked an epoch in the history of + the radical liberal movement in Swiss theology. In Fred. Langhans, + since 1876 professor at Bern, he had a zealous comrade in the + fight. During 1864-1866, Langhans published a series of violent + controversial tracts against the pietistic orthodox party in + Switzerland, which zealously prosecuted foreign missions, and in + 1866 he founded the _Swiss Reform Union_, while Alb. Bitzius, son + of the writer known as Jer. Gotthelf (§ 174, 8) started as its + organ the “_Reformblätter aus d. bernischen Kirche_,” which was + subsequently amalgamated with the _Zeitstimmem_.--After more or + less violent conflicts with pietistic orthodoxy, still always + pretty strongly represented, especially in the aristocracy, the + emancipation of the schools from the church and the introduction + of obligatory civil marriage were accomplished in most cantons, + even before the revised Federal constitution of 1874 and the + marriage law of 1875 gave to these principles legal sanction + throughout the whole of Switzerland. In almost all Protestant + cantons the re-election or new election to all spiritual offices + every six years was ordained by law, in many the freeing of + the clergy from any creed subscription with the setting aside + of confessional writings as well as of the orthodox liturgy, + hymnbooks and catechisms was also carried, and the withdrawing + of the Apostles’ Creed from public worship and from the baptismal + formula was enjoined. The Basel synod in 1883, by thirty-six to + twenty-seven votes, carried the motion to make baptism no longer + a condition of confirmation; and although the Zürich synod in + 1882 still held baptism obligatory for membership in the national + church, the Cantonal Council in 1883, on consulting the law of + the church, overturned this decision by 140 against 19 votes. + + § 199.5. =The Protestant Church in French Switzerland.=--The + French philosophy of the eighteenth century had given to the + Reformed church of =Geneva= a prevailingly rationalistic tendency. + Notwithstanding, or just because of this, Madame Krüdener, in + 1814, with her conventicle pietism, found an entrance there, + and won in the young theologian Empaytaz a zealous supporter and + an apostle of conversion preaching. In the next year a wealthy + Englishman, Haldane, appeared there as the apostle of methodistic + piety, and inspired the young pastor Malan with enthusiasm for + the revival mission. Empaytaz and Malan now by speech and writing + charged the national church with defection from the Christian + faith, and won many zealous believers as adherents, especially + among students of theology. The _Vénérable Compagnie_ of the + Geneva clergy, hitherto resting on its lees in rationalistic + quiet, now in 1817 thought it might still the rising storm by + demanding of theological candidates at ordination the vow not to + preach on the two natures in Christ, original sin, predestination, + etc., but thereby they only poured oil on the fire. The adherents + of the daily increasing evangelical movement withdrew from + the national church, founded free independent communities and + _Réunions_ under the banner of the restoration of Calvinistic + orthodoxy, and were by their enemies nicknamed _Momiers_, _i.e._ + mummery traders or hypocrites. The government imprisoned and + banished their leaders, while the mob, unchecked, heaped upon + them all manner of abuse. The persecution came to an end in + 1830. Thereafter settling down in quiet moderation, it founded + in 1831 the _Société évangélique_, which, in 1832, established + an _Ecole de Théologie_, and became the centre of the Free church + evangelical movement. From that time the _Eglise libre_ of Geneva + has existed unmolested alongside of the _Eglise Nationale_, and + the opposition at first so violent has been moderated on both + sides by the growth of conciliatory and mediating tendencies. + Since 1850, two divergent parties have arisen within the bosom + of the free church itself, which without any serious conflict + continued alongside of one another, until in May, 1883, the + majority of the presbytery resolved to make a peaceful separation, + the stricter forming the congregation of the _Pelisserie_, and + the more liberal that of the _Oratoire_. At the same time a + committee was appointed to draw up a confession upon which both + could unite in lasting fellowship. But when this failed, a formal + and complete separation was agreed upon at the new year.--From + Geneva the Methodist revival spread to =Vaud=. The religious + movement got a footing, especially in Lausanne. The Grand + Council, however, did not allow the contemplated formation of + an independent congregation, and in 1824 forbad all “sectarian” + assemblies, while the mob raged even more wildly than at Geneva + against the “_Momiers_.” The excitement increased when, in 1839, + by decision of the Grand Council, the Helvetic Confession was + abrogated. When in 1845 a revolutionary radical government came + into office at Lausanne, the refusal of many clergymen to read + from the pulpit a political proclamation, caused a thorough + division in the church, for the preachers referred to were in + a body driven out of the national church. A Free church of Vaud + now developed itself alongside of the national church, sorely + oppressed and persecuted by the radical government, and spread + into other Swiss cantons. It owed its freedom from sectarian + narrowness mainly to the influence of the talented and thoroughly + independent Alex. Vinet, who devoted his whole energies and + brilliant eloquence to the interests of religious freedom and + liberty of conscience and to the struggle for the separation + of church and state. Vinet was from 1817 teacher of the French + language and literature in Basel, then from 1837 to 1845 + professor of practical theology at Lausanne, but on the + reconstruction of the university he was not re-elected. He died + in 1847.[553]--In the canton =Neuchatel= the State Council in + 1873 introduced a law, which granted unconditional liberty of + conscience, freedom in teaching and worship without any sort + of restriction on clergy, teachers and congregations. The Grand + Council by forty-seven votes to forty-six gave it its sanction, + notwithstanding the almost unanimous protest of the evangelical + synod, and refused to appeal to a popular vote. When an appeal + to the Federal Council proved fruitless, somewhere about one half + of the pastors, including the theological professors and all the + students, left the state church, and formed an _Eglise libre_; + while the other half regarded it as their duty to remain in the + national church so long as they were not hindered from preaching + God’s word in purity and simplicity. Both parties had a common + meeting point in the _Union évangélique_, and a law originally + passed in favour of the Old Catholics, which secured to all + seceders a right to the joint use of their respective churches, + proved also of advantage to the Free church.--The canton =Geneva= + issued, in 1874, a Protestant law of worship, which with dogma + and liturgy also threw overboard ordination, and maintained that + the clergy are answerable only to their conscience and their + electors. Yet at the new election of the consistory in 1879, + at the close of the legal term of four years, the evangelical + and moderate party again obtained the supremacy, and a law + introduced by the radical party in the Grand Council, demanding + the withdrawal of the budget of worship and the separation of + church and state, was, on July 4th, 1880, thrown out by universal + popular vote, by a majority of 9,000 to 4,000. + + + § 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. + + Among the most serious mistakes in the new partition of states at +the Vienna Congress was the combining in one kingdom of the United +Netherlands the provinces of Holland and Belgium, diverse in race, +language, character, and religion. The contagion of French Revolution +of July, 1830, however, caused an outbreak in Brussels, which ended in +the separation of Catholic Belgium from the predominantly Protestant +Holland. Belgium has since then been the scene of unceasing and +changeful conflicts between the liberal and ultramontane parties, whose +previous combination was now completely shattered. And while, on the +other hand, in the Reformed state church of Holland, theological studies, +leaning upon German science, have taken a liberal and even radical +destructive course, the not inconsiderable Roman Catholic population has +fallen, under Jesuit leading, more and more into bigoted obscurantism. + + § 200.1. =The United Netherlands.=--The constitution of the + new kingdom created in 1814 guaranteed unlimited freedom to all + forms of worship and complete equality of all citizens without + distinction of religious confession. Against this the Belgian + episcopate protested with bishop Maurice von Broglie, of Ghent, + at their head, who refused, in 1817, the prayers of the church + for the heretical crown princess and the _Te Deum_ for the + newborn heir to the throne. As he went so far as to excite + the Catholic people on all occasions against the Protestant + government, the angry king, William I., summoned him to answer + for his conduct before the court of justice. But he eluded + inquiry by flight to France, and as guilty of high treason + was sentenced to death, which did not prevent him from his + exile unweariedly fanning the flames of rebellion. The number + of cloisters grew from day to day and also the multitude of + clerical schools and seminaries, in which the Catholic youth + was trained up in the principles of the most violent fanaticism. + The government in 1825 closed the seminaries, expelled Jesuit + teachers, forbad attendance at Jesuit schools abroad, and founded + a college at Louvain, in which all studying for the church were + obliged to pass through a philosophical curriculum. The common + struggle for maintaining the liberty of instruction promised by + the constitution made political radicalism and ultramontanism + confederates, and the government, intimidated by this combination, + agreed, in a concordat with the pope in 1827, to modify the + obligatory into a facultative attendance at Louvain College. + The inevitable consequence of this was the speedy and complete + decay of the college. But the confederacy of the radicals + and ultramontanes continued, directing itself against other + misdeeds of the government, and was not broken up until in 1830 + it attained its object by the disjunction of Belgium and Holland. + + § 200.2. =The Kingdom of Holland.=--In the prevailingly =Reformed= + national church rationalism and latitudinarian supernaturalism + had to such an extent blotted out the ecclesiastical distinctions + between Reformed, Remonstrants, Mennonites, and Lutherans, + that the clergy of one party would unhesitatingly preach in the + churches of the others. Then rose the poet Bilderdijk, driven + from political into religious patriotism, to denounce with + glowing fury the general declension from the orthodoxy of Dort. + Two Jewish converts of his, the poet and apologist Isaac da Costa, + and the physician Cappadose, gave him powerful support. A zealous + young clergyman, Henry de Cock, was theological mouthpiece of + the party. Because he offended church order, especially by + ministering in other congregations, he was suspended and finally + deposed in 1834. The greater part of his congregation and four + other pastors with him formally declared their secession from the + unfaithful church, as a return to the orthodox Reformed church. + As separatists and disturbers of public worship, they were fined + and imprisoned, and were at last satisfied with the recognition + granted them of royal grace in 1839, as a separate or =Christian + Reformed Church=. It consists now of 364 congregations, embracing + about 140,000 souls, with a flourishing seminary at Kampen. The + =Reformed State Church=, with three-fourths of all the Protestant + population, persevered in and developed its liberalistic + tendencies. The State Synod of 1883 expressly declared that + the Netherland Reformed Church demands from its teachers not + agreement with all the statements of the confessional writings, + but only with their spirit, gist, and essence; and the synod + of 1877, by the vote of a majority, stated that no sort of + formulated confession should be required even of candidates for + confirmation. Yet even amid such proceedings from various sides, + a churchly and evangelical reaction of considerable importance + set in. Three great parties within the state church carried on + a life and death struggle with one another: + + 1. The Strict Calvinists, whose leader is Dr. Kuyper, formerly + pastor in Amsterdam; + + 2. The so-called Middle Party, which falls into two divisions: + the, just about expiring, Ethical Irenical Party, with + the Utrecht professor Van Oosterzee (died 1882), and the + Evangelical Party with the Gröningen professor Hofstede de + Groot, since 1872 Emeritus, as leaders, of which the former, + subordinating the confession, regards the Christian life + as the main thing in Christianity, and the latter declares + itself prepared to take the gospel alone for its creed and + confession; and + + 3. The so-called Modern Party, which, with Professors Scholten + and Kuenen as leaders, has its centre at Leyden, and in + theology carries out with reckless energy the destructive + critical principles of the school of Baur and Wellhausen + (§ 182, 7, 18). + + The “_Moderns_” are also the founders and leaders of the + “_Protestant Federation_” after the German model (§ 180), + with its annual assemblies since 1873, in opposition to which + a “_Confessional Union_” holds its annual meetings at Utrecht, + and operates by means of evangelists and lay preachers in places + where there are only “Modern” pastors. The higher and cultured + classes in the congregations mostly favour the Gröningen and + some also the Leyden school, but the great majority of the middle + and lower classes are adherents of Kuyper, and have frequently + secured majorities in the Congregational Church Council.--The + Dutch school law of 1856 banished every sort of confessional + religious education from public schools supported by the state, + and so called forth the erection of numerous denominational + schools independent of the state, and the founding of a “_Union + for Christian Popular Education_,” which has spread through + the whole country. The university law sanctioned, after violent + debates in the chamber, in 1876, establishes in place of the old + theological faculties, professorships for the science of religion + generally, with the exception of dogmatics and practical theology, + and left it with the Reformed State Synod to care for these two + subjects, either in a theological seminary or by founding for + itself the two theological professorships in the universities + and supporting them from the sums voted for the state church. + The synod decided on the latter course, and appointed to the new + chairs men of moderate liberal views. The adherents of the strict + Calvinistic party, however, founded a Free Reformed University + at Amsterdam, which was opened in autumn, 1880. Its first rector + was Kuyper.--The =Lutheran Church= of fifty congregations and + sixty-two pastors, with about 60,000 souls, has also had since + 1816 a theological seminary. In it neological tendencies prevail. + + § 200.3. The founding of the Free University at Amsterdam, + referred to above, led to a series of violent conflicts + which threatened to break up the whole Reformed church of + the Netherlands by a wild schism. The Reformed State Synod, + consisting mainly of Gröningen theologians, but also numbering + many members belonging to the Modern or Leyden school, and + constituting the supreme ecclesiastical court, had, in spite of + its eleventh rule, which makes “the maintenance of the doctrine” + a main task of all church government, for a long time admitted + the principle of unfettered freedom of teaching, and ordained + that even evidence of orthodoxy on the part of candidates for + confirmation would no longer be regarded as a condition of their + acceptance, their examination referring only to their knowledge, + the examining clergy and not the assisting elders being judges + in this matter. When now the Free University had been founded + in direct opposition to the synod, the latter resolved to reject + all its pupils at the examination of candidates, and when, in + the summer of 1885, its first student presented himself, actually + carried out this resolution. Thereupon the university transferred + the examination to a committee, elected by itself, consisting + of orthodox Reformed pastors and elders, and a small village + congregation agreed to elect the candidate for its poorly + endowed, and so for seventeen years vacant, pastorate. But the + synod refused him ordination. Therefore the director of a strict + Calvinistic Gymnasium, formerly a pastor, performed the ceremony, + and the congregation announced its secession from the synodal + union. At the same time in Amsterdam a second conflict arose over + the question of candidates for confirmation. Three pastors of the + “modern” school demanded the elders subject to them, among them + Dr. Kuyper, to take part as required in the examining of their + candidates; but these refused to give their assistance, because + the previous training had not been according to Scripture and the + confession, and also the majority of the church council approved + of this refusal, as the parents had complained, and declared + that the certificate of morality demanded by other pastors could + be made out only if candidates for confirmation had previously + formally and solemnly confessed their genuine and hearty faith in + Jesus Christ as the only and all-sufficient Saviour, which these, + however, in accordance with the Dutch practice of the eighteenth + century, declined to do. The controversy was carried by appeal + through all the church courts, and finally the State Synod + ordered the church council to make delivery of the certificates + within six weeks on pain of suspension. But this was brought + about before the expiry of that period by the outbreak of a + far more serious conflict over matters of administration. In + Amsterdam the administration of church property lay with a + special commission, responsible to the church council, consisting + of members, one half from the church council and the other half + from the congregations. If in the beginning of January, 1886, + the threatened suspension and deposition of the church council + should be carried out, in accordance with proper order until + the appointment of a new council all the rights of the same, + therefore also that of supervising that commission, would fall + to the “classical board” (§ 143, 1) as the next highest court. + In order to avoid this, the fateful resolution was passed on + December 14th, 1885, to alter § 41 of the regulations, so that, + if the church council in the discharge of its duty to govern + the community in accordance with God’s word and the legalized + church confession, it would be so hindered therein that it + might feel in conscience obliged to obey God rather than man + and accept suspension and deposition, and a church council should + be appointed, the administrative commission would be obliged + to remain subject, not to this, but to the original commission. + The “classical board” annulled this resolution, suspended on + January 4th, 1886, for continued obstinacy the previous church + council, and constituted itself, pending decision on the part of + discipline, interim administrator of all its rights and duties. + The suspended majority, however, called a meeting for the same + day, and when it found the doors of its meeting place closed, + sent for a locksmith to break them open. They were prevented by + the police, who then, by putting on a safety lock, strengthening + the boards of the door by mailed plates, and setting a watch, + greatly reduced the chances of an entrance. But the opposition + sent to the watchers a letter by a policeman demanding that + the representatives of the church council should be allowed to + pass; upon which these, regarding it as an order of the police, + withdrew. They then had the mailed plates sawn, took possession + of the hall and the archives and treasure box lying there, and + refused admission to the classical board. While then the question + of law and possession was referred to the courts of law, and + there the final decision would not be given before the lapse + of a year, the disciplinary procedure took its course through + all the ecclesiastical courts and ended in the deposition of all + resisting elders and pastors. The latter preached now to great + crowds in hired halls. From the capital the excitement increased + by means of violent publications on both sides, spread over the + whole land and produced discord in many other communities. Wild + and uproarious tumults first broke out in Leidendorf, a suburb of + Leyden. The pastor and the majority of the church council refused + to enter on their congregational list two girls who had been + confirmed by liberal churchmen elsewhere, and with by far the + greater part of the congregation seceded from the synodal union. + The classical board now, in July, 1886, declared the pastorate + vacant, and ordered that a regular interim service should be + conducted on Sundays by the pastors of the circuit. The uproar + among the people, however, was thereby only greatly increased, + so that the civil authorities were obliged to protect the deputed + preachers, by a large military escort, from rude maltreatment, + and to secure quiet during public worship by a company of police + in church. And similar conflicts soon broke out on like occasions + and with similar consequences in many other places throughout + all parts of the land. In December, 1886, the Amsterdam church + council also declared its secession from the state church, and a + numerously attended “Reformed Church Congress” at Amsterdam, in + January, 1887, summoned by Kuyper in the interests of the crowd + of seceders, resolved to accept the decision of the law in regard + to church property.[554] + + § 200.4. Even after the separation of Belgium there was still + left a considerable number of =Catholics=, about three-eighths of + the population, most numerous in Brabant, Limburg, and Luxemburg, + and these were, as of old, inclined to the most bigoted + ultramontanism. This tendency was greatly enhanced when the new + constitutional law of 1848 announced the principle of absolute + liberty of belief, in consequence of which the Jesuits crowded + in vast numbers, and the pope in 1853 organized a new Catholic + hierarchy in the land, with four bishops and an archbishop at + Utrecht, under the control of the propaganda. The Protestant + population went into great excitement over this. The liberal + ministry of Thorbecke was obliged to resign, but the chambers + at length sanctioned the papal ordinance, only securing the + Protestant population against its misapplication and abuse.--On + the withdrawal of the French in 1814 there were only eight + cloisters remaining; but in 1861 there were thirty-nine for monks + and 137 for nuns, and since then the number has considerably + increased.--The Dutch =Old Catholics= (§ 165, 8), on account + of their protest against the dogma of the Immaculate Conception + (§ 185, 2), enjoined upon the Catholic church by the pope, were + anew excommunicated, and joined the German Old Catholics in + rejecting the decrees of the Vatican Council (§ 190, 1). + + § 200.5. =The Kingdom of Belgium.=--Catholic Belgium obtained + after its separation from Holland a constitution by which + unlimited freedom of religious worship and education, and the + right of confessing opinion and of associating, were guaranteed, + and to the state was allowed no interference with the affairs + of the church beyond the duty of paying the clergy. Also in + Leopold I., 1830-1865, of the house of Saxe-Coburg, it had a king + who though himself a Protestant was faithful to the constitution, + and, according to agreement, had his children trained up in + the Roman Catholic church. The confederacy of radicalism and + ultramontanism, however, was broken by the irreconciliable enmity + and violent conflict in daily life and in the chambers among + clerical and liberal ministers. The ultramontanes founded + at Louvain in 1834 a strictly Catholic university, which was + under the oversight of the bishops and the patronage of the + Virgin; while the liberals promoted the erection of an opposition + university for free science at Brussels. That the Jesuits used + to the utmost for their own ends the liberty granted them by the + constitution by means of missions and the confessional, schools, + cloisters, and brotherhoods of every kind is what might have been + expected. But liberalism also knew how to conduct a propaganda + and to bring the clergy into discredit with the educated classes + by unveiling their intrigues, legacy-hunting, etc., while + these exercised a great influence chiefly upon bigoted females. + The number of cloisters, which on the separation from Holland + amounted only to 280, had risen in 1880 in that small territory + to 1,559, with 24,672 inmates, of whom 20,645 were nuns. + + § 200.6. After the ultramontane party had enjoyed eight years + of almost unchallenged supremacy, the Malou ministry favourable + to it was overthrown in June, 1878, and a liberal government, + under the presidency of Frère-Orban, took its place. Then began + the =Kulturkampf= in Belgium. The charge of public education was + taken from the ministry of the interior, and a special minister + appointed in the person of Van Humbeeck. He began by changing + all girls’ schools under the management of sisters of spiritual + orders into communal schools, and in January, 1879, brought in + a bill for reorganizing elementary education, which completely + secularized the schools; deprived the clergy of all official + influence over them, and relegated religious instruction to the + care of the family and the church, the latter, however, having + the necessary accommodation allowed in the school buildings. + The chambers approved the bill, and the king confirmed it, in + spite of all protests and agitation by the clergy. The clerical + journals put a black border on their issue which published it; + the provincial councils under clerical influence nullified as + far as possible all money bequests for the public schools, and + the bishops assembled in August at Mechlin resolved to found + free schools in all communities, and to refuse absolution to all + parents who entrusted their children to state schools and all + teachers in them, in order thus to cause a complete decay of the + public schools, which indeed happened to this extent that within + a few months 1,167 communal schools had not a single Catholic + scholar. On complaint being made by the government to Leo XIII., + he expressed through the Brussels nuncio his regret and + disapproval of the proceedings of the bishops; but, on the + other hand, he not only privately praised them on account of + their former zeal in opposing the school law, but also incited + them to continued opposition. When this double dealing of the + curia was discovered, the government in June, 1880, broke off + all diplomatic relations with the Vatican by recalling their + ambassador and giving the nuncio his passports. The ministerial + president publicly in the chamber of deputies characterized + the action of the Holy See as “_fourberie_.” Whereupon the pope + at the next consistory called princes and peoples as witnesses + of this insult. In May, 1882, the results of the inquiry into + clerical incitements against the public was read in the chamber, + where such startling revelations were made as these: Priests + taught the children that they should no longer pray for the king + when he had committed the mortal sin of confirming the school law; + the ministers are worse than murderers and true Herods; a priest + even taught children to pray that God might cause their “liberal” + parents to die, etc. Amid such conflicts the Catholic party + in parliament split into the parties of the _Politici_, who + were willing to submit to the constitution, and that of the + _Intransigenti_, who, under the direction of the bishops and the + university of Louvain, held high above everything the standard + of the syllabus. The latter fought with such passionateness, that + the pope felt obliged in 1881 to enjoin upon the episcopate “that + prudent attitude” which the church in such cases always maintains + in “enduring many evils” which for the time cannot be overcome. + But undeterred, the government continued to restrict the claims + of the clergy, so far as these were not expressly guaranteed by + the constitution.--In June, 1884, as the result of the elections + for the chamber of deputies, the clerical party again were in + power. Malou was once more at the head of a ministry in favour of + the clericals, caused the king to dissolve the senate, and in the + new elections won there also a majority for his party. No sooner + were they in power than the clerical ministry, in conjunction + with the majority in the chambers, proceeded with inconsiderate + haste, amid the most violent, almost daily repeated explosions + from the now intensely embittered liberal and radical section + of the population, which only seemed to increase their zeal, + to employ their absolute power to the utmost in the interest of + clericalism. The restoration of diplomatic relations with the + papal curia in the spirit of absolute acquiescence in its schemes + was the grand aim of the reaction, as well as a new school law + by which the schools were completely given over again to the + clergy and the orders. But when at the next communal elections + a liberal majority was returned, and protests of the new communal + councils poured in against the school law on behalf of the vast + number of state certificated teachers reduced by it to hunger and + destitution, the Malou ministry found itself obliged to resign in + October, 1884. Its place was taken by the moderate ultramontane + Beernaert ministry, which sought indeed to quiet the excitement + by mild measures, but held firmly in all essential points to the + principles of its predecessor. + + § 200.7. An exciting episode in the Belgium _Kulturkampf_ is + presented by the appearance of Bishop =Dumont of Tournay=, who, + previously an enthusiastic admirer of Pius IX. and a vigorous + defender of the infallibility dogma, also a zealous patron of + stigmatization miracles at Bois d’Haine (§ 188, 4), now suddenly + turned round on the school question and refused to obey the papal + injunction. For this he was first suspended, and then in 1880 + formally deposed by the pope. He afterwards wrote letters in the + most advanced liberal journals with violent denunciations of the + pope, whom he would not recognise as pope, but only as Bishop of + Rome, and so styled him not Leo, but only Pecci. In these letters + Dumont makes the interesting communication that the virgin Louise + Lateau, favoured of God, has threatened with excommunication the + “intruder” Durousseaux, nominated by the pope as his successor, + because she continues to reverence Dumont as the only legitimate + Bishop of Tournay. The Vatican pronounced him insane, and the + chapter appealed to the civil authorities to have him declared + incapable in the sight of the law, which, however, they refused, + because they could not regard Dumont’s insanity as proved. On + the other hand, Dumont refused to renounce his episcopal office, + and accused Durousseaux of having by night, with the help of a + locksmith, obtained entrance to his episcopal palace, and having + taken forcible possession of a casket lying there, which, besides + the diocesan property to the value of five millions, contained + also about one and a half millions of his own private means. + Pending the issue of the conflict, as to which of the two should + be regarded as the true bishop, the palace was now officially + sealed up. The attempt to arrest the robbed casket had to be + abandoned, because meanwhile the canon Bernard, as keeper of the + treasures of the diocese, had fled with its contents to America. + He was, however, on legal warrant imprisoned in Havanna and + brought back to Belgium in 1882. In April, 1884, the dispute + of the bishops was definitively closed by the judgment of + the supreme tribunal, according to which Dumont, having been + legitimately deposed, has no more claim to the title and revenues + of his earlier office; and in 1886 the supreme court of appeal + at Brussels condemned Bernard “on account of serious breach of + trust” to three years’ imprisonment. + + § 200.8. =The Protestant Church= was represented in Belgium + only by small congregations in the chief cities and some Reformed + Walloon village congregations. But for several decades, by the + zealous exertions of the Evangelical Society at Brussels with + thirty-four pastors and evangelists, the work of evangelization + not only among Catholic Walloons, but also among the Flemish + population, has made considerable progress, notwithstanding all + agitation and incitement of the people by the Catholic clergy, + so that several new evangelical congregations, consisting mostly + of converts, have been formed. In two small places indeed the + whole communities, roused by episcopal arbitrariness, have gone + over.--The pastor Byse employed by the Evangelical Society at + Brussels has taken up the idea that all men by the fall have + lost their immortality, and that it could be restored again by + faith in Christ, while all the unreconciled are given over to + annihilation, the second death of Revelation ii. 11, xx. 15. So + long as he maintained this theory merely as a private opinion + the society took no offence at it, but when he began to proclaim + it in his preaching and in his instruction of the young, and + declined to yield to all advice on the matter, the synod of 1882 + resolved upon his dismissal. But a great part of his congregation + still remain faithful to him. + + + § 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. + + Notwithstanding the common Scandinavian-national and +Lutheran-ecclesiastical basis on which the civil and religious life is +developed, it assumed in the three Scandinavian countries a completely +diversified course. While in Denmark the civil life bore manifold traces +of democratic tendencies and thereby the relations between church and +state were loosened, Sweden, with a tenacity almost unparalleled in +Protestant countries, has for a long period held fast in exclusive +attachment to the idea of a state church. On the other hand Denmark +was far more open to influences from without hostile to the church, +on the one side those of rationalism, on the other, those of the +anti-ecclesiastical sects, especially of the Baptists and Mormons, than +Sweden, which in its certainly barren, if not altogether dead orthodoxy +till after the middle of the century was almost hermetically sealed +against all heterogeneous influences, but yet could not altogether +over-master the pietistically or methodistically coloured movements +of religious yearning that arose among her own people. Norway, again, +although politically united with Sweden, has, both in national character +and in religious development, shown its more intimate relationship with +Denmark. + + § 201.1. =Denmark.=--From the close of last century rationalism + has had a home in Denmark. In 1825 Professor Clausen, a moderate + adherent of the neological school, published a learned work on + the opposition of “Catholicism and Protestantism,” identifying + the latter with rationalism. First of all in that same year + Pastor =Grundtvig= (died 1872), “a man of poetic genius, and + skilled in the ancient history of the land,” inspired with + equal enthusiasm for the old Lutheranism of his fathers and for + patriotic Danism, entered the lists and replied with powerful + eloquence, lamenting the decay of Christianity and the church. + He was condemned by the court of justice as injurious, after he + had during the process resigned his pastoral office. A like fate + befell the orientalist Lindberg, who charged Clausen with the + breach of his ordination vow. The adherents of Grundtvig met + for mutual edification in conventicles, until at last in 1832 + he obtained permission again to hold public services. Not less + influential was the work of Sören =Kierkegaard= (died 1855), who, + largely in sympathy with Grundtvig, without ecclesiastical office, + in his writings earnestly pled for a living subjective piety + and unweariedly maintained an uncompromising struggle against + the official Christianity of the secularized clergy. The wild, + unmeasured Danomania of 1848-1849, during the military conflict + with Germany, drew opponents together and made them friends. + Grundtvig declaimed against everything German, and of the two + factors, which he had formerly regarded as the pivots on which + universal history turned, Danism and Lutheranism, he now let + go Lutheranism as of German origin. He therefore proposed the + abrogation of the distinctive German-Lutheran confessions, placed + the Apostles’ Creed before and above the Bible and, pressing + in a one-sided manner the doctrine of baptismal grace, demanded + a “joyous Christianity,” denied the necessity of continued + preaching and exercise of repentance, and wished especially to + introduce into the schools the Norse mythology as introductory + to the study of Christianity. His adherents wrought with the + anti-church party for the abolition of the union of church + and state. The Danish constitutional law of 1849 abolished + the confessional churches of the state church, and Catholics, + Reformed, Moravians, and Jews were granted equal civil rights + with the Lutherans. Since then the Catholic church has made slow + but steady progress in the country, and the increasing Baptist + movement was also favoured by a law of the Volkthing of 1857, + which abolished compulsory baptism, and only required the + enrolment of all children in the church books of their respective + districts within the period of one year. Civil marriage had also + been granted to dissenters in 1851, and in 1868 the peculiar + institution of “electing communities” was founded, by means of + which twenty families from one or more parishes which declare + themselves dissatisfied with the pastors appointed them, + may, without leaving the national church, form an independent + congregation under pastors chosen by themselves and maintained + at their own cost. The =Schleswig-Holstein= revolution in + 1848, occasioned enormous confusion and disturbance in the + ecclesiastical conditions of the district. Over a hundred German + pastors were expelled and forty-six Schleswig parishes deprived + of the use of the German language in church and school. In 1864 + both provinces were at last by the Austrian and Prussian alliance + rent from the Danish government, and in consequence of the German + war of 1866 were incorporated with Prussia. + + § 201.2. =Sweden.=--In Sweden there was formed in 1803, in + opposition to the barren orthodoxy of the state church, a + religious association which, if not altogether free of pietistic + narrowness, was yet without any heretical doctrinal tendency, + and exercised a quiet and wholesome influence. From the diligent + _reading_ of Scripture and the works of Luther that prevailed + among its members it obtained the name of _Läsare_. The state + proceeded against its members with fines and imprisonment, + according to the old conventicle law of 1726, and the mob treated + them with insults and violence. But in 1842 a fanatical tendency + began to show itself under the leadership of a peasant, Erich + Jansen, who induced many “_Readers_” to quit the church and to + cast into the fire even Luther’s Postils and Catechism as quite + superfluous alongside of Holy Scripture. They mostly emigrated + to America in 1846. The law of the land since 1686 threatened + every Swede who seceded from the Lutheran state church with + imprisonment and exile, loss of civil privileges and the right + of inheritance. As might therefore be supposed the French Marshal + Bernadotte, who in 1818, under the name of Charles XIV., ascended + the throne of Sweden, had been previously in 1810 obliged to + repudiate the Catholic confession. Even in 1857 the Reichstag + rejected a royal proposal to set aside the Secession as well + as the Conventicle Act. But in the very next year, the holding + of conventicles under clerical supervision, and in 1860, the + secession to other ecclesiastical denominations, were allowed by + law. The constitution of 1865 still indeed made adherence to the + Lutheran confession a condition of qualification for a seat in + either of the chambers. The Reichstag of 1870 at last sanctioned + the admission of all Christian dissenters and also of Jews to all + offices of state as well as to the membership of the Reichstag. + On behalf of dissenters, especially of the numerous Baptists + and Methodists, the right of civil marriage was granted in + 1879. In 1877, Waldenström, head-master of the Latin school + at Gefle, without ecclesiastical ordination, began zealously + and successfully by speech and writings (to secure the widest + possible circulation of which a joint stock company with large + capital was formed) to work for the revival of the Christian life + in the Lutheran national church. He vigorously contended against + the church doctrine of atonement and justification, repudiating + the idea of vicarious penal suffering, and broke through all + church order by allowing the sacrament of the Lord’s supper to + be dispensed by laymen. He thus put himself, with his numerous + following, directed by lay preachers in their own prayer meetings + and mission halls, into direct opposition to the church, but by + the wise forbearance of the ecclesiastical authorities he has not + yet been formally ejected.[555] + + § 201.3. =Norway.=--In Norway, toward the end of last century, + rationalism was dominant in almost all the pulpits, and only a + few remnants of Moravian revivalism raised a voice against it. + But in 1796, a simple unlearned peasant =Hans Nielsen Hauge=, + then in his twenty-fifth year, made his appearance as a revival + preacher, creating a mighty spiritual movement that spread among + the masses throughout the whole land. He had obtained his own + religious knowledge from the study of old Lutheran practical + theology, and arising at a period of extraordinary spiritual + excitement, “his call,” as Hase says, “to be a prophet was + like that of the herdsman of Tekoa.” From 1799 he continued + itinerating for five years, persecuted, reproached, and + calumniated by the rationalistic clergy, ten times cast into + prison, under a law of 1741, which forbad laymen to preach, and + then set free, until he had gone over all Norway even to its + farthest and remotest corners, preaching unweariedly everywhere + in houses and in the open air often three or four times a + day, and nourishing besides the flame which he had kindled by + voluminous writings and an extensive correspondence. He directed + his preaching not only against the rationalism of the state + clergy, but also against the antinomian religion of feeling, of + “Blood and Wounds” theology introduced in earlier days by the + Moravians, with a one-sided emphasis and exaggeration indeed, but + still in all essentials maintaining the basis and keeping within + the lines of Lutheran orthodoxy. In 1804 he was charged with + tendencies dangerous to church and state, obtaining money from + peasants on false pretences, inciting the people against the + clergy, etc., and again cast into prison. The trial this time was + carried on for ten years, until at last in 1814 the supreme court + sentenced him on account of his invectives against the clergy to + pay a fine, but pronounced him not guilty on the other charges. + Broken down in spirit and body by his long imprisonment, he could + not think of engaging again in his former work. He died in 1824. + Numerous peasant preachers, however, issuing from his school + were ready to go forth in his footsteps, and till this day the + salutary effects of his and their activity are seen in wide + circles. The law of 1741 which had been made to tell against them + was at last abrogated by the Storthing in 1842. In 1845 the right + of forming Christian sects was recognised, and in 1851 even the + Jews were allowed the right of settlement previously refused them, + and the security of all civil privileges. Since that time even + in Norway the Catholic church has made considerable progress; + in June, 1878, it had eleven churches and fourteen priests. + + + § 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. + + During the course of the century a breach from without was made upon +the stronghold of the Anglican established church and its legal standing +throughout the United Kingdom. The strong coherence of the Anglican +episcopal church had already been weakened internally by the rise within +its own bosom of High, Low, and Broad tendencies. The advance of the +first-named party to tractarianism and ritualism opened the door to +Romish sympathies, while in the last-named school German rationalism and +criticism found favour, and the low church party was not ashamed to go +hand-in-hand with the evangelical pietistic and methodistic tendencies +of the dissenters. There followed numerous conversions to Rome, +especially from the aristocratic ranks of the upper ten thousand. The +Emancipation Act of 1829 opened the door to both Houses of Parliament to +the Catholics, and in 1858 the same privileges were extended to the Jews. +Also the bulwarks which the state church had in the old universities +of Oxford and Cambridge were undermined, and in 1871 were completely +overthrown by the legal abolition of all confessional tests. Down to +1869 the hierarchy of the episcopal state church, though clearly alien +to the country, maintained its legal position in Catholic Ireland, till +at last the Irish Church Bill brought it there to an end. Repeatedly +have bills been introduced in the House of Commons, though hitherto +without success, by members of the incessantly agitating Liberation +Society, to disestablish the churches of England, Scotland, and +Wales.[556] + + § 202.1. =The Episcopal State Church.=--The two opposing parties + of the state church corresponded to the two political parties + of Tories and Whigs. The _high church party_, which has its most + powerful representatives in the aristocracy, holds aloof from + the dissenters, seeks to maintain the closest connexion between + church and state, and eagerly contends for the retention of all + old ecclesiastical forms and ordinances in constitution, worship, + and doctrine. On the other hand the _evangelical or low church + party_, which is more or less methodistically inclined, holds + free intercourse with dissenters, associating with them in + home and foreign mission work, etc., and with various shades + of differences advocates the claims of progress against those + of immobility, the independence of the church against its + identification with the state, the evangelical freedom and + general priesthood of believers against orthodoxy and hierarchism. + From their midst arose a movement in 1871, occasioned by the + Oxford “Essays and Reviews” and the works of Bishop Colenso, + which resulted in the publication, under the authority of + the bishops, of the “Speaker’s Commentary,” so-called because + suggested by Denison, who had long been speaker of the House + of Commons. It is a learned, thoroughly conservative commentary + on the whole Bible by the ablest theologians of England. On the + revision of the English translation of the Bible see § 181, 4. + Besides these two parties, however, there has arisen a third, + the broad church party. It originated with the distinguished + poet and philosopher, Coleridge (died 1834), and includes many of + the most excellent and scholarly of the clergy, especially those + most eminent for their acquaintance with German theology and + philosophy. They do not form an organized ecclesiastical party + like the evangelicals and high church men, but endeavour not + only to overcome the narrowness and severity of the former, but + also to secure a broader basis and a wider horizon for theology + as well as for the church.[557]--The struggle for the legalizing + of marriage with a deceased wife’s sister has been energetically + pressed since 1850, but though the House of Commons has + repeatedly passed the bill, it has been hitherto by small + majorities, under the influence of the bishops, rejected by + the House of Lords.--A non-official =Pan-Anglican Council= + of English bishops from all parts of the world, excluding + the laity and inferior clergy, with pre-eminently anti-Romish + and anti-ritualistic tendencies, was held in London in 1867 + (cf. § 175, 5). When it met the second time in 1878, it was + attended by nearly one hundred bishops, one of them a negro. Of + the three weeks’ debates and their results, however, no detailed + account has been published. + + § 202.2. =The Tractarians and Ritualists.=--The activity of + the dissenters and the episcopal evangelical party’s attachment + to them stirred up the adherents of the high church party to + vigorous guarding of their interests, and drove them into a + one-sided exaggerated accentuation of the Catholic element. The + centre of this movement since 1833 was the university of Oxford. + Its leaders were Professors Pusey and Newman, its literary organ + the _Tracts for the Times_, from which the party received the + name of =Tractarians=. This was a series of ninety treatises, + published 1833-1841, on the basis of Anglo-Catholicism, which + sought, while holding by the Thirty-nine Articles, to affirm + with equal decidedness the genuine Protestantism over against + the Roman papacy, and, in the importance which it attached to + the apostolical succession of the episcopate and priesthood + and the apostolical tradition for the interpretation of + Scripture, the genuine Catholicism over against every form + of ultra-Protestantism. In this way, too, their dogmatics in + all the several doctrines, as far as the Thirty-nine Articles + would by any means allow, was approximated to the Roman Catholic + doctrine, and indeed by-and-by passed over entirely to that type + of doctrine. Newman’s Tract 90 caused most offence, in which, + with thoroughly jesuitical sophistry, it was argued that the + Thirty-nine Articles were capable of an explanation on the basis + of which they might be subscribed even by one who occupied in + regard to the church doctrine and practice an essentially Roman + Catholic standpoint. The university authorities now felt obliged + to declare publicly that the tracts were by no means sanctioned + by them, and that especially the application of the principles of + Tract 90 to the conduct of students in the matter of subscription + of the Thirty-nine Articles is not allowable. Bishop Bagot of + Oxford, hitherto favourable to the tractarians, refused to permit + the continued issue of the tracts. The other bishops also for + the most part spoke against them in their pastorals, and a flood + of controversial pamphlets roused the wrath of the non-Catholic + populace. But on the other hand tractarianism still found favour + among the higher clergy and the aristocracy. In 1845 Newman went + over to the Catholic church, and has since led a retired life + devoted to theological study. Pius IX. paid him no attention, + but in 1879 Leo XIII. acknowledged and rewarded his services to + the Catholic church by elevating him to the rank of cardinal. + The majority of the tractarians disapproved of Newman’s step and + remained in the Anglican church. Thus acted Pusey (died 1882), + the recognised leader of the party, after whom they were now + called =Puseyites=. Many, however, followed Newman’s example, + so that by the end of 1846 no less than one hundred and fifty + clergymen and prominent laymen were received into the widely + opened door of the Catholic church.[558]--The following twelve + years, 1846-1858, were occupied by two dogmatico-ecclesiastical + conflicts vitally affecting the interests of the tractarians. + + 1. =The Gorham Case.= The Thirty-nine Articles took essentially + Lutheran ground in treating of baptism, recognising it + as a vehicle of regeneration and divine sonship, and the + tractarians laid uncommonly great stress upon this article. + So also the Bishop of Exeter, Dr. Philpotts, refused to + institute the Rev. Cornelius Gorham because of his views on + this subject. Gorham accused him before the Archbishop of + Canterbury, but the Court of Arches decided in favour of the + bishop. The Court of Appeal, however, the judicial committee + of the Privy Council, annulled the episcopal judgment, and + ordered that Gorham should be installed in his office. In + vain did Philpotts, by a protest before the Court of Queen’s + Bench, and then before the Court of Common Pleas, against + the jurisdiction of the Privy Council in this case, in + vain, too, did Blomfield, Bishop of London, insist upon the + revival of Convocation, which for one and a half centuries + had been inoperative as a spiritual parliament with upper + and lower houses, and in vain did a tractarian assembly of + more than 1,500 distinguished clergymen and laymen lodge + a solemn protest. The judgment of the Privy Council stood, + and Gorham was inducted to his office in 1850. Many of + the protesters now went over to the Catholic church, and + about 600 others, like the Puritan Pilgrim Fathers 230 + years before (§ 143, 4), under ecclesiastical oppression, + emigrated to New Zealand. + + 2. =The Denison Eucharist Case.=--The Puseyite Archdeacon + Denison of Taunton, in the diocese of Bath and Wells, had + in 1851 in open defiance of the Thirty-nine Articles, which + represent Calvin’s views of the Lord’s Supper, affirmed in + preaching and writing that unbelievers as well as believers + eat and drink the body and blood of the Lord. Over this + he was involved in a sharp discussion with a neighbouring + clergyman called Ditcher. In 1854 Ditcher accused Denison + before his bishop, who, after vain efforts to reconcile + the parties, referred the matter to the Court of Arches, + which sought, but in vain, to end the strife by compromise. + Ditcher now in 1856 brought his complaint before the + _Queen’s Bench_, which obliged the archbishop to take up the + matter again. A commission appointed by him declared that + the complaint was quite justifiable, and threatened Denison, + when he refused any sort of retraction, with deposition. + But the Court of Appeal in 1858 stayed the judgment on + the ground of a technical error in procedure, and Denison + remained in office. + + § 202.3. From the middle of 1850 the tractarians, who had + hitherto confined themselves to the development of the Romanizing + system of doctrine, began to apply its consequences to the church + ritual and the Christian life, and so won for themselves the name + of =Ritualists=, which has driven out their earlier designation. + Wherever possible they showed their Catholic zeal by introducing + images, crucifixes, candles, holy water, mass dresses, mass + bells, and boy choristers, urged the restoration of the seven + sacraments, especially of extreme unction, auricular confession, + the sacrificial theory and Corpus Christi day, of prayers for + the dead and masses for souls, invocation of saints and the + blessed Virgin; they also praised celibacy and monasticism, + etc. Ritualism has from the first shown singular skill in party + organization. The _English Church Union_, founded in 1860, has + now nearly 200,000 members, of these about 3,000 clergymen and + 50 bishops, and it embraces 300 branches over the whole domain + of the Anglican church. Numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods, + guilds and orders, organized after the style of Roman Catholic + monasticism, promote the interests of ritualism, and zealously + prosecute home and foreign mission work. The _Confraternity + of the Blessed Sacrament_ originated in 1862, was able in 1882 + to celebrate Corpus Christi day in 250 churches along with the + Romish church, dispensing only with the procession. The _Society + of the Holy Cross_, founded in 1873 consists only of priests, + and forms a kind of directory for all branches of the ritualistic + propaganda. The _English Order of St. Augustine_ has a threefold + division, into spiritual brothers who are preparing for priests’ + orders, lay brothers who are being qualified as lay preachers, + both under the strictest vows, and a sort of tertiaries, who are + free from vows. Among the sisterhoods which already supply nurses + to all the great hospitals of the capital, the most important is + that called “by the name of Jesus.” They take, like the Beguines + of the middle ages, the three vows, but not as binding for life. + By the ultra high church party the genuine apostolic succession + of the ordination of the first Protestant archbishop, Matthew + Parker, and so the genuineness of all subsequent ordinations + going back to him, were doubted; three Anglican bishops are + said to have had episcopal consecration anew conferred on them + by a Greek Catholic bishop. The reckless and wilful procedure + of the ritualists in imitating the Roman Catholic ritual in + public worship called forth frequent violent disturbances at + their services, and noisy crowds flocked to their churches. + Most frequent and violent were the riots in 1859 and 1860 in the + parish of St. George’s, London, where scarcely any service was + held without disgraceful scenes of hissing, whistling, stamping, + and cries of “No popery.” The offscouring of all London flocked + to the Sunday services as to a public entertainment. Instead of + hymns, street songs were sung, instead of responses blasphemous + cries were shouted forth, while cushions and prayer-books + were hurled at the altar decorations, etc. These unseemly + proceedings were caused by the ritualistic rector, Bryan King, + who had introduced the objectionable ceremonial, and obstinately + continued it in spite of the decided opposition and protests + of his colleague, Mr. Allen. King’s removal in 1860 first + put an end to these disturbances, which police interference + proved utterly unable to check. The ritualistic _Church Union_, + called into existence by these proceedings, was opposed by an + anti-ritualistic _Church Association_, and from both multitudes + of complaints and appeals were brought before the ecclesiastical + and civil tribunals. The first case they brought up was that of + Rev. A. H. MacConochie, of Holborn, who, having been admonished + by the ecclesiastical courts on account of his ritualistic + practices in 1867, appealed to the Privy Council. And although + this court decided in 1869 that all ceremonies not authorized + by the prayer-book are to be regarded as forbidden, he and + his followers continued to act on the principle that whatever + is not there expressly prohibited ought to be permitted. The + _Public Worship Regulation Bill_, introduced by Archbishop Tait, + and passed by Parliament, which legislatively determined the + procedure in ritualistic cases, did not prevent the constant + advance of this movement. The _Court of Arches_ now issued a + suspension against the accused, and condemned them to prison + when they continued to officiate, until they declared themselves + ready to obey or to demit their office. Tooth of Hatcham, Dale of + London, Enraght of Bordesdale, and Green of Miles Platting were + actually sent to prison in 1880. But the first three were soon + liberated by the Court of Appeal finding some technical flaw + in the proceedings against them, while Green, in whose case no + such flaw appeared, lay in confinement for twenty months. The + ritualists still persistently continued their practice, and their + opponents renewed their prosecutions; these were followed by + appeals to the higher courts, presenting of petitions to both the + Houses of Parliament, addresses with vast numbers of signatures + for and against to the Archbishop of Canterbury, to Convocation + which had meanwhile been restored, to the Cabinet, to the + Queen, etc. The result was that many cases were abandoned, some + obnoxious parties transferred elsewhere, and a very few deposed. + + § 202.4. =Liberalism in the Episcopal Church.=--The more liberal + tendency of the broad church party had also many supporters who + scrupled not to pass beyond the traditional bounds of English + orthodoxy. In opposition to the orthodoxy zealousy inculcated + at Oxford, rationalism found favour at the rival university of + Cambridge, and vigorous support was given to the views of the + Tübingen school of Baur in the London _Westminster Review_. And + even in high church Oxford, there were not wanting teachers in + sympathy with the critical and speculative rationalism of Germany. + Great excitement was caused in 1860 by the “_Essays and Reviews_,” + which in seven treatises by so many Oxford professors contested + the traditional apologetics and hermeneutics of English theology, + and set a sublimated rationalism in its place. In Germany these + not very important treatises would probably have excited little + remark, but in the English church they roused an unparalleled + disturbance; more than nine thousand clergymen of the episcopal + church protested against the book, and all the bishops + unanimously condemned it. The excitement had not yet subsided + when from South Africa oil was poured upon the flames. Bishop + Colenso of Natal (died 1883), who had zealously carried on the + mission there, but had openly expressed the conviction that + it is unwise, unscriptural, and unchristian to make repudiation + by Caffres living in polygamy, of all their wives but one, a + condition of baptism, had occasioned still greater offence by + publishing in 1863 in seven vols. a prolix critical disquisition + on the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, in which he contested + the authenticity and unconditional credibility of these books + by arguments familiar long ago but now quite antiquated and + overthrown in Germany. During a journey to England undertaken for + his defence he was excommunicated and deposed by a synod of the + South African bishops in Capetown. The Privy Council, as supreme + ecclesiastical court in England, cleared him, as well as the + authors of the Essays, from the charge of heresy. An important + aid for the dissemination of liberal religious views is afforded + by the Hibbert Lectureship. Robert Hibbert (died 1849), a wealthy + private gentleman in London, assigned the yearly interest of + a considerable sum for “the spreading of Christianity in its + simplest form as well as the furthering of the unfettered + exercise of the individual judgment in matters of religion.” + The Hibbert trustees are eighteen laymen who dispense the + revenues in supplementing the salaries of poorly paid clergymen + of liberal views, in providing bursaries for theological students + at home and abroad, and in other such like ways, but since 1878 + especially, by advice of distinguished scholars, in the endowment + of annual courses of lectures, afterwards published, on subjects + in the domain of philosophy, biblical criticism, the comparative + science of religion and the history of religion. The first + Hibbert Lecturer was the celebrated Oxford professor, Max Müller, + in 1878. Among other lecturers may be named Renan of Paris in + 1880; Kuenen of Leyden in 1882; Pfleiderer of Berlin, in 1885. + The battle waged with great passionateness on both sides since + 1869 for and against the removal of the Athanasian Creed, or at + least its anathemas, from the liturgy has not yet been brought + to any decided result. + + § 202.5. =Protestant Dissenters in England.=--Down nearly to the + end of the eighteenth century all the enactments and restrictions + of the Toleration Act of 1689 (§ 155, 3) continued in full force. + But in 1779 the obligation of Protestant dissenters to subscribe + the Thirty-nine Articles was abolished, and the acknowledgment + of the Bible as God’s revealed word substituted. The right of + founding schools of their own, hitherto denied them, was granted + in 1798. In 1813 the Socinians were also included among the + dissenters who should enjoy these privileges. After a severe + struggle the _Corporation and Test Acts_ were set aside in 1826, + affording all dissenters entrance to Parliament and to all civil + offices. The necessity of being married and having their children + baptized in an episcopal church was removed by the Marriage and + Registration Act of 1836 and 1837, and divorce suits were removed + from the ecclesiastical to a civil tribunal in 1857. In 1868 + compulsory church rates for the episcopal parish church were + abolished. Lord Russell’s University Bill of 1854, by restricting + subscription of the Thirty-nine Articles to the theological + students, opened the universities of Oxford and Cambridge + to dissenters, while the University Tests Bill of 1871 made + the adherents of all religious confessions eligible for all + university honours and emoluments at both seminaries. Thus + one restriction after another was removed, so that at last the + episcopal church has nothing of her exclusive privileges left + beyond the rank and title of a state church, and the undiminished + possession of all her ancient property, from which her prelates + draw princely revenues. + + § 202.6. =Scotch Marriages in England.=--The saints of the + English Revolution had indeed resolved in 1653 to introduce + civil marriage (§ 162, 1). But the reaction under Cromwell set + this unpopular law aside, and the Restoration made marriage by + an Anglican clergyman, even for dissenters, an indispensable + condition of legal recognition. But in no country, especially + among the higher orders, were private marriages, without the + knowledge and consent of the family, so frequent as here, + and clergymen were always to be found unscrupulous enough to + celebrate such weddings in taverns or other convenient places. + When an end had been put to such irregularities on English soil + by an Act of Parliament of 1753, lovers seeking secret marriage + betook themselves to Scotland. In that country there prevailed, + and still prevails, the theory that a declaration of willingness + on both sides constitutes a perfectly valid marriage. The + Scottish ecclesiastical law indeed requires church proclamation + and ceremony, but failure to observe this requirement is + followed only by a small pecuniary fine. Fugitive English couples + generally made the necessary declaration before a blacksmith + at Gretna-Green, who was also justice of the peace in this + small border village, and were then legitimately married people + according to Scottish law. Only in 1856 were all marriages + performed in this manner without previous residence in Scotland + pronounced by Act of Parliament invalid. + + § 202.7. =The Scottish State Church.=--The Presbyterian Church of + Scotland, from the beginning strictly Calvinistic in constitution, + doctrine and practice, has, generally speaking, preserved + this character. Only in recent times has the endeavour of the + so-called _Moderates_ to introduce a milder type of doctrine won + favour. The Established Church, as a national church properly + so-called and recognised by law, dates from the political union of + England and Scotland in the kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and + the Anglican Episcopal Church there was then reduced to a feebly + represented dissenting denomination. Patronage, set aside indeed + in the Reformation age, but restored under Queen Anne in 1712, + and since then, in spite of all opposition from the stricter + party, continued, because often misused to secure the intrusion + of inacceptable ministers upon congregations, gave occasion + to repeated secessions. Thus the _Secession Church_ broke off + in 1732, and the _Relief Church_ in 1752, the latter going + beyond the former’s protest against patronage by unconditional + repudiation of Erastianism, _i.e._ the theory of the necessary + connection of Church and State (§ 144, 1), and the assertion + of the spiritual independence of the church, and expressed + firmly the principles of Voluntaryism, _i.e._ the payment of all + ecclesiastical officers, etc., by voluntary contributions. Both + parties united in 1847 in the _United Presbyterian Church_, which + now embraces one-fifth of the population.--Twice that number + joined the secession of the Free Church in 1843. The General + Assembly of the Church of Scotland granted to congregations in + 1834 the right of vetoing presentations to vacancies. The civil + courts, however, upheld the absolute right of patrons, and at + the Assembly of 1843 about two hundred of the most distinguished + ministers, with the great Dr. Chalmers (died 1847) at their head, + left the state church, and, as _Non-Intrusionists_, founded + the _Free Church of Scotland_, which at its own cost formed new + parishes and distinguished itself by Christian zeal in every + direction. It differs from the _United Presbyterian Church_ in + restricting its opposition to the abuse of patronage, without + repudiating right off every sort of state aid and endowment as + unevangelical. But even to it the law passed in 1846, granting + to all congregations the right of veto, seemed now no longer + a sufficient motive to return to the state church. Even when + in 1874, parliament, at the call of the government, formally + abolished the rights of patronage through all Scotland and gave + to the congregations the right of choosing their own ministers, + the General Assembly of the Free Church by a great majority + refused to reunite with the state church brought so near + it, because it conceded to the civil courts unwarrantable + interference with its internal affairs, especially the right + of suspending its clergy.[559] + + § 202.8. =Scottish Heresy Cases.=--The Glasgow presbytery + lodged before the United Presbyterian Synod in Edinburgh of + 1878 a charge against the Rev. Fergus Ferguson of heresy, + because his teaching was in conflict with the church doctrine + of the atonement in saying that sinners, apart from Christ’s + intervention, would not suffer eternal punishment but extinction, + and that the same fate still lay before unbelievers and the + impenitent. After five days’ violent discussion, the majority of + the synod, while strongly dissenting from his views and urging + him to avoid it in his preaching and catechising, resolved + to retain him in office as having proved his adherence to the + orthodox doctrine of the atonement. But when, at next year’s + synod, the Rev. D. Macrae of Gourock asserted that, in spite of + the Westminster Confession, it was allowable for ministers to + deny the eternity of punishment, and would not promise to preach + otherwise, he was unanimously deposed.--Far more exciting and + long continued were the proceedings begun in the Free Church + in 1876, against Professor Robertson Smith of Aberdeen, who was + charged before his presbytery with offensive statements about + angels, but especially with contradicting the inspiration of + Scripture by contesting the Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy. + After various proposals of deposition, suspension, rebuke, + acquittal, had been made, the General Assembly of 1880, after + much deliberation and discussion, by a majority found the charge + of heterodoxy not proven, but earnestly exhorted the accused + to greater circumspection and moderation, and the decision was + greeted with thundering applause from the students and waving of + handkerchiefs from the ladies present. But when, very soon after + this acquittal, several other contributions by him appeared + in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, on the Hebrew Language and + Literature, and Haggai, in the spirit of the Wellhausen criticism + (§ 182, 18), as also an article on Animal Worship among the + Arabians and in the Old Testament, in the _Journal of Philology_, + the _Commission_ sitting in Edinburgh reinstituted proceedings + against him. In October, 1880, Smith vindicated before that court + his scientific attitude toward the Old Testament, maintaining + that a moderate criticism of the biblical books was reconcilable + with the maintenance of their inspired authority. The majority of + the Commission, however, voted for his expulsion from his chair. + Smith protested both against the competence and against the + judgment of the Commission, but declared himself ready to submit + to the judgment of the General Assembly. Meanwhile he accepted + an invitation from Glasgow to deliver public lectures there on + the Old Testament, which were received with extraordinary favour. + This course was published under the title: “_The Old Testament + in the Jewish Church_.” The General Assembly of May, 1881, now + decided by a large majority to remove him from his academical + chair, with retention of his license and his professor’s + salary, which latter, however, Smith declined. But his numerous + sympathizers presented him with a scientific library worth + £3,000, and promised an annual stipend equal to his former salary. + In 1883 he received the appointment as Professor of Arabic in + Cambridge and the large revenues of that office allowed him to + decline the offer of his friends.[560] + + § 202.9. =The Catholic Church in Ireland.=--The Catholic + inhabitants of Ireland under Protestant proprietors, and forced + to pay tithes for the support of the Protestant clergy, were + always deprived of civil rights. In 1809 O’Connell (died 1847), + an agitator of great popular eloquence, placed himself at the + head of the oppressed people, in order in a constitutional way + to secure religious and political freedom and equality. At last, + in 1829, the Emancipation Bill, supported by Peel and Wellington, + was passed, which on the basis of the formal declaration of the + whole Catholic episcopate that papal infallibility and papal + sovereignty in civil matters was not part of the Catholic faith + nor could be joined therewith either in Ireland or anywhere else + in the Catholic world, gave to Catholics admission to parliament + and to all civil and military appointments. But the hated tithes + remained, and were enforced, when refused, by military force. + After long debates in both houses of parliament, the Tithes Bill + was adopted in 1838, which transferred the tithe as a land-tax + from tenants to proprietors, which, however, was only a + postponing of the question. It was thus regarded by O’Connell. He + declared that justice for Ireland could only be got by abolishing + the legislative union with Great Britain existing since 1800, + and restoring her independent parliament. For this purpose + he organized the Repeal Association. In 1840 another no less + powerful popular agitator arose in the person of the Irish + Capuchin, Father Mathew, the apostle of temperance, who with + unparalleled success persuaded thousands of those degraded by + drink to take vows of abstinence from spirituous liquors. He + kept apart from all political agitation, but the fruits of his + exertions were all in its favour. O’Connell in 1843 organized + monster meetings, attended by hundreds of thousands. The + government had him tried, the jury found him guilty, but the + House of Lords quashed the conviction and liberated him from + prison in 1844. The Peel ministry now sought to soothe the + excitement by passing in 1845 the Legacy Act, which allowed + Catholics to hold property in their own names, and the Maynooth + Bill, by which the theological seminary at Maynooth received a + rich endowment from the State. Continued famine, and consequent + emigration of several hundreds of thousands to America and + Australia, relieved Ireland of a considerable portion of its + Catholic population, while Protestant missions by Bible and + tract circulation and by schools had some success in evangelizing + those who remained. On November 5th, 1855, the anniversary of + the Gunpowder Plot, the Redemptorists at Kingstown, near Dublin, + erected and burnt a great bonfire in the public streets of Bibles + which they had seized, and the primate archbishop of Ireland + justified it by reference to the example of the believers at + Ephesus (Acts xix. 19). + + § 202.10. The Fenian movement, originating among the American + Irish, which since 1863 created such terror among the English, + was the result of political rather than religious agitation. + Although this movement failed in its proper end, namely the + complete separation of Ireland from England, it yet forced + upon the government the conviction of the absolute necessity of + meeting the just demands of the Irish by thorough-going reforms + and putting an end to the oppressions which the native farmers + suffered at the hands of foreign landowners, and the grievances + endured by the Catholic church by the maintenance of the Anglican + church established in Ireland. The carrying out of these reforms + was the service rendered by the Gladstone ministry. By the Irish + Land Bill of 1870 the land question was solved according to + the demands of justice, and by the Irish Church Bill of 1869, + which deprived the Anglican church in Ireland of the character + of a state church and put it on the same footing as other + denominations, the church question was similarly settled. The + dignitaries of the Anglican church thus lost their position as + state officials and their seats in the House of Lords. The rich + property of the hitherto established church was calculated and + applied partly to compensating for losses caused by this reform, + partly to creating benevolent institutions for the general + good. But neither the Church Bill, nor the Land Bill, nor the + Universities Bill, which in 1880 founded by state aid a Catholic + university in Dublin, secured the reconciliation of the Irish. + “Eternal hatred of England” was and is the battle cry; “Ireland + for the Irish, and only for them,” is their watchword. In order + to carry out this scheme an Irish “National League” was formed, + and innumerable secret “Moonlighters,” under the supposed + leadership of “Captain Moonshine,” committed atrocities by + burning farm steadings and mutilating cattle, murdering and + massacring by dagger and revolver, petroleum and dynamite, and + directed their operations against the representatives of the + government, against proprietors who sought rent, against tenants + who paid rent, against officials who endeavoured to enforce it, + and against everything that was, or was called, English. In order + to cut at the root of this lawlessness, which by proclamation + of a state of siege was only restricted, not overthrown, the + government of 1881 passed further agrarian reforms: All tenant + rights were to be purchased by the surplus of the fund formed by + the disestablishment of the Irish church, and where this did not + suffice, by state grants, and the right to conclude contracts + for rent and to determine its amount was transferred from the + proprietors to a newly-constituted land court, without whose + permission, after the lapse of the fifteen years’ term, no rent + contract could be made. But even this did not stop almost daily + repeated murders and acts of destruction. The government now + sought the aid of the pope through the mediation of a Catholic + member of parliament on a visit to Rome; but these merely + confidential negotiations led to no considerable result. In May, + 1883, the curia, on the occasion of a collection promoted by the + National League as a magnificent national present to the great + (Protestant) leader of the agitation, Mr. Parnell, in a circular + letter, forbad “_proprio motu_,” the bishops in the strictest + manner taking any part in the movement, and urged them to + dissuade their members from doing so. But only Archbishop McCabe + of Dublin (died 1885), from the first an opponent of the League, + issued a pastoral against it to be read in all the pulpits of his + diocese. The other bishops ignored the papal command, and among + the Catholic people the opinion obtained that they owed to the + pope obedience in spiritual but not in political matters. The + collections for the Parnell fund were continued with redoubled + zeal. The attempts of dynamitards, supplied with materials by + their American compatriots, and other agrarian offences have not + yet been finally stopped. + + § 202.11. =The Catholic Church in England and Scotland.=--The + Emancipation Act, passed mainly for the relief of the Irish, + naturally also benefited English Catholics, who in 1791 had been + allowed to hold Catholic services. Led by the numerous accessions + of Puseyites to entertain the most extravagant hopes, Pius IX. + in 1850 issued a bull, by which the Roman Catholic hierarchy + in England was reinstituted with twelve suffragan bishoprics + under one archbishop of Westminster. The bull occasioned great + excitement in the Protestant population (_Anti-Papal Aggression_), + and the _Ecclesiastical Titles Bill_ forbade the use of + ecclesiastical titles not sanctioned by the law of the land. + After the first excitement had passed, the Catholic bishops, + at their head the learned and brilliant and zealous ultramontane + Cardinal Archbishop Wiseman (died 1865), and his successor, + surpassing him, if not in genius and learning, at least in + ultramontane zeal, the Puseyite convert Manning, made a cardinal + in 1875, used with impunity their condemned titles, until in 1871 + the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill was formally revoked by act of + parliament. Conversions in noble families were particularly + numerous in the later decades. Since 1850 the number of Catholics + in England and Scotland has quadrupled. This has been caused in + great part by Irish emigration, for the middle and lower ranks of + the English have scarcely been affected by the conversion fever, + which as the latest form of the fitful humour of the English had + so rich a harvest in the families of the nobility. In 1780 all + London had only one Catholic place of worship, the chapel of the + Sardinian embassy, which on June 2nd of that year was wrecked and + burnt by a raging mob. Now the English capital has two episcopal + dioceses, ninety-four Catholic churches and chapels (besides + about 900 Anglican churches) with 313 clergymen, and forty-four + cloisters. In the House of Lords sit twenty-eight Roman Catholic + peers, and in both countries there are forty-seven Catholic + baronets. Since 1847 England has a specifically Catholic + university at Kensington, under the episcopate, and with the + pope as its supreme head, which, however, with its poor staff + of teachers and its expensive course attracts but a few of + the Catholic youth of England. Since the Anti-Papal Aggression + of 1850 failed, the Protestant people have shown themselves + comparatively indifferent to such assumptions of the papacy.--In + the Act of Union of 1707 (§ 155, 3), =Scotland= was guaranteed + the absolute exclusion of every sort of Roman Catholic hierarchy + for all time to come. But in recent times the number of its + Catholic inhabitants so greatly increased, that Pius IX. in his + last years, not unaided by the English government, eagerly urged + the re-establishment of the hierarchy, and Leo XIII. was able at + his first consistory of the college of cardinals in March, 1878, + to make appointments to the two newly-erected archdioceses and + their bishoprics. On the following Easter Sunday the allocution + relating thereto was read in all Catholic churches in Scotland. + The restoration was thus carried out in spite of all protests and + demonstrations of Scottish Protestants. + + § 202.12. =German Lutheran Congregations in Australia.=--Besides + the dominant Anglican church, emigration has led to the formation + of a considerable number of German Lutheran congregations, which + are distributed in three synods. + + 1. The Victoria Synod was founded in 1852 by pastor Göthe. + It adopted at first the union platform, but subsequently + attached itself more decidedly to the Lutheran confession. + + 2. Pastor Karch, who in 1830 emigrated with a number of Prussian + Lutherans, in order to avoid the union, laid the foundation + of the Immanuel Synod. Since 1875 it has been supplied with + preachers from the missionary institute of Neuendettelsau. + It is distinguished by its missionary zeal for the conversion + of the natives, pursues with special interest the study of + the prophetic word, and makes chiliasm an open question which + need not rend the church. + + 3. The South Australian Synod, on the other hand, is the decided + opponent of any sort of chiliasm, and has assumed an attitude + of violent antagonism to the Immanuel Synod. + + + § 203. FRANCE. + + In France, lauded as the eldest daughter of the church after the +overthrow of the first Empire, ultramontanism, under the secret and +open co-operation of the Jesuits, has ever arisen with revived youth +and vigour out of all the political convulsions which have since passed +over the land. And though indeed Gallicanism seemed again to obtain +strength under the second Empire and, down to the close of that period, +found many able champions among learned theologians like Bishop Maret +(§ 189, 1), and even among exalted prelates like the noble Archbishop +Darboy of Paris, a martyr of his office under the Commune (§ 212, 4), +its influence faded gradually, and in the latest phase of France’s +political development, the third republic, seems utterly to have +disappeared, so that even the “_Kulturkampf_” which broke out in 1879 +could not give it life again.--The number of Protestant churches and +church members, in spite of bloody persecutions during the Bourbon +restoration, and many arbitrary restrictions by Catholic prefects under +the citizen king and the second Empire, by numerous accessions of whole +congregations and groups of congregations through zealous evangelization +efforts, by means of school instruction, itinerant preaching, and Bible +colportage, has increased during the century fourfold. In the Reformed +church the opposition of methodistically tinctured orthodoxy, reinforced +from England and French Switzerland, and rationalistic freethinking, +led to sharp conflicts. Also in the Lutheran church, more strongly +influenced by Germany, similar discussions arose, but a more +conciliatory spirit prevailed and violent struggles were avoided. + + § 203.1. =The French Church under Napoleon I.=--In 1801 Napoleon + as Consul concluded with Pius VII. a =Concordat= which, adopting + the concordat of Francis I. (§ 110, 14), abandoning the pragmatic + sanction of Bourges, and only haggling about the limits to be + fixed for the two powers, gave no consideration to the idea of + a wholesome internal reform of the French Church: Catholicism is + the acknowledged religion of the majority of the French people; + the church property belongs to the state, with the obligation to + maintain the clergy and ordinances; the clergy who had taken the + oath and those who were expatriated were all to resign, but were + eligible for election; new boundaries were to be marked out for + the episcopal dioceses with reference to the political divisions + of the country; the government elects and the pope confirms the + bishops, and these, with approval of the government, appoint the + priests. The one-sided =Organic Articles= of the first Consul of + 1802, which were annexed to the publication of the Concordat as + a code of explanatory regulations, made any proclamation of papal + orders and decrees of all foreign councils dependent on previous + permission of the government, as also the calling of synods and + consultative assemblies of the clergy. They further ordained that + all official services of the clergy should be gratuitous, and + transferred to the civil council the right and duty of strict + inquiry into any clerical breach of civil laws and any misuse + or excessive exercise of clerical authority. The thirty-first + article, however, created that unhappy order of _Desservants_ + or curates, the result of which was that interim appointments + were made to most of the benefices in order to squeeze state pay + in supplement to the inadequate ecclesiastical endowments, and + so their holders were at the absolute mercy of the bishops who + could transport or dispense with them at any moment. For further + particulars about the friendly and hostile relations of Napoleon + and the pope, see § 185, 1. By an imperial decree of 1810, the + four articles of the Gallican Church (§ 156, 3) were made laws + of the Empire; and a French National Council of 1811 sought to + complete the reconstruction of the church according to Napoleon’s + ideas, but proved utterly incapable for such a task, and was + therefore dissolved by the emperor himself.--To pacify the + Protestants, dissatisfied with the Concordat, amid flattering + acknowledgment of their services to the state, to science and + to the arts, an appendix was attached to the Organic Articles, + securing to them liberty of religious worship and political and + municipal equality with Catholics. For training ministers for the + Reformed Church a theological seminary was founded at Montauban, + and for Lutherans an academy with a seminary at Strassburg. + Napoleon also afterwards proved himself on every occasion ready + to help the Protestants. He was equally forward in recognising + public opinion in France. The National Institute of France in + 1804 offered a prize for an essay on the influence of Luther’s + Reformation on the formation and advance of European national + life, and awarded it to the treatise of the Catholic physician + Villers (_Essai sur l’influence de la réf. de Luther_, etc.), + which in all respects glorified Protestantism. Even the Catholic + clergy during the first Empire exhibited an easy temper and + tolerance such as was never shown before or since. The obligatory + civil marriage law introduced by the Revolution in 1792, obtained + place in the _Code Napoléon_ in 1804, and was with it introduced + in Belgium and the provinces of the Rhine.[561] + + § 203.2. =The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom.=--The =Charter= + of the Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII. (1814-1824) and + Charles X. (1824-1830) made Catholicism the state religion and + granted toleration and state protection to the other confessions. + A new concordat concluded with Pius VII. in 1817, by which that + of Napoleon of 1801, with the Organic Articles of the following + year, were abrogated, and the state of matters previous to 1789 + restored, was so vigorously opposed by the nation, that the + ministry were obliged to withdraw the measure introduced in both + chambers for giving it legislative sanction. Ultramontanism, + however, in its boldest form, steadily favoured by the + government, soon prevailed among the clergy to such an extent + that any inclination to Gallicanism was denounced as heresy and + intolerance of Protestantism lauded as piety. In southern France + the rekindled hatred of the Catholic mob against the Reformed + broke out in 1815 in brutal and bloody persecution. The + government kept silence till the indignation of Europe obliged + it to put down the atrocities, but the offenders were left + unpunished. Connivance in such lawlessness on the part of the + government contributed largely to its overthrow in the July + revolution of 1830. The Catholic Church then lost again the + privilege of a state religion, and the hitherto persecuted and + oppressed Protestants obtained equal rights with the Catholics. + But even under the new constitutional government of Orleans, + ultramontanism soon reasserted itself. The Protestants had to + complain of much injury and injustice from Catholic prefects, + and the Protestant minister Guizot claimed for France the + protectorate of the whole Catholic world. The Reformed Church + meanwhile flourished, though vacillating between methodistic + narrowness and rationalistic shallowness, growing both inwardly + and outwardly, and also the Lutheran communities, which outside + of Alsace were only thinly scattered, enjoyed great prosperity. + In the February revolution of 1848 the Catholic clergy readily + yielded obedience to the citizen king Louis Philippe, and, + on the ground that the Catholic church is suited to any form + of government which only grants liberty to the church, did + not refuse their benediction to the tree of freedom with the + sovereign people at the barricades. + + § 203.3. =The Catholic Church under Napoleon III.=--Louis + Napoleon, as president of the new republic (1848-1852), and still + more decidedly as emperor (1852-1870), inclined to follow the + traditions of his uncle, regarded the concordat of 1801 as still + legally in force and seemed specially anxious to arouse zeal + for the Gallican liberties. Although his bayonets secured the + pope’s return to Rome (§ 185, 2) and even afterwards supported + his authority there, he did not fulfil the heart’s wish of the + emperor by the people’s grace to place the imperial crown upon + his head in his own person. Severely strained relations between + the imperial court and the episcopate resulted in 1860 from a + pamphlet against the papacy inspired by the government (§ 185, 3). + Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, was one of the oldest and most + determined defenders of the interests of the papal see, and from + Poitiers the emperor was pretty openly characterized as a second + Pilate. The government did not venture directly to interfere + between the two, but reminded the bishops that the emperor’s + differences with the pope referred only to temporal affairs. It + also forbade the forming of separate societies for the collecting + of Peter’s pence, and dissolved the societies of St. Vincent, + instituted for benevolent purposes, but misused for ultramontane + agitations. When Archbishop Desprez of Toulouse, like his + predecessors in 1662 and 1762, on May 16th, 1862, with pompous + phrases of piety appointed the jubilee festival of the “_fait + glorieux_,” by which at Toulouse three hundred years before, + by means of shameful treachery and base breach of pledges 4,000 + Protestants were murdered (§ 139, 15), a shout of indignation + rose from almost all French journals and the government forbade + the ceremonial. It also refused permission to proclaim the papal + encyclical with the syllabus (§ 185, 2) and condemned several + bishops who disobeyed for misuse of their office. Under the + influence of the ultramontane empress Eugenie, however, the + relation of the government to the curia and the higher clergy of + the empire, since the one could not do without the other, became + more friendly and intimate, till the day of Sedan, September 2nd, + 1870, put an end to the Napoleonic empire and the temporal power + of the papacy which it had maintained. + + § 203.4. =The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III.=--After the + revolution of 1848, the Lutherans at an assembly in Strassburg + and the Reformed in Paris consulted about a new organization of + their churches. But as the latter resolved in order to maintain + constitutional union amid doctrinal diversity, entirely to set + aside symbol and dogma, pastor Fr. Monod and Count Gasparin, + the noble defenders of French Protestantism, lodged a protest, + and with thirty congregations of the strict party constituted + a new council at Paris in 1849, independent of the state, as the + _Union des églises évangéliques de France_ with biennial synods. + Louis Napoleon gave to the Reformed Church a central council in + Paris with consistories and presbyteries; to the Lutheran, an + annual general consistory as a legislative court and a standing + directory as an administrative court. The Lutheran theological + faculty at Strassburg with its vigorous unconfessional science + represents the westernmost school of Schleiermacher’s theology. + The academy at Montauban, with Adolph Monod at its head, + represents Reformed orthodoxy, not strictly confessional but + coloured by methodistic piety, and Coquerel in Paris, was the + head of the rationalistic party of the Reformed national church. + The lead in the reaction against rationalism since 1830 has + been taken by the _Société évangélique_ at Paris, which, aiming + at the Protestantising of France, and using for this end Bible + colportage, tract distribution, the sending out of evangelists, + school instruction, etc., has developed an extraordinarily + restless and successful activity. It has been powerfully + supported by the evangelical society of Geneva. The number of + Protestant clergymen in France has steadily risen, and almost + every year in and out of the Catholic population new evangelical + congregations have been formed, in spite of endless difficulties + put in the way by Catholic courts. In Strassburg, in 1854, the + Jesuits persuaded the Catholic prefects to recall and arrest + the revenues of the former St. Thomas institute, which since the + Reformation had been applied to the maintenance of a Protestant + gymnasium. The prefect of Paris, however, was instructed to + desist from his claims. In the speech from the throne in 1858, + the emperor declared that the government secured for Protestants + full liberty of worship, without forgetting, however, that + Catholicism is the religion of the majority, and the _Moniteur_ + commented on this imperial speech so evidently in the spirit + of the _Univers_, that the prefects could not be in doubt how + to understand it. By General Espinasse, who, after the Orsini + attempt on the emperor’s life in 1858, officiated for a long + time as Minister of the Interior, the prefects were expressly + instructed, to extend their espionage of the ill-affected press + to the proceedings of the evangelical societies, and to prohibit + the colportage of Protestant Bibles. On a change of minister, + however, the latter enactment was withdrawn, and only agents + of foreign Bible societies were interfered with. By an imperial + decree of 1859, the right of permitting of the opening of new + Protestant churches and chapels was taken from the local courts + and transferred to the imperial council of state. For every + Protestant congregation, so soon as it numbered 400 souls, the + legal state salary for the clergymen would be paid. + + § 203.5. =The Catholic Church in the Third French + Republic.=--The Gambetta government, the national vindication + of the 4th September, 1870, resigned its power in February, 1871, + into the hands of the National Assembly elected by the whole + nation, which, although through clerical influence upon the + electors predominantly monarchical and clerical, appointed + the old Voltairean Thiers (died, 1877), formerly ministerial + president under Louis Philippe, as alone qualified for the + difficult post of president of the republic. In the necessary + second vote, indeed, there was a considerable increase of the + republican and as such thoroughly anti-clerical party; but even + in its ranks it was admitted that the establishment of France + as leader of all Europe in the fight against ultramontanism + and the co-operation therein of the clergy were the absolutely + indispensable means for the political _Revanche_, after which + the hearts of all Frenchmen longed as the hart for the water + streams. A petition from five bishops and other dignitaries + to the National Assembly for the restoration of the temporal + power of the pope was set aside as inopportune. But Archbishop + Guibert of Paris, without asking the government, proclaimed the + infallibility dogma, and the minister of instruction, Jules Simon, + contented himself with warning the episcopate in a friendly way + against any further illegal steps of that kind. The clerical + party was also successful in its protest to the National Assembly + against the education law, which by raising the standard of + instruction, placing it under the supervision of the state and + making inspection of schools obligatory, proposed to put an end + to the terrible ignorance of the French people as the chief cause + of their deep decay. Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans was appointed + president of the commission for examining it, and so its fate + was sealed. Meanwhile the people, by frequent manifestations of + the Virgin, were roused to a high pitch of religious excitement. + Crowds of pilgrims encouraged by miraculous healings flocked + to our Lady of La Salette, at Lourdes, etc. (§ 188, 6), and the + consecration of _Notre Dame de la Deliverance_ at Bayeux was + celebrated as a brilliant national festival. When in May, 1873, + Thiers gave way before the machinations of his opponents and, + under the new president, Marshal Macmahon, the thoroughly + clerical ministry of the Duc de Broglie got the helm of affairs, + the pilgrimage craze, mariolatry and ultramontane piety, aided + by the prefects and mayors, increased to an unparalleled extent + among all ranks. Under the Buffet ministry of 1875 the influence + of clericalism was unabated. To him it owed its most important + acquisition, the right of creating free Catholic universities + wholly independent of the State, with the privilege of conferring + degrees. But when in 1876 the new elections for the National + Assembly gave an anti-clerical majority, Buffet was obliged to + resign. The new Dufaure ministry, with the Protestant Waddington + as minister of instruction, declared indeed that it continued + the liberty of instruction, but decidedly refused the right + of conferring degrees. The proposal to this effect met with + the hearty support of the new chamber of deputies. But all the + greater was the jubilation of the clericals when the senate by + a small majority refused its consent, and all the more eagerly + was the founding of new free Catholic universities carried on, + at Paris, Angers, Lyons, Lille and Toulouse, but notwithstanding + every effort they only attracted a very small number of + scholars,--in 1879, when they flourished most, at all the five + there were only 742 students. + + § 203.6. =The French “Kulturkampf,” 1880.=--The Dufaure ministry + was succeeded in December, 1876, by the semi-liberal ministry + of Jules Simon, which again was driven out in a summary fashion + by president Macmahon on May 16th, 1877, and replaced, on the + dissolution of the chamber, by a clerical ministry under Duc + de Broglie. But in the newly elected chamber the republican + anti-clerical majority was so overwhelming that Macmahon, on + January 30th, 1879, abandoning his motto of government, _J’y + suis et j’y reste_, was at last obliged, between the alternatives + offered him by Gambetta, _Se soumettre ou se démettre_, to choose + the latter. His successor was Grévy, president of the Chamber, + who entrusted the protestant Waddington with the forming of a new + ministry in which Jules Ferry was minister of instruction. Ferry + brought in a bill in March to abolish the representation of the + clergy in the High Council of Education by four archiepiscopal + deputies, continuing indeed the free Catholic universities, + but requiring their students to enroll in a state university + which alone could hold examinations and give degrees, and + finally enacting by Article 7 that the right of teaching in all + educational institutions should be refused to members of all + religious orders and congregations not recognised by the state. + The chamber deputies accepted this bill without amendment on + July 9th, but the senate on March 7th, 1880, after passing + six articles refused to adopt the seventh. On March 29th, the + president of the republic issued on his own authority two decrees, + based indeed upon earlier enactments (1789-1852), gone into + desuetude indeed, but never abrogated (§ 186, 2), demanded the + dissolution of the Society of Jesus, containing 1,480 members + in 56 institutions, within three months, and insisted that the + orders and congregations not recognised by the State, embracing + 14,033 sisters in 602 institutions and 7,444 brothers in 384 + institutions, in the same time should by production of their + statutes and rules seek formal recognition or else be broken + up. A storm of protests on the part of the bishops greeted these + “_March Decrees_,” and riotous demonstrations made before the + Minister of Instruction at his residence at Lille expressed the + protests of the students of the Catholic university there. The + pope now broke his reserve and by a nuncio sent the president + of the republic a holograph letter in which he declared that he + must interfere on behalf of the Jesuits and the threatened orders, + because they were indispensably necessary to the wellbeing of + the church. He did not wish that they should have recourse to + unlawful means, but it must be understood that they would appeal + to the courts for protection of their threatened civil liberties. + When therefore on the morning of June 30th the police began their + work of expelling the Jesuits from their houses, these lodged a + complaint before the courts of invasion of their domestic peace + and infringement of their personal liberty. Their schools were + closed on August 31st, the end of the school year; meanwhile + they had taken the precaution to transfer most of them to such as + would be ready afterwards to restore them. The enforcement of the + second of the March Decrees against the other orders was delayed + for a while. A compromise proposed by the episcopate, favoured + by the pope and not absolutely rejected even by the minister + Freycinet, Waddington’s successor, according to which instead + of the required application for recognition all these orders + should sign a declaration of loyalty, undertaking to avoid all + participation in political affairs and to do nothing opposed to + existing order, brought about the overthrow of this ministry in + September, 1880, by the machinations from other motives of the + president of the chamber and latent dictator, Leon Gambetta. At + the head of the new ministry was Ferry, who held the portfolio of + instruction, and under him the carrying out of the second March + Decree began on October 16th, 1880. Up to the meeting of the + chamber in November 261 monasteries had been vacated; the rest, + as from the first all female congregations, were spared, so that + France with its colonies and mission stations still number + 4,288 male and 14,990 female settlements of spiritual orders, + the former with about 32,000, the latter with about 166,200 + inmates.--The expulsion of the Jesuits, as well as the more + recent of the other orders, was, however, stoutly opposed. The + police told off for this duty found doors shut and barricaded + against them or defended by fanatical peasants and mobs of + shrieking women, so that they had often to be stormed and broken + up by the military. Still more threatening than this opposition + was the reaction which began to assert itself at the instance + of the almost thoroughly ultramontane jurists of the country, a + survival of the times of Napoleon III. and Macmahon. An advocate + Rousse, who publicly stated the opinion that the March Decrees + were illegal and therefore not binding, was supported by 2,000 + attorneys and over 200 corporations of attorneys and by many + distinguished university jurists. More than 200 state officials + and many judiciary and police officers, together with several + officers of the army, tendered their resignations so as to avoid + taking part in the execution of the decrees. When it became clear + that unfavourable verdicts would be given by the courts invoked + by the Jesuits against the executors of the decree, as indeed was + soon actually done by several courts, the government lodged an + appeal against their competence before the tribunal of conflicts + which also actually in regard to all such cases pronounced them + incompetent and their decisions therefore null and void; but the + complainers insisted that their complaints should be taken to a + Council of State as the only court suitable to deal with charges + against officials, which, as might be expected, was not done. + + § 203.7. In the future course of the French “Kulturkampf” the + most important proceedings of the government were the following: + The abolition of the institute of military chaplains, highly + serviceable in ultramontanizing the officers, was carried out + in 1880, as well as the requirement that the clergy and teachers + should give military service for one year, and subsequently also + military escorts to the Corpus Christi procession were forbidden. + In 1880 the Municipal Council of Paris, with the concurrence of + the prefect of the Seine, forbad the continuance of the beautiful + building of the church of the Heart of Jesus begun in 1875 on + Montmartre (§ 188, 12), confiscating the site that had been + granted for it. In 1881 the churchyards were relieved of their + denominational character, and the following year the right of + managing them, with permission of merely civil interment without + the aid of a clergyman, was transferred from the ecclesiastical + to the civil authorities. By introducing in 1880 high schools + for girls with boarding establishments an end was put to the + education of girls of the upper ranks in nunneries, which had + hitherto been the almost exclusive practice. Far more sweeping + was the School Act brought in by the radical minister of worship, + Paul Bert, and first enforced in October, 1886, which made + attendance compulsory, relegated religious instruction wholly to + the church and home, and absolutely excluded all the clergy from + the right of giving any sort of instruction in the public schools, + and demanded the removal of all crucifixes and other religious + symbols from the school buildings. In December, 1884, a tax was + imposed on the property of all religious orders, also the state + allowance for the five Catholic seminaries with only thirty-seven + students was withdrawn, and many other important deductions made + upon the budget for Catholic worship, which at first the senate + opposed, but at last agreed to. The Divorce Bill frequently + introduced since 1881, which permitted parties to marry again, + and gave disposal of the matter to the civil court, got the + assent of the senate only in the end of July, 1884. The clericals + were also greatly offended by the decree passed in May, 1885, + which closed the church of St. Genoveva, the former Pantheon, + as a place of worship and made it again a burial place for + distinguished Frenchmen. This resolution was first carried out + by placing there the remains of Victor Hugo. Amid these and many + other injuries to its interests the Roman curia, concentrating + all its energies upon the German “Kulturkampf,” endeavoured to + keep things back in a moderate way. Yet in July, 1883, the pope + addressed to president Grévy a friendly but earnest remonstrance, + which he treated simply as a private letter and, without + communicating it officially to his cabinet, answered that apart + from parliament he could not act, but that so far as he and + his ministry were able they would seek to avoid conflict with + the holy see. And in fact the government, especially after the + overthrow of the Gambetta ministry in 1882, often successfully + opposed the proposal of the radical chamber, _e.g._ the + separation of church and state, the abrogation of the concordat, + the recall of the embassy to the Vatican, the abolition of + religious oaths in the proceedings of the courts, the stopping of + the state subvention of a million francs for payment of salaries + in seminaries for priests, etc. + + § 203.8. =The Protestant Churches under the Third + Republic.=--Since the French Reformed began to emulate their + Catholic countrymen in wild Chauvinism, fanatical hatred of + Germany and unreasoning enthusiasm for the _Revanche_, they + were left by the advancing clerical party unmolested in respect + of life, confession and worship during the time of war. The + Lutherans on the other hand, consisting, although on French + territory, mainly of German emigrants and settlers, even their + French members not so disposed to Chauvinistic extravagance, + were obliged to atone for this double offence by expulsion from + house and home and by various injuries to their ecclesiastical + interests. After the conclusion of peace, especially under + Thiers’ moderate government, this fanaticism gradually cooled + down, so that the expelled Germans returned and the churches and + institutions that had been destroyed were restored, so far as + means would allow. By the decree of Waddington, the minister + of instruction, of date March 27th, 1877, instead of the + theological faculty of Strassburg, now lost for the French + Lutheran church, one for both Protestant churches was founded + in Paris.--The =Lutheran Church=, in consequence of the cession + of Alsace-Lorraine, had only sixty-four out of 278 pastorates + and six out of forty-four consistories remaining. At the general + synod convened at Paris, in July, 1872, by the government for + reorganising the Lutheran church it was resolved: To form two + inspectorates independent of each other--Paris, predominantly + orthodox, Mömpelgard, predominantly liberal; the general assembly, + which meets every third year alternately at Mömpelgard and Paris, + to consist of delegates from both. The two inspectorates are to + correspond in administrative matters directly with the minister + of public instruction, but in everything referring to confession, + doctrine, worship and discipline, the general assembly is the + supreme authority. In regard to the confessional question they + agreed to the statement, that the holy Scripture is the supreme + authority in matters of faith, and the Augsburg Confession + the basis of the legal constitution of the church. An express + undertaking on the part of the clergy to this effect is not, + however, insisted upon. Only in 1879 could this constitution + obtain legal sanction by the State, and that only after + considerable modification in the direction of liberalism, + especially in reference to electoral qualification. In + consequence of this the first ordinary general assembly held + in Paris in May, 1881, found both parties in a conciliatory + mood.--=The Reformed Church=, with about 500 pastorates and + 105 consistories, summoned by order of government a newly + constituted General Assembly at Paris, in June, 1872. Prominent + among the leaders of the orthodox party was the aged ex-minister + Guizot; the leaders of the liberals were Coquerel and Colani. + The former supported the proposal of Professor Bois of Montauban, + who insisted on the frank and full confession of holy Scripture + as the sovereign authority in matters of faith, of Christ as + the only Son of God, and of justification by faith as the legal + basis of instruction, worship and discipline; while the latter + protested against every attempt to lay down an obligatory and + exclusive confession. The orthodox party prevailed and the + dissenters who would not yield were struck off the voting lists. + When now in consequence of the complaint of the liberal party + the summoning of an ordinary general assembly was refused by + the government, the orthodox party repeatedly met in “official” + provincial and general assemblies without state sanction. The + council of state then declared all decisions regarding voting + qualifications passed by the synod of 1872 to be null and void, + the minister of worship, Ferry, ordered the readmission of + electors struck from the lists, and his successor Bert legalized, + by a decree of March 25th, 1882, the division of the Parisian + consistorial circuit into two independent consistories of Paris + and Versailles, moved for by the liberal party but opposed by the + orthodox. But upon the elections for the new consistory of Paris, + ordered in spite of all protests, and for the presbyteries of the + eight parishes assigned to it, contrary to all expectation, in + seven of these the elections with great majorities were in favour + of the orthodox, and the first official document issued by the + new consistory was a solemn protest against the decree to which + it owed its existence. Under such circumstances the government + as well as the liberal party had no desire for the calling of an + official general assembly, and the latter resolved at a general + assembly at Nimes, in October, 1882, to institute official + synods of their own for consultation and protection of their + own interests. + + + § 204. ITALY. + + In Italy matters returned to their old position after the +restoration of 1814. But liberalism, aiming at the liberty and unity +of Italy, gained the mastery, and where for the time it prevailed, the +Jesuits were expelled, and the power of the clergy restricted; where +it failed, both came back with greatly increased importance. The arms +of Austria and subsequently also of France stamped out on all sides +the revolutionary movements. Pius IX., who at first was not indisposed, +contrary to all traditions of the papacy, to put himself at the head of +the national party, was obliged bitterly to regret his dealings with the +liberals (§ 185, 2). Sardinia, Modena and Naples put the severest strain +upon the bow of the restoration, while Parma and Tuscany distinguished +themselves by adopting liberal measures in a moderate degree. Sardinia, +however, in 1840 came to a better mind. Charles Albert first broke +ground with a more liberal constitution, and in 1848 proclaimed himself +the deliverer of Italy, but yielded to the arms of Austria. His son +Victor Emanuel II. succeeded amid singularly favourable circumstances +in uniting the whole peninsula under his sceptre as a united kingdom of +Italy governed by liberal institutions. + + § 204.1. =The Kingdom of Sardinia.=--Victor Emanuel I. after + the restoration had nothing else to do but to recall the Jesuits, + to hand over to them the whole management of the schools, and, + guided and led by them in everything, to restore the church and + state to the condition prevailing before 1789. Charles Felix + (1821-1831) carried still further the absolutist-reactionary + endeavours of his predecessor, and even Charles Albert (1831-1849) + refused for a long time to realize the hopes which the liberal + party had previously placed in him. Only in the second decade + of his reign did he begin gradually to display a more liberal + tendency, and at last in 1848 when, in consequence of the French + Revolution, Lombardy rose against the Austrian rule, he placed + himself at the head of the national movement for freeing Italy + from the yoke of strangers. But the king gloried in as “the sword + of Italy” was defeated and obliged to abdicate. Victor Emanuel II. + (1849-1878) allowed meanwhile the liberal constitution of his + father to remain and indeed carried it out to the utmost. The + minister of justice, Siccardi, proposed a new legislative code + which abolished all clerical jurisdiction in civil and criminal + proceedings, as also the right of asylum and of exacting + tithes, the latter with moderate compensation. It was passed + by parliament and subscribed by the king in 1850. The clergy, + with archbishop Fransoni of Turin at their head, protested with + all their might against these sacrilegious encroachments on the + rights of the church. Fransoni was on this account committed for + a month to prison and, when he refused the last sacrament to a + minister, was regularly sentenced to deposition and banishment + from the country. Pius IX. thwarted all attempts to obtain a + new concordat. But the government went recklessly forward. As + Fransoni from his exile in France continued his agitation, all + the property of the archiepiscopal chair was in 1854 sequestered + and a number of cloisters were closed. Soon all penalties in + the penal code for spreading non-Catholic doctrines were struck + out and non-Catholic soldiers freed from compulsory attendance + at mass on Sundays and festivals. The chief blow now fell on + March 2nd, 1855, in the Cloister Act, which abolished all orders + and cloisters not devoted to preaching, teaching, and nursing + the sick. In consequence 331 out of 605 cloisters were shut up. + The pope ceased not to condemn all these sacrilegious and church + robbing acts, and when his threats were without result, thundered + the great excommunication in July, 1855, against all originators, + aiders, and abettors of such deeds. Among the masses this indeed + caused some excitement, but it never came to an explosion. + + § 204.2. =The Kingdom of Italy.=--Amid such vigorous progress + the year 1859 came round with its fateful Franco-Italian war. + The French alliance had not indeed, as it promised, made Italy + free to the Adriatic, but by the peace of Villafranca the whole + of Lombardy was given to the kingdom of Sardinia as a present + from the emperor of the French. In the same year by popular vote + Tuscany, including Modena and Parma, and in the following year + the kingdom of the two Sicilies, as well as the three provinces + of the States of the Church, revolted and were annexed, so that + the new kingdom of Italy embraced the whole of the peninsula, + with the exception of Venice, Rome and the Campagna. Prussia’s + remarkable successes in the seven days’ German war of 1866 shook + Venice like ripe fruit into the lap of her Italian ally, and the + day of Sedan, 1870, prepared the way for the addition of Rome + and the Campagna (§ 185, 3).--In Lombardy and then also in + Venice, immediately after they had been taken possession of, the + concordat with Austria was abrogated and the Jesuits expelled. + Ecclesiastical tithes on the produce of the soil were abolished + throughout the whole kingdom, begging was forbidden the mendicant + friars as unworthy of a spiritual order, ecclesiastical property + was put under state control and the support of the clergy + provided for by state grants. In 1867 the government began + the appropriation and conversion of the church property; in + 1870 all religious orders were dissolved, with exception for + the time being of those in Rome, wherever they did not engage + in educational and other useful works. In May, 1873, this law + was extended to the Roman province, only it was not to be applied + to the generals of orders in Rome. Nuns and some monks were + also allowed to remain in their cloisters situated in unpeopled + districts. The amount of state pensions paid to monks and nuns + reached in 1882 the sum of eleven million lire, at the rate + of 330 lire for each person. The abolition of the theological + faculties in ten Italian universities in 1873, because these + altogether had only six students of theology, was regarded by + the curia rather as a victory than a defeat. The newly appointed + bishops were forbidden by the pope to produce their credentials + for inspection in order to obtain their salaries from the + government. The loss of temporalities thus occasioned was made + up by Pius IX. out of Peter’s pence flowing in so abundantly from + abroad; each bishop receiving 500 and each archbishop 700 lire in + the month. Leo XIII., however, felt obliged in 1879, owing to the + great decrease in the Peter’s pence contributions, to cancel this + enactment and to permit the bishops to accept the state allowance. + In consequence of the civil marriage law passed in 1866 having + been altogether ignored by the clergy, nearly 400,000 marriages + had down to the close of 1878 received only ecclesiastical + sanction, and the offspring of such parties would be regarded + in the eye of the law as illegitimate. To obviate this difficulty + a law was passed in May, 1879, which insisted that in all cases + civil marriage must precede the ecclesiastical ceremony, and + clergymen, witnesses and parties engaging in an illegal marriage + should suffer three or six months’ imprisonment; but all + marriages contracted in accordance merely with church forms + before the passing of this law might be legitimized by being + entered on the civil register.--Finally in January, 1884, the + controversy pending since 1873 as to whether the rich property of + the Roman propaganda (§ 156, 9) amounting to twenty million lire + should be converted into state consols was decided by the supreme + court in favour of the curia, which had pronounced these funds + international because consisting of presents and contributions + from all lands. But not only was the revenue of the propaganda + subjected to a heavy tax, but also all increase of its property + forbidden. In vain did the pope by his nuncios call for the + intervention of foreign nations. None of these were inclined to + meddle in the internal affairs of Italy. The curia now devised + the plan of affiliating a number of societies outside of Italy to + the propaganda for receiving and administering donations and + presents. + + § 204.3. =The Evangelization of Italy.=--Emigrant Protestants + of various nationalities had at an early date, by the silent + sufferance of the respective governments, formed small + evangelical congregations in some of the Italian cities; + in Venice and Leghorn during the seventeenth century, at Bergamo + in 1807, at Florence in 1826, at Milan in 1847. Also by aid of + the diplomatic intervention of Prussia and England, the erection + of Protestant chapels for the embassy was allowed at Rome in 1819, + at Naples in 1825, and at Florence in 1826. When in 1848 Italy’s + hopes from the liberal tendencies of Pius IX. were so bitterly + disappointed, Protestant sympathies began to spread far and + wide through the land, even among native Catholics, fostered by + English missionaries, Bibles and tracts, which the governments + sought in vain to check by prisons, penitentiaries and exile. + Persecution began in 1851 in Tuscany, where, in spite of the + liberty of faith and worship guaranteed by the constitution of + 1848, Tuscan subjects taking part in the Italian services in the + chapel of the Prussian embassy at Florence were punished with + six months’ hard labour, and in the following year the pious pair + Francesco and Rosa Madiai were sentenced to four years’ rigorous + punishment in a penitentiary for the crime of having edified + themselves and their household by reading the Bible. In vain did + the Evangelical Alliance remonstrate (§ 178, 3), in vain did even + the king of Prussia intercede. But when, stirred up by public + opinion in England, the English premier Lord Palmerston offered + to secure the requirement of Christian humanity by means of + British ships of war, the grand-duke got rid of both martyrs by + banishing them from the country in 1853. In proportion as the + union of Italy under Victor Emanuel II. advanced, the field for + evangelistic effort and the powers devoted thereto increased. + So it was too since 1860 in Southern Italy. But when in 1866 a + Protestant congregation began to be formed at Barletta in Naples, + a fanatical priest roused a popular mob in which seventeen + persons were killed and torn in pieces. The government put down + the uproar and punished the miscreants, and the nobler portion of + the nation throughout the whole land collected for the families + of those murdered. The work of evangelization supported by + liberal contributions chiefly from England, but also from Holland, + Switzerland, and the German _Gustav-Adolf-Verein_ (§ 178, 1), + advanced steadily in spite of occasional brutal interferences + of the clergy and the mob, so that soon in all the large cities + and in many of the smaller towns of Italy and Sicily there were + thriving and flourishing little evangelical congregations of + converted native Catholics, numbering as many as 182 in 1882. + + § 204.4. The chief factor in the evangelization of Italy as far + as the southern coast of Sicily was the old =Waldensian Church=, + which for three hundred years had occupied the Protestant + platform in the spirit of Calvinism (§ 139, 25). Remnants + consisting of some 200,000 souls still survived in the valleys + of Piedmont, almost without protection of law amid constant + persecution and oppressions (§ 153, 5), moderated only by + Prussian and English intervention. But when Sardinia headed + Italian liberalism in 1848 religious liberty and all civil + rights were secured to them. A Waldensian congregation was then + formed in the capital, Turin, which was strengthened by numerous + Protestant refugees from other parts of Italy. But in 1854 a + split occurred between the two elements in it. The new Italian + converts objected, not altogether without ground, against the old + Waldensians that by maintaining their church government with its + centre in the valleys, the so-called “Tables” and their old forms + of constitution, doctrine and worship, much too contracted and + narrow for the enlarged boundaries of the present, they thought + more of Waldensianizing than of evangelizing Italy. Besides, + their language since 1630, when a plague caused their preachers + and teachers to withdraw from Geneva, had been French, and + the national Italian pride was disposed on this domain also to + unfurl her favourite banner “_Italia farà da se_.” The division + spread from Turin to the other congregations. At the head of the + separatists, afterwards designated the “_Free Italian Church_” + (_Chiesa libera_), stood Dr. Luigi Desanctis, a man of rich + theological culture and glowing eloquence, who, when Catholic + priest and theologian of the inquisition at Rome, became + convinced of the truth of the evangelical confession, joined + the evangelical church at Malta in 1847 and wrought from 1852 + with great success in the congregation at Turin. After ten years’ + faithful service in the newly formed free church he felt obliged, + owing to the Darbyite views (§ 211, 11) that began to prevail + in it, to attach himself again in 1864 to the Waldensians, who + meanwhile had been greatly liberalised. He now officiated for + them till his death in 1869 as professor of theology at Florence, + and edited their journal _Eco della verità_. This journal was + succeeded in 1873 by the able monthly _Rivista Cristiana_, edited + at Florence by Prof. Emilio Comba.--After Desanctis left the + _Chiesa libera_ its chief representative was the ex-Barnabite + father Alessandro Gavazzi of Naples. Endowed with glowing + eloquence and remarkable popularity as a lecturer, he appeared + at Rome in 1848 as a politico-religious orator, attached himself + to the evangelical church in London in 1850, and undertook the + charge of the evangelical Italian congregation there. He returned + to Italy in 1860 and accompanied the hero of Italian liberty, + Garibaldi, as his military chaplain, preaching to the people + everywhere with his leonine voice with equal enthusiasm of Victor + Emanuel as the only saviour of Italy and of Jesus Christ as + the only Saviour of sinners. He then joined the _Chiesa libera_, + and, as he himself obtained gradually fuller acquaintance + with evangelical truth, wrought zealously in organizing the + congregations hitherto almost entirely isolated from one another. + At a general assembly at Milan in 1870, deputies from thirty-two + congregations drew up a simple biblical confession of faith, + and in the following year at Florence a constitutional code was + adopted which recognised the necessity of the pastoral office, + of annual assemblies, and a standing evangelization committee. + They now took the name “=Unione della Chiesa libere in Italia=.” + The predominantly Darbyist congregations, which had not taken + part in these constitutional assemblies, have since formed a + community of their own as =Chiesa Cristiana=, depending only on + the immediate leading of the Holy Spirit, rejecting every sort of + ecclesiastical and official organization, and denouncing infant + baptism as unevangelical.--Besides these three national Italian + churches, English and American Methodists and Baptists carry on + active missions. On May 1st, 1884, the evangelical denominations + at a general assembly in Florence, with the exception only of the + Darbyist _Chiesa Cristiana_, joined in a confederation to meet + annually in an “Italian Evangelical Congress” as a preparation + for ecclesiastical union. When, however, the various Methodist + and Baptist denominations began to check the progress of the work + of union, the two leading bodies, the Waldensians and the Free + Church party, separated from them. A committee chosen from these + two sketched at Florence in 1885 a basis of union, according to + which the Free Church adopted the confession and church order + of the Waldensians, subject to revision by the joint synods, + their theological school at Rome was to be amalgamated with the + Waldensian school at Florence, and the united church was to take + the name of the “Evangelical Church of Italy.” But a Waldensian + synod in September, 1886, resolved to hold by the ancient name + of the “Waldensian Church.” Whether the “Free Church” will agree + to this demand is not yet known. + + + § 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. + + No European country has during the nineteenth century been the +scene of so many revolutions, outbreaks and civil wars, of changes +of government, ministries and constitutions, sometimes of a clerical +absolutist, sometimes of a democratic radical tendency, and in none +has revolution gone so unsparingly for the time against hierarchy, +clergy and monasticism, as in unfortunate Spain. Portugal too passed +through similar struggles, which, however, did not prove so dreadfully +disordering to the commonwealth as those of Spain. + + § 205.1. =Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina.=--Joseph + Bonaparte (1808-1813) had given to the Spaniards a constitution + of the French pattern, abolishing inquisition and cloisters. + The constitution which the Cortes proclaimed in 1812 carried + out still further the demands of political liberalism, but still + declared the apostolic Roman Catholic religion as alone true to + be the religion of the Spanish nation and forbad the exercise of + any other. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon restored in December, + 1813, hastened to restore the inquisition, the cloisters and + despotism, especially from 1815 under the direction of the + Jesuits highly esteemed by him. The revolution of 1820 indeed + obliged him to reintroduce the constitution of 1812 and to banish + the Jesuits; but scarcely had the feudal clerical party of the + apostolic Junta with their army of faith in the field and Bourbon + French intervention under the Duke of Angoulême again made his + way clear, than he began to crush as before by means of his + Jesuit Camarilla every liberal movement in church and state. + But all the more successful was the reaction of liberalism in + the civil war which broke out after Ferdinand’s death under + the regency of his fourth wife, the intriguing Maria Christina + (1833-1837). The revolution now erected an inquisition, but it + was one directed against the clergy and monks, and celebrated + its _autos de fe_; but these were in the form of spoliation of + cloisters and massacres of monks. Ecclesiastical tithes were + abolished, all monkish orders suspended, the cloisters closed, + ecclesiastical goods declared national property, and the papal + nuncio sent over the frontier. A threatening papal allocution + of 1841 only increased the violence of the Cortes, and when + Gregory XVI. in 1842 pronounced all decrees of the government + null and void, it branded all intercourse with Rome as an offence + against the state. + + § 205.2. =Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865.=--Ferdinand VII., + overlooking the right of his brother Don Carlos, had, by + abolishing the Salic law, secured the throne to Isabella, his + own and Maria Christina’s daughter. After the Cortes of 1843 + had declared Isabella of age in her thirteenth year, the Spanish + government became more and more favourable to the restoration. + After long negotiations and vacillations under constantly + changing ministries a concordat was at last drawn up in 1851, + which returned the churches and cloisters that had not been + sold, allowed compensation for what had been sold, reduced the + number of bishoprics by six, put education and the censorship of + the press under the oversight of the bishops, and declared the + Catholic religion the only one to be tolerated. But although + in 1854 the Holy Virgin was named generalissima of the brave + army and her image at Atocha had been decorated by the queen + with a band of the Golden Fleece, a revolution soon broke + out in the army which threatened to deal the finishing stroke + to ultramontanism. Meanwhile it had not fully permeated the + republican party. The proposal of unrestricted liberty to all + forms of worship was supported by a small minority, and the new + constitution of 1855 called upon the Spanish nation to maintain + and guard the Catholic religion which “the Spaniards profess;” + yet no Spaniard was to be persecuted on account of his faith, so + long as he did not commit irreligious acts. A new law determined + the sale of all church and cloister property, and compensation + therefore by annual rents according to the existing concordat. + Several bishops had to be banished owing to their continued + opposition; the pope protested and recalled his legates. Clerical + influence meanwhile regained power over the queen. The sale of + church and cloister property was stopped, and previous possessors + were indemnified for what had been already sold. Owing to + frequent change of ministry, each of which manifested a tendency + different from its predecessor, it was only in 1859 that matters + were settled by a new concordat. In it the government admitted + the inalienability of church property, admitted the unrestricted + right of the church to obtain new property of any kind, and + declared itself ready to exchange state paper money for property + that had fallen into decay according to the estimation of the + bishops. The queen proved her Catholic zeal at the instigation + of the nun Patrocinio by fanatical persecution of Protestants, + and hearty but vain sympathies for the sufferings of the pope + and the expatriated Italian princes. Pius IX. rewarded Isabella, + who seemed to him adorned with all the virtues, by sending her + in 1868 the consecrated rose at a time when she was causing + public scandal more than ever by her private life, and by her + proceedings with her paramour Marforio had lost the last remnant + of the respect and confidence of the Spanish nation. Eight months + later her reign was at an end. The provisional government now + ordered the suppression of the Society of Jesus, as well as + of all cloister and spiritual associations, and in 1869 the + Cortes sanctioned the draught of a new civil constitution, which + required the Spanish nation to maintain the Catholic worship, + but allowed the exercise of other forms of worship to strangers + and as cases might arise even to natives, and generally made all + political and civil rights independent of religious profession. + + § 205.3. =Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885.=--When Isabella’s + son returned to Spain in January, 1875, in his seventeenth + year, he obtained the blessing of his sponsor the pope on his + ascending the throne, promised to the Catholic church powerful + support, but also to non-Catholics the maintenance of liberty + of worship. How he meant to perform both is shown by a decree + of 10th February, 1875, which, abolishing the civil marriage law + passed by the Cortes in 1870, gave back to the Catholic church + the administration of marriage and matters connected therewith; + for all persons living in Spain, however, “who professed another + than the true faith,” as well as for “the bad Catholics,” to whom + ecclesiastical marriage on account of church censures is refused, + liberty was given to contract a civil marriage; but this did not + apply to apostate priests, monks, and nuns, to whom any sort of + marriage is for ever refused, and whose previously contracted + marriages are invalid, without, however, affecting the legitimacy + of children already born of such connections.--Against the + draught of the new constitution, whose eleventh article indeed + affords toleration to all dissenting forms of worship, but + prohibits any public manifestation thereof outside of their place + of worship and burial grounds, Pius IX. protested as infringing + upon the still existing concordat in its “noblest” part, and + aiming a serious blow at the Catholic church. The Cortes, however, + sanctioned it in 1876. + + § 205.4. =The Evangelization of Spain.=--A number of Bibles + and tracts, as well as a religious paper in Spanish called _el + Albo_, found entrance into Spain from the English settlement at + Gibraltar, without Spain being able even in the most flourishing + days of the restoration to prevent it, and evangelical sympathies + began more or less openly to be expressed. Franc. Ruat, formerly + a lascivious Spanish poet, who was awakened at Turin by the + preaching of the Waldensian Desanctis, and by reading the Bible + had obtained knowledge of evangelical truths, appeared publicly + after the publication of the new constitution of 1855 as a + preacher of the gospel in Spain. The reaction that soon set in, + however, secured for him repeated imprisonments, and finally in + 1856 sentence of banishment for life. He then wrought for several + years successfully in Gibraltar, next in London, afterwards in + Algiers among Spanish residents, till the new civil constitution + of 1868 allowed him to return to Spain, where, in the service + of the German mission at Madrid, he gathered around him an + evangelical congregation, to which he ministered till his death + in 1878. While labouring in Gibraltar he won to the evangelical + faith among others the young officer Manuel Matamoros, living + there as a political refugee. This noble man, whose whole career, + till his death in exile in 1866, was a sore martyrdom for the + truth, became the soul of the whole movement, against which + the government in 1861 and 1862 took the severest measures. By + intercepted correspondence the leaders and many of the members + of the secret evangelical propaganda were discovered and thrown + into prison. The final judgment condemned the leaders of the + movement to severe punishment in penitentiaries and the galleys. + Infliction of these sentences had already begun when the + queen found herself obliged, by a visit to Madrid in 1863 of a + deputation of the Evangelical Alliance (§ 178, 3), consisting of + the most distinguished and respected Protestants of all lands, to + commute them to banishment.--After Isabella’s overthrow in 1868, + permission was given for the building of the first Protestant + church in Madrid, where a congregation soon gathered of more than + 2,000 souls. In Seville an almost equally strong congregation + obtained for its services what had been a church of the Jesuits. + Also at Cordova a considerable congregation was collected, and + in almost all the other large cities there were largely attended + places of worship. Several of those banished under Isabella, + who had returned after her overthrow, Carrasco, Trigo, Alhama, + and others, increased by new converts who had received their + theological training at Geneva, Lausanne, etc., and supported + by American, English and German fellow-labourers, such as the + brothers F. and H. Fliedner, wrought with unwearied zeal as + preachers and pastors, for the spreading and deeper grounding + of the gospel among their countrymen. With the restoration of the + monarchy in 1875, the oppression of the Protestants was renewed + with increasing severity. The widest possible interpretation + was given to the prohibition of every public manifestation + of dissenting worship in Article XI. of the constitution. The + excesses and insults of the mob, whose fanaticism was stirred up + by the clergy, were left unpunished and uncensured. Even the most + sorely abused and injured Protestants were themselves subjected + to imprisonment as disturbers of the peace. No essential + improvement in their condition resulted from the liberal ministry + of Sagasta in 1881. Nevertheless the number of evangelical + congregations continued steadily though slowly to increase, so + that now they number more than sixty, with somewhere about 15,000 + native Protestant members.--Besides these an _Iglesia Española_ + arose in 1881, consisting of eight congregations, which may + be regarded to some extent as a national Spanish counterpart + to the Old Catholicism of Germany. Its founder and first bishop + is Cabrera, formerly a Catholic priest, who, after having + wrought from 1868 in the service of the Edinburgh (Presbyterian) + Evangelization Society as preacher in Seville, and then in Madrid, + received in 1880 episcopal consecration from the Anglican bishop + Riley of Mexico (§ 209, 1), then visiting Madrid. Although thus + of Anglican origin, the church directed by him wishes not to be + Anglican, but Spanish episcopal. It attaches itself therefore, + while accepting the thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church, + in the sketch of its order of service in the Spanish language, + more to the old Mozarabic ritual (§ 88, 1) than to the Anglican + liturgy.[562] + + § 205.5. =The Church in Portugal.=--Portugal after some months + followed the example of the Spanish revolution of 1820. John VI. + (1816-1826) confirmed the new constitution, drawn up after the + pattern of the democratic Spanish constitution of 1812, enacting + the seizure of church property and the suppression of the + monasteries. But a counter revolution, led by the younger son of + the king, Dom Miguel, obliged him in 1823 to repudiate it and to + return to the older constitution. But he persistently resisted + the reintroduction of the Jesuits. After his death in 1826, the + legitimate heir, Pedro I. of Brazil, abandoned his claims to the + Portuguese throne in favour of his daughter Donna Maria II. da + Gloria, then under a year old, whom he betrothed to his brother + Dom Miguel. Appointed regent, Dom Miguel took the oath to + the constitution, but immediately broke his oath, had himself + proclaimed king, recalled the Jesuits, and, till his overthrow + in 1834, carried on a clerical monarchical reign of terror. Dom + Pedro, who had meanwhile vacated the Brazilian throne, as regent + again suppressed all monkish orders, seized the property of + the church, and abolished ecclesiastical tithes, but died in + the same year. His daughter Donna Maria, now pronounced of age + and proclaimed queen (1834-1853), amid continual revolutions + and changes of the constitution, manifested an ever-growing + inclination to reconciliation with Rome. In 1841 she negotiated + about a concordat, and showed herself so submissive that the pope + rewarded her in 1842 with the consecrated golden rose. But the + liberal Cortes resisted the introduction of the concordat, and + maintained the right of veto by the civil government as well as + the rest of the restrictions upon the hierarchy, and the _Codigo + penal_ of 1882 threatened the Catholic clergy with heavy fines + and imprisonment for every abuse of their spiritual prerogatives + and every breach of the laws of the State. In 1857 a concordat + was at last agreed to, which, however, was adopted by the + representatives of the people not before 1859, and then only by + a small majority. Its chief provisions consist in the regulating + of the patronage rights of the crown in regard to existing and + newly created bishoprics. The relation of government to the curia, + however, still continued strained. The constitution declares + generally that the Catholic Apostolic Romish Church is the + state religion. A Portuguese who passes over from it to another + loses thereby his civil rights as a citizen. Yet no one is to be + persecuted on account of his religion. The erection of Protestant + places of worship, but not in church form, and also of burial + grounds, where necessary, is permitted.--Evangelization has + made but little progress in Portugal. The first evangelical + congregation, with Anglican episcopal constitution, was founded + at Lisbon by a Spanish convert, Don Angelo Herrero de Mora, who + in the service of the Bible Society had edited a revision of the + old Spanish Bible in New York, and had there been naturalized + as an American citizen. Consisting originally of American and + English Protestants, about a hundred Spanish and Portuguese + converts have since 1868 gradually attached themselves to it, + the latter after they had been made Spanish instead of Portuguese + subjects. After the pattern of this mother congregation, two + others have been formed in the neighbourhood of Lisbon and one + at Oporto. + + + § 206. RUSSIA. + + The Russian government since the time of Alexander I. has sought +amid many difficulties to advance the education and enlightenment of +the people, and to elevate the orthodox church by securing a more highly +cultured clergy, and to increase its influence upon the life of the +people; a task which proved peculiarly difficult in consequence of the +wide-spread anti-ecclesiastical spirit (§ 210, 3) and the incomparably +more dangerous antichristian Nihilism (§ 212, 6).--The Catholic church, +mainly represented in what had before been the kingdom of Poland, had, +in consequence of the repeated revolutionary agitation of the Poles, +in which the clergy had zealously taken part by stirring up fanaticism +among the people and converting their religion and worship into a +vehicle of rebellion, so compromised itself that the government, besides +taking away the national political privileges, reduced more and more +the rights and liberties granted to the church as such.--The prosperous +development of the evangelical church in Russia, which, through the +absolutely faultless loyalty of its members, had hitherto enjoyed the +hearty protection of the government, in 1845 and 1846, and afterwards +in 1883, in consequence of numerous conversions among Esthonian and +Livonian peasants, was checked by incessant persecutions. + + § 206.1. =The Orthodox National Church.=--The evangelical + influences introduced from the West during the previous century, + especially among the higher clergy, found further encouragement + under Alexander I., A.D. 1801-1825. Himself affected by the + evangelical pietism of Madame Krüdener (§ 176, 2), he aimed at + the elevation of the orthodox church in this direction, founded + clerical seminaries and public schools, and took a lively + interest in Bible circulation among the Russian people. But under + Nicholas I., A.D. 1825-1855, a reaction proceeding from the holy + synod set in which unweariedly sought to seal the orthodox church + hermetically against all evangelical influences. Also during + the reign of Alexander II., A.D. 1855-1881, a reign singularly + fruitful in civil reforms, this tendency was even more rigidly + illustrated, while with the consent and aid of the holy synod + every effort was put forth to improve the church according to its + own principles. Specially active in this work was Count Tolstoi, + minister of instruction and also procurator of the holy synod. A + committee presided over by him produced a whole series of useful + reforms in 1868, which were approved by the synod and confirmed + by the emperor. While the inferior clergy had hitherto formed + an order by themselves, all higher ranks of preferment were + now opened to them, but, on the other hand, the obligation + of priests’ sons to remain in the order of their fathers was + abolished. The clamant abuse of putting mere clerks and sextons + to do the work of priests was also now put a stop to, and + training in clerical seminaries or academies was made compulsory. + Previously only married men could hold the offices of deacon and + priest; now widowers and bachelors were admitted, so soon as they + reached the age of forty years. In order to increase the poor + incomes many churches had not their regular equipment of clergy, + and instead of the full set of priest, deacon, sub-deacon, reader, + sexton, and doorkeeper, in the poorer churches there were only + priest and reader. Order was restored to monastic life, now + generally grown dissolute, by a fixed rule of a common table + and uniform dress, etc. In 1860 an Orthodox Church Society for + Missions among the peoples of the Caucasus, and in 1866 a second + for Pagans and Mohammedans throughout the empire, were founded, + both under the patronage of the empress. The Russian church + also cleverly took advantage of political events to carry on + missionary work in Japan (§ 184, 6). A society of the “Friends + of Intellectual Enlightenment,” founded in St. Petersburg + in 1872, aimed chiefly at the religious improvement of the + cultured classes in the spirit of the orthodox church by means + of tracts and addresses, while agreeing with foreign confessions + as to the nature and characteristics of the true church. + Under Alexander III., since A.D. 1881, the emperor’s former + tutor Pobedownoszew, with the conviction of the incomparable + superiority of his church, and believing that by it and only + by it could the dangerous commotions of the present be overcome + (§ 212, 6) and Russia regenerated, as procurator of the holy + synod has zealously wrought in this direction.--But meanwhile a + new impulse was given to the evangelical movement in aristocratic + circles by Lord Radstock, who appeared in St. Petersburg in 1870. + The addresses delivered by him in French in the salons of the + fashionable world won a success scarcely to be looked for. The + most famous gain was the conversion of a hitherto proud, worldly, + rich and popular Colonel of the Guards, called Paschcow, who now + turned the beautiful ball-room of his palatial residence into a + prayer-meeting room, and with all the enthusiasm of a neophyte + proclaimed successfully among high and low the newly won saving + truth in a Biblical evangelical spirit, though not without a + methodistic flavour. The excitement thus created led to police + interference, and finally, when he refused to abstain from + spreading his religious views among the members of the orthodox + church by the circulation of evangelical tracts in the Russian + language, he was, at the instigation of the holy synod and its + all powerful procurator, banished first from St. Petersburg and + then in 1884 from the empire, whereupon he withdrew to London. + + § 206.2. =The Catholic Church.=--After the Greeks in the old + West Russian provinces (§ 151, 3), who had been forcibly united + to Rome in 1596, had again in 1772, in consequence of the first + partition of Poland, come under Russian rule, the government + sought to restore them also to the orthodox national church. + This was first accomplished under Nicholas I., when at the synod + of Polosk in 1839 they themselves spontaneously expressed a wish + to be thus reunited with the mother church. Rome thus lost two + million members. But the allocution directed against this robbery + by Gregory XVI. was without effect, and the public opinion + of Europe saw a case of historical justice in this reunion, + though effected not without severe measures against those who + proved obstinate and rebellious. Yet there always remained a + considerable remnant, about one-third of a million, under the + bishop of Chelun, in the Romish communion. But even these in 1875, + after many disturbances with the prelate Popiel at their head, + almost wholly severed their connection with the pope, and were + again received into the bosom of the orthodox national church. + In a memorial addressed to the emperor for this purpose, they + declared they were led to this on the one hand by the continual + endeavour of the curia and its partisans, by Latinizing their old + Greek liturgy and Polandizing the people, to overthrow their old + Russian nationality, and on the other hand, by their aversion to + the new papal dogmas of the immaculate conception of Mary and the + infallibility of the pope.--The insurrection of the Poles against + Russian rule in 1830, which even Pope Gregory XVI. condemned, + bore bitter fruits for the Catholic church of that country. + The organic statute of 1832 indeed secured anew to the Poles + religious liberty, but the bishops were prohibited holding + any direct communication with Rome, the clergy deprived of all + control over the schools, and the Russian law regarding mixed + marriages made applicable to that province. By an understanding + with the curia in 1847 the choice of the bishops was given to the + emperor, their canonical investiture to the pope. The mildness + with which Alexander II. treated the Poles and the political + troubles in the rest of Europe fostered the hope of restoring + the old kingdom of Poland. Reckless demonstrations were made in + the beginning of 1861, pilgrimages to the graves of the martyrs + of freedom were organized, political memorial festivals were + celebrated in churches, a general national mourning was enjoined, + mourning services were held, revolutionary songs were sung + in churches, etc. The Catholic clergy headed the movement and + canonized it as a religious duty. In vain the government sought + to put it down by making liberal concessions, in vain they + applied to Pius IX. to discountenance it. When in October the + country lay in a state of siege, and the military forced their + way into the churches to apprehend the ringleaders of rebellion, + the episcopal administrator, Bialobezeski, denounced that as + church profanation, had all the Catholic churches in Warsaw + closed, and answered the government’s request to reopen them by + making extravagant demands and uttering proud words of defiance. + The military tribunal sentenced him to death, but the emperor + commuted this to one year’s detention in a fortress, with loss + of all his dignities and orders. Meanwhile the eyes of the pope + had at length been opened. He now confirmed the government’s + appointment of Archbishop Felinsky, who entered Warsaw in + February, 1862, and reopened the churches. After the suppression + of the revolt in 1864, almost all cloisters, as nurseries of + revolution, were abolished; in the following year the whole + property of the church was taken in charge by the State, and + the clergy supported by state pay. The pope, enraged at this, + gave violent expression to his feelings to the Russian ambassador + at Rome during the New Year festivities of 1866, whereupon the + government completely broke off all relations with the curia. + Consequently in 1867 all the affairs of the Catholic church + were committed to the clerical college at St. Petersburg, and + intercourse between the clergy and the pope prohibited. Hence + arose many conflicts with Catholic bishops, whose obstinacy was + punished by their being interned in their dioceses. In 1869 the + Russian calendar was introduced, and Russian made the compulsory + language of instruction. But in 1870 greater opposition was + offered to the introduction of Russian in the public services by + means of translations of the common Polish prayer and psalm-books. + Pietrowitsch, dean of Wilna, read from the pulpit the ukase + referring to this matter, but then cast it together with the + Russian translations into the flames, with violent denunciations + of the government, and gave information against himself to the + governor-general. He was agreeably to his own desire imprisoned, + and then transported to Archangel. The same sentence was + pronounced against several other obstinate prelates and clergy, + among them Archbishop Felinsky, and thus further opposition was + stamped out.--Leo XIII. soon after entering on his pontificate + in 1878 took the first step toward reconciliation. His efforts + reached a successful issue first in February, 1883. The deposed + prelates were restored from their places of banishment, with + promise of a liberal pension, and were allowed to choose their + residences as they pleased, only not within their former dioceses. + In their stead the pope consecrated ten new bishops nominated + by the emperor, who amid the jubilation of the people entered + their episcopal residences. With reference to the Roman Catholic + seminaries and clerical academies at Warsaw, the curia granted + to the government the right of control over instruction in + the Russian language, literature and history, but committed + instruction in canonical matters solely to the bishops, who, + after obtaining the approval of the government, appointed the + rector and inspector and canonical teachers. Vacant pastorates + were filled by the bishops, and only in the case of the more + important was the approval of the government required. As to the + language to be used, it was resolved that only where the people + speak Russian were the clergy obliged to employ that language in + preaching and in their pastoral work. + + § 206.3. =The Evangelical Church.=--The Lutheran church in Russia, + comprising two and a half millions of Germans, Letts, Esthonians + and Finns, is strongest in Livonia, Esthonia and Courland, is the + national church in Finland, and is also largely represented in + Poland, in the chief cities of Russia, and in the numerous German + colonies in South Russia. In 1832 it obtained, for the Baltic + provinces and the scattered congregations in central Russia, a + church constitution and service book, the latter on the basis of + the old Swedish service book, the former requiring all religious + teachers in church and school to accept the Formula of Concord. + Annual provincial synods have the initiative in calling in, + when necessary for legislative purposes, the aid of the general + synod.--In Poland the Reformed and Lutheran churches were in 1828 + united under one combined consistory. By an imperial ukase of + 1849, however, the independent existence of both churches was + restored. Protestants enjoyed all civil rights and had absolute + liberty in the exercise of their religion; but in central Russia + down to recent times, when a more liberal spirit began to prevail, + they were prohibited putting bells in their churches. The old + prohibition of evangelical preaching and the teaching of religion + in the Russian tongue also continued; but the attempt made for + some decades in St. Petersburg and the surrounding district to + preach the gospel to Germans who had lost their mother tongue, in + the Russian language, has been hitherto ungrudgingly allowed by + the government. Quitting the national church or returning from + it to a church that had been left before, is visited by severe + penalties, and children of mixed marriages, where one parent + belongs to the national orthodox church, are claimed by law for + that church. Only Finland counts among her privileges the right + of assigning children of mixed marriages to the church of the + father. The Lutheran church in Livonia, with the island of Oesel, + suffered considerable, and according to the law of the land + irreparable, loss by the secession of sixty or seventy thousand + Letts and Esthonians to the orthodox church under the widespread + delusion that thereby their economic position would be improved. + Disillusions and regret came too late, and the ever increasing + desire for restoration to the church forsaken in a moment + of excitement could only obtain arbitrary and insufficient + satisfaction in Lutheran baptism of infants seemingly near death, + and in permission at irregular intervals and without previous + announcement to sit at the Lord’s Table according to the Lutheran + rite. In 1865, not indeed legislatively but administratively, + the contracting of mixed marriages in the Baltic provinces + was permitted without the enforcement of the legal enactment + requiring that the children should be trained in the Greek + church. In Esthonia, however, in 1883 there was a new outbreak + of conversions in Leal, where five hundred peasants went over to + the orthodox church, declaring their wish to be of the same faith + as the emperor and the whole of the Russian people. By imperial + decree in 1885 the suspension of the law against withdrawing + again from the national church, which had existed for twenty + years, was abolished. At the instigation of Pobedownoszew the + Imperial Council granted an annual subsidy of 100,000 roubles for + furthering orthodoxy in the Baltic provinces. No evangelical + church could be built in these provinces without the approval of + the orthodox bishop of the diocese, and any evangelical pastor + who should dissuade a member of his church from his purpose + of joining the orthodox church, was liable to punishment.--In + order to supply the want of churches and schools, preachers + and teachers in the Lutheran congregations of Russia, a society + was formed in 1858 similar to the _Gustav-Adolfs-Verein_, under + the supervision of the General Consistory of St. Petersburg, + which has laboriously and zealously endeavoured to improve the + condition of the oppressed church.[563] + + + § 207. GREECE AND TURKEY. + + In the spirited struggle for liberty Greece freed herself from the +tyranny of the Turkish Mohammedan rule and obtained complete civil +independence. But the same princes representing all the three principal +Christian confessions, who in 1830 gave their sanction to this +emancipation within lamentably narrow limits, in 1840 conquered again +the Holy Land for the Turks out of the hands of a revolting vassal. +And so inextricable were, and still are, the political interests of +the Christian States of Europe with reference to the East, that in +the London parliament of 1854 it could be affirmed that the existence +of Turkey in a condition of utter impotence was so necessary, that +if it did not exist, it would require to be created. On two occasions +has Russia called out her whole military force to emancipate from the +Turkish yoke her Slavic brethren of a common race and common faith, +without being able to give the finishing blow to the “sick man” who +had the protection of European diplomacy. + + § 207.1. =The Orthodox Church of Greece.=--Deceived in their + expectations from the Vienna Congress, the Greeks tried to + deliver themselves from Turkish tyranny. In 1814 a _Hetairia_ was + formed, branches of which spread over the whole land and fostered + among the people ideas of freedom. The war of independence broke + out in 1821. Its first result was a fearful massacre, especially + in Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius [Gregory] with his + whole synod and about 30,000 Christians were in three months + with horrid cruelty murdered by the Turks. The London Conference + of 1830 at last declared Greece an independent state, and + an assembly of Greek bishops at Nauplia in 1833 freed the + national church of Greece from the authority of the patriarch of + Constantinople, who was under the control of Turkey. Its supreme + direction was committed to a permanent Holy Synod at Athens, + instituted by the king but in all internal matters absolutely + independent. The king must belong to the national church, but + otherwise all religions are on the same footing. Meanwhile the + orthodox church is fully represented, the Roman Catholic being + strongest, especially in the islands. The University of Athens, + opened in 1856 with professors mostly trained in Germany, has not + been unsuccessful in its task even in the domain of theology. + + § 207.2. =Massacre of Syrian Christians, 1860.=--The Russo-Turkish + war ending in the beginning of 1856, in which France and England, + and latterly also Sardinia took the part of the sick man, left + the condition of the Christians practically unchanged. For though + the Hatti Humayun of 1856 granted them equal civil rights with + the Moslems, this, however well meant on the part of the Sultan + of that time, practically made no improvement upon the equally + well meant Hatti Sherif of Gülhane of 1839. The outbreak of 1860 + also proved how little effect it had in teaching the Moslems + tolerance towards the Christians. Roused by Jesuit emissaries + and trusting to French support, the Maronites of Lebanon indulged + in several provoking attacks upon their old hereditary foes the + Druses. These, however, aided by the Turkish soldiery were always + victorious, and throughout all Syria a terrible persecution + against Christians of all confessions broke out, characterized by + inhuman cruelties. In Damascus alone 8,000, in all Syria 16,000 + Christians were murdered, 3,000 women taken to the harems, and + 100 Christian villages destroyed. After the massacre had been + stopped, 120,000 Christians wandered about without food, clothing, + or shelter, and fled hither and thither in fear of death. Fuad + Pasha was sent from Constantinople to punish the guilty, and + seemed at first to proceed to business energetically; but his + zeal soon cooled, and French troops, sent to Syria to protect + the Christians, were obliged, yielding to pressure from England, + where their presence was regarded with suspicion, to withdraw + from the country in June, 1861. + + § 207.3. =The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle.=--The Bulgarian + church, with somewhere about two and a half million souls, was + from early times subject to the patriarch of Constantinople + (§ 73, 3), who acted toward it like a pasha. He sold the Bulgarian + bishoprics and archbishoprics to the highest bidders among + the Greek clergy, who were quite ignorant of the language of + the country, and had only one end in view, namely to recoup + themselves by extorting the largest possible revenue. No thought + was given to the spiritual needs of the Bulgarians, preaching + was wholly abandoned, the liturgy was read in a language unknown + to the people. It was therefore not to be wondered at that the + Bulgarian church was for years longing for its emancipation and + ecclesiastical independence, and made every effort to obtain this + from the Porte. Turkey, however, sympathized with the patriarch + till the revolt in Crete in 1866-1869 and threatening political + movements in Bulgaria broke out. Then at last in 1870 the sultan + granted the establishment of an independent Slavic ecclesiastical + province under the designation of the Bulgarian Exarchate, with + liberty to attach itself to the other Slavic provinces upon a + two-thirds majority of votes. The patriarch Gregorius [Gregory] + protested, but the Sublime Porte would not thereby be deterred, + and in May, 1872, Anthimos the Exarch elect was installed. The + patriarch and his synod now stigmatized _Phyletism_, the struggle + for a national church establishment, as accursed heresy, and + excommunicated the exarch and the whole Bulgarian church. Only + the patriarch Cyril of Jerusalem dissented, but he was on that + account on his return home treated with indignity and abuse and + was deposed by a synod at Jerusalem. + + § 207.4. =The Armenian Church.=--To the Gregorian-Armenian + patriarch at Constantinople (§ 64, 3), equally with his orthodox + colleague (§ 67, 7), had been assigned by the Sublime Porte + civil jurisdiction as well as the primacy over all members + of his church in the Turkish empire. When now in 1830, at the + instigation of France, an independent patriarchate with equal + rights was granted to the United Armenians (§ 72, 2), the + twofold dependence on the Porte and on the Roman curia created + difficulties, which in the meantime were overcome by giving the + patriarch, who as a Turkish official exercised civil jurisdiction, + a primacy with the title of archbishop as representative of the + pope. The United Armenians, like the other united churches of + the East, had from early times enjoyed the liberty of using their + ancient liturgy, their old ecclesiastical calendar, and their + own church constitution with free election of their bishops and + patriarchs, and these privileges were left untouched down to 1866. + But when in that year the Armenian Catholic patriarch died, + the archbishop Hassun was elected patriarch, and then a fusion + of the two ecclesiastical powers was brought about, which was + expected to lead to absolute and complete subjection under + papal jurisdiction and perfect assimilation with the Romish + constitution and liturgy, at the same time Hassun with a view + to securing a red hat showed himself eager and zealous in this + business. By the bull _Reversurus_ of 1867 Pius IX. claimed the + right of nominating the patriarchs of all united churches of + the East, of confirming bishops chosen by these patriarchs, in + cases of necessity even choosing these himself, and deciding + all appeals regarding church property. But the Mechitarists of + St. Lazzaro (§ 164, 2) had already discovered the intriguing + designs of France and made these known among their countrymen + in Turkey. These now, while Monsignore Hassun was engaged + combating the infallibility dogma at the Vatican Council of + 1870, drove out his creatures and constituted themselves into + a church independent of Rome, without however, joining the + Gregorian-Armenians. The influence of France being meanwhile + crippled by the Prussian victory, the Porte acquiesced in + the accomplished fact, confirmed the appointment of the newly + chosen patriarch Kupelian, and refused to yield to the pope’s + remonstrances and allocutions. In 1874, however, it also + recognised the Hassun party as an independent ecclesiastical + community, but assigned the church property to the party of + Kupelian, and banished Hassun as a fomenter of disturbance, from + the capital. The hearty sympathies which on the outbreak of the + Russo-Turkish war the Roman curia expressed so loudly and openly + for the victory of the crescent over the schismatic Russian cross, + made the Sublime Porte again regard the Hassunites with favour, + so that Hassun in September, 1877, returned to Constantinople, + where the churches were given over to his party and a great + number of the Kupelianists were won over to his side. He was + eagerly aided not only by the French but also by the Austrian + ambassador, and the patriarch Kupelian, now sorely persecuted + from every side, at last resigned his position and went in March, + 1879, to Rome to kneel as a penitent before the pope. By an irade + of the sultan, Hassun was now formally restored, and in 1880 he + was adorned with a red hat by Leo XIII. Shortly before this the + last of the bishops of the opposing party, with about 30,000 + souls, had given in his submission. + + § 207.5. =The Berlin Treaty, 1878.=--Frequent and severe + oppression, refusal to administer justice, and brutal violence + on the part of the Turkish government and people toward the + defenceless vassals drove the Christian states and tribes of + the Balkan peninsula in 1875 into a rebellion of desperation, + which was avenged, especially in Bulgaria in 1876, by + scandalous atrocities upon the Christians. When the half-hearted + interference of European diplomacy called forth instead of actual + reforms only the mocking sham of a pretended free representative + constitution, Russia held herself under obligation in 1877 to + avenge by arms the wrongs of her brethren by race and creed, but + owing to the threats of England and Austria could not fully reap + the fruits of her dearly bought victory as had been agreed upon + in the Treaty of San Stefano. By the =Berlin Conference=, however, + of 1878 the principalities of Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro, + hitherto under the suzerainty of Turkey, were declared + independent, and to them, as well as to Greece, at the cost of + Turkey, a considerable increase of territory was granted, the + portion between the Balkans and the Danube was formed into the + Christian principality of Bulgaria under Turkish suzerainty, but + East Roumelia, south of the Balkans, now separated from Bulgaria, + obtained the rank of an autonomous province with a Christian + governor-general. To Thessaly, Epirus, and Crete were granted + administrative reforms and throughout the European territory + left to the Porte it was stipulated that full religious and + political rights be granted to members of all confessions. + The administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina was given over + to Austria, and that of Cyprus, by means of a separate treaty, + to England. The greater part of Armenia, lying in Asia, belongs + to Russia. + + + § 208. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.[564] + + The Republic of the United States of America, existing since the +Declaration of Independence in 1776, and recognised by England as +independent since the conclusion of Peace in 1783, requires of her +citizens no other religious test than belief in one God. Since the +settlers had often left their early homes on account of religious +matters, the greatest variety of religious parties were gathered +together here, and owing to their defective theological training +and their practical turn of mind, they afforded a fruitful field +for religious movements of all sorts, among which the revivals +systematically cultivated by many denominations play a conspicuous +part. The government does not trouble itself with religious questions, +and lets every denomination take care of itself. Preachers are therefore +wholly dependent on their congregations, and are frequently liable to +dismissal at the year’s end. Yet they form a highly respected class, +and nowhere in the Protestant world is the tone of ecclesiastical +feeling and piety so prevailingly high. In the public schools, which are +supported by the State, religious instruction is on principle omitted. +The Lutheran and Catholic churches have therefore founded parochial +schools; the other denominations seek to supply the want by Sunday +schools. The candidates for the ministry are trained in colleges and +in numerous theological seminaries. + + § 208.1. =English Protestant Denominations.=--The numerous + Protestant denominations belong to two great groups, English + and German. Of the first named the following are by far the most + important: + + 1. =The Congregationalists= are the descendants of the Pilgrim + Fathers who emigrated in 1620 (§ 143, 4). They profess the + doctrines of the Westminster Confession (§ 155, 1). + + 2. =The Presbyterians=, of Scotch origin, have the same + confession as the Congregationalists, but differ from them + by having a common church government with strict Synodal + and Presbyterial constitution. By rejecting the doctrine of + predestination the Cumberland Presbyterians in 1810 formed + a separate body and have since grown so as to embrace in the + south-western states 120,000 communicants. + + 3. =The Anglican Episcopal Church= is equally distinguished + by moderate and solid churchliness. Even here, however, + Puseyism has entered in and the Romish church has made + many proselytes. But when at the general conference of the + Evangelical Alliance at New York in 1873, bishop Cummins + of Kentucky took part in the administration of the Lord’s + Supper in the Presbyterian church and was violently attacked + for this by his Puseyite brethren, he laid the foundation + of a “Reformed Episcopal Church,” in which secession other + twenty-five Episcopal ministers joined. They regard the + episcopal constitution as an old and wholesome ordinance + but not a divine institution, also the Anglican liturgy + and _Book of Common Prayer_, though capable of improvement, + while they recognise the ordinations of other evangelical + churches as valid, and reject as Puseyite the doctrine of + a special priesthood of the clergy, of a sacrifice in the + eucharist, the presence of the body and blood of Christ in + the elements, and of the essential and invariable connection + between regeneration and baptism. + + 4. =The Episcopal Methodists= in America formed since 1784 + an independent body (§ 169, 4). Their influence on the + religious life in the United States has been extraordinarily + great. They have had by far the most to do with the revivals + which from the first they have carried to a wonderful + pitch with their protracted meetings, inquiry meetings, + camp meetings, etc. They reached their climax in the camp + meetings which, under the preaching mostly of itinerant + Methodist preachers frequently in the forest under the + canopy of heaven, produced religious awakening among the + multitudes gathered from all around. Day and night without + interruption they continued praying, singing, preaching, + exhorting; all the horrors of hell are depicted, the + excitement increases every moment, penitent wrestlings with + sighs, sobs, groans, convulsions and writhings, occur on + every side; grace comes at last to view; loud hallelujahs, + thanksgivings and ascription of praise by the converted + mix with the moanings of those on “the anxious bench” + pleading for grace, etc. In San Francisco in 1874 there were + “=Baby-Revivals=,” at which children from four to twelve + years of age, who trembled with the fear of hell, sang + penitential hymns, made confession of sin, and wrote their + names on a sheet in order to engage themselves for ever + for Jesus. Since 1847 the Methodist church had been divided + into two hostile camps, a southern and a northern. The + first named tolerated slavery, while the members of the + latter were decided abolitionists and excommunicated all + slave-owners as unworthy of the name of Christian. Another + party, the Protestant Methodists, has blended the episcopal + and congregational constitution. + + 5. =The Baptists= are split up into many sects. The most + numerous are the Calvinistic Baptists. Their activity in + proselytising is equally great with their zeal for missions + to the heathen. In opposition to them the Free-Will Baptists + are Arminian and the Christian Baptists have adopted + Unitarian views.[565] + + § 208.2. =The German Lutheran Denominations.=--The German + emigration to America began in Penn’s time. In the organization + of church affairs, besides Zinzendorf and the Herrnhut + missionaries, a prominent part was taken by the pastor + Dr. Melchior Mühlenberg (died 1787), a pupil of A. H. Francke, + and the Reformed pastor Schlatter from St. Gall; the former + sent by the Halle Orphanage, the latter by the Dutch church. + The Orphanage sent many earnest preachers till rationalism broke + in upon the society. As at the same time the stream of German + emigration was checked almost completely for several decades, + and so all intercourse with the mother country ceased, crowds + of Germans, impressed by the revivals, went over to the + Anglo-American denominations, and in the German denominations + themselves along with the English language entered also English + Puritanism and Methodism. In 1815 German emigration began again + and grew from year to year. At the synod of 1857 the Lutheran + church with 3,000 pastors divided into three main divisions: + + 1. The American Lutheran church had become in language, + customs, and doctrine thoroughly Anglicised and Americanized; + Zwinglian in its doctrine of the sacraments, it was Lutheran + in scarcely anything but the name, until in its chief + seminary at Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in 1850 a reaction + set in in favour of genuine Lutheran and German tendencies. + + 2. A greatly attenuated Lutheranism with unionistic sympathies + and frequent abandonment of the German language also found + expression in the congregations of the Old Pennsylvanian + Synod. + + 3. On the other hand, the strict Lutheran church held + tenaciously to the exclusive use of the German language + and the genuine Lutheran confession. The Prussian emigration + with Grabau and the Saxon Lutheran settlers with Stephan + constituted its backbone (§ 194, 1). To them a number of + Bavarian Lutherans attached themselves who had emigrated + under the leadership of Löhe, whose missionary institute + at Neuendettelsau supplied them with pastors. The Saxon + Lutherans were meanwhile grouped together in the Missouri + Synod, which Löhe’s missionaries also joined, so that it + soon acquired much larger proportions than the Buffalo Synod + formed previously by the Prussian Lutherans under Grabau. + But very soon the two synods had a violent quarrel over + the idea of office and church which, owing to the reception + by the Missouri Synod of several parties excommunicated + by the Buffalo Synod, led to the formal breach of church + fellowship between the two parties. The Missouri Synod, with + Dr. Walther at its head, attached all importance to sound + doctrine; the clerical office was regarded as a transference + of the right of the congregation and excommunication as + a congregational not a clerical act. The Buffalo Synod, + on the other hand, in consequence of serious conflict with + pietistic elements, had been driven into an overestimation + of external order, of forms of constitution and worship, and + of the clerical office as of immediately divine authority, + and carried this to such a length as led to the dissolution + of the synod in 1877. Löhe’s friends, who had not been able + to agree with either party, formed themselves into the Synod + of Iowa, with their seminary at Wartburg under Fritschel. + On all questions debated between the synods they took + a mediating position. The Missourians, however, would + have nothing to do with them, while those of Buffalo long + maintained tolerably friendly relations with them. But the + historical view of the symbols taken by the Iowans, their + inclination toward the new development of Lutheran theology, + and above all their attitude toward biblical chiliasm, which + they wished to treat as an open question, seemed to those of + Buffalo, as well as to the Missourians, a falling away from + the church confession, and led to their excommunication by + that party also. + + In opposition to all this splitting up into sections a General + Council of the Lutheran Church in America was held in 1866, which + sought to combine all Lutheran district synods, of which twelve, + out of fifty-six, with 814 clergymen, joined it, Iowa assuming + a friendly and Missouri a distinctly hostile attitude. The + ninth assembly at Galesburg in Illinois in 1875 laid down as + its fundamental principle, “Lutheran pulpits only for Lutheran + preachers, and Lutheran altars only for Lutheran communicants.” + The native Americans, however, insisted upon exceptions being + allowed, _e.g._ in peril of death, etc. On the question of the + limits of these exceptions, however, subsequent assemblies have + not been able to agree. + + § 208.3. But also in the Synodal Conference founded and + led by the Missouri Synod, embracing five synods, doctrinal + controversies sprang up in 1860. A large number with Dr. Walther + at their head held a strict doctrine of =predestination= which + they regarded as the mark of genuine Lutheranism. God has, + they taught, chosen a definite number of men from eternity to + salvation; these shall and must be saved. Salvation in Christ + is indeed offered to all, but God secures it only for His elect, + so that they are sure of it and cannot lose it again, not indeed + _intuitu fidei_ but only according to His sovereign grace. + Even one of the elect may seem temporarily to fall from grace, + but he cannot die without returning into full possession of it. + Prof. Fritschel protested against this in 1872 as essentially + Calvinistic, and opposition also arose in the Missouri Pastoral + Conference. Prof. Asperheim, of the seminary of the Norwegian + Synod at Madison in Wisconsin, who first pronounced against it + in 1876, was deprived of his office and obliged to withdraw from + the synod. The controversy broke out in a violent form at the + conferences of about 500 pastors held at Chicago in 1880 and + at Milwaukee three months later in 1881, at the former of which + Prof. Stellhorn of Fort Wayne, at the latter Prof. Schmidt + of Madison, offered a vigorous opposition. Walther closed the + conference with the words: “You ask for war, war you shall have.” + The result was that the whole of the Ohio Synod and a large + portion of the Norwegian Wisconsin Synod, broke away from + communion with the Missouri Synod.--Walther and his adherents + went so far in their fanaticism as to pronounce not only their + American opponents but all the most distinguished Lutheran + theologians of Germany, Philippi as well as Hofmann, Luthardt + as well as Kahnis, Vilmar as well as Thomasius, Harms as well + as Zöckler, etc., bastard theologians, semipelagians, synergists + and rationalists, and to refuse church fellowship not only with + all Lutheran national churches in Europe, but also with German + Lutheran Free Churches, which did not unconditionally attach + themselves to them. These Missouri separatist communities, though + everywhere quite unimportant, are in Europe strongest in the + kingdom of Saxony; they have also a few representatives in Nassau, + Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse. + + § 208.4. =German-Reformed and other German-Protestant + Denominations.=--The German-Reformed church has its seminary + at Mercersburg in Pennsylvania. Its confession of faith is + the Heidelberg Catechism, its theology an offshoot of German + evangelical union theology, but with a distinctly positive + tendency. Although the union theology there prevailed among the + Reformed as well as the Lutherans, a German Evangelical Church + Union was formed at St. Louis in 1841 which wished to set aside + the names Reformed and Lutheran. It established a seminary at + Marthasville in Missouri. The Herrnhuters are also represented in + America. Several German Methodist sects have recently sprung up: + + 1. The “United Brethren in Christ,” with 500 preachers, founded + by a Reformed preacher Otternbein (died 1813). + + 2. The “Evangelical Communion,” commonly called + _Albrechtsleute_, founded by Jac. Albrecht, originally a + Lutheran layman, whom his own followers ordained in 1803, + with 500 or 600 preachers working zealously and carrying + on mission work also in Germany (§ 211, 1). + + 3. The Weinbrennians or Church of God, founded by an + excommunicated Reformed pastor of that name in 1839. They + carry the Methodist revivalism to the most extravagant + excess and are also fanatical opponents of infant baptism. + + § 208.5. =The Catholic Church.=--A number of English Catholics + under Lord Baltimore settled in Maryland in 1634. The little + community grew and soon filled the land. There alone in the whole + world did the Roman Catholic church though dominant proclaim + the principle of toleration and religious equality. Consequently + Protestants of various denominations crowded thither, outnumbered + the original settlers, and rewarded those who had hospitably + received them with abuse and oppression. The Catholics were + also treated in other states as idolaters and excluded from + public offices and posts of honour. Only after the Declaration + of Independence in 1783 was this changed by the sundering of the + connection of church and state and the proclamation of absolute + religious liberty. The number of Catholics was greatly increased + by numerous emigrations, specially from Ireland and Catholic + Germany. They now claim seven million members, with a cardinal + at New York, 13 archbishops, 64 bishops, about 7,000 churches and + chapels. A beautiful cathedral was erected in New York in 1879, + the immense cost of which, exceeding all expectation, was at last + defrayed by very unspiritual and unecclesiastical methods, _e.g._ + lotteries, fairs, dramatic exhibitions, concerts, and even dearly + sold kisses, etc. The Roman Catholics have also a university at + St. Louis, 80 colleges, and 300 cloisters. + + + § 209. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. + + To the predominantly Protestant North America the position of the +Roman Catholic states of South America forms a very striking contrast. +Nowhere else was the influence and power of the clergy so wide-spread +and deeply rooted, nowhere else has the depravation of Catholicism +reached such a depth of superstition, obscurantism, and fanaticism. +During the second and third decades of our century the Spanish states, +favoured by the revolutionary movement in the mother country, one +after another asserted their independence, and the Portuguese Brazil +established herself as an independent empire under the legitimate +royal prince of Portugal, Pedro I. in 1822. Although the other new +states adopted a republican constitution, they could not throw aside +the influence of the Catholic clergy and carry out the principles of +religious freedom proclaimed in their constitutions. The Catholicism of +the Creoles, half-castes, and mulattoes was of too bigoted a kind and +the power of the clergy too great to allow any such thing. Mexico went +furthest in the attempt, and Brazil, under Dom Pedro II. from 1831, +astonished the world by the vigorous measures of its government +in 1874 against the assumptions of the higher clergy.--In spite of +all hindrances a not inconsiderable number of small evangelical +congregations have been formed in Romish America, partly through +emigration and partly by evangelization. + + § 209.1. =Mexico.=--Of all the American states, Mexico, since its + independence in 1823, has been most disturbed by revolutions and + civil wars. The rich and influential clergy, possessing nearly + a half of all landed property, was the factor with which all + pretenders, presidents and rulers had to reckon. After most + of the earlier governments had supported the clergy and been + supported by them, the ultimately victorious liberal party + under president Juarez shook off the yoke in 1859. He proclaimed + absolute religious freedom, introduced civil marriage, abolished + cloisters, pronounced church possessions national property and + exiled the obstinate bishops. The clerical party now sought + and obtained foreign aid. Spain, France and England joined in + a common military convention in 1861 in supporting certain claims + of citizens repudiated by Juarez. Spain and England soon withdrew + their troops, and Napoleon III. openly declared the purpose of + his interference to be the strengthening of the Latin race and + the monarchical principle in America. At his instigation the + Austrian Grand-Duke Maximilian was elected emperor, and that + prince, after receiving the pope’s blessing in Rome, began + his reign in 1864. Distrusted by all parties as a stranger, + in difficulties with the curia and clergy because he opposed + their claims to have their most extravagant privileges restored, + shamefully left in the lurch by Napoleon from fear of the + threatening attitude of the North American Union, and then + sold and betrayed by his own general Bazaine, this noble + but unfortunate prince was at last sentenced by Juarez at a + court-martial to be shot in 1867. Juarez now maintained his + position till the end of his life in 1872, and strictly carried + out his anticlerical reforms. After his death clericalism again + raised her head, and the Jesuits expelled from Guatemala swarmed + over the land. Yet constitutional sanction was given to the + Juarez legislation at the congress of 1873. The Jesuits were + driven across the frontiers, obstinate priests as well as a great + number of nuns, who had gathered again in cloisters and received + novices, were put in prison.--Also =Evangelization= advanced + slowly under sanction of law, though regarded with disfavour + by the people and interfered with often by the mob. It began + in 1865 with the awakening of a Catholic priest Francisco + Aguilar and a Dominican monk Manuel Aguas, through the reading + of the Scriptures. They laid the foundation of the “_Iglesia + de Jesus_” of converted Mexicans, with evangelical doctrine and + apostolic-episcopal constitution, which has now 71 congregations + throughout the whole country with about 10,000 souls. This + movement received a new impulse in 1869, when a Chilian-born + Anglican episcopal minister of a Spanish-speaking congregation + in New York, called Riley, took the control of it and was in 1879 + consecrated its bishop. Besides this independent “_Church of + Jesus_” North American missionaries of various denominations + have wrought there since 1872 with slow but steady success. + + § 209.2. =In the Republics of Central and Southern America=, when + the liberal party obtained the helm of government through almost + incessant civil wars, religious freedom was generally proclaimed, + civil marriage introduced, the Jesuits expelled, cloisters shut + up, etc. But in =Ecuador=, president Moreno, aided by the clergy, + concluded in 1862 a concordat with the curia by which throughout + the country only the Catholic worship was tolerated, the bishops + could condemn and confiscate any book, education was under the + Jesuits, and the government undertook to employ the police in + suppressing all errors and compelling all citizens to fulfil all + their religious duties. And further the public resolved in 1873, + although unable to pay the interest of the national debt, to hand + over a tenth of all state revenues to the pope. But Moreno was + murdered in 1875. The Jesuits, who were out of favour, left Quito. + The tithe hitherto paid to the pope was immediately withheld, + and in 1877 the concordat was abrogated. As Ecuador in Moreno, + so =Peru= at the same time in Pierola had a dictator after the + pope’s own heart. The republic had his misgovernment to thank for + one defeat after another in the war with Chili.--=Bolivia= + in 1872 declared that the Roman Catholic religion alone would + be tolerated in the country, and suffered, in common with Peru, + annihilating defeats at the hand of Chili.--When at St. Iago in + Chili, during the festival of the Immaculate Conception in 1863, + the Jesuit church La Compania was burnt and in it more than 2,000 + women and children consumed, the clergy pronounced this disaster + an act of grace of the blessed Virgin, who wished to give the + country a vast number of saints and martyrs. But here, too, + the conflicts between church and state continued. In 1874 the + Chilian episcopate pronounced the ban against the president and + the members of the national council and of the Lower House who + had favoured the introduction of a new penal code which secured + liberty of worship, but it remained quite unheeded. When then the + archiepiscopal chair of St. Iago became vacant in 1878, the pope + refused on any condition to confirm the candidate appointed by + the government. After the decisive victory over Peru and Bolivia, + the government again in December, 1881, urgently insisted upon + their presentation. The curia now sent to Chili, avowedly to + obtain more accurate information, an apostolic delegate who + took advantage of his position to stir up strife, so that the + government was obliged to insist upon his recall. As the curia + declined to do so, his passports were sent to the legate in + January, 1883, and a presidential message was addressed to the + next congress which demanded the separation of the church and + state, with the introduction of civil marriage and register of + civil station, as the only remaining means for putting down the + confusion caused by papal tergiversation. The result of the long + and heated debates that followed was the promulgation of a law + by which Catholicism was deprived of the character of the state + religion and the perfect equality of all forms of worship was + proclaimed.--=Guatemala= in 1872 expelled the Jesuits whose power + and wealth had become very great. In 1874 the president Borrias + opened a new campaign against the clergy by forbidding them to + wear the clerical dress except when discharging the duties of + their office, and closing all the nunneries.--In =Venezuela=, in + 1872, Archbishop Guevara of Caracas, who had previously come into + collision with the government by favouring the rebels, forbade + his clergy taking part in the national festival, and put the + cathedral in which it was to be celebrated under the interdict. + Deposed and banished on this account, he continued from the + British island of Trinidad his endeavours to stir up a new + rebellion. The president, Guzman Blanco, after long fruitless + negotiations with the papal nuncio, submitted in May, 1876, to + the congress at St. Domingo the draft of a bill, which declared + the national church wholly independent of Rome. The congress + not only homologated his proposals, but carried them further, + by abolishing the episcopal hierarchy and assigning its revenues + to the national exchequer, for education. Now at last the Roman + curia agreed to the deposition of Guevara and confirmed the + nomination of his previously appointed successor. But president + Blanco now asked congress to abolish the law, and this was agreed + to.--In the United States of =Colombia= since 1853, and in the + =Argentine Republic= since 1865, perfect liberty of faith and + worship have been constitutionally secured. From the latter state + the Jesuits had been banished for a long time but had managed + to smuggle themselves in again. When in the beginning of 1875 + Archbishop Aneiros of Buenos Ayres addressed to the government + which favoured the clerical party rather than to the congress + which was the only competent court, a request to reinvest the + Jesuits with the churches, cloisters, and properties held by them + before their expulsion, a terrible outbreak took place, which + the archbishop intensified to the utmost by issuing a violent + pastoral. A mob of 30,000 men, convened by the students of the + university, wrecked the palace of the archbishop, then attacked + the Jesuit college, burnt all its furniture and ornaments on + the streets and by means of petroleum soon reduced the building + itself to flames. Only with difficulty did the military succeed + in preventing further mischief. In October, 1884, the papal + nuncio was expelled, because, when the government decidedly + refused his request to prevent the spread of Protestant teaching + and to place Sunday schools under the oversight of the bishops, + he replied in a most violent and passionate manner. About the + same time the republic of =Costa-rica= issued a law forbidding + all religious orders, pronouncing all vows invalid, and + threatening banishment against all who should contravene these + enactments, and also an education act which forbade all public + instruction apart from that provided by the State. + + § 209.3. =Brazil.=--In Brazil down to 1884, the “Catholic + Apostolic Roman Religion” was, according to the constitution, + the religion of the empire. But from 1828 there was a Protestant + congregation in Rio de Janeiro, and through the inland districts, + in consequence of immigration, there were 100 small evangelical + congregations, with twenty-five ordained pastors, whose forms + of worship were of various kinds. In earlier times Protestant + marriage was regarded as concubinage, but in 1851 a law was + passed which gave it civil recognition. But the bishops held + to their previous views and demanded of married converts a + repetition of the ceremony. Since 1870, however, the government + has energetically opposed the claims of the clergy who wished + only to acknowledge the authority of Rome. Protestant marriages + were pronounced equally legitimate with Catholic marriages, + no civil penalties are incurred by excommunication, all papal + bulls are subject to the approval of the government, and it was + insisted that announcement should be made of all clergy nominated. + The clergy considered freemasonry the chief source of all this + liberal current, and against it therefore they directed all their + forces. The pope assisted by his brief of May, 1873, condemning + freemasonry. At the head of the rebel prelates stood Don + Vitalis Gonsalvez de Oliveira, bishop of Olinda and Pernambuco. + He published the papal brief without asking the imperial + permission, pronounced the ban upon all freemasons and suspended + the interdict over all associations which refused to expel + masonic brothers from their membership. In vain the government + demanded its withdrawal. It then accused him of an attack + upon the constitution. The supreme court ordered his detention, + and he was placed in the state prison at Rio de Janeiro in + January, 1874. The trial ended by his being sentenced to four + years’ imprisonment, which the emperor as an act of grace + commuted to detention in a fortress, and set him free in a + year and a half. In consequence of this occurrence the Jesuits + were, in 1874, expelled from the country. The increasing advent + of monks and nuns from Europe led the government, in 1884, to + appoint a commission to carry out the law already passed in 1870, + for the secularization of all monastic property after providing + pensions for those entitled to support. In the same year all + naturalized non-Catholics were pronounced eligible for election + to the imperial parliament and to the provincial assemblies. The + members belonging to the evangelical churches now number about + 50,000, of whom 30,000 are Germans.[566] + + + + + V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity. + + + § 210. SECTARIANS AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC + AND ORTHODOX RUSSIAN DOMAINS. + + It cannot be denied that since the Tridentine attempt to define +the church doctrine far fewer sects condemning the church as such +have sprung from Roman Catholicism than from Protestantism. Yet such +phenomena are not wanting in the nineteenth century. Their scarcity +is abundantly made up for by the numberless degenerations and errors +(§ 191) which the Catholic church or its representatives in the +higher and lower grades of the clergy not only fell into, but actually +provoked and furthered, and thus encouraged an unhealthy love for +religious peculiarities. Were the absence of new heretical, sectarian +and fanatical developments something to be gloried in for itself alone, +the Eastern church, with its absolute stability, would obtain this +distinction in a far higher degree. In the Russian church, however, +the multitude of sects which amid manifold oppressions and persecutions +continue to exist to the present day, in spite of many persistent and +even condemnable errors, witnesses to a deep religious need in the +Russian people. + + § 210.1. =Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain= + (§ 187, 6-8, § 190).--On the Catholic Irvingites see § 211, 10. + + 1. =The Order of New Templars= sprang from the Freemasons + (§ 172, 2). Soon after their establishment in France the + Jesuits sought to carry out their own hierarchical ideas. + The fable of an uninterrupted connection between freemasonry + as a “temple of humanity” and the Templars of the Middle + Ages, and the introduction therewith in their secret + ceremonies of exercises, borrowed from the chivalry of + romance, afforded a means toward this end. The idea was + started in the Jesuit college at Claremont and was approved + and accepted by the local lodge. In A.D. 1754 a great + number of their noble members, who were disgusted with the + Jesuit templar farce, withdrew in order as “New Templars” + to continue the old order in the spirit of modern times. In + consequence, however, of the revolution that broke out in + A.D. 1789 they could no longer hold their ground as a band + of nobles. Napoleon favoured the reorganization of the order + freed from those limits. The day of Molay’s death (§ 112, 7) + was publicly celebrated with great pomp in Paris, A.D. 1808 + and the order spread among all French populations. On the + Bourbon restoration the grand-master was, at the instigation + of the Jesuits, cast into prison and the order suppressed. + After the July revolution he was liberated and a new temple + was opened in Paris in A.D. 1833. The show-loving Parisians + for a long time took pleasure in the peculiar rites and + costume of the templars. When this interest declined the + order passed out of view. Its religion, which professed + to be a primitive revelation carried down in the Greek and + Egyptian mysteries, from which Moses borrowed, then further + developed by Christ and transmitted in esoteric tradition by + John and his successors the grand-masters of the templars, + taught a divine trinity of being, act and consciousness, the + eternity of the world alongside of God and an indwelling of + God in man. It declared the Roman Catholic church to be the + only true Christianity (_église chrétienne primitive_). Its + sacred book consisted of an apocryphal gospel of John in + accordance with its own notions. + + 2. On the communistic society of =St. Simonians=, which also + sprang up in France, see § 212, 2. + + 3. St. Simon’s secretary was =Aug. Comte=, the founder of the + Positivist philosophical school (§ 174, 2) and he maintained + intimate relations with his master all through life. In + his later years he undertook by carrying his philosophical + doctrine into the practical domain to sketch out a “religion + of humanity,” and thus became the founder of a Positivist + religious sect. The men of science indeed who had adopted + his philosophical principles (Littré, Renan, Taine, Lewes, + Leslie Stephens, Tyndall, Huxley, Draper, etc.), repudiate + it; but in the middle and lower ranks some were found + longing for an object of worship, who endeavoured on the + basis of his _Calendrier positiviste_ and _Catechisme + positiviste_ to form a religious society for the worship + of humanity. His festival calendar divides the year into + thirteen months of four weeks each, named after the thirteen + great benefactors of mankind (among whom Christ does not + appear), while the weeks are named after lesser heroes. By + the profound veneration of woman, which savours greatly of + Mariolatry, as well as by the fantastic worship of heroes, + geniuses and scholars, which is a mimicry of the popish + saint worship, and by the adoption of a sacerdotalism like + that of Catholicism, this religion of humanity shows itself + to be an antichristian growth on Roman Catholic soil. + + § 210.2. + + 4. =Thomas Pöschl=, in the second decade of the century, + presents an instance of a degeneration of originally + pietistic tendencies into mischievous fanaticism. A + Catholic priest at Ampfelwang near Linz, he sought under + the influence of Sailer’s mysticism to awaken in his + congregation a more lively Christianity by means of + prayer meetings and the circulation of tracts, in which + he proclaimed the approaching end of the world. When the + district in which he lived was, in 1814, attached to Austria, + he was committed to prison, and his followers accepted as + their leader the peasant =Jos. Haas=, who led them further + still into fanatical excesses. His fanaticism at length went + so far that on Good Friday of 1817 a young maiden belonging + to their party suffered a voluntary death after the example + of Christ for her brothers and sisters. Pöschl professed the + deepest horror at this cruel deed for which he was blamed. + He died in close monastic confinement in 1837. + + 5. The Antinomian sect of the =Antonians=, most numerous in + the Canton Bern, had its beginning among the Roman Catholics. + Its founder was Antoni Unternährer, born and reared at + Shüpfheim, near Lucerne, in the Catholic faith. From 1802 + he resided at Amfoldingen, near Thun, where he stood in + high repute among the peasants as a quack doctor, gave + himself out as the son of God a second time become man, and + proclaimed by word and writing the perfect redemption from + the curse of the law by the introduction of the true freedom + of the sons of God, which was to show itself first of all + in the absolutely unrestricted intercourse of the sexes. + After two years’ confinement in a house of correction he was + banished from the Canton Bern and transported to his native + place, where, abandoning all pastoral duties, he died in a + police cell in 1814. The sect, which had meanwhile spread + widely, and at Gsteig near Interlaken had obtained a new + leader in the person of Benedict Schori, a third incarnation + of Christ, could not be finally suppressed, notwithstanding + the liberal use of the prison, till the beginning of 1840. + Even at this day scattered remnants of Antonians are to be + found in Canton Bern. + + 6. When the Austrian constitution of 1849 gave unconditional + religious toleration, the Bohemian =Adamites= (§ 115, 5), + of whom remnants under the mask of Catholicism had continued + down to the nineteenth century, ventured again publicly + to engage in proselytising efforts. An official enquiry + instituted on this occasion declared that the sect, + consisting of Bohemian peasants and artisans, had its + headquarters among the mystics of the Krüdener school, + that its religious doctrine was a mixture of communism, + freethinking and quietism, and that its members were in + their ordinary public life blameless, but that in their + secret nightly assemblies, where they dispensed with + clothes, they celebrated orgies regardless of marriage + or relationship. + + 7. =David Lazzaretti=, formerly a carrier in Tuscany, + appeared in his native place after an absence of several + years, in 1872, declaring that he was descended from a + natural son of Charlemagne and had been entrusted by the + Apostle Peter with a message to the pope, pointing to a + cross that had been burnt upon his brow by the apostle + himself. He startled those of the Vatican, where he was + quite unknown, by declaring that the bones of his ancestors + lay under the ruins of an old Franciscan cloister in Sabina, + of whose existence nobody was aware, the discovery of + which seemed to vouch for his claims. These were all the + more readily admitted when it was found that he made the + restoration of the Pope’s temporal power his main task. The + number of his adherents, mostly peasants, soon increased + immensely, reaching, it is said, 40,000. On Monte Labro they + built a church with a strong “David’s Tower,” over which + “St. David” appointed two priests who, when they had made + certain changes in worship at the call of the prophet, were + excommunicated by the bishop. David now began to spread + his socialistic and communistic ideas. He insisted that + his adherents should surrender their goods to him as + representative of the society, and promised down to + December 31st, 1890, the introduction of community of goods + throughout Italy and afterwards in other countries. In + Arcidosso, the prophet’s birthplace, a beginning was to be + made, but in its overthrow on August 18th, 1878, he met his + death, and his befooled followers waited in vain for the + fulfilment of his dying promise that he would rise again + on the third day. + + § 210.3. =Russian Sects and Fanatics.=--After the attempt under + Nicholas I. at the forcible conversion of the =Raskolniks=, + especially the purely schismatic =Starowerzians= or Old Believers + (§ 163, 10), had proved fruitless, the government of Alexander II. + by patience and concession took a surer way to reconciliation and + restoration. In October, 1874, their marriages, births and deaths, + which had hitherto been without legal recognition, were put on + the regular register and so their lawful rights of inheritance + were secured. Under Alexander III. in 1883 an imperial decree was + issued, which gave them permission to celebrate divine service + after their own methods in their chapels, which had not before + the legal standing of churches, and declared them also eligible + for public appointments.--To the =Duchoborzians= (§ 166, 2), + sorely oppressed under Catherine II. and Paul I., Alexander I., + after they had laid before him the confession which they had + adopted, granted toleration, but assigned them a separate + residence in the Taurus district. Under Nicholas I. they were to + the number of 3,000 transported to the Transcaucasian mountains + in 1841, where they were called Duchoborje.--The Württemberg + Pietist colonists of South Russia originated among the peasants + the widespread sect of the =Stundists= soon after the abolition + of serfdom in 1863. The originator of those separatist meetings + for the study of Scripture, which led first of all to the + condemnation of image worship and making the sign of the cross + as unbiblical, and subsequently to a complete withdrawal from the + worship of the orthodox church and the forming of conventicles, + was the peasant and congregational elder Ratusny of Osnowa near + Odessa, to whom, at a later period, with equal propagandist zeal, + the peasant Balabok attached himself. The latter was, in 1871, + sentenced to one year’s imprisonment at Kiev and the loss + of civil rights, and in 1873, at Odessa, a great criminal + prosecution was instituted against Ratusny and all the other + leaders of the sect, which, however, after proceeding for five + years ended in a verdict of acquittal. A process started in 1878 + against the so-called =Schaloputs= had a similar issue. This sect, + spread most widely among the Cossacks of Cuban, rejects the Old + Testament, the sacraments and the doctrine of the resurrection, + but believes in a continued effusion of the Holy Spirit upon the + prophets of the church who have prepared themselves for their + vocation by complete abstinence from flesh and spirituous liquor + as well as by incessant prayer and frequent fasting. + + § 210.4. About the middle of the eighteenth century among the + “_Men of God_,” the strict interpretation of the prescriptions of + their founder Danila Filipow (§ 163, 10) had led many to abstain + wholly from sexual relations; when a peasant Andrew Selivanov + appeared as a reformer and founded the sect of the =Skopzen= + or mutilators, who, building on misinterpreted passages of + Scripture (Matt. v. 28-30, xix. 12; Rev. xiv. 4) insisted upon + the destruction of sexual desire by castration and excision of + the female breasts, generally performed under anæsthetics, as a + necessary condition of entrance into the kingdom of heaven. The + first Skopzic congregation was gathered round him in the village + of Sosnowka. The “men of God” enraged at his success denounced + him to the government. He was punished with the knout and + condemned in 1774 to hard labour at Irkutzk. The idea that + Peter III., who died in 1762, was still alive, then widely + prevailed. The “men of God” had also adopted this opinion, + and proclaimed him their last-appearing Christ, who would soon + return from his hiding-place to call to account all unbelievers. + Selivanov, who knew of this, now gave himself out for the exiled + monarch, and was accepted as such by his adherents in his native + place. When Paul I., Peter’s son, assumed the reins of government + in 1796, a Skopzic merchant of Moscow told him secretly that his + father was living at Irkutzk under the name of Selivanov. The + emperor therefore brought him to Petersburg and shut him up as an + imbecile in an asylum. After Paul’s death, however, his adherents + obtained his release. He now lived for eighteen years in honour + at Petersburg, till in 1820 the court again interfered and had + him confined in a cloister at Suzdal, where after some years + he died. Sorely persecuted by Nicholas I. many of his followers + migrated to Moldavia and Walachia where they, dwelling in + separate quarters at Jassy, Bucharest and Galatz, lived as owners + of coach-hiring establishments, and by rich presents obtained + proselytes. Still more vigorously was the propaganda carried on + in the Moscow colonies on the Sea of Azov. There in Morschansk + lived the spiritual head of all Russian Skopzen, the rich + merchant Plotizyn. After the government got on the track of + this society, Plotizyn’s house was searched and a correspondence + revealing the wide extension of the sect was found, together with + a treasure of several, some say as much as thirty, millions of + roubles, which, however, in great part again disappeared in a + mysterious manner. Plotizyn and his companions were banished + to Siberia and sentenced to hard labour, the less seriously + implicated to correction in a cloister.--The secret doctrine of + the Skopzen so far as is known is as follows: God had intended + man to propagate not by sexual intercourse but by a holy kiss. + They broke this command and this constituted the fall. In the + fulness of time God sent his Son into the world. The central + point of his preaching transmitted to us in a greatly distorted + form was the introduction of the baptism of fire (Matt. iii. 11), + _i.e._ mutilation by hot irons for which, in consideration + of human weakness, a baptism of castration may be substituted + (Matt. xix. 12). Origen is regarded by them as the greatest saint + of the ancient church; to his example all saints conformed who + are represented as beardless or with only a slight beard. The + promised return of the Christ (in this alone diverging from the + doctrine of the “men of God”), took place in the person of the + emperor Peter III. whom an unstained virgin bore, who was called + the empress Elizabeth Petrovna. The latter after some years + transferred the government to a lady of the court resembling her + and retired into private life under the name of Akulina Ivanovna, + where she still remains invisible behind golden walls, waiting + for the things that are to come. Her son Peter III., who had + also himself undergone the baptism of fire, escaped the snares of + his wife, reappeared under the name of Selivanov, performed many + miracles and converted multitudes, obtained as a reward the knout, + and was at last sent to Siberia. Emperor Paul recalled him and + was converted by him. Under Alexander I. he was again arrested + and imprisoned in the cloister of Suzdal. But he was conveyed + thence by a divine miracle to Irkutzk, where he now lives in + secret, whence at his own time he shall return to judge the + living and the dead.--They kept up an outward connection with the + state church although they regarded it as the apocalyptic whore + of Babylon. In their own secret services inspired psalms were + sung, and after exciting dances prophecies were uttered.[567] + + + § 211. SECTARIES AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. + + The United States of America with their peculiar constitution formed +the favourite ground for the gathering and moulding of sects during +this age. There, besides the older colonies of Quakers, Baptists and +Methodists from England, we meet with Swedenborgianism and Unitarianism, +while Baptists and Methodists began to send missionaries into Europe, +and from England the Salvation Army undertook a campaign for the +conquest of the world. But also on the European continent independent +fanatical developments made their appearance.--A new combination of +communism with religious enthusiasm is represented by the Harmonists and +by the Perfectionists in North America. The Grusinian Separatists and +the Bavarian Chiliasts are millenarians of German extraction, of whom +the former sought deliverance from the prevailing antichristian spirit +in removal from, and the latter in removal to, South Russia. The +Amen churches sought to gather God’s people of the Jewish Christian +communities together in Palestine, while the so-called German Temple +sought to gather the Gentile Christians. As Latter Day Saints, besides +the Adventists, the Darbyites established themselves on an independent +basis; the Irvingites, with revival of the apostolic offices and +charisms, and their American caricature, the Mormons, with the addition +of socialistic and fantastic gnostic tendencies. The religion of the +Taiping rebellion in China presented the rare phenomenon of a national +Chinese Christianity of native growth, and a still rarer manifestation +is met with in American-European spiritualism with pretended spirit +revelations from the other world. + + § 211.1. =The Methodist Propaganda.=--From 1850 the American + Methodists, both the Albrechtsleute (§ 208, 4) and the Episcopal + Methodists, have sent out numerous missionaries, mostly Germans + into Germany, whose zeal has won considerable success among + the country people. In North-West Germany Bremen is their chief + station, whence they have spread to Sweden, Central and Southern + Germany, and Switzerland, and have stations in Frankfort, + Carlsruhe, Heilbronn, and Zürich.--Of a more evanescent character + was the attempt made on Germany by the so-called =Oxford Holiness + Movement=. In 1866 the North American Methodists celebrated their + centenary in New York by the appointment of a great revival and + holiness committee, in which were also members of many other + denominations. Among them the manufacturer, =Pearsall Smith=, of + Philadelphia, converted in 1871, exhibited extraordinary zeal. In + September, 1874, he held at Oxford great revival meetings, from + which the designation of the Oxford movement had its origin. By + some Germans there present his opinions were carried to Germany. + In spring, 1875, he began his second European missionary tour. + While his two companions, the revivalists Moody and Sankey, + travelled through England for the conversion of the masses, Smith + went to Germany, and proceeding from Berlin on to Switzerland, + gave addresses in English, that were interpreted, in ten of the + large cities. The most pious among clergy and laity flocked from + far and near to hear him. The new apostle’s journey became more + and more a triumphal march. He was lauded as a reformer called + to complete the work of Luther; as a prophet, who was to fructify + the barren wastes of Germany with the water of life. The core of + his doctrine was: Perfect holiness and the attainment of absolute + perfection, not hereafter, but now! now! now! with the constant + refrain: “_Jesus saves me now_;” not remission of sins through + justification by faith in the atoning efficacy of Christ’s blood, + which only avails for outward sinful actions, but immediate + extinction of sins by Christ in us, proved in living, unfaltering, + inner, personal experience, etc. By a great international and + interconfessional meeting at Brighton, lasting for ten days, in + June, 1875, at which many German pastors, induced by the payment + of travelling expenses, were present, the crown was put upon + the work. But at the height of his triumph, under the daily + increasing tension and excitement the apostle of holiness showed + himself to be a poor sinful son of man, for he strayed into + errors, “if not practically, at least theoretically,” which his + admirers at first referred to mental aberration, but which they + hid from the eyes of the world under a veil of mystery. Toward + the end of the Brighton conference he declared to his hearers: + “Thus plunge into a life of divine unconcern!” and, “All Europe + lies at my feet.” And in subsequent private conversations he + developed a system of ethics that “would suit Utah rather than + England,” to which he then so conformed his own conduct that + his admirers, “although satisfied of the purity of his own + intentions,” were obliged energetically to repudiate and with + all speed send away across the sea the man whom their own + unmeasured adulation had deceived. + + § 211.2. =The Salvation Army.=--An extremely fantastic caricature + of English Methodism is the =Salvation Army=. The Methodist + evangelist, =William Booth=, who in 1865 founded in one of the + lowest quarters of London a new mission station, fell upon the + idea in 1878, in order to make an impression on the rude masses, + to give his male and female helpers a military organisation, + discipline and uniform, and with military banners and music + to undertake a campaign against the kingdom of the devil. The + General of the Salvationists is Booth himself, his wife is his + adjutant, his eldest daughter field-marshal; his fellow-workers + male and female are his soldiers, cadets and officers of various + ranks; chief of the staff is Booth’s eldest son. Their services + are conducted according to military forms; their orchestra of + trombone, drum and trumpet is called the Hallelujah Brass Band. + Their journal, with an issue of 400,000, is the _War Cry_; + another for children, is _The Little Soldier_, in which Jane, + four years old, dilates on the experiences of her inner life; and + Tommy, eleven years old, is sure that, having served the devil + for eleven years, he will now fight for King Jesus; and Lucy, + nine years old, rejoices in being washed in the blood of the Lamb. + The army attained its greatest success in England. Its numerous + “prisoners of war” from the devil’s army (prostitutes, drunkards, + thieves, etc.) are led at the parade as trophies of war, and + tell of their conversion, whereupon the command of the general, + “Fire a Volley,” calls forth thousands of hallelujahs. Liberal + collections and unsought contributions, embracing several + donations of a £1,000 and more, are given to the General, not + only to pay his soldiers, but also to rent or to purchase and fit + up theatres, concert halls, circuses, etc., for their meetings, + and to build large new “barracks.” Its wonderful success has + secured for the army many admirers and patrons, even in the + highest ranks of society. Queen Victoria herself testified to + Mrs. Booth her high satisfaction with her noble work. At the + Convocation, too, in the Upper as well as the Lower House, + distinguished prelates spoke favourably of its methods and + results, and so encouraged the formation of a Church Army, which, + under the direction of the mission preacher Aitken, pursues + similar ways to those of the Salvation Army, without, however, + its spectacular displays, and has lately extended its exertions + to India. The temperance party after the same model has formed a + Blue Ribbon Army, the members of which, distinguished by wearing + a piece of blue ribbon in the buttonhole, confine themselves + to fighting against alcohol. In opposition to it public-house + keepers and their associates formed a Yellow Ribbon Army, which + has as its ensign the yellow silk bands of cigar bundles. Soon + after the first great success of the Salvation Army, a Skeleton + Army was formed out of the lowest dregs of the London mob, + which, with a banner bearing the device of a skeleton, making + a noise with all conceivable instruments, and singing obscene + street songs to sacred melodies, interrupted the marches of the + Salvation, and afterwards of the Church, Army: throwing stones, + filthy rotten apples and eggs, and even storming and demolishing + their “barracks.”--In 1880 a detachment of the Salvation + Army, with Railton at its head, assisted by seven Hallelujah + Lasses, made a first campaign in America, with New York as + its head-quarters. In the following year, under Miss Booth, it + invaded France, where it issues a daily bulletin, “_En Avant_.” + In 1882 it appeared in Australia, then in India, where Chunder + Sen, the founder of the Brama-Somaj, showed himself favourable. + In Switzerland it broke ground in 1882, in Sweden in 1884, and + in Germany, at Stuttgart, in November, 1886. Africa, Spain, Italy, + etc., followed in succession. These foreign corps outside of + England also found considerable success. Almost everywhere they + met with opposition, the magistrates often forbidding their + meetings, and inflicting fines and imprisonment, and the mob + resorting to all sorts of violent interference. Nowhere were both + sorts of opponents so persistent as in Switzerland in 1883 and + 1884, especially in Lausanne, Geneva, Neuenburg, Bern, Beil, etc. + Although General Booth himself at the annual meeting in April, + 1884, boasted that £393,000 had been collected during the past + year for the purposes of the army, and over 846 barracks in + eighteen countries of the world had been opened, and now even + spoke of strengthening the army by establishing a Salvation Navy, + the increasing extravagances caused by the army itself, as well + as the far greater improprieties of those more or less associated + with it, has drawn away many of its former supporters. + + § 211.3. =Baptists and Quakers.=--=Baptist= sympathies + and tendencies often appeared in Germany apart from an + anti-ecclesiastical pietism or mysticism. But this aberration + first assumed considerable proportions when a Hamburg merchant, + Oncken, who had been convinced by his private Bible reading of + the untenableness of infant baptism, was baptized by an American + baptist in 1834, and now not only founded the first German + baptist congregation in Hamburg, but also proved unwearied in + his efforts to extend the sect over all Germany and Scandinavia + by missions and tract distribution. Oncken died in 1884. Thus + gradually there were formed about a hundred new Baptist German + congregations in Mecklenburg, Brandenburg (Berlin), Pomerania, + Silesia, East Prussia (Memel, Tilsit, etc.), Westphalia, + Wupperthal, Hesse, Württemberg and Switzerland. In Sweden + (250 congregations with 18,000 souls) they were mainly recruited + from the “Readers,” who after 1850 went over in crowds (§ 201, 2). + They also found entrance into Denmark and Courland, but in + all cases almost exclusively among the uncultured classes + of labourers and peasants. After long but vain attempts at + suppression by the governments during the reactionary period + of 1850, they obtained under the liberal policy of the next two + decades more or less religious toleration in most states. They + called themselves the society of “baptized Christians,” and + maintained that they were “the visible church of the saints,” + the chosen people of God, in contrast to the “hereditary + church and the church of all and sundry,” in which they saw the + apocalyptic Babylon. Even the Mennonites who “sprinkle,” instead + of immersing, “all,” _i.e._ without proper sifting, they regard + as a “hereditary” church. With the Anglo-American Baptists they + do indeed hold fellowship, but take exception to them in several + points, especially about open communion.--A peculiar order of + Baptists has arisen in Hungary in the =Nazarenes= or Nazirites, + or as they call themselves: “Followers of Christ.” Founded + in 1840 by Louis Henefey originally a Catholic smith, who had + returned home from Switzerland, the sect obtained numerous + adherents from all three churches, most largely from the Reformed + church, favoured perhaps by the not yet altogether extinguished + reminiscences of the Baptist persecutions of the eighteenth + century (§ 163, 2). They practised strict asceticism, refused + to take oaths or engage in military service, and kept the bare + Puritan forms of worship, in which any one was allowed to preach + whom the Holy Spirit enlightened. Their congregations embraced + weak and strong friends, and also weak and strong brethren. + The strong friends after receiving baptism joined the ranks of + weak brethren, and then again became strong brethren on their + admission to the Lord’s Supper. The church officers were singers, + teachers, evangelists, elders, and bishops.--In North America + =Quakerism=, under the influence of increasing material + prosperity, had lost much of its primitive strictness in life + and manners. The more lax were styled _Wet-_, and their more + rigorous opponents _Dry-Quakers_. Enthusiasm over the American + War of Independence of 1776-1783, spreading in their ranks, led + to further departures from the rigid standard of early times. + Those who took weapons in their hands were designated _Fighting + Quakers_. The General Assembly disapproved but tolerated these + departures; neither the Wet nor the Fighting Quakers were + excommunicated, but they were not allowed any part in the + government of the community. In 1822 a party appeared among + them, led by Elias Hicks, which carried the original tendency of + Quakerism to separate itself from historical Christianity so far + as to deny the divinity of Christ, and to allow no controlling + authority to Scripture in favour of the unrestricted sway + of reason and conscience. This departure from the traditions + of Quakerism, however, met with vigorous opposition, and the + protesting party, known as _Evangelical Friends_, pronounced more + decidedly than ever for the authority of Scripture. In England, + notwithstanding the wealth and position of its adherents, + Quakerism, since the second half of the eighteenth century, has + suffered a slow but steady decrease, while even in America, to + say the least, no advance can be claimed. In Holland, Friesland, + and Holstein, Quaker missionaries had found some success + among the Mennonites, without, however, forming any separate + communities. In 1786 some English Quakers succeeded in winning + a small number of proselytes in Hesse, who in 1792, under the + protection of the prince of Waldeck, formed a little congregation + at Friedersthal, near Pyrmont, which still maintains its + existence.--On the sects of Jumpers and Shakers, variously + related to primitive, fanatical Quakerism, see § 170, 7.[568] + + § 211.4. =Swedenborgians and Unitarians.=--In the nineteenth + century =Swedenborgianism= has found many adherents. In England, + Scotland and North America the sect has founded many missionary + and tract societies. In Württemberg the procurator Hofacker + and the librarian Tafel, partly by editions and translations of + the writings of Swedenborg, partly by their own writings, were + specially zealous in vindicating and spreading their views. A + general conference of all the congregations in Great Britain and + Ireland in 1828 published a confession of faith and catechism, + and thirteen journals (three English, seven American, Tafel’s + in German, one Italian and one Swedish) represent the interests + of the party. The liberal spirit of modern times has in various + directions introduced modifications in its doctrine. Its + Sabellian opposition to the church doctrine of the Trinity + and its Pelagian opposition to the doctrine of justification, + have been retained, and its spiritualising of eschatological + ideas has been intensified, but the theosophical magical + elements have been wholly set aside and scarcely any reference + is ever made to revelations from the other world.--From early + times the =Unitarians= had a well ordered and highly favoured + ecclesiastical institution in Transylvania (§ 163, 1). But in + England the law still threatened them with a death sentence. This + law had not indeed for a long time been carried into effect, and + in 1813 it was formally abrogated. There are now in England about + 400 small Unitarian congregations with some 300,000 souls. The + famous chemist Jos. Priestly may be regarded as the founder of + North American Unitarianism (§ 171, 1), although only after his + death in 1804 did the movement which he represented spread widely + through the country. Then in a short time hundreds of Unitarian + congregations were formed. Their most celebrated leaders were + W. Ellery Channing, who died in 1842, and Theodore Parker, who + died in 1860, both of Boston. + + § 211.5. =Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations.=--The English + woman Johanna Southcote declared that she was the “woman in the + sun” of Revelation xii. or the Lamb’s wife. In 1801 she came + forth with her prophecies. Her followers, the =New Israelites= or + Sabbatarians, so called because they observed the Old Testament + law of the Sabbath, founded a chapel in London for their worship. + A beautiful cradle long stood ready to receive the promised + Messiah, but Johanna died in 1814 without giving birth to him.--A + horrible occurrence, similar to that recorded in § 210, 2, took + place some years later, in 1823, in the village of Wildenspuch in + Canton Zürich. =Margaret Peter=, a peasant’s daughter, excited by + morbid visions in early youth, was on this account expelled from + Canton Aargau, and was carried still farther in the direction + of extreme mysticism by the vicar John Ganz, by whom she was + introduced to Madame de Krüdener (§ 176, 2). Amid continual + heavenly visions and revelations, as well as violent conflicts + with the devil and his evil spirits, she gathered a group of + faithful followers, by whom she was revered as a highly gifted + saint, among them a melancholy shoemaker, Morf, whom Ganz + introduced to her. The spiritual love relationship between the + two in an unguarded hour took a sensual form and led to the + birth of a child, which Morf’s forbearing wife after successfully + simulating pregnancy adopted as her own. This deep fall, for + which she wholly blamed the devil, drove her fanaticism to + madness. The ridiculous proceedings in her own house, where for a + whole day she and her adherents beat with fists and hammers what + they supposed to be the devil, led the police to interfere. But + before orders arrived from Zürich, she found refuge in an asylum, + and there the end soon came. Margaret assured her followers that + in order that Christ might fully triumph and Satan be overthrown, + blood must be shed for the salvation of many thousand souls. Her + younger sister Elizabeth voluntarily allowed herself to be slain, + and she herself with almost incredible courage allowed her hands + and feet to be nailed to the wood and then with a stroke of the + knife was killed, under the promise that she as well as her + sister should rise again on the third day. The tragedy ended + by the apprehension and long confinement of those concerned in + it.--The sect of =Springers= in Ingermannland had its origin + in 1813. Arising out of a religious excitement not countenanced + by the church authorities, they held that each individual + needed immediate illumination of the Holy Spirit for his soul’s + salvation. So soon as they believed that this was obtained, + the presence of the Spirit was witnessed to by ecstatic prayer, + singing and shouting joined with handshaking and springing + in their assemblies. The special illumination required as its + correlate a special sanctification, and this they sought not only + in repudiation of marriage, but also in abstinence from flesh, + beer, spirits and tobacco. The “holy love,” prized instead of + marriage, however, here also led to sensual errors, and the + result was that many after the example of the Skopzen (§ 210, 4) + resorted to the surer means of castration.--Among the Swedish + peasants in 1842 appeared the singular phenomenon of the =Crying + Voices= (_Röstar_). Uneducated laymen, and more particularly + women and even children, after convulsive fits broke out into + deep mutterings of repentance and prophesyings of approaching + judgment. The substance of their proclamations, however, was not + opposed to the church doctrine, and the criers were themselves + the most diligent frequenters of church and sacrament.--In the + beginning of 1870 the wife of a settler at Leonerhofe, near San + Leopoldo in Brazil, =Jacobina Maurer=, became famous among the + careless colonists of that region as a pious miracle-working + prophetess. In religious assemblies which she originated, she + gave forth her fantastic revelations based upon allegorical + interpretations of Scripture, and founded a congregation of the + “elect” with a communistic constitution, in which she assumed + to herself all church offices as the Christ come again. Rude + abuse and maltreatment of these “Muckers” on the part of the + “unbelieving,” and the interference of the police, who arrested + some of the more zealous partisans of the female Christ, brought + the fanaticism to its utmost pitch. Jacobina now declared it the + duty of believers to prepare for the bliss of the millennium by + rooting out all the godless. Isolated murders were the prelude + of the night of horror, June 25th-26th, 1874, on which well + organized Mucker-bands, abundantly furnished with powder and shot, + went forth murdering and burning through the district for miles + around. The military sent out against them did not succeed in + putting down the revolt before August 2nd, after the prophetess + with many of her adherents had fallen in a fanatically brave + resistance. + + § 211.6. =Christian Communistic Sects.=--The only soil upon which + these could flourish was that of the Free States of North America. + Besides the small Shaker communities (§ 170, 7) still surviving + in 1858, the following new fraternities are the most important: + + 1. The =Harmonites=. The dissatisfaction caused among the + Württemberg Pietists by the introduction of liturgical + innovations led to several migrations in the beginning + of the century. Geo. Rapp, a simple peasant from the + village of Iptingen, went to America in 1803 or 1804 + with about six hundred adherents, and settled in the valley + of Connoquenessing, near Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. As a + fundamental principle of this “Harmony Association,” which + honoured father Rapp as autocratic patriarch, prophet and + high priest, and with him believed in the near approach of + the second advent, the community of goods holds a prominent + place. By diligence and industry in agriculture, labour + and manufactures, they reached great prosperity under the + able leadership of their patriarch. In 1807 the community, + by a resolution of its own to which Rapp agreed, resolved + to abstain from marriage, so that henceforth no children + were born nor marriages performed. A falling off in numbers + was made up in 1817 by new arrivals from Württemberg and + afterwards by the adoption of children. Industrial reasons + led the community in 1814 to colonize Wabashthal in Indiana, + where they built the town of Harmony, which, however, in + 1823, on account of its unhealthy situation, they sold + to the Scotchman Robert Owen (§ 212, 3), and then founded + for themselves the town of Economy, not far from Pittsburg, + where they still reside. In 1831 an adventurer, Bernard + Müller, appeared among them, who, at Offenbach, had, for + a long time, under the name of Proli, played a brilliant + part as a prophet called to establish universal spiritual + monarchy, and then, when in danger from the courts of law, + had fled to America. In Economy, where he passed himself + off as Count Maximilian von Leon, persecuted on account + of his belief in the second coming, he found as such a + hearty welcome, and within a year, by his agitation for + the reintroduction of marriage and worldly enjoyments, drew + away a third part of the community, embracing 250 souls. + The dissentients with 105,000 dollars from the common + purse withdrew and settled under the leadership of the + pseudo-count as a New Jerusalem society in the neighbouring + village of Philippsburg. But the new patriarch conducted + himself so riotously that he was obliged in 1833 to flee to + Louisiana, where in the same year he died of cholera. His + people now in deep distress turned to Dr. Keil, a mystic + come from Prussia, who reorganised them after the pattern + of Rapp’s communistic society, but with liberty to marry, + and brought them to a prosperous condition in two colonies + mainly founded by him at Bethel in Missouri and Aurora + in Oregon. Economy, too, flourished in spite of the heavy + losses it sustained, so that now the common property of the + populace, which through celibacy had been reduced to about + eighty persons, amounts to eight million dollars. Father + Rapp died in 1847, in his ninetieth year, confident to the + end that he would guide his church unto the hourly expected + advent of Christ. + + 2. When in 1831 a wave of revival passed over North America, + J. H. Noyes, an advocate’s assistant, applied himself to the + study of the Bible and became the founder of a new sect, the + =Bible Communists= or =Perfectionists= of the Oneida Society. + He taught that the promised advent of Christ took place + spiritually soon after the destruction of Jerusalem; by it + the kingdom of Adam was ended and the kingdom of God in the + heart of those who knew and received him was established. + The official churches were only state churches, but the + true church was scattered in the hearts of individual saints, + until Noyes collected and organized it into a Bible family. + For them there is no more law, for laws are for sinners + and the saints no longer sin. Each saint can do and suffer + whatever the Spirit of God moves him to. All the members of + the congregation constitute one family, live, eat, and work + together. Goods, wives and children are in common. It lies + with the wife to accept or refuse the approaches of a man. + But soon this proclaimed freedom from law sent everything + into confusion and disunion; schism―apostasy prevailed. + But Father Noyes now saved his church from destruction + by introducing a correction to this freedom from law in + _Sympathy_, _i.e._ in the agreement of all members of + the family. The odium which fell upon the community from + without on account of its “complex marriages,” induced him + at last in August, 1879, although he still always maintained + the soundness of his principle of free love and its final + victory over prejudice, to ordain the introduction of + monogamic marriages, and the community acquiesced. With + regard to community of goods, meals and children, however, + they kept to the old lines. The parent community has its + seat at Lenox in Oneidabach in New York State. Alongside of + it are three daughter communities. They have their prophets + and prophetesses, but no ritual service and no Sunday. Their + employment (they number about 300 souls) is mainly fruit + culture and the manufacture of snares of every kind for wild + and other animals.[569] + + § 211.7. =Millenarian Exodus Communities.= + + 1. The =Georgian Separatists=. The stream of Württemberg + emigrants above referred to turned also toward Southern + Russia. The settlers in Transcaucasian Georgia in the long + absence of regular pastors fell into fanatical separation, + which the clergy who followed in 1820 could not overcome. + Under the direction of three elders (one of them an old + woman) as representing the Holy Trinity, they lived quietly, + refused to baptize their children, to give their dead burial + according to the rites of the church, to call in physicians + in sickness, and at last rejected the marriage relation. In + 1842 their female elder, Barbara Spohn, wife of a cartwright, + appeared in the rôle of a prophet, proclaiming the near + approach of the end of the world and calling upon her + followers to pass through the wilderness to the promised + land, there to enter into the millenial kingdom. They were + to take with them no money, no bread, etc., but only a staff; + their clothes and shoes would not wear old in the desert, + they could eat manna and quails, and in the holy land Christ + would dress them in the bridal robe. The government sought + in vain to bring them to reason and to obstruct their way, + when about three hundred of them wished at Pentecost, 1843, + to start on their journey. They were allowed to send three + men to Constantinople and Palestine to seek permission from + the Turkish government to settle in a spot near Jerusalem. + But these returned before the close of the year with the + news, that Palestine is not the land that would suit them. + This brought the majority to their senses and they rejoined + the church. + + 2. Equally unfortunate was the attempt at colonization made + in 1878 by some =Bavarian Chiliasts=. The pastor Clöter + in Illenschwang had for a long time in the “_Brüderbote_,” + edited by him, urged the emigration of believers to + South Russia, where, according to his exposition of the + apocalyptic prophecy, a secure place of refuge had been + provided by God for believers of the last times during the + near approaching persecutions of antichrist. In June, 1878, + the tailor Minderlein with his family and nineteen other + persons started to go thither. Minderlein died by the way, + and his companions after enduring great hardships were + obliged to return, and reached Nuremberg again in October, + absolutely destitute. Clöter, however, was not discouraged + by this misfortune. In December he called his adherents + from Bavaria, Württemberg and Switzerland, together to a + conference at Stuttgart, where they formed themselves into + the “=German Exodus Church=.” In the summer, 1880, Clöter + himself travelled to South Russia and thought that he found + in the Crimea the fittest place of refuge. On his return he + was banished, but after some days liberated, though deprived + of his clerical office. A final stop was then put to the + exodus movement. + + § 211.8. + + 3. The =Amen Community= owed its feeble existence to a + Christian Jew, Israel Pick of Bohemia. Believing that he + was not required in baptism to renounce his Judaism, but + that rather thereby he first became a true Jew, through + a onesided interpretation of Old Testament promises to his + nation, he wished to found a colony of the people of God + in the Holy Land on Jewish-Christian principles. The whole + Mosaic law, excluding the observance of the Sabbath and + circumcision, was to be the basis, together with baptism and + the Lord’s Supper, of ecclesiastical and civil organization. + He succeeded in winning a few converts here and there, to + whom he gave the name of the Amen Community, because in + Christ (the אֱלֹהֵי אָמֵן Isa. lxv. 16) all the prophecies of + the old covenant are Yea and Amen. Its chief seat was at + Munich-Gladbach. In 1859 Pick travelled to Palestine in + order to choose a spot for the settlement of his followers + and there all trace of him was lost. + + 4. The founder of the =German Temple Communities= in Palestine + was Chr. Hoffmann, brother of General Superintendent + Hoffmann of Berlin, and son of the founder of the Kornthal + Community (§ 196, 5), in connection with Chr. Paulus, nephew + of the well known Heidelberg professor Paulus (§ 182, 2). + In 1854 they issued an invitation to a conference at + Ludwigsburg, for consultation about the means for gathering + the people of God in Palestine. A great crowd of believers + from all parts, numbering some 10,000 families, was to + embark for the holy land to form there a new people of God + which, on the foundation of prophets and apostles, should + strictly practise the public law of the old covenant in + all points of civil administration, including the laws + of the sabbath and the jubilee. The conference besought + of the German League that it would use its influence with + the Sultan to secure permission for colonization with + self-government and religious freedom. As the German League + simply declined the request, the committee bought the estate + of Kirschenhardthof near Marbach, in order there temporarily + and in a small way to form a social commonwealth observing + the Mosaic law. In 1858 Hoffmann went with two of his + followers to Jerusalem in order to look out a place there + suitable for their purpose. The result was unsatisfactory. + Therefore he issued in 1861 a summons to take part in a + German Temple. Consequently a number of men from Württemberg, + Bavaria, and Baden, Protestants and Catholics, forsook + their churches, ordained priests and elders, and appointed + Hoffmann their bishop and held regular synods. The final + aim of this procedure, however, was always still to find + a settlement in Palestine and erect a temple in Jerusalem + which, according to prophecy, is to form the central + sanctuary for the whole world. Colonization in the East + was tried as a means to this end. Since 1869 there have + been five organized colonies, with a Temple Chief and + a congregational school, embracing about 1,000 souls, + established in Palestine, _viz._ at Jaffa, Haifa, Sarona, + Beyrout, and in 1878 even in Jerusalem, whither the original + colony at Jaffa was transferred. The German Imperial + Government refused indeed in 1879 to give the recognition + sought for to the civil and political organization of the + Palestinian colonies, as in a foreign country beyond its + jurisdiction, but granted to its Lyceum at Jerusalem a + yearly contribution of 1,500 marks and to the schools + of Jaffa, Haifa and Sarona from 650 to 1,000. In 1875 + Hoffmann published at Stuttgart a large apologetical and + polemical work, “_Occident und Orient_,” which contained + many thoughtful remarks. But since then, in the central + organ of all the Temple Communities inspired by him, + the “_Süddeutsche Warte_,” he has openly and distinctly + attached himself to Ebionitic rationalism, by denying + and opposing the fundamental evangelical doctrine of the + trinity, redemption, and the sacraments. These theological + views, however, were by no means shared in by all the + Templars, and caused a split in the community, one section + at Haifa with the chief templar there, Hardegg, at its + head, separating from the central body as an independent + “Imperial Brotherhood.” The seceders, joined by many German + and American templar friends, again drew nearer to the + Evangelical church and ultimately became reconciled with + it. But Hoffmann has, in his last work, _Bibelforschungen_ + i. ii.: _Röm.- u. Kol. br., Jerus._ 1882, 1884, carried his + polemic against the church doctrine to the utmost extreme of + cynical abuse. He died in December, 1885. At the head of the + denomination now stands his fellow-worker Paulus. From year + to year several drop back into the Evangelical church so + that the community is evidently approaching extinction. + + § 211.9. =The Community of “the New Israel.”=--The Jewish + advocate Jos. Rabinowitsch at Kishenev in Bessarabia, who had + long occupied himself with plans for the improvement of the + spiritual and material circumstances of his fellow-countrymen, + at the outbreak of the persecution of the Jews in 1882 in South + Russia eagerly urged their return to the holy land of their + fathers and himself undertook a journey of inspection. There + definite shape seems to have been given to the long cherished + thought of seeking the salvation of his people in an independent + national attachment to their old sacred historical development, + broken off 1850 years before, by acknowledging the Messiahship + of Jesus. At least after his return he gave expression to the + sentiment, based on Romans xi.: “The keys of the holy land are + in the hands of our brother Jesus,” which, in consequence of + the high esteem in which he was held by his countrymen, was + soon re-echoed by some 200 Jewish families. His main endeavour + now was the formation of independent national Jewish-Christian + communities, after the pattern of the primitive church of + Jerusalem, as “_New Israelites_,” observing all the old Jewish + rites and ordinances compatible with New Testament apostolic + preaching and reconcilable with modern civil and social + conditions. The Torah, the prophets of the Old Testament and the + New Testament writings, are held as absolutely binding, whereas + the Talmud and the post-apostolic Gentile Christian additions to + doctrine, worship, and constitution are not so regarded. Jesus, + Rabinowitsch teaches, is the true Messiah who, as Moses and + prophets foretold, was born as Son of David by the Spirit of God + and in the power of that Spirit lived and taught in Israel, then + for our salvation suffered, was crucified and died, rose from the + dead, and ascended to the right hand of the Father in heaven. The + trinity of persons in God as well as the two natures in Christ + he rejects, as not taught in the New Testament and originating + in Gentile Christian speculation. Baptism and the Lord’s Supper + (and that “according to the example of Christians of the pure + Evangelical confession in England and Germany”) are recognised + as necessary means of grace; but the Lord’s Supper is to + be, according to its institution, a real meal with the old + Jewish prayers. As to the doctrine of the Supper, Rabinowitsch + agrees with the views of the Lutheran church. Circumcision and + the observance of the Sabbath and the feasts (especially the + Passover), are retained, not indeed as necessary to salvation, + therefore not binding on Gentile Christians, but patriotically + observed by Jewish-Christians as signs of their election from and + before all nations as the people of God. In January, 1885, with + consent of the Russian Government, the newly-erected synagogue + of “the holy Messiah Jesus Christ” for the small congregation + of Rabinowitsch’s followers at Kishenev was solemnly opened, + the Russian church authorities, the Lutheran pastor Fultin and + many young Jews taking part in the service. Soon afterwards + Rabinowitsch received Christian baptism in the chapel of the + Bohemian church at Berlin at the hands of Prof. Mead of Andover, + probably in recognition of the aid sent from America.--A + Jewish-Christian religious communion with similar tendencies + has been formed in the South Russian town of Jellisawetgrad under + the designation of a “_Biblical Spiritual Brotherhood_.” + + § 211.10. =The Catholic Apostolic Church of the + Irvingites.=--Edward Irving, 1792-1834, a powerful and popular + preacher of the Scotch-Presbyterian church in London, maintained + the doctrine that the human nature of Christ like our own was + affected by original sin, which was overcome and atoned for + by the power of the divine nature. At the same time he became + convinced that the spiritual gifts of the apostolic church could + and should still be obtained by prayer and faith. A party of his + followers soon began to exercise the gift of tongues by uttering + unintelligible sounds, loud cries, and prophecies. His presbytery + suspended him in 1832 and the General Assembly of the Church of + Scotland excommunicated him. Rich and distinguished friends from + the Episcopal church, among them the wealthy banker, Drummond, + afterwards prominent as an apostle (died 1859), rallied round + the man thus expelled from his church, and gave him the means to + found a new church, but, in spite of Irving’s protests, brought + with them high church puseyite tendencies, which soon drove + out the heretical as well as the puritanic tendencies, and + modified the fanatical element into a hierarchical and liturgical + formalism. The restoration of the office of apostle was the + characteristic feature of the movement. After many unsuccessful + attempts they succeeded by the divine illumination of the + prophets in calling twelve apostles, first and chief of whom + was the lawyer Cardale (died 1877). By the apostles, as chief + rulers and stewards of the church, evangelists and pastors (or + angels, Rev. ii. 1, 8, etc.) were ordained in accordance with + Eph. iv. 11; and subordinate to the pastors, there were appointed + six elders and as many deacons, so that the office bearers of + each congregation embraced thirteen persons, after the example + of Christ and His twelve disciples. In London seven congregations + were formed after the pattern of the seven apocalyptic churches + (Rev. i. 20). Prominent among their new revelations was the + promise of the immediately approaching advent of the Lord. The + Lord, who was to have come in the lifetime of the first disciples + and so was looked for confidently by them, delayed indefinitely + His return on account of abounding iniquity and prevented the + full development of the second apostolate designed for the + Gentiles and meanwhile represented only by Paul, because the + church was no longer worthy of it. Now at last, after eighteen + centuries of degradation, in which the church came to be the + apocalyptic Babylon and ripened for judgment, the time has + come when the suspended apostolate has been restored to prepare + the way for the last things. Very confidently was it at first + maintained that none of their members should die, but should live + to see the final consummation. But after death had removed so + many from among them, and even the apostles one after another, + it was merely said that those are already born who should see the + last day. It may come any day, any hour. It begins with the first + resurrection (Rev. xx. 5) and the “changing” of the saints that + are alive (the wise virgins, _i.e._ the Irvingites), who will + be caught up to the Lord in the clouds and in a higher sphere be + joined with the Lord in the marriage supper of the Lamb. They are + safely hidden while antichrist persecutes the other Christians, + the foolish virgins, who only can be saved by means of painful + suffering, and executes judgment on Babylon. This marks the end + of the Gentile church; but then begins the conversion of the Jews, + who, driven by necessity and the persecution of sinful men, have + sought and found a refuge in Palestine. After a short victory of + antichrist the Lord visibly appears among the risen and removed. + The kingdom of antichrist is destroyed, Satan is bound, the + saints live and reign with Christ a thousand years on the earth + freed from the curse. Thereafter Satan is again let loose for + a short time and works great havoc. Then comes Satan’s final + overthrow, the second resurrection and last judgment. Their + liturgy, composed by the apostles, is a compilation from the + Anglican and Catholic sources. Sacerdotalism and sacrifice are + prominent and showy priestly garments are regarded as requisite. + Yet they repudiate the Romish doctrine of the bloodless + repetition of the bleeding sacrifice, as well as the doctrine of + transubstantiation. But they strictly maintain the contribution + of the tenth as a duty laid upon Christians by Heb. vii. 4. + Their typical view of the Old Testament history and legislation, + especially of the tabernacle, is most arbitrary and baseless. + Their first published statement appeared in 1836 in an apostolic + “_Letter to the Patriarchs, Bishops, and Presidents of the Church + of Christ in all Lands, and to emperors, kings, and princes of + all baptized nations_,” which was sent to the most prominent + among those addressed, even to the pope, but produced no result. + After this they began to prosecute their missionary work openly. + But they gave their attention mainly to those already believers, + and took no part in missions to the heathen, as they were sent + neither to the heathen nor to unbelievers, but only to gather and + save believers. In their native land of England, where at first + they had great success, their day seems already past. In North + America they succeeded in founding only two congregations. They + prospered better in Germany and Switzerland, where they secured + several able theologians, chief of all Thiersch, the professor + of Theology in Marburg, the Tertullian of this modern Montanism + (died 1885), and founded about eighty small congregations with + some 5,000 members, chief of which are those of Berlin, Stettin, + Königsberg, Leipzig, Marburg, Cassel, Basel, Augsburg, etc. + Even among the Catholic clergy of Bavaria this movement found + response; but that was checked by a series of depositions and + excommunications during 1857.--In 1882 the Lutheran pastor + Alpers of Gehrden in Hanover was summoned to appear before the + consistory to answer for his Irvingite views. He denied the + charge and referred to his good Lutheran preaching. As, however, + he had taken the sacramental “sealing” from Irvingite apostles, + the court regarded this as proof of his having joined the party + and so deposed him.[570] + + § 211.11. =The Darbyites and Adventists.=--Related on the + one hand to Irvingism by their expectation of the immediately + approaching advent and by their regarding themselves as the + saints of the last time who would alone be saved, the =Darbyites=, + on the other hand, by their absolute independentism form a + complete contrast to the Irvingite hierarchism. John Darby, + 1800-1882, first an advocate, then a clergyman of the Anglican + church, breaking away from Anglicanism, founded between 1820 and + 1830 a sectarian, apocalyptic, independent community at Plymouth + (whence the name =Plymouth Brethren=), but in 1838 settled in + Geneva, and in 1840 went to Canton Vaud, where Lausanne and Vevey + have become the headquarters of the sect. All clerical offices, + all ecclesiastical forms are of the evil one, and are evidence + of the corruption of the church. There is only one office, the + spiritual priesthood of all believers, and every believer has + the right to preach and dispense the sacraments. Not only the + Catholic, but also the Protestant church is a “Balaam Church,” + and since the departure of the apostles no true church has + existed. In doctrine they are strictly Calvinistic.[571]--The + =Adventists=. Regarding the 2,300 days of Dan. viii. 14 as so + many years, W. Miller of New York and Boston proclaimed in 1833 + that the second advent would take place on the night of October + 23rd, 1847, and convinced many thousands of the correctness of + his calculations. When at last the night referred to arrived + the believers continued assembled in their tabernacles waiting, + but in vain, for the promise (Matt. xxiv. 30, 31; 1 Cor. xv. 52; + 1 Thess. iv. 16, 17), at “the voice of the archangel and the + trump of God to be caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord + in the air.” This miscalculation, however, did not shake the + Adventists’ belief in the near approach of the Lord, but their + number rather increased from year to year. Most zealous in + propagating their views by journals and tracts, evangelists + and missionaries, is a branch of the sect founded by James White + of Michigan, whose adherents, because they keep the Sabbath in + place of the Lord’s Day, are called _Seventh Day Adventists_. + + § 211.12. =The Mormons or Latter Day Saints.=--Jos. Smith, a + broken down farmer of Vermont, who took to knavish digging for + hid treasures, affirmed in 1825, that under direction of divine + revelations and visions, he had excavated on Comora hill in + New York State, golden tablets in a stone kist on which sacred + writings were engraved. A prophet’s spectacles, _i.e._, two + pierced stones which as a Mormon Urim and Thummim lay beside + them, enabled him to understand and translate them. He published + the translation in “the Book of Mormon.” According to this + book, the Israelites of the ten tribes had migrated under their + leader, Lehi, to America. There they divided into two peoples; + the ungodly Lamanites, answering to the modern Redskins, and + the pious Nephites. The latter preserved among them the old + Israelitish histories and prophecies, and through miraculous + signs in heaven and earth obtained knowledge of the birth + of Christ that had meanwhile taken place. Toward the end + of the fourth century after Christ, however, the Lamanites + began a terrible war of extermination against the Nephites, + in consequence of which the latter were rooted out with the + exception of the prophet Mormon and his son Moroni. Mormon + recorded his revelations on the golden tablets referred to, and + concealed them as the future witness for the saints of the last + days on the earth. Smith proclaimed himself now called on of God, + on the basis of these documents and the revelations made to him, + to found the church of _The Latter Day Saints_. The widow of a + preacher in New York proved indeed that the Book of Mormon was + almost literally a plagiarism from a historico-didactic romance + written by her deceased husband, Sal. Spaulding. The MS. had + passed into the hands of Sidney Rigdon, formerly a Baptist + minister and then a bookseller’s assistant, subsequently Smith’s + right-hand man. But even this did not disturb the believers. In + 1831 Smith with his followers settled at Kirtland in Ohio. To + avoid the daily increasing popular odium, he removed to Missouri, + and thence to Illinois, and founded there, in 1840, the important + town of Nauvoo with a beautiful temple. By diligence, industry + and good discipline, the wealth, power and influence of their + commonwealth increased, but in the same proportion the envy, + hatred and prejudices of the people, which charged them with + the most atrocious crimes. In 1844, to save bloodshed the + governor ordered the two chiefs, Jos. and Hiram Smith, to + surrender to voluntary imprisonment awaiting a regular trial. + But furious armed mobs attacked the prison and shot down both. + The roughs of the whole district then gathered in one great troop, + destroyed the town of Nauvoo, burned the temple and drove out + the inhabitants. These, now numbering 15,000 men, in several + successive expeditions amid indescribable hardships pressed on + “through the wilderness” over the Rocky Mountains, in order to + erect for themselves a Zion on the other side. Smith’s successor + was the carpenter, Brigham Young. The journey occupied two full + years, 1845-1847. In the great Salt Lake basin of Utah they + founded _Salt Lake City_, or the New Jerusalem, as the capital + of their wilderness state _Deseret_. The gold digging of the + neighbouring state of California did not allure them, for their + prophet told them that to pave streets, build houses and sow + fields was better employment than seeking for gold. So here + again they soon became a flourishing commonwealth. + + § 211.13. In common with the Irvingites, who recognised in them + their own diabolic caricature, the Mormons restored the apostolic + and prophetic office, insisted upon the continuance of the gift + of tongues and miracles, expected the speedy advent of the Lord, + reintroduced the payment of tithes, etc. But what distinguished + them from all Christian sects was the proclamation of polygamy as + a religious duty, on the plea that only those women who had been + “sealed” to a Latter-day Saint would share in the blessedness + of life eternal. This was probably first introduced by Young in + consequence of a new “divine revelation,” but down to 1852 kept + secret and denied before “the Gentiles.” The ambiguous book of + Mormon was set meanwhile more and more in the background, and + the teachings and prophecies of their prophet brought more and + more to the front. “The Voice of Warning to all Nations” of the + zealous proselyte Parly Pratt, formerly a Campbellite preacher, + exercised a great influence in spreading the sect. But the most + gifted of them all was Orson Pratt, Rigdon’s successor in the + apostolate. To him mainly is ascribed the construction of its + later, highly fantastic religious system which, consisting of + elements gathered from Neo-platonism, gnosticism, and other forms + of theosophical mysticism, embraces all the mysteries of time and + eternity. Its fundamental ideas are these: There are gods without + number; all are polygamists and their wives are sharers of their + glory and bliss. They are the fathers of human souls who here on + earth ripen for their heavenly destiny. Jesus is the first born + son of the highest god by his first wife; he was married on earth + to Mary Magdalene, the sisters Martha and Mary and other women. + Those saints who here fulfil their destiny become after death + gods, while they are arranged according to their merit in various + ranks and with prospect of promotion to higher places. At the + end of this world’s course, Jesus will come again, and, enthroned + in the temple of Salt Lake City, exercise judgment against all + “Gentiles” and apostates, etc.--The constitution of the Mormon + State is essentially theocratic. At the head stood the president, + Brigham Young, as prophet, patriarch, and priest-king, in whose + hands are all the threads of the spiritual as well as secular + administration. A high council alongside of him, consisting of + seventy members, as also the prophets and apostles, bishops and + elders, and generally the whole richly organized hierarchy, are + only the pliable instruments of his all-commanding will. Every + one on entering the society surrenders his whole property, and + after that contributes a tenth of his yearly income and personal + labour to the common purse of the community. Soon numerous + missionaries were sent forth who crossed the Atlantic, and + attained great success, especially in Scotland, England and + Scandinavia, but also in North-West Germany and in Switzerland. + On removing the misunderstanding that prevailed about their + social and political condition, and supplying the penniless out + of the rich immigration fund with the means to make the journey, + they persuaded great crowds of their new converts to accompany + them to Utah. + + § 211.14. In 1849 the Mormons had asked Congress for the + apportioning of the district colonized by them as an independent + and autonomous “State” in the union, but were granted, in + 1850, only the constitution of a “territory” under the central + government at Washington, and the appointment of their patriarch, + Young, as its governor. Accustomed to absolute rule, in two years + he drove out all the other officers appointed by the union. He + was then deprived of office, but the new governor, Col. Sefton, + appointed in 1854, with the small armament supplied him could not + maintain his position and voluntarily retired. When afterwards in + 1858 Governor Cumming, appointed by president Buchanan, entered + Utah with a strong military force, Young armed for a decisive + struggle. A compromise, however, was effected. A complete amnesty + was granted to the saints, the soldiers of the union entered + peacefully into the Salt-Lake City, and Young assumed tolerably + friendly relations with the governor, who, nevertheless, by the + erection of a fort commanding the city made the position safe for + himself and his troops. On the outbreak of the war of Secession + in 1861 the troops of the union were for the most part withdrawn. + But all the more energetically did the central government at the + close of the war in 1865 resolve upon the complete subjugation of + the rebel saints, having learnt that since 1852 numerous murders + had taken place in the territory, and that the disappearance of + whole caravans of colonists was not due to attacks of Indians, + who would have scalped their victims, but to a secret Mormon + fraternity called Danites (Judges xviii.), brothers of Gideon + (Judges vi. ff.) or Angels of Destruction, which, obedient to + the slightest hint from the prophet, had undertaken to avenge + by bloody terrorism any sign of resistance to his authority, + to arrest any tendency to apostasy, and to guard against the + introduction of any foreign element. The Union Pacific Railway + opened in 1869 deprived the “Kingdom of God” of its most powerful + protection, its geographical isolation, while the rich silver + mines discovered at the same time in Utah, peopled city and + country with immense flocks of “Gentiles.” The nemesis, which + brought the Mormon bishop Lee, twenty years after the deed, + under the lash of the high court of justiciary as involved in + the horrible massacre of a large party of emigrants at Mountain + Meadows in 1857, would probably have also befallen the prophet + himself as the main instigator of this and many other crimes had + he not by a sudden death two months later, in his seventy-fifth + year, escaped the jurisdiction of any earthly tribunal (died + 1877). A successor was not chosen, but supreme authority is + in the hands of the college of twelve apostles with the elder + John Taylor at their head.--Repeated attempts made since 1874 + by the United States authorities by penal enactments to root out + polygamy among the Mormons have always failed, because its actual + existence could never be legally proved. The witness called could + or would say nothing, since the “sealing” was always secretly + performed, and the women concerned denied that a marriage had + been entered into with the accused, or if one confessed herself + his married wife she refused to give any evidence about his + domestic relations.--Recently a split has occurred among the + Mormons. By far the larger party is that of the “Salt Lake + Mormons,” which holds firmly by polygamy and all the other + institutions introduced by Young and since his time. The other + party is that of the Kirtland, or Old Mormons, headed by the son + of their founder, Jos. Smith, who had been passed over on account + of his youth, which repudiates all these as unsupported novelties + and restores the true Mormonism of the founder. The Old Mormons + not only oppose polygamy, but also all more recently introduced + doctrines. They are called Kirtland Mormons from the first temple + built by their founder at Kirtland in 1814, which having fallen + into ruins, was restored by Geo. Smith, jun., and became the + centre of the Old Mormon denomination. In April 1885 they held + there their first synod, attended by 200 deputies.[572] + + § 211.15. =The Taepings in China.=--Hung-sen-tsenen, born in + 1813 in the province of Shan-Tung, was destined for the learned + profession but failed in his examination at Canton. There he + first, in 1833, came into contact with Protestant missionaries, + whose misunderstood words awakened in him the belief that he was + called to perform great things. At the same time he there got + possession of some Christian Chinese tracts. Failing in his + examination a second time in 1837, he fell into a dangerous + illness and had a series of visions in which an old man with a + golden beard appeared, handing to him the insignia of imperial + rank, and commanding him to root out the demons. After his + recovery he became an elementary teacher. A relative called Li + visited him in 1843. The Christian tracts were again sought out + and carefully studied. Sen now recognised in the old man of his + visions the God of the Christians and in himself the younger + brother of Jesus. The two baptized one another and won over + two young relatives to their views. Expelled from their offices, + they went in 1844 to the province of Kiang Se as pencil and + ink sellers, preached diligently the new doctrine and founded + numerous small congregations of their sect. The American + missionaries at Canton heard of the success of their preaching, + and Sen accepted an invitation to join them in 1847. The + missionary Roberts had a great esteem for him and intended to + baptize him, when in consequence of stories spread about him + their relations became strained. Sen now returned in 1848 to + his companions in Kiang Se, who had diligently and successfully + continued their preaching. In 1850 they began to attract + attention by the violent destruction of idols. When now all the + remnants of a pirate band joined them as converts, they were in + common with these persecuted by the government and proclaimed + rebels. The expulsion of the hated Mantshu dynasty, which two + hundred years before had displaced the Ming dynasty, and the + overthrow of idolatry were now their main endeavour, and in 1857 + they organized under Sen a regular rebellion for the setting up + of a Taeping dynasty, _i.e._, of universal peace. The Taeping + army advanced unhindered, all Mantschu soldiers who fell into + its hands were massacred, and of the inhabitants of the provinces + conquered, only those were spared who joined their ranks. In + March, 1853, they stormed the second capital of the empire, + Nankin, the old residence of the Ming dynasty. There Sen fixed + his residence and styled himself Tien-Wang, the Divine Prince. + He assigned to ten subordinate princes the government of the + conquered provinces, almost the half of the immense empire. + Thousands of bibles were circulated; the ten commandments + proclaimed as the foundation of law, many writings, prayers + and poems composed for the instruction of the people, and these + with the bible made subjects of examination for entrance to the + learned order. An Arian theory of the trinity was set forth; the + Father is the one personal God, whose likeness in bodily human + form Sen strictly forbade, destroying the Catholic images as well + as the Chinese idols. Jesus is the first-born son of God, yet + not himself God, sent by the Father into the world in order to + enlighten it by his doctrine and to redeem it by his atoning + sufferings. Sen, the younger brother of Jesus, was sent into the + world to spread the doctrine of Jesus and to expel the demons, + the Mantschu dynasty. Reception takes place through baptism. The + Lord’s Supper was unknown to them. Bloody and bloodless offerings + were still tolerated. The use of wine and tobacco was forbidden; + the use of opium and trafficking in it were punished with death. + But polygamy was sanctioned. Saturday, according to the Old + Testament, was their holy day. Their service consisted only + of prayer, singing and religious instruction; but also written + prayers were presented to God by burning. + + § 211.16. Sen himself had no more visions after 1837. But other + ecstatic prophets arose, the eastern prince Yang and the western + prince Siao. The revelations of the latter were comparatively + sober, but those of the former were in the highest degree + blasphemously fanatical. He declared himself the Paraclete + promised by Jesus, and taught that God himself, as well as Jesus, + had a wife with sons and daughters. He was at the same time a + brave and successful general, and the mass of the Taepings were + enthusiastically attached to him. Sen humbly yielded to the + extravagances of this fanatic, even when Yang sentenced him to + receive forty lashes. Sen’s overthrow was already resolved upon + in Yang’s secret council, when Sen took courage and gave the + northern prince secret orders to murder Yang and his followers + in one night. This was done, and Sen was weak enough to allow the + executioner of his secret order to be publicly put to death so as + to appease the excited populace. But he thus again in 1856 became + master of the situation.--One of the oldest apostles of Sen, + his near relative Hung Yin, had been turned off at Hong Kong. + He there attached himself to the Basel missionary, Hamberg, who + in 1852 baptized him and made him his native helper. In hope of + winning his cousin to the true Christian faith, he travelled in + 1854 to Nankin, which however he did not reach till January, 1859. + Sen received him gladly and made him his war minister. But his + efforts to introduce a purer Christianity among the Taepings were + unsuccessful, for he tried the slippery way of accommodation, and + under pressure from Sen set up for himself a harem. In October, + 1860, on Sen’s repeated invitation, his former teacher, the + missionary Roberts of Nankin, arrived and was immediately made + minister for foreign affairs. The Shanghai missionaries, several + of whom visited Nankin, had interesting interviews with Yin in + 1860, but not with the emperor, as they refused to go on their + knees before him. They were encouraged by Yin to hope for a + future much needed purifying of Taeping Christianity. Yang’s + revelations, however, held their ground after as well as + before, and were increased by further absurdities. To such + crass fanaticism was now added the inhuman cruelty with which + they massacred the vanquished and wasted the conquered cities + and districts. Had the European powers ranged themselves in a + friendly and peaceful attitude alongside of the Taepings, China + might now have been a Christian empire. Instead of this the + English, on account of the extreme opposition of the Taepings + to the opium traffic, took up a hostile position toward them, + while they were also in disfavour with the French, who had been + denounced by them as idolaters on account of their Romish image + worship. Down to the beginning of 1862, however, Yin’s influence + had prevented any hostile proceedings against the Europeans in + spite of many provocations given. But after that the Taepings + refused them any quarter. Roberts fled by night to save his life. + Against disciplined European troops the rebels could not hold + their ground. One city after another was taken from them, and at + last, in July 1864, their capital Nankin. Sen was found poisoned + in his burning palace.[573] + + § 211.17. =The Spiritualists.=--The shoemaker’s apprentice, + Andrew Jackson Davis of Poughkeepsie on the Hudson, in his + nineteenth year fell into a magnetic sleep and composed his + first work, “The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations + and a Voice to Mankind,” in 1845. He declared its utterances + to be spiritual revelations from the other world. But his + later writings composed in working hours made the same claim, + especially the five volume work, “Great Harmonia, being a + Philosophical Revelation of the Natural, Spiritual, and Celestial + Universe,” 1850 ff. Both went through numerous editions and + were translated into German. The great spiritual manifestation + promised in the first work was not long delayed. In a house + bought by the family of Fox in Hydesville in New York State a + spectral knocking was often heard. Through the intercourse which + the two youngest daughters, aged nine and twelve years, had with + the ghosts, the skeleton of a murdered five years’ old child of + a pedlar was discovered buried in the cellar, and when the family + soon thereafter left the house, the ghosts went with them and + continued their communications by table turning, table rapping, + table writing, etc. The thing now became epidemic. Hundreds + and thousands of male and female _mediums_ arose and held an + extremely lively and varied intercourse with innumerable departed + ones of earlier and later times. The believers soon numbered + millions, including highly educated persons of all ranks, even + such exact chemists as Mapes and Hare. An abundant literature + in books and journals, as well as Sunday services, frequent + camp-meetings and annual congresses formed a propaganda for + the alleged spiritualism, which soon found its way across the + ocean and won enthusiastic adherents for all confessions in + all European countries, especially in London, Paris, Brussels, + St. Petersburg, Vienna, Dresden, Leipzig, etc. They now broke + up into two parties called respectively Spiritualists and + Spiritists. The former put in the foreground physical experiments + with astonishing results and miraculous effects; the latter, + with the Frenchman Allan Kardec (_Rivail_) as their leader, give + prominence to the teaching of spirits by direct communication. + The former in reference to the origin of the human soul held by + the theory of traducianism; the latter to that of pre-existence + in connection with a doctrine of re-incarnation of spirits + by reason of growing purity and perfection. The latter see + in Christ the incarnation of a spirit of the highest order; + the former merely the purest and most perfect type of human + nature. But neither admit the real central truth of Christianity, + the reconciliation of sinful humanity with God in Christ. + Both evaporate the resurrection into a mere spectral spirit + manifestation; and the disclosures and utterances of the spirits + with both are equally trivial, silly, and vain.--In England the + famous palæontologist and collaborateur of Darwin, Alfr. Russel + Wallace, and the no less celebrated physicist Wm. Crookes, are + apologists of spiritualism. The latter declared in 1879 that + to the three well-known conditions of matter, solid, fluid and + gaseous, should be added a fourth, “radiant,” and that there is + the borderland where force and matter meet. And in Germany the + acute Leipzig astrophysicist Fr. Zöllner, after a whole series + of spiritualistic séances conducted by the American medium + Slade in 1877 and 1878 had been carefully scrutinized and + tested by himself and several of his most accomplished scientific + colleagues, was convinced of the existence and reality of higher + “four dimension” space in the spirit world, to which by reason + of its fourth dimension the power belonged of passing through + earthly bodily matter. The philosophers I. H. Fichte of Stuttgart + and Ulrici of Halle have admitted the reality of spiritualistic + communications and allege them as proofs of immortality. + Among German theologians Luthardt of Leipzig regards it all + as the work of demons who take advantage for their own ends + of the moral-religious dissolution of the modern world and its + consequent nerve shaking that prevails, just as in the ancient + world in the beginnings of Christianity. Zöckler of Greifswald + finds an analogy between it and the demoniacal possession of + New Testament times; so too Martensen in his “Jacob Boehme,” + and on the Catholic side W. Schneider; while Splittgerber refers + most of the manifestations in question to a merely subjective + origin in “the right side of the human soul life,” but puts + the materialization of spirits in the category of delusive + jugglery. Spiritualism has scarcely rallied from the obloquy + cast upon it by the unmasking of the tricks of the famous medium + Miss Florence Cook in London in 1880 and of the distinguished + spirit materialiser Bastian by the Grand-duke John of Austria + in 1884.[574] + + § 211.18. To the domain of unquestionable illusion belongs + also the spiritualistic movement of Indian =Theosophism= or + =Occultism=. The American Col. Olcott of New York had already + moved for twenty-two years in spiritualist circles when in 1874 + he met with Madame Blavatsky, widow of a Russian general who had + been governor of Erivan in Armenia. She professed to have been + from her eighth year in communication with spirits, then to + have had secret intercourse with the Mahatmas, _i.e._ spirits + of old Indian penitents, during a seven years’ residence on the + Himalayas. She now promised to introduce the colonel to them. + Olcott and Blavatsky founded at New York in 1875 a society for + research in the department of the mystic sciences, travelled in + 1878 to Further India and Ceylon, and settled finally in Madras, + whence by word and writing they proclaimed through the whole + land theosophism or occultism as the religion of the future, + which, consisting in a medley of Hinduism and Buddhism, enriched + by spiritualistic revelations of Mahatmas, vouched for by + spiritualistic signs and miracles and conformed to the most + recent philosophical and scientific researches in America and + Europe, aimed at heaping contempt upon Christianity and finally + driving it from the field. As fanatical opponents of Christian + missions in India they were strongly supported by the Brahman + and Buddhist hierarchy, and soon obtained for the theosophical + society founded by them not only numerous adherents from + among the natives, but also many Englishman befooled by their + spiritualistic swindle. As apostle and literary pioneer of the + new religion appeared an Anglo-Indian called Sinnett. In spring, + 1884, Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went on a propagandist + tour to Europe, where, in England, France, Austria, and Hungary, + they won many converts, while Col. Olcott at Elberfeld and + Madame Blavatsky at Odessa founded branches of their theosophical + society.--But meanwhile in India affairs assumed a threatening + aspect. Blavatsky on her departure had entrusted the keys of + her dwelling and her mysterious cabinet with its various panels, + falling doors, etc., to Mr. and Mrs. Coulomb, who had been + hitherto her assistants in all her juggleries. Madame Coulomb, + however, quarrelled with the board of theosophists at Madras, and + revenged herself by placing in the hands of the Scottish mission + letters addressed by Blavatsky to herself and her husband which + supplied evidence that all her spiritualistic manifestations + were only common tricks. In addition she gave public exhibitions + in which she demonstrated to the spectators _ad oculos_ the + spiritual manifestations of the Mahatmas, and subsequently + published an “Account of My Acquaintanceship with Madame + Blavatsky, 1872-1884,” with discoveries of her earlier rogueries. + Meanwhile the swindler had herself in December, 1884, returned to + Madras in company with several believers gathered up in England, + among others a young English clergyman, Leadbeater, who some + days previously in Ceylon had formally adopted Buddhism. The + theosophists now demanded that the reputed cheat and deceiver + should be brought before a civil court. The president, however, + declared that the investigations and judgment of a profane + court of law could not be accepted to the mysteries of occultism, + but promised a careful examination by a commission appointed by + himself, and Blavatsky thought it advisable “for the restoration + of her health in a cooler climate” to make off from the scene of + conflict.[575] + + + § 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM. + + While the antichristian spirit of the age breaks out in various +theoretical forms in our literature, there also abound social and +communistic movements of a practical kind. Socialism and communism both +aim at a thorough-going reform of the rights of property and possession +in strict proportion to the labour spent thereon. They are, however, +distinguished in this, that while communism declares war against all +private property and demands absolute community of goods, socialism, at +least in its older and nobler forms, proceeding from the idea of precise +correspondence between capital and labour, seeks to have expression +given to this in fact. From the older socialism, which endeavoured +to reach its end in a peaceful way within the existing lines of civil +order, a later social democracy is to be distinguished by its decidedly +politico-revolutionary character and tendency to attach itself more +to communism. This modern socialism thinks to open the way to the +realization of its hare-brained ideas by the confusion and overthrow +of existing law and order. + + § 212.1. =The Beginnings of Modern Communism.=--As early as + 1796 Babeuf published in Paris a communistic manifesto which + maintained the thesis that natural law gives all men an equal + right to the enjoyment of all goods. His ideas were subsequently + systematized and developed by Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, and Louis + Blanc in France, and by Weibling and Stirner in Germany. In + a treatise of 1840 Proudhon answered the question, _Qu’est-ce + que la propriété?_ in words which afterwards became proverbial, + and formed the motto of communism: _La propriété c’est le vol._ + But the mere negation of property affords no permanent standing + ground. All altars must be thrown down; all religion rooted + out as the plague of humanity; the family and marriage, as the + fountain of all selfishness, must be abolished; all existing + governments must be overthrown; all Europe must be turned into + one great social democracy. A secret communistic propaganda + spread over all western Europe, had its head centres in Belgium + and Switzerland, crossed the Alps and the Pyrenees, as well as + the Channel, and found a congenial soil even in Russia. + + § 212.2. =St. Simonism.=--The Count St. Simon of Paris, reduced + to poverty by speculation, proposed by means of a thorough + organization of industry to found a new and happy state of things + in which there would be pure enjoyment without poverty and care. + An attempted suicide, which led however to his death in 1825, + made him in the eyes of his disciples a saviour of the world. The + July revolution of 1830 gave to the new universal religion, which + reinstated the flesh in its long lost rights and sought to assign + to each individual the place in the commonwealth for which he + was fitted, some advantage. “Father” Enfantin, whom his followers + honoured as the highest revelation of deity, contended with + pompous phrases and in fantastic style for the emancipation of + woman and against the unnatural institution of marriage. But + St. Simonism soon excited public ridicule, was pronounced immoral + by the courts of justice, and the remnants of its votaries fled + from the scorn of the people and the vengeance of the law to + Egypt, where they soon disappeared. + + § 212.3. =Owenists and Icarians.=--The Scotch mill-owner + =Rob. Owen= went in 1829 to America, in order there, unhindered + by religious prejudices, clerical opposition, and police + interference, to work out on a large scale his socialistic + schemes for improving the world, which in a small way he believed + he had proved already among his Scotch mill-operatives. He + bought for this purpose from the Württemberger Rapp the colony + of Harmony (§ 211, 6); but wanting the necessary capital for + the socialistic commonwealth there established, and failing to + realize his expectations, discontent, disorder, and opposition + got the upper hand, and in 1826 Owen was obliged to abandon all + his property. He now returned to England, and addressed himself + in treatises, tracts, and lectures to the working classes of + the whole land, in order to win them over to his ideas. A vast + brotherhood for mutual benefit and for the enjoyment of their + joint earnings was to put an end to earth’s misery, which the + positive religions had not lessened but only increased. In 1836, + in the great industrial cities socialist unions with nearly half + a million members were formed, with their head centre and annual + congress at Birmingham. The practical schemes of Owen, however, + had no success in England, and his societies no permanency. He + died in 1858.--Still more disastrous was the fate of the Icarian + Colony, founded in Texas in 1848 by the Frenchman =Stephen Cabet=, + author of “_Voyage en Icarie, Roman philos. et social_,” 1840, + as an attempt to realize his communistic-philanthropic ideas on + the other side of the Atlantic. The colonists soon found their + sanguine hopes bitterly disappointed, and hurled against their + leader reproaches and threats. Some ex-Icarians accused him in + 1849 before the Paris police-court as a swindler, and he was + condemned to two years’ imprisonment and five years’ loss of + civil privileges. Cabet now hastened to France, and on appeal + obtained reversion of his sentence in 1851. Returning to America, + he founded a new Icarian colony at Nauvoo in Illinois. But there, + too, everything went wrong, and a revolt of the colonists obliged + him to flee. He died in 1856.[576] + + § 212.4. =The International Working-Men’s Association.=--Local + and national working-men’s unions with a socialistic organization + had for a long time existed in England, France, and Germany. + The idea of a union embracing the whole world was first broached + at the great London Exhibition in 1862, and at a conference in + London on September 28th, 1864, at which all industrial countries + of Europe were represented, it assumed a practical shape by the + founding of a universal international working-men’s association. + Its constitution was strictly centralistic. A directing committee + in London, Carl Marx of Treves, formerly _Privatdocent_ of + philosophy at Bonn, standing at its head as dictator, represented + the supreme legislative and governing authority, while alongside + of it a general standing council held the administrative and + executive power. The latter was divided into eight sections, + English, American, French, German, Belgian, Dutch, Italian, + and Spanish, and annual international congresses at Geneva, + Lausanne, Brussels, Basel, and the Hague gave opportunity for + general consultation on matters of common interest. Reception as + members was granted by the giving of a diploma after six months’ + trial, and involved unconditional obedience to the statutes + and ordinances of the central authorities and the payment of + an annual fee. The number of members, not, however, exclusively + drawn from the working classes, is said to have reached two and + a half millions. The society adopted the current socialistic + and communistic ideas and tendencies. The religious principle + of the association was therefore: atheism and materialism; the + political: absolute democracy; the social: equal rights of labour + and profit, with abolition of private property, hereditary rights, + marriage, and family; and as means for realizing this programme, + unaccomplishable by peaceable methods, revolution and rebellion, + fire and sword, poison, petroleum and dynamite. Such means have + been used already in various ways by the international throughout + the Romance countries; but specially in the brief Reign of Terror + of the Paris Commune, March and April, 1871, in the relatively + no less violent attempted revolt at Alcoy in Southern Spain in + July, 1873. But meanwhile differences appeared within the society, + which were formulated at the Hague Congress in 1872, and led to + splits, which greatly lessened its unity, influence, and power to + do mischief, so that this congress may perhaps be regarded as the + first beginning of its end.[577] + + § 212.5. =German Social Democracy.=--=Ferd. Lassalle=, son of + a rich Jewish merchant of Breslau, after a full course of study + in philosophy and law, began in 1848 to take a lively part in + the advanced movements of the age, and when he found among the + liberal citizens no favour for his socialistic ideas turned + exclusively to the working classes. In answer to the question + as to what was to be done, by the central committee of a + working-men’s congress at Leipzig, he wrought out in 1863 with + great subtlety in an open letter the fundamental idea of his + universal redemption. All plans of self-help to relieve the + distress of working men hitherto proposed (specially that of + Schulze-Delitzsch) break down over the “iron economic law of + wages,” in consequence of which under the dominion of capital and + the large employers of labour wages are always with fatalistic + necessity reduced to the point indispensable for supplying a + working man’s family with the absolute necessaries of life. + The working classes, however, have the right according to the + law of nature to a full equivalent for their labour, but in + order to reach this they must be their own undertakers, and + where self-help is only a vain illusion, state help must afford + the means. By insisting on the right to universal suffrage + the working classes have obtained a decided majority in the + legislative assemblies, and there secured a government of the + future in accordance with their needs. On these principles the + Universal German Society of Working Men was constituted, with + Lassalle as its president, which position he held till his + death in a duel in 1864. Long internal disputes and personal + recriminations led to a split at the Eisenach Congress in + 1869. The malcontents founded an independent “Social Democratic + Working-Men’s Union,” under the leadership of Bebel and + Liebknecht, which, particularly successful in Saxony, Brunswick, + and South Germany, represents itself as the German branch + of the “International Working-Men’s Association.” It adhered + indeed generally to Lassalle’s programme, but objected to the + extravagant adulation claimed for Lassalle by their opponents, + the proper disciples of Lassalle, who had Hasenclaver as + their leader and Berlin as their headquarters, substituted a + federal for a centralistic organization, and instead of a great + centralised government in the future desired rather a federal + republic embracing all Europe. But both declared equally in + favour of revolution; they vied with one another in bitter hatred + of everything bearing the name of religion; and wrought out + with equal enthusiasm their communistic schemes for the future. + At the Gotha Congress of 1875 a reconciliation of parties was + effected. The social-democratic agitation thus received a new + impulse and assumed threatening proportions. Yet it required such + extraordinary occurrences as the twice attempted assassination of + the aged emperor, by Hodel on May 11th, and Nobiling on June 2nd, + 1878, to rouse the government to legislative action. On the basis + of a law passed in October, 1878, for two and a half years (but + in May, 1880, continued for other three and a half years, and in + May, 1884, and again in April, 1886, on each occasion extended + to other two years), 200 socialist societies throughout the + German empire were suppressed, sixty-four revolutionary journals, + circulated in hundreds of thousands and with millions of readers, + and about 800 other seditious writings, were forbidden. But that + the social- democratic organization and agitation was not thereby + destroyed is proved by the fact that in August, 1880, in an + uninhabited Swiss castle lent for the purpose, in Canton Zürich, + a congress was held, attended by fifty-six German socialists, + with greetings by letter from sympathisers in all European + countries, which among other things passed the resolution + unanimously, no longer as had been agreed upon at Gotha, to seek + their ends by lawful methods, as by the law of the socialists + impossible, but by the way of revolution.--On the other hand, the + German Imperial Chancellor Prince Bismarck in the Reichstag, 1884, + fully admitted the “right of the worker to work,” as well as the + duty of the state to ameliorate the condition of working men as + far as possible, and in three propositions: “Work for the healthy + workman, hospital attendance to the sick, and maintenance to the + invalided,” granted all that is asked for by a healthy social + policy. + + § 212.6. =Russian Nihilism.=--In Russia, too, notwithstanding a + strictly exercised censorship, the philosophico-scientific gospel + of materialism and atheism found entrance through the writings + of Moleschott, Feuerbach, Büchner, Darwin, etc. (§ 174, 3), + especially among the students. In 1860, Nihilism, springing + from this seed, first assumed the character of a philosophical + and literary movement. It sought the overthrow of all religious + institutions. Then came the women’s question, claiming + emancipation for the wife. The example of the Paris Commune + of 1871 contributed largely to the development of Nihilistic + idealism, its political revolutionary socialism. The Nihilist + propaganda, like an epidemic, now seized upon the academic youth, + male and female, was spread in aristocratic families by tutors + and governesses, won secret disciples among civil servants as + well as officers of the army and navy, and was enthusiastically + supported by ladies in the most cultured and exalted ranks. In + order to spread its views among the people, young men and women + disguised in peasant’s dress went out among the peasants and + artisans, lived and wrought like them, and preached their gospel + to them in their hours of rest. But their efforts failed through + the antipathy and apathy of the lower orders, and the energetic + interference of the government by imprisonment and banishment + thinned the ranks of the propagandists. But all the more closely + did those left bind themselves together under their central + leaders as the “Society for Country and Freedom,” and strove + with redoubled eagerness to spread revolutionary principles + by secretly printing their proclamations and other incendiary + productions, and scattering them in the streets and houses. On + January 24th, 1878, the female Nihilist _Vera Sassulitsch_ from + personal revenge dangerously wounded with a revolver General + Trepoff, the dreaded head of the St. Petersburg police. Although + she openly avowed the deed before the court and gloried in it, + she was amid the acclamations of the public acquitted. This was + the hour when Nihilism exercised its fellest terrorism. The fair, + peaceful phrase, “To work, fight, suffer, and die for the people,” + was silenced; it was now, sword and fire, dagger and revolver, + dynamite and mines for all oppressors of the people, but above + all for the agents of the police, for their spies, for all + informers and apostates. An “executive committee,” unknown to + most of the conspirators themselves, issued the death sentence; + the lot determined the executioner, who himself suffered death + if he failed to accomplish it. What was now aimed at was the + assassination of higher state officials; then the sacred person + of the emperor. Three bold attempts at assassination miscarried; + the revolver shot of Solowjews on April 14th, 1879; the mine on + the railway near Moscow that exploded too late on November 30th, + 1879; the horrible attempt to blow up the Winter Palace with + the emperor and his family on February 17th, 1880; but the + fourth, a dynamite bomb thrown between the feet of the emperor + on March 13th, 1881, destroyed the life of this noble and humane + monarch, who in 1861-1863 had freed his people from the yoke of + serfdom. As for years nothing more had been heard of Nihilist + attempts, it was hoped that the government had succeeded in + putting down this diabolical rebellion, but in 1887 the news + spread that an equally horrible attempt had been planned for + the sixth anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II., + but fortunately timely precautions were taken against it. + + + + + CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. + + + FIRST CENTURY. + + A.D. + 14-37. The Emperor Tiberius, § 22, 1. + 41-54. The Emperor Claudius, § 22, 1. + 44. Execution of James the Elder, § 16. + 51. The Council at Jerusalem, § 18, 1. + 54-68. The Emperor Nero, § 23, 1. + 61. Paul’s Arrival at Rome, § 15. + 63. Stoning of James the Just, § 16, 3. + 64. Persecution of Christians in Rome, § 22, 1. + 66-70. Jewish War, § 16. + 81-96. The Emperor Domitian, § 22, 1. + + + SECOND CENTURY. + + 98-117. The Emperor Trajan, § 22, 2. + 115. (?) Ignatius of Antioch, Martyr, § 22, 2. + 117-138. The Emperor Hadrian, § 22, 2. + Basilides, Valentinus, § 22, 2, 4. + 132-135. Revolt of Barcochba [Bar-Cochba], § 25. + Abt. 150. Celsus, § 23, 3. + Marcion, § 27, 11. + 138-161. The Emperor Antoninus Pius, § 22, 2. + 155. Paschal Controversy between Polycarp and Amicetus + [Anicetus], § 37, 2. + 161-180. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3. + 165. Justin Martyr, § 30, 9. + 166. (155?) Martyrdom of Polycarp, § 22, 3. + 172. (156?) Montanus appears as a Prophet, § 40, 1. + 177. Persecution of Christians at Lyons and Vienne, + § 22, 3. + 178. Irenæus made Bishop of Lyons, § 31, 2. + 180-192. The Emperor Commodus, § 22, 3. + 196. Paschal Controversy between Victor and Polycrates, + § 37, 2. + + + THIRD CENTURY. + + 202. Tertullian becomes Montanist, § 40, 2. + Pantænus dies, § 31, 4. + 220. Clement of Alexandria dies, § 31, 4. + 235. Settlement of the Schism of Hippolytus, § 41, 1. + 235-238. The Emperor Maximinus Thrax, § 22, 4. + 243. Ammonius Saccus [Saccas] dies, § 25, 2. + 244. Arabian Synod against Beryllus, § 33, 7. + 249-251. The Emperor Decius, § 22, 5. + 250. The Schism of Felicissimus, § 41, 2. + 251. The Novatian Schism, § 41, 3. + 253-260. The Emperor Valerian, § 22, 5. + 254. Origen dies, § 31, 5. + 255-256. Controversy about Heretics’ Baptism, § 35, 5. + 258. Cyprian dies, § 31, 11. + 260-268. The Emperor Gallienus. + The Toleration Edict, § 22, 5. + 262. Synod at Rome against Sabellius and Dionysius of + Alexandria, § 33, 7. + 269. Third Synod of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, + § 33, 8. + 276. Mani dies, § 29, 1. + 284-305. The Emperor Diocletian, § 22, 6. + + + FOURTH CENTURY. + + 303. Beginning of Diocletian Persecution, § 22, 6. + 306. Synod of Elvira, § 38, 3; 45, 2. + Meletian Schism in Egypt, § 41, 4. + Constantius Chlorus dies, § 22, 7. + 311. Galerius dies, § 22, 6. + 312. Constantine’s Expedition against Maxentius, § 22, 7. + Donatist Schism in Africa, § 63, 1. + 313. Edict of Milan, § 22, 7. + 318. Arius is Accused, § 50, 1. + 323-337. Constantine the Great, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2. + 325. First Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 50, 1. + 330-415. Meletian Schism at Antioch, § 50, 8. + 335. Synod at Tyre, § 50, 2. + 336. Athanasius Exiled. Arius dies, § 50, 2. + 341. Council at Antioch, § 50, 2. + 343. Persecution of Christians under Shapur [Sapor] II., + § 64, 2. + 344. Synod at Sardica, § 46, 3; 50, 2. + 346. Council at Milan against Photinus, § 50, 2. + 348. Ulfilas, Bishop of the Goths, § 76, 1. + 350-361. Constantius, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2. + 351. First Council at Sirmium against Marcellus, § 50, 2. + 357. Second Council at Sirmium, Homoians, § 50, 3. + 358. Third Council at Sirmium, § 50, 3. + 359. Synods at Seleucia and Rimini, § 50, 3. + 361-363. Emperor Julian the Apostate, § 42, 3. + 362. Synod at Alexandria against Athanasius, § 50, 4. + 366-384. Damasus I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4. + 368. Hilary of Poitiers dies, § 47, 14. + 373. Athanasius dies, § 47, 3. + 379. Basil the Great dies, § 47, 4. + 379-395. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, § 42, 4. + 380. Synod at Saragossa, § 54, 2. + 381. Second Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 50, 4. + Ulfilas dies, § 76, 1. + 384-398. Siricius, Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4. + 385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, § 54, 2. + 390. Gregory Nazianzen dies, § 47, 4. + 391. Destruction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, § 42, 6. + 393. Council at Hippo Rhegius, § 59, 1. + 397. Ambrose dies, § 47, 15. + 399. Rufinus Condemned at Rome as an Origenist, § 51, 2. + 400. Martin of Tours dies, § 47, 15. + + + FIFTH CENTURY. + + 402-417. Innocent I. of Rome, § 46, 5. + 403. _Synodus ad Quercum_, § 51, 3. + Epiphanius dies, § 47, 10. + 407. Chrysostom dies, § 47, 8. + 408-450. Theodosius II. in the East, § 52, 3. + 411. _Collatio cum Donatistis_, § 63, 1. + 412. Synod at Carthage against Cœlestius, § 53, 4. + 415. Synods at Jerusalem and Diospolis against Pelagius, + § 53, 4. + 416. Synods at Mileve and Carthage against Pelagius, + § 53, 4. + 418. General Assembly at Carthage, § 53, 4. + Roman Schism of Eulalius and Bonifacius, § 46, 6. + 420. Jerome dies, § 47, 16. + Persecution of Christians under Behram [Bahram] V., + § 64, 2. + 422-432. Cœlestine I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 6. + 428. Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople, + § 52, 3. + 429. Theodore of Mopsuestia dies, § 47, 9. + The Vandals in North Africa, § 76, 3. + 430. Cyril’s Anathemas, § 52, 3. + Augustine dies, § 47, 18. + 431. Third Œcumenical Council at Ephesus, § 52, 3. + 432. St. Patrick in Ireland, § 77, 1. + John Cassianus dies, § 47, 21. + 440-461. Leo I., the Great, § 46, 7; 47, 22. + 444. Cyril of Alexandria dies, § 47, 6. + Dioscurus succeeds Cyril, § 52, 4. + 445. Rescript of Valentinian III., § 46, 7. + 448. Eutyches excommunicated at Constantinople, § 52, 4. + 449. Robber Synod at Ephesus, § 52, 4. + Attack of Angles and Saxons upon Britain, § 77, 4. + 451. Fourth Œcumenical Synod at Chalcedon, § 52, 4. + 457. Theodoret dies, § 47, 9. + 475. Semipelagian Synods at Arles and Lyons, § 53, 5. + 476. Overthrow of the West Roman Empire, § 46, 8; 76, 6. + Monophysite Encyclical of Basiliscus, § 52, 5. + 482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, § 52, 5. + Severinus dies, § 76, 6. + 484-519. The Thirty-five Years’ Schism between the East and + West, § 52, 5. + 492-496. Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 8; 47, 22. + 496. Battle of Zülpich. Clovis baptized, § 76, 9. + + + SIXTH CENTURY. + + 502. _Synodus Palmaris_, § 46, 8. + 517. Council at Epaon, § 76, 5. + 527-565. Justinian I., Emperor, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + 529. Synods at Oranges and Valence, § 53, 5. + Monastic Rule of Benedict of Nursia, § 85. + Suppression of the University of Athens, § 42, 4. + 533. The Theopaschite Controversy, § 52, 6. + Overthrow of the Vandal Empire, § 76, 3. + 544. Condemnation of the “Three Chapters,” § 52, 6. + 553. Fifth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople, § 52, 6. + 554. Overthrow of the Ostrogoth Empire in Italy, § 76, 7. + 563. Council at Braga, § 54, 2. + St. Columba among the Picts and Scots. § 77, 2. + 567. Founding of the Exarchate of Ravenna, § 46, 9. + 568. The Longobards under Alboin in Italy, § 76, 8. + 589. Council at Toledo under Reccared, § 76, 2. + Columbanus and Gallus in the Vosges Country, § 77, 7. + 590-604. Gregory I., the Great, § 46, 10; 47, 22. + 595. Gregory of Tours dies, § 90, 2. + 596. Augustine goes as Missionary to the Anglo-Saxons, + § 77, 4. + 597. St. Columba dies, § 77, 2. + Ethelbert baptized, § 77, 4. + + + SEVENTH CENTURY. + + 606. Emperor Phocas recognises the Roman Primacy, § 46, 10. + 611-641. Heraclius, Emperor, § 52, 8. + 615. Columbanus dies, § 77, 7. + 622. Hejira, § 65. + 625-638. Honorius I., Pope, § 46, 11. + 636. Isidore of Seville dies, § 90, 2. + 637. Omar conquers Jerusalem, § 65. + 638. Monothelite Ecthesis of Heraclius, § 52, 8. + 640. Omar conquers Egypt, § 65. + 642-668. Constans II., Emperor, § 52, 8. + 646. St. Gallus dies, § 78, 1. + 648. The Typus of Constans II., § 52, 8. + 649-653. Martin I., Pope, § 46, 11. + 649. First Lateran Council under Martin I., § 52, 8. + 652. Emmeran at Regensburg, § 78, 2. + 657. Constantine of Mananalis, § 71, 1. + 662. Maximus Confessor, dies, § 47, 13. + 664. Synod at Streoneshalch (_Syn. Pharensis_), § 77, 6. + 668-685. Constantinus Pogonnatus, § 52, 8; 71, 1. + 677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, § 78, 3. + 678-682. Agatho, Pope, § 46, 11. + 680. Sixth Œcumenical Council at Constantinople + (Trullanum I.), § 52, 8. + 690. Wilibrord among the Frisians, § 78, 3. + 692. Concilium Quinisextum (Trullanum II.), § 63, 2. + 696. Rupert in Bavaria (Salzburg), § 78, 2. + + + EIGHTH CENTURY. + + 711. The Saracens conquer Spain, § 81. + 715-731. Pope Gregory II., § 66, 1; 78, 4. + 716. Winifrid goes to the Frisians, § 78, 4. + 717-741. Leo III., the Isaurian, Emperor, § 66, 1. + 718. Winifrid in Rome, § 78, 4. + 722. Winifrid in Thuringia and Hesse, § 78, 4. + 723. Winifrid a second time at Rome, consecrated Bishop, + etc., § 78, 4. + 724. Destruction of the Wonder-working Oak at Geismar, + § 78, 4. + 726. Leo’s First Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1. + 730. Leo’s Second Edict against Image Worship, § 66, 1. + 731. Gregory III., Pope, § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1. + 732. Boniface, Archbishop and Apostolic Vicar, § 78, 4. + Battle at Poitiers, § 81. + Separation of Illyria from the Roman See by Leo the + Isaurian, § 66, 1. + 735. The Venerable Bede dies, § 90, 2. + 739. Wilibrord dies, § 78, 3. + 741. Charles Martel dies, § 78, 5. + Gregory III. dies. Leo the Isaurian dies. + 741-752. Pope Zacharias, § 78, 5, 7; 82, 1. + 741-775. Constantinus Copronymus, Emperor, § 66, 2. + 742. Concilium Germanicum, § 78, 5. + 743. Synod at Liptinä, § 78, 5; 86, 2. + 744. Synod at Soissons, § 78, 5. + 745. Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, § 78, 5. + 752. Childeric III. deposed, Pepin the Short, King, + § 78, 5; 82, 1. + 754. Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople, § 66, 2. + Pepin’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 1. + 755. Boniface dies, § 78, 7. + Abt. 760. Rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, § 84, 4. + 767. Synod at Gentilliacum, § 91, 2; 92, 1. + 768-814. Charlemagne, § 82, 2, 4; 90, 1, etc. + 772-795. Pope Hadrian I., § 82, 2. + 772. Destruction of Eresburg, § 78, 9. + 774. Charlemagne’s donation to the Chair of St. Peter, + § 82, 2. + 785. Wittekind and Alboin are baptized, § 78, 9. + 787. Seventh Œcumenical Council at Nicæa, § 66, 3. + Founding of Cloister and Cathedral Schools, § 90, 1. + 790. _Libri Carolini_, § 92, 1. + 792. Synod at Regensburg, § 91, 1. + 794. General Synod at Frankfort, § 91, 1; 92, 1. + 795-816. Leo III., Pope, § 82, 3. + 799. Alcuin’s disputation with Felix at Aachen, § 91, 1. + 800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, § 82, 3. + + + NINTH CENTURY. + + 804. End of the Saxon War, § 78, 9. + Alcuin dies, § 90, 3. + 809. Council at Aachen, on the _Filioque_, § 91, 2. + 813-820. Leo the Armenian, Emperor, § 66, 4. + 814-840. Louis the Pious, § 82, 4. + 817. Reformation of Monasticism by Benedict of Aniane, + § 85, 2. + 820-829. Michael Balbus, Emperor, § 66, 4. + 825. Synod at Paris against Image Worship, § 92, 1. + 826. Theodorus Studita dies, § 66, 4. + Ansgar in Denmark, § 80, 1. + 827. Establishment of Saracen Sovereignty in Sicily, § 81. + 829-842. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4. + 833. Founding of the Archbishopric of Hamburg, § 80, 1. + 835. Synod at Didenhofen, § 82, 4. + 839. Claudius of Turin dies. Agobard of Lyons dies, + § 90, 4. + 840-877. Charles the Bald, § 90, 1. + 842. Feast of Orthodoxy, § 66, 4. + Theodora recommends the out-rooting of the + Paulicians, § 71, 1. + 843. Compact of Verdun, § 82, 5. + 844. Eucharist Controversy of Paschasius Radbertus, + § 91, 3. + 845-882. Hincmar of Rheims, § 83, 2; 90, 5. + 847. Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, § 80, 1. + 848. Synod of Mainz against Gottschalk, § 91, 5. + 850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, § 81, 1. + 851-852. The Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore, § 87, 2, 3. + 853. Synod of Quiersy. _Capitula Carisiaca_, § 91, 5. + 855. Synod at Valence in favour of Gottschalk, § 91, 5. + 856. Rabanus Maurus dies, § 90, 4. + 858-867. Pope Nicholas I., § 82, 7. + 858. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, § 67, 1. + 859. Synod of Savonnières, § 91, 5. + 861. Methodius goes to the Bulgarians, § 73, 3. + 863. Cyril and Methodius go to Moravia, § 79, 2. + 865. Ansgar dies, § 80, 1. + 866. Encyclical of Photius, § 67, 1. + 867-886. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, § 67, 1. + 867-872. Hadrian II., Pope, § 82, 7. + 869. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Latins at + Constantinople § 67, 1. + 870. Treaty of Mersen, § 82, 5. + 871. Basil the Macedonian puts down the Paulicians, + § 71, 1. + Borziwoi and Ludmilla baptized, § 79, 3. + 871-901. Alfred the Great, § 90, 9. + 875. John VIII. crowns Charles the Bald Emperor, § 82, 8. + 879. Eighth Œcumenical Council of the Greeks at + Constantinople, § 67, 1. + 886-911. Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, § 67, 2. + 891. Photius dies, § 67, 1. + + + TENTH CENTURY. + + 910. Abbot Berno founds Clugny, § 98, 1. + 911. The German Carolingians die out, § 82, 8. + 911-918. Conrad I., King of the Germans. § 96, 1. + 914-928. Pope John X., § 96, 1. + 919-936. Henry I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1. + 934. Henry I. enforced toleration of Christianity in + Denmark, § 93, 2. + 936-973. Otto I., Emperor, § 96, 1. + 942. Odo of Clugny founds the Clugniac Congregation, + § 98, 1. + 950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, § 93, 8. + 955. Olga baptized in Constantinople, § 73, 4. + 960. Atto of Vercelli dies, § 100, 2. + 962. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire of the German + Nation, § 96, 1. + 963. Synod at Rome deposes John XII., § 96, 1. + 966. Miecislaw of Poland baptized, § 93, 7. + 968. Founding of Archbishopric of Magdeburg, § 93, 9. + 970. Migration of Paulicians to Thrace, § 71, 1. + 973-983. Otto II., Emperor, § 96, 2. + 974. Ratherius of Verona dies, § 100, 2. + 983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, § 96, 2, 3. + 983. Mistewoi destroys all Christian establishments among + the Wends, § 93, 9. + 987. Hugh Capet is made King of France, § 96, 2. + 988. Wladimir Christianizes Russia, § 73, 4. + 992-1025. Boleslaw Chrobry of Poland, § 93, 7. + 996-999. Pope Gregory V., § 96, 2. + 997-1038. Stephen the Saint, § 93, 8. + 997. Adalbert of Prague, Apostle of Prussia, dies, + § 93, 13. + 999-1003. Pope Sylvester II., § 96, 3. + 1000. Olaf Tryggvason dies, § 93, 4. + Christianity introduced into Iceland and Greenland, + § 93, 5. + Stephen of Hungary secures the throne, § 93, 8. + + + ELEVENTH CENTURY. + + 1002-1024. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4. + 1008. Olaf Skautkoning of Sweden baptized, § 93, 3. + 1009. Bruno martyred, § 93, 13. + 1012-1024. Pope Benedict VIII., § 96, 4. + 1014-1036. Canute the Great, § 93, 2. + 1018. Romuald founds the Camaldulensian Congregation, + § 98, 1. + 1024-1039. Conrad II., Emperor, § 96, 4. + 1030. Olaf the Thick of Norway dies, § 93, 4. + 1031. Overthrow of the Ommaides in Spain, § 95, 2. + 1039-1056. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4, 5. + 1041. Treuga Dei, § 105, 1. + 1046. Synod at Sutri, § 96, 4. + 1049-1054. Pope Leo IX., § 96, 5. + 1050. Synods at Rome and Vercelli against Berengar, + § 101, 2. + 1053. Epistle of Michael Cærularius, § 67, 3. + 1054. Excommunication of Greek Church by Papal Legates, + § 67, 3. + 1056-1106. Henry IV., Emperor, § 96, 6-11. + 1059. Pope Nicholas II. assigns the choice of Pope to the + College of Cardinals, § 96, 6. + 1060. Robert Guiscard founds the Norman Sovereignty in + Italy, § 95, 1. + 1066. Murder of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, § 93, 9. + 1073-1085. Pope Gregory VII., § 96, 7-9. + 1075. Gregory’s third Investiture Enactment, § 96, 7. + 1077. Henry IV. as a Penitent at Canossa, § 96, 8. + 1079. Berengar subscribes at Rome the doctrine of + Transubstantiation, § 101, 2. + 1086. Bruno of Cologne founds the Carthusian Order, § 98, 2. + 1088-1099. Pope Urban II., § 96, 10. + 1095. Synod at Clermont, § 94. + 1096. First Crusade. Godfrey of Boulogne, § 94, 1. + 1098. Synod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4. + Robert of Citeaux founds the Cistercian Order, + § 98, 1. + 1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, § 94, 1. + 1099-1118. Pope Paschalis II., § 96, 11. + + + TWELFTH CENTURY. + + 1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor, § 96, 11. + 1106. Michael Psellus dies, § 68, 5. + 1109. Anselm of Canterbury dies, § 101, 1, 3. + 1113. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, § 98, 1; 102, 3. + 1118. Founding of the Order of Knights Templar. + Knights of St. John, § 98, 7. + Basil, head of Bogomili, sent to the stake, § 71, 4. + 1119-1124. Calixtus II., Pope, § 96, 11. + 1121. Norbert founds the Præmonstratensian Order, § 98, 2. + 1122. Concordat of Worms, § 96, 11. + 1123. Ninth Œcumenical Council (First Lateran), § 96, 11. + 1124. First Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, + § 93, 10. + 1126. Peter of Bruys burnt, § 108, 7. + 1128. Second Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, + § 93, 10. + 1130-1143. Pope Innocent II., § 96, 13. + 1135. Rupert of Deutz dies, § 102, 8. + 1139. Tenth Œcumenical Council (Second Lateran), § 96, 13. + 1141. Synod at Sens condemns Abælard’s writings, § 102, 2. + Hugo St. Victor dies, § 102, 4. + 1142. Abælard dies, § 102, 2. + 1143. Founding of the Roman Commune, § 96, 13. + 1145-1153. Pope Eugenius III., § 96, 13. + 1146. Fall of Edessa, § 94, 2. + 1147. Second Crusade. Conrad III. Louis VII., § 94, 2. + 1149. Henry of Lausanne dies, § 108, 7. + 1150. _Decretum Gratiani_, § 99, 5. + 1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14. + 1153. Bernard of Clairvaux dies, § 102, 3. + 1154. Vicelin [Vicelinus] dies, § 93, 9. + 1154-1159. Hadrian IV., Pope, § 96, 14. + 1155. Arnold of Brescia put to death, § 96, 14. + 1156. Peter the Venerable dies, § 98, 1. + Founding of Carmelite Order, § 98, 3. + 1157. Introduction of Christianity into Finland, § 93, 11. + 1159-1181. Pope Alexander III., § 96, 15, 16. + 1164. Peter the Lombard dies, § 102, 5. + Council of Clarendon, § 96, 16. + 1167. Council at Toulouse (Cathari), § 108, 2. + 1168. Christianity of the Island of Rügen, § 93, 10. + 1169. Gerhoch of Reichersberg dies, § 102, 6, 7. + 1170. Thomas Becket murdered, § 96, 16. + Founding of the Waldensian sect, § 108, 10. + 1176. Battle of Legnano, § 96, 15. + 1179. Eleventh Œcumenical Council (Third Lateran), § 96, 15. + 1180. John of Salisbury dies, § 102, 9. + 1182. Maronites are attached to Rome, § 73, 3. + 1184. Meinhart in Livonia, § 93, 12. + 1187. Saladin conquers Jerusalem, § 94, 3. + 1189. Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa, § 94, 3. + 1190-1197. Henry VI., Emperor, § 96, 16. + 1190. Founding of Order of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8. + 1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica dies, § 68, 5. + 1198-1216. Pope Innocent III., § 96, 17, 18. + + + THIRTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1202. Joachim of Floris dies, § 108, 5. + Founding of Order of the Brothers of the Sword, + § 93, 12. + Genghis Khan destroys Kingdom of Prester John, + § 72, 1. + 1204-1261. Latin Empire in Constantinople, § 94, 4. + 1207. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, § 96, 18. + 1208. Peter of Castelnau slain, § 109, 1. + 1209-1229. Albigensian Crusade, § 109, 1. + 1209. Council of Paris against Sect of Amalrich of Bena, + § 108, 4. + 1212. Battle at Tolosa, § 95, 2. + 1213. John Lackland receives England as a Papal Fief, + § 96, 18. + 1215-1250. Frederick II., Emperor, § 96, 17, 19, 20. + 1215. Twelfth Œcumenical Council (Fourth Lateran), + § 96, 18. + 1216. Confirmation of the Dominican Order, § 98, 5. + 1216-1227. Pope Honorius III., § 96, 19. + 1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4. + 1223. Confirmation of Franciscan Order, § 98, 3. + 1226. Francis of Assisi dies, § 98, 3. + 1226-1270. Louis IX., the Saint, § 94, 6; 93, 15. + 1227-1241. Pope Gregory IX., § 96, 19. + 1228. Fifth Crusade. Frederick II., § 94, 5. + Settlement of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, + § 93, 13. + 1229. Synod at Toulouse, § 109, 2. + 1231. St. Elizabeth dies, § 105, 3. + 1232. Inquisition Tribunal set up, § 109, 2. + 1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, § 109, 3. + 1234. Crusade against Stedingers, § 109, 3. + 1237. Union of the Order of Sword with that of Teutonic + Knights, § 98, 8. + 1243-1254. Pope Innocent IV., § 96, 20. + 1245. Thirteenth Œcumenical Council (first of Lyons), + § 96, 20. + Alexander of Hales died, § 103, 4. + 1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral of Cologne laid, + § 104, 13. + Sixth Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6. + 1253. Robert Grosseteste dies, § 103, 1. + 1254. Condemnation of the “_Introductorius in evangelium + æternum_,” § 108, 5. + 1260. First Flagellant Campaign in Perugia, § 107, 1. + 1260-1282. Michael Paläologus, Emperor, § 67, 4. + 1261-1264. Urban IV., Pope, § 96, 20. + 1262. Arsenian Schism, § 70, 1. + 1268. Conradin on the Scaffold. § 96, 20. + 1269. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., § 96, 21. + 1270. Seventh Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6. + 1271-1276. Pope Gregory X., § 96, 21. + 1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, § 93, 15. + David of Augsburg dies, § 103, 10. + Bertholdt [Berthold] of Regensburg dies, § 104, 1. + 1273-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor, § 96, 21, 22. + 1274. Fourteenth Œcumenical Council (second of Lyons), + § 96, 21. + Thomas Aquinas dies, § 103, 6. + Bonaventura dies, § 103, 4. + 1275. Strassburg Minster, § 104, 13. + 1280. Albert the Great dies, § 103, 5. + 1282. Sicilian Vespers, § 96, 22. + 1283. Prussia subdued, § 93, 13. + 1286. Barhabraeus [Barhebræus] dies, § 72, 2. + 1291. Fall of Acre, § 94, 6. + John of Montecorvino among the Mongols, § 93, 16. + 1294. Roger Bacon dies, § 103, 8. + 1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, § 110, 1. + 1296. Bull _Clericis laicos_, § 110, 1. + 1300. First Roman Jubilee, § 117. + Lollards at Antwerp, § 116, 2. + Gerhard Segarelli burnt, § 108, 8. + + + FOURTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1302. Bull _Unam Sanctam_, § 110, 1. + 1305-1314. Pope Clement V., § 110, 2. + 1307. Dolcino burnt, § 108, 4. + 1308. Duns Scotus dies, § 113, 1. + 1309-1377. Residence of Popes at Avignon, § 110, 2-4. + 1311-1312. Fifteenth Œcumenical Council at Vienne, § 110, 2. + Suppression of Templar Order, § 112, 7. + 1314-1347. Louis the Bavarian, Emperor, § 110, 3, 4. + 1315. Raimund Lullus dies, § 93, 16; 103, 5. + 1316-1334. Pope John XXII., § 110, 3; 112, 2. + 1321. Dante dies, § 115, 10. + 1322. Split in the Franciscan Order, § 112, 2. + 1327. Meister Eckhart dies, § 114, 1. + 1334-1342. Pope Benedict XII., § 110, 4. + 1335. Bishop Hemming in Lapland, § 93, 11. + 1338. Electoral Union at Rhense, § 110, 5. + 1339. Union negotiations at Avignon. Barlaam, § 67, 5. + 1340. Nicholas of Lyra dies, § 113, 7. + 1341-1351. Hesychast Controversy in Constantinople, § 69, 1. + 1342-1352. Pope Clement VI., § 110, 4. + 1346-1378. Charles IV., Emperor, § 110, 4. + 1347. Rienzi, § 110, 4. + Emperor Louis dies, § 110, 4. + 1348. Founding of University of Prague, § 119, 3. + 1348-1350. Black Death. Flagellant Campaign, § 116, 3. + 1349. Thomas Bradwardine dies, § 113, 2. + 1352-1362. Pope Innocent VI., § 110, 4. + 1356. Charles IV. issues the Golden Bull, § 110, 4. + 1360. Wiclif against the Begging Friars, § 119, 1. + 1361. John Tauler dies, § 114, 2. + 1362-1370. Pope Urban V., § 110, 4. + 1366. Henry Suso dies, § 114, 5. + 1367-1370. Urban V. in Rome, § 110, 4. + 1369. John Paläologus passes over to the Latin Church, + § 67, 5. + 1370-1378. Pope Gregory XI., § 110, 4. + 1374. Dancers, § 116, 3. + 1377. Return of the Curia to Rome, § 110, 4. + 1378-1417. Papal Schism, § 110, 6. + 1380. Catharine of Siena dies, § 112, 4. + 1384. Wiclif dies, § 119, 1. + Gerhard Groot dies, § 112, 9. + 1386. Introduction of Christianity into Lithuania, + § 93, 14. + 1400. Florentius Radewin dies, § 112, 9. + + + FIFTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1402. Hus becomes Preacher in the Bethlehem Chapel, + § 119, 3. + 1409. Œcumenical Council at Pisa, § 110, 6.[578] + Withdrawal of the Germans from Prague, § 119, 3. + 1410-1415. John XXIII., Pope, § 110, 7. + 1410-1437. Sigismund, Emperor, § 110, 7, 8. + 1412. Traffic in Indulgences in Bohemia, § 119, 4. + 1413. Papal Ban against Hus, § 119, 4. + 1414-1418. Sixteenth Œcumenical Council at Constance, § 110, 6; + 119, 5. + 1415. Hus obtains the crown of martyrdom, § 119, 5. + 1416. Jerome of Prague martyred, § 119, 5. + 1417-1431. Pope Martin V., § 110, 7. + 1420. Calixtines and Taborites, § 119, 7. + 1423. General Councils at Pavia and Siena, § 110, 7. + 1424. Ziska dies, § 119, 7. + 1425. Peter D’Ailly dies, § 118, 3. + 1429. Gerson dies, § 118, 3. + 1431-1447. Pope Eugenius IV., § 110, 7. + 1431-1449. Seventeenth Œcumenical Council at Basel, § 110, 8; + 119, 5-7. + 1433. Basel Compacts, § 119, 7. + 1434. Overthrow of Hussites at Böhmischbrod, § 119, 7. + 1438. Papal Counter-Council at Ferrara, § 110, 8. + Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, § 110, 9. + 1439. Council at Florence, § 67, 6. + 1448. Concordat of Vienna, § 110, 9. + 1453. Fall of Constantinople, § 67, 6. + 1457. Laurentius Valla dies, § 120, 1. + 1458-1464. Pope Pius II., § 110, 11. + 1459. Congress of Princes at Mantua, § 110, 10. + 1464-1471. Pope Paul II., § 110, 11. + 1467. Convention of Bohemian Brethren at Lhota, § 119, 8. + 1471. Thomas à Kempis dies, § 114, 5. + 1471-1484. Sixtus IV., Pope, § 110, 11. + 1483. Luther born on November 10th, § 122, 1. + Spanish Inquisition, § 117, 1. + Close of _Corpus juris canonici_, § 99, 5. + 1484-1492. Innocent VIII., Pope, § 110, 11. + 1484. Zwingli born January 1st, § 130, 1. + Bull _Summis desiderantes_, § 117, 4. + 1485. Rudolph Agricola dies, § 120, 3. + 1489. John Wessel dies, § 119, 10. + 1492-1503. Alexander VI., Pope, § 110, 12. + 1492. Fall of Granada, § 95, 2. + 1493-1519. Maximilian I., Emperor, § 110, 13. + 1497. Melanchthon born, § 122, 5. + 1498. Savonarola sent to the stake, § 119, 11. + + + SIXTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1502. Founding of University of Wittenberg, § 122, 1. + 1508-1513. Pope Julius II., § 110, 13. + 1506. Rebuilding of St. Peter’s at Rome, § 115, 13. + 1508. Luther becomes Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 1. + 1509. Calvin born on July 10th, § 138, 2. + 1509-1547. Henry VIII. of England, § 139, 4. + 1511. Luther’s journey to Rome, § 122, 1. + Council at Pisa, § 110, 13. + 1512. Luther made Doctor of the Holy Scriptures and + Preacher, § 112, 1. + 1512-1517. Fifth Lateran Council, § 110, 13, 14. + 1513-1521. Pope Leo X., § 110, 14. + 1514. Reuchlin’s contest with the Dominicans, § 120, 4. + 1516. _Epistolæ Obscur. virorum_, § 120, 5. + Erasmus edits the New Testament, § 120, 6. + Zwingli preaches at Mariä Einsiedeln, § 130, 1. + 1517. Luther’s Theses, October 31st, § 122, 2. + 1518. Luther at Heidelberg and before Cajetan at Augsburg, + § 122, 3. + Melanchthon Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 5. + 1519. Miltitz, § 122, 3. + Disputation at Leipzig, § 122, 4. + Zwingli in Zürich, § 130, 1. + Olaf and Laurence Peterson in Sweden, § 139, 1. + 1519-1556. Emperor Charles V., § 123, 5. + 1520. Bull of Excommunication against Luther, § 123, 2. + Christian II. in Denmark, § 139, 2. + 1521. Luther at Worms, § 123, 7. + Melanchthon’s _Loci_, § 124, 1. + Beginning of Reformation in Riga, § 139, 3. + 1521-1522. The Wartburg Exile, § 123, 8. + 1522. The Prophets of Zwickau in Wittenberg, § 124, 1. + Reuchlin dies, § 120, 4. + 1522-1523. Pope Hadrian VI., § 126, 1. + 1523. Thomas Münzer in Allstädt, § 124, 4. + Luther’s contest with Henry VIII., § 125, 3. + First Martyrs, Voes and Esch, § 128, 1. + Sickingen’s defeat, § 124, 2. + 1523-1534. Pope Clement VII., § 149, 1. + 1524. Staupitz dies, § 112, 2. + Carlstadt in Orlamünde, § 124, 3. + Erasmus against Luther, § 125, 2. + Diet of Nuremberg, § 126, 2. + Regensburg League, § 126, 3. + Hans Tausen in Denmark, § 139, 2. + Founding of Theatine Order, § 149, 7. + 1525. Eucharist Controversy, § 131, 1. + Luther’s Marriage, § 129. + Albert of Prussia, Hereditary Duke, § 126, 4. + Founding of the Capuchin Order, § 149, 7. + 1525-1532. John the Constant, Elector of Saxony, § 124, 5. + 1526. Synod at Hamburg, § 127, 2. + Torgau League, § 126, 5. + Diet at Spires, § 126, 6. + Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6. + 1527. Diet at Odense, § 139, 2; + and at Westeräs, § 139, 1. + 1528. The Pack incident, § 132, 1. + Disputation at Bern, § 130, 7. + 1529. Church Visitation of Saxony, § 127, 1. + Diet at Spires, § 132, 3. + Marburg Conference, § 132, 4. + First Peace of Cappel, § 130, 9. + 1530. Diet at Augsburg. _Conf. Augustana_, June 25th, + § 132, 6, 7. + 1531. Schmalcald League, § 133, 1. + Zwingli dies. Second Peace of Cappel, § 130, 10. + 1532-1547. John Frederick the Magnanimous, Elector of Saxony, + § 133, 2. + 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg, § 133, 2. + Farel at Geneva, § 138, 1. + Henry VIII. renounces authority of the Pope, § 139, 4. + 1534. Luther’s complete Bible Translation, § 129, 1. + Reformation in Württemberg, § 133, 3. + 1534-1535. Anabaptist Troubles in Münster, § 133, 6. + 1534-1549. Pope Paul III., § 149, 2. + 1535. Vergerius in Wittenberg, § 134, 1. + Calvin’s _Institutio rel. Christ._, § 138, 5. + 1536. Erasmus dies, § 120, 6. + Wittenberg Concord, § 133, 8. + Calvin in Geneva, § 138, 2. + Diet at Copenhagen, § 139, 2. + Menno Simons baptized, § 147, 1. + 1537. Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1. + Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1. + 1538. Nuremberg League, § 134, 2. + Calvin Expelled from Geneva, § 138, 3. + 1539. Outbreak at Frankfort, § 134, 3. + Reformation in Albertine Saxony, § 134, 4. + Joachim II. reforms Brandenburg, § 134, 5. + Diet at Odense, § 139, 2. + 1540. The Society of Jesus, § 149, 8. + Double Marriage of the Landgrave, § 135, 1. + Religious Conferences at Spires, Hagenau, and Worms, + § 135, 2. + 1541. Carlstadt dies, § 124, 3. + Interim of Regensburg, § 135, 3. + Naumburg Episcopate, § 135, 5. + Calvin returns to Geneva, § 138, 3, 4. + 1542. Reformation in Brunswick, § 135, 6. + National Assembly at Bonn, § 135, 7. + Francis Xavier in the East Indies, § 150, 1. + Roman Inquisition, § 139, 23. + 1544. Diet at Spires, Peace of Crespy, Wittenberg + Reformation, § 135, 9. + Diet at Westeräs, § 139, 1. + 1545. Synod at Erdöd, § 139, 20. + 1545-1547. Nineteenth Œcumenical Council at Trent, § 136, 4; + 149, 2. + 1546. Regensburg Conference: Murder of John Diaz, § 135, 10. + Luther dies, February 18th, § 135, 11. + Reformation in the Palatinate, § 135, 6. + 1546-1547. Schmalcald War, § 136. + 1547-1553. Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5. + 1547. Hermann of Cologne resigns, § 136, 2. + 1548-1572. Sigismund Augustus, of Poland, § 139, 18. + 1548. Interim of Augsburg, § 136, 5. + Adiaphorist Controversy, § 141, 5. + Priests of the Oratory, § 149, 7. + 1549. _Consensus Tigurinus_, § 138, 7. + Andrew Osiander at Königsburg, § 141, 2. + Jesuit Mission in Brazil, § 150, 3. + The first Jesuits in Germany (Ingolstadt), § 151, 2. + 1550-1555. Pope Julius III., § 136, 8. + 1550. Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7. + 1551. Resumption of Tridentine Council, § 136, 8; 149, 2. + 1552. Compact of Passau, § 137, 3. + Outbreak of Crypto-Calvinist Controversy, § 141, 9. + Francis Xavier dies, § 150, 1. + 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic of England, § 139, 5. + 1553. Elector Maurice dies, § 137, 4. + Servetus burnt, § 148, 2. + 1554. _Consensus Pastorum Genevensium_, § 138, 7. + John Frederick the Magnanimous dies, § 137, 3. + 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg, § 137, 5. + Outbreak of Synergist Controversies, § 141, 7. + 1555-1598. Philip II. of Spain, § 139, 21. + 1556-1564. Ferdinand I, Emperor, § 137, 8. + 1556. Loyola dies, § 149, 8. + 1557. National Assembly at Clausenburg and _Confessio + Hungarica_, § 139, 20. + 1558. Frankfort Recess, § 141, 11. + 1558-1603. Elizabeth of England, § 139, 6. + 1559. Gustavus Vasa’s Mission to the Lapps, § 142, 7. + _Confessio Gallicana_, § 139, 14. + The English Act of Uniformity, § 139, 6. + 1560-1565. Pope Pius IV., § 149, 2. + 1560. _Confessio Scotica_, § 139, 9. + John a Lasco dies, § 139, 18. + Calvinizing of the Palatinate, § 144, 1. + Melanchthon dies, § 141, 10. + 1561. Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courland, § 139, 3. + Religious Conference at Poissy, § 139, 14. + Mary Stuart in Scotland, § 139, 10. + Princes’ Diet at Naumburg, § 141, 11. + 1562-1563. Resumption and Close of Tridentine Council, § 149, 2. + 1562. _Confessio Belgica_, § 139, 12. + The XXXIX. Articles of the English Church, § 139, 6. + Calvinizing of Bremen, § 144, 2. + Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1. + Lælius Socinus dies, § 148, 4. + 1564. Calvin dies, § 138, 4. + _Professio fidei Tridentinæ_, § 149, 14. + Cassander’s Union Proposals, § 137, 8. + Maulbronn Convention, § 144, 1. + 1564-1576. Emperor Maximilian II., § 137, 8. + 1566. _Catechasimo Romanus_, § 149, 10. + _Confessio Helvetica posterior_, § 138, 7. + The League of “the Beggars,” § 139, 12. + 1567. The writings of Michael Baius condemned, § 149, 13. + 1570. General Synod at Sendomir, § 139, 13. + Peace of St. Germains, § 139, 15. + 1572-1585. Pope Gregory XIII., § 149, 3. + 1572. John Knox dies, § 139, 11. + Bloody Marriage of Paris, August 24th, § 139, 16. + 1573. _Pax dissidentium_ in Poland, § 139, 18. + 1574. Maulbronn Convention, § 141, 12. + Restoration of Catholicism in Eichsfelde, § 151, 1. + 1575. _Confessio Bohemica_, § 139, 19. + 1576. Book of Torgau, § 141, 12. + Pacification of Ghent, § 139, 12. + 1576-1612. Rudolph II., Emperor, § 137, 8. + 1577. The Formula of Concord, § 141, 12. + Restoration of Catholicism in Fulda, § 151, 1. + 1578. The Jesuit Possevin in Sweden, § 151, 3. + 1579. The Union of Utrecht, § 139, 12. + 1580. Book of Concord, § 141, 12. + 1582. Second Attempt at Reformation in Cologne, § 137, 6. + Matthew Ricci in China, § 150, 1. + Reform of Calendar, § 149, 3. + 1585-1590. Pope Sixtus V., § 149, 3. + 1587. Mary Stuart on the Scaffold, § 139, 10. + 1588. Louis Molina, § 149, 13. + 1589-1610. Henry IV. of France, § 139, 17. + 1589. Patriarchate at Moscow, § 73, 4. + 1592. Saxon Articles of Visitation, § 141, 13. + 1593. Assembly of Representatives at Upsala, § 139, 1. + 1595. Synod at Thorn, § 139, 18. + 1596. Synod at Brest, § 151, 3. + 1597. Calvinizing the Principality of Anhalt, § 144, 3. + _Congregatio de auxiliis_, § 149, 13. + 1598. Edict of Nantes, § 139, 17. + 1600. Giordano Bruno at the Stake, § 146, 3. + + + SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1604. Faustus Socinus dies, § 148, 4. + 1605. Landgrave Maurice calvinizes Hesse Cassel, § 154, 1. + Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6. + 1606. The Treaty of Vienna, § 139, 10. + Interdict on the Republic of Venice, § 156, 2. + 1608. Founding the Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 156, 10. + 1609. The Royal Letter, § 139, 19. + 1610-1643. Louis XIII. of France, § 153, 3. + 1610. Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants, § 160, 2. + 1611. Pères de l’Oratoire, § 156, 7. + 1612-1619. Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 1. + 1613. Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg goes over to + Reformed Church, § 154, 3. + George Calixtus in Helmstädt [Helmstadt], § 159, 2. + 1614. _Confessio Marchica_, § 154, 3. + 1616. Leonard Hutter dies, § 159, 4. + 1618. Monks of St. Maur in France, § 156, 7. + 1618-1648. The Thirty Years’ War, § 153, 2. + 1618-1619. Synod of Dort, § 161, 2. + 1619-1637. Ferdinand II., Emperor, § 153, 2. + 1620. The Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. + The Pilgrim Fathers, § 143, 2. + 1621. John Arndt dies, § 160, 1. + 1622. Francis de Sales dies, § 157, 1. + _Congregatio de propaganda fide_, § 156, 9. + 1624. End of Controversy over κένωσις and κρύψις, § 159, 1. + Jac. Böhme dies, § 160, 2. + 1628. Adam Schall in China, § 156, 12. + 1629. Edict of Restitution, § 153, 2. + 1631. Religious Conference at Leipzig, § 154, 4. + 1632. Gustavus Adolphus falls at Lützen, § 153, 2. + 1637. John Gerhard dies, § 159, 4. + Rooting out of Christianity in Japan, § 156, 11. + 1638. Overthrow of Racovian Seminary, § 148, 4. + Cyril Lucar strangled, § 152, 2. + Scottish Covenant, § 155, 1. + 1641. Irish Massacre, § 153, 5. + 1642. Condemnation of the “Augustinus” of Jansen, § 157, 5. + 1643-1715. Louis XIV. of France, § 153, 2; 157, 2, 3, 5. + 1643. Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogilas, § 152, 3. + Opening of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. + 1645. Hugo Grotius dies, § 153, 7. + Religious Conference at Thorn, § 153, 7. + Peace of Linz, § 153, 3. + 1645-1742. Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12. + 1647. George Fox appears as Leader of the Quakers, § 163, 4. + 1648. Peace of Westphalia, § 153, 2. + Close of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. + 1649. Execution of Charles I. of England, § 155, 1. + 1650. Descartes dies, § 164, 1. + 1652. Liturgical Reform of the Patriarch Nikon, § 163, 10. + 1653. Innocent X. condemns the Five Propositions of Jansen, + § 157, 5. + Barebones’ Parliament, § 155, 2. + 1654. Christina of Sweden becomes a Catholic, § 153, 1. + John Val. Andreä dies, § 160, 1. + 1655. The Bloody Easter in Piedmont, § 153, 5. + _Consensus repetitus fidei vere Lutheranæ_, § 159, 2. + 1656. George Calixtus dies, § 159, 2. + Pascal’s _Lettres Provinciales_, § 157, 5. + 1658. Outbreak of Cocceian Controversies, § 161, 5. + 1660. Vincent de Paul dies, § 156, 8. + Restoration of Royalty and Episcopacy in England, + § 155, 3. + 1661. Religious Conference at Cassel, § 154, 4. + 1664. Founding of Order of Trappists, § 156, 8. + 1669. Cocceius dies, § 161, 3. + 1670. The Labadists in Herford, § 163, 7. + 1673. The Test Act, § 153, 6. + 1675. _Formula consensus Helvetici_, § 161, 2. + Spener’s _Pia Desideria_, § 159, 3. + 1676. Paul Gerhardt dies, § 154, 4. + Voetius dies, § 161, 3. + 1677. Spinoza dies, § 164, 1. + 1682. _Quatuor propositiones Cleri Gallicani_, § 156, 1. + Founding of Pennsylvania, § 163, 4. + 1685. Revocation of Edict of Nantes and Expulsion of + Waldensians from Piedmont, § 153, 4, 5. + 1686. Spener at Dresden and _Collegia philobiblica_ in + Leipzig, § 159, 3. + Abraham Calov dies, § 159, 4. + 1687. Michael Molinos forced to Abjure, § 157, 2. + 1689. English Act of Toleration, § 155, 3. + Return of banished Waldensians, § 153, 5. + 1690. The Pietists Expelled from Leipzig, § 159, 3. + 1691. Spener in Berlin, § 159, 3. + 1694. Founding of University of Halle, § 159, 3. + 1697. Frederick Augustus the Strong of Saxony becomes + Catholic, § 153, 1. + 1699. Propositions of Fénelon Condemned, § 157, 3. + + + EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. + + 1701. Thomas of Tournon in the East Indies, § 156, 12. + 1702. Löscher’s “_Unschuldige Nachrichten_,” § 167, 1. + Buttlar Fanatical Excesses, § 170, 4. + 1703. _Collegium caritativum_ at Berlin, § 169, 1. + Peter Codde deposed, § 165, 8. + 1704. Bossuet dies, § 153, 7; 157, 3. + 1705. Spener dies, § 159, 3. + 1706. Founding of Lutheran Mission at Tranquebar, § 167, 9. + 1707. The Praying Children at Silesia, § 167, 8. + 1709. Port Royal suppressed, § 157, 5. + 1712. Richard Simon dies, § 158, 1. + Mechitarist Congregation, § 165, 2. + 1713. The Constitution _Unigenitus_, § 165, 7. + 1717-1774. Louis XV. of France, § 165, 5. + 1715. Fénelon dies, § 157, 3. + 1716. Leibnitz dies, § 164, 2. + 1717. French Appellants, § 165, 7. + Madame Guyon dies, § 157, 3. + Gottfried Arnold dies, § 160, 2. + Inspired Communities in the Cevennes, § 170, 2. + 1721. Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, § 166. + Hans Egede goes as Missionary to Greenland, § 167, 9. + 1722. Founding of Herrnhut, § 168, 2. + 1727. A. H. Francke dies, § 167, 8. + Thomas of Westen dies, § 160, 7. + Founding of the Society of United Brethren, § 168, 2. + 1728. Callenberg’s Institute for Conversion of Jews, + § 167, 9. + 1729. Buddeus dies, § 168, 2. + Methodist Society formed, § 169, 4. + 1731. Emigration of Evangelicals of Salzburg, § 165, 4. + 1740-1786. Frederick II. of Prussia, § 171, 4. + 1741. Moravian Special Covenant with the Lord Jesus, + § 168, 4. + 1750. Sebastian Bach dies, § 167, 7. + End of Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 165, 3. + 1751. Semler, Professor in Halle, § 171, 6. + 1752. Bengel dies, § 167, 4. + 1754. Christ. v. Wolff dies, § 167, 3. + Winckelmann becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6. + 1755. Mosheim dies, § 167, 3. + 1758-1769. Pope Clement XIII., § 165, 9. + 1759. Banishment of Jesuits from Portugal, § 165, 9. + 1760. Zinzendorf dies, § 168, 3. + 1762. Judicial Murder of Jean Calas, § 165, 5. + 1765. Universal German Library, § 171, 4. + 1769-1774. Pope Clement XIV., § 165, 9. + 1772. Swedenborg dies, § 170, 5. + 1773. Suppression of Jesuit Order, § 165, 9. + 1774. Wolfenbüttel Fragments, § 171, 6. + 1775-1799. Pius VI., Pope, § 165, 9, 10. + 1775. C. A. Crusius dies, § 167, 3. + 1776. Founding of the Order of the Illuminati, § 165, 13. + 1778. Voltaire and Rousseau die, § 165, 14. + 1780-1790. Joseph II., sole ruler, § 165, 10. + 1781. Joseph’s Edict of Toleration, § 165, 10. + 1782. Pope Pius VI. in Vienna, § 165, 10. + 1786. Congress at Ems and Synod at Pistoja, § 165, 10. + 1787. Edict of Versailles, § 165, 4. + 1788. The Religious Edict of Wöllner, § 171, 5. + 1789. French Revolution, § 165, 15. + 1791. Wesley dies, § 169, 5. + Semler dies, § 171, 6. + 1793. Execution of Louis XVI. and his Queen. Abolition of + Christian reckoning of time and of the Christian + religion in France. _Temple de la Raison_, + § 165, 15. + 1794. _Le peuple français reconnait l’Etre suprème et + l’immortalité de l’âme_, § 165, 15. + 1795. Founding of London Missionary Society, § 172, 5. + 1799. Schleiermacher’s “_Reden über die Religion_,” + § 182, 1. + 1800. Stolberg becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6. + + + NINETEENTH CENTURY. + + 1800-1823. Pope Pius VII., § 185, 1. + 1801. French Concordat, § 203, 1. + 1803. Recess of Imperial Deputies, § 192, 1. + 1804. Founding of British and Foreign Bible Society, + § 183, 4. + Kant dies, § 171, 10. + 1806. End of Catholic German Empire, § 192. + 1809. Napoleon under Ban; the Pope Imprisoned, § 185, 1. + 1810. Founding of American Missionary Society at Boston, + § 184, 1. + Schleiermacher professor at Berlin, § 182, 1. + 1811. French National Council, § 185, 1. + 1814. Vienna Congress. Restoration of the Pope, § 185, 1. + Restoration of the Jesuits, § 186, 1. + 1815. The Holy Alliance, § 173. + 1816. Mission Seminary at Basel, § 184, 1. + 1817. The Theses of Harms, § 176, 1. + Union Interpellation of Frederick William III., + § 177, 1. + 1822. Introduction of the Prussian Service Book, § 176, 1. + Lyons Association for Spreading the Faith, § 186, 7. + 1823-1829. Pope Leo XII., § 185, 1. + 1825. Book of Mormon, § 211, 12. + 1827. Hengstenberg’s _Evangel. Kirchenzeitung_, § 176, 1. + 1829. English Catholic Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9. + Founding of Barmen Missionary Institute, § 184, 1. + 1829-1830. Pope Pius VIII., § 185, 1. + 1830. July Revolution, § 203, 2. + Halle Controversy, § 176, 1. + Abbé Chatel in Paris, § 187, 6. + 1831-1846. Gregory XVI., Pope, § 185, 1. + 1831. Hegel dies, § 174, 1. + 1833. Beginning of Puseyite Agitation, § 203, 2. + 1834. Conflict at Hönigern, § 177, 2. + Schleiermacher dies, § 182, 1. + 1835. Strauss’ first Life of Jesus, § 182, 6. + Condemnation of Hermesianism, § 193, 1. + Edward Irving dies, § 211, 10. + Persecution of Christians in Madagascar, § 184, 3. + 1836. Founding of Dresden Missionary Institute, § 184, 1. + 1837. Emigrants of Zillerthal, § 198, 1. + Beginning of Troubles at Cologne, § 193, 1. + 1838. Archbishop Dunin of Posen, § 193, 1. + Rescript of Altenburg, § 194, 2. + J. A. Möhler dies, § 191, 4. + English Tithes’ Bill, § 202, 9. + 1839. Call of Dr. Strauss to Zürich, § 199, 4. + Bavarian order to give Adoration, § 195, 2. + Synod at Polozk, § 206, 2. + 1810-1861. Frederick William IV. of Prussia, § 193. + 1841. Schelling at Berlin, § 174, 1. + Constitution of Lutherans separated from National + Church of Prussia, § 177, 2. + Founding of Evangelical Bishopric of Jerusalem, + § 184, 8. + Founding of Gustavus Adolphus Association, § 178, 1. + 1843. Disruption and Founding of the Free Church of + Scotland, § 202, 7. + 1844. German-Catholic Church, § 187, 1. + Wislicenus’ “Ob Schrift, ob Geist?” § 176, 1. + 1845. Founding Free Church of Vaud, § 199, 2. + 1845-1846. Conversions in Livonia, § 206, 3. + 1846-1878. Pope Pius IX., § 185, 2-4. + 1846. Founding of Evangelical Alliance in London, § 178, 3. + Fruitless Prussian General Synod in Berlin, § 193, 3. + 1847. Prussian Patent of Toleration, § 193, 3. + War of Swiss Sonderbund, § 199, 1. + 1848. Revolution of February and March, § 192, 4. + Founding of _Evangel. Kirchentag_, § 178, 4. + Founding of Catholic “Pius Association,” § 186, 3. + Bishops’ Congress of Würzburg, § 192, 4. + 1849. Roman Republic, § 185, 2. + First Congress for Home Missions, § 183. + 1850. Institution of Berlin “Oberkirchenrat,” § 193, 4. + Return of Pope to Rome, § 185, 2. + English Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11. + 1851. Memorial of Upper Rhine Bishops, § 196, 1. + Taeping Rebellion in China, § 211, 15. + 1852. Conference at Eisenach, § 178, 2. + 1852-1870. Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, § 203, 3, 5. + 1853. The _Kirchentag_ at Berlin acknowledges the + _Augustana_, § 178, 4. + Missionary Institute at Hermannsburg, § 185, 1. + New Organization of the Catholic Hierarchy in + Holland, § 200, 4. + 1855. Sardinian Law about Monasteries, § 204, 1. + Austrian Concordat, § 198, 2. + 1857. The Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, § 178, 3. + 1858. Disturbances in Baden about Service Book, § 196, 3. + The Mother of God at Lourdes, § 188, 7. + 1859. Franco-Austrian War in Italy, § 204, 2. + 1860. Persecution of Syrian Christians, § 207, 2. + Abrogation of Baden Concordat, § 196, 2. + 1861. The Austrian Patent, § 198, 3. + Introduction of a Constitutional Church Order into + Baden, § 196, 3. + Radama II. in Madagascar, § 184, 3. + Schism among Separatist Lutherans in Prussia, + § 177, 3. + 1862. Hanoverian Catechism Scandal, § 194, 3. + Renan’s Life of Jesus, § 182, 8. + Württemberg Ecclesiastical Law, § 196, 6. + 1863. Congress of Catholic Scholars at Munich, § 191, 10. + 1864. Encyclical and Syllabus, § 185, 2. + Strauss’ and Schenkel’s Life of Jesus, § 182, 8, 17. + 1865. The first _Protestantentag_ at Eisenach, § 180, 1. + 1866. Founding of the North German League. + 1867. St. Peter’s Centenary Festival at Rome, § 185, 2. + 1869. Irish Church Bill, § 202, 10. + Opening of Vatican Council, § 189, 2. + 1870. Proclamation of Doctrine of Infallibility, July 18th, + § 189, 3. + Revocation of the Austrian Concordat. § 198, 2. + Overthrow of the Church States, § 185, 3. + 1871. Founding of the new German Empire, January 18th, + § 197. + The first Old Catholic Congress at Munich, § 190, 1. + “The Kanzelparagraph,” § 197, 4. + First Lutheran National Synod in the kingdom of + Saxony, § 194, 1. + 1872. Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Worship, § 193, 5. + The Prussian School Inspection Law, § 199, 3. + The Roman Disputation, § 175, 3. + The German Jesuit Law, § 197, 4. + Epidemic of Manifestations of the Mother of God in + Alsace-Lorraine, § 188, 6. + 1873. The four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 197, 5. + Mermillod and Lachat Deposed from office, § 199, 2, 3. + Constitution of Old Catholic Church in German Empire, + § 190, 1. + 1874. The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 198, 6. + Union Conference at Bonn, § 175, 6. + 1875. The Encyclical _Quod numquam_ and the Embargo Act, + § 197, 8. + Berlin Extraordinary General Synod, § 193, 5. + Pearsall Smith, § 211, 1. + 1876. Marpinger Mother-of-God trick, § 188, 7. + The Dutch University Law, § 202, 2. + 1878. Leo XIII. ascends the Papal chair, § 185, 5. + Organization of a Catholic Hierarchy in Scotland, + § 202, 11. + Congress of Berlin, § 207, 5. + Amnesty to the recalcitrant Clergy of the Jura, + § 199, 3. + First appearance of the Salvation Army, § 205, 2. + 1879. The Belgian Liberal Education Act, § 200, 6. + 1880. Abolition of the “_Kulturexamen_” in Baden, § 197, 14. + French Decree of March, § 203, 6. + 1881. Robertson Smith’s Heresy Case, § 202, 8. + 1882. The Confessional Lutheran Conflict with the Ritschlian + School, § 182, 21. + 1883. The Luther Jubilee, § 175, 10. + 1884. The Belgian Clerical Education Act, § 200, 6. + Conclusion of the “Kulturkampf” in Switzerland, + § 199, 2, 3. + 1887. Prussian and Hessian Governments conclude Peace with + Papal Curia, § 197, 13, 15. + Founding of Evangelical _Bund_, § 178, 5. + + + + + INDEX. + + + Aachen, Council of, § 91, 1, 2. + Aargau, § 199, 1. + Abælard, § 102, 1, 2; 104, 10. + Abbacomites, § 85, 5. + Abbadie, § 161, 7. + Abbate, Abbé, § 111, 2. + Abbo of Fleury, § 100, 2. + Abbot, § 44, 3. + Abbuna, § 52, 7. + Abdas of Susa, § 64, 2. + Abdelmoumen, § 95, 2. + Abderrhamann [Abderrhaman], § 81; 95, 2. + Abdias, § 32, 5. + Abel, von, § 195, 2. + Abelites, § 44, 7. + Abgar Bar Maanu, § 21. + ” of Edessa, § 13, 2. + About, E., § 185, 3. + Abraham a St. Clara, § 158, 2. + Abrahamites, § 165, 16. + Abrasax, § 27, 3. + Abrenunciatio diaboli, § 35; 58, 1. + Absolution, Formula of, § 89, 5. + Abstinence, Days of, § 56, 2. + Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. + Abyssinian Church, § 64, 1; 72, 2; 150, 4; 152, 1; 160, 7; + 166, 3; 184, 9. + Acacius of Amida, § 64, 2. + Acacius of Constantinople, § 52, 5. + Acceptants, § 165, 7. + Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12. + Acceptants, § 165, 7. + d’Achery, § 158, 2. + Achterfeld, § 191, 1. + Acindynos, § 69, 2. + Acoimetæ, § 44, 3; 52, 5, 6. + Acolytes, § 34, 3. + Acominatus, § 68, 5. + Acosta, Uriel, § 156, 14. + _Acta facientes_, § 22, 5. + Acta Pilati, § 22, 7; 32, 4. + Acta Sanctorum, § 158, 2. + Acton, Lord, § 189, 2. + Acts of Apostles, Apocryphal, § 32, 5, 6. + Acts of Martyrs, § 32, 8. + Adalbert of Bremen, § 96, 6; 97, 2. + ” the Heretic, § 78, 6. + ” of Prague, § 93, 13. + ” of Tuscany, § 96, 1. + Adam, Book of, § 32, 3. + Adam, St. Victor, § 104, 10. + Adamantius (Origen), § 31, 5. + Adamites, § 27, 8. + ” Bohemian, § 116, 5; 210, 2. + Adamnan, § 77, 8. + Addai [Addæi], § 32, 6. + Adeodatus, § 47, 18. + Adiaphorist Controversy, § 141, 5. + Adoptionists, § 91, 1; 102, 6. + Adrianus, § 48, 1. + Adrumetum, § 53, 5. + Advent, § 56, 5. + Adventists, § 211, 11. + Advocatus diaboli, § 104, 8. + ” ecclesiæ, § 86. + Aedesius, § 64, 1. + Aelfric, § 100, 1. + Aeneas [Æneas] of Gaza, § 47, 7. + ” [Æneas] of Sylvius, _see_ Pius II. + Aeons [Æons], § 26, 2. + Aepinus [Æpinus], § 141, 3. + Aërius, § 62, 2. + _Aeternus [Æternus] ille_, § 149, 4. + Aetius [Aëtius], § 50, 3. + Africa, § 76, 3. + Africanus, § 31, 8. + Agape, § 17, 7; 36, 1. + Agapetæ, § 39, 3. + Agapetus, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + Agathangelos, § 64, 3. + Agatho, § 46, 11; 52, 8. + Agenda Controversy in Prussia, § 177, 1. + Agenum, Synod of, § 50, 3. + Agilulf, § 76, 8. + Agnostics, § 174, 2. + Agobard, § 90, 4, 9; 91, 1; 92, 2. + Agreda, § 156, 5. + Agricola, John, § 141, 1. + ” Rudolph, § 120, 3. + Agrippa of Nettesheim, § 146, 2. + Aguas, § 209, 1. + Aguilar, § 209, 1. + Aguirre, § 158, 2. + Ahle, Rud., § 160, 5. + Aidan, § 77, 5. + d’Ailly, § 110, 7; 118, 4; 119, 5. + Aistulf, § 82, 1. + Aizanas, § 64, 1. + Ἀκέφαλοι, § 52, 5. + Ἀκρόασις, § 39, 2. + Ἀκροώμενοι, § 35, 1. + Alacoque, § 156, 6. + Alanus ab Insulis, § 102, 5. + Alaric, § 76, 2. + Alaviv, § 76, 1. + Alba, § 59, 7. + ” Duke of, § 136, 3; 139, 12. + _Albati_, § 116, 3. + Alberich, § 96, 1. + Albert the Great, § 103, 5. + ” of Apeldern, § 93, 12. + ” the Bear, § 93, 9. + ” of Buxhöwden, § 93, 12. + ” of Franconia-Brandenburg, § 137, 2, 4. + ” of Mainz, § 122, 2; 123, 8; 134, 5. + ” of Prussia, § 126, 4; 127, 3; 141, 2. + ” of Suerbeer, § 73, 6; 93, 12. + Alberti, § 160, 3. + Albigensians, § 109, 1. + Albinus, § 160, 4. + Alboin, § 76, 8. + Albrechtsleute, § 208, 4; 211, 1. + Alcantara, Peter of, § 149, 16. + Alcantarmes [Alcantara], § 98, 8; 149, 6. + Alcibiades, § 40, 1. + Alcuin, § 90, 3; 91, 1, 2; 92, 1. + Aldgild, § 78, 3. + Aleander, § 123, 6, 7. + d’Aleman, Cardinal, § 110, 8; 118, 4. + Alemanni, § 78, 1. + d’Alembert, § 165, 14. + Alexander II., § 96, 6. + ” III., § 96, 15, 16. + ” IV., § 96, 20. + ” V., § 110, 6; 119, 4. + ” VI., § 110, 12. + ” VII., § 156, 1, 2, 4, 5; 157, 5. + ” VIII., § 156, 1, 3. + ” I., Czars I., II., III., § 203, 1; 207, 3. + ” of Alexandria, § 50, 1. + ” ” Antioch, § 50, 8. + ” ” Hales, § 103, 4. + ” ” Newsky, § 73, 6. + ” ” Parma, § 139, 12. + ” Severus, § 22, 3. + Alexandrian School, § 31, 4; 47, 2, 3. + Alexis, § 73, 5. + Alexius Comnenus, § 71, 1, 4. + Alfarabi, § 103, 1. + Alfred the Great, § 90, 10. + Algazel, § 103, 1, 2. + Alger of Liege, § 102, 7. + Alkindi, § 103, 1. + Allatius, Leo, § 158, 2. + Allégri, § 158, 3. + Allen, W., § 139, 6. + Allendorf, § 167, 6. + Alliance, The Holy, § 173. + ” The Evangelical, § 178, 2. + All Saints’ Day, § 57, 1; 88, 5. + All Souls’ Day, § 104, 7. + Almansor, § 95, 2. + Almohaden [Almohades], § 95, 2. + Almoravides, § 95, 2. + Alms, Dispensers of, § 17, 2. + Alogians, § 33, 2. + Alpers, § 211, 10. + Alphonso the Catholic, § 81, 1. + ” the Chaste, § 81, 1. + ” of Aragon [Arragon], Castile, and Portugal, § 95, 2. + Alphonso XII., § 205, 3. + Alsace-Lorraine, § 196, 7. + Altar, § 38; 60, 5; 88, 5. + Altenburg, § 194, 2. + Alting, § 160, 7. + Alumbrados, § 149, 16. + Alvarus, § 81, 1; 90, 6. + ” Pelagius, § 118, 2. + Alzog, § 5, 6. + Amadeus of Savoy, § 110, 8. + Amalarius, § 90, 4; 91, 5. + Amalrich of Bena, § 108, 4. + Amandus, § 78, 3. + Ambo, § 60, 5. + Ambrose, § 47, 15; 50, 4; 57, 2, 3; 59, 5. + Ambrosian Chant, § 59, 5. + Ambrosiaster, § 47, 15. + Amen Sect, § 211, 8. + America, § 150, 3; 208; 209. + Amesius, § 161, 7; 162, 4. + Amling, § 144, 3. + Ammon, § 182, 2. + Ammonius, § 44, 3. + ” Saccas, § 24, 2. + Amort, § 165, 12. + Amsdorf, § 127, 4; 135, 5; 141, 4, 6, 7. + Amulets, § 188, 13. + Amyrald [Amyrault], § 161, 3, 7. + Anabaptists, § 124, 1; 130, 5; 133, 6; 147; 148, 1; 163, 1, 2. + Anacletus I., § 17, 1. + ” II., § 96, 13. + Ἀνάδοχαι, § 35, 3. + Ἀναγνώσται, § 34, 3. + Anastasius Biblioth. [ Bibliothecarius], § 90, 6. + ” I., § 46, 4; 51, 2. + ” II., § 46, 8. + ” IV., § 96, 10. + ” Sinaita, § 47, 12; 60, 6. + Anathema, § 52, 3. + Anatolius, § 46, 7. + Anchorets, § 44. + Ancyra, Council of, § 50, 3. + Anderledy [Anderlady], § 182, 1. + Anderson, § 139, 1. + Andreä, Jac., § 141, 12. + ” Val., § 160, 1. + Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4. + ” of Crain, § 110, 11. + ” “ Crete, § 70, 2. + Andronicus Paläologus, § 67, 5. + Angela of Brescia, § 149, 7. + Angelicals, § 149, 7. + Angels, Worship of, § 57, 3. + Angelo, Michael, § 115, 13; 149, 15. + Angelus Silesius, § 157, 4; 160, 3. + Angilram [Angilramnus], § 87, 1. + Anglican Church, § 139, 6; 155; 202. + Anglo-Saxon Church, § 77, 4, 5, 6. + Anhalt, Reformation in, § 133, 4; 144, 3. + Anicetus, § 37, 2. + Anjou, § 96, 21, 22. + Ann, Veneration of St., § 57, 2; 115, 1. + Anna of Russia, § 73, 4. + ” ” Prussia, § 154, 3. + Annats, § 110, 15. + Anno of Cologne, § 96, 6; 97, 2. + Annunciation, Order of the, § 112, 8. + Anomæans [Anomœans], § 50, 3. + Ansbert [Ausbert] of Milan, § 83, 3. + Ansegis, § 87, 1. + Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4; 96, 12; 101, 1, 3. + Anselm of Havelberg, § 67, 4. + ” ” Laon, § 101, 1. + ” ” Lucca, § 96, 6. + Ansgar, § 80, 1. + Anthimus of Constantinople, § 52, 6. + Anthimus [Anthimos], Exarch, § 207, 3. + Anthony, St., § 44, 1. + ” of Padua, § 98, 4. + ” Order of St., § 98, 2. + Anthusa, § 47, 1. + Antidicomarianites, § 62, 2. + Ἀντίδωρα, § 58, 4. + Antilegomena, § 36, 8. + Ἀντιμήνσιον, § 60, 5. + Antinomianism, § 27, 8. + Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1. + Antioch, Council of, § 50, 2. + Antiochean School, § 31, 1; 47, 1; 52, 2. + Antiphonal Music, § 59, 5. + _Antiphonarium_, § 59, 5. + Antitrinitarians, § 148. + Anton of Bourbon, § 139, 14. + Anton Paul, § 159, 3. + Antonelli, § 185, 2, 4; 189, 1; 196, 7; 197. + Antonians, § 207, 2. + Antoninus Pius, § 22, 3. + ” [Antonine] of Florence, § 113, 7. + Apelles, § 27, 12. + Aphraates, § 47, 13. + Apiarius, § 46, 5, 6. + Apocrisiarians, § 46, 1. + Apocrypha, Non-Canonical, § 32. + ” Deutero-Canonical, § 59, 1; 136, 4. + Apocryphal Controversy, § 161, 8; 183, 4. + Apollinaris, § 47, 5; 52, 1. + ” Claudius, § 30, 8. + Apollonius of Tyana, § 24, 1. + Apollos, § 18, 3. + Apologists, Early Christian, § 30, 8. + Apology of Augsburg Confession, § 132, 7. + Apostles of the Lord, §§ 14-16. + Apostles, New Testament Office of, § 17, 5; 37, 1. + Apostles, Teaching of XII., § 30, 7. + Apostles, Doctrine of the, § 18, 2. + Apostles’ Creed, § 35, 2; 59, 2. + Apostolic Age, Beginning and Close of, § 14. + Apostolic Church, Constitution of, § 17. + Apostolic Epistles, § 32, 7. + ” Fathers, § 30, 3-6. + ” Constitutions and Canons, § 43, 4. + Apostolics, § 62, 1. + Appellants, § 165, 7. + _Appellatio ab abusu_, § 185, 4; 192, 4; 197, 9. + Appenfeller, § 170, 4. + Apse, § 60, 1. + Aquarii, § 27, 10. + Aquaviva, § 149, 8, 10, 12; 156, 13. + Arabia, § 21. + Arbues [Arbires], § 117, 2. + Arcadius, Emperor, § 42, 4; 51, 3. + Archbishop, § 46, 1. + Arch-chaplain, § 84, 1. + Archdeacon, § 45, 3; 84, 2; 97, 3. + Archelaus of Cascar, § 29, 1. + Archimandrite, § 44, 3. + Architecture, § 60, 1; 88, 6; 104, 12; 115, 13; 149, 15; + 158, 3; 174, 9. + Archpresbyter, § 45, 3. + Areopagite, Dionysius the, § 47, 11. + Arialdus [Ariald], § 97, 5. + Arians, § 50; 76. + Aribert, § 76, 8. + Aristides, § 30, 8. + Aristobulus, § 10, 1. + Ariston of Pella, § 30, 8. + Aristotle, § 7, 4; 68, 2; 103, 1. + Arius, § 50, 1, 2. + Arles, Synod at, § 50, 2. + Armenian Church, § 64, 3; 72, 2; 82, 8; 207, 4. + Arminians, § 161, 2. + Arnaud, § 153, 4. + Arnauld, § 157, 5. + Arndt, E. M., § 174, 6; 181, 1. + ” John, § 160, 1. + Arno of Salzburg, § 79, 1. + ” ” Reichersberg, § 102, 6, 7. + Arnobius, § 31, 12, + ” the Younger, § 53, 5. + Arnold of Brescia, § 96, 13. + ” ” Citeaux, § 109, 1. + ” the Dominican, § 108, 6. + ” Gottfried, § 5, 3; 159, 4; 160, 2, 4. + Arnoldi, Bishop, § 187, 6. + Arnoldists, § 108, 7. + Arnulf of Carinthia, § 82, 8. + ” ” Rheims, § 96, 2. + Arran, Earl of, § 139, 8. + Ars Magna, § 103, 7. + ” Moriendi, § 115, 5. + Arsacius, § 51. + Arsenius, § 70, 1. + Art, Early Christian and Mediæval, § 38, 3; 60. + Artemon, § 33, 3. + Articles of English Church, The XXXIX., § 139, 6. + Articles, Organic, § 203, 1. + Artotyrites, § 40, 4. + Ascension, Festival of, § 56, 4. + ” of Mary, § 32, 4; 57, 2. + Asceticism, § 39, 3; 44, 6; 70, 3; 107. + Aschaffenberg [Aschaffenburg] Concord, § 110, 8. + Ash Wednesday, § 56, 4. + Asia Minor, Theological School of, § 31, 1. + Asinarii, § 23, 2. + Asseburg, § 170, 1. + Assemani, § 165, 12. + Assenath, § 32, 3. + Asses, Feast of, § 105, 2. + Asterius, § 50, 6. + ” of Amasa, § 57, 4. + Astruc, § 165, 11. + Asylum, Right of, § 43, 1. + Athanaric, § 76. + Athanasian Creed, § 59, 2. + Athanasius, § 44; 47, 3; 50; 52, 2. + Athenagoras, § 30, 10. + Athos, Monks of Mount, § 70, 3; 69, 1. + _Atrium_, § 60, 1. + Attila, § 46, 7. + Atto of Vercelli, § 100, 2. + d’Aubigné, Merle, § 178, 2. + ” Th. A., § 139, 17. + Audians, § 62, 1. + _Audientes_, § 35, 1. + _Audientia episc._, § 43, 1. + Augsburg Confession, § 132, 7. + Augsburg Religious Peace, § 137, 5. + Augustus of Saxony, § 141, 12. + Augusta, § 139, 19. + Augusti, § 182, 5. + Augustine, § 47, 18, 19; 53, 2-5; 54, 1; 61, 1, 4; 63, 1. + Augustine, Missionary to England, § 77, 4. + Augustinus Triumphus, § 118, 2. + Augustinian Order, § 98, 6; 112, 5. + August Conference, § 179, 1. + Aurelian, Emperor, § 22, 5; 33, 8. + ” Bishop, § 63, 1. + Auricular Confession, § 61, 1; 104, 4. + Aurifaber, § 129, 1. + _Ausculta fili_, § 110, 1. + Australia, § 184, 7; 202, 12. + Austria, § 165, 9; 190, 3; 198. + Autbert, § 81, 1. + Auto al nasciemento, § 115, 12. + ” de fé, § 117, 2. + ” sacramentale, § 115, 12. + Autocephalic Bishops, § 46, 1. + Auxentius of Dorostorus, § 76, 1. + ” of Milan, § 47, 14. + Avars, § 79, 1. + Avenarius, § 142, 6. + Aventin [Aventinus], § 120, 3. + Averrhoes [Averroes], § 103, 1, 2. + Avicenna, § 103, 1, 2. + Avignon, § 110, 2-5. + Avitus, § 53, 5; 76, 5. + Azimites [Azymites], § 67, 3. + + + Baader, Francis, § 175, 5; 187, 3; 191, 2. + Baanes, § 71, 1. + Babäus, § 52, 3. + Babeuf, § 212, 1. + Babylonian Exile of Popes, § 110, 2-5. + Bach, Sebastian, § 167, 7. + Bacon, Roger, § 103, 8. + Bacon, Lord Verulam, § 164, 1. + Baden, § 196, 2, 3; 197, 13. + Bahrdt, § 170, 4, 7. + Baius, Michael, § 149, 13. + Bajazet, § 110, 11. + Baläus, § 48, 7. + Balde, Jac., § 158, 3. + Baldwin of Jerusalem, § 94, 1; 98, 7. + ” of Flanders, § 94, 4. + ” the Heretic, § 108, 4. + Balsamon, § 68, 5. + Balthazar of Fulda, § 151, 2. + Baltic Provinces of Russia, § 139, 3; 206, 3. + Baltimore, Lord, § 208, 5. + Baltzer, § 191, 1, 3. + Baluzius, § 158, 2. + Bampfield, § 163, 3. + Ban, § 89, 6; 106, 1. + Bañez, § 149, 13. + Bangor, § 85, 4. + Baphomet, § 112, 7. + Baptism, § 35, 2-4; 58, 1, 4; 141, 13. + Baptismal Font, § 60, 4; 88, 5. + _Baptismus Clinicorum_, § 35, 3. + Baptists, § 163, 3; 170, 6; 208, 1; 211, 3. + Baptistries, § 60, 4. + Bär, David, § 170, 4. + Baradai, § 52, 7. + Barbatianus, § 62, 2. + Barbs, § 108, 10. + Barckhausen, § 169, 1. + Barclay, § 163, 5. + Bar-Cochba, § 25. + Bardesanes, § 27, 5. + Barefooted Friars, § 98, 3; 149, 6. + Bar Hanina, § 47, 15. + Bar Hebræus, § 72, 2. + Bari, Synod at, § 67, 4. + Barkers, § 170, 7. + Barlaam, § 67, 5; 69, 2. + Barlaam and Josaphat, § 68, 6. + Barletta, § 115, 2. + Barnabas, § 14; 30, 4. + Barnabites, § 149, 7. + Barnim, § 133, 4. + Baronius, § 5, 2; 149, 14. + Barriere [Barrière], § 149, 6. + Barrow, § 143, 4. + Barsumas, § 52, 3. + Bartholomew, Massacre of St., § 139, 16. + Bartholomew of Pisa, § 98, 3. + Bartolemeo [Bartolomeo], Fra, § 115, 13. + Basedow, § 171, 4. + Basel, § 130, 3, 8; 196, 4. + ” Council of, § 110, 8, 9; 119, 7. + Basil the Great, § 44; 47, 4; 59, 6. + ” chief of Bogomili, § 71, 4. + ” of Ancyra, § 50, 3. + ” the Macedonian, § 67, 1; 68, 1; 71, 1; 73, 1. + Basilica, § 60, 1, 2. + Basilicus, § 139, 26. + Basilides, the Gnostic, § 27, 2. + ” the Martyr, § 22, 4. + Basnage, § 5, 2; 161, 7. + Basrelief [Bas-relief], § 60, 6. + Bassi, § 149, 6. + Bathori, Steph., § 139, 18. + Bauer, Bruno, § 174, 1; 182, 6. + ” Lor., § 171, 7. + Baumgarten-Crusius, § 182, 4. + ” M., § 180, 1; 194, 6. + ” Sigism. Jac., § 167, 4. + Baumstark, § 175, 7. + Baur, Chr. F., § 182, 7; 5, 4. + ” Gust., § 194, 1. + Bautain, § 91, 1. + Bavaria, § 78, 2; 151, 2; 165, 10; 195; 197, 14. + Bavo, § 78, 3. + Baxter, § 162, 3. + Bayle, § 164, 4. + Bayly, Lewis, § 162, 3. + Beatification, § 104, 8. + Beaton, § 139, 8. + Beaumont, § 165, 7. + Bebel, § 212, 5. + Bebenburg, § 118, 2. + Beccus, § 67, 4. + Beck, Tob., § 182, 12. + Becket, § 96, 16. + Bede, The Venerable, § 90, 2. + Beethoven, § 174, 10. + Begging Friars, § 98, 3-6; 103, 3-6; 112, 2-6. + Beghards and Beguins [Beguines], § 98, 7; 116, 5. + Bekker, Balthaz., § 161, 5. + Belgium, § 200, 4-7. + Bellarmine, § 149, 4, 10, 14. + Beller, Card., § 188, 13. + Bellini, § 115, 13. + Bells, § 60, 5. + ” Baptism of, § 88, 5. + Βῆμα, § 60, 1. + Bembo, § 120, 1. + Benard [Bernard], Lor., § 156, 7. + Bender, § 176, 4. + Benedetto of Mantova, § 139, 23. + Benedict III., § 82, 5. + ” V., § 96, 1. + ” VI., VII., § 96, 2. + ” VIII., IX., 96, 4. + ” X., § 96, 6. + ” XI., § 110, 1. + ” XII., § 110, 4; 67, 5; 112, 1. + ” XIII., XIV., § 165, 1. + ” of Aniane, § 85, 2. + ” Levita, § 87, 1. + ” of Nursia, § 85, 1. + Benedictines, § 85; 98, 1; 112, 1; 186, 2. + Benedict Medal, § 188, 13. + Benefice System, § 86, 2. + Bengel, § 167, 3. + Benno of Meissen, § 93, 9; 129, 1. + Berengar, § 101, 1, 2. + Berengar, I., II., § 96, 1. + Berg, John, § 153, 7. + ” Book of, § 141, 12. + Berlage, § 188, 6. + Berleburger [Berleburg] Bible, § 170, 1. + Bern, § 130, 4; 199, 3, 4. + Bernard of Clairvaux, § 102, 2, 3; 94, 2; 96, 13; 104, 10; + 108, 2, 3, 7; 109. + Bernard the Missionary, § 93, 10. + ” Sylvester, § 102, 9. + ” de Saisset, § 110, 1. + ” Tolomei, § 112, 1. + Bernardino of Siena, § 112, 3. + Bernardines, § 98, 1. + Berno of Clugny, § 98, 1. + Berruyer, § 165, 14. + Bertha, § 77, 4. + Bertheau, § 182, 11. + Berthold of Limoges, § 98, 6. + ” of Loccum, § 93, 12. + ” of Regensburg, § 104, 1. + ” Leonard, § 171, 7. + Berti, § 165, 15. + Bertrada, § 96, 10. + Bertrand de Got, § 110, 2. + Berylle [Barylla], Pet., § 156, 7. + Beryllus, § 33, 6. + Bespopowtschini, § 163, 10. + Bessarion, § 67, 6; 68, 2; 120, 1. + Besser, § 181, 4. + Bestmann, § 182, 21. + Bethel, § 183, 1. + Bethman [Bethmann]-Hollweg, § 193, 4. + Beuggen, § 183, 1. + Beust, von, § 198, 2, 4. + Beyschlag, § 182, 10. + Beza, § 138, 8; 139, 14; 143, 2, 5. + Bianchi, § 116, 3. + Bible Societies, § 183, 4; 185, 1. + ” Communists, § 211, 6. + ” Revision, § 181, 4. + ” Translations, § 37, 1; 59, 1; 115, 4. + Bible reading forbidden, § 105, 3; 185, 1. + _Biblia pauperum_, § 115, 3. + Bickell, § 194, 4. + Biedermann, § 182, 19. + Biel, Gebr [Gabriel], § 113, 3. + Bienemann, § 142, 4. + Bilderdijk, § 200, 2. + Billicanus, § 122, 2. + Bilocation, § 105, 4. + Bingham, § 169, 6. + Bischof, Conrad, § 175, 2. + Bishops, § 17, 5; 34, 2; 45; 84; 97. + ” Election of, § 34, 3; 45; 84; 97, 3. + Bishops’ Bible, § 202, 1. + ” Paragraph, § 197, 11, 12. + Bismarck, § 197; 212, 5. + Bittner, § 175, 2. + Blackburne, § 171, 1. + Blahoslaw, § 139, 19. + Blanc, Louis, § 212, 1. + Blandina, § 22, 3. + Blandrata, § 148, 3. + Blasilla, § 44, 4. + Blastus, § 37, 2. + Blau, Dr., § 165, 13. + Blaurer, § 125, 1; 133, 3; 143, 2. + Blaurock, § 147, 3. + Blavatski [Blavatsky], § 211, 18. + Bleek, § 182, 11. + Blondel, § 161, 7. + Blood vases, § 35, 2. + ” baptism, § 35, 4. + ” revenge, § 88, 5. + Bloody Marriage, § 139, 16. + Blot-Sweyn, § 93, 3. + Blount, § 168, 3. + Blue Ribbon Army, § 211, 2. + Blum, Bishop, § 197, 6, 11. + Blumhardt, § 196, 5. + Bluntschli, § 180, 1; 196, 3. + Boabdil, § 95. + Bobadilla, § 149, 8. + Bobbio, § 78, 1; 85, 4. + Boccaccio, § 115, 10. + Bochart, § 161, 6. + Bodelschwingh, § 183, 1. + Bodin, § 117, 4; 148, 3. + Boeckh, § 181, 3. + Boethius [Boëthius], § 47, 23. + Bogatzky [Bogatsky], § 167, 6, 8. + Bogomili, § 71, 4. + Bogoris, § 72, 3. + Böhl v. Faber, § 174, 7. + Böhme, Jacob, § 160, 2. + ” Mart., § 142, 4. + Bohemia, § 79, 3; 93, 6; 139, 19; 153, 2. + Bohemian Brethren, § 119, 8; 139, 19. + Böhmer, § 167, 5. + Böhringer, § 5, 4. + Bois, Professor, § 203, 8. + Bolanden, Cour. v., § 175, 2. + Boleslaw of Poland, § 93, 7. + ” ” Bohemia, § 93, 6. + ” Chrobry, § 93, 7. + Boleyn, Anne, § 139, 4. + Bolingbroke, § 170, 1. + Bolivia, § 209, 2. + Bollandists, § 158, 2. + Bolsec, § 138, 3. + Bolsena, Mass of, § 104, 7. + Bomberg, § 120, 9. + Bomelius, § 125, 2. + Bona, § 158, 2. + Bonald, § 188, 1. + Bonaventura, § 103, 4; 104, 10. + Boniface, Apostle of Germany, § 78, 4-8. + ” I., § 46, 6. + ” II., § 46, 8. + ” III., IV., § 46, 10. + ” VI., § 82, 8. + ” VII., § 96, 2. + ” VIII., § 110, 1; 99, 4; 117, 1. + ” IX., § 110, 6; 117, 2. + _Boni homines_, § 108, 2. + Bonner, Bp., § 139, 4, 5. + Bonosus, § 62, 2. + Book of Discipline, § 139, 9. + Boos, Mart., § 187, 2. + Booth, General, § 211, 2. + Bordelum, Sectaries at, § 170, 4. + Borgia, § 110, 10, 12. + ” Francis, § 149, 8. + Borromeo, § 149, 17; 151, 2. + ” Society, § 186, 4. + Borsenius, § 170, 4. + Boruth, § 79, 1. + Borziwoi, § 79, 3. + Bosio, Ant., § 38, 1. + Boso, § 95, 3. + Bossuet, § 5, 2; 153, 7; 156, 3; 157, 3; 158, 2. + Bost, Pastor, § 156, 1. + Bothwell, § 139, 10. + Bourdaloue, § 159, 2. + Bourgos, Pragmatic Sanction of, § 110, 9. + Bourignon, § 157, 4. + Bouthillier de Rancé, § 156, 8. + Boyle, § 164, 3. + Bradacz, M. v., § 119, 8. + Bradwardine, § 113, 2. + Braga, Syn. of, § 76, 4. + Brakel, § 169, 2. + Bramante, § 115, 3; 149, 15. + Brandenburg, § 134, 5; 154, 3. + Brandt, § 181, 4. + Braniss, § 174, 2. + Brant, Seb., § 115, 11. + Braun, Hermesian, § 191, 1. + Brazil, § 150, 3; 209, 3. + Breckling, § 163, 9. + Breithaupt, § 159, 3. + Breitinger, § 162, 6. + Bremen, § 127, 4; 144, 2. + Brendel, § 151, 1. + Brentano, § 188, 3. + Brenz, § 131, 1; 133, 3; 141, 8; 142, 2, 6. + Brest, Synod of, § 72, 4; 151, 3. + Brethren, The four long, § 51, 3. + ” of the Free Spirit, § 116, 5. + ” of the Common Life, § 112, 9. + ” Bohemian and Moravian, § 119, 7. + ” The United, § 168. + Bretschneider, § 174, 3; 182, 2. + Bretwalda, § 77, 4. + Breviary, § 56, 2; 149, 14. + Briçonnet, § 120, 8; 138, 1. + Bridaine, § 158, 1. + Bridge-Brothers, § 98, 9. + Bridget, St., § 110, 5; 112, 4, 8. + Bridgewater Treatises, § 174, 3. + Brief, Papal, § 110, 16. + Briesmann, § 139, 3. + Brinckerinck, § 112, 9. + Brinkmann, § 197, 6, 11. + Britons, Ancient, § 77. + Broad Churchmen, § 202, 1. + Broglie, Duc de, § 203, 5, 6. + ” Bishop, § 200, 1. + Brothers of the Common Life, § 112, 9. + ” of Mercy, § 149, 7. + ” of the Free Spirit, § 116, 5. + Brown, Archbishop, of Dublin, § 139, 7. + ” Rob. (Brownist), § 143, 4. + ” Thomas, § 164, 3. + Bruccioli, § 115, 4. + Brück, Dr., § 132, 7. + Brucker, Jac., § 167, 8. + Bruggeler, Sectaries, § 170, 4. + Brunehilde [Brunehilda], § 77, 7; 46, 10. + Bruneleschi, § 115, 13. + Bruno of Cologne, § 97, 2. + ” the Missionary, § 93, 13. + ” of Rheims, § 98, 2. + ” of Toul, § 96, 5. + ” Giordano, § 146, 3. + Brunswick, § 127, 4; 135, 6; 194, 5. + Bucer, § 122, 2; 124, 3; 131, 1; 133, 8; 135, 1, 3, 7; 139, 5. + Buchel, Anna v., § 170, 4. + Buchführer, § 128, 1. + Büchner, § 174, 3. + Budæus [Buddæus], § 120, 8. + Buddeus, § 167, 1, 4. + Buffalo Synod, § 208, 4. + Bugenhagen, § 125, 1; 127, 4; 133, 4; 139, 2; 142, 2. + Bülau, § 139, 3. + Bulgaria, § 67, 1; 73, 3; 175, 4; 207, 3. + _Bulgari_, § 108, 1. + Bulls, Papal, § 110, 16. + Bull, The Golden, § 97, 2; 110, 4. + Bullinger, § 133, 8; 138, 7; 161, 4. + Bunsen, § 181, 1, 4; 182, 17; 198, 1. + Bunyan, § 162, 3. + Büren, § 144, 2. + Burgundians, § 76, 5. + Burmann, § 161, 7. + Burnet, Bishop, § 161, 3. + Bursfeld, Congregation of, § 112, 1. + Busch, John, § 112, 1. + Busembaum, § 158, 1; 149, 10. + Buttlar Sectaries, § 170, 4. + Butter week, § 56, 7. + Buxhöwden, § 93, 12. + Buxtorf, § 161, 3, 6. + Byron, § 174, 7. + Byse, § 200, 8. + + + Caballero, § 174, 7. + Cabasilas, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + Cabet, § 212, 3. + Cabrera, § 205, 4. + Cadan, Peace of, § 133, 3. + Cæcilius, § 63, 1. + Cædmon, § 89, 3. + Cæsarius of Arles, § 47, 20; 53, 5; 61, 4. + ” of Heisterbach, § 103, 9. + Cainites, § 27, 6. + Caius, § 31, 7; 33, 9. + Cajetan, Card., § 122, 3. + ” of Thiene, § 149, 7. + Calas, § 165, 5. + Calatrava, Order of, § 98, 8. + Calderon, § 158, 3. + Calendar Reform, § 149, 3. + Calixt, Geo., § 153, 7; 159, 2, 4. + Calixtines, § 119, 7. + Calixtus II., § 96, 11. + ” III., § 96, 15; 110, 10. + Callinice, § 71, 1. + Callistus, § 33, 5; 41, 1. + Calmet, § 165, 14. + Calov, § 153, 7; 159, 2, 4, 5; 160, 2. + Calvin, § 138; 143, 5. + Camaldulensian Order, § 98, 1. + _Camera Romana_, § 110, 16. + Camerarius, § 142, 6. + Camisards, § 153, 4. + Campanella, § 164, 1. + Campanus, § 148, 1. + Campbellites, § 170, 6. + Campe, § 171, 4. + Campegius, § 126, 2, 3; 132, 6. + Campello, § 190, 3. + Camp-Meeting, § 208, 1. + _Cancellaria Romana_, § 110, 16. + Canisius, § 149, 14; 151, 1. + ” Society, § 186, 4. + Canon, Biblical, § 36, 8; 59, 1. + ” of the Mass, § 59, 5. + ” in Music, § 115, 8. + ” Law, § 43, 2. + _Canones Apostt._, § 43, 4. + Canonesses, § 85, 3. + Canonical Age, § 45, 1. + ” Life, § 84, 4; 97, 3. + _Canonici_, § 84, 4; 97, 3. + Canossa, § 96, 8. + Canova, § 174, 9. + Canstein, § 167, 8. + _Cantores_, § 34, 3. + _Cantus Ambros._, § 59, 5. + _Cantus_ figuratus, § 104, 11. + ” firmus, § 59, 5. + Canute the Great, § 93, 2, 4. + Canus, § 149, 14. + Canz, § 167, 2. + Capistran, § 112, 3. + Capito, § 124, 3; 130, 3; 131, 1. + _Capitula Carisiaca_, § 91, 5. + ” _Clausa_, § 111. + ” _episcoporum_, § 87, 1. + Capitularies, § 87, 1. + Cappadocians, The Three, § 47, 5. + Cappadose, § 200, 2. + Cappel, Peace of, § 130, 9, 10. + Cappellus, § 161, 3, 6. + Capuchins, § 149, 6. + Caraccioli, § 139, 24. + Caraffa, § 149, 2, 7; 139, 22, 23. + Carantanians, § 79, 1. + Carbeas, § 71, 1. + Cardale, § 211, 10. + Cardinals, § 97, 1. + Carey, § 172, 5. + Carl, Dr., § 170, 1. + Carlomann, § 78, 5. + Carlstadt, § 122, 4; 124, 1, 3; 131, 1; 139, 2. + Carmelites, § 98, 6; 149, 6. + Carnesecchi, § 139, 22, 23. + Carnival, § 56, 4; 105, 2. + Carpentarius, § 128, 1. + Carpocrates, § 27, 8. + Carpov, § 167, 4. + Carpzov, J. B., § 117, 4, 158, 3; 167, 1. + Carpzov, J. G., § 167, 4. + Carranza, § 139, 21. + Carrasco, § 205, 4. + Carthusians, § 98, 2; 112. + las Casas, § 150, 3. + Casimir of Berleburg, § 170. + ” ” Brunswick, § 126, 4. + Cassander, § 137, 8. + Cassel, Religious Conference of, § 154, 4. + Cassianus, § 44, 4; 47, 21; 53, 5. + Cassiodorus, § 47, 23. + Castellio, § 138, 4; 143, 5. + Castellus, § 161, 6. + Castelnau, Pet. v., § 109, 1. + Casuists, § 113, 4. + Casula, § 59, 7. + Catacombs, § 38, 1-3. + Cataphrygians, § 40, 1. + Catechetical School, § 31, 1. + Catechism, Heidelberg, § 144, 1. + ” Luther’s, § 127, 1. + Catechisms, § 115, 5. + Catechismus Genevensis, § 138, 2. + ” Romanus, § 149, 14. + Catechoumens, § 35, 1. + _Catenæ_, § 48, 1. + Cathari, § 108, 1. + Catharine of Aragon [Arragon], § 139, 4. + ” Bora, § 129. + ” de Medici, § 139, 13 ff. + ” II. of Russia, § 165, 9. + ” St., of Sweden, § 112, 8. + ” of Siena, § 112, 4; 110, 5, 6. + Cathedral, § 84, 4. + ” Schools, § 90, 8. + Catholicus, § 52, 7. + Catholicity, § 20, 2; 34, 7. + Cave, § 161, 7. + Celbes, § 28, 4. + Celibacy, § 39, 3; 45, 2; 84, 3; 96, 7; 111, 1; 187, 4. + Cellites, § 116, 3. + Celsus, § 23, 3. + Celtes, Conrad, § 120, 3. + Celtic Church, § 77. + Cemeteries, § 38; 60, 2. + Cencius, § 96, 7. + Centuries, The Magdeburg, § 5, 2. + Ceolfrid, § 77, 3, 8. + Cerdo, § 27, 11. + Cerinthus, § 17, 3; 27, 1. + Cesarini, § 110, 7. + Cesena, § 112, 2. + Cevennes, Prophets of the, § 153, 4; 170, 2, 7. + Chaila, du, § 153, 4. + Chalcedon, Council of, § 46, 1, 7; 52, 4. + Chaldean Christians, § 52, 3; 72, 1; 150, 4. + Chalmers, § 178, 2; 202, 7. + Chalybæus, § 174, 2. + _Chambre ardente_, § 139, 13. + Chamier, § 161, 7. + Chandler, § 171, 1. + Channing, § 208, 4. + Chantal, § 156, 7; 157, 1. + Chapels, § 84, 1, 2. + Chaplain, § 84, 1, 2. + Chapter of Cathedral, § 84, 4; 97, 2; 111. + Chapters, Controversy of the three, § 52, 6. + Charlemagne, § 78, 9; 79, 1; 81, 1; 82, 2, 3; 89, 2; 90, 1; + 92, 1. + Charles of Anjou, § 96, 20-22. + ” the Bald, § 82, 4, 5, 8; 90, 1. + ” Martel, § 81; 82, 1. + ” IV., Emperor, § 110, 4, 5; 117, 2. + ” VII. of France, § 110, 9. + ” V., Emperor, § 123, 5. + ” I., II. of England, § 153, 6; 155, 1, 3. + ” IX. of France, § 139, 14-16. + ” IX. of Sweden, § 139, 1. + ” XII. of Sweden, § 165, 4. + ” Albert of Sardinia, § 204, 1. + ” Felix of Sardinia, § 204, 1. + ” Alexander of Württemberg, § 165, 5. + ” Theodore of Bavaria, § 165, 10. + ” of Lorraine, Cardinal, § 139, 13; 149, 2, 17. + Charisms, § 17, 1. + Chastel, § 5, 5. + Chateaubriand, § 174, 7. + Chatel, Abbé, § 187, 6. + Chatimar, § 79, 1. + Chazari, § 73, 2. + Chemnitz, § 141, 2, 12; 142, 2, 6. + Cherbury, § 164, 3. + Children, The Praying, § 167, 1. + ” Baptism of, § 17, 7; 35, 4; 58, 1. + Children’s Communion, § 36, 3; 58, 4. + Children’s Crusade, § 94, 4. + Chili, § 209, 2. + Chiliasm, § 33, 9; 40, 4; 108, 5; 162, 1; 211, 7. + Chillingworth, § 161, 3. + China, § 93, 15; 150, 1; 156, 12; 165, 3; 184, 6; 186, 7. + Chinese Rites, § 156, 12. + Choir, § 60, 1. + Chorale, § 142, 5; 160, 5; 181, 2. + _Chorepiscopi_, § 34, 3; 45; 84; 97, 3. + Choristers, § 97, 3. + _Chorisantes_, § 116, 2. + Chosroes, § 11; 64, 2. + Chrism, § 35, 4. + Christ, Order of, § 112, 8. + Christian Association (German), § 172, 5. + Christian, Bishop, § 93, 13. + ” II., III. of Denmark, § 139, 2. + Christian Baptists, § 170, 6; 208, 1. + Christina of Sweden, § 153, 1. + Christopher of Württemberg, § 133, 3. + _Christo sacrum_, § 172, 4. + Χριστὸς πάσχων, § 48, 5. + Chrodegang of Metz, § 48, 4. + _Chronicon paschale_, § 48, 2. + Chrysolaras, § 120, 1. + Chrysologus, § 47, 17. + Chrysostom, § 47, 8; 51, 3; 53, 1. + Chubb, § 171, 1. + Churches, § 38. + Church Army, § 211, 2. + ” Discipline, § 39; 61; 89, 6; 106. + ” History, Idea, Periods, Sources, etc., of, §§ 1-5. + ” Law, Catholic, § 43, 3-5; 68, 5; 87; 99, 5. + ” Law, Protestant, § 167, 5. + ” Property, § 45, 4; 86, 1; 96, 15. + ” States, § 82, 1; 185, 3. + ” Year, § 56, 6. + Chytræus, § 141, 12; 142, 6. + _Ciborium_, § 60, 5. + Cilicium, § 106. + Cimabue, § 104, 14. + Circumcelliones, § 63, 1. + Cistercians, § 98, 1. + Ciudad, § 147, 7. + Clara of Assisi, § 98, 3. + ” Nuns of St., § 98, 3. + Clarendon, Council at, § 96, 16. + Clarke, Sam., § 171, 1. + _Classes_, § 143, 1. + Classical Synods, § 143, 1. + Claude, § 161, 3, 7. + Claudius Apollinaris, § 30, 4. + ” I., Emperor, § 22, 1. + ” II., ” § 22, 5. + ” of Savoy, § 148, 3. + ” ” Turin, § 90, 4; 92, 2. + ” Matthias, § 171, 11. + Clausen, § 201, 1. + Clemangis, § 110, 3; 118, 4. + Clemens, F. J., § 191, 3. + Clement of Alexandria, § 31, 4. + ” of Rome, § 30, 3. + ” II., § 96, 4, 5. + ” III., § 96, 8, 16. + ” IV., § 96, 20; 103, 8. + ” V., § 110, 2; 112, 7. + ” VI., § 110, 4, 5. + ” VII., § 110, 6; 126, 2; 132, 2; 149, 1. + ” VIII., § 110, 7; 149, 2, 13, 14. + ” IX., X., § 156, 1. + ” XI., § 165, 1, 7. + ” XIII., XIV., § 165, 9. + ” a Heretic of Britain, § 78, 6. + Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, § 28, 3, 4. + _Clementinæ_, § 99, 5. + Cleomenes, § 33, 5. + Clergy, § 34, 4. + _Clerici vagi_, § 84, 2. + _Clericis laicos_, § 110, 1. + Clericus, § 169, 6. + Clermont, Synod at, § 94; 96, 7. + Climacus, § 47, 12. + _Clinici_, § 34, 3; 45, 1. + Cloister Schools, § 90, 8. + Cloots, Anach., § 165, 12. + Clothilda, § 76, 5, 9. + Clovis, § 76, 9. + Clugny, § 98, 1; 165, 2. + Cluniacs, § 98, 1. + Cocceius, § 161, 4, 6; 162, 5. + Cochlæus, § 129, 1; 135, 10. + Cock, H. de, § 200, 2. + Codde, § 165, 8. + Codex Alexandrinus, § 152, 2. + ” Sinaiticus, § 182, 11. + Cœlestine I., § 46, 1; 52, 3; 53, 4. + ” II., § 96, 13. + ” III., § 96, 16. + ” IV., § 96, 19. + ” V., § 96, 22. + Cœlestines, § 98, 2. + ” Eremites, § 98, 4. + Cœlestius, § 53, 4. + Cœlicolæ, § 42, 6. + Cœnobites, § 44. + Coisi, § 77, 4. + Coke, § 169, 4. + Colani, § 203, 8. + Colenso, § 202, 4. + Coleridge, § 202, 1. + Colet, § 120, 6, 7. + _Colidei_, § 77, 8. + Coligny, § 139, 14, 16; 143, 6. + _Collatio cum Donatist._, § 63, 1. + _Collegia philobibl._, § 159, 3. + ” _pietatis_, § 159, 3. + Collegial System, § 167, 5. + Collegiants, § 163, 1. + Collegiate Foundations, § 84, 4. + _Collegium caritativum_, § 169, 1. + ” _Germanicum_, § 151, 1. + ” _Helveticum_, § 151, 2. + Collenbusch, § 172, 3. + Collins, § 171, 1. + Collyridian Nuns, § 57, 2. + Colman, § 77, 6. + Cologne, Cathedral of, § 104, 13. + ” Conflict of, § 190, 1. + ” Reformation of, § 135, 7; 136, 2; 137, 7. + Colombière, § 156, 6. + Colonna, § 110, 1, 3. + ” Vittoria, § 139, 22. + Columba, § 77, 2. + Columbanus, § 77, 7. + Columbus, § 116. + Comenius, § 163, 9; 168, 2. + _Comes Hieron._, § 59, 3. + Commendatory Abbots, § 85, 5; 111, 2. + Commodian, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + Commodus, § 22, 2. + Common Prayer, Book of, § 139, 5, 6. + _Communicatio idiomatum_, § 141, 9. + Communism, § 211, 6; 212, 1. + Compact, The Basel, § 119, 7. + Competentes, § 35, 1. + Compiegne, Diet of, § 82, 4. + Composition, § 89, 5, 6. + Compromise, Belgian, § 139, 12. + Comte, § 174, 2; 210, 1. + Concha, § 60, 1. + _Concilium Germanicum_, § 78, 5. + Conclave, § 96, 21. + Concomitantia, § 105, 1. + Concord of Wittenberg, § 133, 8. + ” Formula of, § 141, 12. + Concordat of Austria, § 198, 2. + ” ” Baden, § 196, 2. + ” ” Bavaria, § 195, 1. + ” ” France, § 203, 1. + ” ” Holland, § 200, 1. + ” ” Portugal, § 205, 5. + ” ” Prussia, § 193, 1. + ” ” Spain, § 205, 1. + ” ” Upper Rhine, § 196, 1. + ” ” Vienna, § 110, 7. + ” ” Worms, § 96, 5. + ” ” Württemberg, § 96, 5. + Condé, § 139, 14, 16, 17. + ” Louise de, § 186, 2. + Conference, Evangelical, § 178, 4. + _Confessio_, § 57, 1. + Confession, § 36, 3; 61, 1; 89, 6; 104, 4. + _Confessio Augustana_, § 132, 7. + ” ” _Variata_, § 141, 4, 7. + ” _Belgica_, § 139, 12. + ” _Bohemica_, § 139, 19. + ” _Czengeriana_, § 139, 20. + ” _Gallicana_, § 139, 14. + ” _Hafnica_, § 139, 2. + ” _Helvetica_ I., § 133, 8. + ” ” II., § 138, 7. + ” _Hungarica_, § 139, 20. + ” _Marchica_, § 154, 3. + ” _Saxonica_, § 136, 8. + ” _Scotica_, § 139, 9. + ” _Sigismundi_, § 154, 3. + ” _Tetrapolit._, § 132, 7. + Confession, Westminster, § 155, 1. + ” Württemberg, § 136, 8. + _Confessores_, § 22, 5; 39, 2, 5. + Confirmation, § 35, 4; 139, 19; 167, 2. + _Confutatio Conf. August._, § 132, 7. + Congregatio de auxiliis, § 149, 13. + ” _de propag. fides_, § 156, 9. + Congregationalists, § 143, 4; 162, 1; 202, 5. + Congregations, § 98, 1; 186, 2. + Conon, Pope, § 46, 11. + Cononites, § 57, 2. + Conrad I., Emperor, § 96, 1. + ” II., § 96, 4. + ” III., § 96, 13; 94, 2. + ” IV., § 96, 20. + ” of Hochsteden, § 104, 13. + ” ” Marburg, § 109, 3. + ” ” Massovia, § 93, 13. + ” ” Megenburg, § 118, 2. + Conradin, § 96, 20. + Consalvi, § 185, 1; 192, 3. + Conscientiarii, § 164, 4. + Consensus Dresdensis, § 141, 10. + ” Genev., § 138, 7. + ” Sendomir, § 139, 18. + ” repetitus, § 159, 2. + ” Tigurinus, § 138, 7. + Consilia evangelica, § 39. + Consistories, § 142, 1. + _Consolamentum_, § 108, 2. + Constance, Council of, § 110, 7; 119, 5, 7. + Constantia, § 50, 2. + Constantine the Great, § 22, 7; 42, 1, 2; 60, 1; 63, 1. + ” I., Pope, § 46, 11. + ” II., “ § 82, 2. + ” Chrysomalus, § 70, 4. + ” Copronymus, § 66, 2. + ” of Mananalis, § 71, 1. + ” Monomachus [Monómachus], § 67, 3. + ” Pogonnatus, § 52, 8. + ” Porphyrogenneta, § 68, 1. + Constantinople, Second Œcum. Council at, § 46, 1; 50, 4, 5; 52, 2. + ” Fifth Œcum. Council at, § 52, 6. + ” Sixth Œcum. Council at, § 52, 8. + ” Seventh Œcum. Council at, § 66, 2, 3. + ” Eighth Œcum. Council at, § 67, 1. + Constantius, § 42, 2; 50, 2. + ” Chlorus, § 22, 6. + _Constitutio Rom._, § 82, 4. + Constitution of Early Church, § 17. + Constitutiones apost., § 43, 4. + Contarini, § 135, 2; 139, 22. + _Continentes_, § 39, 3. + Contraremonstrants, § 161, 2. + _Convenensa_, § 108, 2. + Conventuals, § 112, 3. + _Conversi_, § 98. + Converts, Romish, § 153, 1; 165, 6; 175, 7. + Convocation, English, § 202, 3. + Copts, § 52, 7; 72, 2. + Coquerel, § 203, 4, 8. + Coracion, § 33, 9. + Coran, § 65. + Corbinian, § 78, 2. + Cordeliers, § 149, 6. + Cornelius, Bishop, § 42, 3. + Coronation, Papal, § 96, 23; 110, 15. + _Corporale_, § 60, 5. + Corporations Act, § 155, 3; 202, 5. + _Corpus Cathol. et Evangel._, § 153, 1. + ” _Christi_ Festival, § 104, 7. + ” _doctr. Misnicum_, § 141, 10. + ” _juris canon._, § 99, 5. + ” _Pruthen._, § 141, 2. + _Correctores Rom._, § 99, 5. + Correggio, § 115, 13. + Cosmas of Jerusalem, § 70, 2. + ” Indicopleustes, § 48, 2. + ” Patr., § 70, 4. + ” Usurpator, § 66, 1. + Cossa, Cardinal, § 110, 7. + Costa, Is. da, § 200, 2. + Coster, § 149, 14. + Cotta, Urs., § 122, 1. + Councils, Œcumenical, § 43, 2. + Counter-Reformation, § 151; 153; 165, 4. + Cour, Did. de la, § 156, 4. + Courland, § 93, 12; 139, 3. + Court, Ant., § 165, 5. + Covenant, § 139, 8; 155, 1. + Cowper, § 172, 4. + Cranach, § 142, 2. + Cranmer, § 139, 4, 5. + Cranz, § 115, 8. + Crasselius, § 167, 6. + Crato of Crafftheim, § 141, 10; 137, 8. + Creationism, § 53, 1. + Crell, J., § 148, 4. + ” Nich., § 141, 13. + ” Paul, § 141, 10. + Crescens, § 30, 9. + Crescentius, § 96, 2, 4. + Creuzer, § 174, 4. + Cromwell, § 153, 5, 6; 155, 1-3. + Crookes, § 211, 17. + Cross, § 38, 2; 60, 6. + ” Discovery of the, § 57, 5. + ” Ordeal of the, § 88, 5. + ” Sign of the, § 39, 1; 59, 8; 73, 5. + Crotus, Rubianus, § 120, 2, 5. + Crucifix, § 60, 6. + Cruciger, § 136, 7. + Cruco, § 93, 9. + Crüger, § 160, 5. + Crusaders, § 98, 8. + Crusades, § 94; 105, 3. + Crusius, Mart., § 139, 26. + ” Chr. Aug., § 167, 4. + Crypto-Calvinists, § 141, 10, 13. + Crypts, § 38, 1; 60, 1. + Cubricus, § 29, 1. + Cudworth, § 164, 3. + Culdees, § 77, 8. + _Cum ex apostolatus officio_, § 149, 2. + Cummins, § 208, 1. + Cunæus, § 161, 6. + Cupola, § 60, 3. + _Curati_, § 84, 2. + Curæus, § 141, 10. + Curci, § 187, 5. + Curia, The Papal, § 110, 15. + Curio, § 139, 24. + Cursores, § 60, 5. + Cusa, Nich. of, § 113, 6. + Cynewulf, § 89, 3. + Cyprian, St., § 22, 5; 31, 11; 34, 1, 7, 8; 35, 3; 39, 2; + 41, 2, 3. + ” of Antioch, § 48, 8. + ” Sal., § 167, 4; 169, 1. + Cyran, St., § 157, 2. + Cyriacus, § 104, 9. + Cyril of Alexandria, § 47, 6; 52, 2, 3. + ” of Jerusalem, § 47, 10; 52, 2, 3. + ” Lucar, § 152, 2. + ” and Methodius, § 73, 2, 3; 79, 2, 3. + Cyrillonas, § 48, 7. + Cyrus of Alexandria, § 52, 8. + Czersky, § 186, 6. + + + Dach, Sim., § 160, 3. + Dächsel, § 186, 4. + Dagobert I., § 78, 1. + Daillé, § 161, 3, 7. + Dalberg, J. v., § 120, 2, 3. + ” K. Th. v., § 187, 3; 192, 2. + Dale, § 202, 3. + _Dalmatica_, § 59, 7. + Damascus I., § 46, 4; 59, 1, 4. + ” II., § 96, 5. + _Dames du Cœur sacré_, § 186, 1. + Damiani, Petrus [Peter], § 97, 4; 104, 10; 106, 4. + Damiens, § 158, 1. + Dandalo [Dandolo], § 94, 4. + Daniel of Winchester, § 78, 4. + Danites, § 211, 14. + Dankbrand, § 93, 5. + Dannecker, § 174, 9. + Dannhauer, § 159, 5. + Dante, § 115, 10. + Danzig, § 139, 18. + Darboy, § 189, 3; 203. + Darbyites, § 211, 11. + Darnley, § 139, 10. + Darwin, § 174, 3. + _Dataria Rom._, § 110, 16. + Daub, § 182, 6. + Daumer, § 175, 7. + David of Augsburg, § 103, 10. + ” ” Dinant, § 108, 4. + ” Christian, § 167, 9. + Davidis, Fr., § 148, 3. + Davis, § 211, 17. + Deacon, § 17, 5; 34, 3. + Deaconess, § 34, 3. + Deaconess-institutes, § 183, 1. + Dean, § 84, 2. + Decius, Emperor, § 22, 5. + ” Nich., § 142, 3. + Declaratio Thornuensis, § 153, 7. + Decretals, § 46, 3. + Decretists, § 99, 5. + Decretum Gelasianum, § 47, 22. + ” Gratiani, § 99, 5. + _Defensores_, § 45, 3. + Deism, § 164, 3; 171, 1. + Delicieux, § 117, 2. + Delitzsch, § 182, 14. + Delrio, § 149, 11. + Demetrius of Alexandria, § 31, 5. + ” Cydonius, § 68, 5. + ” Mysos, § 139, 26. + Demiurge, § 26, 2. + Denek, § 148, 1. + Denecker, § 160, 1. + Denifle, § 191, 7. + Denison, § 202, 2. + Denmark, § 80; 93, 2; 139, 2; 201, 1. + Denzinger, § 191, 9. + Derezer, § 165, 11. + Dernbach, § 151, 1. + _De salute animarum_, § 193, 1. + Desanctis, § 204, 4. + Descant, § 104, 11. + Descartes, § 161, 3; 164, 1. + Deseret, § 211, 12. + Desiderius, § 82, 1. + Desprez, § 203, 3. + Dessau, Convention of, § 126, 5. + Dessler, § 167, 6. + Deutinger, § 191, 6. + “Deutsche Theologie,” § 114, 2. + De Valenti, § 174, 3. + Devay, § 139, 20. + Dhu Nowas, § 64, 4. + Diana of Poitiers, § 139, 13. + Diatessaron, § 30, 9; 36, 7. + Diaz, Juan, § 135, 10. + Didache, § 30, 7. + _Didascalia Apost._, § 43, 4. + Didenhofen, Synod of, § 82, 4. + Diderot, § 165, 12. + Didier de la Cour, § 156, 7. + Didymus of Alexandria, § 47, 5. + ” Gabr, § 124, 1. + Dieckhoff, § 182, 21. + Diedrich, § 177, 3. + Diepenbrock, § 189, 1. + Dieringer, § 191, 6. + _Dies Stationum_, § 37; 56, 1. + Diestel, Past., § 176, 3. + Dietrich, Meister, § 103, 10. + ” Veit, § 142, 2. + Dillmann, § 182, 11. + Dinant, David of, § 108, 4. + Dinder, Archbishop, § 197, 12. + Dinkel, Bishop, § 187, 3. + Dinter, § 174, 8. + Diocletian, Emperor, § 22, 6. + Diodorus of Tarsus, § 47, 8. + Diognetus, § 30, 6. + Dionysius of Alexandria, § 31, 6; 32, 8; 33, 7, 9; 35, 3. + ” the Areopagite, § 47, 11; 90, 8. + ” _Exiguus_, § 47, 23. + ” of Paris, § 25. + ” ” Rome, § 33, 7. + Dioscurus of Alexandria, § 52, 4. + ” ” Rome, § 46, 8. + Dippel, § 170, 3. + Diptychs, § 59, 6. + _Disciplina arcani_, § 36, 4. + Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6. + ” ” Basel, § 130, 3. + ” ” Bern, § 130, 7. + ” ” Leipzig, § 122, 4. + ” ” Rome, § 175, 3. + ” ” Zürich, § 130, 2. + Dissenters, § 143, 3, 4; 155, 1-3; 202, 5. + Dober, § 168, 3, 4, 11. + Docetism, § 26, 2. + _Doctor acutus_, § 113, 2. + ” _angelicus_, § 103, 6. + ” _audientium_, § 33, 1. + ” _Christianiss._, § 113, 4. + ” _ecstaticus_, § 114, 5. + ” _invincibilis_, § 113, 3. + ” _irrefragibilis_, § 103, 4. + ” _melifluus_, § 102, 2. + ” _mirabilis_, § 103, 8. + ” _profundus_, § 103, 8; 116, 2. + ” _resolutissimus_, § 113, 3. + ” _seraphicus_, § 103, 4. + ” _subtilis_, § 113, 1. + ” _universalis_, § 103, 5. + _Doctores audientium_, § 34, 3. + ” _ecclesiæ_, § 47, 22. + Döderlein, § 171, 8. + Dodwell, § 161, 7. + Dolcino, § 108, 8. + Döllinger, § 190, 1; 191, 5, 9; 175, 6; 5, 6. + Domenichino, § 149, 15. + Domenico da Pescia, § 119, 11. + Dominic, St., § 98, 4; 106, 3. + Dominicans, § 98, 5; 109, 2; 112, 4; 186, 2. + _Dominus ac redemt._, § 165, 9. + Domitian, Emperor, § 22, 1. + ” Abbot, § 52, 6. + Domnus of Antioch, § 52, 4. + _Donatio Constantini_, § 87, 4. + Donatists, § 63, 1. + Donnet, Card., § 190, 3. + Doré, Gustav, § 174, 9. + Doring, Matt., § 113, 7. + _Dormitoria_, § 38, 2; 60, 4. + Dorner, § 182, 10. + Dorotheus, § 30, 6. + Dort, Synod of, § 161, 2. + Dositheus of Samaria, § 25, 2. + ” ” Jerusalem, § 152, 3. + Drabricius, § 163, 9. + Dragonnades, § 153, 3. + Drake, § 174, 9. + Drey, § 191, 6. + Druids, § 77, 2. + Drummond, § 211, 10. + Drusius, § 161, 6. + Druthmar, Christ., § 90, 4, 9; 91, 3. + Dualism, § 26, 2. + Dualistic Heretics, § 71. + Dubois, Pet. v., § 118, 1. + ” Card., § 165, 7. + Ducange, § 158, 2. + Duchoborzians, § 166, 2; 210, 3. + Dufay, § 115, 8. + Dufresne, § 158, 2. + Dulignon, § 163, 8. + Dumont, Bishop, § 200, 7. + Dumoulin, § 161, 3, 7. + Dungal, § 92, 2. + Dunin, § 193, 1. + Duns Scotus, § 113, 1. + Dunstan, § 97, 4; 100, 1. + Dupanloup, § 189, 3; 203, 3-5. + Duplessis-Mornay, § 139, 17. + Duræus, § 154, 4. + Durandus of Osca, § 108, 10. + ” William, § 113, 3. + Dürer, Albert, § 115, 13; 142, 2. + Durousseaux, § 200, 7. + Düsselthal, § 183, 1. + Dutoit, § 171, 9. + Duvergier, § 157, 5. + + + Eadbald, § 77, 4. + Eanfled, § 77, 6. + Eardley, § 178, 2. + Easter-Festival, § 37, 1; 56, 3, 4. + ” Reckoning of, § 56, 3; 77, 3. + East Friesland, § 170, 3. + East Indies, § 64, 4; 150, 1; 156, 11; 165, 3; 167, 9; 168, 6; + 184, 5. + Ebed Jesu, § 72, 1. + Ebel, § 176, 3. + Eber, Paul, § 141, 10; 142, 3. + Eberhard of Bamberg, § 102, 6. + ” J. A., § 171, 4-7. + ” Bishop of Treves, § 197, 6. + Eberlin, § 125, 1. + Ebionites, § 28, 1. + Ebner, § 114, 6. + Ebo of Rheims, § 80; 87, 3. + Ebrard, § 182, 16; 195, 5; 5, 5. + Ecbert of Schönau, § 107, 1. + Eccart, John, § 142, 5. + _Ecclesia Christi_ Bull, § 203, 1. + Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11. + Ecetæ, § 70, 3. + Echter, Jul., § 151, 1. + Echternach Procession, § 188, 11. + Eck, § 122, 1, 4; 123, 1; 130, 6; 135, 2, 3; 149, 14. + Eckhart, Meister, § 114, 1. + Ecthesis, § 52, 8. + Edelmann, § 171, 3. + Edessa, School of, § 31, 1; 47, 1. + Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5. + Edwin, § 77, 4. + Egbert, § 77, 8; 78, 3. + Egede, § 167, 9. + Egli, § 199, 3. + Eichhorn, J. G., § 171, 7. + ” Minister, § 196, 2. + ” Nich., § 174, 5. + Eichsfeld, § 151, 1. + Einhard, § 88, 6. + εἰρήνη, § 39, 2. + Eisenach, Conference at, § 172, 2. + ” Attentat, § 194, 2. + Eisenmenger, § 161, 7. + Eisleben, Magister, § 141, 1. + Elagabalus, § 22, 4. + Eleesban, § 64, 4. + Eleutherus, § 40, 2. + Elias of Cortona, § 98. + Eligius, § 78, 3. + Elipandus, § 91, 1. + Elisæus [Elisaeus], § 64, 3. + Elizabeth, St., § 105, 3. + ” of Brandenburg, § 128, 1. + ” ” Calenberg, § 134, 5. + ” ” England, § 139, 6-8. + ” ” Herford, § 163, 7, 8. + ” ” Schönau, § 104, 9; 107, 1. + Elizabeth-Society, § 186, 4. + Elkesaites, § 28, 2. + Eller, § 170, 4. + Elliot, § 162, 7. + Eltz, Jac. v., § 151, 1. + Elvenich, § 191, 1. + Elvira, Syn. of, § 38, 3; 45, 2. + Elxai, § 27, 2. + Elzevir, § 161, 6. + Emanation, § 26, 2. + Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9. + Emmerau, § 78, 2. + Emmerich, § 188, 3. + Empaytaz, § 199, 5. + Emser, Jerome, § 123, 4; 149, 14. + Encratites, § 27, 10. + Encyclicon, § 52, 5. + Encyclopædists, § 165, 14. + Endemic Synods, § 43, 2. + Energumens, § 35, 3. + _Enfans sans souci_, § 115, 12. + Enfantin, § 212, 2. + England, § 139, 4; 143, 1; 154, 4; 155; 162, 1; 202. + Ennodius, § 46, 8; 59, 4. + Enoch, Book of, § 32, 2. + Enraght, § 202, 3. + Eoban, St., § 78, 7. + Epaon, Council of, § 76, 5. + Ephesus, Council of, § 52, 3; 53, 4. + Ephraem [Ephraim], § 47, 13; 48, 7; 59, 4. + Epigonus, § 33, 5. + Epiphanes, § 27, 8. + Epiphanius, § 47, 10; 51, 2, 3; 57, 4. + Episcopal System, § 167, 5. + _Episcopi in partibus_, § 97, 3. + Episcopius, § 161, 2. + _Epistolæ decretales_, § 46, 3. + ” _formatæ_, § 34, 6. + ” _obscur. vir._, § 120, 5. + ” _paschales_, § 34, 6; 56, 3. + ” _synodales_, § 34, 6. + _Epulæ Thyesteæ_, § 22. + Erasmus, § 120, 6; 123, 3; 125, 3. + Erastianism, § 202, 7. + Erastus, § 117, 4; 144, 1. + Erfurt, University of, § 120, 2. + Eric of Calenberg, § 136, 1. + ” ” Sweden, § 80, 1; 93, 2. + ” St., § 93, 3, 11. + ” the Red, § 93, 5. + Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + Erimbert, § 81, 1. + Erlembald, § 97, 5. + Ernest the Pious, § 160, 6. + ” of Lüneburg, § 126, 4; 127, 3. + Ernesti, § 171, 6. + Ernestine Bible, § 160, 6. + Esch, John, § 128, 1. + Eschenmayer, § 176, 2. + Escobar, § 149, 16; 158, 1. + Essenes, § 8, 4; 28, 2. + Essenius, § 161, 5. + Established Church, § 139, 6; 202, 1. + Esthonia, § 93, 2; 205, 3. + Estius, § 149, 14. + Ethelberga, § 77, 4. + Ethelbert, § 77, 4. + Ethelwold, Bishop, § 100, 1. + Etherius of Osma, § 91, 1. + Ethiopia, § 64, 1. + Etshmiadzin, § 72, 2. + Εὐχαριστία, § 17, 7; 36, 3. + Εὐχέλαιον, § 61, 3. + Eucherius, § 47, 21. + Euchites, § 44, 7; 71, 3. + Eudocia, § 48, 5; 52, 3, 4, 5. + Eudoxia, § 51, 3. + Eudoxius, § 50, 8. + Eugenius II., § 82, 4. + ” III., § 96, 13. + ” IV., § 67, 6; 110, 8, 9. + Eulalius, § 46, 6. + Euler, § 171, 8. + Eulogies, § 58, 4. + Eulogius of Cæsarea, § 53, 4. + ” ” Cordova, § 81, 1; 90, 6. + Eunapius, § 42, 5. + Eunomius, § 50, 3. + Euphemites, § 42, 6. + Euphrates, § 28, 4. + Euric, § 76, 2. + Eusebians, § 50, 2. + Eusebius of Cæsarea, § 36, 8; 47, 2; 50, 1; 59, 1. + ” ” Doryläum, § 52, 3. + ” ” Emesa, § 47, 8. + ” ” Nicomedia, § 50, 1. + ” ” Vercelli, § 50, 2. + Eustasius of Luxeuil, § 78, 2. + Eustathians, § 44, 7. + Eustathius of Antioch, § 50, 8. + ” ” Sebaste, § 44, 3, 7; 62, 1. + ” ” Thessalonica, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + Euthalius, § 59, 1. + Euthymius Zigabenus, § 68, 5. + Eutyches, § 52, 4. + Euzoius, § 50, 8. + Evagrius, § 5, 1. + Evangelical-Party, § 202, 1, 4. + Evangelists, § 17, 5; 34, 1. + _Evangelium æternum_, § 108, 4. + Evolutionists, § 174, 2. + Ewald, The black and white, § 78, 9. + ” H., § 182, 3. + Exarchate, § 46, 9; 76, 7; 82, 1. + Exarchs, Episcopal, § 46, 1. + _Execrabilis_, § 110, 10. + Exemption, § 98. + Exercises, Spiritual, § 149, 9; 188, 1. + Excommunication, § 35, 2; 88, 5; 106, 1. + Exodus-Churches, § 211, 6, 7. + ἐξομολόγησις, § 32, 2. + Exorcism, § 35, 4; 58, 1; 142, 2; 167, 2. + Exorcists, § 33, 3. + _Exsurge Domini_, § 123, 2. + _Extra_, § 99, 5. + _Extraneæ_, § 39, 3. + _Extravagantes_, § 99, 5. + Eyck, § 115, 13. + Eznik, § 64, 3. + Ezra, Fourth Book of, § 32, 2. + + + Faber, John, § 130, 2, 6. + ” Stapulensis, § 120, 8. + Fabian, Bishop of Rome, § 22, 5. + Facundus of Hermiane, § 47, 19; 52, 6. + Fagius, § 139, 5. + Falk, Dr., § 174, 8; 193, 5, 6; 197, 2, 3, 5. + Familists, § 146, 5. + Farel, § 130, 3; 138, 1. + Fasts, Ascetic, § 44, 4; 107. + ” Ecclesiastical, § 37, 3; 56, 4, 7; 115, 1, 12. + Fatak, § 29, 1. + Faustus of Mileve, § 54, 1. + ” ” Rhegium, § 47, 21; 53, 5. + Favre, Pet., § 149, 8. + Fawkes, Guy, § 153, 6. + Fazy, § 199, 1. + Febronius, § 165, 10. + Fecht, § 167, 1. + Federal Theology, § 161, 4. + Felicissimus, § 41, 2. + Felicitas, § 22, 4. + Felix II., § 46, 4. + ” III., § 46, 8; 52, 5. + ” IV., § 46, 8. + ” V., § 110, 8. + ” of Aptunga, § 63, 1. + ” the Manichæan, § 54, 1. + ” Pratensis, § 120, 9. + ” of Urgellis, § 91, 1. + Fell, Marg., § 163, 4. + Feneberg, § 187, 1. + Fénelon, § 157, 3; 158, 2. + Fenian-movement, § 202, 10. + Ferdinand I., § 137, 8; 126, 2, 3; 139, 19, 20. + ” II., § 151, 1; 153, 2. + ” VII. of Spain, § 205, 1. + ” I. of Castile, § 95, 2. + ” III. of Castile, § 95, 2. + ” the Catholic, § 95, 2; 117, 2; 118, 7. + Ferguson, Fergus, § 202, 8. + Ferrara, Council of, § 67, 6; 110, 8. + Ferrer, Bonif., § 115, 4. + ” Vincent, § 115, 2; 110, 6. + Ferry, Minister, § 203, 6. + _Ferula_, § 60, 1. + Fessler, Bishop, § 189, 3. + ” Ign., § 165, 13. + Feudalism, § 86, 1. + Feuerbach, § 174, 1, 3; 182, 6. + Feuillants, § 149, 6. + Feyin, Synod of, § 64, 3. + Fichte, J. G., § 171, 10. + ” J. H., § 174, 2; 211, 15. + Fiesole, § 115, 13. + Fifth Monarchy Men, § 162, 1. + _Filioque_, § 50, 7; 67, 1; 91, 2. + Finkenstein, § 176, 3. + Finland, § 93, 11; 139, 1; 206, 3. + Firmian, § 165, 4. + Firmcius Maternus, § 47, 14. + Firmilian, § 34, 3; 35, 3. + Fischart, § 142, 7. + Fisher, Bishop, § 139, 4. + Fisherman’s Ring, § 110, 16. + Fitzgerald, § 189, 3. + Five Mile Act, § 155, 3. + Flacius, § 141, 4-8; 142, 6; 5, 2. + Flagellants, § 106, 4; 116, 3; 149, 17. + Flagellation, § 106, 4; 116, 3; 149, 17. + Flavia Domitilla, § 22, 1. + Flavian of Antioch, § 50, 8. + ” of Constantinople, § 52, 4. + Flechier, § 158, 2. + Flemming, § 160, 3. + Fletcher, § 169, 3. + Fleury, § 5, 2; 158, 2; 165, 7. + Fliedner, § 183, 1. + Flora, § 27, 5. + Florence, Council of, § 67, 6; 72; 110, 8. + Florentius Radewin, § 112, 9. + Florinus, § 31, 2. + Florus Magister, § 90, 5; 91, 5. + Folmar, § 102, 6. + Fontevraux, Order of, § 98, 2. + Fools, Festival of, § 105, 2. + Formosus, § 82, 8. + _Formula Concordiæ_, § 141, 9. + ” Consensus Helvet., § 161, 3. + Förster, J., § 142, 6. + ” prelate, § 118, 3; 197, 6. + Fortunatus, § 48, 6. + Fouque, de la M., § 174, 5. + Fourier, § 212, 1. + Fox, George, Quaker, § 163, 4, 5. + ” American Spiritualist, § 211, 17. + France, § 139, 13-17; 153, 4; 165, 5; 203. + Francis, St., § 93, 16; 98, 3; 104, 10; 105, 4. + ” de Paula, § 112, 8. + ” ” Sales, § 156, 6; 157, 1. + ” I., of France, § 110, 9, 14; 120, 8; 126, 5, 6; 139, 13. + ” II., of France, § 139, 14. + Francisca Romana, § 112, 1. + Franciscans, § 98, 3; 112, 2; 149, 6. + Francis Xavier Society, § 186, 4. + Franck, Seb. § 146, 3. + ” John, § 160, 4. + ” Michael, § 160, 4. + ” Sal., § 167, 6. + Francke, A. H., § 159, 3; 167, 2, 8, 9; 160, 7. + Franco of Cologne, § 104, 11. + Frank, J. H., § 182, 15. + Frankists, § 165, 17. + Franks, The, § 76, 9. + Frankfort, Synod of, § 91, 1; 92, 1. + ” Concordat of, § 110, 9, 14. + ” Parliament of, § 189, 4. + ” Recess of, § 141, 11. + ” Troubles of, § 134, 3. + _Fratres de communi vita_, § 112, 9. + ” _minores_, § 98, 3. + ” _pontifices_, § 98, 9. + ” _praedicatores_, § 98, 5. + _Fraticelli_, § 112, 2. + Fredigis, § 90, 4. + Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14, 15; 94, 3. + ” II., Emperor, § 94, 5; 96, 20; 97, 2; 99, 3; 109, 2. + ” III., Emperor, § 110, 9. + ” III., of Austin, § 110, 3. + ” I., of Prussia, § 169, 1. + ” II., “ § 165, 9; 171, 4. + ” I., of Denmark, § 139, 2. + ” IV., “ § 167, 9. + ” of Palatinate, § 153, 3. + ” Aug. the Strong, § 153, 1. + ” the Wise, § 122, 3; 123, 9. + ” William, the Great Elector, § 154, 4. + ” William II., § 171, 5. + ” ” III., § 171, 5; 172, 3; 177, 1; 193. + ” ” IV., § 177, 2; 193. + Freemasons, § 171, 2; 104, 13. + Free-will Baptists, § 162, 3; 208, 1. + Free-thinkers, § 164, 2; 171, 2. + Freiligrath, § 174, 5. + Fresenius, § 167, 8. + Freylinghausen, § 167, 6-8. + Fricke, § 182, 21. + Fridolin, § 77, 7; 78, 1. + Friedewalt, Convention of, § 126, 6. + Friedrich, John, § 190, 1; 191, 7. + Fries, § 174, 1. + Frisians, § 78, 3. + Frith, § 139, 4. + Frithigern, § 76, 1. + Fritzlar, § 78, 4. + Fritzsche, § 183, 3. + Frobenius, § 120, 6. + Frohschammer, § 191, 6. + Froment, § 138, 1. + Fronto, § 23. + Frumentius, § 64, 1. + Fry, Elizabeth, § 183, 1. + Fugue, Musical, § 115, 8. + Fulbert of Chartres, § 101, 1. + Fulco, Canonist, § 102, 1. + ” of Neuilly, § 104, 1. + Fulda, § 78, 5; 151, 2. + Fulgentius, Ferr., § 47, 20. + ” of Ruspe, § 47, 20. + + + Gabler, Andr., § 182, 6. + ” Th. A., § 171, 5. + Gabriel, Didymus, § 124, 1. + Galen, § 23. + Galerius, § 22, 6. + Galileo, § 156, 4. + Gall, St., § 130, 4, 8. + Galle, Peter, § 139, 1. + Gallienus, § 22, 5. + Gallican Church, § 156, 3; 203. + Gallizin, Am. v., § 172, 2. + Gallus, St., § 178. + ” Emperor, § 22, 5. + Ganganelli, § 165, 8. + Gangra, Synod of, § 44, 7; 45, 2. + Gardiner, Allen, § 184, 2. + ” Bishop, § 139, 4, 5. + Garibaldi, § 185, 3. + Garve, § 170, 4. + Gasparin, § 203, 4. + Gannilo, § 101, 3. + Gauzbert, § 81, 1. + Gavazzi, § 204, 4. + Gebhardt of Eichstedt [Eichstadt], § 96, 5. + ” ” Cologne, § 137, 7. + ” ” Salzburg, § 97, 2. + Gedike, § 154, 3. + Gedimin, § 93, 14. + Geibel, § 174, 6. + Geier, § 159, 4. + Geiler of Kaisersb., § 115, 2, 11. + Geisa, § 93, 8. + Geismar, § 78, 4. + Geissel, § 194, 1. + Gelasius, I., § 46, 8; 47, 22; 59, 6. + ” II., § 96, 11. + Gelimar, § 76, 3. + Gellert, § 171, 11; 172, 1. + Genesis, The little, § 32, 2. + Genesius, § 71, 1. + Geneva, § 138; 199, 1, 2, 5. + Genghis-Khan, § 72, 1. + Gennadius, § 47, 16; 48, 3. + ” Patr., § 68, 5; 67, 7. + Genseric, § 76, 3. + Gentile Christians, § 18. + Gentilis, § 148, 3. + Gentilly, Synod of, § 91, 2; 92, 1. + _Genuflectentes_, § 35, 1. + George Acyndynos [Acindynos], § 69, 1. + ” of Brandenburg, § 127, 3; 132, 6. + ” of Saxony, § 122, 4; 126, 5; 128; 134, 2. + ” Bishop of the Arabs, § 72, 2. + ” of Trebizond, § 68, 2. + Gerbert, § 96, 2; 100, 2. + Gereuth, § 188, 6. + Gerhard Groot, § 112, 9. + ” John, § 159, 4; 160, 1. + ” Segarelli, § 108, 8. + ” Zerbolt, § 112, 9. + Gerhardt, Paul, § 154, 4; 160, 4. + Gerike, P., § 139, 18. + Gerlach, L. v., § 175, 1; 176, 1. + ” Otto v., § 181, 4. + ” Stephen, § 139, 26. + St. Germains, Peace of, § 139, 15. + German Empire, § 192; 197. + ” Catholics, § 187, 6. + Germany, Young, § 174, 5. + Germanus, Patr., § 66, 1. + Gerson, § 110, 6, 7; 112, 6; 113, 3; 118, 4; 119, 5. + Gertrude the Great, § 107, 1. + ” of Hackeborn, § 107, 1. + Gesenius, W., § 182, 3. + ” Just., § 160, 3. + Gewilib of Mainz, § 78, 4. + Geysa, § 93, 2. + Gfrörer, § 5, 4; 175, 7. + Ghazali, § 103, 1. + Ghent, Pacific. of, § 139, 12. + Ghetto, § 95, 3; 185, 1. + Ghiberti, § 115, 13. + Gichtel, § 163, 9. + Gieseler, § 5, 4. + Giessen, University of, § 154, 1; 196, 1, 5. + Gil, Juan, § 139, 21. + Gilbertines, § 98, 2. + Gilbertus Porretanus, § 102, 3. + Gildas, § 90, 8. + Giotto, § 115, 13. + Gisela, § 93, 8. + Gladstone, § 202, 10. + Glass, Painting on, § 104, 14; 174, 9. + Glassius, § 159, 4. + γλωσσαῖς λαλεῖν, § 17, 1. + Gnesen, Archbishopric of, § 93, 2. + Gnosimachians, § 62, 3. + Gnosticism, § 18, 3; 26-28. + Goar, St., § 78, 3. + Gobat, Bishop, § 184, 8, 9. + Gobel, § 165, 15. + Goch, John of, § 119, 10. + God, Friends of, § 116, 4. + Godfrey of Bouillon, § 94, 1. + ” ” Strassburg, § 105, 6. + Goethe, § 171, 11. + Goetze, § 171, 8. + Gomarus, § 161, 2. + Gonzago, Cardinal, § 149, 2. + Gonzalo of Berceo, § 105, 6. + Good Friday, § 56, 4. + Goodwin, § 161, 6. + Gordianus, § 22, 4. + Görg, Junker, § 123, 8. + Gorm the Old, § 93, 2. + Görres, Jos., § 174, 4; 181, 1; 5, 6. + Göschel, § 179, 1, 2; 182, 6, 15. + Gossler, § 193, 6; 197, 11. + Gossner, § 187, 2; 184, 1. + Gothic Architecture, § 104, 12. + Goths, § 76. + Gotter, § 167, 6. + Gottschalk, Prince of Wends, § 93, 9. + ” Monk, § 91, 5, 6. + Goudimel, § 143, 2; 149, 15. + Grabau, § 208, 2. + Grabow, § 210, 10. + Graf, § 182, 18. + _Graffiti_, § 38, 1; 39, 5. + γράμματα τετυπωμένα, § 34, 6. + Grammont, Order of, § 98, 2. + Grant, § 184, 9. + Granvella, § 135, 1, 2, 3. + Gratian, Emperor, § 42, 4. + ” Canonist, § 99, 5; 104, 4. + Gratius Ortuinus, § 120, 5. + Graumann, § 142, 3. + Grebel, § 130, 5. + Greece, § 207. + Greeks, United, § 151; 206, 2. + Green, § 202, 3. + Greenland, § 93, 1; 167, 9; 184, 2. + Gregentius, § 48, 3. + Gregoire, Bishop, § 165, 15. + Gregory I., § 46, 10; 47, 22; 57, 4; 58, 3; 59, 5, 6, 9; 61, 4; + 76, 8; 77, 4. + Gregory II., III., § 66, 1; 78, 4; 82, 1. + ” IV., § 82, 4. + ” V., § 96, 2. + ” VI., § 96, 4. + ” VII., § 96, 7-9; 94; 101, 2. + ” VIII., § 96, 16; 94, 3. + ” IX., § 96, 19; 99, 4; 109, 2. + ” X., § 96, 21; 67, 4. + ” XI., § 110, 5; 114, 4; 117, 2. + ” XII., § 110, 6, 7. + ” XIII., § 139, 17; 149, 3, 4, 17. + ” XIV., § 149, 3. + ” XV., § 156, 1, 4, 5. + ” XVI., § 185, 1. + ” Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. + ” Acindynos, § 69, 2. + ” of Constantinople, § 207, 1. + ” of Heimburg, § 118, 5. + ” Illuminator, § 64, 3. + ” Palamas, § 69, 2. + ” Scholaris, § 68, 5. + ” Thaumaturgus, § 31, 6. + ” Nazianzen, § 47, 4; 48, 5, 8; 59, 4. + ” of Nyssa, § 47, 4. + ” of Tours, § 90, 2. + ” of Utrecht, § 78, 3. + Gregorian Chant, § 59, 3. + Gretna-Green, § 202, 6. + Grévy, § 203, 5. + Grey, Lady Jane, § 139, 5. + Griesbach, § 171, 7. + Groot, Gerh., § 112, 9. + Gropper, § 135, 3, 7. + Grosseteste, § 97, 4. + Grotius, § 153, 7; 161, 2, 6, 7. + Gruber, § 170, 1, 2. + Gruet, Jac., § 138, 4. + Grundtvig, § 201, 1. + Grunthler, § 139, 24. + Grynäus, § 133, 8. + Gualbertus, § 98, 1. + Guardian, § 98, 5. + Guatemala, § 209, 2. + Guelphs, § 96, 7. + Guericke, § 5, 5; 176, 1; 177, 2; 182, 13. + Guerin, § 98, 2. + Guevara, § 209, 2. + Guiana, § 184, 2. + Guibert, Archbishop, § 203, 5. + ” of Nogent, § 101, 1. + Guido of Arezzo, § 104, 11. + ” de Castello, § 102, 2; 108, 7. + ” of Siena, § 104, 9, 14. + Guigo, § 98, 2. + Guise, Dukes of, § 139, 13-17. + Guizot, § 185, 3; 203, 2, 8. + Gundiberge, § 76, 8. + Gundioch, § 75, 5. + Gundobald, § 76, 5. + Gundulf, § 108, 2. + Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6. + Gunthamund, § 76, 3. + Gunther of Cologne, § 82, 7. + Günther, Ant., § 191, 3. + ” Cyriacus, § 160, 4. + Günzburg, Eberlin of, § 125, 1. + Gury, § 191, 9. + Gustavus Adolphus, § 153, 2; 160, 7. + ” ” Society, § 178, 1. + Gützlaf, § 184, 6. + Guyon, § 157, 3. + Gylas, § 93, 8. + Gyrovagi, § 44, 7. + + + Haag, Pastor, § 196, 3. + Haas, Jos., § 210, 2. + ” Charles, § 175, 7. + Haco the Good, § 93, 4. + Hadrian, Emperor, § 28, 3; 25; 39, 6. + ” I., § 66, 3; 82, 2; 91, 1. + ” II., § 67, 1; 79, 2; 82, 7; 83, 2. + ” III., § 82, 8. + ” IV., § 96, 14. + ” V., § 96, 22. + ” VI., § 149, 1; 126, 1. + Hagenau, § 135, 2. + Hagenbach, § 182, 9; 5, 5. + Hahn, Aug., § 176, 1. + ” Michael, § 172, 3. + ” Missionary, § 184, 3. + Hahn-Hahn, Ida, § 175, 7. + Hakem, § 95, 2. + Haldane, § 199, 5. + Haldanites, § 170, 6. + Halle, University of, § 167, 1. + Haller, Alb., § 171, 8. + ” Berth., § 130, 4. + ” L. v., § 175, 7. + Hamann, § 171, 11. + Hamburg, Bishopric, § 80, 1. + Hamilton, Patrick, § 139, 8. + Hammerschmidt, § 160, 5. + Handel, § 167, 7. + Haneberg, § 189, 4; 197, 6. + Hanne, Dr., § 180, 3. + Hannington, Bishop, § 184, 4. + Hanover, § 193, 8; 194, 3. + Hans, Brother, § 115, 11. + Harald the Apostate, § 80. + ” Blaatand, § 93, 2. + Hardenberg, § 144, 2. + Hard-Shell Baptists, § 170, 6. + Hardouin, § 165, 11. + Hare, § 211, 17. + Harless, § 182, 13; 195, 4. + Harmonites, § 211, 6. + Harmonius, § 27, 5. + Harms, Claus, § 176, 1. + ” Louis, § 184, 1. + Harnack, Th., § 182, 13. + Hartmann, E. v., § 174, 2. + Hase, § 5, 4; 176, 1; 182, 5. + Hasse [Hase], § 5, 5. + Hassun, § 207, 4. + Hattemists, § 170, 8. + Hatto of Reichenau, § 90, 3. + ” I. of Mainz, § 83, 3. + Hatty-Humayun, § 207. + Hätzer, § 130, 5; 148, 1. + Haug, § 170, 1. + Hauge, § 201, 3. + Hauser, § 188, 5. + Hausmann, Nich., § 133, 4. + Hausrath, § 182, 17. + Haydn, § 174, 10. + Haymo of Halberstadt, § 90, 5. + Hebel, § 171, 11. + Heber, Bishop, § 184, 5. + Hebræans, Sect of, § 170, 8. + Hebrews, Gospel of the, § 32, 4. + Heddo of Strassburg, § 84, 2. + Hedinger, § 170, 1. + Hedio, § 130, 3. + Hedwig of Poland, § 93, 14. + ” St. of Silesia, § 105, 3. + Heermann, § 160, 3. + Hefele, § 189, 3, 4; 191, 7. + Hefter, § 184, 8. + Hegel, § 174, 1. + Hegesippus, § 31, 7. + Hegius, § 120, 3. + Heidanus, § 161, 5, 7. + Heidegger, § 161, 3. + Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1. + ” University, § 120, 3. + Heine, § 174, 5. + Heinrichs, § 171, 5. + Hejira, § 65. + Held, H., § 159, 3. + ” Imperial Orator, § 134, 2. + Helding, § 136, 5. + Helena, Empress, § 57, 5, 6. + ” of Russia, § 73, 4. + Heliand, § 89, 3. + Hell, § 106, 3. + Hellenists, § 10, 1. + Helmstedt [Helmstadt], § 159, 2. + Heloise, § 102, 1. + Helvetius, § 165, 12. + Helvidius, § 62, 2. + Hemero-baptists, § 25, 1. + Hemmerlin, § 118, 5. + Hemming of Upsala, § 93, 11. + ” Professor, § 141, 10. + Hengstenberg, § 176, 1; 182, 4. + Henke, § 5, 3; 171, 7. + Henoticon, § 52, 2. + Henricians, § 108, 7. + Henry I., Emperor, § 93, 2; 96, 1. + ” II., § 96, 4. + ” III., § 96, 4; 97, 1. + ” IV., § 96, 6. + ” V., § 96, 11 ff. + ” VI., § 96, 16. + ” VII., § 110, 2. + ” I. of England, § 96, 12. + ” II. ” ” § 96, 16; 94, 3. + ” VIII. ” § 125, 3; 139, 4, 7, 8. + ” II. of France, § 139, 13. + ” III. ” ” § 139, 17, 18. + ” IV. ” ” § 139, 17. + ” of Brunswick, § 126, 5; 135, 6, 10. + ” of Saxony, § 134, 4. + ” _de Hessia_, § 118, 5. + ” of Langenstein, § 118, 5. + ” of Lausanne, § 108, 7. + ” of Nördlingen, § 114, 6. + ” of Upsala, § 93, 11. + ” the Lion, § 93, 9. + ” Wendish Prince, § 93, 9. + ” of Zütphen, § 128, 1. + Hensel, Louise, § 174, 6. + Heppe, § 170, 3; 182, 16. + Heracleon, § 27, 5. + Heraclius, § 52, 8; 57, 5; 64, 2. + Herbart, § 174, 2. + Herder, § 171, 11. + Heretic’s Baptism, § 35, 5. + Hergenröther, § 5, 6; 191, 7. + Heriger, § 80, 1. + Hermann von Fritzlar, § 114. + ” Premonstrat., § 95, 3. + ” of Cologne, § 133, 5. + ” von Wied, § 133, 5; 135, 7; 136, 2. + Hermannsburg, § 184, 1; 193, 8. + Hermas, § 30, 4. + Hermes, § 191, 1. + Hermias, § 30, 10. + Hermogenes, § 27, 13. + Herrero de Mora, § 205, 5. + Herrmann, § 182, 20. + Herrnhut, § 168; 169, 3. + Hervæus, § 102, 8. + Herzog, Old Catholic Bishop, § 190, 3; 199, 3. + ” Prelate, § 197, 10, 11. + ” J. J., § 5, 5. + Hess, J. Jac., § 171, 6. + Hesse, § 127, 2. + ” Darmstadt, § 196, 4; 197, 15. + ” Cassel, § 154, 1; 193, 9; 194, 4. + Hesshus, § 144, 1, 2. + Hesychasts, § 69, 2. + _Hetæræ_, § 22, 2. + Hettinger, § 191, 6. + Heubner, § 184, 5. + Heumann, § 167, 4. + Hexapla, § 31, 5. + Hibbert Trust, § 202, 4. + Hicks, § 211, 3. + Hieracas, § 39, 3. + Hierocles, § 23, 3. + Hieronomites, § 112, 8. + High-Churchmen, § 202, 1. + Hilarion, § 44, 3. + Hilary of Arles, § 46, 7. + ” ” Poitiers, § 47, 14. + Hildebert of Tours, § 101, 1; 104, 4, 10. + Hildebrand, § 96, 4 ff.; 101, 2. + Hildegard, § 97; 107, 1; 109. + Hilderic, § 76, 9. + Hilduin, § 90, 8. + Hilgenfeld, § 182, 7. + Hilgers, § 191, 6. + Hiller, § 167, 6. + Hinemar of Laon, § 83, 2. + ” ” Rheims, § 82, 7; 83, 2; 87, 3; 90, 5; 91, 5. + Hippolytus, § 31, 3; 33, 5; 40, 2; 41, 1. + Hirschberger Bible, § 167, 8. + Hirscher, § 187, 3; 191, 6. + Hitzig, § 182, 3. + Hobbes, § 164, 3. + Hoe v. Hoenegg, § 154, 4; 159, 1. + Hofacker, § 211, 4. + Hoffmann, Christ., § 211, 8. + ” Fr., § 191, 2. + ” G. W., § 196, 5. + ” Melch., § 147, 1. + ” Chr. K. v., § 182, 14. + ” Dan., § 141, 15. + Hofmeister, Seb., § 130, 4. + Hofstede de Groot, § 200, 2. + Hohenlohe, § 188, 2. + ” Card., § 189, 1; 197, 7. + Holbach, § 165, 12. + Holbein, § 115, 6, 13; 113, 5; 142, 2. + Holland, § 165, 7; 200, 2, 3. + Hollaz, § 167, 4, 8. + Holtzmann, § 182, 17. + Homberg, Synod of, § 127, 2. + Homoians, § 50, 3. + Homoiousians, § 50, 3. + Homologoumena, § 36, 8. + Homoousians, § 33, 1; 50, 1. + Hönigern, § 177, 2. + Honorius, Emperor, § 42, 4; 53, 4. + ” I., § 46, 11; 52, 8, 9. + ” II., § 96, 13. + ” III., § 96, 19. + ” IV., § 96, 22. + Honter, Jac., § 139, 20. + Hontheim, § 165, 10. + Hoogstraten, § 120, 4; 122, 3. + Hooper, § 139, 5. + Hormisdas of Rome, § 46, 8; 52, 5, 6. + Horsley, § 171, 1. + Hosius, Bishop, § 50, 1, 2, 3. + ” Cardinal, § 139, 18. + Hospinian, § 161, 7. + Hospital Brothers, § 98, 8. + Hossbach, § 180, 4. + Host, § 104, 2. + Höting, § 197, 10. + Hottinger, § 5, 2; 161, 6. + Howard, Catherine, § 139, 4. + Huber, J., § 189, 1; 190, 1; 191, 7. + ” Sam., § 141, 14. + Hubmeier, § 130, 5; 147, 3. + Huebald, § 104, 11. + Huetius, § 158, 1. + Hug, § 191, 8. + Hugh Capet, § 96, 2. + Huguenots, § 139, 14 ff.; 153, 4; 165, 5. + Hugo a St. Caro, § 103, 9. + ” of St. Victor, § 102, 4; 104, 2, 4. + _Hugo de Payens_, § 98, 8. + Hülsemann, § 153, 7; 159, 2. + Humanists, § 120. + Humbert, § 67, 3; 101, 2. + Humboldt, Alex. v., § 174, 3. + Hume, § 171, 1. + Humiliates, § 98, 7; 101, 2. + Hundeshagen, § 196, 3. + Hungary, § 93, 8; 139, 20; 153, 3; 198, 6. + Hunneric, § 76, 3; 54, 1. + Hunnius, Ægid. [Ægidius], § 141, 13. + ” Nich., § 159, 5. + Huntingdon, Lady, § 169, 3. + Hupfeld, § 182, 3; 194, 4. + Hurter, § 175, 1. + Husig, § 64, 3. + Huss, § 113, 7; 119, 3-6. + Hutten, Ulr. v., § 120, 2, 3; 122, 4. + Hy, § 77, 2. + Hyacinth, § 93, 13. + Hylists, Anc. Materialists, § 26, 2. + Hymn Music, § 142, 3; 171, 1; 180, 1. + Hymnology, § 17, 7; 36, 10; 59, 4; 89, 2; 104, 10; 115, 7. + Hymns, Catholic, § 149, 15. + ” Protestant, § 142, 3; 143, 2; 160, 3; 162, 6; 167, 6; + 175, 10. + Hypatia, § 42, 4. + Hyperius, § 143, 5; 154, 1. + Hypophonic singing, § 59, 5. + Hypostasianism, § 33, 1. + Hypsistarians, § 42, 6. + Hystaspes, § 32, 1. + + + Iamblichus, § 24, 2. + Ibas, § 47, 13; 52, 3. + Iberians, § 64, 4. + Icarians, § 212, 3. + Iceland, § 93, 5; 139, 2. + Idacius, § 54, 2. + Iglesia Española, § 205, 4. + Ignatius of Antioch, § 22, 2; 30, 5; 34, 1, 7. + ” Patr. of Constant., § 67, 1. + Ignatius Loyola, § 149, 8. + _Ignorantins_, § 165, 2. + Ijejasu, § 150, 2; 156, 11. + Ildefonsus, § 90, 2, 9. + Illuminati, § 165, 11. + Illyria, § 46, 5, 9. + Images, § 38, 4. + ” Controversy about, § 66; 92, 1. + Image-worship, § 57, 4; 89, 4. + Immaculate Conception, § 104, 7; 112, 4; 113, 2; 149, 13; + 156, 6; 185, 2. + Immanuel Synod, § 177, 3. + Immunity, § 84, 1. + _Impostores tres_, § 148, 4. + Incense, § 59, 8. + _Inclusi_, § 85, 6. + _In Cœna Domini_, § 117, 3. + _In commendam_, § 85, 5; 110, 15. + Independents, § 143, 4; 155, 1; 162, 1. + _Index prohibitorius_, § 149, 14. + Indulgences, § 106, 2; 117, 1. + _Ineffabilis_, § 185, 2. + _In eminenti_, § 157, 5. + Infallibility, § 96, 23; 110, 14; 149, 4; 165, 8; 189, 3. + Infant Baptism, § 35, 3; 58, 1. + Infralapsarianism, § 161, 1. + _Infula_, § 84, 1. + Inge, § 93, 3. + Ingolstadt, § 120, 3. + _Innocentum festum_, § 57, 1; 105, 2. + Innocent I., § 46, 5; 51, 3; 53, 4; 61, 2, 3. + ” II., § 96, 13. + ” III., § 96, 17, 18; 94, 4; 102, 9; 108, 10; 109, 1. + ” IV., § 96, 20; 73, 6. + ” V., § 96, 22. + ” VI., § 110, 4, 5. + ” VII., § 110, 6. + ” VIII., § 110, 11; 115, 4. + ” IX., § 149, 3. + ” X., § 156, 1; 153, 2; 157, 5. + ” XI., § 156, 1, 3; 157, 2. + ” XII., § 156, 1, 3; 157, 3. + ” XIII., § 165, 1. + _In partibus infidelium_, § 97, 3. + Inquisition, § 109, 2; 117, 2; 139, 22; 149, 2; 151; 156, 3. + Inspiration, Doctrine of, § 36, 9. + _Insula sanctorum_, § 77, 1. + Intentionalism, § 149, 10. + Interdict, § 106, 1. + Interim, The Augsburg, § 136, 5, 6. + ” ” Leipzig, § 136, 7. + ” ” Regensburg, § 135, 3. + International, § 212, 4. + Interpreters, § 34, 3. + Investiture, § 45, 1; 84; 96, 7, 11, 12. + Iona, § 77, 2. + Ireland, § 77, 1; 139, 7; 153, 6; 202, 9. + Irenæus, § 31, 2; 33, 9; 34, 8; 40, 2. + Irene, § 66, 3. + Irish Massacre, § 153, 6. + Irvingites, § 211, 10. + Isaac, the Great, § 64, 3. + ” of Antioch, § 48, 7. + Isabella of Castile, § 95, 2; 117, 2; 118, 7. + ” II. of Spain, § 205, 2. + Isenberg, § 184, 9. + Isidore the Gnostic, § 28, 2. + ” of Pelusium, § 47, 6; 44, 3. + ” the Presbyter, § 51, 2, 3. + ” Russ. Metropol., § 73. + ” of Seville, § 90, 2. + Islam, § 65; 81; 95. + Issy, Conference of, § 157, 3. + _Itala_, § 36, 8. + Italy, § 139, 22; 187, 7; 204. + Ithacius, § 54, 2. + Ivo of Chartres, § 99, 5. + + + Jablonsky, § 168, 3. + Jacob el Baradai, § 52, 7. + ” Basilicus, § 139, 26. + ” a Benedictis, § 104, 10. + ” of Brescia, § 112, 3. + ” ben Chajim, § 120, 8. + ” the Conqueror, § 95. + ” of Edessa, § 47, 13. + ” ” Harkh, § 71, 2. + ” ” Jüterbegk [Jüterbock], § 118, 5. + ” ” Maerlant, § 105, 5. + ” ” Marchia, § 112, 4. + ” ” Misa, § 119, 7. + ” ” Nisibis, § 47, 13. + ” ” Sarug, § 48, 7. + Jacobi, § 171, 10. + Jacobini, § 197, 9, 12. + Jacobites, § 52, 7; 72, 2. + Jacopone da Todi, § 104, 10. + Jaldabaoth, § 27, 7. + James the Just, § 16, 3. + ” V. of Scotland, § 139, 8. + ” I. of England, § 117, 4; 139, 11; 153, 6; 155, 1. + ” II. of England, § 153, 6; 155, 3. + ” III. of Baden, § 153, 1. + ” Molay, § 112, 7. + ” a Voragine, § 104, 8. + Jansen, Cornel., § 157, 5. + Jansenists, § 157, 5; 165, 6. + Januarius, St., § 188, 10. + Janus, § 189, 1. + Japan, § 150, 2; 156, 11; 184, 6; 186, 7. + Jaroslaw I., § 72, 4. + ” II., § 73, 6. + Jason and Papiscus, § 30, 8. + Java, § 184, 5. + Jay, le, § 158, 1. + Jazelich, § 52, 3. + Jena, Univ. of, § 141, 1, 6. + Jeremias II., § 73, 4; 139, 26. + Jerome, § 17, 6; 33, 9; 47, 16; 48, 1; 51, 2; 53, 4; 59, 3. + ” of Prague, § 119, 4, 5. + Jerusalem, Bishopric, § 184, 8. + ” Church of the New, § 170, 4. + Jesuates, § 112, 8. + Jesuits, § 149, 8-12; 150; 151; 156, 2-9; 157, 2, 5; 165, 7-9; + 186, 1; 197, 4; 199, 1. + Jewish Christians, § 18; 28; 211, 9. + ” Missions, § 167, 9; 184, 8. + Jews in Middle Ages, § 90, 9; 95, 3. + Joachim of Floris, § 108, 5. + ” ” Brandenburg, § 128, 1; 134, 5. + ” II. of Brandenburg, § 134, 5; 136, 5. + Joan of Arc, § 116, 2. + Joanna, Popess, § 82, 6. + ” of Valois, § 112, 8. + John I., Pope, § 46, 8. + ” VIII. and IX., § 82, 8; 79, 2; 67, 1. + ” X., XII., XIII., § 96, 1. + ” XIV., XV., XVI., § 96, 2. + ” XVII., XVIII., § 96, 4. + ” XIX., § 96, 4; 57, 1. + ” XXI., § 96, 22; 82, 6. + ” XXII., § 110, 3; 112, 2; 113, 1; 114, 1. + ” XXIII., § 110, 7; 119, 4. + ” the Constant, § 124, 5. + ” Frederick, the Magnanimous, § 133, 2; 136, 3; 137, 3. + ” Lackland, § 96, 18. + ” VII. of Portugal, § 205, 4. + ” Sigismund, § 154, 3. + ” the Apostle, § 16, 2. + ” of Antioch, § 52, 3. + ” Beccos [Beccus], § 67, 3. + ” of Capistrano, § 112, 3. + ” ” Climacus, § 47, 12. + ” ” the Cross, § 149, 6, 16. + ” ” Damascus, § 66, 1; 68, 2-5. + ” ” Ephesus, § 5, 1. + ” ” God, § 149, 7. + ” ” Hagen, § 112, 1. + ” ” Jandun, § 118, 1. + ” Jejunator, § 46, 10; 61, 1. + ” of Leyden, § 133, 6. + ” de Monte Corvino, § 93, 15. + ” Moschus, § 47, 12. + ” of Nepomuc, § 116, 1. + ” Ozniensis, § 72, 2. + ” V., Paläologus, § 67, 5. + ” VII., ” § 67, 6. + ” of Paris, § 118, 1. + ” ” Parma, § 108, 5. + ” Philoponus, § 47, 11. + ” the Presbyter, § 16, 3; 30, 6. + ” Prester, § 72, 4. + ” of Ravenna, § 83, 3. + ” ” Salisbury, § 102, 9. + ” Scholasticus, § 43, 3. + ” Scotus Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + ” Talaja, § 52, 5. + ” of Trani, § 67, 3. + ” ” Turrecremata, § 110, 15. + ” Tzimiskes [Tzimisces], § 71, 1. + ” of Wesel, § 119, 10. + John, St., Festival of, § 57, 1. + ” Disciples of, § 25, 1. + ” Knights of, § 98, 8. + Jonas of Bobbio, § 77, 3. + ” ” Orleans, § 90, 4; 92, 2. + ” Justus, § 123, 7; 134, 5; 142, 2. + Jones, § 182, 3. + Jordanes, § 90, 8. + Joris, David, § 148, 1. + Joseph, Patr., § 67, 4; 70, 1. + ” I., Emperor, § 165, 1. + ” II., § 165, 10; 186, 2. + Josephus, § 10, 2; 13, 2. + Jovi, § 80, 1. + Jovinian, § 62, 2. + Juarez, § 209, 1. + Jubilee Year, § 117, 1. + Jubilees, Book of, § 32, 2. + _Jubili_, § 85, 2. + Judä, Leo, § 130, 2; 143, 5. + Judson, § 184, 5. + Julia Mammæa, § 22, 4; 31, 5. + Juliana, § 104, 7. + Julianists, § 52, 7. + Julian, Emperor, § 42, 3, 5; 63, 1. + ” of Eclanum, § 47, 21; 53, 4. + ” ” Toledo, § 90, 2, 9. + ” St., § 188, 8. + July Law, Pruss., § 197, 10, 11. + Julius I., § 46, 3; 50, 2. + ” II., § 110, 13. + ” III., § 149, 2. + ” Africanus, § 31, 8. + Jumpers, § 170, 7. + Jung-Stillung, § 171, 11. + Junilius, § 48, 1. + Junius, Fr., § 143, 5. + Jurieu, § 161, 7. + _Jus circa sacra_, § 43, 1; 167, 3. + ” _primarum prec._, § 165, 1. + ” _regaliæ_, § 156, 1. + ” _spoliorum_, § 110, 15. + Justin I., § 52, 5. + ” Martyr, § 30, 9; 33, 9; 36, 3, 7. + ” the Gnostic, § 27, 6. + Justina, St., § 48, 8. + ” Empress, § 50, 4. + Justinian I., § 42, 4; 45, 2; 46, 9; 52, 6. + ” II., § 46, 11. + Juvenal of Jerusalem, § 53, 3. + Juvencus, § 48, 6. + + + Kähler, § 176, 3. + Kahnis, § 182, 15. + Kaiser, § 128, 1. + Kaiserwerth, § 183, 1. + Kamehameha, § 184, 7. + Kamel, Sultan, § 94, 4, 5. + Kanitz, § 176, 3. + Kant, § 171, 10. + Karaites, § 72, 1. + Kardec, § 211, 17. + Karg, Controversy of, § 141, 3. + Katerkamp, § 5, 6. + Kaulen, § 191, 8. + Keil, § 182, 13. + Keim, § 182, 17. + Keller, Bishop, § 196, 6. + Kellner, § 177, 2. + Kempen, Stephen, § 125, 1. + Kempis, Thomas à, § 112, 9; 114, 7. + Kenrick, § 189, 3. + Kerner, Just., § 176, 2. + Kessler, § 124, 1; 130, 4. + Ketteler, § 175, 2; 187, 3; 189, 3; 196, 1-4; 197, 1, 4, 15. + Kettler, § 139, 3. + Kierkegaard, § 201, 1. + Kiev, § 73, 4. + Kilian, § 78, 2. + Kings, § 160, 4. + ” the Three Holy, § 56, 5. + Klebitz, § 144, 1. + Klee, § 191, 6. + Kleuker, § 171, 8. + Kleutzen, § 191, 9. + Kliefoth, § 181, 3; 182, 14; 194, 6. + Klopstock, § 171, 11. + Knapp, A., § 181, 1. + ” G. Ch., § 171, 8. + Knights, Teutonic, § 98, 8; 93, 13. + ” of St. John, § 98, 8. + Knox, § 139, 9, 11. + Knutzen, § 164, 4. + Kohlbrügge, § 179, 3. + Kohler, § 170, 4. + Köllner, § 5, 5. + Königsberg, Relig. Process., § 176, 3. + Köppen, § 171, 8. + Körner, § 141, 12. + Kornthal, § 196, 5. + Krafft, § 195, 2. + Kraus, Xav., § 5, 6. + Krüdener, § 176, 2; 199, 5. + Krummacher, G. D., § 179, 3. + ” F. W., § 178, 2. + Kübel, § 196, 2. + Kublai-Khan, § 93, 15. + Kuenen, § 182, 20. + Kuhn, § 191, 6. + “Kulturkampf,” German, § 197. + ” Belgian, § 200, 5. + ” French, § 203, 6. + Kuyper, § 200, 2. + + + Labadie, § 163, 7, 8. + Labarum, § 22, 7. + Labrador, § 184, 2. + Labyrinth, The Little, § 31, 3. + Lachat, § 199, 3. + Lacordaire, § 187, 4; 188, 1. + Lactantius, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + Ladislaus, St., § 93, 2. + ” of Naples, § 110, 7. + Laforce, § 183, 1. + Lainez, § 149, 8. + Laity, § 34, 4. + Lamartine, § 174, 7. + Lambert le Begue [Bèghe], § 98, 7. + ” of Avignon, § 127, 2; 130, 2. + Lambeth Articles, § 143, 5. + Lamennais, § 187, 4; 188, 1. + Lämmer, § 175, 2. + Lammists, § 163, 1. + Lampe, § 169, 2, 6. + Lancelot, § 159, 5. + Landulf, § 97, 5. + Lanfranc, § 96, 8; 101, 1, 2. + Lang, H., § 199, 4. + Lange, Joach., § 167, 1, 4. + ” J. Pet., § 182, 9. + Langen, Rud. v., § 120, 3. + Laplace, § 161, 2. + Lapland, § 93, 11; 163, 4; 184, 2. + Lapsi, § 22, 5. + Lardner, § 171, 1. + Lasalle, § 165, 2; 212, 5. + Lasaulx, Am. v., § 188, 4. + Las Casas, § 150, 3. + Lasco, J. a, § 139, 18. + Lateran, § 110, 15. + ” Synods I., § 52, 8; 96, 11. + ” ” II., § 96, 13. + ” ” III., § 96, 15. + ” ” IV., § 96, 18; 101, 2; 104, 3-5; 106, 1; 109, 2. + Latimer, § 139, 5. + Latitudinarians, § 161, 3. + Latter-day Saints, § 211, 10, 12-14. + Laud, § 155, 1. + Laurence, Martyr, § 22, 5. + ” Bishop, § 46, 8. + ” Archbishop, § 77, 4. + Laurentius Valla, § 120, 1. + Lausanne, § 196, 5. + Lauterbach, § 129, 1. + Lavater, § 171, 11. + Lay Abbots, § 85, 5. + ” Brethren, § 98. + Lazarists, § 156, 8. + Leade, Jane, § 163, 9. + Leander of Seville, § 76, 2; 90, 2. + Lectionaries, § 33; 59, 3. + Ledochowski, § 197, 3, 6, 7, 12. + Lee, Anna, § 170, 7. + ” Bishop, § 211, 14. + Lefebvre, § 188, 4. + Legates, § 96, 23. + _Legenda aurea_, § 104, 8. + Legends, § 57, 1. + _Legio fulminatrix_, § 22, 3. + ” _Thebaica_, § 22, 6. + Lehnin, Prophecy of, § 153, 8. + Leibnitz, § 153, 7; 160, 7; 164, 2. + Leidecker, § 161, 5. + Leidrad of Lyons, § 90, 3; 91, 1. + Leipzig Disputation, § 123, 4. + ” Relig. Conference, § 154, 4. + Leland, § 169, 6; 171, 1. + Lenau, Nich. v., § 174, 6. + Lentulus, § 13, 2. + Leo I., the Great, § 45, 2; 46, 7; 47, 22; 52, 4; 54, 1, 2; + 61, 1. + Leo II., § 46, 11. + ” III., § 82, 3; 91, 2. + ” IV., § 82, 5. + ” VIII., § 96, 1. + ” IX. § 67, 6; 96, 5. + ” X., § 110, 14; 121, 1; 122, 2, 3; 194, 4. + ” XI., § 149, 3. + ” XII., § 185, 1. + ” XIII., § 175, 2; 185, 5; 188, 8, 9; 191, 12; 197, 9; + 200, 5; 203, 6. + Leo of Achrida, § 67, 3. + ” the Armenian, § 66, 4. + ” Chazarus, § 66, 3. + ” the Isaurian, § 66, 1; 71, 1. + ” the Philosopher, § 67, 2; 68, 1. + ” the Thracian, § 52, 5. + ” Henry, § 175, 1. + Leonardo da Vinci, § 115, 13. + Leonidas, § 22, 4. + _Leonistæ_, § 108, 10. + Leontius of Byzant., § 47, 12. + Leopardi, § 174, 7. + Leopold I., Emperor, § 153, 3, 7. + ” of Tuscany, § 165, 9. + Leovigild, § 76, 2. + Leporius, § 52, 2. + Lessing, § 171, 6, 8, 11. + Lestines, Synod of, § 78, 5; 86, 2. + Lestrange, § 186, 2. + Leucius, § 32, 4, 5. + Levellers, § 162, 2. + Leyser, § 141, 14; 142, 6. + Libanius, § 42, 4. + _Libellatici_, § 22, 5. + _Libelli pacis_, § 39, 2. + _Liber confirmitat._, § 98, 3. + ” _diurnus_, § 46, 11; 52, 9. + ” _paschalis_, § 56, 3. + ” _pontificalis_, § 90, 6. + Liberal Arts, § 90, 8. + Liberation Society, § 202. + Liberatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. + Liberius of Rome, § 46, 4; 50, 2, 3. + Libertins, § 146, 4. + _Libri Carolini_, § 92, 1. + _Licet ab initio_, § 139, 23. + Licinius, § 22, 7. + Lightfoot, § 161, 6. + Light, Friends of, § 176, 1. + Liguorians, § 165, 2; 186, 1. + Limborch, § 161, 7. + Limbus infantium, § 106, 3. + ” patrum, § 106, 3. + _Limina apostt._, § 57, 6. + Linus, § 17, 1. + Linz, Peace of, § 153, 3. + Lippe, Princes’ Diet of, § 154, 2; 194, 5. + Lipsius, § 182, 19. + Liptinä, Synod of, § 78, 5; 86, 2. + Lisco, § 181, 4. + Litany, § 59, 9. + Lithuanians, § 93, 14. + _Litteræ formatæ_, § 34, 6. + Liturgical dress, etc., § 59, 7; 60, 3. + Liturgy, § 36, 1; 59, 6; 89, 1; 104, 1. + Liudger, § 78, 3. + Liutprand, § 82, 1. + Livingstone, § 184, 4. + Livinus, § 78, 3. + Livonia, § 93, 12; 139, 3; 153, 3; 168, 5; 206, 3. + Locke, § 164, 2. + Lodges, Free Masons’, § 104, 3. + Löhe, § 175, 1; 183, 1; 208, 2. + Lola Montez, § 195, 2. + Lollards, § 116, 3; 119, 1. + Lombardus [Lombard], § 102, 7. + Longobards, § 76, 8. + Lope de Vega, § 158, 3. + Loretto, § 115, 9. + Löscher, § 167, 1, 2, 4. + Louis the Bavarian, § 110, 3, 4. + ” ” German, § 82, 5, 7. + ” ” Pious, § 82, 4; 90, 1. + ” II., Emperor, § 82, 5. + ” VII. of France, § 94, 2. + ” IX., the Saint, § 93, 15; 94, 6; 96, 21. + ” XI., § 110, 13. + ” XII., § 110, 13, 14. + ” XIII., § 153, 4. + ” XIV., § 153, 4; 156, 3; 157, 2, 3, 5. + ” I. of Bavaria, § 195, 2. + ” II. “ § 195, 3. + ” V. of Hesse, § 154, 1. + ” VI. of Palatinate, § 143, 6. + Lourdes, § 188, 14; 203, 5. + Lothair I., Emperor, § 82, 5. + ” II., of Lothringia, § 82, 5, 7. + ” III., the Saxon, § 96, 13. + Lotze, § 174, 2. + Low Churchmen, § 202, 1. + Loyola, § 149, 8. + Loyson, § 187, 8. + Lübeck, § 127, 4. + Lübker, § 174, 4. + Lucar, Cyr., § 152, 2. + Lucerne, § 199, 1. + Lucian, Martyr, § 31, 9. + ” of Samosata, § 23, 1. + Lucidus, § 53, 5. + Lucifer of Calaris, § 47, 14; 50, 2, 8. + Luciferians, § 50, 8. + Lucilla, § 63, 1. + Lucius II., Pope, § 96, 13. + ” III., § 96, 16. + Lucrezia Borzia, § 110, 10. + Ludmilla, § 79, 3; 93, 6. + Luis de Leon, § 149, 14, 15. + Luke of Prague, § 115, 7; 119, 8; 139, 19. + Lullus of Mainz, § 78, 7. + Lullus Raimund, § 93, 16; 103, 7. + Lüneburg, § 127, 3. + Luthardt, § 182, 14, 21; 194, 1. + Luther, § 122-135. + Lutherans, Separatists, Pruss., § 177, 2, 3. + Luther-Memorial, § 178, 1. + ” Jubilee, § 175, 10. + Lütkemann Controversy, § 159, 1. + Lutz, Minister, § 195, 3; 197, 4. + Luxeuil, § 78, 1. + Lyons, Council of, § 67, 4; 96, 20, 21. + Lyra, Nich. v., § 113, 7. + + + Mabillon, § 158, 2. + Macarius the Elder, § 47, 7. + ” Magnes, § 47, 6. + Maccabees, Fest. of, § 57, 1. + Macedonius, § 50, 5. + Macchiavelli, § 120, 1. + Maccovius, § 161, 7. + MacConochie, § 202, 3. + Macmahon, § 203, 5, 6. + Macrae, § 202, 8. + Macrianus, § 22, 5. + Macrina, § 47, 5. + Madagascar, § 184, 3. + Madiai, § 204, 3. + Maerlant, § 105, 5. + Magdeburg, § 127, 4; 137, 1. + _Magister historiarum_, § 105, 3. + ” _sententiarum_, § 102, 4. + _Magna Charta_, § 96, 18. + Magnoald, § 78, 1. + Magnus the Good, § 93, 4. + ” of Mecklenburg, § 134, 5. + ” ” Upsala, § 139, 1. + Mai, Cardinal, § 191, 7. + Maid of Orleans, § 116, 2. + Maimbourg, § 158, 2. + Maimonides, § 103, 1. + Mainau Law, § 197, 11. + Maintenon, § 157, 3. + Mainz Cath. Union, § 186, 4; 197, 1. + Majorist Controversy, § 141, 6, 10. + Maistre, § 187, 9. + Malachi, Proph. of, § 149, 5. + Malakanians, § 166, 2. + Malan, § 199, 5. + Malchion, § 33, 8. + Maldonatus, § 149, 14. + Maltese, § 98, 8. + Mamertus, § 59, 9. + Mandæans, § 25, 1; 28, 2. + Mandeville, § 171, 1. + Manfred, § 96, 20. + Manichæans, § 29; 54, 1. + Manning, § 189, 3; 202, 2, 11. + Mansi, § 165, 15. + Mantua, Council of, § 96, 6. + ” Congress of, § 110, 10. + Manuel Comnenus, § 69, 1. + Manzoni, § 174, 7. + Maphrian, § 52, 7. + Mara, § 13, 2. + Marburg Bible, § 170, 1. + ” Church Order, § 127, 2. + ” Colloquy, § 132, 4. + Marcellus of Ancyra, § 50, 2. + ” II., § 149, 2. + Marcia, § 22, 3; 41, 1. + Marcian, § 52, 4. + Marcion, § 27, 11. + Marcionites, § 27, 12; 54, 1; 64, 3. + Marco Polo, § 93, 15. + Marcosians, § 27, 5. + Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3. + ” Eremita, § 47, 7. + ” Eugenicus, § 67, 6; 68, 5. + Maresius, § 161, 3, 7. + Margaret of Navarre, § 120, 6; 146, 4. + Marheincke, § 182, 6. + Maria Theresa, § 165, 9. + Mariana, § 149, 10, 14. + Marinus, § 63, 1. + Mariolatry, § 57, 2; 104, 8. + Marius Mercator, § 47, 20. + ” Victorinus, § 47, 14. + Marloratus, § 143, 3. + Marnix, Ph. v., § 139, 12. + Maronites, § 52, 8; 72, 3. + Marot, § 143, 2. + Marozia, § 96, 1. + Marriage, Christian, § 39, 1; 61, 2; 70, 2; 88, 3; 89, 4; + 104, 6. + Marsden, § 184, 7. + Marsilius of Inghem, § 113, 3. + ” ” Padua, § 118, 1. + Martensen, § 182, 10. + Martin I., § 46, 11; 52, 8. + ” IV., § 96, 22. + ” V., § 110, 6. + ” of Braga, § 76, 4; 90, 2. + ” ” Mainz, § 114, 4. + ” ” Paderborn, § 175, 2; 189, 3; 197, 6. + ” ” Tours, § 47, 14; 54, 2. + ” St., § 165, 14. + Martyrs, § 22, 5. + ” Acts of, § 32, 8. + ” Veneration of, § 39, 5. + Martyrologies, § 57, 1; 90, 9. + Marx, § 212, 4. + Mary of England, § 139, 5. + ” ” Guise, § 139, 8. + ” ” Jesus, § 156, 5. + ” ” Scotland, § 139, 6, 8, 10. + Maryland, § 208, 5. + Mass, Canon of, § 59, 6. + ” Sacrifice of, § 36, 6; 58, 3; 88, 3. + Massacre, Irish, § 153, 6. + ” of St. Bartholomew, § 139, 16. + ” ” Stockholm, § 139, 1. + ” ” Thorn, § 165, 4. + Massilians, § 53, 5. + Massillon, § 158, 2. + Mastricht, § 161, 7. + Matamoros, § 205, 4. + Maternus, Jul. Firm., § 47, 14. + ” Pistorius, § 120, 2. + Mathesius, § 142, 2, 3. + Matilda, Margravine, § 96, 8, 10. + Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 2. + Matthys, Jan., § 147, 8, 9. + Maulbronn, Formula, § 141, 12. + ” Conference, § 144, 1. + Maur, Monks of St., § 156, 7. + ” St., § 85. + Maurice of Hesse, § 154, 1. + ” ” Orange, § 139, 12; 161, 2. + ” ” Saxony, § 136; 137. + Mauritius, St., § 22, 6. + ” Emperor, § 46, 10. + Maxentius, § 22, 7. + Maximianus [Maximian] Herculius, § 22, 6. + Maximilian I., § 110, 13. + ” II, § 137, 8; 139, 9. + ” I., Duke of Bavaria, § 151, 1. + ” III., Elector of Bavaria, § 165, 10. + ” I., King of Bavaria, § 195, 1. + ” II., King of Bavaria, + ” Francis of Cologne, § 165, 13. + ” Emperor of Mexico, § 209, 1. + Maximilla, § 40, 1. + Maximinus Daza, § 22, 6, 7. + ” Thrax, § 22, 4. + Maximus, Emperor, § 54, 2. + ” Confessor, § 47, 12; 52, 8. + Mayer, Seb., § 130, 4. + May Laws, Prussian, § 197, 5, 6. + ” ” Austrian, § 198, 6. + Maynooth Bill, § 202, 9. + Mayhew, § 162, 7. + Mechitarists, § 165, 2. + Mechthild, § 107, 2. + Mecklenburg, § 134, 5; 194, 6. + Medici, § 110, 11. + Meinhart, § 93, 12. + Meinrad, § 85, 6. + Mel, Conrad, § 169, 1. + Melanchthon, § 122, 5; 139, 13; 141, 7, 9. + Melchers, § 188, 12; 189, 3; 197, 6, 12. + Melchiades, § 46, 3; 63, 1. + Melchionites, § 147, 1. + Melchisedecians, § 33, 3. + Melchites, § 52, 7. + Meletius of Antioch, § 50, 8. + ” ” Lycopolis, § 41, 4. + Melissander, § 142, 3. + Melito, § 30, 8; 36, 8; 40, 1. + Memnon of Ephesus, § 52, 5. + Menander, § 25, 2. + Mendelssohn, § 171, 3. + ” Bartholdy, § 174, 10. + Mendez, § 152, 1. + Mendicant Friars, § 98, 3. + Menius, § 141, 6. + Menken, § 172, 3. + Mennas, § 52, 6. + Mennonites, § 147, 2; 163, 1. + Menologies, § 57, 1. + Menot, § 115, 2. + Mensurius, § 63, 1. + Mercedarians, § 98, 9. + Mercerus, § 143, 5. + Merlan, § 170, 1. + Merle d’Aubigné, § 178, 2. + Mermillod, § 189, 3; 199, 2. + Mersen, Treaty of, § 82, 5. + Merswin, § 114, 2, 4. + Mesmer, § 174, 2. + Mesrop, § 64, 3. + Messalians, Christian, § 44, 7. + ” Pagan, § 42, 6. + Meth, § 163, 9. + Methodists, § 169, 4, 5; 208, 1; 211, 1. + Methodius, § 73, 3; 79, 2. + ” of Olympus, § 31, 9; 33, 9. + Metraphanes, § 67, 6. + ” Critop., § 152, 2. + Metropolitans, § 34, 3; 83, 3. + Mettrie, la, § 165, 12. + Mexico, § 209, 1; 190, 3. + Meyer, H. A. W., § 182, 11. + Meyffart, § 160, 3. + Michael, Archangel, § 88, 4. + ” Acominatus, § 68, 5. + ” Balbus, § 66, 4. + ” of Bradacz, § 119, 8. + ” Cærularius, § 119, 8. + ” of Cesnea, § 112, 2. + ” the Drunkard, § 67, 1. + ” Palæologus, § 67, 6. + Michael Angelo, § 149, 15. + Michaelis, Chr. Ben., § 167, 3. + ” J. D., § 171, 6. + ” J. H., § 167, 3. + Michaelmas, § 57, 3. + Michaud, § 190, 3. + Michelians, § 171, 3. + Michelis, § 190, 1; 191, 6. + Micislas, § 93, 7. + Milicz, § 119, 2. + _Militia Christi_, § 37. + Mill, Walter, § 139, 8. + Millennium, § 33, 9. + Milman, § 182, 4. + Miltiades of Athens, § 30, 8; 37, 3. + ” ” Rome, § 46, 3. + Miltiz, § 122, 3. + Milton, § 172, 3. + Minimi, § 112, 8. + Minnesingers, § 105, 6. + Minorites, § 98, 3. + Minster, § 84, 4. + Minucius Felix, § 31, 12. + ” Fundanus, § 22, 2. + _Missa Catechum. et fidelium_, § 36, 2, 3; 58, 4. + _Missa Solitaria_, § 58, 3. + ” _Sponsorum_, § 61, 2; 88, 3; 104, 6. + Missa Marcelli, § 149, 15. + _Missale Rom._, § 149, 14. + Missionary Societies, § 172, 5; 5; 184, 1; 186, 6. + Missions, Foreign, § 75-78; 93. + ” ” Catholic, § 150; 156, 10, 12; 165, 3; 186, 7. + Missions, Foreign, Protest., § 142, 8; 143, 7; 160, 7; 162, 7; + 167, 9; 168, 11: 184. + Missions, Home, Catholic, § 149, 7; 156, 4; 186, 4, 5. + ” ” Protest., § 183. + Missions, Priests of the, § 156, 8. + Missouri Synod, § 208, 2, 3. + Mistewoi, § 93, 9. + Mitre, § 84, 1. + Mizetius, § 91, 1. + Modalists, § 33. + Moderates, § 202, 7. + Mogilas, § 152, 3. + Mogtasilah, § 28, 2. + Mohammed, § 65. + ” II., § 67, 7; 110, 10. + Mohammedans, § 184, 9. + Möhler, § 191, 4, 5, 6. + Molanus, § 153, 7. + Molay, § 112, 7. + Moleschott, § 174, 3. + Molina, § 149, 13. + Molinæus, § 161, 3. + Molinos, § 157, 2. + Momiers, § 199, 5. + Mommers, § 169, 2. + Mömpelgard, Relig. Confer., § 138, 8. + _Monarcha theologor._, § 103, 3. + Monarchians, § 33. + _Monasterium Clericor._, § 45, 1. + Monasticism, § 44; 70; 85; 98; 112; 149; 156; 165; 186. + Mongols, § 93, 15. + Monica, § 47, 13. + _Monita Secreta_, § 149, 9. + Monod, § 203, 4. + Monogram, § 38, 4. + Monophysites, § 52, 5, 7; 72, 2. + Monothelites, § 52, 8. + Montalembert, § 188, 1; 189, 1. + Montalte, § 157, 5. + Montalto, § 149, 3. + Montanists, § 40. + Montanus, Arias, § 149, 14. + Monte, del, § 149, 2. + Monte Cassino, § 85. + ” Corvino, § 93, 15. + Montesquieu, § 165, 14. + Montfaucon, § 165, 11. + Montfort, Sim. de, § 109, 1. + Montmorency, § 139, 13, 14. + Moody, § 211, 1. + Moors, § 81; 95. + Moralities, § 105, 5. + Morata, § 139, 24. + Moravia, § 79, 2. + Moravian Brethren, § 119, 5. + Moray, The Regent, § 139, 11. + More, Sir Thomas, § 120, 7; 139, 4. + Morel, § 139, 25. + Moreno, § 209, 2. + Morgan, § 171, 1. + Morinus, § 158, 1. + Moriscoes, § 95, 2. + Morland, § 153, 5. + Mormons, § 211, 12-14. + Morone, § 135, 2; 137, 5; 139, 22. + Morison, § 184, 6. + Mortara, § 175, 8. + Morton, § 139, 11. + Morus, § 171, 8. + Mosaics, § 60, 6; 104, 14. + Moser, J. F. v., § 167, 6, 8. + ” K. F. v., § 171, 10; 172, 2. + Moses of Chorene, § 64, 3. + Mosheim, § 5, 3; 167, 4; 169, 1. + Moslems, § 65. + Moulin, du, § 161, 3. + Mouls, § 190, 3. + Movers, § 191, 8. + Mozarabians, § 81, 1. + Mozarabic Liturgy, § 88, 1; 104, 1. + Mozart, § 174, 10. + Mtesa, § 184, 4. + “_Mucker_,” § 176, 3. + Mühlenberg, § 208, 2. + Mühler, v., § 193, 4; 197, 2. + Müller, Ad., § 175, 7. + ” Bem., § 211, 6. + ” G., § 183, 1. + ” H., § 160, 1. + ” J. v., § 171, 11. + ” J. G., § 171, 8. + ” Jul., § 182, 10. + Münster, City, § 133, 6. + ” Seb., § 143, 5. + Münzer, Thos., § 124, 4, 5. + Muratori, § 165, 12. + Muratorian Canon, § 36, 8. + Murillo, § 158, 3. + Murner, Thos., § 125, 4; 130, 6. + Murrone, § 112, 4. + Musæus, § 141, 7; 144, 2. + Musculus, Andr., § 141, 12. + ” Wolfg., § 141, 14. + Music, § 59, 3; 104, 11; 115, 8; 149, 15; 158, 3; 172, 1; + 174, 10. + Muspilli, § 89, 3. + Mutianus, § 120, 2, 3. + Mwanga, § 184, 4. + Myconius, § 125, 1. + ” Oswald, § 133, 8. + Mysos, § 139, 26. + Mysteries, § 105, 5; 115, 12. + Mystics, Eastern, § 92; 102; 103; 107; 114. + Mystics, Grecian, § 47, 7, 11; 68, 3. + Mystics, Catholic, § 149, 16; 156, 1-4. + Mystics, Protest., § 146; 160, 2; 169, 3. + + + Naassenes, § 27, 6. + Nägelsbach, § 174, 4. + Namszanowski, § 197, 2. + Nantes, Edict of, § 139, 17; 153, 4. + Napoleon I., § 165, 5; 185, 1; 203, 1. + Napoleon III., § 185, 3; 203, 3, 4; 209, 1. + Narthex, § 60, 1. + Nassau, § 193, 6; 196, 4. + _Natales episc._, § 45, 1. + ” _Martyrum_, § 39, 5. + Natalis, Alexander, § 5, 2; 157, 2. + Natalius, § 33, 3. + National Assembly, French, § 165, 15. + National Convention, § 165, 15. + Natorp, § 181, 2. + Naumburg, Bishopric of, § 135, 5. + ” Princes’ Diet, § 141, 11. + Nauplia, Syn., § 207, 1. + Nauvoo, § 211, 10. + Naylor, § 163, 4. + Nazareans, § 28, 1. + Neander, § 5, 5; 182, 4. + ” Joach., § 162, 6. + Nectarius, § 61, 1. + Nemesius, § 47, 6. + Nennius, § 90, 8. + Neophytes, § 34, 3. + Neo-Platonists, § 24, 2; 42. + Nepomuk, § 116, 1. + Nepos of Arsinoë [Arsinoe], § 33, 9. + Nepotism, § 110. + Neri, Philip, § 149, 7; 158, 3. + Nero, § 22, 1. + Nerses I., § 64, 3. + ” IV., Clajensis, § 72, 2. + ” of Lampron, § 72, 2. + Nerva, § 22, 1. + Nestor, § 73, 4. + Nestorians, § 52, 3; 64, 2; 72, 1; 150, 4; 184, 9. + Nestorius, § 52, 3. + Netherlands, § 139, 12; 162, 4; 169, 2; 184, 5; 200. + Neuendettelsau, § 183, 1. + Neumann, § 160, 4. + Neumark, § 160, 4. + Newman, § 202, 2. + New Year, § 56, 5. + Nicæa, Council of, § 40, 1; 41, 4; 46, 3; 50, 1; 56, 3. + Nicephorus Gregoras, § 69, 2. + ” Callisti, § 5, 1. + Nicetas Acominatus, § 68, 5. + ” of Nicomedia, § 67, 4. + ” Pectoratus, § 67, 3. + Nicholas I., § 67, 1; 73, 3; 82, 7; 83, 3; 91, 5. + Nicholas II., § 96, 6. + ” III., IV., § 96, 22. + ” V., § 110, 9, 10. + ” of Basel, § 114, 4. + ” Cabasilas, § 68, 5; 70, 4. + ” of Clemanges, § 118, 4. + ” ” Cusa, § 113, 6. + ” v. d. Flüe, § 116, 1. + ” of Lyra, § 113, 7. + ” ” Methone, § 68, 5. + ” Mysticus, § 67, 2. + ” of Pisa, § 110, 12. + ” I., Czar, § 206, 1, 2; 210, 2. + Nicolai, Publisher. § 171, 4. + ” Henry, § 146, 5. + ” Philip, § 142, 4. + Nicolaitanism, § 96, 5. + Nicolaitans, § 18, 3; 27, 8. + Nicole, § 158, 1. + Niebuhr, § 193, 1. + Niedner, § 5, 4. + Niemeyer, § 171, 7. + Nightingale, § 183, 1. + Nihilism, § 102, 8. + Nihilists, § 212, 6. + Nikon, § 163, 10. + Nilus Sinaiticus, § 44, 3; 47, 10. + ” the Younger, § 100. + Nimbus, § 60, 6. + Ninian, § 77, 2. + Niphon, Monk, § 70, 4. + ” Patriarch, § 70, 1. + Nismes, Edict of, § 154, 4. + Nitschmann, § 168, 3, 11. + Nitzsch, § 182, 10; 193, 3, 4. + Noailles, § 165, 7. + Nobili, § 156, 11. + Nobla leiczon, § 108, 14 (vol. ii., p. 471). + Nobreja, § 150, 3. + Nobunaja [Nobunaga], § 150, 2. + Noetus, § 33, 5. + Nogaret, § 110, 1. + Nolasque, § 98, 9. + Nominalists, § 99, 2; 113, 3. + Nomo-Canon, § 43, 3. + _Nonæ_, § 86, 2. + Non-Intrusionists, § 202, 7. + Nonconformists, § 143, 2, 3; 155, 1, 2. + Nonna, § 47, 4. + Nonnus of Panopolis, § 48, 5. + Norbert, § 98, 2; 96, 13. + Normans, § 93, 1; 95, 1. + North African School, § 31, 1. + North America, § 208. + Norwegians, § 93, 4; 139, 2; 201, 3. + Nösselt, § 171, 8. + Noting of Verona, § 91, 5. + Notker Balbulus, § 88, 2. + ” Labeo, § 100, 1. + Novalis, § 174, 5. + Novatian, § 31, 12; 41, 3. + Novatus, § 38, 2, 3. + Noviciate, § 44, 2; 86, 1. + Noyes, § 211, 6. + Nuñez de Arca, § 175, 2. + Nunia, § 64, 4. + Nuns, § 44, 5. + Nuntio, § 151, 1. + Nuremberg, Relig. Peace of, § 133, 2. + ” Diet of, § 126, 1, 2. + + + Oak, Synod of the, § 51, 3. + Oates, Titus, § 153, 6. + _Oberammergau_, § 174, 10. + Oberlin, § 172. + _Oblati_, § 85, 1. + Oblations, § 36; 39, 5; 61, 4. + Obotrites, § 93, 9. + Observants, § 112, 2; 149, 6. + Occam, § 112, 2; 113, 3; 118, 2. + Occultists, § 211, 18. + Ochino, § 139, 24; 147, 6; 149, 6. + O’Connell, § 202, 9. + Octaves, § 56, 4. + October Assembly, § 178, 3. + Odensee, Diet of, § 139, 2. + Odilo of Bavaria, § 78, 5. + Odo of Clugny, § 98, 1; 100, 2; 104, 10, 11. + Odoacer, § 46, 8. + Œcolampadius, § 130, 3, 6; 131, 1. + Œcumenius, § 68, 4. + Oersted, § 174, 3. + Oetingen, § 182, 15. + Oetinger, § 170, 5; 171, 9. + Oehler, § 182, 14. + _Œuvres_, § 186, 4. + _Officium S. Mariæ_, § 104, 8. + Οἰκόνομοι, § 45, 3. + Oischinger, § 191, 6. + Oktai-Khan, § 93, 15. + Olaf, § 80, 1. + ” Haraldson, § 93, 4, 5. + ” Schosskönig, § 93, 3. + ” Trygvason, § 93, 4, 5. + ” St., § 93, 4. + Olcott, § 211, 18. + Oldcastle, § 119, 1. + Oldenbarneveldt, § 161, 2. + Oldenburg, § 194, 5. + Olevian, § 144, 1; 161, 4. + Olga, § 73, 4. + Olgerd, § 93, 14. + Oliva, § 108, 6. + Olivet, Monks of Mount, § 112, 1. + Olivetan, § 138, 1; 143, 5. + Olshausen, § 176, 3. + Ommaiades, § 81; 95, 2. + Oncken, § 211, 3. + Oneida-sect, § 211, 6. + _Onochoetes Deus_, § 23, 2. + Oosterzee, § 200, 2. + Ophites, § 27, 6, 7. + Opitz, § 160, 3. + Optatus of Mileve, § 63, 1. + Opzoomer, § 200, 3. + Orange, Synod of, § 53, 5. + Oratories, § 84, 2. + Oratory of Divine Love, § 139, 22. + ” Fathers of the, § 156, 7. + ” Priests of the, § 149, 7. + Ordeals, § 89, 5. + Ordericus Vitalis, § 5, 1. + Ordination, § 45, 1. + _Ordines majores et minores_, § 34, 3. + _Ordo Romanus_, § 59, 6. + Organs, § 88, 2; 104, 11; 115, 8; 154, 3. + Origen, § 31, 5; 33, 6-9; 36, 9; 61, 4. + Origenist Controversy, § 51. + Original Sin, Controversy about, § 141, 8. + Orosius, § 47, 19. + Ortlibarians, § 103, 4. + Ortuinus Gratus, § 120, 5. + _Osculum pacis_, § 35. + Osiander, Andr., § 126, 4; 135, 6; 141, 2. + Osiander, Luc., § 159, 1. + Osiandrian Controversy, § 141, 2. + _Ostiarii_, § 34, 3. + Ostrogoths, § 76, 7. + Oswald, § 77, 5. + Oswy, § 77, 5, 6. + Ota, § 78, 2. + Otfried, § 89, 3. + Otgar of Mainz, § 87, 3. + Otternbein, § 208, 4. + Ottheinrich, § 135, 6. + Otto I., § 93, 2, 8; 96, 1. + ” II., III., § 96, 2, 3. + ” IV., § 96, 17. + ” of Bamberg, § 93, 10. + ” ” Passau, § 114, 6. + Overbeek, Painter, § 174, 9. + ” Dr., § 175, 5. + Overberg, § 172, 2. + Owen, Rob., § 212, 3. + Oxford, § 202, 2. + ” Movement, § 211, 1. + + + Pabst, § 191, 3. + _Pabulatores_, § 44, 7. + Paccanari, § 186, 1. + Pachomius, § 44, 1, 3, 5. + Pacianus, § 47, 15. + Pacifico, Fra, § 104, 10. + Pack, O. v., § 132, 1. + Paderborn, § 133, 5. + Paez, § 152, 1. + _Pagani_, § 42, 4. + Pagi, § 158, 2; 5, 2. + Pagninus, § 149, 14. + Pajon, § 161, 3. + Palamas, § 69, 2. + Palatinate, § 135, 6; 144, 1; 153, 1, 3; 196, 4. + Paleario, § 139, 22, 23. + Palestrina, § 149, 15. + Paley, § 171, 8. + Palladius, § 47, 10. + Pallium, § 46, 1; 59, 7; 97, 3. + Palm Sunday, § 56, 4. + Pamphilus, § 31, 6. + Pan-Anglicanism, § 202, 1. + Pandulf, § 96, 18. + Pan-Presbyterianism, § 179, 3. + Pantänus, § 31, 4. + Pantheon, § 46, 10. + _Papa_, § 46, 1. + Papacy, § 34, 8; 46, 2; 82; 96; 110; 149; 156; 165; 185. + Papal Elections, § 46, 8, 11; 82, 4; 96, 6, 15, 21. + Papebroch, § 155, 2. + Paphnutius, § 45, 2. + Papias, § 30, 6; 33, 9. + _Parabolani_, § 45, 3. + Paracelsus, § 146, 2. + Paraguay, § 156, 10; 165, 3. + Pareus, § 159, 5. + Parker, Matt., § 139, 6. + ” Theodore, § 211, 4. + Parnell, § 202, 10. + _Parochia_, § 84, 2. + _Parochus_, § 84, 2. + Parsimonius, § 141, 8. + Pasagians, § 108, 3. + Pascal, § 157, 5; 158, 1. + Pascale, § 139, 25. + Πάσχα σταυρώσιμων and ἀναστάσιμον, § 56, 4. + Paschal Controversy, § 37, 2. + Paschalis I., § 82, 4. + ” II., § 96, 11. + ” III., § 96, 15. + Paschasius, § 99, 5; 91, 3. + Paschkow, § 206, 1. + Pasquino, § 149, 1. + Passaglia, § 187, 5. + Passau, Treaty of, § 137, 3. + Passion Play, § 105, 5; 115, 12; 174, 10. + Pastor, § 84, 2. + _Pastor æternus_, § 189, 3. + _Patareni_, § 108, 1. + Pataria, § 97, 5. + Patent, Austrian, § 198, 3. + ” Hungarian, § 198, 6. + _Pater Orthodoxiæ_, § 47, 4. + Patriarchs, § 46. + Patriciate, Roman, § 82, 1. + Patrick, St., § 77, 1. + _Patrimonium pauperum_, § 45, 4. + ” _Petri_, § 46, 10; 82, 1. + Patripassians, § 33, 4. + Patronage, § 84. + Patronus, § 57, 1. + Paul, the Apostle, § 15. + ” Burgensis, § 113, 7. + ” Diaconus [Warnefrid], § 90, 3. + ” Orosius, § 47, 20. + ” the Persian, § 48, 1. + ” of Samosata, § 33, 8; 39, 3. + ” Silentiarius, § 48, 5. + ” of Thebes, § 39, 4. + ” Warnefried, § 90, 3. + ” I., § 82, 1. + ” II., § 110, 11, 15; 119, 4. + ” III., § 149, 2; 134, 1; 139, 23. + ” IV, § 149, 2. + ” V., § 156, 1, 2, 4; 149, 13. + ” I. of Russia, § 186, 2. + Paula, St., § 44, 5. + ” Francis de, § 112, 8. + ” Vinc. de, § 156, 8. + Pauli, Greg., § 148, 3. + Paulicians, § 71, 1. + Paulinus of Antioch, § 50, 8. + ” ” Aquileia, § 90, 3. + ” ” Milan, § 47, 20; 53, 4. + ” Missionary, § 77, 4. + ” of Nola, § 48, 6; 60, 5. + Paulus, Dr., § 182, 2. + _Pauperes de Lugduno_, § 108, 10. + ” _Catholici_, § 108, 10. + Payens, § 98, 7. + _Pax dissid._, § 139, 18. + Pearson, § 161, 6, 7. + Peasants’ War, § 124, 5. + Pectorale, § 59, 7. + Pelagius, § 47, 21; 53, 3, 4. + ” I., Pope, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + ” II., ” § 46, 9. + Pelayo, § 81, 1. + Pellicanus, § 120, 4, note. + Pellico, Silvio, § 174, 7. + Penance, § 104, 4. + Penda, § 77, 4. + Penitential Books, § 61, 1; 89, 6; 103, 6. + Penn, § 163, 5. + Pentecost, § 37, 1; 56, 4. + Pepin, § 78, 5; 82, 1. + Pepucians, § 40, 1. + Peraldus, § 103, 9. + Perates, § 27, 6. + Peregrinus Proteus, § 23, 1. + _Pères de la foi_, § 186, 1. + Perfectionists, § 211, 6. + Perfectus, § 81, 1. + Pericopes, § 59, 2; 167, 2. + Peristerium, § 60, 5. + Perkins, § 143, 5. + Peroz, § 64, 2. + Perpetua, § 22, 5. + Perrone, § 175, 2; 191, 9. + Persecution of Christians, § 23; 64. + Persia, § 64, 2; 93, 15. + Perthes, § 183, 1. + Peschito, § 36, 8. + Pestalozzi, § 171, 12. + Petavius, § 158, 1. + Peter the Apostle, § 16, 1. + ” d’Ailly, § 118, 4. + ” of Alcantara, § 149, 5, 16. + ” ” Alexandria, § 41, 4. + ” ” Amiens, § 94, 1. + ” ” Aragon [Arragon], § 96, 18. + ” ” Bruys, § 108, 7. + ” Cantor, § 103, 3. + ” of Castelnau, § 109, 1. + ” ” Chelczic, § 119, 7. + ” ” Clugny, § 96, 13. + ” Chrysolanus, § 67, 4. + ” Chrysologus, § 47, 16. + ” Comestor, § 105, 5. + ” Damiani, § 97, 4; 104, 10; 106, 4. + ” Dresdensis, § 115, 7. + ” of Dubois, § 118, 1. + ” Fullo, § 52, 5. + ” Hispanus, § 96, 22. + ” the Lombard, § 102, 5; 104, 2, 4. + ” Mongus, § 52, 5. + ” of Murrone, § 98, 2. + ” ” Pisa, § 90. + ” ” Poitiers, § 102, 5. + ” Siculus, § 71, 1. + ” the Venerable, § 98, 1; 102, 2; 109. + ” I. of Russia, § 166. + ” and Paul, Festival of, § 57, 1. + ” Fest. of Chair of St., § 57, 1. + ” Church of St., § 115, 13. + Peter’s Pence, § 82. + Petersen, § 170, 1. + Peterson, § 139, 1. + Petilian, § 63, 1. + Petrarch, § 115, 10. + Petrejus, § 120, 2. + Petrikan, Synod, § 139, 18; 148, 3. + Petrobrusians, § 108, 7. + Petrow, § 163, 10. + Petrucci, § 157, 2. + Peucer, § 141, 10; 144, 3. + Peyrerius, § 161, 7. + Peysellians, § 170, 6. + Pfaff, § 167, 4, 5, 8. + Pfefferkorn, § 120, 4. + Pfeffinger, § 141, 7. + Pfeiffer, Aug., § 159, 4. + Pfenninger, § 171, 8. + Pfleiderer, § 182, 19. + Pflugk, § 135, 3, 5; 136, 5; 137, 6. + _Pharensis Syn._, § 77, 6. + Pharisees, § 8, 4. + Philadelphia, § 60, 4. + Philadelphian Churches, § 170, 1. + ” Period, § 168, 4. + ” Sect, § 163, 8. + Philaster, § 47, 14. + Philip, § 14; 17, 2. + ” the Arabian, § 22, 4. + ” I. of France, § 96, 8, 10. + ” II., Aug., § 94, 3; 96, 18. + ” the Fair, § 110, 1, 2; 112, 7. + ” II. of Spain, § 139, 12, 21. + ” of Swabia, § 96, 17. + ” the Magnanimous, § 126, 4, 5; 135, 1, 3; 137, 3. + Philippi, § 182, 13. + Philippists, § 141, 4 ff. + Philippones, § 163, 10. + Philippopolis, Synod of, § 50, 2. + Philipps, § 175, 7; 191, 7. + Phillpotts, § 202, 2. + Philo, § 10, 1. + Philopatris, § 42, 5. + Philoponus, § 47, 11. + Philosophical Sin, § 149, 10. + Philosophoumena, § 31, 3. + Philostorgius, § 4, 1. + Philoxenus, § 59, 1. + Philumena, § 27, 12. + Phocas, § 46, 10. + Phœbe, § 17, 4. + Photinus, § 50, 2. + Photius, § 67, 1; 68, 5. + Phyletism, § 207, 3. + Φωτιζόμενοι, § 35, 1. + Φθαρτολάτραι, § 52, 7. + Piacenza, Council, § 94. + Piarists, § 156, 7. + Picards, § 116, 5; 119, 8. + Pichler, § 191, 7. + Pick, § 211, 8. + Picts, § 77, 2. + Picus of Mirandola, § 120, 1. + Pideritz, § 133, 5. + Piedmont, § 204, 3. + Pietism, Lutheran, § 159, 3; 167, 1. + ” Reformed, § 162, 3, 4. + ” in 19th Century, § 176, 2. + Pilate, Acts of, § 13, 2; 31, 2. + Pilgrim of Passau, § 93, 8. + ” Fathers, § 143, 4; 208, 1. + Pilgrimages, § 57, 6; 89, 4; 104, 8; 115, 9; 188, 5, 6. + Pin, du, § 158, 2. + Pionius, § 30, 5. + Pirkheimer, § 120, 3. + Pirminius, § 78, 1, 5. + Pirstinger, § 125, 5; 149, 14. + Pisa, Council of, § 110, 6. + Piscator, § 143, 5. + Pistis, Sophia, § 27, 7. + Pistoja, Synod of, § 165, 10. + Pistorius, § 135, 3. + ” Maternus, § 120, 2. + Pius II., § 110, 10; 118, 6; 119, 4. + ” III., § 110, 13. + ” IV., § 149, 2. + ” V., § 149, 3; 139, 23. + ” VI., § 165, 9, 10, 15. + ” VII., § 185, 1; 203, 1. + ” VIII., § 184, 1; 193, 1. + ” IX., § 185, 2 ff.; 175, 2; 188, 8; 189, 3; 197, 7; 202, 11. + Placæus, § 161, 3. + Planck, § 171, 8. + _Planeta_, § 59, 7. + Plastic Arts, § 60, 6; 89, 6; 104, 14; 115, 13. + Plato, § 7, 4; 47, 5; 68, 3; 99, 2. + Platon, § 166, 1. + Platter, § 130, 4. + _Plebani_, _Plebs_, § 84, 2. + Plenaries, § 115, 4. + Pleroma, § 26, 2. + Pletho, § 68, 2; 120, 1. + Pliny the Younger, § 22, 2. + Plotinus, § 24, 2. + Plotizin, § 210, 4. + Plutschau, § 167, 9. + Plymouth Brethren, § 211, 11. + Pneumatomachians, § 50, 5. + Pobedonoszew, § 206, 1. + Poblenz, § 184, 5. + Pocquet, § 146, 4. + Pococke, § 161, 6. + Podiebrad, § 119, 7, 8. + Poetry, Christian, § 48, 5, 6; 105, 4; 174, 6. + Poggio, § 120, 1; 119, 5. + Poiret, § 163, 9. + Poissy, Relig. Confer., § 139, 14. + Poland, § 93, 7; 139, 18; 165, 4; 206, 2, 3. + Pole, § 139, 5, 22. + Polemon, § 47, 6. + Polenz of Samland, § 125, 1. + Poliander, § 142, 3. + Polo, Marco, § 93, 15. + Polozk, Synod of, § 206, 2. + Polycarp, § 22, 3; 30, 6; 37, 2. + Polychronius, § 47, 9. + Polycrates, § 37, 2. + Polyglott, Antwerp, § 149, 14. + ” Complutensian, § 120, 8. + ” London, § 161, 6. + ” Paris, § 158, 1. + Pomare, § 184, 7. + Pombal, § 165, 9. + Pommerania, § 93, 10; 134, 4. + Pomponazzo, § 120, 1. + Ponce de la Fuente, § 139, 21. + _Pœnitentiaria Rom._, § 110, 16. + Pontianus, § 38, 1. + Ponticus, § 22, 3. + Pontius, § 98, 1. + Popiel, § 206, 1. + Popular Philosophy, § 171, 4. + Pordage, § 163, 9. + Porphyry, § 23, 3; 24, 2. + Portig, § 180, 3. + Portiuncula, § 98, 3. + Port Royal, § 157, 5. + Portugal, § 165, 9; 205, 5. + Positivism, § 174, 2; 210, 1. + Possessor of Carthage, § 53, 5. + Possevin, § 139, 1; 151, 2, 3. + Possidius, § 47, 18. + Post-Apostolic Age, § 20, 1. + _Postilla_, § 103, 9; 108, 6. + Potamiæna, § 22, 4. + Pothinus, § 22, 3. + _Præceptor Germaniæ_, § 122, 5. + _Præpositi_, § 84, 2. + Prætorius, § 160, 1. + Praxeas, § 33, 4. + Prayer, § 37; 39, 1. + Preaching, § 36, 2; 59, 3; 89, 1; 104, 1; 115, 2; 142, 2. + Preaching Orders, § 98, 5; 112, 4. + Pre-Adamites, § 161, 4. + Prebends, § 84, 4. + Precaria, § 86, 1. + Precists, § 96, 23. + Predestination, § 53; 91, 4; 125, 3; 141, 12; 161, 2, 3; 168, 1; + 208, 3. + Prepon, § 27, 12. + Presburg, Peace of, § 192. + Presbyter, § 17, 2, 5; 34, 3; 45. + Presbyterians, § 143, 3; 162, 1; 202, 4; 208, 1. + Prierias, § 122, 3. + Priestley, § 211, 4. + Primacy, Papal, § 34, 8; 46, 2, 3. + Primasius, § 48, 1. + Primian, § 63, 1. + Prisca, § 40, 1. + Priscillianists, § 54, 2. + Probabilism, § 149, 10; 113, 4. + Procession of Holy Spirit, § 50, 6; 67, 1; 91, 2. + Processions, § 59, 9. + Prochorus, § 32, 6. + Procidians, § 27, 8. + Proclus, Montanist, § 31, 7; 40, 2. + ” Neoplaton., § 24, 2; 42, 5. + Procopius of Gaza, § 48, 1. + ” the Great, § 119, 7. + Procopowicz, § 166. + _Professio fid. Trid._, § 149, 14. + Proles, § 112, 5. + Proli, § 211, 16. + Propaganda, § 156, 9; 204, 2. + Prophecy, § 143, 3, 5. + _Propositt. Cleri Gallicani_, § 156, 3; 203, 1. + Proselytes of Gate and Righteousness, § 10, 2. + Πρόσκλαυσις, § 39, 2. + Προσφοραί, § 36. + Prosper Aquit., § 47, 20; 48, 6; 53, 5. + Proterius, § 52, 5. + Protestants, § 132, 3. + “_Protestantenverein_,” § 180. + Proudhon, § 212, 1. + _Provida sollersque_, § 196, 1. + Prudentius, Poet, § 48, 6. + ” of Troyes, § 91, 5. + Psellus, § 68, 5; 71, 3. + Pseudepigraphs, § 32. + Pseudo-Basilideans, § 27, 3. + ” Clement, § 28, 3; 43, 4. + ” Cyril, § 96, 23. + ” Dionysius, § 47, 11. + ” Ignatius, § 43, 5. + ” Isidore, § 87, 2. + ” Tertullian, § 31, 3. + Psychians, § 26, 2; 40, 5. + _Publicani_, § 108, 1. + Pufendorf, § 167, 5. + Pulcheria, § 52, 4. + Pullus, Rob., § 102, 5. + Punctation of Ems, § 165, 10. + Purcell, § 186, 5. + Purgatory, § 61, 4; 67, 6; 104, 4; 106, 2, 3. + Purists, § 159, 4. + Puritans; § 143, 3, 4; 155. + Puseyites, § 202, 2. + Puttkamer, v., § 174, 8; 193, 6; 197, 10. + + + Quadragesima, § 37, 1; 56, 4, 5, 7. + Quadratus, § 30, 8. + _Quadrivium_, § 90, 8. + Quakers, § 163, 4, 5, 6; 211, 3. + _Quanta cura_, § 185, 2. + Quartodecimans, § 37, 2; 56, 3. + Quenstedt, § 159, 5. + _Quercum_, _Synod ad_, § 51, 3. + Quesnel, § 165, 7. + _Quicunque_, § 50, 7. + Quietists, § 157. + _Quinisextum_, § 63, 2. + _Quinquagesima_, § 37, 1; 56, 4. + Quintin, § 146, 4. + _Quod numquam_, § 197, 7. + + + Rabanus, § 90, 4; 91, 3, 5. + Rabaut, § 165, 5. + Rabinowitz, § 211, 9. + Rabulas, § 52, 3; 48, 7. + Racovian Catechism, § 148, 4. + Radama I., II., § 184, 3. + Radbertus, § 90, 5; 91, 3, 4. + Radbod, § 78, 3. + Radewins, Flor., § 112, 9. + Radstock, § 206, 1. + Raimund Lullus, § 93, 16; 103, 7. + ” Martini, § 103, 9. + ” of Pennaforte, § 93, 16; 99, 5; 113, 4. + ” du Puy, § 93, 8. + ” of Sabunde, § 113, 5. + Rakoczy, § 153, 3. + Rambach, § 167, 6, 8. + Ramus, § 143, 6. + Ranavalona, § 184, 3. + Rancé, de, § 156, 8. + Raphael, § 115, 13. + ” Union, § 186, 4. + Rapp, § 211, 6. + Raskolniks, § 163, 10; 210, 3. + Rasoherina, § 184, 3. + Raspe, § 105, 3. + Räss, Bishop, § 196, 7. + Rastislaw, § 79, 2. + Ratherius, § 100, 2. + Rationalism, § 171; 176, 1; 182, 2, 3. + Ratramnus, § 67, 1; 90, 5; 91, 3, 4, 5. + “_Rauhes Haus_,” § 183, 1. + Rauscher, Card., § 189, 3; 198, 2. + Ravaillac, § 139, 17. + Raymond IV., Count of Toulouse, § 109, 1. + Raynaldi, Oderic, § 5, 2. + Realism and Nominalism, § 99, 2; 113, 2. + Recafrid, § 81, 1. + Reccared, § 76, 2. + Rechiar, § 76, 4. + _Reclusi_, § 85, 6. + _Recognit. Clem._, § 27, 4. + _Reconciliatio_, § 39, 2. + _Recursus ab abusu_, § 185, 4; 192, 4; 194, 9; 197, 9. + Redemptions, § 88, 5. + Redemptorists, § 165, 2; 186, 1. + Reformation in head and members, § 118, 3. + Refugees, French Huguenot, § 153, 4. + Regensburg Colloquy, § 130, 3, 10. + ” Convention, § 126, 3. + ” Declaration, § 135, 4. + ” Diet, § 133, 2; 135, 3. + ” Reformation, § 135, 6. + ” Synod, § 91, 1. + Regino of Prüm, § 90, 5. + Reginus, § 104, 11. + Regionary Bishops, § 84. + _Regula fidei_, § 35, 2. + Reichenau, § 78, 1. + Reimarus, § 171, 6. + Reinerius Sachoni, § 108, 1. + Reinhard, Mart., § 139, 2. + Reinhard, Fr. Volk., § 171, 8. + Reinkens, § 190, 1. + Reiser, Fred., § 119, 9; 118, 5. + Reland, § 169, 6. + Relics, Worship of, § 39, 5; 57, 5; 88, 4; 104, 8; 115, 9. + _Religiosi_, § 44. + Remigius of Auxerre, § 90, 5. + ” ” Lyons, § 91, 5. + ” ” Rheims, § 76, 9. + Remismund, § 76, 4. + Remoboth, § 44, 7. + Remonstrants, § 161, 2. + Renaissance, § 115, 13; 149, 15. + Renan, § 182, 8. + Renata of Ferrara, § 138, 2; 139, 22. + Renaudot, § 165, 11. + Reni, Guido, § 149, 15. + Reparatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. + Repeal Association, § 202, 9. + _Reservatio mentalis_, § 149, 10. + Reservations, § 110, 15. + _Reservatum ecclest._, § 137, 5. + Restitution Edict, § 153, 2. + Reuchlin, § 120, 3, 4. + Reuss, § 182, 18. + Revenues of the Church, § 45, 6; 86, 1. + _Reversurus_, § 207, 4. + Revivals, § 208, 1. + Revolution, French, § 165, 14. + ” English, § 155. + _Rex Christianiss._, § 110, 13. + Rhaw, § 142, 5. + Rhegius Urbanus, § 120, 3; 127, 3; 125, 1. + Rheinwald, § 83, 2. + Rhenius, § 184, 5. + Rhense, Elector. Union of, § 110, 4. + Rhetorians, § 62, 3. + Rhine League, § 192. + Rhodoald, § 67, 1; 82, 7. + Rhodon, § 27, 12. + Rhyming Bible, § 105, 5. + ” Legends, § 105, 5. + Riccabona, § 175, 2. + Ricci, Laur., § 165, 9. + ” Matt., § 150, 1. + ” Scipio, § 165, 10. + Richard Cœur de Leon, § 94, 3. + ” of Cornwallis, § 94, 5. + ” ” St. Victor, § 102, 4; 104, 4. + Richelieu, § 153, 4. + Richter, C. F., § 167, 6. + ” Emil, § 182, 22. + ” Greg., § 160, 2. + ” Jean Paul, § 171, 11. + ” Louis, § 174, 9. + Ridley, § 139, 5. + Rieger, § 167, 8. + Rienzi, § 110, 5. + Rietschel, § 174, 9. + Riga, § 93, 12; 139, 3. + Rigdon, Sidney, § 211, 12, 13. + Riley, § 209, 1. + Rimbert, § 80, 2. + Rimini, Syn., § 50, 3. + Rinck, Melch., § 147, 1. + Ring and Staff, § 96, 6, 7. + Ringold, § 93, 14. + Rinkart, § 160, 3. + Rist, § 160, 3. + _Risus Paschales_, § 105, 2. + Ritschl, § 182, 7, 20. + Ritter, Erasm., § 130, 4, 8. + ” J. J., § 5, 6. + ” Carl, § 174, 4. + Ritualists, § 199, 2. + Rizzio, § 139, 10. + Robber Synod, § 52, 4. + Robert of Arbrissel, § 98, 2. + ” ” Citeaux, § 98, 1. + ” Grosseteste, § 103, 1. + ” Guiscard, § 95, 1; 98, 6, 8. + ” Pullus, § 102, 5. + ” of the Sorbonne, § 103, 9. + Robert of France, § 104, 10. + Robespierre, § 165, 15. + Robinson, § 143, 4. + Rodigast, § 160, 4. + Rodriguez, § 149, 8; 150, 4. + Roëll, § 161, 5. + Roger of Sicily, § 95, 1; 96, 13. + Röhr, § 176, 1; 182, 2. + Rokycana, § 119, 7. + Rollo, § 93, 1. + Romanz, § 174, 2. + Roman Architecture, § 104, 12. + Romanus, Pope, § 96, 1. + Romuald, § 98, 1. + Ronge, § 187, 6. + Roos, § 171, 8. + Rosary, § 104, 8; 115, 1. + Roscelinus [Roscelin], § 101, 3. + Rose, The Consecrat. Golden, § 96, 23. + Rosenkranz, § 182, 6. + Rosicrucians, § 160, 1. + Rossi de, § 191, 7; 38, 1. + Röstar, § 211, 5. + Roswitha, § 100, 1. + _Rota Romana_, § 110, 16. + Rothad of Soissons, § 83, 2. + Rothe, A., § 167, 6; 168, 2. + ” Rich., § 5, 4; 180, 1; 182, 10. + Rothmann, § 147, 9. + Röublin, § 130, 5; 147, 3. + Roundheads, § 155, 1. + Rousseau, § 165, 14. + Rubianus Crotus, § 120, 2, 5. + Rückert, § 174, 6. + Rudelbach, § 182, 13; 194, 1. + Rudolph of Hapsburg, § 96, 21, 22. + Rudolph II., § 139, 19; 137, 8. + ” of Swabia, § 96, 8. + Ruet, § 205, 4. + Rufinus, § 5, 1; 47, 17; 48, 2; 51, 2. + Ruge, § 174, 1. + Rügen, § 93, 10. + Rugians, § 76, 6. + Ruinart, § 158, 2. + Rulman Merswin, § 114, 2, 4. + Rupert, § 78, 2. + ” of Deutz, § 102, 8. + Rupp, § 176, 1; 178, 1. + Russel, Lord, § 202, 1, 5. + Russia, § 73, 5-6; 151, 3; 163, 8; 166; 206; 210, 3, 4; 212, 6. + Rust, § 195, 5. + Ruysbroek, John of, § 114, 7. + ” William of, § 93, 15. + + + _Sabatati_, § 108, 10. + Sabbath, § 56, 1. + Sabbatarians, § 163, 3; 211, 5. + Sabeans, § 22, 1. + Sabellius, § 33, 5, 7. + Sabinianus, § 60, 5. + _Sacco di Roma_, § 132, 2. + Sachs, Hans, § 142, 3, 7. + Sack, K. H., § 182, 9. + Sacramentalia, § 58; 104, 2. + Sacraments, § 58; 70, 2; 104, 2-5. + _Sacramentarium_, § 59, 6. + _Sacrificati_, § 22, 5. + _Sacrum rescript._, § 53, 3. + Sacy, de, § 158, 1. + Sadducees, § 8, 4. + Sadolet, § 138, 3; 139, 22. + Sagittarius, § 159, 4. + Sailer, § 165, 12; 187, 1. + Saints, Worship of, § 57, 1; 88, 4; 104, 8. + Saladin, § 94, 3. + Sales, Francis de, § 156, 7; 157, 1. + ” Nuns of, § 156, 7. + Salisbury, John of, § 102, 9. + Salmeron, § 149, 8. + Salt Lake, § 211, 10. + Salvation Army, § 211, 2. + Salvianus, § 47, 21. + Salzburg, § 78, 2; 79. + ” Emigrants of, § 164, 4. + Samaritans, § 10; 22. + Sampseans, § 28, 2. + Sanbenito, § 117, 2. + Sanchez, § 149, 10. + Sanction, Pragmatic, § 96, 21; 110, 9, 14. + _Sanctissimum_, § 104, 3. + Sandwich Islands, § 182, 7. + Sankey, § 211, 1. + Sapor I., § 29, 1. + Sapores [Sapor], § 64, 2. + Sarabaites, § 44, 7. + Saracens, § 81; 95. + Sardica, Council of, § 46, 3; 50, 2. + Sardinia, § 204, 1, 3. + Sarmatio, § 62, 2. + Sarpi, § 156, 2; 158, 2. + Sartorius, § 182, 13. + Saturnalia, § 56, 5. + Saturninus, § 27, 9. + Saunier, § 138, 1; 139, 25. + Saurin, § 169, 6. + Savonarola, § 119, 11. + Savonières [Savonnières], Syn. of, § 91, 5. + Sbynko, § 119, 3, 4. + _Scala santa_, § 115, 9. + Schaffhausen, § 130, 8. + Schelling, § 171, 10; 174, 1. + Schenkel, § 182, 17; 196, 3, 4; 180, 1. + Schiller, § 171, 11. + Schirmer, § 160, 4. + Schism, Papal, § 110, 6. + ” between East and West, § 67. + Schisms in the Ancient Church, § 41; 50, 8; 52, 5; 63. + Schlegel, Fr., § 174, 5; 175, 7. + ” J. Ad., § 172, 1. + Schleiermacher, § 5, 4; 182, 1; 174, 3. + Schleswig-Holstein, § 127, 3; 156, 2; 201, 1; 193, 7. + Schlichting, § 148, 4. + Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1. + ” League, § 133, 1, 7. + ” War, § 136. + Schmerling, § 198, 3, 4. + Schmid, Leop., § 187, 3; 191, 2; 196, 4. + Schmidt, Erasm., § 159, 4. + ” Lor., § 171, 3. + ” Seb., § 159, 4. + Schmolck, § 167, 6, 8. + Schnepf, § 122, 2; 131, 1; 133, 3. + Schnorr, § 174, 9. + Schöberlein, § 181, 3. + _Schola palatina_, § 90, 1. + ” _Saxonica_, § 82. + Scholastica, St., § 85, 3. + Scholasticism, Greek, § 47, 6; 68, 3. + ” Latin, § 99 ff.; 113. + Scholasticus, John, § 43, 3. + Scholten, § 200, 2. + Schools. + Schopenhauer, § 174, 2. + Schortinghuis, § 169, 3. + Schroeckh [Schröckh], § 5, 3; 171, 8. + Schubert, § 174, 3, 8. + Schultens, § 169, 6. + Schultz, Herm., § 182, 20. + Schulz, Dav., § 183, 3. + Schwartz, § 167, 9. + Schwarzenberg, § 189, 3. + Schweizer, § 182, 9. + Schwenkfeld, § 146, 1. + Scotists, § 113, 2. + Scotland, § 77, 2; 139, 8; 202, 7, 8, 11. + Scots, § 77, 2. + Scottish Cloister, § 98, 1; 112. + Scotus, John Duns, § 113. + ” Erigena, § 90, 7; 91, 5. + Scriver, § 160, 1. + Scythianus, § 29, 1. + _Seculum obscurum_, § 100. + Secundus, § 50, 1. + _Sedes Apostolicæ_, § 34. + Sedulius, § 48, 6. + Segarelli, § 108, 8. + Segneri, § 157, 2. + Seiler, § 171, 8. + Selden, § 161, 6. + Selnecker, § 141, 12; 142, 4. + Sembat, § 71, 2. + Semi-arians, § 50, 3. + Semi-jejunia, § 37, 2. + Semi-pelagians, § 53, 5. + Semler, § 171, 6; 5, 3. + Sendomir Compact, § 139, 18. + Seneca’s Correspondence, § 32, 7. + Sententiarists, § 102, 5. + Sepp, § 191, 8; 174, 4. + Septimius Severus, § 22, 4. + Septuagint, § 10, 2; 36, 8; 48, 1. + Sequences, § 88, 2. + Serapeion, § 42, 4. + Seraphic Order, § 98, 3. + Serenius Granian., § 22, 2. + Serenus of Marsilia, § 57, 4. + Sergius of Constantinople, § 52, 8. + ” ” Ravenna, § 83, 2. + ” I. of Rome, § 46, 11; 63, 2. + ” II., § 82, 5. + ” III., § 96, 1. + ” IV., § 96, 4. + Serrarius, § 149, 14. + Servatus Lupus, § 90, 5; 91, 5. + Servetus, § 148, 2. + Servites, § 98, 6. + _Servus servorum Dei_, § 46, 10. + Sethians, § 27, 6. + Seventh-Day Adventists, § 211, 1. + ” ” Baptists, § 163, 3. + Severa, § 22, 4; 26. + Severians, § 52, 7. + Severina, § 28, 4. + Severinus, Missionary, § 76, 6. + ” Pope, § 46, 11. + Severus, Emperor, § 22, 6. + ” Wolfg., § 137, 8. + Shaftesbury, § 171, 1. + Shakers, § 170, 7. + Sherlock, § 171, 1. + Shiites, § 65, 1. + Ship of the Church, § 60, 1. + Sibylline Books, § 32, 1. + Sicily, § 81; 95. + Sickingen, § 120, 4; 122, 4; 123, 7; 124, 2. + Siena, Syn., § 110, 7. + Sieveking, § 183, 1. + Sigfrid, § 93, 1. + Sigillaria, § 56, 5. + Sigismund of Burgundy, § 76, 5. + ” Emperor, § 110, 7, 8; 119, 5. + Sigismund I. of Poland, § 139, 18. + ” Aug. ” § 139, 18. + ” III. ” § 139, 18. + Sigurd, § 93, 3. + Silesia, § 127, 3; 153, 2; 165, 4. + Silesius, Angelus, § 157, 4; 160, 4. + Silverius, § 46, 9. + Simeon of Jerusalem, § 22, 2. + ” Stylites, § 44, 6. + ” called Titus, § 71, 1. + ” Czar, § 73, 3. + ” Metaphrastes, § 68, 4. + ” of Thessalonica, § 68, 5. + ” ” Tournay, § 103, 2. + ” VI., VII.; Counts of Lippe, § 154, 2. + Simeoni, § 205, 4. + Simon Magus, § 25, 2. + ” Rich., § 158, 2. + ” St., § 212, 2. + Simonians, § 27, 8. + Simons, Menno, § 147, 2. + Simony, § 96, 5. + Simplicius, § 42, 5. + Siricius, § 45, 2; 46, 4. + Sirmium, Syn., § 50, 2, 3. + Sirmond, § 158, 2. + Sisters of Mercy, § 156, 8; 186, 2. + Sixtus II., § 22, 5. + ” III., § 46, 6. + ” IV., § 110, 11; 112, 3; 115, 1. + ” V., § 149, 3, 4, 14. + ” of Siena, § 149, 14. + Skeleton Army, § 211, 2. + Smith, Jos., § 211, 10. + ” Pearsall, § 211, 1. + ” Robertson, § 202, 8. + Socialism, § 212. + Socinians, § 148, 4; 202, 5. + Soissons, Syn., § 78, 4; 102, 8. + _Sollicitudo omnium_, § 185, 1. + Somerset, § 139, 5. + Sophia, Church of, § 60, 3. + Sophronius, § 52, 8. + Sorbonne, § 103, 9. + Soter, § 36, 8. + Southcote, Joanna, § 211, 5. + Spain, § 76, 2, 3; 95, 2; 139, 21; 205. + Spalatin, § 122, 6. + Spalding, Bishop, § 189, 3. + Spangenberg, John, § 142, 6. + ” Bishop, § 168, 7. + Spanheim, § 5, 2; 161, 3, 7. + Speaker’s Bible, § 202, 1. + Spencer, John, § 161, 6. + ” Herbert, § 174, 2. + Spener, § 158, 3; 167, 5. + Spiera, Fr., § 139, 2, 4. + Spinoza, § 164, 1. + Spires, Diet, § 126, 6; 132, 3; 135, 9; 147, 4. + Spirit, Sect of the New, § 108, 2. + _Spiritales_, § 40, 5. + Spirituals, § 164, 1. + _Spirituels_, § 146, 4. + Sponsors, § 35, 5; 58, 1. + Sufis, § 61, 1. + Stackhouse, § 168, 6. + Stahl, § 182, 15; 193, 6. + Stancarns, § 141, 2. + Stanislaus, St., § 93, 2. + ” Znaim, § 119, 4. + Stanley, § 184, 4. + Stapfer, § 169, 6. + Stapulensis, § 120, 7, 8. + Starck, § 175, 7. + Starowerzi, § 163, 10; 210, 3. + Staudenmaier, § 191, 6. + Stäudlin, § 171, 8. + Staupitz, § 112, 6; 122, 1. + Stedingers, § 109, 3. + Steffens, § 174, 3; 177, 2. + Stein, Baron v., § 176, 1. + Steinbart, § 171, 4, 6. + Steinmetz, § 167, 8. + Stephan I., § 35, 3. + ” II., § 66, 2; 78, 7; 82, 1. + ” III., § 60, 2; 82, 1. + ” IV., § 82, 4. + ” V., VI., § 82, 8. + ” IX., § 96, 6. + ” St., § 93, 8; 96, 3. + ” of Palecz, § 119, 4, 5. + ” ” Sunik [Sünik], § 72, 2. + ” ” Tigerno, § 98, 2. + ” Mart., § 194, 1. + Stephanas, § 17, 4. + Stephen Langton, § 96, 18. + Stier, § 181, 1; 183, 4. + Stigmatization, § 105, 4; 188, 3. + Stirner, Max., § 212, 1. + Stolberg, § 5, 6; 165, 6. + Storch, Nich., § 124, 1. + Storr, § 171, 8. + Strassburg, § 125, 1. + ” Minster, § 104, 13. + Strauss, Dav. Fr., § 174, 1; 182, 6, 8; 199, 4. + Streoneshalch, Syn., § 77, 6. + Strossmayer, § 189, 3, 4. + Stuart, Mary, § 139, 5. + Studites, § 44, 4. + Sturm of Fulda, § 78, 4, 5. + Stylites, § 44, 6; 78, 3; 85, 6. + Suarez, § 149, 14. + _Subintroductæ_, § 39, 3. + Subordinationists, § 33, 1. + Suevi, § 76, 4. + Suffragan Bishops, § 84. + Sully, § 139, 17. + Sulpicius Severus, § 47, 17. + _Summa_ of Holy Scripture, § 125, 2. + Summaries, Württemb., § 160, 6. + _Summis desiderantes_, § 117, 4. + Summists, § 102, 4. + _Summus Episcopus_, § 167, 3. + Sun, Children of, § 71, 2. + Sunday, Fest. of, § 17, 7; 37; 56, 1. + Sunnites, § 65, 1. + _Supplicationes_, § 59, 9. + Supralapsarians, § 161, 1. + Supernaturalists, § 171, 8; 182, 4, 5. + Suso, H., § 114, 5. + Sutri, Syn., § 96, 4. + Swabian Articles, § 132, 5. + ” Halle, Sect in, § 108, 6. + Sweden, § 80; 93, 3; 139, 1; 201, 2. + Swedenborgians, § 170, 5; 211, 4. + Sweyn, § 93, 2. + Switzerland, § 78, 1; 130; 138; 162, 6; 169, 2; 190, 3; 199. + Sydow, § 180, 4. + Syllabus, § 185, 2. + Sylvester I., § 42, 1; 46, 3; 59, 5; 82, 2. + Sylvester II., § 94; 96, 3. + ” III., § 96, 4. + ” Bern., § 102, 9. + _Symbolum Apost._, § 35, 2; 59, 2. + ” _Athan._, § 59, 2. + ” _Nic. Constant._, § 59, 2. + ” _Nicænum_, § 50, 1. + Symmachus, Pope, § 46, 8. + ” Prefect, § 42, 4. + Sympherosa, § 32, 8. + Synagogues, § 8, 3. + Syncretist Controv., § 159, 3. + Synergists, § 53, 1. + Synesius, § 47, 7; 59, 4. + _Syngramma Suevic._, § 131, 1. + Synod, Holy Russian, § 166. + ” The Holy Athens, § 207, 1. + Synods, § 34, 5; 43, 2. + _Synodus palmaris_, § 46, 8. + Syrians, § 184, 9; 207, 2. + Syzigies, § 27, 3; 28, 3. + + + Tabernaculum, § 104, 3. + Taborites, § 119, 7. + Taepings, § 211, 15. + Tafel, Imm., § 211, 4. + Tahiti, § 184, 6. + Talmud, § 25. + Tamerlane, § 72, 1; 93, 15. + Tamuls, § 184, 5. + Tanchelm, § 108, 9. + Tartars, § 73, 1. + Tasso, § 149, 15. + Tatian, § 27, 10; 30, 10. + Tauler, § 114, 2. + Teellinck, § 161, 4. + Teetotallers, § 202, 9. + Telesphorus, § 22, 2. + Teller, § 171, 4, 7. + Templars, § 98, 8; 112, 7. + Terminants, § 98, 3. + Terminism, § 167, 2. + Territorial System, § 167, 5. + Tersteegen, § 169, 1. + Tertiaries, § 93, 3, 5. + Tertullian, § 31, 10; 33, 4, 9; 34, 8; 40, 3. + Tertullianists, § 40, 3. + _Tessareskaidecatites_, § 37, 2. + Test Act, § 153, 6; 155, 3; 202, 5. + Testam. of XII. Patri., § 32, 3. + Tetzel, § 122, 2. + Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8; 93, 13. + Theatines, § 149, 7. + Thecla, § 32, 6. + Theiner, § 186, 1; 187, 4; 191, 7. + Theodelinde, § 76, 8. + Theodemir, § 92, 2. + Theodo I., II., § 78, 2. + Theodora, § 46, 9; 52, 6; 71, 1. + Theodore of Abyssinia, § 182, 9. + Theodoret, § 47, 9; 52, 3, 4. + Theodoric, § 46, 8; 76, 7. + ” of Freiburg, § 103, 10. + ” of Niem, § 118, 5. + Theodorus, Pope, § 52, 1. + ” Ascidas, § 52, 8. + ” Balsamon, § 43, 3. + ” Lector, § 5, 1. + ” of Mopsuestia, § 47, 9; 48, 1; 52, 3; 53, 4. + ” Studita, § 66, 4. + ” of Tarsus, § 90, 8. + Theodosius the Great, § 42, 4; 47, 15; 50, 4. + Theodosius II., § 42, 4. + Theodotians, § 33, 3. + Theodulf of Orleans, § 89, 2; 90, 2. + Theognis of Nicæa, § 50, 1. + Theonas, § 50, 1. + Theopaschites, § 52, 6. + Theophanies, § 96, 2. + Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4. + ” of Alexandria, § 42, 4; 51, 2, 3. + ” ” Antioch, § 30, 10. + ” ” Din, § 64, 4. + ” ” Moscow, § 166, 1. + Theophylact, § 68, 5. + Θεοτόκος, § 52, 2, 3. + Therapeutæ, § 10, 1. + Theresa, St., § 149, 6, 15, 16. + _Thesaurus supererogat._, § 106, 2. + Thiers, § 203, 5. + Thiersch, § 211, 10. + Thietberga, § 82, 7. + Thietgaut of Treves, § 82, 7. + Thilo, § 160, 3. + Tholuck, § 182, 4. + Thomas Aquinas, § 103, 6; 96, 23; 104, 4, 10. + Thomas Becket, § 96, 16. + ” Bradwardine, § 113, 2. + ” of Celano, § 104, 10. + ” à Kempis, § 112, 9; 114, 7. + Thomas Christians, § 52, 3. + Thomasius, Chr., § 117, 4; 159, 3; 167, 4, 5. + Thomasius, Gottfr., § 182, 13. + Thomassinus, § 158, 1. + Thomists, § 113, 3. + Thontracians, § 71, 2. + Thorn, Declarat., § 153, 7. + ” Massacre, § 165, 4. + ” Relig. Confer., § 153, 7; 154, 4. + Thorwaldsen, § 174, 9. + Thrasimund, § 76, 3. + _Thuribulum_, § 60, 5. + _Thurificati_, § 22, 5. + Tiara, Papal, § 96, 23. + Tiberius, § 22, 1. + Tieck, § 174, 5. + Tieftrunk, § 171, 7. + Tillemont, § 158, 2; 5, 2. + Tillotson, § 161, 3. + Timotheus Älurus [Aëlurus], § 52, 5. + Tindal, Matt., § 171, 1. + ” William, § 139, 4. + Tiridates III., § 64, 3. + Tischendorf, § 182, 11. + Titian, § 115, 13; 149, 11. + _Tituli_, § 84, 2. + Titus of Bostra, § 54, 1. + Toland, § 171, 1. + Toledo, Syn., § 76, 2. + Toleration Acts, English, § 155, 3; 202, 5. + ” Edict, Austr., § 165, 10. + ” Patent, Pruss., § 193, 3. + Tolomeo of Lucca, § 5, 1. + Tolstoi, § 206, 1. + Tonsure, § 45, 1; 77, 3. + Tooth, Arth., § 202, 3. + Torgau, Articles of, § 132, 7. + ” Book of, § 141, 12. + ” League of, § 126, 5. + Torquemada, John, § 110, 15; 112, 4. + ” Thomas, § 117, 2. + Toulouse, Syn., § 105, 5; 108, 2; 109, 2. + Tours, Syn., § 101, 2; 110, 13. + Tractarianism, § 202, 2. + Tradition, § 33, 4. + Traditors, § 22, 6. + Traducianism, § 53, 1. + Trajan, § 22, 2. + Tranquebar, § 167, 9. + Translations, § 57, 1. + Transept, § 60, 1. + Transubstantiation, § 58, 2; 104, 3. + Transylvania, § 139, 20. + Trappists, § 156, 8. + Tremellius, § 143, 5. + Trent, Council of, § 149, 2; 136, 4. + _Treuga Dei_, § 105, 1. + Tribur, Princes’ Diet, § 96, 7. + ” Syn., § 83, 3. + Trinitarian Controversy, § 32; 50. + ” Order, § 98, 2. + Trinity, Festival of the, § 104, 7. + ” Order of the Holy, § 149, 4. + Trishagion, § 52, 5, 6. + Trithemius, § 113, 7. + _Trivium_, § 90, 8. + Troparies, § 59, 4. + Troubadours, § 105, 6. + _Trullanum, I. Conc._, § 52, 8. + ” _II. ” _, § 63, 2; 45, 2. + Tübingen, § 120, 3. + Turkey, § 207. + Turrecremata [Torquemada], John, § 110, 15; 112, 4. + Turrecremata [Torquemada], Thos., § 117, 2. + Turretin, J. A., § 169, 2, 6. + Turribius, § 54, 2. + Tutilo, § 88, 6. + Twesten, § 182, 10. + Tychonius, § 48, 1. + Typus, § 52, 8. + Tyrol, § 193, 4. + Tyre, Syn., § 50, 2. + + + Ubertino de Casale, § 108, 6. + _Ubiquitas Corp. Chr._, § 141, 9. + Udo, § 62, 1. + Ugolino, § 165, 12. + Uhlhorn, § 193, 8. + Uhlich, § 176, 1. + Ulenberg, § 149, 15. + Ulfilas, § 76, 1. + Ullmann, § 182, 10; 196, 3. + Ulrich of Augsb., § 84, 3. + ” ” Württemb., § 133, 3. + Ulrici, § 174, 2; 211, 17. + Ultramontanism, § 188; 197. + Umbreit, § 182, 11. + _Unam Sanctam_, § 110, 1. + _Unctio extrema_, § 61, 3; 70, 2; 104, 5. + Uniformity, Act of, § 139, 6; 155, 3. + Unigenitus, § 165, 7. + Union Attempts in the Eastern Church, § 67, 4, 5; 152, 2; + 175, 4-6. + Union, Catholic Protestant, § 137, 8; 153, 7. + Union, Lutheran Reformed, § 154, 4; 167, 4; 169, 1, 2. + Union, Prussian, § 177, 1. + Unitarians, § 148; 163, 1; 211, 4. + United Brethren, § 119, 8. + ” Greeks, § 72, 4; 151, 3; 206, 2. + Universities, § 99, 3. + ” Bill, § 199, 5. + Urban II., § 96, 10; 94. + ” III., § 96, 16. + ” IV., § 96, 20. + ” V., § 110, 5; 117, 2. + ” VI., § 110, 6. + ” VII., § 149, 3. + ” VIII., § 156, 1, 4, 9; 157, 5. + Urbanus Rhegius, § 127, 3. + Ursacius, § 50, 3. + Ursinus of Rome, § 46, 4. + ” Zach., § 144, 1; 169, 1. + Ursula, St., § 104, 9. + Ursuline Nuns, § 149, 7. + Ussher, § 161, 6, 7. + Utah, § 211, 10. + Utraquists, § 119, 6. + Utrecht, Church of, § 165, 7. + ” Union of, § 139, 12. + + + Vadian, § 130, 4. + Valdez, § 108, 10. + Valence, Syn., § 91, 5. + Valens, Emperor, § 50, 4; 42, 4. + Valentinian I., § 42, 4. + ” II., § 42, 4. + ” III., § 46, 3; 46, 7. + Valentinus, § 27, 4. + Valerian, § 22, 5. + Valla, § 120, 1. + Vallombrosians, § 98, 1. + Valsainte, § 186, 2. + Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. + Vandals, § 76, 3. + Vanne, Congreg. of, § 156, 7. + Varanes I., § 29, 1. + ” III., § 64, 2. + _Variata_, § 141, 4. + Vasa, Gustavus, § 139, 1; 142, 8. + Vasquez, § 149, 10. + Vatican, § 110, 15. + ” Council, § 189. + Vatke, § 182, 18. + Vaud, Canton, § 199, 5. + Vega, Lope de, § 158, 3. + Velasquez, § 98, 8. + Venantius Fortunatus, § 48, 6. + Venema, § 169, 6. + Venezuela, § 209, 2. + Vercelli, Syn., § 101, 2. + Verdun, Treaty of, § 82, 5. + Vergerius, § 134, 1; 139, 24. + Vermilius, Pet. Mart., § 139, 5, 24. + Veronica, § 18, 2. + Versailles, Edict of, § 165, 5. + Vespers, Sicilian, § 96, 22. + _Vestibulum_, § 60, 1. + Vestments, Ecclest., § 59, 7. + Veuillot, § 188, 1; 203, 3. + _Viaticum_, § 104, 5. + Vicelinus, § 93, 9. + Victor I., § 33, 3, 4; 37, 2; 40, 2; 41, 1. + Victor II., § 96, 5. + ” III., § 96, 10. + ” IV., § 96, 15. + ” of Vita, § 48, 2. + ” Emmanuel I., § 204, 1. + ” ” II., § 185, 3; 204, 1, 2. + Victor, St., Monastery of, § 102, 4, 8. + Victorinus, Marius, § 47, 14. + ” of Pettau, § 31, 12; 33, 9. + Victorius, § 56, 3. + Vienna, Congress of, § 192, 3. + ” Peace of, § 139, 20. + Vienne, Council of, § 110, 2; 112, 1, 2, 7. + Vigilantius, § 62, 2. + Vigilius, § 46, 9; 52, 6. + Vigils, § 35; 56, 4. + Vikings, § 93, 1. + Villegagnon, § 143, 7. + Vilmar, § 182, 14; 194, 4. + Vincent of Beauvais, § 99, 6. + Vincent Ferrari, § 115, 2; 110, 6. + ” of Lerins, § 47, 21; 53, 5. + ” de Paula, § 156, 8. + Vinci, Leon. da, § 115, 13. + Vinet, § 199, 5. + Viret, § 138, 1. + Virgilius of Salzburg, § 78, 6. + Virgins, The 11,000, § 104, 9. + Visigoths, § 76, 2. + Visitation, Articles of, § 141, 13. + _Vita quadragesimalis_, § 112, 8. + Vitalis Ordenicus, § 5, 1. + Vitus, § 46, 3. + Vitringa, § 161, 6. + Vladimir, § 73, 4. + Vladislaw, § 119, 7. + ” IV., § 153, 7. + Voetius, § 161, 4, 5, 7; 162, 4; 163, 7. + Volkmann, § 169, 1. + Voltaire, § 165, 5, 14, 15. + Vorstius, § 161, 2. + Vossius, § 171, 11. + Vulgate, § 59, 1; 136, 4; 149, 14. + + + Waddington, § 203, 5, 8. + Wafers, § 104, 3. + Wagner, Rich., § 174, 10. + Wala, § 82, 5. + Walafrid Strabo, § 90, 4; 91, 3. + Walch, J. G., § 167, 4. + ” Fr., § 171, 8. + Waldemar I., § 93, 10. + ” II., § 93, 12. + Waldensians, § 108, 10-12; 119, 9, 10; 139, 25; 153, 5; 204, 4. + Waldrade, § 82, 8. + Wallace, § 211, 17. + Walter of Habenichts, § 94, 1. + ” ” St. Victor, § 102, 9. + ” v. d. Vogelweide, § 105, 6. + Walther, Hans, § 142, 5. + ” Mich., § 159, 4. + ” Dr., § 208, 2, 3. + Walton, Brian, § 161, 6. + Warburton, § 171, 1. + Ward, § 156, 8. + Warnefried, § 90, 3. + Wartburg, § 123, 8. + Watts, Isaac, § 169, 6. + Wazo of Liege, § 109. + Wearmouth, § 85, 4. + Weber, F. W., § 174, 6. + Wecelinus, § 95, 3. + Wechabites, § 65, 1. + Wegelin, § 160, 3. + Wegscheider, § 182, 2. + Weigel, Val., § 146, 2. + Weingarten, § 5, 5. + Weiss, Bern., § 182, 11. + Weissel, § 160, 3. + Wellhausen, § 182, 18. + Wends, § 93, 9. + Wendelin, § 161, 7. + Wenilo, § 91, 5. + Wenzel, § 119, 3. + Wenzeslaw, § 93, 6. + Wertheimer Bible, § 171, 2. + Wesel, John of, § 119, 10. + Wesley, § 169, 3, 4. + Wessel, § 119, 10. + Westeräs, Diet of, § 139, 1. + Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. + Westphal, § 141, 10. + Westphalia, Peace of, § 153, 2. + ” Reform, § 133, 5. + Wette, de, § 182, 3. + Wetterau, § 170. + Wettstein, § 169, 6. + Whitaker, § 143, 5. + Whitefield, § 169, 3, 4. + Whitgift, § 143, 5. + Wibert, § 96, 6, 8. + Wichern, § 183, 1. + Wiclif, § 119, 1. + Wido of Milan, § 97, 5. + Wied, H. v., § 133, 5; 135, 7. + Wieland, § 171, 11. + Wigand, § 141, 10. + Wilberforce, § 184. + Wilfrid, § 77, 6; 78, 3; 83, 3. + Wilgard, § 100. + Wilibrord, § 78, 3. + Willehad, § 78, 3. + William of St. Amour, § 103, 3. + ” ” Aquitaine, § 98, 1. + ” ” Champeaux, § 101, 1. + ” ” Conches, § 102, 9. + ” the Conqueror, § 96, 8, 12. + ” Durandus, § 113, 3. + ” of Modena, § 93, 13. + ” ” Nogaret, § 110, 1. + ” ” Occam, § 112, 2; 113, 3; 118, 2. + ” Rufus, § 96, 12. + ” Ruysbroek, § 93, 15. + ” of Thierry, § 102, 2, 9. + ” ” Tyre, § 94, 3. + ” ” Bavaria, § 135, 8; 136, 2, 6; 151, 1. + ” IV., V., of Hesse, § 154, 1. + ” I. of Orange, § 139, 12. + ” III. of Orange, § 153, 6; 155, 3. + ” I., German Emperor, § 193; 197. + Williams, John, § 184, 7. + ” Roger, § 162, 2; 163, 3. + Willigis, § 96, 2; 97, 2. + Wilsnack, Mirac, host of, § 119, 3. + Wilson, § 172, 5. + Winckelmann, § 165, 6; 174, 9. + Windesheim, § 112, 9. + Windthorst, § 197, 1, 6; 188, 3. + Winer, § 182, 4. + Winfrid, § 78, 4-8. + Wion, § 149, 3. + Wiseman, § 202, 11. + Wishart, § 139, 8. + Wislicenus, § 176, 1. + Witch Hammer, § 117, 4. + ” Process, § 117, 4. + Witsius, § 161, 7; 169, 4. + Wittenberg, § 120, 3. + ” Catech., § 141, 10. + ” Concord., § 133, 8. + ” Sketch of Reform, § 135, 9. + Witzel, § 137, 8; 149, 15. + Wolf, J. Chr., § 167, 4. + Wolfenbüttel Fragments, § 171, 6. + Wolff, Chr. v., § 167, 4; 171, 10. + Wolfgang, William, of Palatine Neuburg, § 153, 1. + Wolfram of Eschenb., § 105, 6. + Wöllner, § 171, 5. + Wolmar, Melch., § 138, 2, 8. + Wolsey, § 120, 7. + Woltersdorf [Woltersdorff], § 167, 6, 8. + Woolston, § 171, 1. + Worms Edict, § 123, 7. + ” Concordat, § 96, 11. + ” Consultation, § 137, 6. + ” Relig. Confer., § 135, 2. + Wratislaw, § 79, 3. + Wulflaich, § 78, 3. + Wulfram, § 78, 3. + Württemberg, § 133, 3; 193, 5, 6; 197, 14. + Würzburg, Bish. Congress, § 192, 4. + Wyttenbach, Dan., § 169, 6. + ” Thomas, § 130, 1. + + + Xavier, § 119, 8; 150, 1. + Xenaias, § 59, 1. + Ximenes, § 117, 2; 118, 7; 120, 8, 9. + + + Young, Brigham, § 211, 12. + Yvon, § 163, 8. + + + Zacharias, Pope, § 78, 5, 6; 82, 1. + ” of Anagni, § 67, 1. + Zapolya, § 139, 20. + _Zelatores_, § 98, 4. + Zell, Matt., § 125, 1. + Zeller, Ed., § 182, 9; 199, 4. + _Zelus domus Dei_, § 153, 2. + Zeno, Philos., § 8, 4. + ” Emp., § 52, 5. + ” of Verona, § 47, 14. + Zenobia, § 32, 8. + Zephyrinus, § 33, 3, 5; 41, 1. + Zeschwitz, § 182, 14. + Ziegenbalg, § 167, 9. + Zillerthal, § 198. + Zimmermann, § 178, 1; 182, 2. + Zinzendorf, § 168; 170, 2, 3; 171, 3. + Zionites, § 170, 4. + Ziska, § 119, 7. + Zollikofer, § 171, 7. + Zosimus, § 46, 5; 53, 4. + Zschokke, § 176, 1. + Zulu Kaffres, § 184, 3. + Zürich, § 130, 2; 199, 4. + Zwick, § 143, 2. + Zwickau, Prophets of, § 124, 1. + Zwingli, § 130; 131, 1; 132, 4. + + + + + FOOTNOTES. + + + [445] Merimée, “The Russian Impostors: the False Demetrius.” + London, 1852. + + [446] Neale, “History of the Holy Eastern Church.” Vol. ii., + p. 356 ff. + Cyrillus Lucaris, “_Confessio Christianæ Fidei_.” + Geneva, 1633. + Smith, “_Collectanea de Cyrillo Lucario_.” London, 1707. + + [447] Stevens, “Life and Times of Gustavus Adolphus.” + New York, 1884. + Trench, “Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, and other Lectures + on the Thirty Years’ War.” London. + Gardiner, “The Thirty Years’ War” in “Epochs of Modern + History.” London, 1881. + + [448] Bray, “Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes.” + London, 1870. + Poole, “History of the Huguenots of the Dispersion.” + London, 1880. + Agnew, “Protestant Exiles from France in the Reign of + Louis XIV.” 3 vols., London, 1871. + Weiss, “History of French Protestant Refugees.” + London, 1854. + + [449] Macaulay, “History of England from the Accession of + James II.” London, 1846. + Hassencamp, “History of Ireland from the Reformation to + the Union.” London, 1888. + Adair, “Rise and Progress of the Presbyterian Church of + Ireland from 1623 to 1670.” Belfast, 1866. + Hamilton, “History of Presbyterian Church in Ireland.” + Edin., 1887. + + [450] Butler, “Life of Hugo Grotius.” London, 1826. + Motley, “John of Barneveld.” Vol. ii., New York, 1874. + + [451] “An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church in + Matters of Controversy.” London, 1685. + “Variations of Protestantism.” 2 vols., Dublin, 1836. + Butler, “Some Account of the Life and Writings of Bishop + Bossuet.” London, 1812. + + [452] “The Work of John Durie in behalf of Christian Union in + the Seventeenth Century.” By Dr. Briggs in _Presbyterian + Review_, vol. viii., 1887, pp. 297-300. To which is + attached an account by Durie himself, never before + published, of his own union efforts from July, 1631, till + September, 1633. See pp. 301-309. + + [453] Clarendon, “History of the Rebellion in England, + 1649-1666.” 3 vols., Oxford, 1667. + Burnet, “History of his Own Time, 1660-1713.” 2 vols., + London, 1724. + Guizot, “History of English Revolution of 1640.” + London, 1856. + Gardiner, “History of England, 1603-1642.” 10 vols., + London, 1885. + Marsden, “History of Early and Later Puritans, down to + the Ejection of the Nonconformists in 1662.” 2 vols., + London, 1853. + Masson, “Life of Milton.” 4 vols., London, 1859 ff. + + [454] Mitchell, “The Westminster Assembly.” London, 1882. + Mitchell and Struthers, “Minutes of Westminster Assembly.” + Edinburgh, 1874. + Macpherson, “Handbook to Westminster Confession.” 2nd ed., + Edinburgh, 1882. + Hetherington, “History of Westminster Assembly.” 4th ed., + Edinburgh, 1878. + + [455] Carlyle, “Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches.” 2 vols., + London, 1845. + Guizot, “Life of Cromwell.” London, 1877. + Paxton Hood, “Oliver Cromwell.” London, 1882. + Picton, “Oliver Cromwell.” London, 1878. + Harrison, “Oliver Cromwell.” London, 1888. + Barclay, “The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the + Commonwealth.” London, 1877. + + [456] Guizot, “Richard Cromwell and the Restoration of + Charles II.” 2 vols., London, 1856. + Macpherson, “History of Great Britain from the + Restoration.” London, 1875. + + [457] Bargraves, “Alexander VII. and His Cardinals.” Ed. by + Robertson, London, 1866. + + [458] Cunningham, “Discussions on Church Principles.” + Edin., 1863, chap. v.: “The Liberties of the Gallican + Church.” Pp. 133-163. + + [459] Von Gebler, “Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia.” Transl. + by Sturge, London, 1879. + Madden, “Galileo and the Inquisition.” London, 1863. + Brewster, “Martyrs of Science.” Edin., 1841. + Von Gebler denies that any condemnation _ex cathedra_ + was given. + + [460] Wilson, “Life of Vincent de Paul.” London, 1874. + + [461] Marsolier, “Life of Francis de Sales.” Translated by + Coombes, London, 1812. + + [462] “Golden Thoughts from the ‘Spiritual Guide’ of Molinos.” + With preface by J. H. Shorthouse, London, 1883. + + [463] Upham, “Life, Religious Opinions, and Experience of + Madame de la Mothe Guyon, with an account of Fénelon.” + London, 1854. + Brooke, “Exemplary Life of the Pious Lady Guion.” + Bristol, 1806. + Butler, “Life of Fénelon.” London, 1810. + + [464] Beard, “Port Royal.” 2 vols., London, 1861. + St. Amour, “Journal in France and Rome, containing Account + of Five Points of Controversy between Jansenists and + Molinists.” London, 1664. + Schimmelpenninck, “Select Memoirs of Port Royal.” Fourth + edition, 2 vols., London, 1835. + + + [465] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 98-251. + + [466] Bruce, “Humiliation of Christ.” P. 131, Edin., 1876. + + [467] Dowding, “German Theology during the Thirty Years’ War: + Life and Correspondence of G. Calixt.” 2 vols., + Oxford, 1863. + + [468] Wildenhahn, “Life of Spener.” Translated by Wenzel, + Philadelphia, 1881. + Guericke, “Life of A. H. Francke.” London, 1847. + + [469] Jennings, “The Rosicrucians: their Rites and Mysteries.” + London, 1887. + + [470] Martensen, “Life and Works of Jacob Boehme.” London, 1886. + + + [471] All the translations of hymns referred to in this and the + preceding section are from Miss Winkworth’s “_Lyra + Germanica_.” London, 1885. + + [472] The “Works of Arminius.” Transl. by Nicholls, to which + are added Brandt’s “Life of Arminius.” Etc., 3 vols., + London, 1825. + Scott, “Translation of Articles of Synod of Dort.” + London, 1818. + Hales, “Letters from the Synod of Dort.” Glasgow, 1765. + Calder, “Life of Simon Episcopius.” New York, 1837. + Cunningham, “Reformation and Theology of Reformation.” + Essay VIII., “Calvinism and Arminianism.” Pp. 412-470. + Motley, “John of Barneveldt.” 2 vols., London, 1874. + + [473] Barclay, “The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the + Commonwealth.” Second ed., London, 1877. + Dr. Stoughton’s “History of Religion in England from + Opening of Long Parliament to End of Eighteenth Century.” + London. + + [474] See Macpherson, “Presbyterianism.” (Edin., 1883), pp. 8-10, + where charges of intolerance such as those made against + Presbyterianism in the text are repudiated. + + [475] Masson, “Life of John Milton.” 4 vols., London, 1859. + Pattison, “Milton.” In “English Men of Letters” series, + London, 1880. + + [476] “_Relquiæ Baxterianæ_: Baxter’s Narrative of most Memorable + Passages in his own Life.” London, 1696. + Orme, “Life and Times of Richard Baxter, with Critical + Examination of his Writings.” London, 1830. + Stalker, “Baxter” in “Evangelical Succession Lectures.” + Second series, Edinburgh, 1883. + + [477] Froude disputes this, and says, p. 12, that probably he + was on the side of the Royalists. Brown has shown it to + be almost certain that in 1644, not 1642, Bunyan, then + in his sixteenth year, joined the Parliamentary forces. + See Brown’s “Life.” Pp. 42-52. + + [478] Brown, “Life of Bunyan.” London, 1885. + Autobiography in “Grace Abounding.” 1622. + Southey, “Life of John Bunyan.” London, 1830. + Macaulay, “Essay on Bunyan.” In _Edinburgh Review_, 1830. + Froude, “Bunyan,” in “English Men of Letters.” London, 1880. + Nicoll, “Bunyan,” in “Evangelical Succession Lectures.” + Third series, Edinburgh, 1883. + + [479] “Life of John Eliot, Apostle of the Indians.” By John + Wilson, afterwards of Bombay, Edin., 1828. + + [480] Crosby, “History of the English Baptists.” 4 vols., + London, 1728. + Ivimey, “History of the English Baptists from 1688-1760.” + 2 vols., London, 1830. + Cramp, “History of the Baptists to end of 18th Century.” + 3 vols., London, 1872. + + [481] Backus, “History of the English-American Baptists.” + 2 vols., Boston, 1777. + Cox and Hoby, “The Baptists in America.” New York, 1836. + Hague, “The Baptists Transplanted.” Etc., New York, 1846. + + [482] Of special importance for the early history of the + Quakers are, + “Letters of Early Friends.” Edited by Robert Barclay, + a descendant of the Quaker apostle, London, 1841. + “Fox’s Journal; or, Historical Accounts of his Life, + Travels, and Sufferings.” London, 1694. + Penn, “Summary of History, Doctrines, and Discipline of + Friends.” London, 1692. + Tallack, “George Fox; the Quakers and the Early Baptists.” + London, 1868. + Bickley, “George Fox and the Early Quakers.” London, 1884. + Stoughton, “W. Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania.” London, 1883. + + [483] Sewel, “History of the Quakers.” 2 vols., London, 1834. + Cunningham, “The Quakers, from their Origin in 1624 to the + Present Time.” London, 1868. + Barclay, “Apology for the True Christian Divinity: a + Vindication of Quakerism.” 4th ed., London, 1701. + Clarkson, “A Portraiture of Quakerism.” 3 vols., + London, 1806. + Rowntree, “Quakerism, Past and Present.” London, 1839. + + [484] Heard, “The Russian Church and Russian Dissent.” + London, 1887. + Mackenzie Wallace, “Russia.” Chaps. xiv., xx., 2 vols., + London, 1877. + Palmer, “The Patriarch and the Tsar.” 6 vols., London, + 1871-1876. + + [485] Ueberweg, “History of Philosophy.” Vol. ii., pp. 31-135. + Pünjer, “History of the Christian Philosophy of Religion + from the Reformation to Kant.” Edin., 1887. + Pfleiderer, “Philosophy of Religion.” Vol. i., London, 1887. + Erdmann’s “History of Philosophy.” 3 vols., London, 1889. + + [486] “Bacon’s Works.” Ed. by Spedding, Ellis, and Heath, + 14 vols., London, 1870. + Spedding, “Letters and Life of Lord Bacon.” 2 vols., + London, 1862. + Macaulay on Bacon in _Edinburgh Review_ for 1837. + Church, “Bacon,” in vol. v. of “Collected Works.” + London, 1888. + Nichol, “Bacon: Life and Philosophy.” 2 vols., Edin., 1888. + + [487] “Descartes’ Method, Meditations, and Principles of + Philosophy.” Transl. by Prof. Veitch, Edin., 1850 ff. + Fischer, “Descartes and his School.” London, 1887. + + [488] Willis, “Spinoza: his Ethics, Life, and Influence on Modern + Thought.” London, 1870. + Pollock, “Spinoza: his Life and Philosophy.” London, 1880. + Martineau, “Spinoza.” London, 1882. + “Spinoza, Four Essays by Land, Von Floten, Fischer, and + Renan.” Edited by Prof. Knight, London, 1884. + + [489] “Locke’s Complete Works.” 9 vols., London, 1853. + Cousin, “Elements of Psychology: a Critical Examination of + Locke’s Essay.” Edin., 1856. + Webb, “Intellectualism of Locke.” London, 1858. + + [490] Guhrauer, “Leibnitz: a Biography.” Transl. by Mackie, + Boston, 1845. + + [491] Leland, “View of Principal Deistical Writers in England.” + 2nd ed., 2 vols., London, 1755. + Halyburton, “Natural Religion Insufficient; or, A Rational + Inquiry into the Principles of the Modern Deists.” + Edin., 1714. + Tulloch, “Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in + England in the 17th Century.” 2 vols., Edin., 1872. + Cairns, “Unbelief in the 18th Century.” Chap. ii., + “Unbelief in the 17th Century.” Edin., 1881. + + [492] Lecky, “History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of + Rationalism in Europe.” 2 vols., London, 1873. + Hagenbach, “German Rationalism.” Edin., 1865. + Hagenbach, “History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries.” + 2 vols., London, 1870. + Leslie Stephen, “History of English Thought in the + 18th Century.” 2 vols., London, 1876. + Cairns, “Unbelief in the 18th Century.” Edin., 1881. + + [493] Wilson, “The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work. + With a Sketch of the Life of their Founder, the Venerable + Jean Baptiste de la Salle.” London, 1883. + + [494] Neale, “History of the so called Jansenist Church of + Holland.” Oxford, 1858. + + [495] Cairns, “Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century.” Chap. iv., + “Unbelief in France.” Edinburgh, 1881. + Morley, “Diderot and the Encyclopedists.” 2 vols., + London, 1878. + Morley, “Voltaire.” London, 1872. + Lange, “History of Materialism.” 3 vols., London, 1877. + + [496] This saying is usually attributed to Voltaire. He used the + expression in attacking Pierre Bayle. + Erdmann’s “Hist. of Phil.” Vol. ii., p. 158. + Ueberweg, “Hist. of Phil.” Vol. ii., p. 125. + + [497] Pressensé, “The Church and the Revolution.” London, 1869. + Jervis, “The Gallican Church and the Revolution.” + London, 1882. + + [498] Hagenbach, “History of Church in the 18th and + 19th Centuries.” Vol. i., pp. 109, 116; 2 vols., + New York, 1869. + Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., p. 208. + + [499] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 208-227. + + [500] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 266-279. + Hagenbach, “History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries.” + Vol. i., pp. 117-127. + + [501] Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 259-261. + Geffcken, “Church and State.” 2 vols., Lon., 1887; vol. i., + pp. 456-503. + + [502] Burney, “Life of Handel.” London, 1784. + + [503] Kelly, “Life and Work of Von Bogatsky: a Chapter from the + Religious Life of the Eighteenth Century.” London, 1889. + + [504] Hough, “The History of Christianity in India.” 5 vols., + London, 1839. + Sherring, “History of Missions in India.” Edited by Storrow. + London, 1888. + Pearson, “Memoirs, Life, and Correspondence of Chr. Fr. + Schwartz.” Etc., 2 vols., London, 1834. + + + [505] Hagenbach, “History of the Christian Church in the 18th + and 19th Centuries.” New York, 1869; Lectures XVIII. + and XIX., pp. 398-445. + + [506] Spangenberg, “Life of Count Zinzendorf.” London, 1838. + + [507] Spangenberg, “Account of Manner in which the _Unitas + Fratrum_ Propagate the Gospel, and Carry on their + Missions among the Heathen.” London, 1788. + Holmes, “Historical Sketch of the Missions of the United + Brethren for the Propagation of the Gospel among the + Heathen from their Commencement down to 1817.” + London, 1827. + + [508] “Tersteegen: Life and Character, with Extracts from His + Letters and Writings.” London, 1832. + Winkworth, “Christian Singers of Germany.” London, 1869. + + [509] For a slightly different account see Tyerman, vol. i., + p. 66. + + [510] Wesley himself continued to preach in the open air till + nearly the end of the year 1790. + + [511] Further details as to the organization of the societies + are given in Tyerman, 1st ed., vol. i., pp. 444, 445. + + [512] Southey, “Life of John Wesley.” London, 1820. + Isaac Taylor, “Wesley and Wesleyanism.” London, 1851. + Tyerman, “Wesley’s Life and Times.” 2 vols., 4th ed., + London, 1877. + Urlin, “Churchman’s Life of Wesley.” London, 1880. + Abbey and Overton, “English Church in 18th Century.” + 2 vols., London, 1879. + Lecky, “History of England in the 18th Century.” 2 vols., + London, 1878. + Stoughton, “History of Religion in England to End of + 18th Century.” 6 vols., London, 1882. + Jackson, “Life of Charles Wesley.” 2 vols., London, 1841. + Tyerman, “Life of Whitefield.” 2 vols., London, 1877. + Macdonald, “Fletcher of Madeley.” London. + Smith, “History of Methodism.” 3 vols., London, 1857. + Stevens, “History of Methodism.” 3 vols., New York, 1858. + Stevens, “History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the + United States.” 4 vols., New York, 1864. + Bangs, “History of the Methodist Episcopal Church.” 4 vols., + New York, 1839. + + [513] Hagenbach, “History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries.” + Vol. i., pp. 159-164. + + [514] Hagenbach, “History of the Church in the 18th and + 19th Centuries.” Vol. i., pp. 168-175. + + [515] Tafel, “Documents concerning the Life and Character of + Swedenborg.” 3 vols., London, 1875. + White, “Emanuel Swedenborg, his Life and Writings.” + 2 vols., London, 1867. + + [516] Evans, “Shakers: Compendium of Origin, History, Principles, + and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in + Christ’s Second Coming.” New York, 1859. + Dixon, “New America.” 2 vols., 8th ed., London, 1869. + Nordhoff, “The Communistic Societies of the United States.” + London, 1874. + + [517] Pusey, “Historical Inquiry into the Causes of the Prevalence + of Rationalism in Germany.” London, 1828. + Rose, “The State of Protestantism in Germany.” Oxford, 1829. + Saintes, “A Critical History of Rationalism in Germany, from + its Origin till the Present Time.” London, 1849. + Lecky, “History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of + Rationalism in Europe.” 2 vols., London, 1873. + Farrar, “Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to + the Christian Religion.” London, 1863. + Hagenbach, “German Rationalism.” Edinburgh, 1865. + Hurst, “History of Rationalism.” New York, 1865. + Gostwick, “German Culture and Christianity, their + Controversy, 1770-1880.” New York, 1882. + + [518] Stephen, “History of English Thought in the 18th Century.” + 2 vols., London, 1876. + Cairns, “Unbelief in the 18th Century.” Edinburgh, 1881. + Pünjer, “History of Christian Philosophy of Religion from + Reformation to Kant.” § 5, “The English Deists.” + Edinburgh, 1887. + + [519] Halliwell, “The Early History of English Freemasonry.” + London, 1840. + + [520] Ritschl, “History of Christian Doctr. of Justification and + Reconciliation.” Pp. 347-426. + Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 277-292. + Hagenbach, “History of The Church in The 18th and + 19th Centuries.” Vol. i., pp. 251-321. + + [521] Chalybæus, “Historical Development of Speculative + Philosophy, from Kant to Hegel.” Edin., 1854. + Räbiger, “Theological Encyclopædia.” Vol. i., pp. 73-76. + + [522] Stahr, “Lessing: his Life and Works.” Translated by + G. Evans, 2 vols., Boston, 1866. + Sime, “Lessing, his Life and Writings.” 2 vols., + London, 1877. + Zimmern, “G. E. Lessing: his Life and Works.” London, 1878. + Smith, “Lessing as a Theologian.” In the _Theological + Review_, July, 1868. + + + [523] Russell, “A Short Account of the Life and History of + Pestalozzi.” Based on De Guemp’s “_L’Histoire de + Pestalozzi_.” London, 1888. To be followed by a complete + English translation of De Guemp’s work. + + [524] Marshman, “Life and Times of Marshman, Carey, and Ward.” + 2 vols., London, 1859. + Smith, “Life of William Carey.” London, 1886. + Wilson, “Missionary Voyage of the Ship _Duff_.” + London, 1799. + Morison, “Fathers and Founders of the London Missionary + Society.” London, 1844. + + [525] Baur, “Religious Life in Germany.” London, 1872, + pp. 177-196. + + [526] Kahnis, “Internal History of German Protestantism since + the Middle of Last Century.” Edin., 1856. + + [527] Hagenbach, “History of Church in Eighteenth and Nineteenth + Centuries.” Vol. ii., pp. 413-416. + + [528] Mombert, “Faith Victorious, being an Account of the Life, + Labour, and Times of Dr. J. W. Ebel, 1714-1861, compiled + from authentic sources.” London, 1882. + Dixon, “Spiritual Wives.” London, 1868. + + [529] Strack, “The Work of Bible Revision in Germany.” In + _Expositor_, third series, vol. ii., pp. 178-187. + + [530] See papers by Driver, Cheyne, Davidson, Kirkpatrick, in + _Expositor_ for 1886-1888, on various books in Revised + Old Testament. + Westcott, “Some Lessons of Revised Version of New + Testament.” In _Expositor_, third series, vol. v., + pp. 81, 241, 453. + Jennings and Lowe, “Revised Version of Old Testament: + a Critical Estimate.” In _Expositor_, third Series, + vol. ii., pp. 57, etc. + + [531] “Schleiermacher’s Life in Letters.” Translated by Rowan, + London, 1860. + Baur, “Religious Life in Germany.” London, 1872, pp. 197 ff. + Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” Vol. ii., + pp. 374-395. + + [532] Cheyne, “Life and Works of Heinrich Ewald.” In _Expositor_, + third series, vol. iv., pp. 241 ff., 361 ff. + + [533] There are English translations of his “Life of Christ.” + “First Planting of Christianity.” “Antignostikus.” + “History of Christian Dogmas.” “Christian Life in the + Early and Middle Ages.” All published by Bohn. + + [534] Zeller, “David Frederick Strauss, in his Life and + Writings.” London, 1874. Translations: “Life of Jesus + Critically Treated.” 1846; “Life of Jesus for the German + People.” 1865; “The Old Faith and the New.” 1874; “Ulrich + von Hutten.” 1874. + + [535] Simon, “Isaac August Dorner.” In _Presbyterian Review_ for + October, 1887, pp. 569-616. + + [536] Rothe, “Still Hours.” Translated by Miss Stoddart, with + Introductory Essay on Rothe by Rev. J. Macpherson. + London, 1886. + + [537] Galloway, “The Theology of Ritschl.” In _Presbyterian + Review_ for April, 1889, pp. 192-209. + + [538] Series of papers in _Good Words_ for 1860, pp. 377 ff. + + [539] Fleming Stevenson, “The Blue Flag of Kaiserswerth.” In + _Good Words_ for 1861, pp. 121 ff., 143 ff. + + [540] Owen, “History of the First Ten Years of the Bible + Society.” 3 vols., London, 1816. + + [541] Wiseman, “Recollections of the Last Four Popes.” 3 vols., + London, 1853. + Mendham, “Index of Prohibited Books by order of + Gregory XVI.” London, 1840. + + [542] Legge, “Pius IX. to the Restoration of 1850.” 2 vols., + London, 1872. + Trollope, “Life of Pius IX.” 2 vols., London, 1877. + Shea, “Life and Pontificate of Pius IX.” New York, 1877. + + [543] Geffcken, “Church and State.” Vol. ii., pp. 269-293: “The + Italian Question and the Papal States.” + + [544] Geffcken, “Church and State.” Vol. ii., pp. 236-238. + + [545] Bridges, “Life of Martin Boos.” London, 1836. + + [546] Hamberger, “Sketch of the Character of the Theosophy + of Baader.” Translated in _American Presbyterian and + Theological Review_, 1869. + + [547] Laing, “Notes on the Rise, Progress, etc., of the German + Catholic Church of Ronge and Czerski.” London, 1845. + + [548] Manning, “The True History of the Vatican Council.” + London, 1877. + Pomponio Leto, “The Vatican Council, being the impressions + of a contemporary (Card. Vitelleschi), translated from + the Italian with the original documents.” London, 1876. + Quirinus, “Letters from Rome on the Council.” London, 1870. + Janus, “The Pope and the Council.” London, 1869. + Bungener, “Rome and the Council in the Nineteenth Century.” + Edinburgh, 1870. + Arthur, “The Pope, the Kings, and the People, a History + of the Movement to make the Pope Governor of the World, + 1864-1871.” 2 vols., London, 1877. + Acton, “History of the Vatican Council.” London, 1871. + Friedrich, “_Documenta ad illum. Conc. Vat._” Nördling, 1871. + Martin (Bishop of Paderborn), “_Omnium Conc. Vat. quæ ad + doctr. et discipl. pertin. docum. Collectio_.” 1873. + + [549] Geffcken, “Church and State.” Vol. ii., pp. 501-531. + Smith, “The Falk Legislation from the Political Point of + View.” In the _Theological Review_ for October, 1875. + + [550] Geffcken, “Church and State.” 2 vols., London, 1877; + vol. ii., pp. 488-531. + + [551] The Austrian May Laws were in some respects more sweeping + than the Prussian (§ 197, 5); but the former were framed + with reference to the police, the latter with reference to + the law. In Prussia the decision, judgment, and sentence in + all cases of contravention and collision were assigned to + the court of law; in Austria they were assigned to the court + of administration, in the last instance to the minister. The + Austrian laws could thus be urged and ignored at pleasure. + + [552] Geffeken, “Church and State.” Vol. ii., pp. 469-488. + + [553] R. J. Sandeman, “Alexander Vinet.” In “Evangelical + Succession Lectures.” Third Series, Edinburgh, 1884. + Dorner, “History of Protestant Theology.” ii., 470, 478. + + [554] Cairns, “The Present Struggle in the National Church of + Holland.” In _Presbyterian Review_ for January, 1888, + pp. 87-108. + Wicksteed, “The Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland.” + London. + + [555] Lumsden, “Sweden, its Religious State and Prospects.” + London, 1855. + + [556] Stoughton, “Religion in England during the First Half of + the Present Century, with a Postscript on Subsequent + Events.” 2 vols., London, 1876. + Molesworth, “History of England from 1830 to 1874.” + 3 vols., London. + + [557] Littledale, “Church Parties.” Art. in the _Contemporary + Review_ for July, 1874, pp. 287-320. + Mozley, “Reminiscences of Oriel College.” London, 1882. + + [558] Newman, “_Apologia pro Vita Sua_.” London, 1864. + Weaver, “Puseyism, a Refutation and Exposure.” London, 1843. + + [559] The very confused, wholly inadequate, and in some points + positively incorrect statements in the above paragraph + may be supplemented and amended by reference to the + following literature: + Buchanan, “Ten Years’ Conflict.” 2 vols., Edin., 1852. + Moncrieff, “Vindication of the Claim of Right.” Edin., 1877. + Moncrieff, “The Free Church Principle: its Character and + History.” Edin., 1883. + Mackerrow, “History of the Secession Church.” Glasgow, 1841. + + [560] Smith’s appointment was to the Lord Almoner’s Professorship, + with a merely nominal salary; but he was afterwards elected + to the more remunerative office of University librarian, and + more recently has succeeded Prof. Wright in the Chair of + Arabic in the University. + + [561] Jarvis, “The Gallican Church and the Revolution.” + Pp. 324-395, London, 1882. + + [562] Borrow, “The Bible in Spain.” 2 vols., London, 1843. + + [563] Lendrum, “_Ecclesia Pressa_: or, the Lutheran Church in the + Baltic Provinces.” In _The Theological Review and Free + Church College Quarterly_, vol. ii., 310-330. + C. H. H. Wright, “The Persecution of the Lutheran Church + in the Baltic Provinces of Russia.” In the _British and + Foreign Evangelical Review_, January, 1887. + + [564] Baird, “Religion in the United States.” Glasgow, 1844. + “Progress and Prospects of Christianity in the United + States.” London, 1851. + Gorrie, “Churches and Sects in the United States.” + New York, 1850. + + [565] Stevens, “History of the Episcopal Methodist Church in + North America.” Philadelphia, 1868. + Gorrie, “History of the Episcopal Methodist Church in the + United States.” New York, 1881. + + [566] A full account of the recent development of Protestantism + in Brazil is given in an article in the _Presbyterian + Review_ for January, 1889, pp. 101-106: “The Organization + of the Synod of Brazil,” by Dr. J. Aspinwall Hodge.--On + 15th November, 1889, the emperor was expelled and a + republic proclaimed. + + [567] Hepworth Dixon, “Free Russia.” 2 vols., London, 1870. + Heard, “The Russian Church and Russian Dissent.” 2 vols., + London, 1887. + + [568] Rowntree, “Quakerism Past and Present.” London, 1859. + + [569] Dixon, “New America.” 2 vols., 8th edition, London, 1869. + Nordhoff, “The Communistic Societies of the United States.” + London, 1874. + + [570] Oliphant, “Life of Ed. Irving.” 3rd edition, London, 1865. + Carlyle, in “Miscellaneous Essays.” + Brown, “Personal Reminiscences of Ed. Irving.” in + _Expositor_, 3 ser., vol. vi., pp. 216, 257. + Miller, “History and Doctrine of Irvingism.” 2 vols., + London, 1878. + + [571] Darby, “Personal Recollections.” London, 1881. + + [572] Stenhouse, “An Englishwoman in Utah, the story of a Life’s + Experience in Mormonism.” 2nd ed., London, 1880. + Gunnison, “The Mormons.” New York, 1884. + Burton, “The City of the Saints.” London, 1861. + + [573] Wilson, “The ‘Ever-Victorious Army:’ a History of the + Chinese Campaign under Lieut.-Col. C. G. Gordon, and of + the Suppression of the Taeping Rebellion.” Edinburgh. + + [574] Edmonds, “American Spiritualism.” 2 vols., New York, 1858. + Cox, “Spiritualism answered by Science.” London, 1872. + Crookes, “Spiritualism and Science.” London, 1874. + Wallace, “A Defence of Spiritualism.” London, 1874. + Owen, “The Debatable Land.” New York, 1872. + Carpenter, “Mesmerism, Spiritualism, etc., Historically and + Scientifically Considered.” London, 1877. + Mahan, “The Phenomena of Spiritualism Scientifically + Explained and Exposed.” London, 1875. + Horne, “Incidents in His Life.” London, 1863. + “Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism.” London, 1877. + + [575] Sinnett, “Esoteric Buddhism.” London, 1883. + + [576] Sargent, “Rob. Owen and his Social Philosophy.” + London, 1860. + Nordhoff, “Communistic Societies in the United States.” + London, 1875. + + [577] Onslow-Yorke, “The Secret History of the International + Working-Men’s Association.” London, 1872. + Lissagaray, “History of the Commune of 1871.” Translated + by Aveling, London, 1886. + + [578] From the fifteenth century the numbering of the General + Councils is so variable and uncertain that even Catholic + historians are not agreed upon this point. They are at + one only about this, that the anti-papal councils claiming + to be œcumenical, of Pisa A.D. 1409, Basel A.D. 1438, + and Pisa A.D. 1511, should be designated schismatical + “_Conciliabula_.” Hefele, in his “History of the Councils,” + counts eighteen down to the Reformation. He makes the + Constance Council in its first and last sessions the + sixteenth, but does not count the middle session held + without the pope. He makes that of Basel the seventeenth + down to A.D. 1438 with its papal continuation at Ferrara + and Florence. Finally, as eighteenth he gives the fifth + Lateran Council of A.D. 1512-1517. But others strike + Basel and Constance out of the list altogether; and many, + especially the Gallicans, reject also the fifth Lateran + Council, because occupied with matters of slight or merely + local interest. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES. + + + The following corrections have been made in the text: + + § 153, 1. + Sentence starting: He went over in.... + - ‘superfluous reference - destination uncertain. + (in A.D. 1590 (§ 144, 4)) + + § 154, 1. + Sentence starting: Landgrave =William IV.= of Hesse-Cassel.... + - ‘§ 142, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 141, 9’ + (_ubiquitous_ Christology (§ 141, 9)) + - ‘§ 142, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 141, 10’ + (_Corpus Doctrinæ Philippicum_ (§ 141, 10)) + + § 154, 3. + Sentence starting: In A.D. 1614, owing to.... + - ‘§ 158, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 159, 5’ + (treatise of Hutter (§ 159, 5)) + + § 155. + Sentence starting: They powerfully strengthened.... + - ‘§ 131, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 6’ + (of the State church (§ 139, 6)) + + § 156, 3. + Sentence starting: Although =Louis XIV.= of France,... + - ‘164, 7’ replaced with ‘165, 7’ + (against the Jansenists (§§ 156, 5; 165, 7)) + + § 160, 4. + Sentence starting: In Denmark, where previously.... + - ‘§ 166, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 167, 6’ + (Danish national hymnology.[471]--Continuation, § 167, 6) + + § 164, 2. + Sentence starting: =John Locke=, died A.D. 1704,... + - Subsection caption added to text. + (§ 164.2. =John Locke=, died) + + § 165, 1. + Sentence starting: He had a special dislike.... + - ‘§ 155, 12’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 12’ + (dislike of the Jesuits (§ 156, 12)) + + § 165, 8. + Sentence starting: Its beginning was traced back.... + - ‘§ 188, 20’ replaced with ‘§ 186, 2’ + (rosaries and scapularies (§ 186, 2)) + + § 168, 2. + Sentence starting: The settlers were therefore.... + - ‘§ 166, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 167, 6’ + (pastor of Berthelsdorf (§ 167, 6)) + + § 170, 1. + Sentence starting: He founded several Philadelphian.... + - ‘§ 162, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 163, 9’ + (Philadelphian societies (§ 163, 9)) + + § 171, 7. + Sentence starting: Of far greater value.... + - ‘J. E. Eichhorn’ replaced with ‘J. G. Eichhorn’ + (=J. G. Eichhorn= of Göttingen) + + § 174, 1. + Sentence starting: =The German Philosophy=.... + - ‘§ 170, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 171, 10’ + (=The German Philosophy= (§ 171, 10)) + + § 186, 2. + Sentence starting: Finally the third French Republic.... + - ‘§ 206, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 203, 6’ + (authorized by the State (§ 203, 6)) + + § 203, 1. + Sentence starting: In 1801 Napoleon as Consul.... + - ‘§ 111, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 110, 14’ + (concordat of Francis I. (§ 110, 14)) + + Chronological Table + Sentence starting: 692. Concilium Quinisextum.... + - ‘§ 63, 3’ replaced with ‘§ 63, 2’ + ((Trullanum II.), § 63, 2.) + Sentence starting: 960. Atto of Vercelli + - ‘§ 100, 3’ replaced with ‘§ 100, 2’ + (Vercelli dies, § 100, 2.) + Sentence starting: 974. Ratherius of Verona.... + - ‘§ 100, 3’ replaced with ‘§ 100, 2’ + (Verona dies, § 100, 2.) + Sentence starting: 1176. Battle of Legnano,... + - ‘§ 6, 15’ replaced with ‘§ 96, 15’ + (Battle of Legnano, § 96, 15.) + Sentence starting: 1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral.... + - ‘§ 101, 11’ replaced with ‘§ 104, 13’ + (Cologne laid, § 104, 13.) + Sentence starting: 1315. Raimund Lullus dies,... + - ‘§ 93, 17’ replaced with ‘§ 93, 16’ + (Lullus dies, § 93, 16; 103, 5.) + Sentence starting: 1321. Dante dies,... + - ‘§ 116, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 115, 10’ + (Dante dies, § 115, 10.) + Sentence starting: 1521. Melanchthon’s _Loci_,... + - ‘§ 121, 1’ replaced with ‘§ 124, 1’ + (Melanchthon’s _Loci_, § 124, 1.) + Sentence starting: 1609. The Royal Letter,... + - ‘§ 193, 19’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 19’ + (The Royal Letter, § 139, 19.) + Sentence starting: 1631. Religious Conference.... + - ‘§ 155, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 154, 4’ + (Conference at Leipzig, § 154, 4.) + Sentence starting: 1863. Congress of Catholic Scholars.... + - ‘§ 190, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 191, 10’ + (Scholars at Munich, § 191, 10.) + + Index + Sentence starting: Abyssinian Church,... + - ‘187, 19’ replaced with ‘184, 9’ + (152, 1; 160, 7; 166, 3; 184, 9.) + Sentence starting: Accommodation Controversy,... + - ‘§ 155, 12’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 12’ + (Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12.) + Sentence starting: Acosta, Uriel,... + - ‘§ 155, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 14’ + (Acosta, Uriel, § 156, 14.) + Sentence starting: Albert of Suerbeer,... + - ‘92, 12’ replaced with ‘93, 12’ + (Suerbeer, § 73, 6; 93, 12.) + Sentence starting: Alpers,... + - ‘§ 208, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 211, 10’ + (Alpers, § 211, 10.) + Sentence starting: Amort,... + - ‘§ 164, 15’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 12’ + (Amort, § 165, 12.) + Sentence starting: Apocrisiarians,... + - ‘Apocrisarians’ replaced with ‘Apocrisiarians’ + (Apocrisiarians, § 46, 1.) + Sentence starting: Asinarii,... + - ‘§ 23, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 23, 2’ + (Asinarii, § 23, 2.) + Sentence starting: Avitus,... + - ‘§ 53, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 53, 5’ + (Avitus, § 53, 5; 76, 5.) + Sentence starting: Baptism,... + - ‘58, 1, 5’ replaced with ‘58, 1, 4’ + (Baptism, § 35, 2-4; 58, 1, 4; 141, 13.) + Sentence starting: Bernard Sylvester,... + - ‘§ 102, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 102, 9’ + (Bernard Sylvester, § 102, 9.) + Sentence starting: Bonald,... + - ‘§ 186, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 188, 1’ + (Bonald, § 188, 1.) + Sentence starting: Calas,... + - ‘§ 164, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 5’ + (Calas, § 165, 5.) + Sentence starting: Calixt, Geo.,... + - ‘158, 2, 8’ replaced with ‘159, 2, 4’ + (Calixt, Geo., § 153, 7; 159, 2, 4.) + Sentence starting: Charlemagne,... + - ‘79, 5’ replaced with ‘79, 1’ + (Charlemagne, § 78, 9; 79, 1;) + Sentence starting: Claudius of Turin,... + - ‘92, 3’ replaced with ‘92, 2’ + (Claudius of Turin, § 90, 4; 92, 2.) + Sentence starting: Constantine the Great,... + - ‘§ 28, 7’ replaced with ‘§ 22, 7’ + (Constantine the Great, § 22, 7;) + Sentence starting: Cross, Sign of.... + - ‘72, 5’ replaced with ‘73, 5’ + (Sign of the, § 39, 1; 59, 8; 73, 5.) + Sentence starting: _Defensores_,... + - ‘§ 45, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 45, 3’ + (_Defensores_, § 45, 3.) + Sentence starting: Demetrius Mysos,... + - ‘§ 139, 36’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 26’ + (Demetrius Mysos, § 139, 26.) + Sentence starting: _De salute animarum_,... + - ‘§ 193, 11’ replaced with ‘§ 193, 1’ + (_De salute animarum_, § 193, 1.) + Sentence starting: Dinter,... + - ‘§ 173, 3; 180, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 174, 8’ + (Dinter, § 174, 8.) + Sentence starting: Dionysius of Alexandria,... + - ‘§ 31, 6, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 31, 6; 32, 8;’ + (Dionysius of Alexandria, § 31, 6; 32 8;) + Sentence starting: Döllinger,... + - ‘§ 190, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 190, 1’ + (Döllinger, § 190, 1;) + Sentence starting: East Indies,... + - ‘155, 11’ replaced with ‘156, 11’ + (East Indies, § 64, 4; 150, 1; 156, 11;) + Sentence starting: Estius,... + - ‘§ 150, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 149, 14’ + (Estius, § 149, 14.) + Sentence starting: Euler,... + - ‘§ 150, 14’ replaced with ‘§ 171, 8’ + (Euler, § 171, 8.) + Sentence starting: Fichte, J. G.,... + - ‘§ 170, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 171, 10’ + (Fichte, J. G., § 171, 10.) + Sentence starting: Francis, St.,... + - ‘106, 5’ replaced with ‘105, 4’ + (§ 93, 16; 98, 3; 104, 10; 105, 4.) + Sentence starting: Franco of Cologne,... + - ‘§ 144, 11’ replaced with ‘§ 104, 11’ + (Franco of Cologne, § 104, 11.) + Sentence starting: Gellert,... + - ‘§ 176, 11’ replaced with ‘§ 171, 11’ + (Gellert, § 171, 11; 172, 1.) + Sentence starting: Gerbert,... + - ‘100, 3’ replaced with ‘100, 2’ + (Gerbert, § 96, 2; 100, 2.) + Sentence starting: Gil, Juan,... + - ‘§ 129, 21’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 21’ + (Gil, Juan, § 139, 21.) + Sentence starting: Grabow,... + - Name not found--Invalid reference. + (Grabow, § 210, 10.) + Sentence starting: Gundioch,... + - Name not found--Invalid reference. + (Gundioch, § 75, 5.) + Sentence starting: Hebrews, Gospel of the,... + - ‘§ 31, 16’ replaced with ‘§ 32, 4’ + (Hebrews, Gospel of the, § 32, 4.) + Sentence starting: Huguenots,... + - ‘166, 5’ replaced with ‘165, 5’ + (Huguenots, § 139, 14, ff.; 153, 4; 165, 5.) + Sentence starting: _In commendam_,... + - ‘§ 86, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 85, 5’ + (_In commendam_, § 85, 5; 110, 15.) + Sentence starting: Innocent IV.,... + - ‘72, 6’ replaced with ‘73, 6’ + (Innocent IV., § 96, 20; 73, 6.) + Sentence starting: Irene,... + - ‘§ 66, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 66, 3’ + (Irene, § 66, 3.) + Sentence starting: Italy,... + - ‘189, 7’ replaced with ‘187, 7’ + (Italy, § 139, 22; 187, 7; 204.) + Sentence starting: Jansenists,... + - ‘§ 157, 15’ replaced with ‘§ 157, 5’ + (Jansenists, § 157, 5; 165, 6.) + Sentence starting: John of the Cross,... + - ‘§ 49, 6, 16.’ replaced with ‘§ 149, 6, 16.’ + (John of the Cross, § 149, 6, 16.) + Sentence starting: Lambeth Articles,... + - ‘§ 144, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 143, 5’ + (Lambeth Articles, § 143, 5.) + Sentence starting: Lee, Bishop,... + - ‘§ 211, 74’ replaced with ‘§ 211, 14’ + (Lee, Bishop, § 211, 14.) + Sentence starting: Leyser,... + - ‘§ 155, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 141, 14; 142, 6’ + (Leyser, § 141, 14; 142, 6.) + Sentence starting: Liptinä, Synod of,... + - ‘§ 75, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 78, 5’ + (Liptinä, Synod of, § 78, 5; 86, 2.) + Sentence starting: Loyson,... + - ‘§ 189, 8’ replaced with ‘§ 187, 8’ + (Loyson, § 187, 8.) + Sentence starting: Maistre,... + - ‘§ 187, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 188, 1’ + (Maistre, § 188, 1.) + Sentence starting: Marcionites,... + - ‘64, 5’ replaced with ‘64, 3’ + (Marcionites, § 27, 12; 54, 1; 64, 3.) + Sentence starting: Martyrs, Acts of,... + - ‘§ 32, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 32, 8’ + (Martyrs, Acts of, § 32, 8.) + Sentence starting: Montalembert,... + - ‘§ 189, 9; 190, 1’ replaced with ‘§ 188, 1; 189, 1’ + (Montalembert, § 188, 1; 189, 1.) + Sentence starting: Mouls,... + - ‘§ 190, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 190, 3’ + (Mouls, § 190, 3.) + Sentence starting: Nägelsbach,... + - ‘§ 173, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 174, 4’ + (Nägelsbach, § 174, 4.) + Sentence starting: Nectarius,... + - ‘§ 61, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 61, 1’ + (Nectarius, § 61, 1.) + Sentence starting: Norwegians,... + - ‘201, 13’ replaced with ‘201, 3’ + (Norwegians, § 93, 4; 139, 2; 201, 3.) + Sentence starting: Noyes,... + - ‘§ 208, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 211, 6’ + (Noyes, § 211, 6.) + Sentence starting: O’Connell,... + - ‘§ 199, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 202, 9’ + (O’Connell, § 202, 9.) + Sentence starting: Οἰκόνομοι,... + - ‘§ 45, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 45, 3’ + (Οἰκόνομοι, § 45, 3.) + Sentence starting: Orange,... + - ‘§ 53, 6’ replaced with ‘§ 53, 5’ + (Orange, Synod of, § 53, 5.) + Sentence starting: Oratory, Fathers of the,... + - ‘§ 155, 7’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 7’ + (Oratory, Fathers of the, § 156, 7.) + Sentence starting: Paul V.,... + - ‘§ 155, 1, 2, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 156, 1, 2, 4’ + (Paul V., § 154, 1, 2, 4; 149, 13.) + Sentence starting: Pellico, Silvio,... + - ‘§ 173, 7’ replaced with ‘§ 174, 7’ + - ‘Pellico-Silvio’ replaced with ‘Pellico, Silvio’ + (Pellico, Silvio, § 174, 7.) + Sentence starting: Perfectus,... + - ‘§ 21, 1’ replaced with ‘§ 81, 1’ + (Perfectus, § 81, 1.) + Sentence starting: Phœbe,... + - ‘§ 18, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 17, 4’ + (Phœbe, § 17, 4.) + Sentence starting: Pilate, Acts of,... + - ‘§ 14, 2’ replaced with ‘§ 13, 2’ + (Pilate, Acts of, § 13, 2; 31, 2.) + Sentence starting: Poetry, Christian,... + - ‘173, 6’ replaced with ‘174, 6’ + (Poetry, Christian, § 48, 5, 6; 105, 4; 174, 6.) + Sentence starting: _Postilla_,... + - ‘116, 6’ replaced with ‘108, 6’ + (_Postilla_, § 103, 9; 108, 6.) + Sentence starting: Prochorus,... + - ‘§ 31, 18’ replaced with ‘§ 32, 6’ + (Prochorus, § 32, 6.) + Sentence starting: Prosper Aquit.,... + - ‘53, 8’ replaced with ‘53, 5’ + (Prosper Aquit., § 47, 20; 48, 6; 53, 5.) + Sentence starting: Raymond IV., Count of Toulouse,... + - ‘Raimund of Toulouse, § 109, 4.’ replaced with + ‘Raymond IV., Count of Toulouse, § 109, 1.’ + (Raymond IV., Count of Toulouse, § 109, 1.) + Sentence starting: _Recursus ab abusu_,... + - ‘194, 9’--Invalid reference. + (_abusu_, § 185, 4; 192, 4; 194, 9; 197, 9.) + Sentence starting: Revenues of the Church,... + - ‘45, 6’--Invalid reference. + (Revenues of the Church, § 45, 6; 86, 1.) + Sentence starting: Rudolph II.,... + - ‘§ 129, 19’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 19’ + (Rudolph II., § 139, 19; 137, 8.) + Sentence starting: Russia,... + - ‘219, 3, 4’ replaced with ‘210, 3, 4’ + (163, 8; 166; 206; 210, 3, 4; 212, 6.) + Sentence starting: Sergius I. of Rome,... + - ‘63, 3’ replaced with ‘63, 2’ + (Sergius I. of Rome, § 46, 11; 63, 2.) + Sentence starting: Severa,... + - ‘§ 23, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 22, 4’ + (Severa, § 22, 4; 26.) + Sentence starting: Stephanas,... + - ‘§ 18, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 17, 4’ + (Stephanas, § 17, 4.) + Sentence starting: Switzerland,... + - ‘189, 7’ replaced with ‘169, 2’ + (§ 78, 1; 130; 138; 162, 6; 169, 2;) + Sentence starting: Sylvester, Bern.,... + - ‘§ 102, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 102, 9’ + (Sylvester, Bern., § 102, 9.) + Sentence starting: Sympherosa,... + - ‘§ 32, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 32, 8’ + (Sympherosa, § 32, 8.) + Sentence starting: Thorwaldsen,... + - ‘§ 173, 9’ replaced with ‘§ 174, 9’ + (Thorwaldsen, § 174, 9.) + Sentence starting: Turrecremata [Torquemada], John,... + - ‘112, 14’ replaced with ‘112, 4’ + (John, § 110, 15; 112, 4.) + Sentence starting: Turretin, J. A.,... + - ‘§ 164, 1, 6.’ replaced with ‘§ 169, 2, 6.’ + (Turretin, J. A., § 169, 2, 6.) + Sentence starting: Union, Lutheran Reformed,... + - ‘§ 155, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 154, 4’ + (Reformed, § 154, 4; 167, 4; 169, 1, 2.) + Sentence starting: Vienna, Peace of,... + - ‘§ 139, 40’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 20’ + (Vienna, Peace of, § 139, 20.) + Sentence starting: Vinet,... + - ‘§ 129, 5’ replaced with ‘§ 199, 5’ + (Vinet, § 199, 5.) + Sentence starting: Voltaire,... + - ‘§ 105, 5, 14, 15’ replaced with ‘§ 165, 5, 14, 15’ + (Voltaire, § 165, 5, 14, 15.) + Sentence starting: Wechabites,... + - ‘§ 65, 4’ replaced with ‘§ 65, 1’ + (Wechabites, § 65, 1.) + Sentence starting: William of Conches,... + - ‘§ 102, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 102, 9’ + (William of Conches, § 102, 9.) + Sentence starting: William of Thierry,... + - ‘§ 102, 2, 10’ replaced with ‘§ 102, 2, 9’ + (William of Thierry, § 102, 2, 9.) + Sentence starting: William I. of Orange,... + - ‘§ 129, 12’ replaced with ‘§ 139, 12’ + (William I. of Orange, § 139, 12.) + Sentence starting: Wittenberg, Sketch of Reform,... + - ‘§ 135, 13’ replaced with ‘§ 135, 9’ + (Wittenberg, Sketch of Reform, § 135, 9.) + Sentence starting: Zwickau, Prophets of,... + - ‘§ 121, 1’ replaced with ‘§ 124, 1’ + (Zwickau, Prophets of, § 124, 1.) + + Footnote 536. + - ‘Stoddard’ replaced with ‘Stoddart’ + (Translated by Miss Stoddart,) + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Church History, Volume 3 (of 3), by J. 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