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diff --git a/37210-h/37210-h.htm b/37210-h/37210-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d6ab96 --- /dev/null +++ b/37210-h/37210-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7028 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Breeding Birds of Kansas, by Richard F. Johnston. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + .book {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {margin-top: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .species {margin-top: 1.5em; text-indent: 1.5em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + hr {color: #000;} + .hr75 {width:75%;} + table {padding: 1em; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + .pagenum { position: absolute; left: 90%; font-size: smaller; white-space:nowrap; color:#808080; text-align: right;} + + .reference {margin-right: 10%; margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; padding-left: 7em; text-indent:-3em; } + + .brdbt {border-bottom: solid #000 1px;} + .brdlf {border-left: solid #000 1px;} + .brdtp {border-top: solid #000 1px;} + .pdtop9 {padding-top: 9px;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .justify {text-align: justify;} + .text_lf {text-align: left;} + .text_rt {text-align: right;} + .vtop {vertical-align: top;} + .bold {font-weight: bolder;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .caption1 {font-weight: bold; font-size:2.50em; text-align: center;} + .caption2 {font-weight: bold; font-size:1.50em; text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .caption3 {font-weight: bold; font-size:1.15em; text-align: center; font-style: italic; margin-top: 1.5em;} + .caption4 {font-weight: bold; font-size:0.75em; text-align: center;} + .trans_notes {background:#d0d0d0; padding: 7px; border:solid black 1px;} + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Breeding Birds of Kansas, by Richard F. Johnston + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Breeding Birds of Kansas + +Author: Richard F. Johnston + +Release Date: August 25, 2011 [EBook #37210] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BREEDING BIRDS OF KANSAS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="book"> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[Pg 575]</a></span></p> +<br /> +<div class="center"> +<img src="images/bar_double.png" width="100%" height="15" alt="double bar" /> +<div class="caption2 smcap">University of Kansas Publications<br /> +Museum of Natural History</div> +<br /> +<hr class="hr75" /> +<div class="caption2">Volume 12, No. 14, pp. 575-655, 10 figs.</div> +<br /> +<div class="center"><img src="images/bar_single.png" width="28%" height="15" title="bar" alt="bar" /> <span class="caption2">May 18, 1964</span> <img src="images/bar_single.png" width="28%" height="15" title="bar" alt="bar" /></div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<div class="caption1">The Breeding Birds of Kansas</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<div class="caption2"> +<small>BY</small><br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +RICHARD F. JOHNSTON<br /> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<div class="caption2"> +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Lawrence</span><br /> +1964 +</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[Pg 576]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"> +<div class="caption2"><small> +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History</span><br /> +<br /> +Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch,<br /> +Theodore H. Eaton, Jr.<br /> +</small></div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +Volume 12, No. 14, pp. 575-655, 10 figs.<br /> +<br /> +Published May 18, 1964<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas</span><br /> +Lawrence, Kansas<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<div class="caption4"> +PRINTED BY<br /> +HARRY (BUD) TIMBERLAKE, STATE PRINTER<br /> +TOPEKA, KANSAS<br /> +1964<br /> +<img src="images/union_label.png" width="71" height="26" alt="Look for the Union Label" title="Look for the Union Label" /><br /> +30-1476<br /> +</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span></p> + +<div class="caption2">The Breeding Birds of Kansas</div> + + +<div class="caption2"><small>BY<br /> +RICHARD F. JOHNSTON</small></div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="TOC"></a><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a> +<div class="caption2">CONTENTS</div> +<table width="100%" summary="ToC"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="text_rt"><small>PAGE</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">577</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#DISTRIBUTION_OF_BIRDS_IN_KANSAS">Distribution of Birds in Kansas</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">579</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#AVIAN_HABITATS_IN_KANSAS">Avian habitats in Kansas</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">581</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#SPECIES_LIMITED_TO_KANSAS">Species reaching distributional limits in Kansas</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">584</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#BREEDING_SEASONS">Breeding Seasons</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">588</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#INTRODUCTION2">Introduction</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">588</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#VARIATION_IN_BREEDING_SEASONS">Variation in breeding seasons</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">589</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#ZOOGEOGRAPHIC_CATEGORIES">Zoogeographic categories</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">593</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#SIGNIFICANCE_OF_PHYLOGENY">Significance of phylogeny to breeding schedules</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">595</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> <a href="#REGULATION_OF_BREEDING_SCHEDULES">Regulation of breeding schedules</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">598</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#ACCOUNTS_OF_SPECIES">Accounts of Species</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">601</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">Acknowledgments</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">652</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="smcap"><a href="#LITERATURE_CITED">Literature Cited</a></td> + <td class="text_rt">652</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">INTRODUCTION</div> + +<p>The breeding avifauna of Kansas has received intermittent attention +from zoologists for about 75 years. Summary statements, usually +concerning all birds of the state, have been published by Goss (1891), +Long (1940), Goodrich (1941), Tordoff (1956) and Johnston (1960). All +but the first dealt with the breeding birds chiefly in passing, and +none was concerned primarily with habitat distributions and temporal +characteristics of Kansan birds. The present work treats mainly +certain temporal relationships of breeding birds in Kansas, but also +geographic distribution, habitat preferences, and zoogeographic +relationships to the extent necessary for a useful discussion of +temporal breeding phenomena.</p> + +<p>Information on breeding of some of the 176 species of birds known to +breed in Kansas is relatively good, on a few is almost non-existent, +and on most is variously incomplete. It is nevertheless possible to +make meaningful statements about many aspects of the breeding biology +and distribution of most species of Kansan birds; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[Pg 578]</a></span> +we can take stock, as it were, of available information and assess the +outstanding avenues of profitable future work. In the accounts of species +below, the information given is for the species as it occurs in Kansas, +unless it is otherwise stated. For the various subsections analyzing +biology and distribution, only information taken in Kansas is used, +and for this reason the analyses are made on about half the species +breeding in the state. An enormous amount of observational effort has +been expended by several dozen people in order that suitable data +about breeding birds of Kansas be available; all persons who have +contributed in any way are listed in the section on acknowledgments, +following the accounts of species.</p> + +<p>Kansas has been described topographically, climatically, and otherwise +ecologically many times in the recent past; the reader is referred to +the excellent account by Cockrum (1952), which treats these matters +from the viewpoint of a zoologist. For present purposes it will +suffice to mention the following characteristics of Kansas as a place +lived in by birds.</p> + +<p>Topographically, Kansas is an inclined plane having an elevation of +about 4100 feet in the northwest and about 700 feet in the southeast. +West of approximately 97° W longitude, the topography is gently +rolling, low hills or flat plain; to the east the Flint Hills extend +in a nearly north to south direction, and to the east of these heavily +weathered, grassy hills is a lower-lying but more heavily dissected +country, hills of which show no great differences in elevation from +surrounding flatland.</p> + +<p>The vegetation of eastern Kansas comingles with that of the western +edge of the North American deciduous forest; a mosaic of true forest, +woodland remnants, and tall-grass prairie occupies this area east of +the Flint Hills. From these hills west the prairie grassland today has +riparian woodland along watercourses; the prairie is composed of +proportionally more and more short-grass elements to the west and +tall-grass elements to the east.</p> + +<p>Climate has a dominating influence on the vegetational elements +sketched above. Mean annual rainfall is 20 inches or less in western +sectors and increases to about 40 inches in the extreme eastern border +areas. Mean monthly temperatures run from 25°F. or 30°F. in winter to +80°F. or 90°F. in summer. The northwestern edges of Caribbean Gulf +warm air masses regularly reach northward only to the vicinity of +Doniphan County, in northeastern Kansas, and extend southwestward into +west-central Oklahoma; these wet frontal systems are usually +dissipated along the line indicated by masses of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span> +arctic air, sometimes in spectacular fashion. The regular recurrence of +warm gulf air is responsible for the characteristically high relative +humidity in summer over eastern Kansas and it has an ameliorating effect +on winter climate in this region. Almost immediately to the north in +Nebraska and to the west in the high plains, summers are dryer and +winters are notably more severe. The breeding distributions of some +species of birds fairly closely approximate the distribution of these +warm air masses; these examples are noted where appropriate below.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="DISTRIBUTION_OF_BIRDS_IN_KANSAS" id="DISTRIBUTION_OF_BIRDS_IN_KANSAS"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS IN KANSAS</div> + + +<p>Birds breeding in Kansas are taxonomically, ecologically, and +distributionally diverse. Such diversity is to be expected, in view of +the mid-continental position of the State. Characteristics of +insularity, owing to barriers to dispersal and movement, tend to be +lacking in the makeup of the avifauna here. The State is not, of +course, uniformly inhabited by all 176 species (<a href="#Tbl_1">Table 1</a>) of breeding +birds; most species vary in numbers from one place to another, and +some are restricted to a fraction of the State. Variations in numbers +and in absolute occurrence are chiefly a reflection of restriction or +absence of certain plant formations, which is to say habitats; the +analysis to follow is thus organized mainly around an examination of +gross habitat-types and the birds found in them in Kansas.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_1" id="Tbl_1"></a> +<div class="center bold smcap">Table 1.—The Breeding Birds of Kansas</div> +<table cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" summary="Breeding Birds"> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold">Woodland Species</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> +<i>Elanoides forficatus</i> N<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a><br /> +<i>Ictinia misisippiensis</i> U<br /> +<i>Accipiter striatus</i> U<br /> +<i>A. cooperii</i> U<br /> +<i>Buteo jamaicensis</i> O<br /> +<i>B. lineatus</i> N<br /> +<i>B. platypterus</i> N<br /> +<i>Aquila chrysaëtos</i> O<br /> +<i>Falco sparverius</i> U<br /> +<i>Colinus virginianus</i> N<br /> +<i>Phasianus colchicus</i> O<br /> +<i>Meleagris gallopavo</i> N<br /> +<i>Philohela minor</i> U<br /> +<i>Zenaidura macroura</i> N<br /> +<i>Ectopistes migratorius</i> N<br /> +<i>Conuropsis carolinensis</i> U<br /> +<i>Coccyzus americanus</i> N<br /> +<i>C. erythropthalmus</i> N<br /> +<i>Otus asio</i> U<br /> +<i>Bubo virginianus</i> O<br /> +<i>Strix varia</i> U<br /> +<i>Asio otus</i> U<br /> +<i>Aegolius acadicus</i> U<br /> +<i>Caprimulgus carolinensis</i> N<br /> +<i>C. vociferus</i> U<br /> +<i>Phalaenoptilus nuttallii</i> N<br /> +<i>Chaetura pelagica</i> U<br /> +<i>Archilochus colubris</i> N<br /> +<i>Colaptes auratus</i> N<br /> +<i>C. cafer</i> N<br /> +<i>Dryocopus pileatus</i> O<br /> +<i>Centurus carolinus</i> N<br /> +<i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i> N<br /> +<i>Dendrocopos villosus</i> O<br /> +<i>D. pubescens</i> O<br /> +<i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i> S<br /> +<i>T. vociferans</i> S<br /> +<i>Muscivora forficata</i> S<br /> +<i>Myiarchus crinitus</i> S<br /> +<i>Sayornis phoebe</i> S<br /> +<i>Empidonax virescens</i> S<br /> +<i>Contopus virens</i> S<br /> +<i>Iridoprocne bicolor</i> N<br /> +<i>Progne subis</i> N<br /> +<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i> N<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[Pg 580]</a></span><i>Pica pica</i> O<br /> +<i>Corvus brachyrhynchos</i> O<br /> +<i>C. cryptoleucus</i> O<br /> +<i>Parus atricapillus</i> O<br /> +<i>P. carolinensis</i> O<br /> +<i>P. bicolor</i> O +</td> +<td> +<i>Sitta carolinensis</i> O<br /> +<i>Troglodytes aedon</i> N<br /> +<i>Thryomanes bewickii</i> N<br /> +<i>Thryothorus ludovicianus</i> N<br /> +<i>Mimus polyglottos</i> N<br /> +<i>Dumetella carolinensis</i> N<br /> +<i>Toxostoma rufum</i> N<br /> +<i>Turdus migratorius</i> O<br /> +<i>Hylocichla mustelina</i> N<br /> +<i>Sialia sialis</i> O<br /> +<i>Bombycilla cedrorum</i> N<br /> +<i>Lanius ludovicianus</i> O<br /> +<i>Sturnus vulgaris</i> O<br /> +<i>Vireo atricapillus</i> N<br /> +<i>V. griseus</i> N<br /> +<i>V. bellii</i> N<br /> +<i>V. flavifrons</i> N<br /> +<i>V. olivaceus</i> N<br /> +<i>V. gilvus</i> N<br /> +<i>Mniotilta varia</i> N<br /> +<i>Protonotaria citrea</i> N<br /> +<i>Parula americana</i> N<br /> +<i>Dendroica aestiva</i> N<br /> +<i>D. discolor</i> N<br /> +<i>Seiurus motacilla</i> N<br /> +<i>Oporornis formosus</i> N<br /> +<i>Icteria virens</i> N<br /> +<i>Wilsonia citrina</i> N<br /> +<i>Setophaga ruticilla</i> N<br /> +<i>Passer domesticus</i> O<br /> +<i>Icterus spurius</i> N<br /> +<i>I. galbula</i> N<br /> +<i>I. bullockii</i> N<br /> +<i>Quiscalus quiscula</i> N<br /> +<i>Molothrus ater</i> N<br /> +<i>Piranga olivacea</i> N<br /> +<i>P. rubra</i> N<br /> +<i>Richmondena cardinalis</i> S<br /> +<i>Pheucticus melanocephala</i> S<br /> +<i>P. ludoviciana</i> S<br /> +<i>Guiraca caerulea</i> S<br /> +<i>Passerina ciris</i> S<br /> +<i>P. cyanea</i> S<br /> +<i>P. amoena</i> S<br /> +<i>Spinus pinus</i> O<br /> +<i>S. tristis</i> O<br /> +<i>Loxia curvirostra</i> O<br /> +<i>Pipilo erythrophthalmus</i> N<br /> +<i>Chondestes grammacus</i> N<br /> +<i>Spizella passerina</i> N +</td></tr> + +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold"><br />Limnic Species</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> +<i>Podilymbus podiceps</i> U<br /> +<i>Phalacrocorax auritus</i> U<br /> +<i>Ardea herodias</i> U<br /> +<i>Leucophoyx thula</i> U<br /> +<i>Nycticorax nycticorax</i> U<br /> +<i>Nyctanassa violacea</i> U<br /> +<i>Ixobrychus exilis</i> U<br /> +<i>Botaurus lentiginosis</i> U<br /> +<i>Plegadis chihi</i> U<br /> +<i>Branta canadensis</i> U<br /> +<i>Anas platyrhynchos</i> U<br /> +<i>A. acuta</i> U<br /> +<i>A. discors</i> U<br /> +<i>A. clypeata</i> U<br /> +<i>Aix sponsa</i> U<br /> +<i>Aythya americana</i> U<br /> +<i>Oxyura jamaicensis</i> U<br /> +<i>Rallus elegans</i> U +</td> +<td> +<i>Butorides virescens</i> U<br /> +<i>Florida caerulea</i> U<br /> +<i>Casmerodius albus</i> U<br /> +<i>Porzana carolina</i> U<br /> +<i>Laterallus jamaicensis</i> U<br /> +<i>Gallinula chloropus</i> U<br /> +<i>Fulica americana</i> U<br /> +<i>Charadrius alexandrinus</i> U<br /> +<i>Actitis macularia</i> U<br /> +<i>Steganopus tricolor</i> U<br /> +<i>Sterna albifrons</i> U<br /> +<i>Chlidonias niger</i> U<br /> +<i>Telmatodytes palustris</i> N<br /> +<i>Cistothorus platensis</i> N<br /> +<i>Geothlypis trichas</i> N<br /> +<i>Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus</i> N<br /> +<i>Agelaius phoeniceus</i> N<br /> +<i>Rallus limicola</i> U +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold"><br />Grassland Species</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> +<i>Buteo swainsonii</i> N<br /> +<i>B. regalis</i> U<br /> +<i>Circus cyaneus</i> O<br /> +<i>Tympanuchus cupido</i> N<br /> +<i>T. pallidicinctus</i> N<br /> +<i>Pedioecetes phasianellus</i> N<br /> +<i>Charadrius vociferus</i> U<br /> +<i>Eupoda montana</i> U<br /> +<i>Numenius americanus</i> U<br /> +<i>Bartramia longicauda</i> U<br /> +<i>Speotyto cunicularia</i> U<br /> +<i>Asio flammeus</i> U +</td> +<td> +<i>Sayornis saya</i> S<br /> +<i>Eremophila alpestris</i> O<br /> +<i>Dolichonyx oryzivorus</i> N<br /> +<i>Sturnella magna</i> N<br /> +<i>S. neglecta</i> N<br /> +<i>Spiza americana</i> N<br /> +<i>Calamospiza melanocorys</i> N<br /> +<i>Ammodramus savannarum</i> N<br /> +<i>Passerherbulus henslowii</i> N<br /> +<i>Aimophila cassinii</i> N<br /> +<i>Spizella pusilla</i> N +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold"><br />Xeric Scrub Species<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><i>Callipepla squamata</i> N<br /><i>Salpinctes obsoletus</i> N</td> + <td><i>Geococcyx californianus</i> N</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold"><br />Unanalyzed Species</td> +</tr> +<tr><td> +<i>Cathartes aura</i> N<br /> +<i>Coragyps atratus</i> N<br /> +<i>Falco peregrinus</i> U<br /> +<i>Columba livia</i> O<br /> +<i>Tyto alba</i> U<br /> +<i>Petrochelidon pyrrhonota</i> U +</td> +<td> +<i>Chordeiles minor</i> U<br /> +<i>Megaceryle alcyon</i> U<br /> +<i>Riparia riparia</i> O<br /> +<i>Stelgidopteryx ruficollis</i> N<br /> +<i>Hirundo rustica</i> O +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> +The letter following each name refers to presumed +zoogeographic derivation of the species, modified after Mayr (1946). N += North American evolutionary stock; S = South American stock; O = +Eurasian stock; U = unanalyzed.</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="AVIAN_HABITATS_IN_KANSAS"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Avian Habitats in Kansas</div> + +<p>Four major habitat-types can be seen in looking at the distribution of +the breeding avifauna of Kansas. These are woodland, grassland, +limnic, and xeric scrub plant formations. A little more than half the +breeding birds of Kansas live in woodland habitats, about one-fifth in +limnic habitats, about one-eighth in grassland habitats, and less than +two per cent in scrub habitats; this leaves some 6.4 per cent of the +breeding avifauna unanalyzed (<a href="#Tbl_2">Table 2</a>).</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_2" id="Tbl_2"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 2.—Analysis of the Breeding Avifauna of Kansas by Habitat-types</div> +<br /> +<table class="center" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Breeding Avifauna by Habitat-types"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Habitat-type</td> + <td colspan="3" class='brdtp brdlf center'> Percentage of the Avifauna of</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Kansas</td> + <td class='brdtp brdlf brdbt'>North<br />America</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Stated<br />Habitat</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Woodland: 101 species</td> + <td class="brdlf center">58</td> + <td class="brdlf center">16.7</td> + <td class="brdlf center">44.4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Limnic: 36 species<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a> + <a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td> + <td class="brdlf center">21</td> + <td class="brdlf center">6.0</td> + <td class="brdlf center">38.5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Grassland: 23 species</td> + <td class="brdlf center">13</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.8</td> + <td class="brdlf center">71.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Xeric scrub: 3 species</td> + <td class="brdlf center">2</td> + <td class="brdlf center">0.5</td> + <td class="brdlf center">10.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Unanalyzed: 11 species</td> + <td class="brdlf center">6</td> + <td class="brdlf center">2.0</td> + <td class="brdlf center">55.0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Totals: 174 species</td> + <td class="brdlf brdtp brdbt center">100</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">29.0</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">43.2</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a> +<a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Does not include +the Canvasback (<i>Aythya valisineria</i>), the Forster Tern (<i>Sterna forsteri</i>), +and the Black Tern (<i>Chlidonias niger</i>), all recently added to the breeding avifauna of Kansas.</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Woodland Habitats</div> + +<p>One hundred one species of Kansan birds are woodland species (tables <a href="#Tbl_1">1</a> +and <a href="#Tbl_2">2</a>). The analysis of Udvardy (1958) showed woodland birds to be the +largest single avifaunal element in North America, with 38 per cent of +North American birds relegated to it. It is likewise the largest +element in the Kansan avifauna, representing 58 per cent of Kansan +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[Pg 582]</a></span> +birds. Although woodland makes up a relatively small fraction of the +vegetational complexes in Kansas, a large number of habitats exist in +what woodland is present. An even larger number of possible woodland +habitats is clearly missing, however, because the 101 Kansan species +actually represent but 44 per cent of all woodland birds in North +America, according to Udvardy's analysis. Broad-leaved, deciduous +woodlands in Kansas are of restricted horizontal and vertical +stratification. More complex deciduous forest associations and all +coniferous forest associations are absent from the State.</p> + +<p>Using Mayr's (1946) breakdown of geographical origin of the North +American bird fauna, about 53 per cent of the woodland passerine birds +in Kansas are of "North American" origin, 22 per cent are of +"Eurasian" origin, and 14 per cent are of "South American" origin +(<a href="#Tbl_3">Table 3</a>). These figures for Kansas are commensurate with those found +for other geographic districts at the same latitude in North America +(Mayr, 1946:28). Other characteristics of woodland birds are +summarized in tables <a href="#Tbl_4">4</a> and <a href="#Tbl_5">5</a>.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_3" id="Tbl_3"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 3.—Analysis of Ecologic Groups of Birds by Status of Residency and Area of Origin</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ecologic Groups of Birds"> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Migrant</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Resident</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Pt. Migr.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Old World</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">N. Amer.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">S. Amer.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Unanalyzed</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Woodland species,</td> + <td class="brdlf">60%</td> + <td class="brdlf">29%</td> + <td class="brdlf">11%</td> + <td class="brdlf">22%</td> + <td class="brdlf">53%</td> + <td class="brdlf">14%</td> + <td class="brdlf">11%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 101:58%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Limnic species,</td> + <td class="brdlf">94%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">6%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">14%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">86%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 36:21%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Grassland species,</td> + <td class="brdlf">61%</td> + <td class="brdlf">26%</td> + <td class="brdlf">13%</td> + <td class="brdlf">9%</td> + <td class="brdlf">56%</td> + <td class="brdlf">3%</td> + <td class="brdlf">30%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 23:13%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Xeric Scrub species,</td> + <td class="brdlf">33%</td> + <td class="brdlf">66%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">100%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 3:2%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Unanalyzed species,</td> + <td class="brdlf">64%</td> + <td class="brdlf">27%</td> + <td class="brdlf">9%</td> + <td class="brdlf">26%</td> + <td class="brdlf">26%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">48%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf"> 11:6%</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Limnic Habitats</div> + +<p>Of Kansan birds, 36 species (20 per cent) prefer limnic habitats +(<a href="#Tbl_1">Table 1</a>). Udvardy found this group to represent 15 per cent of the +North American avifauna. Kansas is not notably satisfactory for limnic +species, and only 38 per cent of the total North American limnic +avifauna is present in the State.</p> + +<p>Thirty-one species of limnic birds belong to families that Mayr (1946) +considered to be unanalyzable as to their geographic origin; of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[Pg 583]</a></span> +five remaining species, all seem to be of North American origin. +Other characteristics of limnic birds are summarized in tables <a href="#Tbl_4">4</a> and <a href="#Tbl_5">5</a>.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Grassland Habitats</div> + +<p>Twenty-three species of our total can be called grassland species +(<a href="#Tbl_1">Table 1</a>). The subtotal is less than one-fifth of the Kansan avifauna, +but it represents 72 per cent of the grassland birds of North America; +grassland habitats abound in Kansas. Only 5.3 per cent of all North +American birds are grassland species (Udvardy, 1958).</p> + +<p>About 56 per cent of these birds are of North American stocks, nine +per cent of Eurasian stocks, and three per cent of South American +stocks. The percentage of North American species is the greatest for +any habitat group here considered. Other characteristics of grassland +birds are summarized in tables <a href="#Tbl_4">4</a> and <a href="#Tbl_5">5</a>.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_4" id="Tbl_4"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 4.—Analysis by Habitat-type and Residency Status of Historic Avian Stocks in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table class="center" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Habitat-type and Residency Status of Historic Avian Stocks"> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Woodland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Limnic</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Grassland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Xeric Scrub</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Unanal. Hab.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Migrant</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Resident</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Partly Migrant</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Old World Element</td> + <td class="brdlf">0%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">8%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">12%</td> + <td class="brdlf">11%</td> + <td class="brdlf">78%</td> + <td class="brdlf">11%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 27:16%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">North American Element</td> + <td class="brdlf">69%</td> + <td class="brdlf">6%</td> + <td class="brdlf">17%</td> + <td class="brdlf">4%</td> + <td class="brdlf">4%</td> + <td class="brdlf">72%</td> + <td class="brdlf">14%</td> + <td class="brdlf">14%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 77:44%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">South American Element</td> + <td class="brdlf">93%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">7%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">93%</td> + <td class="brdlf">7%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 15:8%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Unanalyzed Origin</td> + <td class="brdlf">22%</td> + <td class="brdlf">56%</td> + <td class="brdlf">13%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">9%</td> + <td class="brdlf">79%</td> + <td class="brdlf">16%</td> + <td class="brdlf">5%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf"> 53:32%</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Xeric-Scrub Habitats</div> + +<p>Three species of Kansan birds can be placed in this category (<a href="#Tbl_1">Table 1</a>). +This is less than one per cent of the North American avifauna, two +per cent of the Kansan avifauna, and ten per cent of the birds of +xeric scrub habitats in North America. The three species are +considered to be of North American origin.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Unanalyzed as to Habitat</div> + +<p>Eleven species of Kansan birds could not be assigned to any of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span> +habitat-types mentioned above. The total represents two per cent of +the North American avifauna, six per cent of the birds of Kansas, and +55 per cent of the species reckoned by Udvardy (<i>loc. cit.</i>) to be +unanalyzable. Fifty-five per cent is a large fraction, but only to be +expected: species are considered unanalyzable if they show a broad, +indiscriminate use of more than one habitat-type, and such birds tend +to be widely distributed.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_5" id="Tbl_5"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 5.—Analysis by Ecologic Status and Area of Origin of Migrant and Resident Birds</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ecologic Status and Area of Origin"> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Woodland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Limnic</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Grassland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Xeric Scrub</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Unanal. Hab.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Old World</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">N. Amer.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">S. Amer.</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt brdtp">Unanalyzed</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Migrant species</td> + <td class="brdlf">52%</td> + <td class="brdlf">29%</td> + <td class="brdlf">12%</td> + <td class="brdlf">1%</td> + <td class="brdlf">6%</td> + <td class="brdlf">2%</td> + <td class="brdlf">49%</td> + <td class="brdlf">12%</td> + <td class="brdlf">37%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 117:67%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Resident species</td> + <td class="brdlf">73%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">15%</td> + <td class="brdlf">5%</td> + <td class="brdlf">7%</td> + <td class="brdlf">51%</td> + <td class="brdlf">26%</td> + <td class="brdlf">2%</td> + <td class="brdlf">21%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> 40:23%</td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> + <td class="brdlf"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Partly migrant</td> + <td class="brdlf">64%</td> + <td class="brdlf">11%</td> + <td class="brdlf">17%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">6%</td> + <td class="brdlf">17%</td> + <td class="brdlf">66%</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">17%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf"> 17:10%</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt"> </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="SPECIES_LIMITED_TO_KANSAS"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Species Reaching Distributional Limits in Kansas</div> + +<p>The distributional limits of a species are useful in indicating +certain of its adaptive capacities and implying maintenance of or +shifts in characteristics of habitats. Although it is generally an +oversimplification to ignore abundance when treating of distribution, +the present remarks of necessity do not pertain to abundance.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_6" id="Tbl_6"></a> +<div class="center"> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 6.—Breeding Birds Reaching Distributional Limits in Kansas</div> +<table class="text_lf" summary="Breeding Bird Reaching Limits in Kansas"> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold">Species reaching northern distributional limits</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> +<i>Florida caerulea</i><br /> +<i>Leucophoyx thula</i><br /> +<i>Coragyps atratus</i><br /> +<i>Elanoides forficatus</i><br /> +<i>Ictinia misisippiensis</i><br /> +<i>Tympanuchus pallidicinctus</i><br /> +<i>Callipepla squamata</i><br /> +</td> + <td> +<i>Geococcyx californianus</i><br /> +<i>Caprimulgus carolinensis</i><br /> +<i>Muscivora forficata</i><br /> +<i>Parus carolinensis</i><br /> +<i>Vireo atricapillus</i><br /> +<i>Passerina ciris</i><br /> +<i>Aimophila cassinii</i><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold">Species reaching southern distributional limits</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> +<i>Aythya americana</i><br /> +<i>Parus atricapillus</i><br /> +<i>Bombycilla cedrorum</i><br /> +<i>Dolichonyx oryzivorus</i><br /> +</td> + <td> +<i>Pedioecetes phasianellus</i><br /> +<i>Empidonax minimus</i><br /> +<i>Steganopus tricolor</i><br /> +<i>Chlidonias niger</i><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center"><i>Coccyzus erythropthalmus</i><br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold">Species reaching eastern distributional limits</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> +<i>Eupoda montana</i><br /> +<i>Numenius americanus</i><br /> +<i>Phalaenoptilus nuttallii</i><br /> +<i>Colaptes cafer</i><br /> +<i>Tyrannus verticalis</i><br /> +</td> + <td> +<i>Sayornis saya</i><br /> +<i>Corvus cryptoleucus</i><br /> +<i>Salpinctes obsoletus</i><br /> +<i>Icterus bullockii</i><br /> +<i>Pheucticus melanocephalus</i><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center"><i>Passerina amoena</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center bold">Species reaching western distributional limits</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> +<i>Aix sponsa</i><br /> +<i>Buteo platypterus</i><br /> +<i>Philohela minor</i><br /> +<i>Ectopistes migratorius</i><br /> +<i>Conuropsis carolinensis</i><br /> +<i>Chaetura pelagica</i><br /> +<i>Archilochus colubris</i><br /> +<i>Dryocopus pileatus</i><br /> +<i>Centurus carolinus</i><br /> +<i>Myiarchus crinitus</i><br /> +<i>Empidonax virescens</i><br /> +<i>E. traillii</i><br /> +<i>Parus bicolor</i><br /> +<i>Thryothorus ludovicianus</i><br /> +<i>Cistothorus platensis</i><br /> +</td> + <td> +<i>Hylocichla mustelina</i><br /> +<i>Vireo griseus</i><br /> +<i>V. flavifrons</i><br /> +<i>Mniotilta varia</i><br /> +<i>Protonotaria citrea</i><br /> +<i>Parula americana</i><br /> +<i>Dendroica discolor</i><br /> +<i>Seiurus motacilla</i><br /> +<i>Oporornis formosus</i><br /> +<i>Wilsonia citrina</i><br /> +<i>Setophaga ruticilla</i><br /> +<i>Sturnella magna</i><br /> +<i>Piranga olivacea</i><br /> +<i>Pheucticus ludovicianus</i><br /> +<i>Pipilo erythrophthalmus</i><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center"> +<i>Passerherbulus henslowii</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Western Limits Reached in Kansas</div> + +<p>Thirty-one species (tables <a href="#Tbl_6">6</a> and <a href="#Tbl_7">7</a>) reach the western limits of their +distribution somewhere in Kansas. Most of these limits are in eastern +Kansas, and coincide with the gradual disappearance of the eastern +deciduous forest formation. Twenty-nine species are woodland birds, +and few of these seem to find satisfactory conditions in the riparian +woods extending out through western Kansas. The Wood Thrush is the one +woodland species that has been found nesting in the west (Decatur +County; Wolfe, 1961). Descriptively, therefore, the dominant reason +for the existence of distributional limits in at least 28 of these +birds is the lack of suitable woodland in western Kansas; these 28 are +the largest single group reaching distributional limits in the State. +Many other eastern woodland birds occur in western Kansas along +riparian woodlands, as is mentioned below.</p> + +<p>Two species showing western limits in Kansas are characteristic of +grassland habitats; the Eastern Meadowlark seems to disappear with +absence of moist or bottomland prairie grassland and the Henslow +Sparrow may be limited westerly by disappearance of tall-grass +prairie.</p> + +<p>The Short-billed Marsh Wren, a marginal limnic species, reaches its +southwesterly mid-continental breeding limits in northeastern +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span> +Kansas. The species breeds in Kansas in two or three years of each ten, in +summers having unusually high humidity.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Northern Limits Reached in Kansas</div> + +<p>Fourteen species (tables <a href="#Tbl_6">6</a> and <a href="#Tbl_7">7</a>) reach their northern distributional +limits in Kansas. Eight of these are birds of woodland habitats, but +of these only the Carolina Chickadee is a species of the eastern +deciduous woodlands; the other seven live in less mesic woodland. +Three of these species (Chuck-will's-Widow, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher +and Painted Bunting) have breeding ranges that suggest the +northwesterly occurrences of summer humid warm air masses ("gulf +fronts") and this environmental feature perhaps is of major importance +for these birds, as it is also for the vegetational substratum in +which the birds live.</p> + +<p>The Lesser Prairie Chicken and the Cassin Sparrow are the two birds of +grasslands that are limited northerly in Kansas. Xeric, sandy +grassland is chiefly limited to the southwestern quarter of Kansas, +and this limitation is perhaps of major significance to these two +species. The Scaled Quail and Roadrunner tend to drop out as the xeric +"desert scrub" conditions of the southwest drop out in Kansas.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_7" id="Tbl_7"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 7.—Analysis by Habitat-type of Birds Reaching Distributional Limits in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Habitat-type of Birds Reaching Distributional Limits in Kansas"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Directional<br />Limit</td> + <td colspan="5" class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">Habitat-types</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Woodland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Grassland</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Limnic</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Xeric<br />Scrub</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Total</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Western extent</td> + <td class="brdlf">28</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Northern extent</td> + <td class="brdlf">8</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Eastern extent</td> + <td class="brdlf">6</td> + <td class="brdlf">4</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Southern extent</td> + <td class="brdlf">4</td> + <td class="brdlf">2</td> + <td class="brdlf">3</td> + <td class="brdlf">0</td> + <td class="brdlf">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf"> Totals</td> + <td class="brdlf">46</td> + <td class="brdlf">10</td> + <td class="brdlf">6</td> + <td class="brdlf">3</td> + <td class="brdlf">65</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Per cent of the Species<br /> in Stated Habitat</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt vbot">46</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt vbot">43</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt vbot">14</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt vbot">100</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt vbot">37</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Eastern Limits Reached in Kansas</div> + +<p>Eleven species (tables <a href="#Tbl_6">6</a> and <a href="#Tbl_7">7</a>) reach their eastern distributional +limits in Kansas. Six of these are woodland birds. Four of these are +members of well-known species-pairs: the Red-shafted Flicker, Bullock +Oriole, Black-headed Grosbeak, and Lazuli Bunting. Presence to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span> +east of complementary species has much to do with the absence of +these species in eastern Kansas. Four of the eleven are birds of +grasslands, and they drop out as the short-grass prairie is restricted +easterly.</p> + +<p>The Rock Wren may be considered characteristic of xeric scrub in +Kansas, and it is not found to the east in the absence of such scrub.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Southern Limits Reached in Kansas</div> + +<p>Eight species (tables <a href="#Tbl_6">6</a> and <a href="#Tbl_7">7</a>) reach their southern distributional +limits in Kansas. Half of these birds are of woodland habitats, and of +these four, the Black-capped Chickadee and Cedar Waxwing are chiefly +of sub-boreal distribution. The Black-capped Chickadee also finds its +niche partly pre-empted in southern Kansas by the Carolina Chickadee.</p> + +<p>The Bobolink and Sharp-tailed Grouse are grassland species that are +seemingly adapted to cooler, dryer grassland than is found in most of +Kansas.</p> + +<p>The Redhead, Wilson Phalarope, and Black Tern are limnic species, +perhaps limited southerly by high summer temperatures; the three +species are entirely marginal anywhere in Kansas.</p> + +<a name="Tbl_8" id="Tbl_8"></a> +<div class="bold smcap center">Table 8.—Birds of the Eastern Deciduous Forest + Found in Western Kansas in Riparian Woodland</div> +<div class="center"> +<table class="text_lf" summary="Eastern Deciduous Forest Birds in Kansas"> +<tr> + <td> +<i>Accipiter cooperii</i><a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a> +<a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a><br /> +<i>Coccyzus americanus</i><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a><br /> +<i>Centurus carolinus</i><br /> +<i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i> <br /> +<i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i><br /> +<i>Myiarchus crinitus</i><br /> +<i>Contopus virens</i><br /> +<i>Sayornis phoebe</i><br /> +<i>Cyanocitta cristata</i><br /> +<i>Dumetella carolinensis</i><br /> +</td> + <td> +<i>Toxostoma rufum</i><br /> +<i>Sialia sialis</i><br /> +<i>Vireo olivaceus</i><br /> +<i>Icterus spurius</i><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a><br /> +<i>Icterus galbula</i><br /> +<i>Quiscula quiscalus</i><br /> +<i>Piranga rubra</i><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a><br /> +<i>Passerina cyanea</i><br /> +<i>Richmondena cardinalis</i><br /> +<i>Pipilo erythrophthalmus</i><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="center"><i>Spizella passerina</i><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<div class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a> + <a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> + Breeds farther west in North America in other types of vegetation.</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Influence of Riparian Woodland</div> + +<p>Although the largest single element of the Kansan avifauna that +reaches distributional limits in Kansas is made up of birds of the +eastern deciduous forest, several species of the eastern woodlands are +present in Kansas along the east-west river drainages in riparian +woodland; the species are listed in <a href="#Tbl_8">Table 8</a>. Twenty-one kinds are +involved if we include the Cooper Hawk, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Orchard +Oriole, Summer Tanager, Rufous-sided Towhee, and Chipping Sparrow, all +of which breed farther to the west but are present in western Kansas +only along river drainages. This leaves 15 species of eastern +deciduous woodlands that occur west in Kansas along +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span> +riparian woodland (<i>versus</i> 30 species that drop out chiefly where +eastern woodland drops out). These 15 species are about one-third of all +woodland birds in western Kansas. Riparian woodland does not seem to afford +first-rate habitat for most of the eastern woodland species that do +occur; breeding density seems to be much lower than in well-situated +eastern woodland.</p> + +<p>The importance of these linear woodlands as avenues for gene-flow +between eastern and western populations, especially of species-pairs +(grosbeaks, flickers, orioles, and buntings), is obviously great. +Likewise significant is the existence of these alleys for dispersal +from the west of certain species (for instance, the Black-billed +Magpie and the Scrub Jay) into new but potentially suitable areas.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="BREEDING_SEASONS" id="BREEDING_SEASONS"></a> +<a name="INTRODUCTION2" id="INTRODUCTION2"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">BREEDING SEASONS</div> + +<div class="caption2">Introduction</div> + +<p>An examination of breeding seasons or schedules is properly undertaken +at several levels. The fundamental description of variation in +breeding schedules must itself be detailed in several ways and beyond +this there are causal factors needing examination. The material below +is a summary of the information on breeding schedules of birds in +Kansas, treated descriptively and analytically in ways now thought to +be of use.</p> + +<p>Almost any event in actual reproductive activity has been used in the +following report; nestbuilding, egg-laying, incubation, brooding of +young, feeding of young out of the nest are considered to be of equal +status. To any such event days are added or subtracted from the date +of observation so as to yield the date when the clutch under +consideration was completed.</p> + +<p>Such corrected dates can be used in making histograms that show the +time of primary breeding activity, or the "egg-season." All such +schedules are generalizations; data are used for a species from any +year of observation, whether 50 years ago or less than one year ago. +One advantage of such procedure is that averages and modes are thus +more nearly representative of the basic temporal adaptations of the +species involved, as is explained below.</p> + +<p>When information on the schedule of a species from one year is lumped +with information from another year or other years, two (and ordinarily +more than two) frequency distributions are used to make one frequency +distribution. The great advantage here is that the frequency +distribution composed of two or more frequency distributions is more +stable than any one of its components. Second, the peak of the season, +the mode of egg-laying, is represented more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[Pg 589]</a></span> broadly than it would +have been for any one year alone. Third, the extremes of breeding +activity are fairly shown as of minute frequency and thus of limited +importance, which would not be true if just one year were graphed. All +these considerations combine to support the idea that general schedules +in fact represent the basic temporal adaptations of a +species much better than schedules for one year only.</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="VARIATION_IN_BREEDING_SEASONS"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Variation in Breeding Seasons</div> + +<p>In the chronology of breeding seasons of birds, there are three basic +variables: time at which seasons begin, time at which seasons end, and +time in which the major breeding effort occurs. These variables have +been examined in one population through time (Lack, 1947; Snow, 1955; +Johnston, 1956), in several populations of many species over wide +geographic ranges (Baker, 1938; Moreau, 1950; Davis, 1953), and in +several populations of one species (Lack, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Paynter, 1954; +Johnston, 1954). The analysis below is concerned with breeding of many +kinds of birds of an arbitrarily defined area and with the influence +of certain ecologic and zoogeographic factors on the breeding seasons +for those several species.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Influence of Seasonal Status.</span>—Here we are interested in whether a +species is broadly resident or migrant in Kansas; 70 species are +available for analysis.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Resident Species</div> + +<p>Twenty-four species, furnishing 875 records of breeding, are here +considered to be resident birds in northeastern Kansas. These species +are Cooper Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, Rock +Dove, Great Horned Owl, Red-bellied Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, +Downy Woodpecker, Horned Lark, Blue Jay, Common Crow, Black-billed +Magpie, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, Carolina Wren, Bewick +Wren, Mockingbird, Eastern Bluebird, Loggerhead Shrike, Starling, +House Sparrow, Eastern Meadowlark, and Cardinal. The distribution of +completed clutches (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>) runs from mid-January to mid-September, +with a modal period in the first third of May. Conspicuous breeding +activity occurs from mid-April to the first third of June.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Migrant Species</div> + +<p>Forty-six species, furnishing 2,522 records of breeding, are +considered to be migrant in northeastern Kansas. These species are +Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, Swainson Hawk, American Coot,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span> +Killdeer, Upland Plover, American Avocet, Least Tern, Yellow-billed +Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo, Burrowing Owl, Common Nighthawk, Chimney +Swift, Red-headed Woodpecker, Eastern Kingbird, Western Kingbird, +Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher, Eastern Phoebe, +Eastern Wood Pewee, Bank Swallow, Rough-winged Swallow, Barn Swallow, +Purple Martin, Brown Thrasher, Catbird, House Wren, Robin, Wood +Thrush, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo, +Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow Warbler, Chat, Western Meadowlark, +Red-winged Blackbird, Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Common +Grackle, Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, Dickcissel, Lark +Sparrow, and Field Sparrow. The distribution of completed clutches +runs from mid-March to the first third of September, with a modal +period of egg-laying in the first third of June (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). Conspicuous +breeding activity occurs from the first third of May to the last third +of June.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Influence of Dominant Foraging Adaptation.</span>—Five categories here +considered reflect broad foraging adaptation: woodland species, taking +invertebrate foods in the breeding season from woody vegetation or the +soil within wooded habitats; grassland species, taking invertebrate +foods in the breeding season from within grassland situations; limnic +species, foraging within marshy or aquatic habitats; aerial species, +foraging on aerial arthropods; raptors, feeding on vertebrates or +large insects.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Raptors</div> + +<p>Six species, furnishing 174 records of breeding, are here considered, +as follows: Cooper Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Swainson Hawk, Great Horned +Owl, Burrowing Owl, and Loggerhead Shrike. The distribution of +clutches (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>) runs from mid-January to the first third of July and +is bimodal. One period of egg-laying occurs in mid-February and a +second in the last third of April. Such a distribution indicates that +two basically independent groups of birds are being considered. The +first peak of laying reflects activities of the large raptors, and the +second peak is that of the insectivorous Burrowing Owl and Loggerhead +Shrike. The peak for these two birds is most nearly coincident with +that for grassland species, a category to which the Burrowing Owl +might well be relegated.</p> +<br /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a></span></p> +<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_1.png" width="390" height="604" alt="Fig. 1. Histograms representing breeding schedules of ten categories of Kansan birds." title="Fig. 1. Histograms representing breeding schedules of ten categories of Kansan birds." /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Histograms representing breeding schedules +of ten categories of Kansan birds. Heights of columns indicate +percentage of total of clutches of eggs, and widths indicate ten-day +intervals of time, with the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month as +medians. The occurrences of monthly means of temperature and +precipitation are indicated at the bottom of the figure. +</div> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Limnic Species</div> + +<p>Six species, the Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, American Coot, +American Avocet, Least Tern and Red-winged Blackbird, furnish +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[Pg 592]</a></span> +264 records of breeding. The distribution of clutches (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>) runs +from mid-March to the last third of July and is bimodal. This is +another heterogeneous assemblage of birds; the Great Blue Heron is +responsible for the first peak, in the first third of April. The other +five species, however, show fair consistency and their peak of +egg-laying almost coincides with peaks for aerial foragers, woodland +species, and migrants, considered elsewhere in this section.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Grassland Species</div> + +<p>Ten species, Greater Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, Killdeer, Upland +Plover, Horned Lark, Starling, Eastern Meadowlark, Western Meadowlark, +Common Grackle, and Dickcissel, furnish 404 records of breeding +activity. The distribution of clutches (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>) runs from the first of +March to mid-September. The peak of egg-laying occurs in the first +third of May. This is coincident with the peak for resident species, +perhaps a reflection of the fact that half the species in the present +category are residents in northeastern Kansas.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Woodland Species</div> + +<p>In this category are included species characteristic of woodland edge. +Thirty-four species, furnishing 1,882 records of breeding, are here +treated: Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo, "flicker" +(includes birds thought to be relatively pure red-shafted, pure +yellow-shafted, as well as clear hybrids), Red-bellied Woodpecker, +Red-headed Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Blue Jay, +Black-billed Magpie, Common Crow, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted +Titmouse, Carolina Wren, Bewick Wren, House Wren, Brown Thrasher, +Catbird, Mockingbird, Robin, Wood Thrush, Eastern Bluebird, Blue-gray +Gnatcatcher, Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo, Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow +Warbler, Chat, Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Cardinal, +Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, Lark Sparrow, and Field +Sparrow. The distribution of clutches runs from the first third of +March to mid-September (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). The modal period for completed +clutches is the first third of June. Conspicuous breeding activity +occurs from the first third of May to mid-June. The distribution of +the season in time is almost identical with that for migrant species, +reflecting the large number of migrant species in woodland habitats in +Kansas.</p> +<br /> + + +<div class="caption3">Aerial Foragers</div> + +<p>Twelve species, Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, Eastern Kingbird, +Western Kingbird, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher, +Eastern Phoebe, Eastern Wood Pewee, Bank<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[Pg 593]</a></span> Swallow, Rough-winged +Swallow, Barn Swallow, and Purple Martin, furnish 587 records of +breeding. The distribution of clutches (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>) extends from the last +third of March to the first third of August, and the modal date of +clutches is in the first third of June. Conspicuous breeding activity +occurs from the end of May to the end of June. The peak of nesting +essentially coincides with that characteristic of migrants.</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="ZOOGEOGRAPHIC_CATEGORIES"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Zoogeographic Categories</div> + +<p>Three categories of Mayr (1946) are of use in analyzing trends in +breeding schedules of birds in Kansas. These categories of presumed +ultimate evolutionary origin are the "Old World Element," the "North +American Element," and the "South American Element." Not always have I +agreed with Mayr's assignments of species to these categories, and +such differences are noted. There is some obvious overlap between +these categories and those discussed previously.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Old World Element</div> + +<p>Eighteen species, Red-tailed Hawk, Rock Dove, Great Horned Owl, Hairy +Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Black-billed Magpie, Common Crow, +Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, Robin, Loggerhead Shrike, +Starling, House Sparrow, Bank Swallow, Barn Swallow, and Blue-gray +Gnatcatcher, furnish 969 records of breeding (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). Species for +which I have records but which are not here listed are the Blue Jay +and the Wood Thrush, both of which I consider to be better placed with +the North American Element. The distribution of completed clutches +runs from mid-January to the first third of August, and shows a +tendency toward bimodality. The second, smaller peak is due to the +inclusion of relatively large samples of three migrant species (Robin, +Bank Swallow, and Barn Swallow). The timing of the breeding seasons of +these three species is in every respect like that of most other +migrants; if they are removed from the present sample the bimodality +disappears, indicating an increase in homogeneity of the unit.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">North American Element</div> + +<p>Twenty-six species, Greater Prairie Chicken, Bobwhite, "flicker," +Rough-winged Swallow, Purple Martin, Blue Jay, Carolina Wren, Bewick +Wren, House Wren, Mockingbird, Catbird, Brown Thrasher, Wood Thrush, +Bell Vireo, Warbling Vireo, Prothonotary Warbler, Yellow Warbler, +Chat, Eastern Meadowlark, Western Meadowlark, Red-winged Blackbird, +Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole, Common +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span> +Grackle, Lark Sparrow, and Field Sparrow, furnish 1,233 records of breeding +(<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). The distribution of completed clutches runs +from the first third of April to the first third of September. The modal +date for completion of clutches is June 1.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">South American Element</div> + +<p>Twelve species, Eastern Kingbird, Western Kingbird, Scissor-tailed +Flycatcher, Great Crested Flycatcher, Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, +Traill Flycatcher, Eastern Wood Pewee, Eastern Phoebe, Cardinal, +Black-headed Grosbeak, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, and Indigo Bunting, +furnish 552 records of breeding (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). The curve representing this +summary schedule is bimodal, wholly as a result of including the +Eastern Phoebe and the Cardinal with this sample.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Relationship of Schedules to Temperature and Precipitation</div> + +<p>In outlining the ten categories above, attention has been given to +certain similarities and differences in the frequency distributions. A +slightly more refined way of comparing the frequency distributions is +to relate them to other, seasonally variable phenomena. Figure 1 shows +the frequency distributions of egg-laying of these ten categories of +birds in terms of the regular changes in mean temperature and mean +precipitation characteristic of the environments in which these birds +live in the breeding season.</p> + +<p><a href="#Tbl_9">Table 9</a> shows that there are two basic groups of birds according to +peak of egg-laying and incidence of precipitation; raptors, birds of +Eurasian origin, resident birds, and birds of grassland habitats tend +to have their peaks of egg-laying prior to the peak of spring-summer +rains, and the other six categories tend to have their peaks of +egg-laying occur in the time of spring-summer rains. Regarding +temperature, there are four categories of birds; these are evident in +the table.</p> + +<p>Some of the correspondences deserve comment. Residents and grassland +species both breed before the rains come and before mean temperatures +reach 70°F., and this correspondence probably results from most of the +grassland species being residents. Contrariwise, most birds of +Eurasian stocks are residents, but not all residents are of such +stocks; the two groups are discrete when mean temperature at breeding +is considered. Woodland birds, aerial foragers, and birds of South +American evolutionary stocks breed after temperatures surpass 70°F. on +the average. Almost all such species are migrants, but many migrants +have different temporal characteristics, and the categories thus are +shown to be discrete on the basis of temperature at time of breeding. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span> +The change through spring and summer of temperature and precipitation +delineates the inception and waxing of the growing season of +vegetation and of the subsequent arthropod populations, on which most +of the birds feed in the breeding season. The temporal characteristics +of growing seasons in North America have been treated by Hopkins +(1938) and have been related to timing of breeding seasons in Song +Sparrows (<i>Passerella melodia</i>) of the Pacific coast of North America +(Johnston, 1954).</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="SIGNIFICANCE_OF_PHYLOGENY"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Significance of Phylogeny to Breeding Schedules</div> + +<p>Evidence from a variety of sources demonstrates that timing of +breeding seasons is either broadly or specifically +genetically-determined. For some species in some situations major +environmental variables are paramount in regulating timing of +breeding, but in others the innate, regulatory "clock" is less closely +tied to conspicuous exogenous stimuli. The work by Miller (1955a, +1955b, 1960) with several species of <i>Zonotrichia</i> strongly indicates +that endogenous timing is most important for these birds, and there is +ecological evidence for Song Sparrows that supports the same point +(Johnston, 1954, 1956). It is, in any event, possible to treat +breeding schedules as species-specific characters, for any one +geographic area.</p> + +<p>In an attempt to relate a breeding schedule to previous ancestral +modes, that is by extension to phylogeny, it is necessary to know how +often ancestral adaptations can persist in the face of necessity to +adapt to present environmental conditions. It is necessary to know how +conservative or how immediately plastic breeding schedules can be. The +disadvantage of using available information about configurations of +breeding seasons (as shown in Figs. 3 to 9) is that it is extremely +difficult to compare visually at one time more than six or eight +histograms as to the trenchant similarities and differences regarding +times of inception and cessation of breeding, and time of peak +egg-laying. It is possible, however, to reduce these three variables +to one variable (as described below), which allows the necessary +comparisons to be made more easily; this variable may be called the +<i>breeding index</i>.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Calculation of Breeding Index</div> + +<p>The chronological year is broken roughly into ten-day intervals +numbered 1 to 36. The histogram describing the temporal occurrence of +the breeding season of a species in our area usually will lie within +intervals 7 to 25. The modal date for completion of clutches is given +a value corresponding to the number of ten-day<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span> intervals beyond +interval 7 (March 1-10); this describes the modal variable. The date +of completion of 83 per cent of all clutches is given a value +corresponding to the number of ten-day intervals it lies from interval +11 (April 11-20); this describes the 83 per cent variable (and is a +measure of the length of the season in terms of its inception). The +breeding index can then be calculated as follows:</p> + +<div class="center"> +I = <span class="smcap">X</span><sub>m</sub> + <span class="smcap">X</span><sub>sd</sub>,<br /> +<table class="text_lf" summary="formula variables"> +<tr> + <td>where:</td> + <td>I is the breeding index,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><span class="smcap">X</span><sub>m</sub> is the modal variable, and</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><span class="smcap">X</span><sub>sd</sub> is the 83 per cent variable.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>This is obviously an arbitrary scheme to gain a simple measure of +beginning, peak, and end of a breeding season. Other schemes could be +devised whereby different absolute values would be involved, but the +relative nature of the results would be preserved. The values under +the present system for 73 species of Kansan birds run from -5 to +22; +early modal dates and cessation to breeding give low values, late +dates high values.</p> + +<p>Within this framework there are other, presumably subordinate, factors +that influence the values of breeding indices, as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Migratory habit. Any migrant tends to arrive on breeding grounds +relatively late, hence migrants ordinarily have higher index values +than do residents.</p> + +<p>2. Colonial breeding. The strong synchrony of colonially-breeding +species tends to move the modal egg-date toward the time of inception +of breeding; as a result colonially-breeding species probably have +lower index values than they would have if not colonial.</p> + +<p>3. Single-broodedness. Species having only one brood per season tend +to have shorter seasons than double-brooded species, and their index +values tend to be lower than those of double-brooded species.</p> + +<p>Migratory habit unquestionably has considerable influence on index +values in some species. It is not, however, as important as other +matters, such as the condition of the food substratum or sensitivity +of the pituitary-gonadal mechanism, in determining timing and mode of +breeding activity. The schedule of the Purple Martin is the extreme +example showing that time of spring arrival on breeding grounds is not +necessarily related to time of inception of breeding. It should be +emphasized that the factors leading to northward migratory movement +may be involved in timing of the annual gonadal and reproductive +cycle.</p> + +<p>Figure 2 presents a graphic summary of values of breeding +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span> +indices for many groups of Kansan birds. The values for species of a +given family have been linked by a horizontal line. The length of this +line is proportional to the degree to which the index values for the +species concerned resemble one another. Note that the plottings for the +Picidae, Corvidae, Turdidae, Tyrannidae, and Icteridae each contain +one point that is well-removed from a cluster of points. This can be +interpreted as a measure of the frequency of adaptive plasticity +versus adaptive conservatism; five of the 24 plottings show a plastic +character, 19 a conservative. There are 26 plottings that show +temporal consistency, all of which may be taken as evidence of +adaptive (or relictual) conservatism of the species in question.</p> +<br /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span></p> +<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 514px;"> +<img src="images/fig_2.png" width="514" height="606" alt="Fig. 2.—Breeding indices for Kansan birds." title="Fig. 2.—Breeding indices for Kansan birds." /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—Breeding indices for Kansan birds. Vertical +hash-marks indicate the value of breeding index for a given species; +horizontal lines show the range of values of breeding index for +families and orders. +</div> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Conclusion</div> + +<p>Such patterns of breeding chronology support the idea that seasonal +response to the necessities of breeding is conservative more often +than plastic. Most students of breeding schedules believe that since +these are highly adaptive, they must also be capable of flexibility to +meet variable environments within the range of the species. Such +thinking receives support when different geographic localities are +considered for one species (Johnston, 1954), or when specific features +of a special environment are considered (see Miller, 1960; Johnston, +1956).</p> + +<p>Yet, if one, relatively restricted locality is considered, as in the +present study, evidence of a conservative characteristic in breeding +schedules can be detected. This conservatism may result from the +historic genetic "burden" of the species; that is to say, previous +adaptive peaks may in part be evident in the matrix of contemporary +adaptation. Adaptive relicts of morphological nature have been many +times documented, but characteristics associated with seasonality and +timing schedules have not.</p> + +<p>In any event, genetic relationships are evident in the configuration +of breeding seasons of many species here treated. Thus, any +consideration of variation in breeding schedules must be sensitive to +the limits, whether broad or restricting, that the heritage of a +species sets on its present chronological adaptation.</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="REGULATION_OF_BREEDING_SCHEDULES"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">Regulation of Breeding Schedules</div> + +<p>Regulation of breeding schedules in birds always involves some +exogenous, environmental timing or triggering mechanism. Broad limits +to functional reproductive activity seem to be set by the +photoperiod—neuroendocrine system. This basic, predominately +extra-equatorial, regulator can be ignored by temperate-zone species +only if they possess chronological adaptation to special, aperiodic +environmental conditions, as does the Red Crossbill (<i>Loxia +curvirostra</i>; see McCabe and McCabe, 1933; H. B. Tordoff, ms.), for +which the chief consideration seems to be availability of conifer +seeds. Environmental phonomena otherwise known to trigger breeding +activity include rainfall (Davis, 1953; Williamson, 1956), presence of +suitable nesting material (Marshall and Disney, 1957; Lehrman, 1958), +temperature (Nice, 1937), and presence of a mate (Lehrman, Brody, and +Wortis, 1961). Such regulators, or environmental oscillators, are the +"phasing factors" of the physiologic clock that dictate the temporal +occurrence of primary reproductive activity.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span> +None of the regulators mentioned above has been specifically +investigated for any Kansan bird, but it is reasonable to suppose +that, in these temperate-zone species, the photoperiod is the most +important general phasing factor in seasonal breeding. Although +gonadal response and seasonal restriction of breeding are set by +the photoperiod, specific temporal relationships are dictated by more +immediate environmental variables.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="center"> +<a name="Tbl_9" id="Tbl_9"></a> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 9.—Relationship Between Environmental Factors and Timing of Breeding in Birds of Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Environmental Factors and Timing of Breeding"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="3" class="brdtp brdbt"> </td> + <td colspan="6" class="brdtp brdlf center">Occurrence of Peak of Egg-laying</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">When Precipitation is:</td> + <td colspan="4" class="brdtp brdlf center">When Mean Temperature (F.) is:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">Light</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">Heavy</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">< 55°</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">< 70°</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">± 70°</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt center">> 70°</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Raptors</td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">O. W. Element</td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Residents</td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Grassland species</td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Marshland species</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">N. Amer. Element</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Migrants</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Woodland species</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Aerial foragers</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">S. Amer. Element</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center"> </td> + <td class="brdlf center">x</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><a href="#Tbl_9">Table 9</a>, as already noted, shows the gross relationships between +certain groups of birds, certain arbitrary indicators of seasonal +temperature-humidity conditions bearing significantly on the growing +season, and occurrence in time of peak of egg-laying by the birds +involved. Some species and groups of Kansan birds breed chiefly under +cool-dry environmental conditions, and some under warm-wet +environmental conditions. Within each of these categories some +variation occurs. Thus, raptors and boreally-adapted species (the +Eurasian zoogeographic element) breed under cool conditions prior to +rains, and residents and grassland species breed under slightly warmer +conditions prior to rains; limnic species, species derived from North +American evolutionary stocks, and migrants tend to breed in the cooler +segment of the warm-wet period, and woodland birds, aerial foragers, +and species derived from South American evolutionary stocks tend to +breed in the warmer segment of the warm-wet period.</p> + +<p>So much, then, for relationships between birds and their environments +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span> +at a descriptive level. It would be useful at this point to examine +how environmental variables relate to timing of breeding. Certain +independent lines of investigation indicate that birds have a +well-developed internal timing device; most convincing is the work of +Schmidt-Koenig (1960) and the others who have shown that the +endogenous clock of birds can be shifted in its periodicity forward or +backward in time. This and much other evidence (see Brown, 1960) +indicate that many fundamental periodic regulators are extrinsic to +the animal; it is thus permissible for present purposes to consider +any expression of variation in timing as dependent on environmental +oscillators. It is not hereby meant to ignore the fact that +differential responses to dominant environmental variables occur +within a species, indicating endogenous control over timing of +breeding. The work by Miller (1960:518) with three populations of the +White-crowned Sparrow, revealing innately different responses to +vernal photoperiodic increase, is especially important in this regard. +For the moment, however, we may consider exogenous controls only.</p> + +<p>Any exogenous control, or environmental variable, can be looked on +simply as a timing oscillator. Such variables show regular or +irregular periodic activity, and the independent actions as a whole +result in the more-or-less variable annual schedule of breeding for +any species at any one place. It would seem that some oscillators are +linked to one another, but there is a real question concerning the +over-all degree to which linkage is present. It is significant that +frequency distributions of breeding activity of various species and +groups of birds take on the shape of a skewed normal curve. The more +information is added to such distributions, the more nearly they +approach being wholly normal, with irregularities tending to +disappear. This kind of response itself is evidence that most of the +variables influencing the distribution are not mutually linked.</p> + +<p>This conclusion is warranted if we examine what would happen to +frequency distributions if the variables or oscillators regulating +timing were linked. The frequency distribution of breeding activity in +birds is described by a nonlinear curve (a normal distribution is +nonlinear). Let us assume that each of the environmental variables is +a nonlinear oscillator, as is probable. A set of nonlinear oscillators +mutually entrained or coupled and operating with reference to a given +phenomenon would result in that phenomenon being described by a +frequency distribution much more stable than if it were regulated by +any one oscillator alone. However, the frequency distribution of a set +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[Pg 601]</a></span> +of coupled nonlinear oscillators is non-normal (Wiener, 1958).</p> + +<p>We do not obtain such distributions in describing breeding activity, +so we may say that the oscillators regulating such activity are not +coupled. Present distribution, habitat preference, residency status, +foraging adaptation, previous zoogeographic history, and relicts of +ancestral adaptation, all bear on the character of the breeding +schedule of any bird species. The emphasis above on multiple +regulation of breeding schedules conceivably reflects the true +picture, but any such emphasis is made at the expense of taking one +factor as basic, or reducing the many to one, in order to manufacture +simplicity.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="ACCOUNTS_OF_SPECIES"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES</div> + +<p>In each account below information is given concerning status, habitat, +geographic distribution, seasonal occurrence, schedule of egg-laying, +number of eggs laid, and sites of nests, as these pertain to Kansas, +unless otherwise stated. The ways in which some of these points were +elucidated are as follows.</p> + +<p>1.—Breeding schedule. Frequency distributions of egg-laying in time +are calculated on the basis of dates of completed clutches, as +described earlier (p. 588). Any event in the series of actions of +nesting—nestbuilding, egg-laying, incubation, brooding, feeding young +out of nests—can be manipulated by adding or subtracting days to or +from the date of record to yield the probable date of completion of +the clutch. The resulting data are grouped into class intervals of ten +days. Extreme dates here given for egg-laying may be as much as nine +days off in accuracy, but the error does not often exceed five days. +Extreme dates indicated here may be taken as actual or predicted +extremes. The raw data used are on file at the Museum of Natural +History and are available for use by any qualified individual.</p> + +<p>2.—Dates of occurrence. First and last annual occurrences in the +State for migrant species are indicated by both a range of dates and a +median date. Twenty to 30 dates of first observation in spring are +available for most of the common species, and 10 to 20 dates of last +observation in autumn are at hand for such species. The median dates, +earlier than and subsequent to which an equal number of observations +are available, are reliable indicators of the dates on which a species +is likely to be seen first in the State in an average year.</p> + +<p>3.—Clutch-size. Information on number of eggs is given for each +species according to the mode, followed by the mean, the range, and +the size of the sample.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[Pg 602]</a></span> +4.—Distribution in Kansas. Information on distribution in the +breeding season within the borders of Kansas is given in accounts +below chiefly by reference to one or more counties of the State. +Location of counties can be made by referring to Figure 10.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Pied-billed Grebe</b>: <i>Podilymbus podiceps podiceps</i> (Linnaeus).—This is +a common but local summer resident, in and on ponds, marshes, streams, +ditches, and lakes. The species can be seen in the State at any time, +but usually arrives in the period March 1 to April 13 (the median is +March 21), and departs southward in the period October 13 to November +18 (the median is October 24).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Nineteen records of breeding span the period May +1 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is May 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 to 10 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are floating masses of marsh vegetation (cattail, smartweed, +duckweed, filamentous green algae, and the like), kept green on top by +addition of fresh material, in or at the edge of emergent marsh +vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Double-crested Cormorant</b>: <i>Phalacrocorax auritus auritus</i> +(Lesson).—This is a transient, but has been found nesting on one +occasion in Barton County (Tordoff, 1956:311).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs were laid in July and August in the one +known nesting effort.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Great Blue Heron</b>: <i>Ardea herodias</i> Linnaeus.—This common summer +resident nests in tall trees along rivers, streams, and marshes. The +sector of greatest abundance is the Flint Hills. <i>A. h. herodias</i> +Linnaeus occurs in extreme northeastern Kansas, <i>A. h. wardi</i> Ridgway +breeds in southeastern Kansas, and <i>A. h. treganzai</i> Court breeds in +western Kansas; specimens showing intermediate morphology have been +taken from the central part of the State. Occurrence in time, +exclusive of the few that overwinter in Kansas, is shown in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seventy-seven records of breeding span the +period March 1 to April 30 (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is +April 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.4, 3-6; 36).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in crotches of sycamore, cottonwood, elm, hackberry, oak, +and walnut, from 30 to 60 feet high; the average height is about 40 feet.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_10" id="Tbl_10"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 10.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Herons in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Herons"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Great Blue Heron</td> + <td class="brdlf">Feb. 4-Apr. 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 20</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 10-Nov. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Green Heron</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 29-May 4</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 27</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 1-Oct. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Common Egret</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 8-May 12</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 4-Sept. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 21</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Black-crowned Night Heron</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 27-May 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10-Nov. 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellow-crowned Night Heron</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 15-May 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 27</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">American Bittern</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 4-May 9</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 6-Dec. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Least Bittern</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 9-May 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 24</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[Pg 603]</a></span> +<b>Green Heron</b>: <i>Butorides virescens virescens</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a +common summer resident about streams, lakes, and marshes throughout +the State. Some characteristics of the temporal occurrence of this +species are indicated in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-eight records of breeding span the period +April 21 to June 20 (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date of completion of clutches +is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.1, 3-5; 17).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 10 feet high (two to 35 feet) in willow, +cottonwood, elm, and the like.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Little Blue Heron</b>: <i>Florida caerulea caerulea</i> (Linnaeus).—This is +chiefly a postbreeding summer visitant, but there is one record of +breeding in Finney County (Tordoff, 1956:312).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There is no information on breeding schedule in +Kansas or in adjacent areas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in trees and bushes at various heights above the +ground.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Common Egret</b>: <i>Casmerodius albus egretta</i> (Gmelin).—This is a +postbreeding summer visitant, but has been found nesting once in +Cowley County (Johnston, 1960:10). Occurrence in time is listed in +<a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There is no information on breeding schedule in +Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 to 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in trees, usually above 20 feet in height; the one +instance of nesting in the State was within a colony of Great Blue +Herons.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Snowy Egret</b>: <i>Leucophoyx thula thula</i> (Molina).—This postbreeding +summer visitant has been found nesting once in Finney County (Tordoff, +1956:312).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There is no information on breeding schedule in +the State.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 to 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests in Kansas are placed among those of Great Blue Herons.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-crowned Night Heron</b>: <i>Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli</i> +(Gmelin).—This is a locally common summer resident around marshes and +riparian habitats. Characteristics of the occurrence of the species in +time are given in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in the period May 1 to August 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed at medium elevations in riparian trees, in Kansas +chiefly cottonwood, or in beds of emergent marsh vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-crowned Night Heron</b>: <i>Nyctanassa violacea violacea</i> +(Linnaeus).—This is a local summer resident in riparian habitats, +chiefly in southeastern Kansas. Specimens taken in the breeding season +and records of nesting come from Meade, Stafford, Doniphan, Douglas, +Greenwood, Woodson, Labette, and Cherokee counties. Characteristics of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[Pg 604]</a></span> +occurrence in time in Kansas are shown in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>. <i>Breeding +schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in riparian trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Least Bittern</b>: <i>Ixobrychus exilis exilis</i> (Gmelin).—This is a local +summer resident in marshland. Characteristics of its occurrence in +time are indicated in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eleven records of breeding span the period May +21 to July 20; the modal date of egg-laying seems to be in the first +week of June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in dense emergent vegetation a few inches to a foot +above the surface of the water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>American Bittern</b>: <i>Botaurus lentiginosus</i> (Rackett).—This is a local +summer resident in marshes and heavy grassland. The species occurs +temporally according to characteristics as listed in <a href="#Tbl_10">Table 10</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and probably in June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground in heavy cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>White-faced Ibis</b>: <i>Plegadis chihi</i> (Vieillot).—This is a local summer +resident in marshland; actual records of breeding come only from +Barton County (Nossaman, 1952:7; Zuvanich, 1963; M. Schwilling, +personal communication, July, 1962). The species has been recorded in +the State from April 17 to October 6.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-five breeding records are for June and +early July.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (3.9, 3-4; 24).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in emergent marsh vegetation near the surface of the +water, in Barton County in extensive cattail beds harboring also +Black-crowned Night Herons.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Mallard</b>: <i>Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos</i> Linnaeus.—This is a local +summer resident around marshes. The time of greatest abundance is +October to April, but most birds move north for breeding.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifteen records of breeding span the period +April 1 to June 10; the modal date of egg-laying is in the first ten +days of May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size varies widely; first clutches are of +about 12 eggs. Brood sizes vary from 3 to 12 individuals in Kansas.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface, in pasture grasses, marsh +grasses, cattail, sedge, and smartweed.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Pintail</b>: <i>Anas acuta</i> Linnaeus.—This is a local summer resident in +marshland. The time of greatest abundance is from September to May, +but most birds move north for breeding.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eleven records of breeding span the period April +21 to June 10; the peak of egg-laying seems to be in the period May 1 +to 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is around 10 eggs. Brood sizes vary +from 3 to 8 individuals in Kansas.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface, in cover of marsh grass, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span>cattail, or sedge.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Blue-winged Teal</b>: <i>Anas discors discors</i> +Linnaeus.—This summer resident is locally common around marshes and +ponds. The species arrives in spring in the period March 9 to April 5 +(the median is March 23); birds are last seen sometime between October +7 and November 26 (the median is October 20).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period +May 1 to May 30; the peak of egg-laying is around May 15. It is +doubtful that the present data indicate the full extent of the +egg-season in this duck.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 8 to 12 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface, in cover of grasses, cattail +and sedges.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Shoveler</b>: <i>Anas clypeata</i> Linnaeus.—This is an irregular and local +summer resident, around marshes. Most individuals seen in the State +are passage migrants. Breeding records are from Barton and Finney +counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seasonal limits are unknown for the Shoveler in +Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 8 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface in cover of marsh vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Wood Duck</b>: <i>Aix sponsa</i> (Linnaeus).—This is an uncommon summer +resident around wooded streams and ponds in eastern Kansas. Nesting +records and specimens taken in the breeding season come from east of +stations in Pottawatomie, Coffey, and Woodson counties. Most nesting +records at present come from the Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Refuge, +Linn County. The species is present in the State from March 5 to +December 8.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eleven records of breeding span the period March +21 to May 10; the peak of egg-laying is probably in mid-April. The +present data are inadequate for showing the full span of the breeding +season.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is around 15 eggs, varying from 10 to +23 in the sample at hand.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in crevices and hollows in trees near water, 10 to 70 +feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Redhead</b>: <i>Aythya americana</i> (Eyton).—This duck nested at Cheyenne +Bottoms, Barton County, 1962: 9 eggs found May 31 (M. Schwilling); +also reported to have nested at Cheyenne Bottoms about 1928 (Tordoff, +1956:316).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Canvasback</b>: <i>Aythya valisineria</i> (Wilson).—This duck nested at +Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County, 1962: 14 eggs found June 20 (M. +Schwilling).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Ruddy Duck</b>: <i>Oxyura jamaicensis rubida</i> (Wilson).—This is a local +summer resident in marshland; numbers seem generally higher in western +than in eastern Kansas. The season of greatest abundance is March +through November, but numbers are conspicuously reduced in midsummer.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are known to be laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed near the edge of water, either in or on emergent +marsh vegetation; nests of other marshland birds, such as coots, are +sometimes appropriated (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Turkey Vulture</b>: <i>Cathartes aura teter</i> Friedmann.—This summer +resident is common throughout Kansas. Occurrence in time is indicated +in <a href="#Tbl_11">Table 11</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifteen records of breeding span the period +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span> +April 21 to June 10; earlier records will doubtless be found, to +judge from the frequency distribution of the present sample. The peak +of egg-laying is perhaps around May 1.</p> + + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (1.8, 1-2; 12).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in holes and crevices in trees and cliffs, on rocky +ledges, and the like.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_3.png" width="331" height="608" alt="Fig 3.—Histograms representing breeding schedules" title="Fig 3.—Histograms representing breeding schedules" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Histograms representing breeding schedules of +two herons, the Red-tailed Hawk, Bobwhite, and two shore birds in +Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms. +</div> + + +<p class="species"><b>Black Vulture</b>: <i>Coragyps atratus</i> (Meyer).—This is possibly a summer +resident in the southeastern sector of Kansas. There is one nesting +record, for Labette County (Goss, 1891:245).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There are no data for this species in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in hollows (logs, stumps, <i>etc.</i>) on the ground +surface.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Swallow-tailed Kite</b>: <i>Elanoides forficatus forficatus</i> +(Linnaeus).—This kite was formerly a summer resident in eastern +Kansas; it no longer occurs as a breeding species.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—In Kansas the season seemed to occur relatively +late in the year for a raptor; eggs were laid in May, so far as is +known.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 2 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in tops of trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Mississippi Kite</b>: <i>Ictinia misisippiensis</i> (Wilson).—This is a common +summer resident in southern Kansas, west to Morton County. Specimens +taken in the breeding season and records of nesting come from south of +stations in Grant, Barton, Harvey, and Douglas counties; the present +center of abundance is in Meade, Clark, Comanche, Barber, and Harper +counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seven records of breeding span the period April +20 to June 10; the peak of egg-laying seems to be in the first week of +May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 35 feet high (from 25 to 50 feet) in +cottonwood, willow, elm, black locust, and the like.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Sharp-shinned Hawk</b>: <i>Accipiter striatus velox</i> (Wilson).—This rare +summer resident apparently occurs only in the eastern part. The two +nesting records are from Cloud and Pottawatomie counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The information at hand suggests the birds lay +in April and May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed 20 or more feet high in coniferous or deciduous +trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Cooper Hawk</b>: <i>Accipiter cooperii</i> (Bonaparte).—This is an uncommon +resident. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of +nesting come from east of stations in Cloud, Anderson, and Montgomery +counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fourteen records of breeding span the period +March 21 to May 30; the modal date of egg-laying is April 25.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.8, 2-5; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed from 15 to 30 feet high, averaging 25 feet in elm, +oak, and other trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-tailed Hawk</b>: <i>Buteo jamaicensis borealis</i> (Gmelin).—This is a +common resident east of the 100th meridian; to the west numbers are +reduced, although the species is by no means unusual in western +Kansas. Red-tails probably always were uncommon in western Kansas; +Wolfe (1961) reports that they were "very rare as a nesting species" +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span>in Decatur County shortly after the turn of the 20th Century. +<i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-six records of breeding span the period +February 21 to April 10 (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is +March 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (2.6, 2-3; 20).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 40 feet high, ranging from 15 to 70 feet in +cottonwood, honey locust, osage orange, sycamore, and walnut.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-shouldered Hawk</b>: <i>Buteo lineatus lineatus</i> (Gmelin).—This is an +uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in riparian and bottomland +timber. Nesting records are available from Leavenworth, Woodson, and +Linn counties, and red-shoulders probably also nest in Doniphan County +(Linsdale, 1928).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding season.</i>—Eggs are laid in March and April.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed up to 70 feet high in elms and other streamside +trees.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_11" id="Tbl_11"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 11.—Occurrence in Time of the Summer Resident Vulture and Hawks in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of the Summer Resident Vulture and Hawks"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Turkey Vulture</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 7-Mar. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 24-Oct. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Red-shouldered Hawk</td> + <td class="brdlf">Feb. 10-Mar. 14</td> + <td class="brdlf">Feb. 26</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct.-Dec.</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Broad-winged Hawk</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 4-Apr. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 1-Oct. 20</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Swainson Hawk</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 24-Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 5-Nov. 2</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 11</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Broad-winged Hawk</b>: <i>Buteo platypterus platypterus</i> (Vieillot).—This +is an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in swampy woodland. +Specimens taken in the breeding season and nesting records are from +Shawnee, Douglas, Leavenworth, and Johnson counties; there are several +nesting records from Missouri in the bottomlands just across the river +from Wyandotte County Kansas. Occurrence in time is listed in <a href="#Tbl_11">Table 11</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Four records of nesting span the period April 21 +to May 30, but it is likely that the egg-season is longer than this.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed high in deciduous trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Swainson Hawk</b>: <i>Buteo swainsoni</i> Bonaparte.—This is a common summer +resident in prairie grassland with open groves and scattered trees. +Records of breeding are available from all parts of the State, but are +least numerous from the southeastern quarter. Occurrence in time is +listed in <a href="#Tbl_11">Table 11</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixteen records of breeding span the period +April 11 to June 10; the modal date for completion of clutches is +April 25.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (2.4, 2-3; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 35 feet high, actually ranging from 12 to 75 +feet, in cottonwood, elm, willow, and honey locust. Occasionally nests +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609">[Pg 609]</a></span> +are placed on ledges in cliffs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Ferruginous Hawk</b>: <i>Buteo regalis</i> +(Gray).—This is an uncommon resident in western Kansas, in grassland +with scattered trees. Records of nesting and specimens taken in the +breeding season come from Wallace, Hamilton, Gove, Logan, and Finney +counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Five records of breeding span the period March +11 to April 30.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs (3.3, 3-4; 4).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface on small cliffs or promontories +or low (six to 10 feet) in small trees such as osage orange, +cottonwood, and mulberry.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Marsh Hawk</b>: <i>Circus cyaneus hudsonius</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a local +resident in grassland throughout Kansas. Most records of breeding come +from east of the Flint Hills, but it is not certain that the few +records from the west actually reflect a low density of Marsh Hawks in +that area.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixteen records of breeding span the period +April 11 to May 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 3-7; 14).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface in grassy cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Peregrine Falcon</b>: <i>Falco peregrinus anatum</i> Bonaparte.—This falcon +nested, perhaps regularly but clearly in small numbers, in Kansas +prior to the 20th Century. The best documented breeding occurrence was +at Neosho Falls, Woodson County (Goss, 1891:283).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs were recorded as being laid in February and +March.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed relatively high on cliffs and in trees; at Neosho +Falls these birds used open cavities 50 to 60 feet high in sycamores.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Sparrow Hawk</b>: <i>Falco sparverius sparverius</i> Linnaeus.—This is a +common resident throughout Kansas, in parkland and woodland edge.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirteen records of egg-laying span the period +March 21 to May 20; the modal date of laying is not evident in this +sample but it probably falls around April 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about 16 feet high, actually 12 to 30 +feet, in cottonwood, ash, maple, Purple Martin "houses," and human +dwellings.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Greater Prairie Chicken</b>: <i>Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus</i> +(Brewster).—This is a locally common resident in eastern Kansas, in +and about bluestem prairie grassland, and is local in the northwest in +undisturbed plains grassland. Wolfe (1961) reports that the species +was common in Decatur County shortly after the turn of the Century, +but that it became rare by 1914.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-one records of breeding span the period +May 1 to June 10 (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date for laying is May 5. The +sample indicates an abrupt inception to laying of eggs, and this may +be a reflection of timing characteristic of behavior at leks, or +booming grounds.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 12 eggs (11.7, 9-15; 17).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground in bluestem grassland or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[Pg 610]</a></span> +plains bunchgrass, usually under cover of prairie grasses and forbs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Lesser Prairie Chicken</b>: <i>Tympanuchus pallidicinctus</i> (Ridgway).—This +is a local resident in sandy grassland in southwestern Kansas. +Distribution is to the west and south of Pawnee County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There is no information on timing of the +breeding season in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is thought to be near that of the +Greater Prairie Chicken. Vic Housholder (MS) observed a hen with ten +chicks ten miles south of Dodge City, Ford County, on June 1, 1955.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bobwhite</b>: <i>Colinus virginianus</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common resident +in the east, but is local in western Kansas; occurrence is in broken +woodland and other edge habitats. <i>C. v. virginianus</i> (Linnaeus) is +found northeast of stations in Nemaha, Douglas, and Miami counties, +and <i>C. v. taylori</i> Lincoln is found in the remainder of the State.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-four records of breeding span the period +May 1 to September 20 (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date for first clutches is +May 25. The long period of egg-laying after May probably includes both +renesting efforts and true second nestings.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 13 eggs (12.8, 8-21; 22); in +the present sample 16 eggs was the most frequent number.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground at bases of bunch +grasses, saplings, trees, or posts, under cover of prairie grasses, +forbs, or small woody plants.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Scaled Quail</b>: <i>Callipepla squamata pallida</i> Brewster.—This is a +locally common resident in southwestern Kansas, chiefly west of Clark +County and south of the Arkansas River; preferred habitat seems to be +in open, sandy prairie.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in May; the egg-season in +Kansas is unlikely to be so prolonged as that of the Bobwhite; among +other factors involved, the Scaled Quail in Kansas is at a northern +extreme of its distribution, where suboptimal environmental conditions +may occur relatively frequently.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is around 10 to 12 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground surface under woody or herbaceous +cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Ring-necked Pheasant</b>: <i>Phasianus colchicus</i> Linnaeus.—This introduced +resident is common in western Kansas, is local and uncommon in the +east, and is found in agricultural land with scattered woody +vegetation.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 10 to 12 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground in woody or herbaceous +cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Wild Turkey</b>: <i>Meleagris gallopavo</i> Linnaeus.—Turkeys formerly +occurred as common residents in flood-plain woodland in eastern Kansas, +and their distribution extended through the west in riparian woodland. +Present population in eastern and southern sectors are partly the +result of introductions of birds from Missouri by humans in the 1950s. +Turkeys in southern Kansas are also present owing to natural dispersal +along the Arkansas and Medicine Lodge rivers of birds native to and +introduced into Oklahoma. No specimens of turkeys presently found in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span> +Kansas are available for examination but these birds probably are +referable to <i>M. g. silvestris</i> Vieillot, the trinomen applied to +turkeys in Missouri and northeastern Oklahoma.</p> + +<p>Turkeys from southern Texas recently have been liberated at several +localities in southern Nebraska; turkeys seen in extreme northern +Kansas are thus probably of these stocks. The name <i>M. g. intermedia</i> +Sennett is applicable to these birds.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—No information is available on the egg-season in +Kansas; turkeys have nested in southern Kansas within recent years, +however.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is perhaps 12 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, usually well-concealed +under woody vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>King Rail</b>: <i>Rallus elegans elegans</i> Audubon.—This summer resident is +locally common in marshlands. Nesting records or adults taken in the +breeding season are from Cheyenne, Meade, Pratt, Stafford, Cloud, +Riley, Douglas, Anderson, and Allen counties. Dates of arrival in +spring are recorded from April 7 to April 28; the median date is April +18. Departure in autumn is possibly as early as September in the +north, but four records are in the period October 12 to November 25. +The species occasionally can be found in winter (Douglas County, +December 28, 1915).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fourteen records of breeding span the period May +1 to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs (9 to 12; 4 records).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, under grassy or woody +cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Virginia Rail</b>: <i>Rallus limicola limicola</i> Vieillot.—This is an +uncommon summer resident, presumably throughout the State. The one +breeding record is from Morton County (May 24, 1950; Graber and +Graber, 1951). Dates of spring arrival are from April 19 to May 18; +dates of last observation in autumn are within the period September 1 +to October 30. A few birds overwinter in the southern part of the +State (Meade County, December and January).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding season.</i>—Eggs are laid probably in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Six to 12 eggs are laid (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in emergent aquatic plants, near the surface of the +water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Sora</b>: <i>Porzana carolina</i> (Linnaeus).—This is an uncommon summer +resident in marshland. Nesting records or specimens taken in the +breeding season come from Finney, Barton, Jefferson, Douglas, and +Miami counties. First dates of observation in spring are from April 11 +to May 9 (the median is May 1); dates when last observed in autumn are +from September 30 to November 9 (the median is October 18).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The one dated record comes from August.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is around 10 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are on the ground in grassy or herbaceous cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black Rail</b>: <i>Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis</i> (Gmelin).—This is an +uncommon summer resident in Kansas. Records of breeding and specimens +taken in the breeding season come from Finney, Meade, Riley, and +Franklin counties. Seasonal occurrence is within the period March 18 +to September 26.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in June.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span><i> +Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 8 eggs (6-10; 4). Nests are +on the ground under cover of marsh plants.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Common Gallinule</b>: <i>Gallinula chloropus cachinnans</i> Bangs.—This is a +local summer resident in marshlands. Nesting records and specimens +taken in the breeding season come from Barton, Stafford, Shawnee, +Douglas, and Coffey counties. Occurrence in the State is from April +through September.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 10 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are in marsh grasses and other emergent vegetation, not +necessarily over water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>American Coot</b>: <i>Fulica americana americana</i> Gmelin.—This is an +uncommon, local summer resident in wetlands in Kansas. Coots are at +greatest abundance in autumnal and spring migratory movements, but are +present all year. Nesting has been recorded from Barton, Stafford, +Doniphan, and Douglas counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-eight records of breeding span the period +May 11 to June 30; the mode to laying is May 25. Earlier breeding +probably occurs in the State.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 8 eggs (7.7, 5-12; 28).</p> + +<p>Nests are made of marsh vegetation (arrowhead, cattail) and float on +water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Snowy Plover</b>: <i>Charadrius alexandrinus tenuirostris</i> (Lawrence).—This +summer resident is fairly common on the saline flats of central and +south-central Kansas. Breeding records are from Barton, Stafford, +Meade, Clark, and Comanche counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifteen records show that eggs are laid in the +period May 25 to June 20; the peak of laying seems to be around June 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are deposited on bare sand.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Killdeer</b>: <i>Charadrius vociferus vociferus</i> Linnaeus.—This summer +resident is common throughout the State, in open country frequently +near wetlands. A few individuals overwinter in Kansas, especially in +the southern counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 29 records of breeding span the period March +21 to June 30; the modal date of laying is May 20. The distribution of +completed clutches (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>) suggests that Killdeers are here +double-brooded.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on the surface of the ground, frequently on gravel, +field stubble, plowed earth, and pasture.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Mountain Plover</b>: <i>Eupoda montana</i> (Townsend).—This is an uncommon and +local summer resident in western short-grass prairie. Breeding records +come from Greeley and Decatur counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Wolfe (1961) wrote that the species in Decatur +County laid eggs in the "last of May" in the early 1900s. The only +other dated breeding record is of downy young (KU 5512, 5513) taken on +June 21.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is usually 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid in slight depressions in the ground, "lined with a few +grass stems," according to Wolfe (1961).</p> + +<p class="species"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span> +<b>American Woodcock</b>: <i>Philohela minor</i> (Gmelin).—This is a rare summer +resident in wet woodlands in eastern Kansas. Arrival in the northeast +is from mid-March through April, with departures southward occurring +from September to December; the last date on which the species has +been seen in any year is December 5. There are nesting records only +from Woodson County; probably the species nests in Douglas County +(Fitch, 1958:194).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in April.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is usually 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are depressions in the dry ground within swampy places, usually +under heavy plant cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Long-billed Curlew</b>: <i>Numenius americanus americanus</i> Bechstein.—This +is an uncommon summer resident in western Kansas, in prairie +grassland. Breeding records are from Stanton and Morton counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid in slight depressions in the ground in grassy cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Upland Plover</b>: <i>Bartramia longicauda</i> (Bechstein).—This is a locally +common summer resident, most conspicuously in the Flint Hills, in +grassland. Breeding records are from Trego, Hamilton, Finney, Morton, +Meade, Marion, Chase, Kearny, Butler, Cowley, Douglas, Johnson, +Wabaunsee, Franklin, Anderson, and Coffey counties. Dates of first +arrival in spring span the period April 2 to May 5 (the median is +April 19), and dates last seen in autumn are from September 3 to +October 6 (the median is September 13).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixteen records of breeding span the period +April 21 to June 10; the modal date for egg-laying is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Usually 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Eggs are placed on vegetation on the ground surface, in pasture, field +stubble, or gravel, frequently under heavy plant cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Spotted Sandpiper</b>: <i>Actitis macularia</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is locally common on wet ground and along streams. Dates of +arrival in spring are from March 29 to April 30 (the median is April +24), and dates of last observation in autumn span the period September +2 to October 10 (the median is September 18).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Egg records are all from the northeastern +sector, and all are for May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Usually 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Nests are of plant fibers in depressions in dry ground on gravel +banks, pond or stream borders, or in pastureland.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>American Avocet</b>: <i>Recurvirostra americana</i> Gmelin.—This is a local +summer resident in marshes in central and western Kansas. There are +breeding records from Finney, Barton, and Stafford counties. Extreme +dates within which avocets have been recorded are April 2 to November 21.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Forty-one records of breeding span the period +May 11 to June 20 (26 records shown in <a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>); the modal date for +laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Usually 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the surface of the ground, near water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Wilson Phalarope</b>: <i>Steganopus tricolor</i> Vieillot.—This is a local +summer resident in marshes in central and western Kansas, but breeding +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span> +records are available only from Barton County. The earliest date of +occurrence is April 7 and the latest is October 14.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Ten records indicate eggs are laid in May and +June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Three or 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Nests are of plant stems in slight depressions in the ground.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Forster Tern</b>: <i>Sterna forsteri</i> Nuttall.—This is a local summer +resident in central Kansas, in marshes. There are breeding records +only from Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County (Zuvanich, 1963:1). First +dates of arrival in spring span the period April 9 to 29 (the median +is April 22), and apparent departure south in autumn occurs from +August 1 to November 1 (the median is September 3).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-three records of nesting are from late +May to mid-June; all records are for the year 1962.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Usually 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Nests are frequently floating platforms of vegetation (algae, cattail, +and the like) in shallow water; old nests of Pied-billed Grebes are +sometimes used as bases, and occasionally the birds nest on the +ground.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Least Tern</b>: <i>Sterna albifrons athalassos</i> Burleigh and Lowery.—This +tern is a local summer resident in marshes and along streams in +central and western Kansas. There are breeding records from Hamilton, +Meade, and Stafford counties. First dates of arrival in spring are +from May 14 to 30 (the median is May 28), and last dates of occurrence +in autumn are from August 9 to September 7 (the median is August 25).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-one records of egg-laying are from May 21 +to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>); the modal date for laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Two, 3 or 4 eggs are laid.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on the bare ground, usually a sandy surface, near water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black Tern</b>: <i>Chlidonias niger surinamensis</i> (Gmelin).—This is a local +summer resident in marshlands in central Kansas. There are breeding +records only from Barton County for 1961 and 1962; possibly the +species breeds in Douglas County. First dates of arrival in spring are +from May 3 to 29 (the median is May 14), and last dates of occurrence +in autumn are from September 2 to 30 (the median is September 11).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-four sets of eggs (Parmelee, 1961:25; M. +Schwilling) were complete between June 11 and July 12.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of dead plant matter placed on floating parts of emergent +green plants in shallow water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Rock Dove</b>: <i>Columba livia</i> Gmelin.—This species was introduced into +North America by man from European stocks of semi-domesticated +ancestry. "Pigeons" now are feral around towns and farms, and +cliffsides in the west, and are locally common permanent residents +throughout the State.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in every month of the year. The +main season of breeding is spring, and this is depicted in Figure 4; +the 26 records of breeding by feral birds are from January 11 to June +10, and the modal date of laying is probably April 5.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span> +<i>Number of eggs.</i>—Pigeons usually lay 2 eggs. Nests are of sticks +and other plant matter placed on ledges and recesses of buildings, +bridges, and cliffs, 10 to 60 feet high.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_4.png" width="419" height="609" alt="Fig 4.—Histograms representing breeding schedules" title="Fig 4.—Histograms representing breeding schedules" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of +the Least Tern, two doves, the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and two owls in +Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms. +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Mourning Dove</b>: <i>Zenaidura macroura marginella</i> (Woodhouse).—This is +a common summer resident throughout the State, in open country and woodland +edge. The species is also present in winter in much reduced numbers, +and many are transient in periods of migration. The time of greatest abundance +is from March to November. Doves of extreme eastern Kansas have +by some workers been referred to the subspecies <i>Z. m. carolinensis</i> (Linnaeus); +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span> +specimens at the Museum of Natural History indicate that these doves are +best regarded as members of populations of intermediate subspecific, or +morphologic, affinities, and that they are satisfactorily included within <i>Z. m. +marginella</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Numerous (983) records of egg-laying from north-central +Kansas are from April 1 to September 10; the modal date for laying +is May 15. Forty-three records of breeding from northeastern Kansas span +the period March 21 to August 10; the modal date of laying is May 15. +These samples are depicted in Figure 4.</p> + +<p>Both sets of data are shown here to illustrate some of the differences +between large and small samples of heterogeneous data. The small sample +tends to be incomplete both early and late in the season, and the mode tends +to be conspicuous. Yet, the modes for the two samples coincide. Also, the +data from the north-central sector indicate that egg-laying in March would +be found less than once in 983 records, but the small sample from the northeast +includes one record for March. Such an instance doubtless reflects, at +least in part, the fact that the two geographic sectors have different environmental +conditions, but it is likely that the instance also partly reflects the +unpredictable nature of sampling.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Doves lay two eggs. About one per cent of all nests +have 3 eggs, but it is not known for any of these whether one or two females +were responsible.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in a wide variety of plants, or on the ground. The +commonest plants are those used most frequently; in north-central Kansas +one-third of all nests are placed in osage orange trees, but in the northeast +elms are most frequently used. Nestsites are from zero to 15 feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-billed Cuckoo</b>: <i>Coccyzus americanus americanus</i> (Linnaeus).—This +is a common summer resident in riparian and second-growth habitats throughout +the State. Twenty-three dates of first arrival in spring fall between April 29 +and May 22 (the median is May 12), and nine dates of last observation in +autumn run from September 13 to October 12 (the median is September 23).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-nine records of egg-laying span the period May +11 to September 10 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>); the modal date of laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.1, 2-5; 54).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about six feet high (from four to 20 feet) in sumac, rose, +pawpaw, mulberry, elm, cottonwood, willow, redbud, oak, osage orange, walnut, +boxelder, usually on horizontal surfaces, and in heavy cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-billed Cuckoo</b>: <i>Coccyzus erythropthalmus</i> (Wilson).—This is an uncommon +summer resident, occurring in heavy riparian shrubbery and second-growth. +Breeding records are chiefly from eastern Kansas, but specimens +have been taken in the breeding season in all parts of the State. Eleven +dates of first arrival in spring are from May 7 to May 30 (the median is May +19), and four dates of last observed occurrence in autumn are between September +4 and October 7 (the average is September 18).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seventeen records of egg-laying are between May 21 +and August 10; the mode is at June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 to 3 eggs (2.5, 2-3; 13).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about four feet high in heavy cover in plum, elm, locust, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[Pg 617]</a></span> +and the like.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Roadrunner</b>: <i>Geococcyx californianus</i> (Lesson).—This is a local resident in +southern Kansas in xeric scrub or open edge habitats. Breeding records are +from Cowley and Sumner counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least from early April to mid-July.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 4).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground under plant cover, or occasionally low in +bushes.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Barn Owl</b>: <i>Tyto alba pratincola</i> Bonaparte.—This resident has a low density +throughout Kansas in open woodland and near agricultural enterprises of man.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The few records available indicate egg-laying occurs +at least from April to July; elsewhere the species is known to have a more +protracted breeding schedule.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (4.7, 2-6; 4).</p> + +<p>Nests are informal aggregations of sticks and litter placed in recesses in +stumps, hollow trees, rocky and earthen banks, and dwellings and outbuildings +of man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Screech Owl</b>: <i>Otus asio</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common resident in woodland +habitats throughout Kansas. <i>O. a. aikeni</i> (Brewster) occurs west of +Rawlins, Gove, and Comanche counties, and <i>O. a. naevius</i> (Gmelin) occurs +in the remainder of the State except for the eastern south-central sector, occupied +by <i>O. a. hasbroucki</i> Ridgway.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifteen records of egg-laying span the period March +20 to May 10; there is a strong mode at April 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.0, 3-6; 12).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in holes and recesses in trees, three to 20 feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Great Horned Owl</b>: <i>Bubo virginianus</i> (Gmelin).—This is a common resident +throughout Kansas, especially near woodlands and cliffsides. <i>B. v. virginianus</i> +(Gmelin) occurs east of a line through Rawlins and Meade counties +and <i>B. v. occidentalis</i> Stone occurs to the west.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-seven records of egg-laying span the period January +11 to March 20 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>); the modal date for laying is near February 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs (2.4, 2-3; 22).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 30 feet high in cottonwood, elm, osage orange, hackberry, +juniper, locust, cliffsides, and buildings of man. Old nests of hawks, +crows, and herons are frequently appropriated.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Burrowing Owl</b>: <i>Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea</i> (Bonaparte).—This is an +uncommon summer resident in western Kansas in grassland and open scrub +habitats. Stations of breeding all come from west of a line running through +Cloud and Barber counties. Arrival in spring is between March 22 and April +17 (the median for 7 records is April 9), and dates last seen in autumn span +the period September 8 to November 14 (the median for 9 records is September 26).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-one records of egg-laying run from April 11 +to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>); the mode of laying is May 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 7 or 8 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are informal aggregations of plant and animal fibers in chambers of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span> +earthen burrows usually made by badgers or prairie dogs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Barred Owl</b>: <i>Strix varia varia</i> Barton.—This is a local resident in eastern +Kansas, in heavy woodland. The species is said by implication (A. O. U. +Check-list, 1957) to occur in western Kansas, but no good breeding records +are available, all such records coming from and east of Morris County. +Specimens from southeastern Kansas show morphologic intergradation with +characters of <i>S. v. georgica</i> Latham.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Three records of egg-laying are for the first half of +March.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size in our sample is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are situated in cavities in trees or in old hawk or crow nests.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Long-eared Owl</b>: <i>Asio otus wilsonianus</i> (Lesson).—This owl is a local resident +or summer resident in woodland with heavy cover throughout the State. +Breeding records are available from Trego, Meade, Cloud, and Douglas +counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Four records of egg-laying are for the period March 11 +to April 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in hollows of trees, stumps, cliffsides, on the ground surface, +or in old hawk, crow, or magpie nests (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Short-eared Owl</b>: <i>Asio flammeus flammeus</i> (Pontoppidan).—This is a local +resident or summer resident in open, marshy, and edge habitats; records of +nesting come from Republic, Marshall, Woodson, and Bourbon counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in April.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 6 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are simple structures of sticks and grasses, placed on the ground in +grasses, frequently near cover of downed timber or bushes.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Saw-whet Owl</b>: <i>Aegolius acadicus acadicus</i> (Gmelin).—This is a rare and +local resident, in woodland. There is one breeding record (summer, 1951, +Wyandotte County; Tordoff, 1956:331).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Chuck-will's-widow</b>: <i>Caprimulgus carolinensis</i> Gmelin.—This is a locally +common summer resident in woodland habitats in eastern Kansas. Stations +of occurrence of actual breeding fall south of Wyandotte County and east of +Shawnee, Greenwood, Stafford, and Sedgwick counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Five records of breeding come between April 21 and +May 31, with a peak perhaps in the first third of May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on heavy leaf-litter, usually under shrubby cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Whip-poor-will</b>: <i>Caprimulgus vociferus vociferus</i> Wilson.—This is a local +summer resident in woodland in eastern Kansas. Breeding records are available +only from Doniphan, Leavenworth, and Douglas counties; there are sight +records in summer from Shawnee County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Two records of breeding cover the period May 21 to +June 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on heavy leaf-litter in shrubby cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Poor-will</b>: <i>Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii</i> (Audubon).—This is a common +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span> +summer resident in western Kansas, in xeric, scrubby woodland. Breeding +records are chiefly from west of Riley County, but there is one from Franklin +County; specimens taken in the breeding season are available from Doniphan, +Douglas, Anderson, Woodson, and Greenwood counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Six records of egg-laying are from the period +May 1 to June 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on the ground, with or without plant cover.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_12" id="Tbl_12"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 12.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Caprimulgids and Apodids in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Caprimulgids and Apodids"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Chuck-will's-widow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 20-May 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct.-Dec.</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. ?</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Whip-poor-will</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 6-Apr. 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 17</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10-Oct. 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 21</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Poor-will</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 20</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Common Nighthawk</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 29-May 23</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 13-Oct. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Chimney Swift</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2-Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 18-Oct. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Ruby-throated Hummingbird</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 2-May 19</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">May 6</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 3-Oct. 15</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 10</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Common Nighthawk</b>: <i>Chordeiles minor</i> (Forster).—This is a common +summer resident throughout Kansas. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_11">Table 11</a>. Three subspecies reach their distributional limits in the +State, <i>C. m. minor</i> (Forster) in northeastern Kansas, <i>C. m. +chapmani</i> Coues in southeastern Kansas, and <i>C. m. howelli</i> Oberholser +west of the Flint Hills.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period +May 11 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is June 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on the ground in rocky or gravelly areas, on unpaved +roads, or on flat, gravelled tops of buildings of man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Chimney Swift</b>: <i>Chaetura pelagica</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common +summer resident in eastern Kansas, around towns. Temporal occurrence +in the State is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_12">Table 12</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-six records of breeding span the period +May 11 to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is May 25 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are secured by means of a salivary cement to vertical surfaces, +usually near the inside tops of chimneys in dwellings of man, but +occasionally in abandoned buildings and hollow trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Ruby-throated Hummingbird</b>: <i>Archilochus colubris</i> (Linnaeus).—This is +an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, and is rare in the +west, in towns and along riparian vegetation. Temporal occurrence in +the State is listed in <a href="#Tbl_12">Table 12</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eight records of breeding fall within the period +May 21 to July 10; there seems to be a peak to laying in the last +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span> +third of June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 2 eggs.</p> + +<p>Most nests are on outer branches of shrubs and trees, in forks or on +pendant branches, 10 to 20 feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Belted Kingfisher</b>: <i>Megaceryle alcyon alcyon</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common throughout the State in streamside and lakeside +habitats. Timing of arrival and departure of the breeding birds is not +well-documented owing to the fact that the species is also transient +and a winter resident in the State.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least from April 21 to May 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is near 6 eggs.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid on the floor of the chamber at the inner end of a +horizontal tunnel excavated in an earthen bank. The tunnel is two to +six feet long and many tunnels are strewn with bones and other dietary +refuse.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-shafted Flicker</b>: <i>Colaptes auratus</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a +common resident and summer resident in eastern Kansas, meeting, +hybridizing with, and partly replaced by <i>Colaptes cafer</i> westward, in +open woodlands. <i>C. a. auratus</i> (Linnaeus) occurs in southeastern +Kansas, and <i>C. a. luteus</i> Bangs occurs in the remainder, intergrading +west of the Flint Hills with <i>C. cafer</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding season.</i>—Forty-eight records of breeding span the period +April 11 to June 10; the modal date for egg-laying is May 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>). +This sample is drawn from central and eastern Kansas, but includes +records of breeding by some birds identified in the field as <i>C. +cafer</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 6 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are piles of wood chips in cavities excavated in stumps and dead +limbs of trees such as willow, cottonwood, mulberry, and catalpa, +ordinarily about six feet above the ground.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-shafted Flicker</b>: <i>Colaptes cafer collaris</i> Vigors.—This +woodpecker is a common summer resident in western Kansas, meeting, +hybridizing with, and largely replaced by <i>C. auratus</i> in central and +eastern sectors. The vast majority of specimens taken in Kansas show +evidence of intergradation with <i>C. auratus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The few records of flickers identified in the +field as <i>C. cafer</i> have been combined with those of <i>C. auratus</i> +(<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is perhaps 6 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are like those of <i>C. auratus</i>.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Pileated Woodpecker</b>: <i>Dryocopus pileatus</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a rare +and local resident in the east, in heavy timber. The species has been +seen, chiefly in winter, in all sectors of eastern Kansas in recent +years, but actual records of breeding come only from Linn and Cherokee +counties. <i>D. p. abieticola</i> (Bangs) occurs in the northeast, and <i>D. +p. pileatus</i> (Linnaeus) in the southeast.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in April.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated 45 to 60 feet high in +main trunks of cottonwood, sycamore, and pin oak.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-bellied Woodpecker</b>: <i>Centurus carolinus zebra</i> (Boddaert).—In +woodland habitats this is a common resident in eastern Kansas, local +in the west.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-seven records of breeding span the period +March 1 to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is around +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span> +April 25.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated in elm, cottonwood, box +elder, ash, hickory, or willow, about 25 feet high (nine to 60 feet).</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_5.png" width="419" height="617" alt="Fig 5.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of the Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, woodpeckers, and flycatchers" title="Fig 5.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of the Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, woodpeckers, and flycatchers" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.—Histograms representing breeding schedules +of the Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, woodpeckers, and flycatchers +in Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms. +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-headed Woodpecker</b>: <i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i> (Linnaeus).—This +is a common summer resident and uncommon permanent resident in open +woodland; in winter it is noted especially around groves of oaks. <i>M. +e. erythrocephalus</i> (Linnaeus) occurs in eastern Kansas and <i>M. e. +caurinus</i> Brodkorb occurs in central and western Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-eight records of breeding span the period +May 1 to August 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 25 feet high in +willow, cottonwood, and elm.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Hairy Woodpecker</b>: <i>Dendrocopos villosus villosus</i> (Linnaeus).—This +resident is common in woodlands throughout the State.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-eight records of breeding span the period +March 21 to May 30 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 13 feet high in +elm, honey locust, and ash.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Downy Woodpecker</b>: <i>Dendrocopos pubescens</i> (Linnaeus).—This resident +is common in woodland throughout the State. <i>D. p. pubescens</i> +(Linnaeus) occurs in southeastern Kansas, and <i>D. p. medianus</i> +(Swainson) in the remainder.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Forty-one records of breeding span the period +April 11 to June 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are of wood chips in cavities excavated about 20 feet high in +willow, honey locust, ash, apple, and pear.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Eastern Kingbird</b>: <i>Tyrannus tyrannus</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common throughout the east; it is local in the west but +there maintains conspicuous numbers in favorable places, such as +riparian woodland; preferred habitat in eastern sectors is typically +in woodland edge. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding season.</i>—Sixty-three dates of egg-laying span the period +May 11 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for completion of clutches +is June 15. Nearly 70 per cent of all eggs are laid in June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.3, 2-3; 10). Clutches are +probably larger than the average in May and smaller in June and July.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in crotches, terminal forks, and some on tops of +limbs, about 16 feet high, in elm, sycamore, honey locust, willow, +oak, apple, and red cedar.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Western Kingbird</b>: <i>Tyrannus verticalis</i> Say.—This summer resident is +common in the west, but is local and less abundant in the east. +Preferred habitat is in woodland edge, open country with scattered +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span> +trees, and in towns. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>. +<i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 124 dates of egg-laying span the period May +11 to July 31 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is June 15. More +than 70 per cent of all clutches are laid in June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 8).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in crotches, lateral forks, or on horizontal limbs, +about 26 feet high, in cottonwood, elm, osage orange, hackberry, honey +locust, mulberry, oak, and on power poles.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Scissor-tailed Flycatcher</b>: <i>Muscivora forficata</i> (Gmelin).—This +summer resident is common in central and southern Kansas; it is rare +to absent in the northwestern sector, and is local in the northeast. +Preferred habitat is in open country with scattered trees. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-eight records of breeding occur from May +21 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is June 25. The +present sample of records is small, and there is otherwise no evidence +suggesting that the breeding schedule of this species differs from +those of the other two kingbirds in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.2, 2-5; 17). Mean +clutch-size for the first peak of laying shown in Figure 5 is 4.0 +eggs; that for the second peak is 2.7 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks or on horizontal limbs of osage orange, red +haw, elm, and on crosspieces of power poles, about 15 feet high +(ranging from five to 35 feet).</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_13" id="Tbl_13"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 13.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Flycatchers in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Flycatchers"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp bl">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Eastern Kingbird</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 22-Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 1-Sept. 24</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Western Kingbird</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 23-Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 1-Sept. 26</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Scissor-tailed Flycatcher</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 15-Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 21-Oct. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Great Crested Flycatcher</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 15-May 4</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 1-Sept. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Eastern Phoebe</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 3-Mar. 31</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 3-Oct. 27</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Say Phoebe</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 4-Apr. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Acadian Flycatcher</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 30-May 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 9</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 3-Sept. 17</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Eastern Wood Pewee</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2-May 28</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 30-Sept. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 6</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Great Crested Flycatcher</b>: <i>Myiarchus crinitus boreus</i> Bangs.—This +summer resident is common in eastern Kansas, but is less numerous in +the west. Preferred habitat is in woodland and woodland edge. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The twenty-two records of egg-laying are in the +period May 11 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is +June 5. The shape of the histogram (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>) indicates that some +breeding for which records are lacking occurs earlier in May.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span> +<i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 4-6; 6).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in hollows and crevices in elm, maple, cottonwood, +willow, pear, apple, oak, drain spouts, and, occasionally, "bird +houses" made by man, about 17 feet high (four to 45 feet high).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Eastern Phoebe</b>: <i>Sayornis phoebe</i> (Latham).—This summer resident is +common in eastern Kansas, but is local in the west. Preferred habitat +is in woodland edge and riparian groves, where most birds are found +near bridges, culverts, or isolated outbuildings of man. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 136 records of breeding span the period +March 21 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is April +25 (for first clutches) and June 5 (for second clutches); this species +seems to be the only double-brooded flycatcher in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 to 5 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 58). The +seasonal progression in clutch-size can be summarized as follows:</p> + +<table summary="Clutch-size"> +<tr> + <td>March 21-April 10:</td> + <td>4.0 eggs (2 records)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>April 11-May 10:</td> + <td>4.4 eggs (37 records)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>May 11-June 10:</td> + <td>3.9 eggs (10 records)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>June 11-July 20:</td> + <td>3.6 eggs (9 records)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Nests are placed on horizontal, vertical, or overhanging surfaces of +culverts, bridges, houses of man, earthen cliffs, rocky ledges, and +entrances to caves, at an average height of 7.8 feet.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Say Phoebe</b>: <i>Sayornis saya saya</i> (Bonaparte).—This is a common summer +resident in western Kansas, breeding at least east to Cloud County, in +open country. Occurrence in time is listed in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Ten records of breeding fall in the period May 1 +to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is in late May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed under bridges, in houses, or on cliffsides and +earthen banks.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Acadian Flycatcher</b>: <i>Empidonax virescens</i> (Vieillot).—This is an +uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in woodland and riparian +habitats. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The available records of breeding by this +species in Kansas are too few to indicate reliably the span of the +breeding season. Information on hand suggests that Acadian Flycatchers +lay most eggs in late May or early June, and this places their nesting +peak some 10 to 20 days earlier than peaks for Wood Pewees and Traill +Flycatchers.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Five records show 3 eggs each.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about six feet high on terminal twigs of oak and +alder.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Traill Flycatcher</b>: <i>Empidonax traillii traillii</i> (Audubon).—This +flycatcher has only recently been found nesting within Kansas; the +species is not included in analyses above. Twenty-three nesting +records are here reported, for the species in Kansas City, Jackson and +Platte counties, Missouri. Most of these records are from within a few +hundred yards of the political boundary of Kansas. The Traill +Flycatcher is a local summer resident in extreme northeastern Kansas +(Doniphan County), in wet woodland and riparian groves.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span> Temporal +occurrence is not well-documented; first dates run from May 19 to 25; +the last dates of annual occurrence, possibly not all for transients, +run from August 14 to September 24.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-three records of breeding are from May 21 +to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is June 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.4, 2-5; 22).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks, crotches, and occasionally near trunks, +chiefly of willow, from 4.5 to 12 feet high (averaging six feet).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Eastern Wood Pewee</b>: <i>Contopus virens</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common in the east, but is rare in the west. Preferred +habitat is in edge of forest and woodland. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_13">Table 13</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Nineteen dates of egg-laying span the period +June 1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the modal date for completion of clutches +is June 15, and more than half of all clutches are laid in the period +June 11 to 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on upper surfaces of horizontal limbs of oak, elm, +and sycamore, about 22 feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Horned Lark</b>: <i>Eremophila alpestris</i> (Linnaeus).—Breeding populations +are resident in open country with short or cropped vegetation. <i>E. a. +praticola</i> (Henshaw) lives in the east, and <i>E. a. enthymia</i> +(Oberholser) in the west.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-one records of breeding span the period +March 11 to June 10 (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is March +25. The histogram (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>) is constructed on a clearly inadequate +sample, and records of breeding both earlier and later are to be +expected. The peak of first nesting activity is probably reasonably +well-indicated by the available records.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.6, 3-5; 16).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, usually amid short vegetation such as +cropped prairie grassland or cultivated fields (notably soybeans and +wheat), and occasionally on bare ground.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_14" id="Tbl_14"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 14.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Swallows in Kansas</div> + +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Swallows"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Tree Swallow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 5-Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 24</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 30-Oct. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Bank Swallow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 9-May 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 7</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 3-Sept. 20</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Rough-winged Swallow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 29-May 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 23-Oct. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Cliff Swallow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 14-May 27</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 3-Oct. 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Barn Swallow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 31-Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 22-Oct. 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Purple Martin</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 5-Apr. 9</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 26</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Aug. 28-Sept. 23</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 3</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + +<p class="species"><b>Tree Swallow</b>: <i>Iridoprocne bicolor</i> (Vieillot).—This is a summer +resident in extreme northeastern Kansas; nesting birds have been found +only along the Missouri River in Doniphan County. Habitat is in open +woodland, and in Kansas is always associated with water. Temporal +occurrence in the State is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[Pg 626]</a></span> +<i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eight records of breeding span the period May 21 +to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 25. The small sample +may not accurately reflect the peak of nesting activity.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs (5.5, 5-6; 4).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed chiefly in abandoned woodpecker diggings in willows, +four to ten feet high, over water.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bank Swallow</b>: <i>Riparia riparia riparia</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common wherever cut-banks suitable for nesting activities +allow relatively undisturbed behavior. The species is almost always +found near water. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty records of breeding span the period May 11 +to June 20 (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>); the modal date for completion of clutches is June +5.</p> + +<p>Nearly 75 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May 21 to +June 10. Under unusual circumstances time of breeding can be greatly +delayed; such circumstances occurred in 1961 in many places along the +Kansas River in eastern Kansas, where the soft, sandy-clay banks were +repeatedly washed away in May and June by high water undercutting the +cliffs. Bank Swallows attempted to work on burrows in late May, but +stabilization of the banks occurred only by late June, and the peak of +egg-laying for many colonies was around July 12. Records for 1961 are +omitted from the sample used here (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 3-7; 60). Yearly +clutch-size at one colony 3 miles east of Lawrence, Douglas County, is +as follows:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Yearly clutch-size"> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">1959:</td> + <td class="text_lf">5.2, 19 records</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">1960:</td> + <td class="text_lf">5.0, 12 records</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">1961:</td> + <td class="text_lf">3.7, 11 records</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">1962:</td> + <td class="text_lf">4.8, 18 records</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The sample for 1961 is that taken in early July when breeding occurred +after a delay of more than a month, as described above.</p> + +<p>Nesting chambers are excavated in sandy-clay banks, piles of sand, +piles of sawdust, or similar sites, at ends of tunnels one to more +than three feet in depth from the vertical face of the substrate.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Rough-winged Swallow</b>: <i>Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis</i> +(Audubon).—This summer resident is common in most places; it is not +restricted to a single habitat, but needs some sort of earthen or +other substrate with ready-made burrows for nesting. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 14 records of breeding are in the period May +11 to June 30; the modal date of egg-laying is June 5. Seventy per +cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 21 to June 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.0, 4-6; 4).</p> + +<p>Nesting chambers are in old burrows of Bank Swallows, Kingfishers, +rodents, or in crevices remaining subsequent to decomposition of roots +of plants; frequently this swallow uses a side chamber off the main +tunnel, near the mouth, of a burrow abandoned or still in use by the +other species mentioned above.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Cliff Swallow</b>: <i>Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota</i> (Vieillot).—This +common summer resident occurs wherever suitable sites for nests are +found. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 610 records of breeding span the period +May 21 to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>); the modal date for egg-laying +is June 5, and 85 per cent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[Pg 627]</a></span> +of all clutches are laid from May 21 to June 10. Such +synchronous breeding activity is probably a function of strong +coloniality with attendant "social facilitation" of breeding behavior.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.9, 3-7; 7).</p> + +<p>Nests are built in mud jugs plastered to vertical rock faces, bridges, +culverts, and buildings from a few feet to more than 100 feet above +the ground.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_6.png" width="299" height="615" alt="Fig 6.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of the Horned Lark and swallows" title="Fig 6.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of the Horned Lark and swallows" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.—Histograms representing breeding schedules +of the Horned Lark and swallows in Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for +explanation of histograms. +</div> + + +<p class="species"><b>Barn Swallow</b>: <i>Hirundo rustica erythrogaster</i> Boddaert.—This summer +resident is common in most habitats, occurring chiefly about +cultivated fields and pastures. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-three records of breeding in northern +Kansas span the period May 1 to July 31 (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>); the modal date for +completion of first clutches is May 25, and that for the second is +July 5. The schedule of breeding in southern Kansas (chiefly Cowley +County), to judge by 41 records, conforms to the one for northern +Kansas: the season spans the period May 1 to August 10, and the modal +date for first clutches is May 15. The ten-day lag in peak of first +clutches of the northern over the southern sample is about what would +be expected on the basis of differential inception of the biological +growing season from south to north each spring.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size does not vary geographically, to judge +only from the present samples, and all are included in the listing to +follow. The modal size of clutches is 5 eggs (4.7, 3-7; 43); clutches +from the period May 1 to 30 show an average of 5.0 eggs, from June 1 +to 20 an average of 4.9 eggs, and from June 21 to August 10, 4.4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are usually placed on horizontal surfaces in barns, sheds, or +other such structures; more rarely they are put on bridges, and less +frequently yet on vertical walls of culverts or sheds.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Purple Martin</b>: <i>Progne subis subis</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident +is common in the east but rare in the west. The only documented colony +west of the 99th meridian was in Oberlin, Decatur County (Wolfe, +1961), occupied some 50 years ago. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_14">Table 14</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The breeding season spans the period May 11 to +June 20 (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5, and 57 per +cent of all clutches are laid in the period June 1 to 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.2, 3-6; 33). Mean +clutch-size is 4.3 eggs in May and 4.2 in June. Adults tend to lay +clutches of 5 eggs and first-year birds clutches of 4. Replacement +clutches by birds of any age tend to be of 3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are built of sticks and mud placed in cavities; in Kansas these +are almost always in colony houses erected by man. Use of holes and +crevices in old buildings is known to have occurred on the campus of +The University of Kansas in the nineteen thirties (W. S. Long, 1936, +MS), in Oberlin, Decatur County in 1908-1914 (Wolfe, <i>loc. cit.</i>), and +presently in Ottawa, Franklin County (Hardy, 1961).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Blue Jay</b>: <i>Cyanocitta cristata bromia</i> Oberholser.—This resident is +common throughout Kansas in woodland habitats. Most first-year birds +move south in winter, but adults tend to be strictly permanent +residents. Groups of ten to more than 50 individuals can be seen +moving south in October and north in April. All individuals taken from +such mobile groups are in first-year feather.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eighty-three records of breeding span the period +April 10 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is May 15, +and about 50 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May +11-31.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[Pg 629]</a></span> +<i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-6; 15).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed from eight to 70 feet high (averaging 24 feet) in +forks, crotches, and on horizontal limbs of elm, maple, osage orange, +cottonwood, and ash.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-billed Magpie</b>: <i>Pica pica hudsonia</i> (Sabine).—This resident is +common in western Kansas, along riparian groves and woodland edge. +Records of nesting are from as far east as Clay County. Wolfe (1961) +outlines the history of magpies in Decatur County as follows: the +species was purported to have appeared in rural districts near Oberlin +in 1918, but Wolfe saw the birds only by 1921, at which time he also +found the first (used) nests. The first reported occupied nest was one +in Hamilton County in 1925 (Linsdale, 1926). Earlier records, chiefly +of occurrence in winter, can be found in Goss (1891).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fourteen records of breeding span the period +April 11 to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—There are no data on clutch-size in Kansas; +elsewhere Black-billed Magpies lay 3 to 9 eggs, and clutches of 7 are +found most frequently (Linsdale, 1937:104).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed from 10 to 18 feet high (averaging 13 feet) in forks +or lateral masses of branches in cottonwood, box elder, ash, and +willow.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>White-necked Raven</b>: <i>Corvus cryptoleucus</i> Couch.—This summer resident +is common in western Kansas, probably occupying locally favorable +sites in prairie grassland and woodland edge west of a line from Smith +to Seward counties. The species is known to nest in Cheyenne, Sherman, +and Finney counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There are few data from Kansas; Aldous (1942) +states that the birds begin activities leading to building sometime in +April in Oklahoma; the peak of egg-laying probably occurs in May, +which coincides with the records from Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Outside Kansas, this species lays 3 to 7 eggs; +these figures seem applicable to Kansas, where brood sizes are known +to run from 1 to 7 young.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 20 feet high in cottonwood and other trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Common Crow</b>: <i>Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos</i> Brehm.—This +resident is common in most of Kansas, but numbers are lower in the +west. Distribution in the breeding season is west at least to +Cheyenne, Logan, and Meade counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-nine records of breeding span the period +March 10 to May 31 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is April 5, +and 60 per cent of all eggs are laid between March 21 and April 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 19).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 20 feet high in crotches near trunks or heavy +branches of such trees as red cedar, elm, oak, osage orange, +cottonwood, honey locust, box elder, and pine.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-capped Chickadee</b>: <i>Parus atricapillus</i> Linnaeus.—This resident +is common north of the southernmost tier of counties, in forested and +wooded areas. <i>P. a. atricapillus</i> Linnaeus occurs chiefly east of the +98th meridian, and <i>P. a. septentrionalis</i> Harris occurs west of this; +a broad zone of intergradation exists between these two subspecies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[Pg 630]</a></span> +<i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period +March 21 to June 10 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for laying is April 15, +and 64 per cent of all eggs are laid between April 11 and 30.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.4, 4-7; 10).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about ten feet high (ranging from four to +20 feet) in willow, elm, cottonwood, honey locust, apricot, or +nestboxes placed by man.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_7.png" width="462" height="632" alt="Fig 7.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of crows, chickadees, wrens, thrashers, thrushes, and their allies" title="Fig 7.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of crows, chickadees, wrens, thrashers, thrushes, and their allies" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.—Histograms representing breeding schedules +of crows, chickadees, wrens, thrashers, thrushes, and their allies in +Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms. +</div> + + +<p class="species"><b>Carolina Chickadee</b>: <i>Parus carolinensis atricapilloides</i> Lunk.—This +resident is common in the southernmost tier of counties, from Comanche +County east, in forest and woodland edge. Actual records of breeding +are from Barber and Montgomery counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—There are no data on breeding of this species in +Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities of trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Tufted Titmouse</b>: <i>Paras bicolor</i> Linnaeus.—This resident is common in +the eastern half of Kansas, in woodlands. Specimens taken in the +breeding season and nesting records come from east of a line running +through Cloud, Harvey, and Sumner counties, and the species probably +breeds in Barber County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period +March 21 to June 10 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for laying is April 25, +and 54 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period April 11 to 30.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 to 5 eggs (4.5; 6).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about 12 feet high (ranging from three to +30 feet) in elm, oak, cottonwood, hackberry, redbud, osage orange, and +nestboxes placed by man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>White-breasted Nuthatch</b>: <i>Sitta carolinensis</i> Latham.—This resident +in eastern Kansas, in well-developed woodland, is uncommon. <i>S. c. +cookei</i> Oberholser occurs east of a line running through Douglas and +Cherokee counties, on the basis of specimens taken in the breeding +season and actual nesting records, and <i>S. c. carolinensis</i> Latham +occurs in Montgomery and Labette counties. <i>S. c. nelsoni</i> Mearns has +been recorded in Morton County but probably does not breed there.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in March and April; young have +been recorded being fed by parents throughout May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is between 5 and 10 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about 30 feet high in elm and sycamore.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>House Wren</b>: <i>Troglodytes aedon parkmanii</i> Audubon.—This summer +resident is common in the east and uncommon in the west. Preferred +habitat is in woodland, brushland, and urban parkland. House Wrens +arrive in eastern Kansas in the period April 3 to 27 (the median is +April 19), and are last seen in autumn in the period September 19 to +October 13 (the median is September 30).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 116 records of breeding span the period +April 11 to July 31 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date of laying is May 20. +About 45 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period May 11 to 31.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 7 eggs (5.8, 3-7; 20). Clutches laid +in May average 6.1 eggs (4-7; 14); those laid in June and July average +5.0 eggs (3-7; 6).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about ten feet high (ranging from two to +50 feet) in cottonwood, elm, willow, and a wide variety of structures, +mostly nestboxes, built by man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bewick Wren</b>: <i>Thryomanes bewickii</i> Audubon.—This wren is an uncommon +resident in Kansas, except for the northeastern quarter, in woodland understory +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span> +and brushland. <i>T. b. bewickii</i> Audubon occurs north and +east of stations in Riley, Pottawatomie, Douglas, and Linn counties, +and <i>T. b. cryptus</i> Oberholser is found south of stations in Greeley, +Stafford, and Linn counties; a zone of intergradation occurs between +the two named populations. The species occupies marginal habitat in +most of Kansas and periodically is reduced in numbers by severe +winters.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period +March 21 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for first clutches is +April 15 and for second clutches June 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.5, 5-7; 12).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in crevices about five feet high (ranging from zero +to nine feet) in trees (oak, cherry, and pear), boulders, and a wide +variety of structures, some of them nestboxes, built by man; +appropriation and modification of nests of Barn Swallows is known to +occur.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Carolina Wren</b>: <i>Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus</i> Latham.—This +common resident of southeastern Kansas in woodland understory and +brushland is uncommon in the northeastern and south-central sectors. +Stations of breeding all fall east of a line running through Doniphan, +Riley, and western Reno counties. North and west of southeastern +Kansas the Carolina Wren is in marginal habitat and periodically is +reduced in numbers by severe winters.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fourteen records of breeding span the period +April 11 to August 10; the modal date for laying is April 15, to judge +only from the present sample. The species probably breeds also in late +March and early April.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-8; 9).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed near the ground in stumps, and a wide variety of +structures built by man, or in crevices in earthen banks.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Long-billed Marsh Wren</b>: <i>Telmatodytes palustris dissaëptus</i> +(Bangs).—This is an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas in and +around marshes. Presumably breeding individuals occur east of stations +in Doniphan, Shawnee, and Sedgwick counties, but actual records of +breeding come only from Doniphan County (Linsdale, 1928:505). First +dates of arrival in spring run from April 19 to 29 (the median is +April 22), and dates of last autumnal occurrence are from September 26 +to October 31 (the median is October 8).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid from May to August.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 or 6 eggs; the range is from 3 to +10 (Welter, 1935).</p> + +<p>Nests are woven of broad-bladed grasses, usually no farther than two +feet from water or mud, suspended in vertical plant stalks or branches +in marshes.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Short-billed Marsh Wren</b>: <i>Cistothorus platensis stellaris</i> +(Nauman).—This rare and irregular summer resident in northeastern +Kansas occurs in wet meadowland. Breeding records are available from +Douglas and Coffey counties. Temporal occurrence in the State is at +least from April 29 to October 25; early dates are most likely of +transients.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in late July and August.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 6 or 7 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are woven of plant fibers and placed in vertically-running +stalks and stems of grasses and short, woody vegetation, within two +feet of the ground.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[Pg 633]</a></span> +<b>Rock Wren</b>: <i>Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus</i> +(Say).—This species is a common summer resident in western Kansas, in +open, rocky country. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual +nests found come from west of stations in Decatur, Trego, and Comanche +counties. Dates of occurrence are from April 2 to October 25. +Autumnal, postbreeding movement brings the species east at least to +Cloud County (October 7, 8, and 12) and Douglas County (October 25).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixteen records of breeding span the period May +11 to July 20; the modal date for egg-laying is June 15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.6, 3-7; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in holes in rocks, occasionally in rodent burrows, +from ground level to 80 feet high on faces of cliffs, but there +averaging about 20 feet.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Northern Mockingbird</b>: <i>Mimus polyglottos</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a +common resident in parkland and brushy savannah throughout Kansas. <i>M. +p. polyglottos</i> (Linnaeus) occurs in the east, and <i>M. p. leucopterus</i> +(Vigors) in the west; a broad zone of intergradation exists between +the two. Most specimens from Kansas are of intermediate morphology.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-nine records of breeding span the period +April 21 to July 31 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for first clutches is +June 5, but is weakly indicated in the histogram (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.5, 3-5; 27). Size of +clutch does not vary seasonally or geographically in the present +sample.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about four feet high (two to 10 feet) in osage +orange, red cedar, mulberry, scotch pine, catalpa, cottonwood, rose, +and arbor vitae.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Catbird</b>: <i>Dumetella carolinensis</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common summer +resident in the eastern half of Kansas, but is local in the west, in +and near woodland edge and second-growth. First dates of arrival in +spring are from April 25 to May 14 (the median is May 6), and last +dates of autumnal occurrence are between September 20 and November 16 +(the median is September 26).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seventy-seven records of breeding span the +period May 11 to July 31 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is +May 25, and 57 per cent of all clutches are laid from May 21 to June +10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.3, 2-5; 43). Clutches laid +between May 11 and June 10 tend to be of 4 eggs (3.5, 2-5; 27), and +clutches laid between June 11 and July 31 tend to be of 3 eggs (2.9, +2-4; 16).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about four feet high in shrubs (rose, lilac, plum, +elderberry) and about seven feet high in trees (red cedar, honey +locust, willow, elm, apple, and in vines in such trees).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Brown Thrasher</b>: <i>Toxostoma rufum</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common summer +resident in woodland understory, edge, and second-growth. <i>T. r. +rufum</i> (Linnaeus) occurs in eastern Kansas, to the western edge of the +Flint Hills, and <i>T. r. longicauda</i> Baird occurs west of stations in +Decatur, Lane, and Meade counties; the intervening populations are of +intermediate morphologic character. Some individuals overwinter in +Kansas, but most are regular migrants and summer residents, arriving +in spring from April 1 to April 25 (the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span> +median is April 19), and departing in autumn between September 19 and +October 13 (the median is September 28).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 237 records of breeding span the period May +1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is May 15, and +one-third of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs, ranging from 2 to 5. +Seasonal variation and mean values are shown in <a href="#Tbl_15">Table 15</a>.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about four feet high (ranging from 1<small><sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub></small> to 15 feet) +in osage orange, elm, ornamental evergreens, gooseberry, barberry, +honey locust, cottonwood, red cedar, rose, plum, honeysuckle, spirea, +arbor vitae, willow, oak, apple, dogwood, and maple.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_15" id="Tbl_15"></a> +<div class="center bold smcap">Table 15.—Seasonal Variation in Clutch-size of the Brown Thrasher</div> +<div class='center'> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Variation in Clutch-size"> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdbt text_lf smcap">Time</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Mean clutch-size</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Number of records</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">May 1-10</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.3</td> + <td class="brdlf center">15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">May 10-20</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.9</td> + <td class="brdlf center">38</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">May 21-31</td> + <td class="brdlf center">4.1</td> + <td class="brdlf center">13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">June 1-10</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.5</td> + <td class="brdlf center">13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">June 11-20</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.5</td> + <td class="brdlf center">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">June 21-30</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3.4</td> + <td class="brdlf center">9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">July 1-10</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3</td> + <td class="brdlf center">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">July 11-20</td> + <td class="brdlf center">3</td> + <td class="brdlf center">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt">All:</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt center">3.63</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt center">102</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + +<p class="species"><b>Robin</b>: <i>Turdus migratorius migratorius</i> Linnaeus.—This summer +resident is common in the east, and is locally common in the west. +Some individuals, usually in small groups, can be seen throughout the +winter in eastern Kansas, and their presence makes it difficult to +document dates of arrival and departure of the strictly summer +resident birds; these can be said to arrive in March and to leave in +October, but these indications are the barest approximations.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 334 records of breeding span the period +April 1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date of laying of first +clutches is April 25, but subsequent peaks are indistinct. Nearly half +of all eggs are laid in the period April 11 to 30.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.6, 3-6; 57). Clutches laid +prior to May 10 average 3.6 eggs (3-6; 47), and those laid subsequent +to May 10 average 3.5 eggs (3-4; 10).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 13 feet from the ground (ranging from two to 30 +feet) in elm, ornamental conifers, fruit trees, cottonwood, mulberry, +walnut, hackberry, oak, ash, maple, osage orange, and coffeeberry. +Robins rarely nest in manmade structures, such as on rafters in sheds +and barns, on bridge stringers, and, exceptionally, on electrical +utility pole installations.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Wood Thrush</b>: <i>Hylocichla mustelina</i> (Gmelin).—This is an uncommon +summer resident in eastern Kansas, presently absent from the State +west of stations in Cloud and Barber counties. Preferred habitat is +found in understory of forest and woodland. Wood Thrushes appear to +have nested in small numbers as far west as Oberlin, Decatur County +(Wolfe, 1961), some 50 years ago, but have since disappeared from such +places, probably as a result +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span> +of progressive modification of watershed and riparian timber by man. First +dates of arrival in spring are from April 19 to May 20 (the median is May 9), +and departure southward is in the period September 3 to October 1 (the median +is September 15).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-eight records of breeding fall in the +period May 11 to August 10 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is +June 5 for first clutches. Fifty-five per cent of all eggs are laid +between May 21 and June 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.4, 3-4; 9).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 11 feet high in elm, dogwood, willow, linden, +and oak.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Eastern Bluebird</b>: <i>Sialia sialis sialis</i> (Linnaeus).—This locally +common resident and summer resident in eastern Kansas, is only casual +west of Comanche County, in open parkland and woodland edge.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-four records of breeding span the period +April 1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for first clutches is +April 25 and for second clutches is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.9, 4-6; 15).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cavities about eight feet high in trees (elm, box +elder, fruit trees, willow, and ash), and about four feet high in +stumps, fence posts, and nestboxes placed by man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Blue-gray Gnatcatcher</b>: <i>Polioptila caerulea caerulea</i> +(Linnaeus).—This summer resident is common in eastern Kansas in +brushy woodland, edge, and second growth. Specimens taken in the +breeding season and nesting records come from east of stations in +Riley and Cowley counties, but there is a breeding specimen from +Oklahoma just south of Harper County, Kansas. The species is present +from March 30 to September 18.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twelve records of breeding span the period April +20 to June 20; the modal date for egg-laying is May 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks or on limbs about 17 feet high in oak, elm, +honey locust, red haw, pecan, and walnut.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Cedar Waxwing</b>: <i>Bombycilla cedrorum</i> Vieillot.—This waxwing is a +rare, local, and highly irregular summer resident in northeastern +Kansas, in woodland and forest edge habitats. The known nesting +stations are in Wyandotte and Shawnee counties; six nests have been +found in the period 1949 to 1960. The species has been recorded in all +months.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in June and early July.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed four to 24 feet high in a variety of deciduous and +coniferous trees and shrubs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Loggerhead Shrike</b>: <i>Lanius ludovicianus</i> Linnaeus.—This common +resident and summer resident favors open country with scattered shrubs +and thickets. <i>L. l. migrans</i> Palmer occurs in eastern Kansas, west to +about the 96th meridian, and <i>L. l. excubitorides</i> Grinnell occurs in +western Kansas, east to about the 100th meridian; populations of +intermediate character occupy central Kansas. These shrikes tend to be +resident in southern counties, but are migratory in the north. Dates +of spring arrival in Cloud County are between March 9 and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span> +31 (the median is March 21) and the birds leave southward between October 19 +and December 19 (the median is November 1).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-seven records of breeding span the period +April 1 to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is April +15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.3, 4-7; 32). There is no +seasonal variation in the sample.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about six feet high (ranging from four to 10 feet) in +osage orange, small pines, honeysuckle vines, and elm.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Starling</b>: <i>Sturnus vulgaris</i> Linnaeus.—This species is a common +resident in towns and around farms, foraging in open fields of various +kinds. Starlings (introduced into North America from European stocks +of <i>S. v. vulgaris</i>) first appeared in eastern Kansas in the early +1930s and were established as successful residents by 1935 or 1936. +Occupancy of Kansas to the west took only a few years. There are no +specimens taken in the breeding season or actual nesting records from +southwest of Ellis and Stafford counties; Starlings seem to be +resident in Cheyenne County, but no nesting record exists from there.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-seven records of breeding span the period +March 1 to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for first clutches is +April 15, and for second clutches is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 4-8; 19).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 22 feet high (ranging from eight to 50 feet) in +crevices in elm, locust, hackberry, nestboxes placed by man, and in a +variety of other structures of man.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-capped Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo atricapilla</i> Woodhouse.—This was a summer +resident, apparently of limited distribution but in good numbers, in +Comanche County, in oak woodland and brushland edge. No specimens have +been taken in Kansas since 1885.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are probably laid in May and June. Goss +(1891:351) found a nest under construction on May 11, 1885, and this +is the only nesting record of the species in the State.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed low, perhaps around four feet high, in deciduous +trees and shrubs (Davie, <i>op. cit.</i>).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>White-eyed Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo griseus noveboracensis</i> (Gmelin).—This is a +local summer resident in eastern Kansas, in woodland and forest edge. +Stations of breeding occurrence are in Doniphan, Douglas, Johnson, +Anderson, Labette, and Montgomery counties. The species is present +within the extreme dates of April 23 to October 5 (<a href="#Tbl_16">Table 16</a>).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Ten records of breeding span the period May 10 +to June 30; the modal date for egg-laying is June 10. The present +sample is not adequate to indicate extreme or modal dates with +reasonable accuracy.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed relatively low in forks in trees and shrubs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bell Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo bellii bellii</i> Audubon.—This summer resident is +common in riparian thickets and second-growth scrub. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_16">Table 16</a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[Pg 637]</a></span> +<i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixty-six records of breeding span the period +May 1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>); the modal date for egg-laying +is May 25, and a little under 40 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period +May 21-31. Renesting following disruption of first nests is regular, and the +small peak in the histogram in the period June 11-20 is representative of this.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.6, 3-6; 21). Clutches in +May have an average of 3.7 eggs, and those in June and July 3.6 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about two feet high (ranging from one to five feet) +in terminal or lateral forks of small branches in elm, hackberry, +osage orange, coralberry, dogwood, plum, honey locust, mulberry, +willow, cottonwood, and box elder.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-throated Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo flavifrons</i> Vieillot.—This is a rare +and local summer resident in deciduous forest and woodland in eastern +Kansas. Stations of breeding occurrence fall east of Shawnee and +Woodson counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_16">Table 16</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed 16 to 30 feet high in forks of mature deciduous +trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-eyed Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo olivaceus olivaceus</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common in the east, but is local and less abundant in the +west, in woodland and deciduous forest. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_16">Table 16</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eight records of breeding fall in the period May +21 to July 31; most records of egg-laying are in the first week of +June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.0, 3-5; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks of mature deciduous trees, usually fairly +high—perhaps 15 to 25 feet (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_16" id="Tbl_16"></a> +<div class="center bold smcap">Table 16.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Vireos in Kansas</div> +<div class='center'> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Vireos"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">White-eyed Vireo</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 23-May 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Bell Vireo</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 14-May 20</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 26-Sept. 27</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellow-throated Vireo</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 27-May 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 7</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 23-Oct. 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Red-eyed Vireo</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 21-May 10</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 4</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 2-Oct. 7</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Warbling Vireo</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 20-May 9</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 2-Oct. 6</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 9</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Warbling Vireo</b>: <i>Vireo gilvus gilvus</i> (Vieillot).—This summer +resident is common in woodland and forest edge. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_16">Table 16</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seventeen records of breeding span the period +May 1 to June 20, but it is likely that breeding later in June and +July will be recorded. The modal date for egg-laying is June 5, and +this seems to be a reliable index to the major effort in egg-laying in +spite of the small sample.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.6, 3-4; 5).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[Pg 638]</a></span> Nests are +placed three to 25 feet high in a variety of deciduous shrubs and +trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-and-white Warbler</b>: <i>Mniotilta varia</i> (Linnaeus).—This local and +uncommon summer resident lives in deciduous forest and woodland. +Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of nesting +come from Doniphan, Douglas, Coffey, Greenwood, Sedgwick, Labette, and +Cherokee counties. Temporal occurrence in the State is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is around 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, in depressions or niches, under heavy +cover.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Prothonotary Warbler</b>: <i>Protonotaria citrea</i> (Boddaert).—This is a +local summer resident in eastern Kansas, in understory of riparian +timber and swampy woodland. Specimens taken in the breeding season and +actual records of nesting come from Doniphan, Douglas, Linn, and +Cowley counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-two records of breeding span the period +May 11 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is June 5, +and 75 per cent of all clutches are laid in the period June 1 to 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 15).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in holes and niches in willow, red haw, elm, and a +variety of stumps, about eight feet high (ranging from five to 20 +feet), usually over water. A pair nested once in a gourd under the +eave of a house in Winfield, Cowley County, and another pair in a tin +cup on a shelf at a sawmill (Goss, ex Long, 1936).</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Parula Warbler</b>: <i>Parula americana</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident +in eastern Kansas usually can be found in heavy woodland and +flood-plain timber. Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual +records of breeding come from Doniphan, Riley, Douglas, Montgomery, +Labette, and Cherokee counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least from mid-May to mid-June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in debris in root tangles along stream banks, and, +presumably, in pendant arboreal lichens.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow Warbler</b>: <i>Dendroica petechia</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident +is common in the east, in woodland and riparian growths. <i>D. p. +aestiva</i> (Gmelin) occupies eastern Kansas west at least to Barber +County, but it is not known how far west representatives of this +population breed. <i>D. p. morcomi</i> Coale breeds in western Kansas. <i>D. +p. sonorana</i> Brewster, a name applicable to Yellow Warblers of the +southwestern United States and northern Mexico, has been considered a +"straggler" (Long, 1940) or probable summer resident (Tordoff, 1956; +Johnston, 1960) in southwestern Kansas, on the basis of one specimen +taken on June 24, 1911, at a point two miles south of Wallace, Wallace +County. This specimen, which is pale, was identified in 1935 as <i>D. p. +sonorana</i> by H. C. Oberholser. Specimens taken subsequently from +Cheyenne, Hamilton, and Morton counties in the breeding season can be +referred adequately to <i>D. p. morcomi</i>. Probably the specimen of 1911 +is a pale variant of <i>D. p. morcomi</i> within its normal distributional +range.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span> <i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-five records of breeding span the +period May 11 to June 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); this probably is inadequate to show +the extent of the season, and some egg-laying into July is likely to +be found in the future. The modal date of egg-laying is May 25, and +this is likely to be reliable.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.2, 3-5; 29).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about nine feet high (ranging from five to 20 feet) +in crotches of trees and shrubs including willow, elderberry, +cottonwood, crabapple, plum, and coralberry.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Prairie Warbler</b>: <i>Dendroica discolor discolor</i> (Vieillot).—This rare, +local summer resident occurs in deciduous second-growth. The only +breeding records are from Wyandotte and Johnson counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed low, perhaps about four feet high, in a wide variety +of small trees and shrubs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Louisiana Waterthrush</b>: <i>Seiurus motacilla</i> (Vieillot).—This uncommon +to rare summer resident in eastern Kansas lives in woodland understory +near streams. Nesting records come from Douglas, Miami, Linn, and +Crawford counties. Wolfe (1961) reports he found a nest with young +near Oberlin, Decatur County, on June 10, 1910, under an overhanging +bank of Sappa Creek; Decatur County is some 250 miles west of the +present western limit of the breeding range of the Louisiana +Waterthrush, and western habitats are not favorable for their +occurrence. Temporal characteristics of their distribution are +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in concealed places in banks or stumps always where +it is wet.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_17" id="Tbl_17"></a> +<div class="center bold smcap">Table 17.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Wood Warblers in Kansas</div> +<div class='center'> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Wood Warblers"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Black-and-white Warbler</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2-May 12</td> + <td class="text_lf">May 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10-Oct. 14</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Prothonotary Warbler</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 24-May 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 6-Sept. 10</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Parula Warbler</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 6-May 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 23</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 12-Oct. 7</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellow Warbler</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 21-May 7</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 28-Oct. 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Louisiana Waterthrush</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2-May 2</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 16</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. ?</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Kentucky Warbler</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 24-May 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 3</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 13</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellowthroat</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 21-May 10</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 3</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 8-Oct. 3</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 17</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellow-breasted Chat</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 29-May 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 29-Oct. 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">American Redstart</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 22-May 20</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">May 12</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 1-Oct. 7</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 10</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[Pg 640]</a></span></p> +<p class="species"><b>Kentucky Warbler</b>: <i>Oporornis formosus</i> (Wilson).—This is an uncommon +summer resident in eastern Kansas, in deciduous forest and woodland. +Specimens taken in the breeding season and actual records of nesting +come from Riley, Doniphan, Douglas, Leavenworth, Linn, Montgomery, and +Labette counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 or 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed near or on the ground, usually at the base of small +shrubs or clumps of grass.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellowthroat</b>: <i>Geothlypis trichas</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident +in and near marshes is common in the east and is local and somewhat +less common in the west. <i>G. t. brachydactylus</i> (Swainson) breeds east +of stations in Clay, Greenwood, and Montgomery counties, <i>G. t. +occidentalis</i> Brewster breeds west of stations in Decatur, Stafford, +and Pratt counties, and the intervening area is occupied by warblers +of intermediate morphologic characters. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Nine records of breeding span the period May 11 +to June 10; the modal date of egg-laying is June 1. The season is +probably more extended in time than is indicated by the available +records.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 4-5; 6).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in cattails and sedges one to two and one-half feet +high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-breasted Chat</b>: <i>Icteria virens</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident is common in willow thickets and rank second-growth. <i>I. v. +virens</i> (Linnaeus) breeds in eastern Kansas, from Nemaha County south, +<i>I. v. auricollis</i> (Deppe) breeds in western Kansas, from Norton +County south, and the intervening sector is occupied by chats of +intermediate morphologic character. Temporal occurrence is indicated +in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-six records of breeding span the period +May 11 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for completion of clutches +is June 5. Forty-two per cent of all eggs are laid in the period June +1 to 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.9, 3-5; 21). Clutches in +May are larger than those in June and July.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks and crotches about three feet high in +dogwood, willow, rose, coralberry, cottonwood, and thistles.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Hooded Warbler</b>: <i>Wilsonia citrina</i> (Boddaert).—This warbler is a rare +summer resident in eastern Kansas, in wet, open woodland. Specimens (a +total of four) taken in the breeding season are from Leavenworth and +Shawnee counties, and the one nesting record is from Anderson County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid at least in May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are low (some as high as six feet) in woody vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>American Redstart</b>: <i>Setophaga ruticilla ruticilla</i> (Linnaeus).—This +summer resident occurs locally in woodlands east from stations in +Cloud and Sumner Counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_17">Table 17</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898), but +there are two records of 5 in Kansas.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span> Nests are placed six to 30 feet +high, but usually about 12 feet, in forks or saddled on a branch, in +deciduous trees.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_8.png" width="472" height="633" alt="Fig 8.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of wood warblers, the House Sparrow, icterids, and cardinal grosbeaks" title="Fig 8.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of wood warblers, the House Sparrow, icterids, and cardinal grosbeaks" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of +wood warblers, the House Sparrow, icterids, and cardinal grosbeaks in +Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 for explanation of histograms. +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>House Sparrow</b>: <i>Passer domesticus</i> (Linnaeus).—This sparrow, +introduced from stocks in Ohio and New York (originally from England +and Germany), has been present since about 1876 in eastern Kansas; it +is a common resident in towns and at farmsteads throughout the state.</p> + +<p>Nomenclaturally, House Sparrows in North America consistently have +been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span> referred to the European ancestral stocks, <i>P. d. domesticus</i>, +but none in North America today duplicates morphologically the +European birds. This is evidence of meaningful adaptation of the North +American populations to environments in which they now live, and +continued use of <i>P. d. domesticus</i> is misleading. Studies on local +differentiation in North American House Sparrows are in progress, and +when the biology of sparrows in the midwest is better understood, +suitable nomenclatural proposals will be made.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period +March 20 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for laying of first +clutches is April 5, and for second clutches May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (3.9, 3-7; 13).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in niches of various sorts seven to 50 feet high in +buildings, nestboxes, and trees, or freely situated in forks and +crotches of large trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bobolink</b>: <i>Dolichonyx oryzivorus</i> (Linnaeus).—This species is a rare +and local summer resident, in and about grassy meadows. There are but +two stations of breeding in Kansas: Jamestown State Lake, Cloud +County, and Big Salt Marsh, Stafford County. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_18">Table 18</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground amidst grasses.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Eastern Meadowlark</b>: <i>Sturnella magna</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer +resident and resident is common in eastern Kansas, in moist grassland. +<i>S. m. argutula</i> Bangs occurs in Montgomery, Labette, and Cherokee +counties and intergrades to the north and west with <i>S. m. magna</i> +(Linnaeus). Good numbers of birds are found east of the Flint Hills, +but to the west the species is of restricted and local distribution. +Extreme outliers of the species are found no farther west than +stations in Jewell, Stafford, and Barber counties.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Forty records of breeding span the period April +10 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5. +Fifty-seven per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 1 to 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (5.2, 4-7; 26). Prior to May +11, clutch-size is 5.3 eggs (13 records), and after that date it is +5.1 eggs (13 records).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, with cover of grasses or forbs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Western Meadowlark</b>: <i>Sturnella neglecta neglecta</i> (Audubon).—This is +a common resident and summer resident in western Kansas, and is +restricted and local in the east; preferred habitat is in grassy +uplands.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-three records of breeding span the period +April 10 to July 30 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5 +for first nests and June 5 for second nests.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.3, 3-6; 16).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground with cover of grasses or forbs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Yellow-headed Blackbird</b>: <i>Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus</i> +(Bonaparte).—This uncommon and local summer resident occurs chiefly +in the west, in marshes. Nesting records are from Wallace, Meade, +Barton, Stafford, Doniphan, and Douglas counties. Temporal occurrence +is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_18">Table 18</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fifty-one records of breeding span the period +May 20<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[Pg 643]</a></span> to June 30; the modal date of egg-laying is June 5. The sample +is probably not large enough to be wholly reliable.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed within a few feet of water in cattail, rush, sedge, +and willow.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red-winged Blackbird</b>: <i>Agelaius phoeniceus</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a +common summer resident in marshes, wet pasture, and scrubby parkland +throughout the State. <i>A. p. phoeniceus</i> (Linnaeus) occurs in most of +Kansas and <i>A. p. fortis</i> (Ridgway) occurs in the west, east to about +Decatur County. A few birds can be found in eastern Kansas in winter; +the full breeding population is present between April and October.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 109 records of breeding in Cloud County span +the period May 1 to July 30 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for laying is May +25, and 71 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to June +10. Eighty-eight records of breeding from northwestern Kansas make a +histogram almost exactly duplicating the one from Cloud County.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size at Concordia, Cloud County, is 4 eggs +(3.7, 3-5; 48); in northeastern Kansas mean clutch-size is 3.7 eggs +(3-5; 46). For the total sample, mean clutch-size in May is 4.0 eggs, +in June, 3.7 eggs, and in July, 3.3 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about four feet high (one to nine feet) in willow, +cattail, sedge, grass, elm, exotic conifer, elderberry, coralberry, +buttonbrush, honeysuckle, smartweed, ash, osage orange, and yellow +clover.</p> + +<p>In central Kansas red-wings are host to the Brown-headed Cowbird in a +frequency of one parasitized nest out of nine; in northeastern Kansas +the ratio is 1:25.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_18" id="Tbl_18"></a> +<div class='center'> +<span class="bold smcap">Table 18.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Icterids in Kansas</span><br /> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Icterids"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Bobolink</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 4-May 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 28-Oct. 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Yellow-headed<br />Blackbird</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 31-Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 19-Oct. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 24</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Orchard Oriole</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 25-May 14</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 4</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 5-Sept. 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Baltimore Oriole</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 24-May 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 6-Sept. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Common Grackle</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 2-Mar. 27</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 17</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 15-Nov. 14</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 31</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Orchard Oriole</b>: <i>Icterus spurius</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident is +common in parkland, woodland, and old second-growth. Temporal +occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_18">Table 18</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 118 records of breeding span the period May +11 to August 10 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for completion of clutches is +June 5, and 45 per cent of all eggs are laid in the first ten days of +June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-6; 41). Clutches laid +at the peak of the season average 4.3 eggs (3-6; 26), and replacement +clutches average 3.8 eggs (3-4; 9).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[Pg 644]</a></span> Nests are hung about 15 feet high +(ranging from six to 55 feet) in elm, cottonwood, hackberry, locust, +catalpa, willow, alder, osage orange, walnut, pear, linden, and ash.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Baltimore Oriole</b>: <i>Icterus galbula</i> (Linnaeus).—This common summer +resident is most numerous in the east, in woodland and riparian +timber. The species hybridizes freely with the Bullock Oriole in +western Kansas, and individuals morphologically typical of Baltimore +Orioles are rare west of the 100th meridian. Evidence of such +hybridization can be found in specimens taken in eastern Kansas, but +the linear nature of distribution along water-courses to the west +restricts gene-flow, and evident hybrids are not yet conspicuous. +Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_18">Table 18</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eighty-three records of breeding span the period +May 11 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date of egg-laying is June 5, +and 66 per cent of all eggs are laid between May 21 and June 10.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are hung about 24 feet high (ranging from nine to 70 feet) in +elm, cottonwood, sycamore, maple, and oak.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Bullock Oriole</b>: <i>Icterus bullockii</i> (Swainson).—This summer resident +is common in western Kansas in woodland and riparian situations. The +species hybridizes freely with the Baltimore Oriole, and most Bullock +Orioles in Kansas show evidence of such interbreeding. Almost all +records of breeding come from west of the 100th meridian, but the +species in recognizable form probably breeds locally at least as far +east as Stafford County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Few nesting records are available, but these +suggest that the breeding schedule of the Bullock Oriole resembles +those of the preceding two species in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are hung about 26 feet high (ranging from 10 to 50 feet) in +cottonwood, elm, and other large trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Common Grackle</b>: <i>Quiscalus quiscula versicolor</i> Vieillot.—This summer +resident is common in parkland, and around towns and farms. Most +individuals move out of Kansas in winter, and the temporal occurrence +of these birds is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_18">Table 18</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 233 records of breeding span the period +April 11 to June 30 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is May 5, +and two-thirds of all eggs are laid between May 1 and May 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.5, 3-6; 33). Clutches laid +at the peak of the season average 4.7 eggs (3-6; 21), and those laid +as replacement clutches average 4.3 eggs (3-6; 12).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in forks and crotches about 22 feet high (ranging +from six to 50 feet) in elm, red cedar, cottonwood, oak, box elder, +and pine.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Brown-headed Cowbird</b>: <i>Molothrus ater ater</i> (Boddaert).—Many +individuals of this common summer resident overwinter in the southern +part of the State and it is difficult to determine dates of arrival +and departure in Kansas. Conspicuous abundance in the north covers the +period April to October.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 141 instances of egg-laying span the period +April 21 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date of laying is May 15, and +53 per cent of all eggs are laid in the period May 11 to June 10. +Inception of laying is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[Pg 645]</a></span> here fairly reliably indicated, but in +exceptionally early springs laying does occur earlier; a few eggs were +found on April 6, 1963, too late for incorporation into this report +other than in this sentence.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size in cowbirds is not readily determined. +On the basis of ovarian examination of five females taken in +mid-season, the birds here lay about five eggs at a time. There is no +question that the birds are "double-brooded" in Kansas, and the season +is sufficiently long for as many as five "clutches" to be laid by a +given female.</p> + +<p>Eggs are laid in nests of some forty species of birds in Kansas; 39 of +these are passerines. No preference for any one species is detectable; +the most frequently parasitized species are simply the common species, +and these are the kinds for which nesting records are easily gathered +by man. In the following list of host species, the names marked with +an asterisk are the conspicuously parasitized species.</p> + +<p>Mourning Dove, Eastern Kingbird, Eastern Phoebe,* Say Phoebe,* Acadian +Flycatcher, Barn Swallow, Horned Lark, Carolina Wren, Rock Wren, Brown +Thrasher,* Mockingbird, Catbird, Wood Thrush,* Eastern Bluebird, +Yellow-throated Vireo, Bell Vireo,* White-eyed Vireo,* Parula Warbler, +Yellow Warbler, Black-and-white Warbler, Kentucky Warbler, Louisiana +Waterthrush, Yellow-breasted Chat, Yellowthroat, Eastern Meadowlark, +Western Meadowlark, Red-winged Blackbird,* Orchard Oriole,* Cardinal,* +Black-headed Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting,* Blue Grosbeak, Dickcissel,* +Pine Siskin,* Rufous-sided Towhee,* Grasshopper Sparrow, Lark +Sparrow,* Chipping Sparrow, Field Sparrow.*</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Scarlet Tanager</b>: <i>Piranga olivacea</i> (Gmelin).—This rare summer +resident in northeastern Kansas occurs in deciduous forest and +bottomland timber. Specimens taken in the breeding season and records +of nesting come from Clay, Doniphan, Douglas, Wyandotte, Johnson, and +Linn counties, but the species probably occupies the entire eastern +third of the State. Dates of arrival in spring are from April 29 to +May 25 (the median is May 11), and dates of departure in autumn are +from August 4 to September 23 (the median is August 10).</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Six records of breeding fall in the period May +11 to June 20.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed 20 to 35 feet high in elm, linden, hickory, and +walnut.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Summer Tanager</b>: <i>Piranga rubra rubra</i> (Linnaeus).—This uncommon +summer resident in eastern Kansas occurs in woodland. Specimens taken +in the breeding season and records of nesting come from east of +stations in Doniphan, Shawnee, and Montgomery counties. Dates of +arrival in spring run from April 24 to May 18 (the median is April +29), and the species departs southward in September and October.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eleven records of egg-laying cover the period +May 21 to July 20; the modal date for laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are situated ten to 20 feet high on horizontal limbs of large +trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Cardinal</b>: <i>Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis</i> (Linnaeus).—This +species is a common resident in eastern Kansas, west to about the 99th +meridian; west<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span> of this line the species becomes local and uncommon to +rare. Habitat in the east is found in woodland, edge, second-growth +and open riparian timber, and in the west the species is restricted to +riparian growths, chiefly along the Republican, Solomon, Smoky Hill, +Arkansas, and Cimarron rivers, and their larger tributaries.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—The 117 records of breeding span the period +April 1 to September 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for laying of first +clutches is May 1, subsequent to which breeding activity is regular +but asynchronous.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.5, 3-6; 65). Seasonal +variation in clutch-size is as follows:</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Seasonal variation in clutch-size"> +<tr> + <td>Date</td> + <td>Mean clutch-size</td> + <td>Number of records</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">April 1-20</td> + <td class="center">3.0</td> + <td class="center">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">April 21-May 10</td> + <td class="center">3.8</td> + <td class="center">25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">May 11-May 31</td> + <td class="center">3.3</td> + <td class="center">15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">June 1-June 20</td> + <td class="center">3.6</td> + <td class="center">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">June 21-July 20</td> + <td class="center">3.3</td> + <td class="center">7</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Nests are placed about five feet high (ranging from 10 inches to 40 +feet) in osage orange, elm, grape, rose, red cedar, coralberry, +willow, cottonwood, gooseberry, oak, elderberry, box elder, arbor +vitae, Lombardy poplar, Forsythia, pines, honeysuckle, wisteria, +lilac, red haw, hickory, dogwood, and sycamore.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Rose-breasted Grosbeak</b>: <i>Pheucticus ludovicianus</i> (Linnaeus).—This is +a local and at times common summer resident in eastern Kansas, in +woodland, edge, and riparian timber. Specimens taken in the breeding +season and actual records of breeding come from Clay, Riley, Doniphan, +Leavenworth, and Douglas counties. This species meets and hybridizes +with the Black-headed Grosbeak west of the Flint Hills. Temporal +occurrence in the State is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eleven records of breeding span the period May +11 to July 10; the modal date for laying is probably June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 or 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in deciduous trees, in forks and crotches six to 30 +feet high.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Black-headed Grosbeak</b>: <i>Pheucticus mehnocephalus melanocephalus</i> +(Swainson).—This summer resident is common in western Kansas, chiefly +along streams. Individuals referable to this species by sight records +alone breed in fair numbers as far east as Cloud and Sedgwick +counties, but to the east of these stations numbers are reduced, +partly as a result of presumed competition with the Rose-breasted +Grosbeak. Hybrids between these two grosbeaks are regularly produced. +The easternmost record of breeding by this species is at St. Mary's, +Pottawatomie County, where a male was seen as probably mated with a +female Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Sixteen records of breeding span the period May +11 to July 10; the modal date for egg-laying is June 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (3.7, 3-4; 4). Nests +are placed about 12 feet high in a variety of deciduous trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Blue Grosbeak</b>: <i>Guiraca caerulea</i> (Linnaeus).—This is a common to +uncommon summer resident in most of Kansas, in brushland and +streamside thickets. <i>G. c. caerulea</i> (Linnaeus) breeds in the east, +east of stations in Douglas, Greenwood, and Cowley counties, and <i>G. +c. interfusa</i> Dwight and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[Pg 647]</a></span> +Griscom breeds in the west, west of stations +in Cloud, Stafford, and Clark counties; a broad zone of intergradation +exists between the two named populations. Temporal occurrence is +indicated in <a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seven records of breeding span the period May 21 +to June 30; the modal date of laying seems to be in late May or early +June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed from three to 30 feet high in a variety of deciduous +plants.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_19" id="Tbl_19"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 19.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident Cardinal Grosbeaks in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident Cardinal Grosbeaks"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Rose-breasted Grosbeak</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 25-May 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 2</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 4-Oct. 1</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Black-headed Grosbeak</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 26-May 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 5</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 17-Sept. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Blue Grosbeak</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 25-May 26</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 13</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 15-Sept. 3</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 27</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Indigo Bunting</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 20-May 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 6</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 23-Oct. 31</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Lazuli Bunting</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 5-May 24</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 10</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Painted Bunting</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 30-May 25</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 9</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Dickcissel</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 21-May 10</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">May 4</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 7-Oct. 11</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Sept. 18</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Indigo Bunting</b>: <i>Passerina cyanea</i> (Linnaeus).—This summer resident +is common in mixed-field and heavy brushland habitats. The species +extends westerly, in riparian situations, in reduced numbers, +ultimately meeting and hybridizing with the Lazuli Bunting. Specimens +referrable to the Indigo Bunting have been taken as far west as Finney +County, but most specimens from that far west show evidence of +interbreeding with Lazuli Buntings. Temporal occurrence is indicated +in <a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-four records of breeding span the period +May 11 to August 20 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is June +15.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 3 eggs (3.1, 2-4; 17).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about three feet high (ranging from one to nine feet) +in coralberry, sumac, thistle, sycamore sprouts, hickory sprouts, +grape, elderberry, cottonwood, dogwood, ragweed, and grasses.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Lazuli Bunting</b>: <i>Passerina amoena</i> (Say).—This uncommon summer +resident of western Kansas occurs in edge habitats and streamside +thickets. The one breeding record is from Morton County, and there is +a breeding specimen taken at Sharon Springs, Wallace County. The +species hybridizes with the Indigo Bunting in the western half of the +State. Temporal occurrence in spring is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in June and July.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed a few feet from the ground, probably much as are +nests of the Indigo Bunting.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Painted Bunting</b>: <i>Passerina ciris pallidior</i> Mearns.—This is an +uncommon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span> summer resident in the southeastern third of Kansas, in edge +habitats and streamside brush. Specimens taken in the breeding season +and actual nesting records come from Douglas, Shawnee, Geary, Barber, +and Crawford counties. Temporal occurrence in spring is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in June and July.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (Davie, 1898).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed in deciduous shrubs and trees.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Dickcissel</b>: <i>Spiza americana</i> (Gmelin).—This species is a common +summer resident in eastern Kansas and is local and irregular in the +west, in grassland habitats. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_19">Table 19</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Forty-one records of breeding span the period +May 1 to July 10 (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>); the modal date for egg-laying seems to be +May 5, but the curiously abrupt inception of breeding described by +this sample suggests that more records are needed to document fully +the breeding schedule of this species. Breeding in April almost +certainly will be found.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs (4.1, 3-5; 14).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about two feet high (ranging from ground level to 12 +feet) in grasses, osage orange, sedge, box elder, honey locust, +clover, thistle, and blackberry.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Pine Siskin</b>: <i>Spinus pinus pinus</i> (Wilson).—This irregular summer +resident occurs locally north of the 38th parallel, chiefly around +planted conifers. Known stations of breeding are in Hays, Ellis +County, Concordia, Cloud County, and Onaga and St. Marys, Pottawatomie +County.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twelve records of breeding span the period March +11 to May 20 (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>); most nests have been established in late April +or by early May.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs. Of ten nests examined +for eggs, five had at least one egg of the Brown-headed Cowbird; if it +is assumed that each cowbird egg replaced one of the siskins, mean +clutch-size is 3.7 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about seven feet high (ranging from 3.5 to 13 feet) +in red cedar, exotic conifers, and Lombardy poplar.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>American Goldfinch</b>: <i>Spinus tristis tristis</i> (Linnaeus).—This +resident is common in woodland edge, scrubby second-growth, old +fields, and riparian thickets. Occurrence tends to be local and at low +density in the southwestern sector.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twelve records of breeding span the period June +20 to September 10 (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>); the modal date for laying is August 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.4, 3-6; 8).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed from two to eight feet high in woody or herbaceous +vegetation.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Red Crossbill</b>: <i>Loxia curvirostra</i> Linnaeus.—This is an uncommon and +irregular winter visitant to Kansas, but it nested once in Shawnee +County. <i>L. c. minor</i> (Brehm), on geographic grounds, probably nested +here, but five other subspecies have been recorded in the State and +any one of these might have undertaken the aberrant breeding.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding record.</i>—Three eggs, set completed March 24, 1917, Shawnee +County; successfully fledged (Hyde, 1917:166).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span> The species usually +lays 4 eggs and places its nests in conifers.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Rufous-sided Towhee</b>: <i>Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus</i> +(Linnaeus).—This is an uncommon summer resident in eastern Kansas, in +understory of woodland and streamside timber. Specimens taken in the +breeding season and actual records of nesting come from east of +stations in Cloud, Marion, and Cherokee counties. Temporal occurrence +is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_20">Table 20</a>; records of <i>P. e. arcticus</i> (Swainson) have +been eliminated from the sample as far as has been possible.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Nineteen records of breeding span the period +April 21 to August 10 (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is May +5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.0, 3-7; 14).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, in heavy cover.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_9.png" width="383" height="610" alt="Fig 9.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of cardueline and emberizine finches" title="Fig 9.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of cardueline and emberizine finches" /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.—Histograms representing breeding schedules of +cardueline and emberizine finches in Kansas. See legend to Figure 1 +for explanation of histograms. +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Lark Bunting</b>: <i>Calamospiza melanocorys</i> Stejneger.—This species is +ordinarily a common summer resident in western Kansas, in grassland +and open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span> scrub. Specimens taken in the breeding season and all +breeding records except one for western Franklin County come from west +of stations in Decatur, Ellis, and Comanche counties. Irregular +fluctuations in breeding density have been recorded from Decatur +County (Wolfe, 1961). Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_20">Table 20</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Fourteen records of breeding span the period May +21 to June 20; the modal date of egg-laying cannot be determined from +the present sample.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-5; 7).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, at bases of clumps of grasses.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Grasshopper Sparrow</b>: <i>Ammodramus savannarum perpallidus</i> +(Coues).—This species is a local and at times common summer resident +throughout Kansas, in grassland. Temporal occurrence is indicated in +<a href="#Tbl_20">Table 20</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Seven records of breeding fall in the period May +1 to June 30; the modal date of laying seems to be about May 21.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 5 eggs (4.8, 4-5; 5).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground or in low vegetation, with cover of +grasses or forbs.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Henslow Sparrow</b>: <i>Passerherbulus henslowii henslowii</i> (Audubon).—This +is an uncommon and local summer resident in eastern Kansas, in +grassland. Breeding records are from Cloud, Shawnee, Douglas, Morris, +and Anderson counties. Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_20">Table 20</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 5 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, usually in bluestem pasture, but in +any case grasses.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Lark Sparrow</b>: <i>Chondestes grammacus</i> (Say).—This is a common summer +resident in grassland edge habitats. <i>C. g. grammacus</i> (Say) breeds +east of the Flint Hills, east of stations in Pottawatomie, Anderson, +and Montgomery counties, and <i>C. g. strigatus</i> Swainson breeds west of +stations in Clay, Dickinson, Harvey, and Sedgwick counties; specimens +from the intervening area are of intermediate subspecific character. +Temporal occurrence is indicated in <a href="#Tbl_20">Table 20</a>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Thirty-nine records of breeding span the period +May 1 to July 20 (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>); the modal date for egg-laying is probably +May 25, but the sample may not be reliable in this respect.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-5; 28).</p> + +<p>Nests are usually placed on the ground, in cover of pasture grasses, +clover, thistle, milo maize, and soybean; there is one record of a +nest one and one-half feet high in a small pine.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Cassin Sparrow</b>: <i>Aimophila cassinii</i> (Woodhouse).—This is a common +summer resident in open scrub and grassland edge, to the south and +west of Wallace and Comanche counties. Specimens taken in the breeding +season and actual nesting records are from Wallace, Hamilton, Kearny, +Finney, Morton, and Comanche counties; the A. O. U. Check-list (1957) +cites Hays, Ellis County, as a breeding locality, but it is doubtful +that the species now occurs there.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[Pg 651]</a></span> <i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Eggs are +laid in May and June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is about 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed on the ground, at bases of small bushes.</p> +<br /> + +<a name="Tbl_20" id="Tbl_20"></a> +<div class='center'> +<div class="bold smcap">Table 20.—Occurrence in Time of Summer Resident American Buntings in Kansas</div> +<br /> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Summer Resident American Buntings"> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" class="brdtp brdbt smcap">Species</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Arrival</td> + <td colspan="2" class="brdtp brdlf center">Departure</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Range</td> + <td class="brdtp brdlf brdbt">Median</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Rufous-sided Towhee</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 2-Apr. 19</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 9</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 20-Oct. 8</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 29</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Lark Bunting</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 5-May 14</td> + <td class="brdlf">May 10</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Grasshopper Sparrow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 12-May 11</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 20-Oct. 6</td> + <td class="brdlf">Aug. 31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Henslow Sparrow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 14-Apr. 30</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 22</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">........</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Lark Sparrow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 29-Apr. 21</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 18</td> + <td class="brdlf">Sept. 13-Oct. 16</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">Chipping Sparrow</td> + <td class="brdlf">Mar. 6-Apr. 29</td> + <td class="brdlf">Apr. 23</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 3-Nov. 15</td> + <td class="brdlf">Oct. 20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="brdbt text_lf">Field Sparrow</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Mar. 4-Apr. 28</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Apr. 7</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 5-Nov. 12</td> + <td class="brdlf brdbt">Oct. 30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="species"><b>Chipping Sparrow</b>: <i>Spizella passerina passerina</i> (Bechstein).—This is +an uncommon summer resident in open woodland, second-growth, and edge. +<i>S. p. passerina</i> is found east of stations in Barber and Shawnee +counties; Chipping Sparrows are not known to breed farther to the +west, but records for north-central Kansas are likely to be found. The +subspecific affinities of our Chipping Sparrows are entirely with the +nominate subspecies, and there is no basis for earlier reports (Long, +1940; Tordoff, 1956; Johnston, 1960) that <i>S. p. arizonae</i> Coues (= +<i>S. p. boreophila</i> Oberholser) occurs in Kansas.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Nine records of breeding fall in the period May +1 to May 10, in no way indicating the whole span of the breeding +season; the species probably lays eggs in May and July, as well as in +June.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs.</p> + +<p>Nests are placed four to 40 feet high in evergreens of a variety of +kinds.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Field Sparrow</b>: <i>Spizella pusilla</i> (Wilson).—This species is a common +summer resident in grassland and edge habitats. <i>S. p. pusilla</i> +(Wilson) breeds in eastern Kansas chiefly east of the Flint Hills; <i>S. +p. arenacea</i> Chadbourne breeds in central and western Kansas, +intergrading easterly with <i>S. p. pusilla</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Breeding schedule.</i>—Twenty-nine records of breeding span the period +April 21 to September 10 (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>); the modal date for first clutches +is May 5.</p> + +<p><i>Number of eggs.</i>—Clutch-size is 4 eggs (4.1, 3-5; 21).</p> + +<p>Nests are placed about 10 inches high (ranging from ground level to +three feet) in or among coralberry, osage orange, elm, oak, rose, and, +once, peony.</p> + +<p class="species"><b>Chestnut-collared Longspur</b>: <i>Calcarius ornatus</i> (Townsend).—This was +formerly a summer resident in western Kansas, in short-grass habitat. +The only known nesting area was in the vicinity of Ft. Hays, Ellis +County. The species is to be looked for in prairie with short grass +type of vegetation.</p> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</div> + +<p>Many persons have contributed field observations such as dates of +arrival and departure for migrants, and the various activities of the +breeding cycle for most of the species here discussed. An alphabetic +listing of their names follows.</p> + +<p>Galen Abbot, Ruth Abbot, Ted Anderson, Ted F. Andrews, Jon Barlow, +Amelia Betts, Grace Thompson Bigelow, L. C. Binford, Bessie Boso, +William J. Brecheisen, J. Walker Butin, L. B. Carson, Mrs. Eunice +Dingus, Charles S. Edwards, A. S. Gaunt, Sue Griffith, Mrs. Mary F. +Hall, J. W. Hardy, Stanley Hunter, Katherine Kelley, E. E. Klaas, W. +C. Kerfoot, John A. Knouse, Eugene Lewis, Eulalia Lewis, John Lenz, +Nathan H. McDonald, Marno McKaughan, Merrill McHenry, Robert M. +Mengel, Robert Merz, Jim Myers, Mary Louise Myers, Mrs. Kathryn +Nelson, T. W. Nelson, Steven Norris, Dan Michener, P. W. Ogilvie, Gary +C. Packard, Mrs. Marion J. Mengel, Dwight Platt, William Reynolds, +Frank Robl, S. D. Roth, Jr., Nancy Saunders, Richard H. Schmidt, +Marvin D. Schwilling, T. M. Sperry, Steve Stephens, Max Thompson, Fr. +Matthew Turk, Emil Urban, J. W. Wallace, H. E. Warfel, A. W. Wiens, +Mrs. Joyce Wildenthal, George Young, and Richard Zenger.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<a name="LITERATURE_CITED" id="LITERATURE_CITED"></a> +<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span> +<div class="caption2">LITERATURE CITED</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Aldous, S. E.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1942. The white-necked raven in relation to agriculture. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Research Rep. 5:1-56.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">American Ornithologists' Union, Check-list Committee</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1957. Check-list of North American Birds (Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore), xiii + 691 pp.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Baker, J. R.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1938. The relation between latitude and breeding season in birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 108 (A):557-582.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Brown, F. A., Jr.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1960. Response to pervasive geophysical factors and the biological clock problem. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol., 25:57-71.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Cockrum, E. L., Jr.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1952. Mammals of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 7:1-303.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Davie, O.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1898. Nests and eggs of North American birds (David McKay, Philadelphia). (vi) + 509 pp.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Davis, T. A. W.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1953. An outline of the ecology and breeding seasons of birds of the lowland forest region of British Guiana. Ibis, 95:450-467.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Fitch, H. S.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1958. Home ranges, territories, and seasonal movements of vertebrates of the Natural History Reservation. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., 11:63-326.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Goodrich, A. L., Jr.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1946. Birds in Kansas. Rept. Kansas State Brd. Agric, 44(267): 1-340.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Goss, N. S.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1891. History of the birds of Kansas (G. W. Crane Co., Topeka). 692 pp.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Graber, R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Graber, J.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1951. Notes on the birds of southwestern Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 54:145-174.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Hardy, J. W.</span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[Pg 653]</a></span></p> +<div class="reference">1961. Purple martins nesting in city buildings. Wilson Bull., 73:281.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Hopkins, A. D.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1938. Bioclimatics, … U. S. Dept. Agric., Misc. Publ. 280:iv + 188 pp.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Johnston, R. F.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1954. Variation in breeding season and clutch-size in song sparrows of the Pacific coast. Condor, 56:268-273.</div> + +<div class="reference">1956. Population structure in salt marsh song sparrows, I. Condor, 58:24-44.</div> + +<div class="reference">1960. Directory to the bird-life of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist., Misc. Publ. 23:1-69.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Lack, D.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1947. The significance of clutch-size, I, II. Ibis, 89:302-352.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Lehrman, D. S.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1958. Induction of broodiness by participation in courtship and nestbuilding in the ring dove (<i>Streptopelia risoria</i>). Jour. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 51:32-36.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Lehrman, D. S.</span>, <span class="smcap">Brody, P. N.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Wortis, R. P.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1961. The presence of the mate and of nesting material as stimuli for the development of incubation behavior and for gonadotropin in the ring dove (<i>Streptopelia risoria</i>). Endocrinol., 68:507-516.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Linsdale, J. M.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1926. The magpie nesting in Kansas. Condor, 28:179-180.</div> + +<div class="reference">1928. Birds of a limited area in eastern Kansas. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 18:517-626.</div> + +<div class="reference">1937. The natural history of magpies. Pac. Coast Avif., 25:1-234.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Long, W. S.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1940. Check-list of Kansas birds. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 43:433-456.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Marshall, A. J.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Disney, H. J.</span> de S.</p> + +<div class="reference">1957. Experimental induction of the breeding season in a xerophilous bird. Nature, 177:143-144.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Mayr, E.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1946. History of the North American bird fauna. Wilson Bull., 38:3-41.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">McCabe, T. T.</span>, and <span class="smcap">McCabe, E. B.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1933. Notes on the anatomy and breeding habits of crossbills. Condor, 35:136-147.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Miller, A. H.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1955<i>a</i>. The expression of innate reproductive rhythm under conditions of winter lighting. Auk, 72:260-264.</div> + +<div class="reference">1955<i>b</i>. Breeding cycles in a constant equatorial environment in Columbia, South America. Proc. XI Congr. Internat. Ornithol., Basel, 1954: 495-503.</div> + +<div class="reference">1960. Adaptation of breeding schedule to latitude. Proc. XII Congr. Internat. Ornithol., Helsinki, 1958:513-522.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Moreau, R. E.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1950. The breeding seasons of African birds, I. Land birds. Ibis, 92:223-267.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Nice, M. M.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1937. Studies in the life history of the song sparrow, I. Trans. Linnean Soc. New York, 4:1-247.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Nossaman, L. O.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1952. [Photograph] <i>in</i> "Kansas Fish and Game," 9(3):7.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Parmelee, D.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1961. A nesting colony of black terns in Kansas. Bull. Kansas Ornith. Soc., 12:25-27.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Paynter, R. A., Jr.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1954. Interrelations between clutch-size, brood-size, prefledging survival and weight in Kent Island tree swallows, I. Bird-Banding, 25:35-58.</div> + + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Schmidt-Koenig, K.</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span></p> + +<div class="reference">1960. The sun azimuth compass: one factor in the orientation of homing pigeons. Science, 131:826-828.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Snow, D. W.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1955. The breeding of blackbird, song thrush, and mistle thrush in Great Britain. I. Clutch-size. Bird Study, 2:72-84.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Tordoff, H. B.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1956. Check-list of the birds of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist, 8:307-359.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Udvardy, M. D. F.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1958. Ecological and distributional analysis of North American birds. Condor, 60:50-66.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Welter, W. A.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1935. The natural history of the long-billed marsh wren. Wilson Bull., 97:1-34.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Wiener, N.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1958. Nonlinear problems in random theory. (Technology Press, Cambridge, England.)</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Williamson, F. S. L.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1956. The molt and testis cycle of the Anna hummingbird. Condor, 58:342-366.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Wolfe, L. R.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1961. The breeding birds of Decatur County, Kansas: 1908-1915. Bull. Kansas Ornith. Soc., 12:27-30.</div> + +<p class="pdtop9"><span class="smcap">Zuvanich, J. R.</span></p> + +<div class="reference">1963. Forster terns breeding in Kansas. Bull. Kansas Ornith. Soc., 14:1-3.</div> +<br /> +<br /> + +<i>Transmitted November 21, 1963.</i><br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[Pg 655]</a></span></p> + +<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/fig_10_lg.png"> +<img src="images/fig_10_sm.png" width="700" height="431" alt="Fig. 10" title="" /></a><br /> +<div class="center" style="font-size:0.85em; color:#808080">Click on map to view larger size image.</div> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Map of Kansas showing names of counties. +</div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p> + +<div class="caption2">UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS<br /> +MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY</div> + +<p>Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain +this series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas +Library, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in +a particular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the +Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. +There is no provision for sale of this series by the University +Library, which meets institutional requests, or by the Museum of +Natural History, which meets the requests of individuals. +Nevertheless, when individuals request copies from the Museum, 25 +cents should be included, for each separate number that is 100 pages +or more in length, for the purpose of defraying the costs of wrapping +and mailing.</p> + +<p>* An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply +(not the Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in +this series, are as follows:</p> + +<table width="100%" class="text_lf" summary="Publication List"> +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 1.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">Nos. 1-26 and index. Pp. 1-638, 1946-1950.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*Vol. 2.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">(Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text. April 9, 1948.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 3.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">Nos. 1-4 and index. Pp. 1-681. 1951.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*Vol. 4.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">(Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466, 41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 5.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">Nos. 1-37 and index. Pp. 1-676, 1951-1953.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*Vol. 6.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">(Complete) Mammals of Utah, <i>taxonomy and distribution</i>. By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text, 30 tables. August 10, 1952.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 7.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">Nos. 1-15 and index. Pp. 1-651, 1952-1955.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 8.</td> + <td colspan="2" class="justify">Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-675, 1954-1956.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 9.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*1.</td> + <td class="justify">Speciation of the wandering shrew. By James S. Findley. Pp. 1-68, 18 figures in text. December 10, 1955.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">2.</td> + <td class="justify">Additional records and extension of ranges of mammals from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant, M. Raymond Lee, and Richard M. Hansen. Pp. 69-80. December 10, 1955.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">A new long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) from northeastern Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker and Howard J. Stains. Pp. 81-84. December 10, 1955.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">4.</td> + <td class="justify">Subspeciation in the meadow mouse, Microtus pennsylvanicus, in Wyoming. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 85-104, 2 figures in text. May 10, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">The condylarth genus Ellipsodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 105-116, 6 figures in text. May 19, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">6.</td> + <td class="justify">Additional remains of the multituberculate genus Eucosmodon. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 117-123, 10 figures in text. May 19, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">Mammals of Coahuila, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 125-335, 75 figures in text. June 15, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">Comments on the taxonomic status of Apodemus peninsulae, with description of a new subspecies from North China. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 337-346, 1 figure in text, 1 table. August 15, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">Extensions of known ranges of Mexican bats. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 347-351. August 15, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">10.</td> + <td class="justify">A new bat (Genus Leptonycteris) from Coahuila. By Howard J. Stains. Pp. 353-356. January 21, 1957.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">11.</td> + <td class="justify">A new species of pocket gopher (Genus Pappogeomys) from Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 357-361. January 21, 1957.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">12.</td> + <td class="justify">Geographic variation in the pocket gopher, Thomomys bottae, in Colorado. By Phillip M. Youngman. Pp. 363-387, 7 figures in text. February 21, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">13.</td> + <td class="justify">New bog lemming (genus Synaptomys) from Nebraska. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 385-388. May 12, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">14.</td> + <td class="justify">Pleistocene bats from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 389-396. December 19, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">15.</td> + <td class="justify">New subspecies of the rodent Baiomys from Central America. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 397-404. December 19, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">16.</td> + <td class="justify">Mammals of the Grand Mesa, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 405-414, 1 figure in text. May 20, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">17.</td> + <td class="justify">Distribution, variation, and relationships of the montane vole, Microtus montanus. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 415-511, 12 figures in text, 2 tables. August 1, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">18.</td> + <td class="justify">Conspecificity of two pocket mice, Perognathus goldmani and P. artus. By E. Raymond Hall and Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie. Pp. 513-518, 1 map. January 14, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">19.</td> + <td class="justify">Records of harvest mice, Reithrodontomys, from Central America, with description of a new subspecies from Nicaragua. By Sydney Anderson and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 519-529. January 14, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">20.</td> + <td class="justify">Small carnivores from San Josecito Cave (Pleistocene), Nuevo León, México. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 531-538, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">21.</td> + <td class="justify">Pleistocene pocket gophers from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, México. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 539-548, 1 figure in text. January 14, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">22.</td> + <td class="justify">Review of the insectivores of Korea. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and David H. Johnson. Pp. 549-578. February 23, 1960.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">23.</td> + <td class="justify">Speciation and evolution of the pygmy mice, genus Baiomys. By Robert L. Packard. Pp. 579-670, 4 plates, 12 figures in text. June 16, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">Index. Pp. 671-690.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 10.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">1.</td> + <td class="justify">Studies of birds killed in nocturnal migration. By Harrison B. Tordoff and Robert M. Mengel. Pp. 1-44, 6 figures in text, 2 tables. September 12, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">2.</td> + <td class="justify">Comparative breeding behavior of Ammospiza caudacuta and A. maritima. By Glen E. Woolfenden. Pp. 45-75, 6 plates, 1 figure. December 20, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">The forest habitat of the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch and Ronald R. McGregor. Pp. 77-127, 2 plates, 7 figures in text, 4 tables. December 31, 1956.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">4.</td> + <td class="justify">Aspects of reproduction and development in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster). By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 129-161, 8 figures in text, 4 tables. December 19, 1957.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">Birds found on the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. By James W. Bee. Pp. 163-211, plates 9-10, 1 figure in text. March 12, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*6.</td> + <td class="justify">The wood rats of Colorado: distribution and ecology. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 213-552, 34 plates, 8 figures in text, 35 tables. November 7, 1958.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">Home ranges and movements of the eastern cottontail in Kansas. By Donald W. Janes. Pp. 553-572, 4 plates, 3 figures in text. May 4, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">Natural history of the salamander, Aneides hardyi. By Richard F. Johnston and Gerhard A. Schad. Pp. 573-585. October 8, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus sacki, from Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 587-598, 2 figures in text. May 2, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">10.</td> + <td class="justify">A taxonomic study of the middle American snake, Pituophis deppei. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 599-610, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. May 2, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">Index. Pp. 611-626.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 11.</td> + <td colspan="2">Nos. 1-10 and index. Pp. 1-703, 1958-1960.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 12.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">1.</td> + <td class="justify">Functional morphology of three bats: Eumops, Myotis, Macrotus. By Terry A. Vaughan. Pp. 1-153, 4 plates, 24 figures in text. July 8, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*2.</td> + <td class="justify">The ancestry of modern Amphibia: a review of the evidence. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 155-180, 10 figures in text. July 10, 1959.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">The baculum in microtine rodents. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 181-216, 49 figures in text. February 19, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">*4.</td> + <td class="justify">A new order of fishlike Amphibia from the Pennsylvanian of Kansas. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr., and Peggy Lou Stewart. Pp. 217-240, 12 figures in text. May 2, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">Natural history of the bell vireo. By Jon C. Barlow. Pp. 241-296, 6 figures in text. March 7, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">6.</td> + <td class="justify">Two new pelycosaurs from the lower Permian of Oklahoma. By Richard C. Fox. Pp. 297-307, 6 figures in text. May 21, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">Vertebrates from the barrier island of Tamaulipas, México. By Robert K. Selander, Richard F. Johnston, B. J. Wilks, and Gerald G. Raun. Pp. 309-345, pls. 5-8. June 18, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">Teeth of Edestid sharks. By Theodore H. Eaton, Jr. Pp. 347-362, 10 figures in text. October 1, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">Variation in the muscles and nerves of the leg in two genera of grouse (Tympanuchus and Pedioecetes). By E. Bruce Holmes. Pp. 363-474, 20 figures. October 25, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">10.</td> + <td class="justify">A new genus of Pennsylvanian Fish (Crossopterygii, Coelacanthiformes) from Kansas. By Joan Echols. Pp. 475-501, 7 figures. October 25, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">11.</td> + <td class="justify">Observations on the Mississippi Kite in southwestern Kansas. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 503-519. October 25, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">12.</td> + <td class="justify">Jaw musculature of the Mourning and White-winged doves. By Robert L. Merz. Pp. 521-551, 22 figures. October 25, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">13.</td> + <td class="justify">Thoracic and coracoid arteries in two families of birds, Columbidae and Hirundinidae. By Marion Anne Jenkinson. Pp. 553-573, 7 figures. March 2, 1964.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">14.</td> + <td class="justify">The breeding birds of Kansas. By Richard F. Johnston. Pp. 575-655, 10 figures. May 18, 1964.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">Index to come.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 13.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">1.</td> + <td class="justify">Five natural hybrid combinations in minnows (Cyprinidae). By Frank B. Cross and W. L. Minckley. Pp. 1-18. June 1, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">2.</td> + <td class="justify">A distributional study of the amphibians of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 19-72, pls. 1-8, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of the slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta) from Coahuila, México. By John M. Legler. Pp. 73-84, pls. 9-12, 3 figures in text. August 16, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">4.</td> + <td class="justify">Autecology of the copperhead. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 85-288, pls. 13-20, 26 figures in text. November 30, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">Occurrence of the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. By Henry S. Fitch and T. Paul Maslin. Pp. 289-308, 4 figures in text. February 10, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">6.</td> + <td class="justify">Fishes of the Wakarusa river in Kansas. By James E. Deacon and Artie L. Metcalf. Pp. 309-322, 1 figure in text. February 10, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">Geographic variation in the North American cyprinid fish, Hybopsis gracilis. By Leonard J. Olund and Frank B. Cross. Pp. 323-348, pls. 21-24, 2 figures in text. February 10, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">Descriptions of two species of frogs, genus Ptychohyla; studies of American hylid frogs, V. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 349-357, pl. 25, 2 figures in text. April 27, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">Fish populations, following a drought, in the Neosho and Marais des Cygnes rivers of Kansas. By James Everett Deacon. Pp. 359-427, pls. 26-30, 3 figures. August 11, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">10.</td> + <td class="justify">Recent soft-shelled turtles of North America (family Trionychidae). By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 429-611, pls. 31-54, 24 figures in text. February 16, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">Index. Pp. 613-624.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 14.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">1.</td> + <td class="justify">Neotropical bats from western México. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 1-8. October 24, 1960.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">2.</td> + <td class="justify">Geographic variation in the harvest mouse. Reithrodontomys megalotis, on the central Great Plains and in adjacent regions. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and B. Mursaloglu. Pp. 9-27, 1 figure in text. July 24, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">Mammals of Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. By Sydney Anderson. Pp. 29-67, pls. 1 and 2, 3 figures in text. July 24, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">4.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of the black myotis (bat) from eastern Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 69-72, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">North American yellow bats, "Dasypterus," and a list of the named kinds of the genus Lasiurus Gray. By E. Raymond Hall and J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 73-98, 4 figures in text. December 29, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">6.</td> + <td class="justify">Natural history of the brush mouse (Peromyscus boylii) in Kansas with description of a new subspecies. By Charles A. Long. Pp. 99-111, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">Taxonomic status of some mice of the Peromyscus boylii group in eastern Mexico, with description of a new subspecies. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 113-120, 1 figure in text. December 29, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of ground squirrel (Spermophilus spilosoma) from Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 121-124. March 7, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">Taxonomic status of the free-tailed bat, Tadarida yucatanica Miller. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., and Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 125-133, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">10.</td> + <td class="justify">A new doglike carnivore, genus Cynaretus, from the Clarendonian Pliocene, of Texas. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 135-138, 2 figures in text. April 30, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">11.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of wood rat (Neotoma) from northeastern Mexico. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 139-143. April 30, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">12.</td> + <td class="justify">Noteworthy mammals from Sinaloa, Mexico. By J. Knox Jones, Jr., Ticul Alvarez, and M. Raymond Lee. Pp. 145-159, 1 figure in text. May 18, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">13.</td> + <td class="justify">A new bat (Myotis) from Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 161-164, 1 figure in text. May 21, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">14.</td> + <td class="justify">The mammals of Veracruz. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 165-362, 2 figures. May 20, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">15.</td> + <td class="justify">The recent mammals of Tamaulipas, México. By Ticul Alvarez. Pp. 363-473, 5 figures in text. May 20, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">16.</td> + <td class="justify">A new subspecies of the fruit-eating bat, Sturnira ludovici, from western Mexico. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. and Gary L. Phillips. Pp. 475-481, March 2, 1964.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">17.</td> + <td class="justify">Records of the fossil mammal Sinclairella, Family Apatemyidae, from the Chadronian and Orellan. By William C. Clemens. Pp. 483-491. March 2, 1964.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">More numbers will appear in volume 14.</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td></tr> + +<tr> + <td class="vtop text_rt">Vol. 15.</td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">1.</td> + <td class="justify">The amphibians and reptiles of Michoacán, México. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 1-148, pls. 1-6, 11 figures in text. December 20, 1961.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">2.</td> + <td class="justify">Some reptiles and amphibians from Korea. By Robert G. Webb, J. Knox Jones, Jr., and George W. Byers. Pp. 149-173. January 31, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">3.</td> + <td class="justify">A new species of frog (Genus Tomodactylus) from western México. By Robert G. Webb. Pp. 175-181, 1 figure in text. March 7, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">4.</td> + <td class="justify">Type specimens of amphibians and reptiles in the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas. By William E. Duellman and Barbara Berg. Pp. 183-204. October 26, 1962.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">5.</td> + <td class="justify">Amphibians and Reptiles of the Rainforests of Southern El Petén, Guatemala. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 205-249, pls. 7-10, 6 figures in text. October 4, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">6.</td> + <td class="justify">A revision of snakes of the genus Conophis (Family Colubridae, from Middle America). By John Wellman. Pp. 251-295, 9 figures in text. October 4, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">7.</td> + <td class="justify">A review of the Middle American tree frogs of the genus Ptychohyla. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 297-349, pls. 11-18, 7 figures in text. October 18, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">8.</td> + <td class="justify">Natural history of the racer Coluber constrictor. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 351-468, pls. 19-22, 20 figures in text. December 30, 1963.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td class="vtop text_rt">9.</td> + <td class="justify">A review of the frogs of the Hyla bistincta group. By William E. Duellman. Pp. 469-491, 4 figures in text. March 2, 1964.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td colspan="2">More numbers will appear in volume 15.</td> +</tr> + +</table> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<div class="trans_notes"> +<br /> +<div class="caption2">Transcriber's Notes.</div> +<p>With the exception of six typographical errors that were corrected +and moving the list of Publications to the end of the document, the +original text and illustrations are presented as they appeared in the +printed version.</p> +<br /> + +<div class="caption3">Typographical Corrections</div> +<div class='center'> +<table cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Typos Corrections"> +<tr><td class="text_lf">Page</td> + <td class="text_lf">Correction</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">585</td> + <td class="text_lf">Myiarchis ⇒ Myiarchus</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">590</td> + <td class="text_lf">insectivorus ⇒ insectivorous</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">611</td> + <td class="text_lf">Vieillot was incorrectly italicized.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">619</td> + <td class="text_lf">Oberholser was incorrectly italicized.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">624</td> + <td class="text_lf">trailii ⇒ traillii</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="text_lf">642</td> + <td class="text_lf">in ⇒ is</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +<br /> +<br /> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Breeding Birds of Kansas, by +Richard F. 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