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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4 + "G" to "Gaskell, Elizabeth" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 22, 2011 [EBook #37160] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE IV<br /><br /> +G to Gaskell Elizabeth</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">G</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GALLUPPI, PASQUALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GABBRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GALLUS, CORNELIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GABEL, KRISTOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GABELLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126"> GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GABERDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GALOIS, EVARISTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GABES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GALSTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GABII</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GABINIUS, AULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GALT, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GABION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131"> GALT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GABLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GALTON, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GALUPPI, BALDASSARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GALVANI, LUIGI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GABLETS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135"> GALVANIZED IRON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GABLONZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136"> GALVANOMETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GABORIAU, ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GALVESTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GABRIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GALWAY</a> (county of Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GABRIEL HOUNDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GALWAY</a> (town of Ireland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GABRIELI, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GAMA, VASCO DA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GABUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GAMALIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GACE BRULÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GAMBETTA, LÉON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GAMBIA</a> (river of West Africa)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GAMBIA</a> (country of West Africa)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GADAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GADARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GAMBIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GADDI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GAMBOGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GADE, NIELS WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GAMBRINUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GADOLINIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149"> GAME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GAME LAWS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GADSDEN, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GAMES, CLASSICAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GADWALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GAMING AND WAGERING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GAEKWAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GAMUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GAETA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154"> GANDAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GAETANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GANDAMAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GAETULIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GANDERSHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GANDHARVA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GAGE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GANDÍA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GANDO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GANESA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GAHANBAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GANGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GANGOTRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GANGPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GAILLAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GANGRENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GANILH, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GAINESVILLE</a> (Florida, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GANJAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GAINESVILLE</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GANNET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GAINSBOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GANODONTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GAIRDNER, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GANS, EDUARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GAIRLOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171"> GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GAISERIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GANTÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GAISFORD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GANYMEDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GAIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GAO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GAIUS CAESAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GAOL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GALAGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GAON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GALANGAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GAP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GALAPAGOS ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GAPAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GALASHIELS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GARARISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GALATIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GARASHANIN, ILIYA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GALATINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GALATZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183"> GARAY, JÁNOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GALAXY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GARBLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS</a> (Roman general and orator)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GALBANUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187"> GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GALCHAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GALE, THEOPHILUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GALE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GARDA, LAKE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GALEN, CLAUDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GARDELEGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GALENA</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GARDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GALENA</a> (Kansas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GARDENIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GALENA</a> (ore of lead)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GARDINER, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GALEOPITHECUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GALERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198"> GARDINER, STEPHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GALESBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GARDINER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GALGĀCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GARDNER, PERCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GALIANI, FERDINANDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GARDNER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GALICIA</a> (crownland of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GARE-FOWL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GALICIA</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GAR-FISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GALILEE</a> (province of Palestine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GARGANEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GALILEE</a> (architectural term)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GARGANO, MONTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GALILEE, SEA OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GARGOYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GALILEO GALILEI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GARHWAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GALION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GARIN LE LOHERAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GARLAND, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GALLABAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GARLIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GALLAIT, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GARNET, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GALLAND, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GARNET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GALLARATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GARNETT, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GALLARS, NICOLAS DES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GALLAS, MATTHIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GARNIER, GERMAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GALLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GALLATIN, ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GARNIER, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GALLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GARNISH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GALLERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GARO HILLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GALLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GARONNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GALLIA CISALPINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GARRET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GALLIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITÃO DE ALMEIDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GALLICANISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GARRETTING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GARRICK, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GARRISON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GARROTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GALLIPOLI</a> (Italy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">GARRUCHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GALLIPOLI</a> (Turkey)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">GARSTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GALLIPOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">GARTH, SIR SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">GARTOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GALLIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">GARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GALLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">GAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GALLOWAY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">GASCOIGNE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GALLOWAY, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GALLOWAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">GASCONY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GALLOWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">GAS ENGINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span></p> +<p><span class="bold f200">G<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an +invention of the Romans, who had previously converted +the third symbol of the alphabet into a representative +of a <i>k</i>-sound (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">C</a></span>). Throughout the whole of Roman +history C remained as the symbol for G in the abbreviations +C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According +to Plutarch (<i>Roman Questions</i>, 54, 59) the symbol for G was +invented by Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This probably +means that he was the first person to spell his cognomen +RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to occupy the seventh place +in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been taken by Z, +because between 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the z-sounds of Latin +passed into <i>r</i>, names like <i>Papisius</i> and <i>Fusius</i> in that period +becoming Papirius and Furius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Z</a></span>), so that the letter z had +become superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus +Capella <i>z</i> was removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius +Claudius Caecus in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> To Claudius the insertion of G into +the alphabet is also sometimes ascribed.</p> + +<p>In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the +lower lip of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line <img style="width:18px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377a.jpg" alt="" />, +but <img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377b.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:14px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377c.jpg" alt="" /> are found also in republican times. In the earliest +Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the +form is <img style="width:17px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377d.jpg" alt="" /> written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom +lip of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a +diacritical mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is +represented by K. The use of the new form was not firmly +established till after the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop +(as in <i>gig</i>) in classical times. Later, before <i>e</i>, <i>g</i> passed into a +sound like the English <i>y</i>, so that words begin indifferently with +<i>g</i> or <i>j</i>; hence from the Lat. <i>generum</i> (accusative) and <i>Ianuarium</i> +we have in Ital. <i>genero</i> and <i>Gennajo</i>, Fr. <i>gendre</i> and <i>janvier</i>. +In the ancient Umbrian dialect <i>g</i> had made this change between +vowels before the Christian era, the inhabitant of <i>Iguvium</i> (the +modern Gubbio) being in the later form of his native speech +<i>Iuvins</i>, Lat. <i>Iguvinus</i>. In most cases in Mid. Eng. also <i>g</i> passed +into a <i>y</i> sound; hence the old prefix <i>ge</i> of the past participle +appears only as <i>y</i> in <i>yclept</i> and the like. But <i>ng</i> and <i>gg</i> +took a different course, the <i>g</i> becoming an affricate d<i>ẓ</i> (<i>dzh</i>), as +in <i>singe</i>, <i>ridge</i>, <i>sedge</i>, which in English before 1500 were <i>senge</i>, +<i>rigge</i>, <i>segge</i>, and in Scotch are still pronounced <i>sing</i>, <i>rig</i>, <i>seg</i>. +The affricate in words like <i>gaol</i> is of French origin (<i>geôle</i>), +from a Late Lat. <i>gabiola</i>, out of <i>caveola</i>, a diminutive of the +Lat. <i>cavea</i>.</p> + +<p>The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay +down rules for the pronunciation of English <i>g</i>; thus there are +in the language five words <i>Gill</i>, three of which have the <i>g</i> hard, +while two have it soft: viz. (1) <i>gill</i> of a fish, (2) <i>gill</i>, a ravine, +both of which are Norse, and (3) <i>Gill</i>, the surname, which is +mostly Gaelic = White; and (4) <i>gill</i> a liquid measure, from +O. Fr. <i>gelle</i>, Late Lat. <i>gella</i> in the same sense, and (5) <i>Gill</i>, a +girl’s name, shortened from <i>Gillian</i>, <i>Juliana</i> (see Skeat’s <i>Etymological +Dictionary</i>). No one of these words is of native origin; +otherwise the initial <i>g</i> would have changed to <i>y</i>, as in Eng. +<i>yell</i> from the O. Eng. <i>gellan</i>, <i>giellan</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABBRO,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, +holocrystalline and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting +essentially of a basic plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian +minerals (such as augite, hornblende, hypersthene +and olivine). The name was given originally in north Italy to +certain coarsely crystalline dark green rocks, some of which are +true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The gabbros are the +plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the dolerites, basalts +and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite) with which they +agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute structure. +Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and is +principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs +in some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others. +The felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being +for the most part short and broad, with rather irregular or +rounded outlines. Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these +rocks it is often accompanied by pericline twinning by which the +broad or narrow albite plates are cut transversely by many thin, +bright and dark bars as seen in polarized light. Equally +characteristic of the gabbros is the alteration of the felspars to +cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite. These are compact, +tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and usually a +greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by +the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote, +with garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite, +amphibole, serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals. +The augite is usually brown, but greenish, violet and colourless +varieties may occur. Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly +pleochroic in colours varying from pink to bright green. +It weathers readily to platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are +soft and yield low polarization colours. The olivine is colourless +in itself, but in most cases is altered to green or yellow serpentine, +often with bands of dark magnetite granules along its cleavages +and cracks. Hornblende when primary is often brown, and may +surround augite or be perthitically intergrown with it; original +green hornblende probably occurs also, though it is more +frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by no +means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many +of them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown +with felspar as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals +may be mentioned apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and +garnet.</p> + +<p>A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the +minerals of these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the +occurrence of small black or dark brown enclosures often regularly +arranged parallel to certain crystallographic planes. Reflection +of light from the surfaces of these minute enclosures produces a +shimmering or <i>Schiller</i>. In augite or hypersthene the effect is +that the surface of the mineral has a bronzy sub-metallic appearance, +and polished plates seen at a definite angle yield a bright +coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of the felspars may +exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in the Labrador +spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious stone. +In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but branching +growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as +“schillerization”; its origin has been much discussed, some +holding that it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures +as original.</p> + +<p>In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement +of the minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which +the others grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with +olivine, may be enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene, +sometimes with a later growth of biotite, while the felspars +occupy the interspaces between the clusters of ferromagnesian +minerals. In some cases there are borders around olivine consisting +of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic pyroxene +(kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may +occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where +olivine is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical +resorption at a late stage in the solidification of the rock. In +some gabbros and norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende +are found around both hypersthene and diallage where these +are in contact with felspar. Typical orbicular structure such +as characterizes some granites and diorites is rare in the +gabbros, though it has been observed in a few instances in +Norway, California, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase +felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is +enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases. +When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into +ophitic diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +felspar in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can +be observed in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized +by the occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in +ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars +predominate.</p> + +<p>These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class +which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral +composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase +and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and +hypersthene, and troctolite of plagioclase and olivine, +we must add to these olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite +in which that mineral occurs in addition to +those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are +distinctly rare, except when the hornblende has been +developed from pyroxene by pressure and shearing, +but many rocks may be described as hornblende- or +biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain +these ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase, +augite and hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro +and quartz-norite (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite) +and orthoclase-gabbro (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite +has been given to gabbros in which the felspar is mainly anorthite; +many of them also contain hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while +allivalites are anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals +occur in nearly equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating +olivine, anorthite felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro +there are often masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral, +for example, felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks +(pyroxenites and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites). +Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with +pyroxene or olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and +anorthosite masses.</p> + +<p>Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual +crystals several inches in length; such a type often form +dikes or veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite. +Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been +distinguished as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence +of sheared, foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the +minerals have a parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken +down by pressure into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish +fibrous or bladed amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine. +The diallage may be present as rounded or oval crystals around +which the crushed felspar has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole +rock may have a well-foliated structure (hornblende-schists and +amphibolites). Very often a mass of normal gabbro with typical +igneous character passes at its margins or along localized zones into +foliated rocks of this kind, and every transition can be found between +the different types. Some authors believe that the development of +saussurite from felspar is also dependent on pressure rather than on +weathering, and an analogous change may affect the olivine, replacing +it by talc, chlorite, actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes +of the latter type have been described from Switzerland under the +name allalinites.</p> + +<p>Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor +occurring in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread. +In Great Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland, +Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the +Lizard (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David’s +(Wales). Most of these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine +and peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros +is found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur +and there are sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series +of basaltic lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts +in early Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros +are the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the +basalts which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites +which consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such +as those of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more +or less foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists +and amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the +Harz Mountains, Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest. +Many outcrops of similar rocks have been traced in the northern +zones of the Alps, often with serpentine and hornblende-schist. +They occupy considerable tracts of country in Norway and Sweden, +as for instance in the vicinity of Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian +Alps, Dauphiné and Tuscany are other European localities for gabbro. +In Canada great portions of the eastern portion of the Dominion are +formed of gabbros, norite, anorthosite and allied rock types. In +the United States gabbros and norites occur near Baltimore and near +Peekskill on the Hudson river. As a rule each of these occurrences +contains a diversity of petrographical types, which appear also in +certain of the others; but there is often a well-marked individuality +about the rocks of the various districts in which gabbros are +found.</p> + +<p>From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance. +They are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too +dark in colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as +building stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be +compared for beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations +of iron ores are found in connexion with many of them +(Norway and Sweden) and are sometimes mined as sources of the +metal.</p> + +<p>Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision +and show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They +have low silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime +distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and +the peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited +here.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">TiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Ab<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O</td> <td class="tcc allb">H<span class="su">2</span>O</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.63</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.16</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.54</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">46.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29.85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.30</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.41</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">16.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.98</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony; +III. Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the +Seine river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABEL, KRISTOFFER<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was +born at Glückstadt, on the 6th of January 1617. His father, +Wulbern, originally a landscape painter and subsequently +recorder of Glückstadt, was killed at the siege of that fortress +by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard of in 1639, +as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick. +When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III., +Gabel followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and +man of business. Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence +considerable financial ability and uncommon shrewdness, had +great influence over the irresolute king. During the brief interval +between King Charles X.’s first and second attack upon Denmark, +Gabel was employed in several secret missions to Sweden; and he +took a part in the intrigues which resulted in the autocratic +revolution of 1660 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>). His services on +this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not the +originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief intermediary +between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in +the mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in +Denmark. His activity on this occasion won the king’s lifelong +gratitude. He was enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor +of Copenhagen. From this year must be dated his open and +official influence and power, and from 1660 to 1670 he was the +most considerable personage at court, and very largely employed +in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick III. died, +in February 1670, Gabel’s power was at an end. The new ruler, +Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in +from every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was +dismissed, nobody sympathized with the man who had grown +wealthy at a time when other people found it hard to live. He +died on the 13th of October 1673.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Carl Frederik Bricka, <i>Dansk. Biograf. Lex.</i> art “Gabel” +(Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie</i> (Copenhagen, +1897-<span class="correction" title="amended from 1005">1905</span>1905), vol. v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1807-1874), German +linguist and ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of +October 1807, was the only son of Hans Karl Leopold von der +Gabelentz, chancellor and privy-councillor of the duchy of +Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he attended the gymnasium of +his native town, where he had Matthiae (the eminent Greek +scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius Löbe +for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, +he carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the +latter language continued especially to engage his attention +during his undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the +universities of Leipzig and Göttingen. In 1830 he entered the +public service of the duchy of Altenburg, where he attained to the +rank of privy-councillor in 1843. Four years later he was chosen +to fill the post of <i>Landmarschall</i> in the grand-duchy of Weimar, +and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort parliament, and represented +the Saxon duchies on the commission for drafting an +imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same year +he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned +office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was +president of the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but +in the latter year he withdrew entirely from public life, that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +might give undivided attention to his learned researches. He +died on his estate of Lemnitz, in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of +September 1874.</p> + +<p>In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than +eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and +elegance. But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition +than for the higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge +to the genuine advancement of linguistic science. Immediately +after quitting the university, he followed up his Chinese +researches by a study of the Finno-Ugrian languages, which +resulted in the publication of his <i>Éléments de la grammaire +mandchoue</i> in 1832. In 1837 he became one of the promoters, +and a joint-editor, of the <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i>, +and through this medium he gave to the world his +<i>Versuch einer mordwinischen Grammatik</i> and other valuable contributions. +His <i>Grundzüge der syrjänischen Grammatik</i> appeared +in 1841. In conjunction with his old school friend, Julius Löbe, +he brought out a complete edition, with translation, glossary +and grammar, of Ulfilas’s Gothic version of the Bible (1843-1846); +and from 1847 he began to contribute to the <i>Zeitschrift der +deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i> the fruits of his researches +into the languages of the Swahilis, the Samoyedes, the Hazaras, +the Aimaks, the Formosans and other widely-separated tribes. +The <i>Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde</i> (1852) contain Dyak, Dakota, +and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a <i>Grammatik +u. Wörterbuch der Kassiasprache</i>, and in 1860 a treatise in universal +grammar (<i>Über das Passivum</i>). In 1864 he edited the Manchu +translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king, +along with a dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work +which constitutes his most important contribution to philology, +<i>Die melanesischen Sprachen nach ihrem grammatischen Bau +und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den malaiisch-polynesischen +Sprachen untersucht</i> (1860-1873). It treats of the +language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, +New Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the +Polynesian class. He also contributed most of the linguistic +articles in Pierer’s <i>Conversations-Lexicon</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABELLE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (French, from the Med. Lat. <i>gabulum</i>, <i>gablum</i>, +a tax, for the origin of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gavelkind</a></span>), a term which, +in France, was originally applied to taxes on all commodities, +but was gradually limited to the tax on salt. In process of time +it became one of the most hated and most grossly unequal +taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all supporters +of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in 1286, +in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made +a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly, +it was made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged +every individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a +minimum amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted, +it was levied uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the +greater part of its history the price varied in different provinces. +There were five distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows: +(<i>a</i>) the <i>Pays de grandes gabelles</i>, in which the tax was heaviest; +(<i>b</i>) the <i>Pays de petites gabelles</i>, which paid a tax of about half +the rate of the former; (<i>c</i>) the <i>Pays de salines</i>, in which the tax +was levied on the salt extracted from the salt marshes; (<i>d</i>) the +<i>Pays rédimés</i>, which had purchased redemption in 1549; and +(<i>e</i>) the <i>Pays exempts</i>, which had stipulated for exemption on +entering into union with the kingdom of France. <i>Greniers +à sel</i> (dating from 1342) were established in each province, and to +these all salt had to be taken by the producer on penalty of +confiscation. The <i>grenier</i> fixed the price which it paid for the +salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.J. Clamagéran, <i>Histoire de l’impôt en France</i> (1876); A. +Gasquet, <i>Précis des institutions politiques de l’ancienne France</i> (1885); +Necker, <i>Compte rendu</i> (1781).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABERDINE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gabardine</span>, any long, loose over-garment, +reaching to the feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made +of coarse material, commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims, +beggars and almsmen. The Jews, conservatively attached to +the loose and flowing garments of the East, continued to wear +the long upper garment to which the name “gaberdine” could +be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common form as worn +by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, <i>e.g.</i> in +Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat +very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race. +The fact that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to +engage in handicrafts also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form +of dress unfitted for manual labour. The idea of the “gaberdine” +being enforced by law upon the Jews as a distinctive garment +is probably due to Shakespeare’s use in the <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, +I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged to wear generally +on the outer garment was the badge. This was first enforced +by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The “badge” (Lat. +<i>rota</i>; Fr. <i>rouelle</i>, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of +cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times. +In France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it +took the form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of +yellow. In Edward I.’s reign it was made in the shape of the +Tables of the Law (see the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, s.v. “Costume” +and “Badge”). The derivation of the word is obscure. It +apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms <i>gauverdine</i>, <i>galvardine</i>, +and thence into Ital. as <i>gavardina</i>, and Span. <i>gabardina</i>, +a form which has influenced the English word. The <i>New English +Dictionary</i> suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger. <i>wallevart</i>, +pilgrimage. Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) refers it to Span. <i>gaban</i>, +coat, cloak; <i>cabaña</i>, hut, cabin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same +name, and 70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the +Tacape of the Romans and consists of an open port and European +quarter and several small Arab towns built in an oasis of date +palms. This oasis is copiously watered by a stream called the +Wad Gabes. The European quarter is situated on the right bank +of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent are the Arab towns +of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns are built +largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins +of Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern +Tunisia. The population of the oasis is about 20,000, including +some 1500 Europeans. There is a considerable export trade in +dates.</p> + +<p>Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is +intimately connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire +to create a Saharan sea by making a channel from the Mediterranean +to these shats (large salt lakes below the level of the sea). +Roudaire proposed to cut a canal through the belt of high ground +between Gabes and the shats, and fixed on Wad Melah, a spot +10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sahara</a></span>). +The company formed to execute his project became simply an +agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created +an oasis of olive and palm trees.</p> + +<p>The Gulf of Gabes, the <i>Syrtis Minor</i> of the ancients, is a semi-circular +shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m. +across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern +shore, to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The +waters of the gulf abound in fish and sponge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABII<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of +Rome, on the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known +as the Via Gabina. The part played by it in the story of the +expulsion of the Tarquins is well known; but its importance +in the earliest history of Rome rests upon other evidence—the +continuance of certain ancient usages which imply a period of +hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption of the +<i>cinctus Gabinus</i> by the consul when war was to be declared. +We hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius +Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock’s +skin, was said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant +in his day. Its subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear +of it again in the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a small and insignificant +place, though its desolation is no doubt exaggerated by the poets. +From inscriptions we learn that from the time of Augustus or +Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal organization. Its baths +were well known, and Hadrian, who was responsible for much of +the renewed prosperity of the small towns of Latium, appears to +have been a very liberal patron, building a senate-house (<i>Curia</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +<i>Aelia Augusta</i>) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd century Gabii +practically disappears from history, though its bishops continue to +be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of the 9th. +The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the +citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of +Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south. +The most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple, +generally attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front +and six on each side. The plan is interesting, but the style of +architecture was apparently mixed. To the east of the temple +lay the Forum, where excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton +in 1792. All the objects found were placed in the Villa Borghese, +but many of them were carried off to Paris by Napoleon, and +still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts are especially +numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, Diana, +Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus, +Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and +Sabina, M. Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius +and others. The inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal +matters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.Q. Visconti, <i>Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana</i> +(Rome, 1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British +School at Rome</i>, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in <i>Bull. Com.</i> (1903), +321 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABINIUS, AULUS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> Roman statesman and general, and +supporter of Pompey, a prominent figure in the later days of the +Roman republic. In 67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when tribune of the people, he +brought forward the famous law (<i>Lex Gabinia</i>) conferring upon +Pompey the command in the war against the Mediterranean +pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute control +over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other +measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors +in Rome were made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption +of the senate) and the senate was ordered to give audience to +foreign envoys on certain fixed days (1st of Feb.-1st of March). +In 61 Gabinius, then praetor, endeavoured to win the public +favour by providing games on a scale of unusual splendour, +and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not without suspicion +of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius Clodius +in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went +as proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus +in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced +important changes in the government of Judaea, and +rebuilt several towns. During his absence in Egypt, whither he +had been sent by Pompey, without the consent of the senate, +to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria had been +devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had +again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the +high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order, +and in 54 handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius +Crassus. The knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered +heavy losses during the disturbances in Syria, were greatly +embittered against Gabinius, and, when he appeared in the senate +to give an account of his governorship, he was brought to trial +on three counts, all involving a capital offence. On the charge +of <i>majestas</i> (high treason) incurred by having left his province for +Egypt without the consent of the senate and in defiance of the +Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that the judges were +bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked Gabinius +with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as +little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy. +On the second charge, that of <i>repetundae</i> (extortion during the +administration of his province), with especial reference to the +10,000 talents paid by Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found +guilty, in spite of evidence offered on his behalf by Pompey and +witnesses from Alexandria and the eloquence of Cicero, who had +been induced to plead his cause. Nothing but Cicero’s wish to +do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to take up what +must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted that the +half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to +Gabinius’s condemnation. The third charge, that of <i>ambitus</i> +(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship), +was consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his +property was confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war, +he was recalled by Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took +no active part against his old patron Pompey. After the battle +of Pharsalus, he was commissioned to transport some recently +levied troops to Illyricum. On his way thither by land, he was +attacked by the Dalmatians and with difficulty made his way +to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended himself +against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus +Octavius, but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning +of 47).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63; +Plutarch, <i>Pompey</i>, 25. 48; Josephus, <i>Antiq.</i> xiv. 4-6; Appian, +<i>Illyrica</i>, 12, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 24. 59; Cicero, <i>ad Att.</i> vi. 2, <i>ad Q. Fratrem</i>, +ii. 13, <i>Post reditum in senatu</i>, 4-8, <i>Pro lege Manilia</i>, 17, 18, 19; +exhaustive article by Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine +Encyclopädie</i>; and monograph by G. Stocchi, <i>Aulo Gabinio e i suoi +processi</i> (1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABION<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (a French word derived through Ital. <i>gabbione</i>, +<i>gabbia</i>, from Lat. <i>cavea</i>, a cage), a cylindrical basket without +top or bottom, used in revetting fortifications and for numerous +other purposes of military engineering. The gabion is filled +with earth when in position. The ordinary brushwood gabion in +the British service has a diameter of 2 ft. and a height of 2 ft. 9 in. +There are several forms of gabion in use, the best known being +the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron or steel +band gabion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABLE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the +level of the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is +a southern English form of the Scottish <i>gāvel</i>, or of an O. Fr. +word <i>gable</i> or <i>jable</i>, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian +<i>gafl</i>. In other Teutonic languages, similar words, such as +Ger. <i>Gabel</i> and Dutch <i>gaffel</i>, mean “fork,” cf. Lat. <i>gabalus</i>, +gallows, which is Teutonic in origin; “gable” is represented +by such forms as Ger. <i>Giebel</i> and Dutch <i>gevel</i>. According to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i> the primary meaning of all these words +is probably “top” or “head,” cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kephalê">κεφαλή</span>, and refers to the +forking timbers at the end of a roof. The gable corresponds to +the pediment in classic buildings where the roof was of low pitch. +If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall so that the +purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden by a +“barge board,” but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of +the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle +ages the gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was +crowned by coping stones properly weathered on both sides to +throw off the rain. In the 16th century in England variety was +given to the outline of the gable by a series of alternating semi-circular +and ogee curves. In Holland, Belgium and Scotland a +succession of steps was employed, which in the latter country are +known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and the +Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables +assume very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character, +and they are sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or +three storeys. Designs of a similar rococo character are found in +England, but only in crestings such as those which surmount the +towers of Wollaton and the gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.</p> + +<p><i>Gabled Towers</i>, in architecture, are those towers which are +finished with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex. +Many of the German Romanesque towers are gabled.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1786-1853), German Hegelian +philosopher, son of J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th +of July 1786, at Altdorf in Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied +his father to Jena, where he completed his studies in philosophy +and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple of Hegel. After +holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821 +appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830 +general superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel +in the Berlin chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September +1853. His works include <i>Lehrbuch d. philos. Propädeutik</i> (1st +vol., Erlangen, 1827), a popular exposition of the Hegelian +system; <i>De verae philosophiae erga religionem Christianam pietate</i> +(Berlin, 1836), and <i>Die Hegel’sche Philosophie</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1843), a +defence of the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1753-1826), German Protestant +theologian of the school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn, +was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In +1772 he entered the university of Jena as a theological student. +In 1776 he was on the point of abandoning theological pursuits, +when the arrival of Griesbach inspired him with new ardour. +After having been successively <i>Repetent</i> in Göttingen and teacher +in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) and Altdorf +(Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of theology +in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a chair +in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he +died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published +(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of +Eichhorn’s <i>Urgeschichte</i>; this was followed, two years afterwards, +by a supplement entitled <i>Neuer Versuch über die mosaische +Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>. He was also the author of many essays +which were characterized by much critical acumen, and which had +considerable influence on the course of German thought on +theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was +editor of the <i>Neuestes theologisches Journal</i>, first conjointly with +H.K.A. Hänlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850) +and H.E.G. Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to +1804 of the <i>Journal für theologische Litteratur</i>; and from 1805 +to 1811 of the <i>Journal für auserlesene theologische Litteratur</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and +a memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schröter.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABLETS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (diminutive of “gable”), in architecture, triangular +terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English +and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally +terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally +plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they +are often enriched with panelling and crockets. They are +sometimes finished with small crosses, but of oftener with finials.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABLONZ<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Jablonec</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, +94 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly +German. It is the chief seat of the glass pearl and imitation +jewelry manufacture, and has also an important textile industry, +and produces large quantities of hardware, papier mâché and +other paper goods.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABORIAU, ÉMILE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1833-1873), French novelist, was born +at Saujon (Charente Inférieure) on the 9th of November 1833. +He became secretary to Paul Féval, and, after publishing some +novels and miscellaneous writings, found his real gift in <i>L’Affaire +Lerouge</i> (1866), a detective novel which was published in the +<i>Pays</i> and at once made his reputation. The story was produced +on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels dealing with the +annals of the police court followed, and proved very popular. +Among them are: <i>Le Crime d’Orcival</i> (1867), <i>Monsieur Lecoq</i> +(1869), <i>La Vie infernale</i> (1870), <i>Les Esclaves de Paris</i> (1869), +<i>L’Argent des autres</i> (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th +of September 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABRIEL<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Gavriel">גבריאל</span>, man of God), in the Bible, the +heavenly messenger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angel</a></span>) sent to Daniel to explain the +vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction +of the Seventy Weeks (Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also +employed to announce the birth of John the Baptist to Zacharias, +and that of the Messiah to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 19, 26). +Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke i. 19; Rev. +viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian writers +generally speak of him as an archangel. In the <i>Book of Enoch</i> +“the four great archangels” are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael, +and Gabriel, who is set over “all the powers” and shares the +work of intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish +literature of the later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to +the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the +way to Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is +affirmed that he, along with Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah +and the Metatron, buried the body of Moses. In the Targum on +2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who destroyed the +host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still later period +he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire, thunder, the +ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes. In the +Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium +of divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters, +he it is who is referred to by the appellations “Holy +Spirit” and “Spirit of Truth.” He is specially commemorated +in the calendars of the Greek, Coptic and Armenian churches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABRIEL HOUNDS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a spectral pack supposed in the North of +England to foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend +is that they are the souls of unbaptized children wandering +through the air till the day of judgment. They are also sometimes +called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A very prosaic explanation +of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C. Atkinson in +his <i>Cleveland Glossary</i> (1868). “This,” he writes, “is the name +for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling +the cry of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large +flocks of wild geese which chance to be flying by night.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See further Joseph Lucas, <i>Studies in Nidderdale</i> (1882), pp. +156-157.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABRIELI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer, +was born at Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle +Andrea, a distinguished musician of the contrapuntal school +and organist of St Mark’s. He succeeded Claudio Merulo as +first organist of the same church in 1585, and died at Venice +either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his compositions +for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices, and is +important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony. +It was probably for this reason that he made a special point of +combining voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders +of choral and orchestral composition. Among his pupils was +Heinrich Schütz; and the church of St Mark, from the time of +the Gabrielis onwards down to that of Lotti, became one of the +most important musical schools in Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Winterfeld, <i>Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit</i> (1834).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GABUN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the +colonies forming French Congo (<i>q.v.</i>). It derives its designation +from the settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabão. The +Gabun, in reality an estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of +the equator. At the entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa +Clara on the N. and Cape Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it +has a width of about 10 m. It maintains a breadth of some 7 m. +for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it contracts into what is +known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2 or 3 m. +from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is +the chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun +was discovered by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the +15th century, and was named from its fanciful resemblance to a +<i>gabão</i> or cabin. On the small island of Koniké, which lies about +the centre of the estuary, scanty remains of a Portuguese fort have +been discovered. The three principal tribes in the Gabun are the +Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GACE BRULÉ<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1220), French <i>trouvère</i>, was a native of +Champagne. It has generally been asserted that he taught +Thibaut of Champagne the art of verse, an assumption which is +based on a statement in the <i>Chroniques de Saint-Denis</i>: “Si +fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brulé les plus belles chançons et +les plus délitables et melodieuses qui onque fussent oïes.” This +has been taken as evidence of collaboration between the two +poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those +of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known. +Paulin Paris, in the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vol. xxiii.), +quotes a number of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace’s songs. +Gace is the author of the earliest known <i>jeu parti</i>. The interlocutors +are Gace and a count of Brittany who is identified with +Geoffrey of Brittany, son of Henry II. of England. Gace appears +to have been banished from Champagne and to have found +refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a contract between +Gatho Bruslé (Gace Brulé) and the Templars for a piece of land +in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at +the latest in 1225.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gédéon Busken Huet, <i>Chansons de Gace Brulé</i>, edited for the +Société des anciens textes français (1902), with an exhaustive introduction. +Dante quotes a song by Gace, <i>Ire d’amor qui en mon cuer +repaire</i>, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre +(<i>De vulgari eloquentia</i>, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1800-1885), Belgian man of +letters, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered +the administration of the royal archives in 1826, and was appointed +director-general, a post which he held for fifty-five years. +During this long period he reorganized the service, added to the +records by copies taken in other European collections, travelled +for purposes of study, and carried on a wide correspondence +with other keepers of records, and with historical scholars. He +also edited and published many valuable collections of state +papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the +<i>Annuaire de l’académie royale de Belgique</i> by Ch. Piot in 1888, +pp. 220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of +several historical writings, of which the best known are <i>Don +Carlos et Philippe II</i> (1867), <i>Études et notices historiques concernant +l’histoire des Pays-Bas</i> (1863), <i>Histoire de la Belgique +au commencement du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1880), <i>Histoire politique et +diplomatique de P.P. Rubens</i> (1877), all published at Brussels. +His chief editorial works are the <i>Actes des états généraux des +Pays-Bas 1576-1585</i> (Brussels, 1861-1866), <i>Collection de documents +inédits concernant l’histoire de la Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1833-1835), +and the <i>Relations des ambassadeurs Vénitiens sur Charles +V et Philippe II</i> (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels +on the 24th of December 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAD,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a “seer” (cp. +1 Sam. ix. 9), who was a companion of David from his early days. +He is first mentioned in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David +to take refuge in Judah, and appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq. +to make known Yahweh’s displeasure at the numbering of the +people. Together with Nathan he is represented in post-exilic +tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of the temple +(2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to have +written an account of David’s deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a +history of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the +lines of later prophetic ideas is far from improbable.</p> + +<p>2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah’s maid; a tribe of Israel +(Gen. xxx. 11). The name is that of the god of “luck” or +fortune, mentioned in Isa. lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several +names of places, <i>e.g.</i> Baal-Gad (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), and +possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and Nahal-Gad.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the name +is played on: “Gad, a plundering troop (<i>gĕdûd</i>) shall plunder him +(<i>yegudennu</i>), but he shall plunder at their heels.” There are no +traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest +references to the name is the statement on the inscription of +Mesha, king of Moab (about 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), that the “men of Gad” +had occupied Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the +king of Israel had fortified the city. This is in the district +ascribed to Reuben, with which tribe the fortunes of Gad were +very closely connected. In Numbers xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities +of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of Heshbon; in Joshua +xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north; while other texts +present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled with either +passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and +Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That +Gad, at one time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah +and Nebo would follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of +the Targums be accepted, “and he looked out the first part for +himself, because there was the portion of the buried law-giver.” +It is certain, however, that, at a late period, this tribe was localized +chiefly in Gilead, in the district which now goes by the name of +Jebel Jil‘ād. The traditions encircling this district point, it +would seem, to the tribe having been of Aramaean origin (see the +story of Jacob); at all events its position was extremely exposed, +and its population at the best must have been a mixed one. +Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding nomads +of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives the +tribe a character for bravery, and David’s men of Gad (1 Chron. +xii. 8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by +name (the geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad +enters into the lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of +Ammon and Moab it must have played some part. It followed +Jeroboam in the great revolt against the house of David, and its +later fortunes until 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (1 Chron. v. 26) would be those of +the northern kingdom.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> +cols. 1579 sqq.; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilead</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manasseh</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reuben</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See G.B. Gray, <i>Heb. Proper Names</i>, pp. 134 seq., 145.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADAG,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Garag</span>, a town of British India, in the Dharwar +district of Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) +30,652. It is an important railway junction on the Southern +Mahratta system, with a growing trade in raw cotton, and also +in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are factories for +ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town +contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit +fine carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence +of Gadag as early as the 10th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADARA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital +of Peraea, and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris. +It was a Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin. +The earliest recorded event in its history is its capture by +Antiochus III. of Syria in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; how long it may have +existed before this date is unknown. About twenty years later +it was besieged for ten months by Alexander Jannaeus. It was +restored by Pompey, and in 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was presented by Augustus +to Herod the Great; on Herod’s death it was reunited to Syria. +The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions +as have been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and +wealthy classes were probably Greek, the common people being +Hellenized and Judaized Aramaeans. The community was +Hellenistically organized, and though dependent on Syria and +acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was governed by a +democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In the +Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine +period it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was +renowned for its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and +show the remains of bath-houses. The temperature of the +springs is 110° F. This town was the birthplace of Meleager the +anthologist. There is a confusion in the narrative of the healing +of the demoniac between the very similar names <i>Gadara</i>, <i>Gerasa</i> +and <i>Gergesa</i>; but the probabilities, both textual and geographical, +are in favour of the reading of Mark (<i>Gerasenes</i>, ch. v. 1, revised +version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with Gadara, +but took place at <i>Kersa</i>, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee.</p> + +<p>Gadara is now represented by <i>Umm Kais</i>, a group of ruins +about 6 m. S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the +sea-level. There are very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in +the neighbourhood. There are the remains of two theatres and +(probably) a temple, and many heaps of carved stones, representing +ancient buildings of various kinds. The walls are, or were, +traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also the remains of +a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying the ruins +by quarrying building material out of them.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADDI.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> Four painters of the early Florentine school—father, +son and two grandsons—bore this name.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Gaddo Gaddi</span> was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend +of Cimabue, and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and +death have been given as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably +too early; he may have been born towards 1260, and may have +died in or about 1333. He was a painter and mosaicist, is said +to have executed the great mosaic inside the portal of the +cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the Virgin, +and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside +the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to +the legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably +1308. In the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also +executed the mosaics of the choir, and those of the front representing +on a colossal scale God the Father, with many other +figures; likewise an altarpiece in the church of S. Maria Novella, +Florence; these works no longer exist. It is ordinarily held that +no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo Gaddi is now +extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that +the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance +in style to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi, +representing incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +and especially 5, which shows Francis stripping himself, and +protected by the bishop), that those frescoes likewise may, with +considerable confidence, be ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant +mosaics are attributed to him, but without full authentication. +This artist laid the foundation of a very large fortune, which +continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a highly distinguished +worldly position.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Taddeo Gaddi</span> (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo, +was born in Florence, and is usually said to have been one of +Giotto’s most industrious assistants for a period of 24 years. +This can hardly be other than an exaggeration; it is probable +that he began painting on his own account towards 1330, when +Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded as a merchant, and +had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a painter, +mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the Baroncelli +(now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce, the +“Virgin and Child between Four Prophets,” on the funeral +monument at the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in +the legend of the Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the +Temple up to the Nativity. In the subject of the “Presentation +of the Virgin in the Temple” are the two heads traditionally +accepted as portraits of Gaddo Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at +any rate, are not likely to be portraits of those artists from the +life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are the “Eight Virtues.” +In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo, the “Virgin +and Child,” and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the Naples +gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the “Virgin enthroned along +with Four Saints,” the “Baptism of Jesus,” and his “Deposition +from the Cross”; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near +Poggibonsi, an altarpiece dated 1355, the “Virgin and Child +enthroned amid Angels.” A series of paintings, partly from the +life of St Francis, which Taddeo executed for the presses in S. +Croce, are now divided between the Florentine Academy and the +Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken from or founded +on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have ascribed +their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant +in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings, +which have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most +eminent successors of Giotto; it may be said that he continued +working up the material furnished by that great painter, with +comparatively feeble inspiration of his own. His figures are +vehement in action, long and slender in form; his execution +rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are generally +ascribed the celebrated frescoes—those of the ceiling and left +or western wall—in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church +of S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable +doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the +designs for the ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also +are the three pictures ascribed to him in the National Gallery, +London. In mosaic he has left some work in the baptistery of +Florence. As an architect he supplied in 1336 the plans for the +present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original (not the present) +Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church of +Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto’s death the work +of the unrivalled Campanile.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Agnolo Gaddi</span>, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo; +the date of his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350 +is nearer the mark. He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by +his father, and a merchant as well; in middle age he settled down +to commercial life in Venice, and he added greatly to the family +wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396. His paintings +show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced +in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra’ Fossi, Florence, +represents the “Resurrection of Lazarus.” Another probably +youthful performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di +Prato—legends of the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed +upon St Thomas, and brought to Prato in the 11th century by +Michele dei Dagomari; the “Marriage of Mary” is one of the +best of this series, the later compositions in which have suffered +much by renewals. In S. Croce he painted, in eight frescoes, +the legend of the Cross, beginning with the archangel Michael +giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and ending +with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters +Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself. +Agnolo composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more +dignity and individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold +colourist; the general effect is laudably decorative, but the +drawing is poor, and the works show best from a distance. +Various other productions of this master exist, and many have +perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the celebrated treatise +on painting, was one of his pupils.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Giovanni Gaddi</span>, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of +promise. He died young in 1383.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as +to the Gaddi. Other notices appear here and there—such as +<i>La Cappella de’ Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze</i>, by G. Ajazzi +(1845).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADE, NIELS WILHELM<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1817-1890), Danish composer, +was born at Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father +being a musical instrument maker. He was intended for his +father’s trade, but his passion for a musician’s career, made +evident by the ease and skill with which he learnt to play upon +a number of instruments, was not to be denied. Though he +became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and in the +elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great +extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in +the great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the +court band. In 1840 his <i>Aladdin</i> and his overture of <i>Ossian</i> +attracted attention, and in 1841 his <i>Nachklänge aus Ossian</i> +overture gained the local musical society’s prize, the judges +being Spohr and Schneider. This work also attracted the notice +of the king, who gave the composer a stipend which enabled him +to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the Gewandhaus +concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn’s absence, and on +the latter’s death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the +outbreak of the Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where +he was appointed organist and conductor of the Musik-Verein. +In 1852 he married a daughter of the composer J.P.E. Hartmann. +He became court conductor in 1861, and was pensioned by the +government in 1876—the year in which he visited Birmingham +to conduct his <i>Crusaders</i>. This work, and the <i>Frühlingsfantasie</i>, +the <i>Erlkönigs Tochter</i>, <i>Frühlingsbotschaft</i> and <i>Psyche</i> (written for +Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide popularity. Indeed, +they represent the strength and the weakness of Gade’s musical +ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the best of +which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato +pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his +music is highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather +than dramatic and effective. Much of the pianoforte music, +<i>Aquarellen</i>, <i>Spring Flowers</i>, for instance, enjoyed a considerable +vogue, as did the <i>Novelletten</i> trio; but Gade’s opera <i>Mariotta</i> +has not been heard outside the Copenhagen opera house. He +died at Copenhagen on the 21st of December 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADOLINIUM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the +rare earth metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erbium</a></span>). The element was discovered +in 1880 in the mineral samarskite by C. Marignac (<i>Comptes +rendus</i>, 1880, 90, p. 899; <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535). +G. Urbain (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1905, 140, p. 583) separates the +metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of nickel and gadolinium. +The salts show absorption bands in the ultra-violet. The oxide +Gd<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1724-1805), American patriot, +was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father, +Thomas Gadsden, was for a time the king’s collector for the +port of Charleston. Christopher went to school near Bristol, in +England, returned to America in 1741, was afterwards employed +in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a merchant and +planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an artillery +company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a +member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously +from 1760 to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp +Act Congress of 1765 and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776. +In February 1776 he was placed in command of all the +military forces of South Carolina, and in October of the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was taken into +the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising out +of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his +command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in +1780, when Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about +three months following this event he was held as a prisoner on +parole within the limits of Charleston; then, because of his +influence in deterring others from exchanging their paroles for +the privileges of British subjects, he was seized, taken to St +Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would not give another +parole to those who had violated the former agreement affecting +him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In +1782 Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature; +he was also elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground +that he was too old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the +convention which ratified for South Carolina the Federal constitution; +and in 1790 he was a member of the convention which +framed the new state constitution. He died in Charleston on the +28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor Thomas +Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature +improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was +hostile to the British administration. He was an ardent leader +of the opposition to the Stamp Act, advocating even then a +separation of the colonies from the mother country; and in +the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed the situation on +the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and urged an immediate +attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be +defeated before receiving reinforcements.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADSDEN, JAMES<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat, +was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the +grandson of Christopher Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806, +became a merchant in his native city, and in the war of 1812 +served in the regular U.S. Army as a lieutenant of engineers. +In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with the rank of captain, +as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In October 1820 +he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with the +rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the +establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From +August 1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his +appointment not being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army +and became a planter in Florida. He served in the Territorial +legislature, and as Federal commissioner superintended in 1823 +the removal of the Seminole Indians to South Florida. In 1832 +he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty which provided for their +removal within three years to lands in what is now the state of +Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move, hostilities again +broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was +quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February +to April 1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice +planter, and was president of the South Carolina railway. +In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed him minister to +Mexico, with which country he negotiated the so-called “Gadsden +treaty” (signed the 30th of December 1853), which gave to the +United States freedom of transit for mails, merchandise and +troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided for a +readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of +Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m. +of land, since known as the “Gadsden Purchase,” in what is +now New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the +treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which bound the United States +to prevent incursions of Indians from the United States into +Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by such +Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United +States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of +the treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the +30th of June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired +from his post. The boundary line between Mexico and the +“Gadsden Purchase” was marked by joint commissions appointed +in 1855 and 1891, the second commission publishing its +report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South Carolina, on +the 25th of December 1858.</p> + +<p>An elder brother, <span class="sc">Christopher Edwards Gadsden</span> (1785-1852), +was Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in +1839-1852.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GADWALL,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a word of obscure origin,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the common English +name of the duck, called by Linnaeus <i>Anas strepera</i>, but considered +by many modern ornithologists to require removal from +the genus <i>Anas</i> to that of <i>Chaulelasmus</i> or <i>Ctenorhynchus</i>, of +either of which it is almost the sole species. Its geographical +distribution is almost identical with that of the common wild duck +or mallard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duck</a></span>), since it is found over the greater part of +the northern hemisphere; but, save in India, where it is one of +the most abundant species of duck during the cold weather, it is +hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern parts of +the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare than +otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed, +greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance +on the water is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated +form and elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler +even at such a distance as hinders him from seeing its very +distinct plumage. In coloration the two sexes appear almost +equally sombre; but on closer inspection the drake exhibits a +pencilled grey coloration and upper wing-coverts of a deep +chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly clad partner. +She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour, but has, +like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure white, +presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most +readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The +gadwall is a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the +few that have been induced, by the protection afforded them in +certain localities, to resume the indigenous position they once +filled, but had, through the draining and reclaiming of marshy +lands, long since abandoned. In regard to the present species, +this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew Fountaine, on whose +property, in West Norfolk and its immediate neighbourhood, +the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing numbers. +It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for the +table.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The <i>New English Dictionary</i> has nothing to say. Webster gives +the etymology <i>gad well</i> = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested +that it was taken from the syllables <i>quedul</i>, of the Lat. <i>querquedula</i>, +a teal. The spelling “gadwall” seems to be first found in Willughby +in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later writers; but +Merrett, in 1667, has “gaddel” (<i>Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum</i>, +p. 180), saying that it was so called by bird-dealers. The +synonym “gray,” given by Willughby and Ray, is doubtless derived +from the general colour of the species, and has its analogue in the +Icelandic <i>Gráönd</i>, applied almost indifferently, or with some distinguishing +epithet, to the female of any of the freshwater ducks, and +especially to both sexes of the present, in which, as stated in the text, +there is comparatively little conspicuous difference of plumage in +drake and duck.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAEKWAR,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guicowar</span>, the family name of the Mahratta +rulers of Baroda (<i>q.v.</i>) in western India, which has been converted +by the English into a dynastic title. It is derived from the +vernacular word for the cow, but it is a mistake to suppose that +the family are of the cowherd caste; they belong to the upper class +of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a Rajput origin. The +dynasty was founded by a succession of three warriors, Damaji I., +Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta supremacy +throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century. The +present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAETA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (anc. <i>Caietae Portus</i>), a seaport and episcopal see of +Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is +53 m. W.N.W. by rail via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It +occupies a lower projecting point of the promontory which forms +the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The tomb of Munatius +Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caietae Portus</a></span>), +is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the extensive +earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is +well sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance, +being mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the +suburb of Elena (formerly Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369. +Above the town is a castle erected by the Angevin kings, and +strengthened at various periods. The cathedral of St Erasmus +(S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the +interior has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of +the cathedral is a candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the +end of the 13th century, consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief, +with 24 representations from the life of Christ, and 24 of the +life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, <i>Storia dell’ arte Italiana</i>, iii. +Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral possesses three fine +<i>Exultet</i> rolls, with miniatures dating from the 11th to the beginning +of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the banner sent +by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto. +The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527, +is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close +to that of La Trinità is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical +fissure from 6 to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level. +Over the chasm is a chapel <i>del Crocefisso</i>, the mountain having +split, it is said, at the death of Christ.</p> + +<p>During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi +and Naples, would seem to have established itself as a practically +independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with +the Levant. Its history, however, is obscure until, in 823, it +appears as a lordship ruled by hereditary <i>hypati</i> or consuls. +In 844 the town fell into the hands of the Arabs, but four years +later they were driven out with help supplied by Pope Leo IV. +In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who gave +it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long +claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the <i>hypatus</i> John +(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he +established as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman +emperors. In the 11th century the duchy fell into the hands of +the Norman counts of Aversa, afterwards princes of Capua, and +in 1135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of +Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage as late as 1229.</p> + +<p>In military history the town has played a conspicuous part. +Its fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On +the 30th of September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months’ +siege, by the Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August +1734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French, +Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles +of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and +in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On the 18th +of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the +French under Masséna; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated, +after a three months’ siege, to the Austrians. In November +1848 Pope Pius IX., after his flight in disguise from Rome, +found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained till the 4th of September +1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the scene of the last stand +of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of United Italy. Shut +up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi’s occupation +of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen +Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th +of February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having +made bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to +capitulate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.B. Federici, <i>Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della città +di Gaeta</i> (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d’ Aragona, <i>Mem. stor. +della città di Gaeta</i> (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, <i>Il Golfo di Gaeta</i> +(Novara, 1876).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAETANI,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Caetani</span>, the name of the oldest of the Roman +princely families which played a great part in the history of the +city and of the papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin, +and the founder of the house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus +Cagetanus, who flourished in the 10th century, but +the family had no great importance until the election of Benedetto +Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294, when they at once +became the most notable in the city. The pope conferred +on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato +(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles +II. of Anjou created the pope’s brother count of Caserta. +Giordano Loffredo Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna +dell’ Aquila, heiress of the counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297 +added the name of Aquila to his own, and his grandson Giacomo +acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and Gioia. The Gaetani +proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to protect +Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th +centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances +in Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to +civil war. They also played an important rôle as Neapolitan +nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in his attempt to crush the great +Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the Gaetani fiefs and gave +them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (<i>q.v.</i>); but they afterwards +regained them.</p> + +<p>At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes +of Teano and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello +Gaetani, whose grandson, Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted +the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in 1503, the marquisate +of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus V. in 1585. +In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by +marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the +principality of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house, +Onorato Gaetani, 14th duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano, +duke of San Marco, marquis of Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the +kingdom of Italy, and was minister for foreign affairs for a short +time. (2) Gaetani dell’ Aquila d’Aragona, princes of Piedimonte, +and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by Onorato Gaetani dell’ +Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and Morcone, lord of +Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname of +Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani, +duke of Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural +daughter of King Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana, +in the kingdom of Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani +by his marriage in 1606 with Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of +Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte was raised to a +principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the house is +Nicola Gaetani dell’ Aquila d’Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of +Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Berlin, 1868); F. +Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Stuttgart, 1872); <i>Almanach +de Gotha</i> (1907 and 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAETULIA,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> an ancient district in northern Africa, which in +the usage of Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of +the southern slopes of Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the +Atlantic, and the oases in the northern part of the Sahara. +They were always distinguished from the Negro people to the +south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber race +which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and +Mauretania (<i>q.v.</i>). The tribes to be found there at the present +day are probably of the same race, and retain the same wandering +habits; and it is possible that they still bear in certain places +the name of their Gaetulian ancestors (see Vivien St Martin, +<i>Le Nord de l’Afrique</i>, 1863). A few only seem to have mingled +with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus interpret +Ptolemy’s allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were noted +for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000 +foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh +and milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name +is that of the purple dye which became famous from the time of +Augustus onwards, and was made from the purple fish found on +the coast, apparently both in the Syrtes and on the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when, as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name +of Rome. They took part with Jugurtha against Rome; but +when we next hear of them they are in alliance with Caesar +against Juba I. (<i>Bell. Afr.</i> 32). In 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus seems to +have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together with his +kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling +the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred +the Roman residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been +inflicted on them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the +surname Gaetulicus) in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 6 that they submitted to the king. +After Mauretania became a Roman province in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40, the +Roman governors made frequent expeditions into the Gaetulian +territory to the south, and the official view seems to be expressed +by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as the +Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but +inscriptions prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops +of the empire, and it may be assumed that the country passed +within the sphere of Roman influence, though hardly within the +pale of Roman civilization.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For bibliography see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa, Roman</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1836-  ), American financier, +was born at De Ruyter, Madison county, New York, on the 28th +of June 1836. He was educated at an academy at Rome, New +York, where at the age of seventeen he became a bank clerk. +In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as book-keeper +in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house +of the Merchant’s Loan and Trust Company, of which he was +cashier in 1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively +assistant cashier (1868), vice-president (1882), and president +(1891) of the First National Bank of Chicago, one of the strongest +financial institutions in the middle west. He was chosen in 1892 +president of the board of directors of the World’s Columbian +Exposition, the successful financing of which was due more to him +than to any other man. In politics he was originally a Republican, +and was a delegate to the national convention of the +party in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, +however, he supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, +and came to be looked upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President +Cleveland, after his second election, offered Gage the post of +secretary of the treasury, but the offer was declined. In the +“free-silver” campaign of 1896 Gage laboured effectively for +the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897 until +January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets +successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From +April 1902 until 1906 he was president of the United States +Trust Company in New York City. His administration of the +treasury department, through a more than ordinarily trying +period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking toward +the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater +flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the +relations between the government and the National banks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAGE, THOMAS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1721-1787), British general and governor +of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born +in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders +and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel +in the 44th foot in March 1751. In 1754 he served in America, +and he took part in the following year in General Braddock’s +disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new +regiment, and served in Amherst’s operations against Montreal. +He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general +in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the +British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. +In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts, +and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the +Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the +execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culminated +in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington +initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle +of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William) +Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, +and died on the 2nd of April 1787.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAGE,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a pledge, something deposited as security for the +performance of an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure +to carry it out. The word also appears in “engage,” and is +taken from the O. Fr., as are “wage,” payment for services, +and “wager,” bet, stake, from the collateral O. Fr. <i>waige</i>. These +two words are from the Low Lat. <i>wadiare</i>, <i>vadiare</i>, to pledge, +<i>vadium</i>, classical Lat. <i>vas</i>, <i>vadis</i>, but may be from the old Teutonic +cognate base seen in Gothic <i>wadi</i>, a pledge (cf. Ger. <i>wetten</i>, to +wager); this Teutonic base is seen in Eng. “wed,” to marry, +<i>i.e.</i> to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth, <i>gawadjon</i>, to betrothe). +A particular form of giving a “gage” or pledge was that of +throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a judicial +combat, the glove being the “pledge” that the parties would +appear on the field; hence the common phrase “to throw down +the gage of defiance” for any challenge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glove</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1766-1852), +German statesman and political writer, was born at +Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the 25th of January 1766. +After studying law at the universities of Leipzig and Göttingen, +he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, whom +in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards +appointed the prince’s envoy at Paris, where he remained till +the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left +side of the Rhine to serve any other state than France, compelled +him to resign his office (1811). He then retired to Vienna, and +in 1812 he took part in the attempt to excite a second insurrection +against Napoleon in Tirol. On the failure of this attempt he left +Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army (1813), +and became a member of the board of administration for north +Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator of the Orange +principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king of +the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. +In 1815 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded +in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation +of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy +at the German diet, but was recalled, at the instance of Metternich, +owing to his too independent advocacy of state constitutions. +In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at Hornau, near +Höchst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first +chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take +an active share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of +his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at +Hornau on the 22nd of October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote +a history of the German nation (Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., +Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several other books on subjects +connected with history and social and political science. Of +most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, <i>Mein +Anteil an der Politik</i>, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).</p> + +<p>Of Hans Christoph von Gagern’s sons three attained considerable +eminence:—</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Friedrich Balduin</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the +eldest, was born at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He +entered the university of Göttingen, but soon left, and, taking +service in the Austrian army, took part in the Russian campaign +of 1812, and fought in the following year at Dresden, Kulm and +Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took part in the +campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at Heidelberg, +was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of +the German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took +part in the Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being +promoted to the rank of general, was sent on an important +mission to the Dutch East Indies to inquire into the state of +their military defences. In 1847 he was appointed governor at +the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the spring +of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the revolutionary +troubles he accepted the invitation of the government +of Baden to take the command against the insurgent “free +companies” (<i>Freischaaren</i>). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, +he made a vain effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was +about to order his troops to attack when he was mortally wounded +by the bullets of the insurgents. His <i>Life</i>, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg +and Leipzig, 1856-1857), was written by his brother Heinrich +von Gagern.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Heinrich Wilhelm August</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880), +the third son, was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August +1799, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an +officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. +Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at +Heidelberg, Göttingen and Jena, and in 1819 went for a while +to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official +career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 +was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities +he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the +<i>Burschenschaft</i>, and he now threw himself into open opposition +to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an +attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833. +Henceforth he lived in comparative retirement, cultivating a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally publishing +criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution +of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political +life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian +administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation +of a united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the +preliminary convention (<i>Vorparlament</i>) of Frankfort he deeply +impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of +his views; with the result that when the German national +parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first president. +His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist +party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was +he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a +united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the +election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing +split between the Great Germans (<i>Grossdeutschen</i>), who wished +the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little +Germans (<i>Kleindeutschen</i>), who realized that German unity could +only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken. +On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian +members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the +imperial ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme +(known as the <i>Gagernsche Programm</i>) according to which Austria +was to be excluded from the new federal state, but bound to it +by a treaty of union. After a severe struggle this proposal was +accepted; but the academic discussion on the constitution +continued for weary months, and on the 20th of May, realizing +the hopelessness of coming to terms with the ultra-democrats, +Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted to +influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the +national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt +parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good +results from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from +the contest, and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein +government, took part in the Danish War of 1850. +After the war he retired into private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, +misled by the constitutional tendency of Austrian politics, he +publicly declared in favour of the Great German party. In 1864 +he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring in 1872 when +the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd +of May 1880.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Maximilian</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest +son, was born at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to +1848 he was a government official in Nassau; in that year he +became a member of the German national parliament and under-secretary +of state for foreign affairs. Throughout the revolutionary +years he supported his brother’s policy, became a member +of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the national +movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In +1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service +as court and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign +affairs. In 1871 he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life +member of the Upper Chamber (<i>Herrenhaus</i>). He died at +Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878) +and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAHANBAR,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated +by the Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond +with the six periods of creation: (1) <i>Maidhyozaremaya</i> (mid +spring), (2) <i>Maidhyoshema</i> (midsummer), (3) <i>Paitishahya</i> (season +of corn), (4) <i>Ayathrema</i> (season of flocks), (5) <i>Maidhyarya</i> (winter +solstice), (6) <i>Hamaspathmaedha</i> (festival of sacrifices).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1642-1715), French +genealogist, antiquary and collector, was the son of Aimé de +Gaignières, secretary to the governor of Burgundy, and was +born on the 30th of December 1642. He became écuyer (esquire) +to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards to Louis Joseph’s +aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed governor +of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to +make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, +in particular, for that of the French church and court. He +brought together a large collection of original letters and other +documents, together with portraits and prints, and had copies +made of a great number of the most curious antiquarian objects, +such as seals, tombstones, stained glass, miniatures and tapestry. +In 1711 he presented the whole of his collections to the king. +The bulk of them is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale +at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian library at Oxford.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Duplessis, <i>Roger de Gaignières</i> (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle, +<i>Cabinet des manuscrits</i>, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, <i>Les Portraits +aux crayon des XVI<span class="sp">e</span> et XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (Paris, 1884); Ch. de +Grandmaison, <i>Gaignières, ses correspondants et ses collections de +portraits</i> (Niort, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1755-1829), French hellenist, was +born in Paris on the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed +deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the Collège de France. +During the Revolution he quietly performed his professional +duties, taking no part in politics, although he possessed the +faculty of ingratiating himself with those in authority. In 1815 +he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in the royal +library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other +conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. +Gail imagined that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle +his learning and professional success, and there was a standing +quarrel between him and his literary opponents, the most distinguished +of whom was P.L. Courier. He died on the 5th of +February 1829. Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was +a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was devoted to +his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for having +rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the +troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail’s published +works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of +Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). +He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based +on the principles of the school of Port Royal. His communications +to the Académie des Inscriptions being coldly received and +seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast +compilation in 24 volumes, which he called <i>Le Philologue</i>, containing +a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography, +archaeology, and various authors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.,” in +<i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, ix.; the articles in <i>Biographie +universelle</i> (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i> +(by C.F. Bähr); a list of his works will be found in J.M. +Quérard, <i>La France littéraire</i> (1829), including the contents of the +volumes of <i>Le Philologue</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAILLAC,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Tarn, on the right bank of +the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi on the railway from that city to +Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388; commune, 7535. The +churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from the 13th +and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There +are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, +of the Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. +The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal +of first instance, and a communal college. Its industries include +the manufacture of lime and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing +and flour-milling are also carried on; it has a considerable +trade in grain, flour, vegetables, dried plums, anise, coriander, +&c., and in wine, the white and red wines of the arrondissement +having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round the Benedictine +abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1726-1806), French historian, +was born at Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the +bar, but after finishing his studies adopted a literary career, +ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. He was +already a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres +(1760), when, after the publication of the three first +volumes of his <i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et d’Angleterre</i>, +he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when +Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third +class (<i>Académie française</i>) in 1803. For forty years he was the +intimate friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He +died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. +Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative +is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of +treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical +affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his +<i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l’Angleterre</i> (in 11 vols., +1771-1777); and among his other works may be mentioned +<i>Essai de rhétorique française, à l’usage des jeunes demoiselles</i> +(1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author; +<i>Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne</i> (1757); <i>Histoire de François I<span class="sp">er</span></i> +(7 vols., 1776-1779); <i>Histoire des grandes querelles entre Charles V. +et François I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (2 vols., 1777); <i>Histoire de Charlemagne</i> (2 vols., +1782); <i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l’Espagne</i> (8 vols., +1801); <i>Dictionnaire historique</i> (6 vols., 1789-1804), making part +of the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>; and <i>Mélanges littéraires</i>, containing +<i>éloges</i> on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, +La Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAINESVILLE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Alachua county, +Florida, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) +2790; (1900) 3633, of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413; +(1910) 6183. Gainesville is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, +the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa & Jacksonville railways, +and is an important railway junction. It is the seat of the +University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City in +1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes +a school of language and literature, a general scientific +school, a school of agriculture, a technological school, a school of +pedagogy, a normal school, and an agricultural experiment +station. In 1908 the university had 15 instructors and 103 +students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference and Chautauqua +is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter resort, and its +climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by pulmonary +troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne’s +Prairie, Newman’s Lake, the Devil’s Mill Hopper and other +objects of interest. The surrounding country produces Sea +Island cotton, melons, citrus and other fruits, vegetables and +naval stores. About 15 m. W. of the city there is a rich phosphate +mining district. The city has bottling works, and manufactures +fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c. The municipality owns and +operates the water-works; the water-supply comes from a spring +2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles that of the +Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the +famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here +about 1850; and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P. +Gaines, was incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered +as a city in 1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAINESVILLE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cooke county, +Texas, U.S.A., about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m. +N. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes +and 269 foreign-born); (1910) 7624. The city is served by +the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, and the Missouri, Kansas & +Texas railways, and by an interurban electric railway. Gainesville +is a trading centre and market for the surrounding country, +in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are grown +and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for +the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city +has cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures +are cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks, +canned goods, foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery +products. Gainesville was settled about 1851, was incorporated +in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879; it was named in +honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines (1777-1849), +who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a +brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of +major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of +Fort Erie in August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the +operations against the Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he +was in command of the Southern Military District) and in 1836 +and during the Mexican War commanded the department of the +South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1727-1788), English painter, +one of the greatest masters of the English school in portraiture, +and only less so in landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in +the spring of 1727. His father, who carried on the business of a +woollen crape-maker in that town, was of a respectable character +and family, and was noted for his skill in fencing; his mother +excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged her son in the use +of the pencil. There were nine children of the marriage, two of +the painter’s brothers being of a very ingenious turn.</p> + +<p>At ten years old, Gainsborough “had sketched every fine tree +and picturesque cottage near Sudbury,” and at fourteen, having +filled his task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and +sketched the portrait of a man whom he had detected on the +watch for robbing his father’s orchard, he was allowed to follow +the bent of his genius in London, with some instruction in +etching from Gravelot, and under such advantages as Hayman, +the historical painter, and the academy in St Martin’s Lane could +afford. Three years of study in the metropolis, where he did some +modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two years in +the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young +lady of many charms, including an annuity of £200, married her +after painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age +of twenty, became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being +£6 a year. The annuity was reported to come from Margaret’s +real (not her putative) father, who was one of the exiled Stuart +princes or else the duke of Bedford. She was sister of a young +man employed by Gainsborough’s father as a traveller. At +Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was “chiefly in the face-way”; +his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often +rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society +of Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many +landscapes with an attention to details which his later works +never exhibited, or from joining a musical club and entertaining +himself and his fellow-townsmen by giving concerts. As he +advanced in years he became ambitious of advancing in reputation. +Bath was then the general resort of wealth and fashion, +and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he removed +with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their marriage. +His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he +gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40 +guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he +rapidly developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum +quality of his Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at +this period were the authors Sterne and Richardson, and the +actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick. Meanwhile he contributed +both portraits and landscapes to the annual exhibitions in +London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to play the +viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His house +harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians. +He haunted the green-room of Palmer’s theatre, and painted +gratuitously the portraits of many of the actors: he constantly +gave away his sketches and landscapes. In the summer of 1774, +having already attained a position of great prosperity, he took +his departure for London, and fixed his residence at Schomberg +House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still standing, for a part of +which the artist paid £300 a year.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he +received a summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he +divided with West the favour of the court, and with Reynolds +the favour of the town. Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin, +Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Mrs Siddons, Clive, +Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who sat to +him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, +were commended, and were year after year returned to him, +“till they stood,” says Sir William Beechey, “ranged in long +lines from his hall to his painting-room.” Gainsborough was a +member of the Royal Academy, one of the original 36 elected in +1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with the position assigned +on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the three princesses, +he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never afterwards +exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the +business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition +in his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while +witnessing the trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary +chill at the back of his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +(or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on the +2nd of August of the same year. He lies buried at Kew.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive +to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish +likings, a lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough +embodiment of the artistic temperament; delighting in nature +and “the look of things,” insatiable in working, fond of music +and the theatre hardly less than of painting—a warm, rich personality, +to whom severe principle was perhaps as foreign as deliberate +wrong-doing. The property which he left at his death was +not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the musician +Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of mental +aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. +Mrs Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived +her husband ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that +Gainsborough, if he ever had a tiff with her, would write a pacifying +note, confiding it to his dog Fox, who delivered it to the lady’s +pet spaniel Tristram. The note was worded as in the person of +Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied in the best of +humours, as from Tristram to Fox.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest +portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; +but Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. +It is difficult to say which stands the higher of +the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a +nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace, +spirit, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is +peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part, +and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and +his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than +his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of “Lady +Ligonier,” “Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire,” “Master +Buttall (the Blue Boy),” now in Grosvenor House, “Mrs Sheridan +and Mrs Tickell,” “Orpin, the parish clerk” (National Gallery), +“the Hon. Mrs Graham” (Scottish National Gallery), his own +portrait (Royal Academy), “Mrs Siddons” (National Gallery); +also “the Cottage Door,” “the Market Cart,” “the Return from +Harvest,” “the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm” (destroyed +by fire), and “Waggon and Horses passing a Brook” (National +Gallery—this was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast +number of drawings and sketches.</p> + +<p>A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual +works by Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics +as a painter.</p> + +<p>Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at +Ipswich, were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. +His first great hit was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord +Nugent. With a likeness of Mr Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided +advance in artistic type, and his style became fixed towards +1768. The date of the “Blue Boy” is somewhat uncertain: +most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark. +This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is +said that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting +a dictum of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour +unsuitable for the main light of a work. But, if the picture was +produced before 1778, the date of Reynolds’s dictum, this long-cherished +and often-repeated tradition must be given up. A +full-length of the duke of Norfolk was perhaps the latest work +to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait of Elizabeth, +duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, has +aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not +long after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed +“the Duchess of Devonshire,” does really represent that lady, +is by no means certain. It was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in +London immediately after it had been purchased by Messrs +Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a long time +elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New +York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through +the agency of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the +American detectives working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold +to Mr Pierpont Morgan.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough’s total output of paintings exceeded 300, +including 220 portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and +3 in aquatint. At the date of his death 56 paintings remained +on hand: these, along with 148 drawings, were then exhibited. +In his earlier days he made a practice of copying works by +Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), Titian, +Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not +in a spirit of servile reproduction.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element +of portraiture—truthful likeness. In process of time he +advanced in the rendering of immediate expression, while he +somewhat receded in general character. He always made his +sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, distinguished. Unity +of impression is one of the most marked qualities in his work; +he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he wrought +at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very wilful +some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. +He painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later +years. For portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft. +long; there was but little light in his painting-room, and he +often worked in the evenings. He kept his landscape work +distinct from his portraiture, not ever adding to the latter a fully +realized landscape background; his views he never signed or +dated—his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are constantly +cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the +scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming +rain, or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his +landscapes is somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups +or in portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive +than mirthful. It should be acknowledged that, whether +in portraiture or in landscape, the painter’s mannerisms of +execution increased in process of time—patchings of the brush, +tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits are hurried and flimsy, +with a minimum of solid content, though not other than artistic +in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:—“What makes the +difference between man and man is real performance, and not +genius or conception.” “I don’t think it would be more ridiculous +for a person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours +smelt offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is +just as material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and +drawing of a picture.” “The eye is the only perspective-master +needed by a landscape-painter.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor +of Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the +artist’s fortunes at starting, published A <i>Sketch of the Life and +Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough</i>. He had quarrelled with the +painter at Bath, partly because the latter had undertaken to do a +portrait of him as a gift, and then neglected the work, and finally, +in a huff, bundled it off only half done. The crucial question here is +whether or not Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform +any such gratuitous work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse’s +book is in part adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly +so to his wife. Reynolds’s “Lecture” on Gainsborough, +replete with critical insight, should never be lost sight of as a leading +document. In 1856 a heedfully compiled <i>Life of Thomas Gainsborough</i> +was brought out by T.W. Fulcher. This was the first +substantial work about him subsequent to Allan Cunningham’s +lively account (1829) in his <i>Lives of the Painters</i>. Of late years a +great deal has been written, mainly but not by any means exclusively +from the critical or technical point of view:—Sir Walter Armstrong +(two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur Bell (1902); Sir W.M. +Conway, <i>Artistic Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough</i> (1886); +Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M. Brock-Arnold (1881). +G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in Germany (1904) +under the title <i>Gainsborough</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAINSBOROUGH,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a market town in the W. Lindsey or +Gainsborough parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; +on the right (E.) bank of the Trent. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 17,660. It is served by the Lincoln-Doncaster joint line +of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, by which it +is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central railway. +The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century, +excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish +churches are modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged +in the 16th, is a picturesque building, forming three +sides of a quadrangle, partially timber-framed, but having a +beautiful oriel window and other parts of stone. There is also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific institute occupy +part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar school +(founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other +schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church +of England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water +on the Trent and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding +are carried on, and there are manufactures of linseed +cake, and agricultural and other machinery.</p> + +<p>Gainsborough (<i>Gegnesburh</i>) was probably inhabited by the +Saxons on account of the fishing in the Trent. The <i>Saxon +Chronicle</i> states that in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed +here and subjugated the inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not +a chartered borough, was probably one by prescription, for +mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The privilege of +the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor, +Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed +to Ralph de Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a +Wednesday market, but there is no extant grant before 1258, +when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market to William de +Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward I. +in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints’ Day, and the +seven preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III. +granted to John Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day +and morrow of St James the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592 +granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two fairs, to begin on Easter +Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting three days. +Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to nine +days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are +Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and +Wednesday after the 20th of October.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adam Stark, <i>History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh</i> (London, +1843).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIRDNER, JAMES<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1828-  ), English historian, son of +John Gairdner, M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of +March 1828. Educated in his native city, he entered the Public +Record Office in London in 1846, becoming assistant keeper of +the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner’s valuable and painstaking +contributions to English history relate chiefly to the +reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the +“Rolls Series” he edited <i>Letters and Papers illustrative of the +Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII.</i> (London, 1861-1863), and +<i>Memorials of Henry VII.</i> (London, 1858); and he succeeded +J.S. Brewer in editing the <i>Letters and Papers</i>, foreign and +domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII. (London, 1862-1905). +He brought out the best edition of the <i>Paston Letters</i> (London, +1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a valuable +introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the <i>Historical +collections of a Citizen of London</i> (London, 1876), and <i>Three +15th-century Chronicles</i> (London, 1880). His other works include +excellent monographs on <i>Richard III.</i> (London, 1878, new and +enlarged edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on <i>Henry VII.</i> (London, +1889, and subsequently); <i>The Houses of Lancaster and York</i> +(London, 1874, and other editions); <i>The English Church in the +16th century</i> (London, 1902); <i>Lollardy and the Reformation in +England</i> (1908); and contributions to the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>, the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, the <i>Cambridge +Modern History</i>, and the <i>English Historical Review</i>. Gairdner +received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of +Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIRLOCH<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Gaelic <i>geàrr</i>, short), a sea loch, village and +parish in the west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. +Pop. of parish (1901) 3797. The parish covers a large district +on the coast, and stretches inland beyond the farther banks +of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies within its bounds. It +also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in the loch, and +Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646 acres. +The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in +Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross, +Gairloch has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th +century. Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little +glen of the same name, lying close to the village, is the chief +seat of the Gairloch branch of the clan Mackenzie. William +Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic poet, who was schoolmaster of +Gairloch, of which his mother was a native, was buried in the +old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAISERIC,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Genseric</span> (<i>c.</i> 390-477), king of the Vandals, +was a son of King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390. +Though lame and only of moderate stature, he won renown as a +warrior, and became king on the death of his brother Gonderic +in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host of Vandals from Spain +into Roman Africa, and took possession of Mauretania. This +step is said to have been taken at the instigation of Boniface, +the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented of +his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending +Hippo Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months +Gaiseric raised the siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced +to fly to Italy, and the city afterwards fell into the hands of the +Vandals. Having pillaged and conquered almost the whole of +Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a treaty with the +emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed to +retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long, +and in October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the +capital of his kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric +at this time first actually assumed the title of king. In religious +matters he was an Arian, and persecuted the members of the +orthodox church in Africa, although his religious policy varied with +his relations to the Roman empire. Turning his attention in +another direction he built a fleet, and the ravages of the Vandals +soon made them known and feared along the shores of the Mediterranean. +“Let us make,” said Gaiseric, “for the dwellings of +the men with whom God is angry,” and he left the conduct of +his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he +led an expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen +days his troops were permitted to plunder, and then returned +to Africa laden with spoil. He also carried with him many +captives, including the empress Eudoxia, who is said to have +invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two attempts +to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus, +in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years +later; but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius +of Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought +Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule, +and even extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia +Minor. Having made peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in +476, he died on the 25th of January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel +and cunning man, possessing great military talents and superior +mental gifts. Though the effect of his victories was afterwards +neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his name long remained +the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said to be +derived from <i>gais</i>, a javelin, and <i>reiks</i>, a king.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vandals</a></span>; also T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, vol. ii. +(London, 1892); E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> +(ed. J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, <i>Geschichte der Vandalen</i> +(Leipzig, 1901); and F. Martroye, <i>Genseric; La Conquête vandale +en Afrique</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAISFORD, THOMAS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1779-1855), English classical scholar, +was born at Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779. +Proceeding to Oxford in 1797, he became successively student +and tutor of Christ Church, and was in 1811 appointed regius +professor of Greek in the university. Taking orders, he held +(1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in Oxfordshire, and +other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with his professorship. +From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he +was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and +principal delegate of the University Press he was instrumental +in securing the co-operation of distinguished European scholars +as collators, notably Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous +contributions to Greek literature may be mentioned, Hephaestion’s +<i>Encheiridion</i> (1810); <i>Poëtae Graeci minores</i> (1814-1820); +Stobaeus’ <i>Florilegium</i> (1822); <i>Herodotus</i>, with variorum notes +(1824); Suidas’ <i>Lexicon</i> (1834); <i>Etymologicon magnum</i> (1848); +Eusebius’s <i>Praeparatio</i> (1843) and <i>Demonstratio evangelica</i> +(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were +founded at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIUS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history +very little is known. It is impossible to discover even his full +name, Gaius or Caius being merely the personal name (praenomen) +so common in Rome. From internal evidence in his works it may +be gathered that he flourished in the reigns of the emperors +Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. +His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, +at the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and +its government the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some +provincial town, and hence we find no contemporary notices of +his life or works. After his death, however, his writings were +recognized as of great authority, and the emperor Valentinian +named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus and +Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed +by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists +accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.</p> + +<p>Besides the <i>Institutes</i>, which are a complete exposition of the +elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the +<i>Edicts of the Magistrates</i>, of <i>Commentaries on the Twelve Tables</i>, +and on the important <i>Lex Papia Poppaea</i>, and several other +works. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, +and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of +early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of +Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of the +Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito, of +whose life we have some account in the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, and to +advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules, +and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of +Gaius occur in the <i>Digest</i> of Justinian, and so acquired a +permanent place in the system of Roman law; while a comparison +of the <i>Institutes</i> of Justinian with those of Gaius shows +that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were +copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are +word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of the +period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and +Justinian, the <i>Institutes</i> of the former had been the familiar textbook +of all students of Roman law.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in +1816, a manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the +chapter library of Verona, in which certain of the works of St +Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved +to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest +has, however, been deciphered and the text is now fairly complete. +This discovery has thrown a flood of light on portions of the +history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure. +Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in +the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of +the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be +traced “survivals” from the most primitive times, which +provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations, +which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in +other early systems. Another circumstance which renders the +work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that +of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were +tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions given by the +praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he +referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae +it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history +of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the +ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the +equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new +conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the +needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence of +Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of +courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature +Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by +the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the +work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.</p> + +<p>The <i>Institutes</i> of Gaius are divided into four books—the first +treating of persons and the differences of the status they may +occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the +modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the +law relating to wills; the third of intestate succession and of +obligations; the fourth of actions and their forms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are several carefully prepared editions of the <i>Institutes</i>, +starting from that of Göschen (1820), down to that of Studemund +and Krüger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of +E. Poste, which includes beside the text an English translation and +copious commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of +actions mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive +societies will be found in Sir H. Maine’s <i>Early Institutions</i>, cap. 9. +For further information see M. Glasson, <i>Étude sur Gaius et sur le +jus respondendi</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAIUS CAESAR<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12-41), surnamed <span class="sc">Caligula</span>, Roman +emperor from 37-41, youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina +the elder, was born on the 31st of August <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12. He was +brought up in his father’s camp on the Rhine among the soldiers, +and received the name Caligula from the <i>caligae</i>, or foot-soldiers’ +boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his father to +Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was +summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed +to escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius +by Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards, +which was probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the +throne amidst the rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred +the imperial power upon him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus, +the grandson of the preceding emperor, had been designated as +his co-heir. He entered on his first consulship in July 37. For +the first eight months of his reign he did not disappoint the +popular expectation; but after his recovery from a severe illness +his true character showed itself. His extravagance, cruelty and +profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption that +he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his +conduct was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up, +and the ideas of sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to +pose as a monarch of the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted +treasury he put to death his wealthy subjects and +confiscated their property; even the poor fell victims to his +thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a consulship +upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should be +offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole +Roman people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a +single stroke. In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally +to punish the Germans for having invaded Roman territory, but in +reality to get money by plunder and confiscation. Before leaving, +he led his troops to the coast opposite Britain, and ordered them +to pick up shells on the seashore, to be dedicated to the gods at +Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return he entered Rome +with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were built, +statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood instituted +to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new +forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole +Rome was free from internal disturbances during his reign; +some insignificant conspiracies were discovered and rendered +abortive. A personal insult to Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a +praetorian cohort, led to Caligula’s assassination on the 24th of +January 41.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Suetonius, <i>Caligula</i>; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius +lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, <i>The Tragedy of the Caesars</i> (3rd ed., +1892); H.F. Pelham in <i>Quarterly Review</i> (April, 1905); H. Willrich, +<i>Beiträge zur alten Geschichte</i> (1903); H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der +römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, <i>Student’s Hist. of the +Roman Empire</i> (1893); Merivale, <i>History of the Romans under the +Empire</i>, ch. 48; H. Furneaux’s <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, ii. (introduction). +Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L. Quidde, +<i>Caligula</i>. <i>Eine Studie über römischen Cäsarenwahnsinn</i> and an +anonymous supplement, <i>1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?</i> +(both 1894); and a reply, <i>Fin-de-Siècle-Geschichtsschreibung</i>, by +G. Sommerfeldt (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALAGO,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives +of the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as +their technical designation. Till recently the galagos have +been included in the family <i>Lemuridae</i>; but this is restricted to +the lemurs of Madagascar, and they are now classed with the +lorises and pottos in the family <i>Nycticebidae</i>, of which they form +the section <i>Galaginae</i>, characterized by the great elongation of the +upper portion of the feet (tarsus) and the power of folding the +large ears. Throughout the greater part of Africa south of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +Sahara galagos are widely distributed in the wooded districts, +from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far +south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at +night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When they +descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by +jumping with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little +animals, varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a +rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails. +There are several species, of which <i>G. crassicaudatus</i> from +Mozambique is the largest; together with <i>G. garnetti</i> of Natal, +<i>G. agisymbanus</i> of Zanzibar, and <i>G. monteiroi</i> of Angola, this +represents the subgenus <i>Otolemur</i>. The typical group includes +<i>G. senegalensis</i> (or <i>galago</i>) of Senegal, <i>G. alleni</i> of West and +Central Africa, and <i>G. moholi</i> of South Africa; while <i>G. demidoffi</i> +of West and Central Africa and <i>G. anomurus</i> of French Congoland +represent the subgenus <i>Hemigalago</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALANGAL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, formerly written “galingale,” and sometimes +“garingal,” <i>rhizoma galangae</i> (Arab. <i>Kholínjan</i>;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ger. <i>Galgantwurzel</i>; +Fr. <i>Racine de Galanga</i>), a drug, now obsolete, with an +aromatic taste like that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser +galangal root, <i>radix galangae minoris</i>, the ordinary galangal of +commerce, is the dried rhizome of <i>Alpinia officinarum</i>, a plant of +the natural order Zingiberaceae, growing in the Chinese island of +Hainan, where it is cultivated, and probably also in the woods of +the southern provinces of China. The plant is closely allied to +<i>Alpinia calcarata</i>, the rhizome of which is sold in the bazaars of +some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems attain a +length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate and +light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with +red veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses, +sometimes more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow +horizontally, and are ¾ in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to +have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to +have been first introduced into Europe by Arabian physicians. +It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn Khurdádbah, an Arabian +geographer who flourished in the latter half of the 9th century, +and “gallengar” (gallingale or galangal) is one of the ingredients +in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a “wen salve” (see O. Cockayne, +<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at present +in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem +in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still +employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in +Russia, where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring +for liqueurs.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apparently derived from the Chinese <i>Kau-liang-Kiang</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after +the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called Kau-liang +(see F. Porter Smith, <i>Contrib. to the Materia Medica ... of +China</i>, p. 9, 1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALAPAGOS ISLANDS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, an archipelago of five larger and ten +smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator. +The nearest island to the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of +Ecuador, to which country they belong. The name is derived +from <i>galápago</i>, a tortoise, on account of the giant species, the +characteristic feature of the fauna. The islands were discovered +early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave them their +present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names +of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for +whom the group formed a convenient retreat.</p> + +<p>The larger members of the group, several of which attain an +elevation of 2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m. +long, 28 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and +an extreme elevation of 5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina, +Indefatigable or Santa Cruz, Chatham or San Cristobal, James +or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa Maria. The total land +area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that of the West +Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters, +a few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence +that the archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The +number of main craters may be about twenty-five, but there +are very many small eruptive cones on the flanks of the old +volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on Chatham with +some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed +huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other +officials of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in +1832, when General Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island, +naming it in honour of Juan José Flores, president of Ecuador. +A governor has been appointed since 1885, some importance +being foreseen for the islands in connexion with the cutting of the +Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to Australia opened +up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of the +group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets +numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no +doubt escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild +cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs—the last large and +fierce—which occur abundantly on most of the islands have +escaped from domestication.</p> + +<p>The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a +dense barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable +thicket of tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended, +give place to taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered +with orchids and trailing moss (<i>orchilla</i>), and from which creepers +hang down interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low +grounds are parched and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of +Peruvian cactus and stunted shrubs, and a most uninviting shore. +The contrast between this low zone and the upper zone of rich +vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously marked. From July +to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and give +moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry. +Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does +not occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water +is scarce. Though the islands are under the equator, the climate +is not intensely hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the +Antarctic sea, which, having followed the coast of Peru as far as +Cape Blanco, bear off to the N.W. towards and through the +Galapagos. The mean temperature of the lower zone is about +71° F., that of the upper from 66° to 62°.</p> + +<p>The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to +Ecuador, on account of the guano and the orchilla moss found +on them and exported to Europe. Except on Charles Island, +where settlement has existed longest, little or no influence of +the presence of man is evident in the group; still, the running +wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the vegetation, especially +goats, must in a comparatively short period greatly modify the +biological conditions of the islands.</p> + +<p>The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so +distinctly oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance +to this archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in +the “Beagle.” The Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage +from its isolated situation, and from the fact that its +history has never been interfered with by any aborigines of the +human race. Of the seven species of giant tortoises known to +science (although at the discovery of the islands there were +probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to its +own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two +species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the +birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while +more than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the +flora is unknown elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific +investigators—by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and +the naturalists of the “Albatross,” between 1888 and 1891; and in +1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken +at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete +collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions, +been brought together; but their examination does not materially +change the facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin, +from the evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he +“no doubt would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded +by Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which +we are acquainted now” (Günther). His conclusions were that the +group “has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have +its members been at any time closer together”; and that the character +of the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over +from America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where +in their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees +and ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists +that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from +subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large +island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species +became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these +giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former +land connexion with the continent of America may be sustained. +“Nearly all authorities agree that it is not probable that they have +crossed the wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American +continent, although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to +swim, they can float on the water. If their ancestors had been +carried out to sea once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as +the Galapagos Islands” (Wallace), “they must have been numerous +on the continent” (Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of +course no living species, of these tortoises are known to exist or have +existed on the mainland. Rothschild and Hartert think “it is +more natural to assume the disappearance of a great stock of animals, +the remains of which have survived, ... than to assume the disappearance +in comparatively recent times (<i>i.e.</i> in the Eocene period +or later) of enormous land masses.” Past elevations of land, however +(and doubtless equally great subsidences) have taken place in +South America since the Eocene, and the conclusion that extensive +areas of land have subsided in the Indian Ocean has long been based +on a somewhat similar distribution of giant tortoises in the Mascarene +region.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Darwin, <i>Voyage of the “Beagle”</i>; O. Salvin, “On +the Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> +part ix. (1876); Sclater and Salvin, “Characters of New Species +collected by Dr Habel in the Galapagos Islands,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. +London</i>, 1870, pp. 322-327; A.R. Wallace, <i>Geographical Distribution +of Animals</i> (New York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, <i>Ein Besuch +der Galapagos Inseln</i> (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in <i>Geographical +Journal</i>, vi. 560 (1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, <i>The Geography of +Mammals</i> (London, 1899); Ridgway, “Birds of the Galapagos +Archipelago,” <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897); +Baur, “New Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands,” +<i>Amer. Nat.</i> (1897), pp. 661-680, 864-896; A. Agassiz, “The Galapagos +Islands,” <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.</i> vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Günther, +<i>Proc. Linn. Soc.</i> (London (President’s Address), October 1898), +pp. 14-29 (with bibliography from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises); +Rothschild and Hartert, “Review of the Ornithology +of the Galapagos Islands,” <i>Novitates zoologicae</i>, vi. pp. 85-205; +B.L. Robinson, “Flora of the Galapagos Islands,” <i>Proc. Amer. +Acad. of Arts and Sciences</i>, xxxviii. (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALASHIELS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on +Gala Water, within a short distance of its junction with the +Tweed, 33½ m. S.S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. +The town stretches for more than 2 m. along both banks of the +river, the mills and factories occupying the valley by the stream, +the villas and better-class houses the high-lying ground on either +side. The principal structures include the municipal buildings, +corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market cross. The +town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council, and, +along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border) +group of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures, +dating from the close of the 16th century, are the most +important in Scotland, though now mainly confined to the weaving +of tweeds. Other leading industries are hosiery, tanning +(with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and brass founding, +engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built for +the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.), +it became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the +Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose +peel-tower was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created +into a burgh of barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts’ Work +begins near the town and passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords, +3½ m. W., is noted for the Tweed vineries, which are heated +by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply the London market throughout +the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is Ashestiel, where Sir +Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he wrote his most +famous poems and began <i>Waverley</i>, and which he left for Abbotsford.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALATIA.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman +<i>Gallograecia</i>) this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples +to a large inland district of Asia Minor since its occupation by +Gaulish tribes in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bounded on the N. by +Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and +Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the greater part of the +modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus eastwards to +Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra southwards +to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including the +plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),—a +rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.</p> + +<p>Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here +ranging from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically +into two parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),—a +small eastern district lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije +Irmak, the principal affluent of the Halys, and a large western +region drained almost entirely by the Sangarius (Sakaria) and its +tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists of a series of plains +with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare hills. But the greater +part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating uplands, intersected +by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast level waste of +treeless (anc. <i>Axylon</i>) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia; these +uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage +for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart, +and the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general +condition and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient +as in modern times.</p> + +<p>The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +They numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men, +the rest being doubtless women and children; and not long after +their arrival we find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi, +Tolistobogii and Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate +sphere of operations. They had split off from the army which +invaded Greece under Brennus in 279 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and, marching into +Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed over to Asia at +the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required help in +his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were the +scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country, +as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious +check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted +several severe defeats upon them, and about 232 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> forced +them to settle permanently in the region to which they gave their +name. Probably they already occupied parts of Galatia, but +definite limits were now fixed and their right to the district was +formally recognized. The tribes were settled where they afterwards +remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the Tolistobogii +round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The constitution +of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably to +Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr. +<span class="grk" title="tetrarchiai">τετραρχίαι</span>), each governed by a chief (“tetrarch”) of its own +with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in +cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn +from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place called +Drynemeton. But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken. +They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in their wars with +Antiochus, and after Attalus’ death their raids into W. Asia +Minor forced Rome in 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to send an expedition against them +under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson. +Henceforward their military power declined and they fell at times +under Pontic ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by +the Mithradatic wars, in which they heartily supported Rome. +In the settlement of 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Galatia became a client-state of +the empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs +(wrongly styled “tetrarchs”) were appointed, one for each tribe. +But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one +of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and +Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and +was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the +death of the third king Amyntas in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Galatia was incorporated +by Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces +were more enthusiastically loyal.</p> + +<p>The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the +arrival of the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited +by Phrygians, and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians +and other native races. This native population remained, and +constituted the majority of the inhabitants of the rural parts +and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were left in +possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, <i>B.G.</i> i. 31) on +condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +took the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the +arts and crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. +They were henceforth ranked as “Galatians” by the outside +world equally with their overlords, and it was from their numbers +that the “Galatian” slaves who figure in the markets of the +ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, who were few in +number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not in the +towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their castles +kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With the +decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with +the natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation +was accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became +as complete as that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, +but they gave to the mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and +long retained their national characteristics and social customs, +as well as their language (which continued in use, side by side +with Greek, in the 4th century after Christ). In the 1st century, +when St Paul made his missionary journeys, even the towns +Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were few) were not +Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and trade, +was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected +by Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought +begin to appear in the towns only in the later 2nd century. +In the rustic parts a knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the +3rd century; but only in the 4th and 5th centuries, after the +transference of the centre of government first to Nicomedia and +then to Constantinople placed Galatia on the highway of imperial +communication, was Hellenism in its Christian form gradually +diffused over the country. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancyra</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pessinus</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gordium</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +included the greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. +Galatia Proper, part of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, +Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia, part of Lycaonia (including +Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly 100 years it was the +frontier province, and the changes in its boundaries are an +epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the Euphrates, one +client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in 6-5 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Sebastopolis, 3-2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Amasia, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1-2; Comana, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +34-35,—together forming Pontus Galaticus,—the Pontic kingdom +of Polemon, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70 Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 17) with +Armenia Minor became the centre of the forward movement and +Galatia lost its importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a +vast double governorship until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114 (probably), when Trajan +separated the two parts, making Galatia an inferior province of +diminished size, while Cappadocia with Armenia Minor and +Pontus became a great consular military province, charged with +the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian’s reorganization +Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the name +retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia +of Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the +addition of a few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia +Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the division indicating the +renewed importance of Galatia in the Byzantine empire. After +suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, Galatia was conquered +by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed to the +Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.</p> + +<p>The question whether the “Churches of Galatia,” to which St +Paul addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or +southern part of the province has been much discussed, and in +England Prof. Sir W.M. Ramsay has been the principal advocate +of the adoption of the South-Galatian theory, which maintains +that they were the churches planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and +Antioch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galatians</a></span>). In the present writer’s opinion this is +supported by the study of the historical and geographical facts.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Van Gelder, <i>De Gallis in Graecia et Asia</i> (1888); +Staehelin, <i>Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater</i> (1897); Perrot, <i>De Galatia +prov. Rom.</i> (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, <i>Histor. Geogr.</i> (1890), <i>St Paul</i> +(1898), and Introd. to <i>Histor. Commentary on Galatians</i> (1899). +For antiquities generally, Perrot, <i>Explor. archéol. de la Galatie</i> (1862); +K. Humann and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Kleinasien</i> (1890); Koerte, +<i>Athen. Mitteilungen</i> (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, <i>Journ. of +Hellenic Studies</i> (1899); and Anderson, <i>Map of Asia Minor</i> (London, +Murray, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. C. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally +attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above +statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article +on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.—Ed. <i>E.B.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> one of the books of the New +Testament. This early Christian scripture is one of the books +militant in the world’s literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his +propaganda was no accident in its history; it originated in a +controversy, and the varying views of the momentous struggle +depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally determined, from +time to time, the conception of the epistle’s aim and date. +Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be +given here. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.) It must suffice to say that to the present +writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not +with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of +Acts xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, +Derbe and Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian <span class="grk" title="chôra">χώρα</span> with +Phrygia upon the other.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A further visit to the latter country is +mentioned, upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to +whom the epistle was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the +most part (iv. 8) of pagan birth, belonging to the northern +section of the province, perhaps mainly in its south-western +district adjoining Bithynia and the province of Asia. The scanty +allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as any objection +to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical difficulty. +The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all does +the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that +the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +was Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and +inscriptions indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated +throughout the province did not exclude the infusion either of +Greek religious conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree +of elementary Greek culture needful for the understanding of +Galatians cannot be shown to have been foreign to the inhabitants +of north Galatia. So far as any trustworthy evidence +is available, such Hellenic notions as are presupposed in this +epistle might well have been intelligible to the Galatians of the +northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance with Roman +jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends (<i>Über +röm. Recht im Galaterbrief</i>, 1895), not merely that Paul must have +acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle +there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of +Roman law was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after +the period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the <i>terminus ad quem</i> is +more difficult to fix.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The composition may be placed (cf. the +present writer’s <i>Historical New Testament</i>, pp. 124 f. for details) +either during the earlier part of Paul’s residence at Ephesus +(Acts xix. 1, 10, so most editors and scholars), or on his way from +Ephesus to Corinth, or at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, +Salmon).</p> + +<p>The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +but the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul +undertaken some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. +When he composed this letter, he had visited the churches twice. +On the former of these visits (iv. 13 <span class="grk" title="to proteron">τὸ πρότερον</span>), though +broken down by illness (2 Cor. xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically +welcomed, and the immediate result of his mission was +an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, iv. 14 f.). The local +Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But they failed to +maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, v. 21) the +apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due to +discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence +in some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. +Otherwise, this second visit is left in the shadow.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> So far as it +was accompanied by warnings, these were evidently general +rather than elicited by any definite and imminent peril to the +churches. Not long afterwards, however, some judaizing +opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous anonymity of +the <span class="grk" title="tines">τινες</span> in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by one prominent and +influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance among the +Galatians, promulgating a “gospel” which meant fidelity to, not +freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament, +they represented Paul’s gospel as an imperfect creed which +required to be supplemented by legal exactitude,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> including +ritual observance (iv. 10) and even circumcision,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> while at the +same time they sought to undermine his authority<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> by pointing +out that it was derived from the apostles at Jerusalem and +therefore that his teaching must be open to the checks and tests +of that orthodox primitive standard which they themselves +claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic privileges +was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory +upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).</p> + +<p>When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had +evidently not yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. +It was not too late to arrest the Galatians on their downward +plane, and the apostle, unable or unwilling to re-visit them, +despatched this epistle. How or when the information came to +him, we do not know. But the gravity of the situation renders +it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time in writing +to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from +allusions like those in i. 6 (<span class="grk" title="tacheôs">ταχέως</span> and <span class="grk" title="metatithesthe">μετατίθεσθε</span>—the lapse +still in progress), we may conclude that the interval between the +reception of the news and the composition of the letter must have +been comparatively brief.</p> + +<p>After a short introduction<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual +word of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical +vindication<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> of his apostolic independence, which, developed +negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main +sections in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he +drifts over from an account of this interview with Peter into a +sort of monologue upon the incompatibility of the Mosaic law +with the Christian gospel (ii. 15-21),<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and this starts him afresh +upon a trenchant expostulation and appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding +the alternatives of law and spirit. Faith dominates this section; +faith in its historical career and as the vantage-ground of +Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be merely a +provisional episode<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) as a +message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The +genuine “sons of Abraham” are not legalistic Jewish Christians +but those who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate +outburst then follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the +apostle essays, with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity +over legalism as the free and final religion for men, applying +this to the moral situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). +This conception of freedom then leads him to define the moral +responsibilities of the faith (v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent +misconception and to enforce the claims of the gospel upon the +individual and social life of the Galatians. The epilogue (vi. +11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, emphatic sentences, +the main points of the epistle.</p> + +<p>The allusion in vi. 11 (<span class="grk" title="idete pêlikois hymin grammasin egrapsa +tê emê cheiri">ἴδετε πηλίκοις ὑμῖν γράμμασιν ἔγραψα τῇ ἐμῇ χειρί</span>) is to the large bold size<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> of the letters in Paul’s +handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are +matters of dispute. It is “a sensational heading” (Findlay), +but it may either refer<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> to the whole epistle (so Augustine, +Chrysostom, &c., followed by Zahn) or, as most hold (with +Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18). Paul commonly dictated his +letters. His use of the autograph here may have been to prevent +any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal emphasis of his +message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians knew his +handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript from a +feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize that, +after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating +them like children, “playfully hinting that surely the large +letters will touch their hearts” (so Deissmann, <i>Bible-Studies</i> +(1901), 346 f.).</p> + +<p>The earliest allusion to the epistle<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> is the notice of its inclusion +in Marcion’s canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be +heard in Justin Martyr’s <i>Dial.</i> xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known +to Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of +its popularity multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the +Ophites to Irenaeus and the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory’s +<i>Canon and Text of N.T.</i>, 1907, pp. 201-203). It is no longer +necessary for serious criticism to refute the objections to its +authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain quarters;<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a> +as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar’s commentaries, +“to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion +(cf. Tert. <i>Adv. Marc.</i> 2-4) removed what he judged to be some +interpolations, but van Manen’s attempt to prove that Marcion’s +text is more original than the canonical (<i>Theolog. Tijdschrift</i>, +1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen’s refutation +in <i>Die Einheitlichkeit der paulin</i>. <i>Briefe</i>, 1894, pp. 100 f. and +Zahn’s <i>Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons</i>, ii. 409 f.), and little or no +weight attaches to the attempts made (<i>e.g.</i> by J.A. Cramer) to +disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even +D. Völter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, +admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a +literary unity (<i>Paulus und seine Briefe</i>, 1905, pp. 229-285). The +frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however, that +here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a +(<span class="grk" title="to gar Sina oros estin en tê Arabia">τὸ γὰρ Σινᾶ ὄρος ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ</span>) probably represents +the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many +scholars have seen from Bentley (<i>Opuscula philologica</i>, 1781, pp. +533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S. Baljon and C. +Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpremeditated, +“one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine +and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, +such as may often have been seen by his Galatians” (J. +Macgregor). But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially +in the first chapter (cf. J. Weiss, <i>Beiträge zur paulin. Rhetorik</i>, +1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry +with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of +antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less +unconsciously retain.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> All through, the letter shows the breaks +and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis. +Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, +are its most characteristic features.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> The trenchant remonstrances +and fiery outbursts make it indeed “read like a +dithyramb from beginning to end.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Of more modern editions in English, the most +competent are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic +and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), +J.B. Lightfoot (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and +F. Rendall (<i>Expositor’s Greek Testament</i>, 1903) on the Greek text; +Dr Sanday (in Ellicott’s <i>Commentary</i>, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor +(Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (<i>Pulpit +Comment.</i>, 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. +Adeney (<i>Century Bible</i>), Dr E.H. Perowne (<i>Cambridge Bible</i>, 1890) +and Dr James Drummond (<i>Internat. Handbooks to N.T.</i>, 1899) also +comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and +Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir +W.M. Ramsay’s <i>Historical Commentary on Galatians</i> (1899) contains +archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating. +The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux +(Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In +Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert +(in Meyer’s <i>Comment.</i>, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these +supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott (1834), A. +Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), J.C.K. von +Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd ed., +<i>Hand.-Commentar</i>, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be +consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld’s commentary (1852) +discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the +standpoint of Baur’s criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed., +1894) and W. Bousset (<i>in Die Schriften des N.T.</i>, 2nd ed., 1907) are +more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), +F.X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely +(1892, also in <i>Cursus scripturae sacrae</i>, 1907) are the most satisfactory +modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it +should not be forgotten that the 16th century produced the <i>Literalis +expositio</i> of Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre +Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition +of Luther (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After +Calvin and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (<i>Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe +an die Gal. u. Römer Christen</i>, 1831) was perhaps the most independent +interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory +sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle +is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten +(<i>Das Evangelium Paulus</i>, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (<i>St Paul’s +Conception of Christianity</i>, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay +(<i>Expositor’s Bible</i>). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (<i>Galat. und +Apostelgeschichte</i>, 1882) and M. Thomas (<i>Mélanges d’histoire et +de litt. religieuse</i>, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H. +Askwith’s essay (<i>Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date</i>, +1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. +Wood (<i>Studies in St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians</i>, 1887) criticizes +Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all biographies +of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in works +like Sabatier’s <i>The Apostle Paul</i> (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon’s <i>Story of +St Paul</i> (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw’s <i>The Pauline Epistles</i> (2nd ed., +pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, <i>Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli</i> (1902), i. +pp. 111 f., and Volkmar’s <i>Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum Galaterbrief</i> +(1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt in <i>Deutsche +Evang.-Blätter</i> (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, 238-259, and an earlier +set by Hilgenfeld in the <i>Zeitschrift für wiss. Theologie</i> (“Zur Vorgeschichte +des Gal.” 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). +Other monographs and essays have been noted in the course of this +article. See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Mt.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which +lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are +stated in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still +a matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent +dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the +archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the +north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia +as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English +reader in P.W. Schmiedel’s exhaustive article in <i>Encycl. Biblica</i> +(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert’s <i>Student’s Life of Paul</i> (1902), +pp. 260-272. Schmiedel’s arguments are mainly directed against +Sir W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. +Steinmann, takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian +side of the controversy (<i>Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes</i>, Münster, +i. W., 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert +and Zöckler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman, +Prof. Valentine Weber.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory +is to put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous +with, if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in <i>The +Date of St Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians</i> (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation +were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten, +Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsäcker) or whether they +are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and +Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the +opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul +seems to have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians’ +defection.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in +ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The critical dubiety about <span class="grk" title="oude">οὐδέ</span> in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn’s excursus and +Prof. Lake in <i>Expositor</i>, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws a slight doubt +on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that the agitators had +quoted Paul’s practice as an authoritative sanction of the rite.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word <span class="grk" title="oi dokountes">οἱ δοκοῦντες</span> +(“those of repute,” ii. 6), while other echoes of their talk can be +overheard in such phrases as “we are Abraham’s seed” (iii. 16), +“sinners of Gentiles” (ii. 15) and “Jerusalem which is our mother” +(iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of “seeking to please +men” (i. 10) and “preaching circumcision” (v. 11).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Not only is the address “to the churches of Galatia” unusually +bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was +on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to concentrate +attention upon his personal commission. Yet the <span class="grk" title="hêmeis">ἡμεῖς</span> of +i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Cf. Hausrath’s <i>History of the N.T. Times</i> (iii. pp. 181-199), with +the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that “Paul stands before us like an +ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and +shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy +to be called Imperator.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. T.H. Green’s <i>Works</i>, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect +abstract of the speech’s argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle, +carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dictates +to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught +(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy +for the evil <i>yezer</i> of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it +is an aggravation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the +use of his son, <span class="grk" title="idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin">ἰδίᾳ χειρὶ καὶ μεγάλοις γράμμασιν</span> (cf. Field’s <i>Notes +on Translation of the New Testament</i>, p. 191). If the point of +Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contemplated +copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed +that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thess. +iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, <i>Johannine Grammar</i>, pp. 530-532).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For <span class="grk" title="egrapsa">ἔγραψα</span>, the epistolary aorist, at the close of a letter, cf. +Xen. <i>Anab.</i> i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucian, +<i>Dial. Meretr.</i> x.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Hermann Schulze’s attempt to bring out the filiation of the +later N.T. literature to Galatians (<i>Die Ursprünglichkeit des Galaterbriefes</i>, +Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary +evidence.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Cf. especially J. Gloe’s <i>Die jüngste Kritik des Galaterbriefes</i> +(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon’s reply to Steck and Loman (<i>Exeg.-kritische +verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal.</i>, 1889). The +English reader may consult Schmiedel’s article (already referred +to) and Dr R.J. Knowling’s <i>The Testimony of St Paul to Christ</i> +(1905), 28 f.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass, +<i>Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa</i> (1905), +pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into +unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 (<span class="grk" title="emoi men ouk oknêron, +hymin d’ asphales">ἐμοὶ μὲν ουκ ὀκνηρόν, ὑμῖν δ᾽ ἀσφαλές</span>) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence +of Menander.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> This affects even the vocabulary which has also “einen gewissen +vulgären Zug” (Nägeli, <i>Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus</i>, 1905, +pp. 78-79).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALATINA,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, +from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable +for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by +Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal +and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco +d’ Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the +son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns, +with his statue beneath it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALATZ<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Galaţii</i>), a city of Rumania, capital of the department +of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. +W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including +12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of +Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight +eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore +and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow +mere called Lake Bratych (<i>Brateşul</i>), more than 50 sq. m. in +extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th +century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved +streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every +year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays +were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were +opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or +electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-western +part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable, +contains many of the chief buildings. These include the prefecture, +consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals +and the offices of the international commission for the control of +the Danube (<i>q.v.</i>). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at +Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and +other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and +St Mary’s church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack +chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been rifled of its contents +by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters +of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which +extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line. +But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the +chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways, +the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual +volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways +which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, +machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a +large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among +Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in +its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills, +flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries; +manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles. +Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes +consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at +Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the +principal owners being British.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALAXY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> properly the <span class="sc">Milky Way</span>, from the Greek name +<span class="grk" title="ho galaxias">ὁ γαλαξίας</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="kyklos">κύκλος</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gala">γάλα</span>, milk, cf. the Lat. <i>via lactea</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>). The word is more generally employed in its figurative or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distinguished +persons or objects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> Roman general and orator. +He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian +War. As praetor in 151 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in farther Spain he made himself +infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians, +with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender +by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought +to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his +little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was +consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an +eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in +Cicero’s opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His +speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero’s time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy xlv. 35; Appian, <i>Hisp.</i> 58-60; Cicero, <i>De orat.</i> i. 53, iii. 7; +Brutus 21.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> Roman emperor (June <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December +5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth, +but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six +Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of +remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and +Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, vi. 20; +Suetonius, <i>Galba</i>, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired +a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany, +Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and +impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation +of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served +Claudius. For the first half of Nero’s reign he lived in retirement, +till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of +Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed +of Nero’s intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of +Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the +example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter +renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, +the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived +Galba’s spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the +legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of +Nero, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for +Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of +order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people. +He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing +to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the +mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His +advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in +the hands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of +Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another +emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the +general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he +adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi +Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His +choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a +sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the +usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly +governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba’s earliest supporters, +disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into +communication with the discontented praetorians, and was +adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to +meet the rebels—he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a +litter—was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the +Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial administration +he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due +either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the +growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would +have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been +emperor (“omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset”).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, <i>Histories</i>, i. 7-49; +Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, <i>Civil War and +Rebellion in the Roman Empire, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-70</i> (1908); W.A. Spooner, +<i>On the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius</i> in Introd. to his edition +(1891) of the <i>Histories</i> of Tacitus.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALBANUM<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Heb. <i>Helbenāh</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="chalbanê">χαλβάνη</span>), a gum-resin, the +product of <i>Ferula galbaniflua</i>, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps +also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or +soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or +occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or +greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a +peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. +It contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which +contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small +quantity of the colourless crystalline substance <i>umbelliferone</i>, +C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus +xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making +of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in +medicine, and Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary +curative powers, concluding his account of it with the +assertion that “the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium +is sufficient to kill a serpent.” The drug is occasionally given +in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It +has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a +volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALCHAS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, +Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu +Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with the <i>Calcienses +populi</i> of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir +in 1603 and described them as “of light hair and beard like the +Belgians.” The word “Galcha,” which has been explained as +meaning “the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the +mountains,” in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik +family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably +simply the Persian <i>galcha</i>, “clown” or “rustic,” in reference to +their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to +what has been called the “Alpine or Celtic European race,” so +much so that French anthropologists have termed them “those +belated Savoyards of Kohistan.” D’Ujfalvy describes them as +tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black, +chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never +oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and +round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas +represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through +Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The +Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Robert Shaw, “On the Galtchah Languages,” in <i>Journ. As. +Soc. Bengal</i>, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes +of the Hindoo-Koosh</i> (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, +<i>An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul</i> (1815); <i>Bull. de la +société d’anthropologie de Paris</i> (1887); Charles Eugene D’Ujfalvy +de Mezoe-Koevesd, <i>Les Aryens</i> (1896), and in <i>Revue d’anthropologie</i> +(1879), and <i>Bull. de la soc. de géogr.</i> (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley, +<i>Races of Europe</i> (New York, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALE, THEOPHILUS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1628-1678), English nonconformist +divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where +his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, +Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. +In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained +some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor, +and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral. +In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and was +ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he +accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, +returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he +passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent +minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn; +Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year. +His principal work, <i>The Court of the Gentiles</i>, which appeared in +parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscellaneous +philosophical learning. It resembles the <i>Intellectual +System</i> of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work +both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale’s +endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius in <i>De veritate</i>, i. 16) is to +prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or +mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth +referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the +original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of +Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like so +many of the learned works of the 17th century, the <i>Court of the</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +<i>Gentiles</i> is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is +rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical +discrimination.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His other writings are: <i>A True Idea of Jansenism</i> (1669); <i>Theophil, +or a Discourse of the Saint’s Amitie with God in Christ</i> (1671); +<i>Anatomie of Infidelitie</i> (1672); <i>Idea theologiae</i> (1673); <i>Philosophia +generalis</i> (1676).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALE, THOMAS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and +antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated +at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which +he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor +of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul’s school, +in 1676 prebendary of St Paul’s, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal +Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7th +(or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, <i>Opuscula +mythologica, ethica, et physica</i>, and editions of several Greek and +Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old +works bearing on Early English history, entitled <i>Historiae +Anglicanae scriptores</i> and <i>Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, +Anglo-Danicae scriptores XV</i>. He was the author of the inscription +on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics +were accused of having originated the great fire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E.B. Mayor, <i>Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne</i>, 448-450.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALE.<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from +Dan. <i>gal</i>, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense +of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably +stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm. +In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying +word, as “half a gale,” a “stiff gale.” In poetical and figurative +language “gale” is often used in a pleasant sense, as in “favouring +gale”; in America, it is used in a slang sense for boisterous or +excited behaviour.</p> + +<p>2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; +a “hanging gale” is an arrear of rent left over after each successive +“gale” or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of +Dean, for leases granted to the “free miners” of the forest, +granted by the “gaveller” or agent of the crown, and the term is +also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area +mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng. <i>gafol</i>, +which survives in “gavel,” in gavelkind (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the name of +the office mentioned above. The root from which these words +derive is that of “give.” Through Latinized forms it appears in +<i>gabelle</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or +gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of +the word is <i>gagel</i>. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub +found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely +distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked +leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers +borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the +persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country +medicine. John Gerard (<i>Herball</i>, p. 1228) describes it as sweet +willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genus +<i>Myrica</i> is the type of a small, but widely distributed order, +<i>Myricaceae</i>, which is placed among the apetalous families of +Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow +family. <i>Myrica cerifera</i> is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1606-1678), +prince bishop of Münster, belonged to a noble Westphalian +family, and was born on the 12th of October 1606. +Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance, +he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting +on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding +stages of the Thirty Years’ War. In 1650 he succeeded Ferdinand +of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Münster. After +restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, +Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of +the citizens of Münster; but at length this was crushed, and the +bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an +important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of +the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk; +and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St +Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II. +in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV. +and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to +make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again +attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but +he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor +Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with +Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden, +and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the +19th of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform +the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his +power and prestige.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Tücking, <i>Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C.B. von +Galen</i> (Münster, 1865); P. Corstiens, <i>Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop +van Munster</i> (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hüsing, <i>Fürstbischof +C.B. von Galen</i> (Münster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the <i>English +Historical Review</i>, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum +a poem printed in 1666, entitled <i>Letter to the bishop of Munster +containing a Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALEN<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Galenus</span>), <b>CLAUDIUS,</b> called Gallien by Chaucer +and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of +ancient medical writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early +education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of +natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the +other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146 +Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth +year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself +under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and +of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited +other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. +A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he +healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other +persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and unparalleled +success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of +“Paradoxologus,” the wonder-speaker, and “Paradoxopoeus,” +the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of +his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to +his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in +Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In +170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing +thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty +been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance, +appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In +Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his +reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important +treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to +Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos, +where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular +medicine, the “terra lemnia” or “sigillata.” Whether he ever +revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his +death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in +the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however, +we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took +place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one +of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He +composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, +including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works +attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful +authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and +15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.</p> + +<p>Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic +philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the +numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of +which is given in his work <i>De propriis libris</i>, one only has come +down to us, the treatise on <i>Fallacies in dictione</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn kata +tên lexin sophismatôn">Περὶ τῶν κατὰ τήν λέξιν σοφισμάτων</span>). Many points of logical theory, however, +are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is +perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the +fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was +ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen’s +own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides +Minas from a Greek commentator on the <i>Analytics</i>, referring the +fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, +as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an +amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first +figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.</p> + +<p>In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the +superscription <i>Galenus</i>, entitled <span class="grk" title="Galênou eisagôgê dialektikê">Γαληνοῦ εἰσαγωγὴ διαλεκτική</span>. +Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth +figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of +the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest +contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded +as a writing of Galen’s, and ascribes it to some one or other of the +later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be +found in the 1st vol. of the <i>Geschichte der Logik</i> (pp. 591-610), and +a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work, +pp. 559-577.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen’s +works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned +Jo. Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa +Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius, +Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore +Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, René Chartier, Haller and Kühn. Of +Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two +in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, +in 1525, 5 vols. fol.; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with +Latin version by René Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; +and at Leipzig, in 1821-1833, by C.G. Kühn, considered to be the best, +20 vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates +and Galen, by J.R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. +A new edition of Galen’s smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan +Müller and G. Helmreich was published in three volumes at Leipzig +in 1884-1909.</p> + +<p>Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical +and medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles +under the headings of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medicine</a></span>. See also René +Chartier’s Life, in his edition of Galen’s works; N.F.J. Eloy, +<i>Dictionnaire historique de la médecine</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Galien,” tom. i. (1778); +F. Adams’s “Commentary” in his <i>Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta</i> +(London and Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, “A Cursory Analysis of the +Works of Galen, so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology,” +<i>Trans. Provincial Med. and Surg. Assoc.</i> vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; +C.V. Daremberg, <i>Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l’anatomie, +la physiologie et la pathologie du système nerveux</i> (Thèse pour +le Doctorat en Médecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, “The +Practical Medicine of Galen and his Time,” <i>The British and Foreign +Medico-Chirurgical Rev.</i>, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, +“Die Schriften des Claudius Galenos,” <i>Rheinisches Museum für +Philologie</i>, 1889, 1892 and 1896.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena +(formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, +about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom +918 were foreign-born; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western and the +Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made +navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the +river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone +bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a +number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected +by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General +U.S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the +Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of +zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the +deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked +about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or +smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between 1860 +and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now +the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The +production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant. +The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery, +flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is +afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post, +called by the French “La Pointe” and by the English “Fever +River,” the river having been named after le Fevre, a French +trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out +as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in +1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was +opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father +of the celebrated actor of that name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the +extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring +river. Pop. (1890) 2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were +negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. +It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, +and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (“Frisco System”) +railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, extremely +valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877. +Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establishments. +Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring +river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies +founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former +S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated +in 1877, and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:158px" src="images/img399.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide +(PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, +and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger. <i>Bleiglanz</i>). +It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals +are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the +cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important +character, and one by which the mineral +may always be recognized, is the perfect +cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is +brilliant and metallic. The colour of the +mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; +it is opaque; the hardness is 2½ and +the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned +crystals are not common, but the +presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine +striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage +surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure +are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such +masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous +bright cleavages.</p> + +<p>The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur +13.4%. The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of +silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, +&c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this +metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding 1%, and often less +than 0.03% (equivalent to 10¾ ounces per ton). Since argentite +(Ag<span class="su">2</span>S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver +isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native +silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.</p> + +<p>Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous +veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, +and also as pockets in limestones. It is often associated +with blende and pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, +barytes, chalybite and pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the +upper oxidized parts of the deposits, cerussite and anglesite +occur as alteration products. The mineral has occasionally been +observed as a recent formation replacing organic matter, such +as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. As small +concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone +at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of +Derbyshire and the north of England the ore occurs as veins and +flats in the Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall +the veins traverse clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead +region of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills +large cavities or chambers in limestone.</p> + +<p>Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of +localities which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the +following may be selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in +Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man (where crystals measuring +almost a foot across have been found), Neudorf in the Harz, +Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri. Good crystals have +also been obtained as a furnace product.</p> + +<p>Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then +known as “potters’ ore” or alquifoux.</p> + +<p>The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as +argentite (<i>q.v.</i>). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +(lead selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, +with their lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely +resemble galena in appearance; these species are named after +the localities at which they were originally found, namely, +Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai mountains in Asiatic Russia. +Altaite is of interest as being one of the tellurides found associated +with gold.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALEOPITHECUS,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the scientific designation of the Colugo +(<i>q.v.</i>) or Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone +representing the family <i>Galeopithecidae</i>. Much uncertainty has +prevailed among naturalists as to the systematic position of this +animal, or rather these animals (for there are two species); and +while some have referred it to the lemurs, others have placed it +with the bats, and others again among the <i>Insectivora</i>, as the +representative of a special subordinal group, the <i>Dermoptera</i>. +Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study of the creature, +writes, however, as follows: “It appears, at least in the judgment +of the author, that <i>Galeopithecus</i> cannot be regarded as +being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands +alone, the sole representative of an ancient group, <i>Galeopithecidae</i>, +as <i>Hyrax</i> does of <i>Hyracoidea</i>. While <i>Galeopithecus</i> is but remotely +related to the <i>Lemuroidea</i> and <i>Insectivora</i>, it is so closely +related to <i>Chiroptera</i>, more particularly in regard to the structure +of its patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, +&c., that there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the +descendants of Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the +descendants of a Galeopithecus-like ancestor.” Without going +quite so far as this, it may be definitely admitted that the colugo +is entitled to represent an order by itself, the characters of which +will be as follows: Herbivorous, climbing, unguiculate mammals, +provided with a very extensive flying-membrane, and having the +dental formula <i>i.</i> <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, <i>p.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, <i>m.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, total 34. The lower incisors +are directed forwards and have a comb-like structure of their +crowns, while the outermost of these teeth and the canines are +double-rooted, being in these respects, taken together, quite +unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have +numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of +milk-molars by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded +by bone, and the tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external +meatus. The ulna and fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; +the carpus has a scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. +The hemispheres of the brain are short and but slightly +convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a large caecum; +the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus is +two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two +pairs of pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a +birth.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:243px" src="images/img400.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur (<i>Galeopithecus +philippinensis</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>It will be obvious that if other representatives of the <i>Dermoptera</i> +were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the +family <i>Galeopithecidae</i>.</p> + +<p>There are two species, <i>Galeopithecus volans</i>, ranging from +Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and +Java, and <i>G. philippinensis</i> of the Philippine group. The former, +which is nearly 2 ft. in total length, is distinguished by its +larger upper incisors, shorter ears and smaller skull. In both +species not only are the long and slender limbs connected by a +broad integumentary expansion extending outwards from the +sides of the neck and body, but there is also a web between the +fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws (fig.); and the +hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion passing +outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and, +inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true +interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats +altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted +outer incisors and canines, <i>Galeopithecus</i> contrasts strongly +with that order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and +in the great length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in +<i>Chiroptera</i>. From the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of +the brain, the character of the teeth, the structure of the skull, +and the deciduate discoidal placenta at once separate the +group.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALERIUS<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Galerius Valerius Maximianus</span>], Roman +emperor from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 305 to 311, was born near Sardica in Thrace. +He originally followed his father’s occupation, that of a herdsman, +whence his surname of <i>Armentarius</i> (Lat. <i>armentum</i>, herd). +He served with distinction as a soldier under Aurelian and +Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar along with Constantius +Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian’s daughter Valeria, and +at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian +provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he was +removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign +ended in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing +through the mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory +over Narses (<i>q.v.</i>) and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on +the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, he at once assumed +the title of Augustus, with Constantius his former colleague, and +having procured the promotion to the rank of Caesar of Flavius +Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and Daia (Maximinus), his +nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to become sole +master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was defeated +by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on +the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and +Maxentius in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in +307 he elevated his friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and, +moderating his ambition, devoted the few remaining years of his +life “to the enjoyment of pleasure and to the execution of some +works of public utility.” It was at the instance of Galerius that +the first of the celebrated edicts of persecution against the +Christians was published, on the 24th of February 303, and this +policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance +of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his own name and +in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311 <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24, +x. 1.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALESBURG,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Knox county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of +Chicago. Pop. (1890) 15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602 +were foreign-born; (census, 1910) 22,089. It is served by the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, and the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and coeducational), +which was chartered here in 1837 as the “Knox Manual +Labor College” (the present name was adopted in 1857), was +opened in 1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628 +students, of whom more than half were in the Conservatory of +Music, a department of the college, and 79 were in the Academy. +Lombard College (coeducational; Universalist), which was +chartered as the “Illinois Liberal Institute” in 1851, was known +as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard, a +benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal +Arts, the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of +music and domestic science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors +and 117 students. Here also are Corpus Christi College (Roman +Catholic), St Joseph’s Academy (Roman Catholic) and Brown’s +Business College (1874). There is a public library, founded in +1874. The industries consist mainly of the construction and +repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the Chicago, Burlington +& Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and +machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +and machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 +was $2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg +was named in honour of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862), +a prominent Presbyterian preacher, who in 1827-1834 had +founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute at Whitestown, +Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college in the +Mississippi Valley to supply “an evangelical and able ministry” +to “spread the Gospel throughout the world,” and also wishing to +counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he +interested a number of people in the project, formed a society for +colonization, and in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the +“Mesopotamia in the West.” Knox College was founded to +fulfil his educational purpose. Galesburg was an important +“station” of the Underground Railroad, one of the conditions of +membership in the “Presbyterian Church of Galesburg” (the +name of Mr Gale’s society) being opposition to slavery; and in +1855 this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery. +Galesburg was chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October +1858 one of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the +grounds of Knox College.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALGĀCUS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> or perhaps rather <span class="sc">Calgācus</span>, a Caledonian chief +who led the tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman +army under Cn. Julius Agricola about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 85 and was defeated +at the battle of Mons Graupius (Tac. <i>Agric.</i> 29). The name +recurs much later, in Adamnan’s <i>Life of Columba</i>, in the name +of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or Roboretum +Calgachi, “the wood of Calgacus”: it may be Celtic and denote +“the man with the sword.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALIANI, FERDINANDO<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1728-1787), Italian economist, was +born at Chieti on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully +educated by his uncle Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome +with a view to entering the Church. Galiani gave early promise +of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit. At the +age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, he had produced +two works by which his name became widely known far beyond +the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his <i>Trattato della +moneta</i>, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the +mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of +exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of +confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the +Neapolitan government. The other, <i>Raccolta in Morte del Boia</i>, +established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in +Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In this +volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of +discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the +most pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. +Galiani’s political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him +out to the discriminating eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles +III. of Spain, and his liberal minister Tanucci, and he was +appointed in 1759 secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris. +This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and +was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777, +minister of the royal domains. His economic reputation was +made by a book written in French and published in Paris, +namely, his <i>Dialogues sur le commerce des blés</i>. This work, by its +light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it +abounded, delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production +of which Plato and Molière might have been combined! +The author, says Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle +did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system +of the world. The question at issue was that of the freedom of the +corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of +the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain +so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The +general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to +this trade is to have no system—countries differently circumstanced +requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment. +He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the +mercantilists—holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even +Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and +in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments +in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples on the +30th of October 1787, Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends +a correspondence, which was published in 1818.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>L’Abate Galiani</i>, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his correspondence +with Tanucci in Viesseux’s <i>L’Archivio storico</i> (Florence, +1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALICIA<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Galizien</i>; Pol. <i>Halicz</i>), a crownland of Austria, +bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and +W. by Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299 +sq. m., and is the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old +kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and +Zator, and the grand duchy of Cracow.</p> + +<p>Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which +with their offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of +the country. The surface gradually sinks down by undulating +terraces to the valleys of the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and +E. of these rivers Galicia forms a continuation of the great plains +of Russia, intersected only by a few hills, which descend from the +plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which attain in some places +an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians, which, extending +in the form of an arc, form the boundary between Galicia and +Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides, +which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif +of the Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Góra (5650 ft.), +the Wolowiec (6773 ft.) and the Cserna Góra (6505 ft.). The +principal passes are those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of +Dukla, Vereczke Körösmezö or Delatyn in the East Beskides. +The river Vistula, which becomes navigable at Cracow, +and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia, +receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with +its affluents the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San +and the Bug. The Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, +within the territory of Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, +and receives on the right the Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and +the Bystrzyca, and on the left the Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth +and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards Russia. The +Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of +Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives the +Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few +lakes in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable +morasses exist about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the +San, while the ponds or dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated +to cover an area of over 200 sq. m. The most frequented mineral +springs are the alkaline springs at Szczawnica and Krynica, the +sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and Lubian, and the +iodine springs at Iwonicz.</p> + +<p>Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and +shut out by the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds, +Galicia has the severest climate in Austria. It has long winters, +with an abundant snowfall, short and wet springs, hot summers +and long and steady autumns. The mean annual temperature at +Lemberg is 46.2° F., and at Tarnopol only 43° F.</p> + +<p>Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% +by meadows, 9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% +by forests. The soil is generally fertile, but agriculture is still +backward. The principal products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, +maize and leguminous plants. Galicia has the largest area under +potatoes and legumes in the whole of Austria, and hemp, flax, +tobacco and hops are of considerable importance. The principal +mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. Salt is extracted +at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and Kosow. +Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza +near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum +fields in Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and +are worked at Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka +and Potok near Krosno, Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c. +Great quantities of ozocerite are also extracted in the petroliferous +region of the Carpathians. Other mineral products are +zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the Cracow region, +amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria, iron +ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur +mines of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since +1598, were abandoned in 1884.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span></p> + +<p>The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly +developed. The first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose +output amounts to nearly 40% of the total production of +spirits in Austria. Then follow the petroleum refineries and +kindred industries, saw-mills and the fabrication of various +wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar factory at Tlumacz +and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the largest +establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is +concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens +is pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian +region, the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is +mainly in the hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit +trade to Russia and to the East is also of considerable importance.</p> + +<p>Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is +equivalent to 241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal +nationalities are the Poles (45%) and the Ruthenians (42%), +the former predominating in the west and in the big towns, and +the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the Carpathians are +distinguished as Goralians (from <i>góry</i>, mountain), and those of +the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian +highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly +Roman Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there +are over 770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are +Catholics and stand under the jurisdiction of an Armenian +archbishop at Lemberg.</p> + +<p>The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg, +and three bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the +Greek Catholic Church is represented by an archbishop, at +Lemberg, and two bishops, at Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the +head of the educational institutions stand the two universities of +Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy of science at +Cracow.</p> + +<p>The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 +archbishops, the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, +and Galicia sends 78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For +administrative purposes, the province is divided into 78 districts +and 2 autonomous municipalities—Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the +capital, and Cracow (91,310). Other principal towns are: +Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea (34,188), Tarnów (31,548), Tarnopol +(30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj (23,673), Jaroslau (22,614), +Drohobycz (19,146), Podgórze (18,142), Brody (17,360), Sambor +(17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszów (14,714), Zloczow (12,209), +Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504), Sniatyn +(11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671), +Chrzanów (10,170), Jaworów (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and +Biala (8265).</p> + +<p>Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring +principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th +century—the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch. +Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the +interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190 +assumed the title of king, and appointed his son Andreas +lieutenant of the kingdom. Polish assistance, however, enabled +Vladimir, the former possessor, to expel Andreas, and in 1198 +Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself master of Galicia also. +On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland and Hungary +for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was +arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be +invested with Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian +king, with Galicia. Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav +of Novgorod; and in his turn Andreas, Mstislav’s nominee, was +expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a powerful prince, who by a +flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his position. Though in +1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary, yet, when +he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu, he +called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown +of Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when +Innocent disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former +connexion with the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line +in 1340 Casimir III. of Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg; +on Casimir’s death in 1370 Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance +with previous treaties, became king of Poland, Galicia and +Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of Louis’s daughter +with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as part of his +Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became definitively +assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in +1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria, +and to this was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795; +but at the peace of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were +surrendered to the grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of +East Galicia, including Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This +latter portion was recovered by Austria at the peace of Paris +(1814), and the former came back on the suppression of the +independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the introduction +of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a larger +degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian +empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild</i>, +vol. 19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); <i>Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns +in Wort und Bild</i>, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable +sketches of Galician life are to be found in the works of the German +novelist Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALICIA<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (the ancient <i>Gallaecia</i> or <i>Callaecia</i>, <span class="grk" title="Kallaikia">Καλλαικία</span> or +<span class="grk" title="Kalaikia">Καλαικία</span>), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, countship +and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded +on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by +Portugal, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515; +area, 11,254 sq. m. In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative +purposes into the provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and +Pontevedra.</p> + +<p>Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded +as a continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is +further broken in the east by the westernmost ridges of that +system, which, running in a south-westerly direction, rise above +the basin of the Miño. The high land north of the headwaters of +the Miño forms the sole connecting link between the Cantabrians +properly so-called and the mountains of central and western +Galicia. The average elevation of the province is considerable, +and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Peña +Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.</p> + +<p>The principal river is the Miño (Portuguese <i>Minho</i>; Lat. +<i>Minius</i>; so named, it is said, from the <i>minium</i> or vermilion +found in its bed). Rising near Mondoñedo, within 25 m. of the +northern coast, the Miño enters the Atlantic near the port of +Guardia, after a course of 170 m. S. and S.W. Its lower reaches +are navigable by small vessels. Of its numerous affluents the +most important is the Sil, which rises among the lofty mountains +between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a +westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and +the Lerez or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or <i>rias</i> +called respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria +de Pontevedra. The rivers of the northern versant, such as the +Nera, are, like those of Asturias, for the most part short, rapid +and subject to violent floods.</p> + +<p>The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere +bold and deeply indented, presenting a large number of +secure harbours, and in this respect forming a marked contrast to +the neighbouring province. The Eo, which bounds Galicia on +the east, has a deep estuary, the Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which +offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero Bay and the +Ria del Barquero y Váres are of a similar character; while the +harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief +naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite +side of Betanzos Bay (the <span class="grk" title="megas limên">μέγας λιμήν</span> or <i>Portus Magnus</i> of the +ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruña. The principal +port on the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered +bay of Vigo, but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion +under Cape Finisterre, at Marin and at Carril.</p> + +<p>The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the +interior, owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft. +above sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is +exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations +for a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole +fertile, and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +timber is grown on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures +support large herds of cattle, while the abundance of oaks and +chestnuts favours the rearing of swine. In the lowland districts +good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats and rye, as well as of +turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit also is of excellent +quality and in great variety, although the culture of the vine is +limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern districts. +The <i>dehesas</i> or moorlands abound in game, and fish are plentiful +in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province, which +are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients. +Strabo (<i>c.</i> 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23-79) mentions the <i>gemma Gallaica</i>, a precious stone. +Galicia is also remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other +warm springs, the most important of which are those at Lugo, +and those from which Orense is said to take its name (<i>Aquae +urentes</i>).</p> + +<p>Ethnologically the Galicians (<i>Gallegos</i>) are allied to the +Portuguese, whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in +habits more than the other inhabitants of the peninsula. The +men are well known all over Spain and Portugal as hardy, +honest and industrious, but for the most part somewhat unskilled, +labourers; indeed the word <i>Gallego</i> has come to be almost a +synonym in Madrid for a “hewer of wood and drawer of water.” +It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning “boor.” Agriculture +engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and +female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed. +The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); +Santiago de Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal +see; Lugo, Tuy, Mondoñedo and Orense are bishoprics.</p> + +<p><i>Gallaecia</i>, the country of the Galacci, <i>Callaici</i> or <i>Gallaici</i>, +seems to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier +geographers. According to Eratosthenes (276-196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the +entire population of the peninsula were at one time called <i>Galatae</i>. +The region properly called by their name, bounded on the south +by the Douro and on the east by the Navia, was first entered by +the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus in 137-136 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +(Livy lv., lvi., <i>Epit.</i>); but the final subjugation cannot be placed +earlier than the time of Augustus (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14). On the +partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the +Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first +named (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly +200 years, the Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic +dominions under Leovigild in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the +Moors, who in turn were driven out by Alphonso I. of Asturias, +in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it was the subject of +dispute between more than one count of Galicia and the +suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans. +When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, +Galicia was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the +three. In 1072 it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia’s brother +Alphonso VI. of Castile and thenceforward it remained an +integral part of the kingdom of Castile or of Leon. The honorary +title of count of Galicia has frequently been borne by younger +sons of the Spanish sovereign.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Annette B. Meakin, <i>Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain</i> (London, +1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1752-1821), newspaper +publisher, was born at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some +time in London, he went to Paris, where he started in 1800 an +English library, and in 1808 a monthly publication, the <i>Repertory +of English Literature</i>. In 1814 he began to publish, in Paris, +<i>Galignani’s Messenger</i>, a daily paper printed in English. At his +death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his two sons, Jean-Antoine +(1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under their +management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to +promote good feeling between England and France. The brothers +established and endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. +In recognition of their generosity the city of Corbeil +erected a monument in their honour. In 1884 the Galignani +family disposed of their interest in <i>Galignani’s Messenger</i>, and +from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the paper +appeared under the title of the <i>Daily Messenger</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALILEE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Galil">גליל</span>, “border” or “ring,” Gr. <span class="grk" title="Galilaia">Γαλιλαία</span>), a +Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S. by +Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the +Leontes (Litāni), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of +Phoenicia. Its maximum extent was about 60 m. north to south +and 30 east to west. The name in the Hebrew Scriptures hardly +had a definite territorial significance. It literally means a ring or +circuit, and, like analogous words in English, could be applied to +various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel (iii. 4) refer to +the <i>Geliloth</i> (“borders, coast”) of the Philistines or of Palestine; +Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8) mention the +Jordan valley plain as the “Geliloth of Jordan” in “the Eastern +Gelilah.” In its more restricted connotation, denoting the +district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found +in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was +situated the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of +“worthless” cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we +find the full name of the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally “the +ring, circuit or border of the foreigners”—referring to the +Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by whose country the +province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv. 29 it is +specified as one of the districts whose population was deported by +Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however, +Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the +unit of territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial, +and though such important events as those associated with the +names of Barak, Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within +its borders, yet these belong rather to the histories of Issachar, +Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali, whose territories together almost +correspond with Galilee, than to the province itself.</p> + +<p>After the Jewish return from exile the population confined +itself to Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed +multitude of successors established there by the Assyrians. +When it once more came into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is +generally supposed that its reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus. +Before very long it developed a nationalism and patriotism as +intense as that of Judaea itself, notwithstanding the contempt +with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem looked down upon the +Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such as “Out of +Galilee cometh no prophet” (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha, +and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common. +Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the +Galileans; it appears that they confused the gutturals in +pronunciation.</p> + +<p>Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate +governed by members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was +tetrarch of Galilee in 47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; in 4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was succeeded by his son +Antipas. Galilee was the land of Christ’s boyhood and the chief +centre of His active work, and in His various ministries here +some of His chief discourses were uttered (as the Sermon on +the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles performed.</p> + +<p>After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic +schools took refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised. +No ancient remains of Jewish synagogues exist except those that +have been identified in some of the ancient Galilean towns, such +as Tell Ḥum (Talḥūm), Kerāzeh, Kefr Bir’īm, and elsewhere. +One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was Ṣafed, still a sacred +city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members of that faith. +Near here is Meirūn, a place much revered by the Jews as +containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai; +a yearly festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At +Tiberias also are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers, +including Maimonides.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower +Galilee, the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which +prolonged would cut the Jordan about midway between Ḥūleh and +the Sea of Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf +and Esdraelon.</p> + +<p>The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by +volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up +towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed +over the plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district +<span class="sidenote">Lower Galilee.</span> +the highest hills are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The +ridge of Nazareth rises north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> +north of this again is the fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from +the sea-coast plains by low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the +basaltic plateau called Sahel el Aḥmā (“the inaccessible plain”), +rising 1700 ft. above the Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a +confused hill country, the spurs falling towards a broad valley which +lies at the foot of the mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad +valley, running westwards to the coast, is perhaps the old boundary +of Zebulun—the valley of Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great +plain of Esdraelon is of triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the +east and by the ridge which runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m. +long from Jenīn to the Nazareth hills, and its southern border is +about 20 m. long. It rises 200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both +sides being some 1500 ft. higher. The whole drainage is collected +by the Kishon, which runs through a narrow gorge at the north-west +corner of the plain, descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. +The broad valley of Jezreel on the east, descending towards the +Jordan valley, forms the gate by which Palestine is entered from +beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor stands isolated in the plain at the +north-east corner, and rather farther south the conical hill called +Nebi Duḥi rises between Tabor and Gilboa. The whole of Lower +Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is fed by springs from near +Tabor and from a copious stream from the west side of the plain of +Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wādi el Melek, an open +valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of Acre, rising in the +sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above identified with +Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel is full of +magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains of +Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Aḥmā are all +remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which corn, +cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of vegetable +are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in former +times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but west +of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads over +the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain are +partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets. The +mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub, +except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal +places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000 inhabitants), +Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above the +Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenīn (En Gannim), +a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The +ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a precipitous +spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets, +Solam (Shunem), Endūr (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side +of the plain is the ruin of Lejjūn (the Legio of the 4th century, which +was then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf +is Jefāt, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata +defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian +village at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is +one of the sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kāna, on +the north side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to +the pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.</p> + +<p>The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the +drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the +rocky range of Jebel Jarmūk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above +the sea; on the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms +<span class="sidenote">Upper Galilee.</span> +the watershed, with steep eastern slopes falling towards +Jordan. Immediately west of the watershed are two small plateaus +covered with basaltic débris, near el-Jish and Kades. On the west +are rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main drains +of the country are—first, Wādi el ‘Ayūn, rising north of Jebel +Jarmūk, and running north-west as an open valley; and secondly, +Wādi el Ahjār, a rugged precipitous gorge running north to join the +Leontes. The district is well provided with springs throughout, +and the valleys are full of water in the spring-time. Though rocky +and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is +rich, and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the +neighbourhood of Kefr Bir’īm. The principal town is Ṣafed, perched +on a white mountain 2700 ft. above the sea. It has a population of +about 9000, including Jews, Christians and Moslems.</p> +</div> + +<p>Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in +<i>Wars</i>, iii. 3. 2: “The Galileans are inured to war from their +infancy, and have been always very numerous; nor hath the +country been ever destitute of men of courage or wanted a +numerous set of them; for their soil is universally rich and fruitful, +and full of plantations of trees of all sorts, insomuch that it +invites the most slothful to take pains in its cultivation.... +Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very many villages +there are here are everywhere full of people.” Though the +population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country +is still remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its +water-supply draining from the Lebanon mountains.</p> + +<p>The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and +soap (from the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.</p> + +<p>The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone +monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous +remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine churches of the time of +the crusades. There are also remains of Greek architecture in +various places; but the most interesting buildings are the ancient +synagogues, of which some eleven examples are now known. +They are rectangular, with the door to the south, and two rows of +columns forming aisles east and west. The architecture is a +peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, attributed by +architects to the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> In Kefr Bir’īm there were +remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of +them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At +Irbid, above Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different +character. Traces of synagogues have also been found on +Carmel, and at Tireh, west of Nazareth. It is curious to find +the representation of various animals in relief on the lintels +of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the +carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though debased.</p> + +<p>In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian +kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected +by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which still crown the +most important strategical points. Toron (mod. <i>Tibnīn</i>) was +built in 1104, the first fortress erected by the crusaders, and +standing on the summit of the mountains of Upper Galilee. +Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a precipice +above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the +advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time +Château Neuf (Hunīn) was erected above the Hüleh lake. Belfort +(esh Shukif), on the north bank of the Leontes, the finest and +most important, dates somewhat earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el +Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east of Acre, completing the +chain of frontier fortresses. The town of Banias, with its castle, +formed also a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the +scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many desperate +encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was +the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians. +In 1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending +round Acre as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including +Ṣafed. These possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.</p> + +<p>The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the +peasants are principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek +Christians round Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper +Galilee, however, there is a mixture of Jews and Maronites, +Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine settlers), while the +slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering Arabs. The +Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and Moslems +in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral +people.</p> +<div class="author">(C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALILEE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or +chapel which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case +at Durham and Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name +is sometimes given to the south-west porch. The name is said +to be derived from the scriptural expression “Galilee of the +Gentiles” (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are supposed to have been +used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably served chiefly +for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. The +Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey +church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they +were related, or from which they could hear divine service. The +foundation of what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at +the west end of Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were +placed there before interment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALILEE, SEA OF,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a lake in Palestine consisting of an +expansion of the Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is +13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64 sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of +the Mediterranean, and, according to Merrill and Barrois (who +have corrected the excessive depth said to have been found by +Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in maximum depth. It is +pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In the Hebrew +Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth (probably +derived from a town of the same name mentioned in +Joshua xi. 2 and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with +<span title="kinor">כנור</span>, “a harp,” is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +Maccabees it is named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is +usually called Sea of Galilee, though once it is called Lake of +Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1, +xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is <i>Baḥr Tubarīya</i>, which is +often rendered “Lake of Tiberias.” Pliny refers to it as the +Lake of Taricheae.</p> + +<p>Like the Dead Sea it is a “rift” lake, being part of the great +fault that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show +that originally it formed part of the great inland sea that filled +this depression in Pleistocene times. The district on each side of +the lake has a number of hot springs, at least one of which is +beneath the sea itself, and has always shown indications of +volcanic and other subterranean disturbances. It is especially +liable to earthquakes. The water of the sea, though slightly +brackish and not very clear, is generally used for drinking. The +shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel; some yards +from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish +mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon +falls about 10º F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range +of temperature affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.; +below that depth the water is uniformly about 59° F. The sea is +set deep in hills which rise on the east side to a height of about +2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms (such as are described in +Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel passages) are often produced +by the changes of temperature in the air resulting from +these great differences of level.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western precipices. +It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills +rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes +and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with +black basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma +terminates in precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the +black rocky tops called “the Horns of Hattīn” are conspicuous +objects. On the south is a broad valley through which the Jordan +flows. On the east are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the +great plateau of the Jaulān (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the +lake through a narrow gorge between lower hills. A marshy plain, +2½ m. long and 1½ broad, called el-Batīhah, exists immediately east +of the Jordan inlet. There is also on the west side of the lake a small +plain called el-Ghuweir, formed by the junction of three large valleys. +It measures 3¼ m. along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain, +naturally fertile, but now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be +the plain of Gennesareth, described by Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On +the east the hills approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water, +but there is generally a width of about ¾ of a mile from the hills to +the beach. On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an +average width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the +western shores, and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Hārib +on the south-east. The hot baths south of Tiberias include seven +springs, the largest of which has a temperature of 137° F. In these +springs a distinct rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when +Tiberias and Ṣafed were destroyed by an earthquake. The plain +of Gennesareth, with its environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-basin. +North of this plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the +largest of which was enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal +reservoir by ‘Ali, son of Dhahr el-Amīr, and the water led off by an +aqueduct 52 ft. above the lake. The Tabighah springs, though +abundant, are warm and brackish. At the north end of the plain is +’Ain et-Tīneh (“spring of the fig-tree”), also a brackish spring +with a good stream; south of the plain is ‘Ain el-Bardeh (“the cold +spring”), which is sweet, but scarcely lower in temperature than +the others. One of the most important springs is ‘Ain el-Madawwera +(“the round spring”), situated 1 m. from the south end of the +plain and half a mile from the shore. The water rises in a circular +well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear and sweet, with a temperature +of 73° F. The bottom is of loose sand, and the fish called <i>coracinus</i> +by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is here found (see below). Dr Tristram +was the first explorer to identify this fish, and on account of its +presence suggested the identification of the “round spring” with +the fountain of <i>Capharnaum</i>, which, according to Josephus, watered +the plain of Gennesareth. There is, however, a difficulty in this +identification; there are no ruins at ‘Ain el-Madawwera.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>—For half the year the hillsides are bare and +steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation. +Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at +’Ain et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms +with fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose +boats are the only representatives of the many ships and boats +which plied on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a +lucrative industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws +regulating it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and +unclean, the good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong +to the genera <i>Chromis</i>, <i>Barbus</i>, <i>Capoeta</i>, <i>Discognathus</i>, <i>Nemachilus</i>, +<i>Blennius</i> and <i>Clarias</i>; and there is a great affinity between them +and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight +species of <i>Chromis</i>, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their +young in the buccal cavities of the males. The <i>Chromis simonis</i> is +popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece +of money (Matt. xvii. 27). <i>Clarias macracanthus</i> (Arab. <i>Burbur</i>) is +the <i>coracinus</i> of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs +of ‘Ain el-Madawwera, ‘Ain et-Tīneh and ‘Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake +shore where muddy, and in Lake Hüleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like +fish, often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the <i>C. anguillaris</i> of +Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be +unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of +Matt. vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes—great +crested, eared, and little,—gulls and pelicans frequent the lake. +On its shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable +sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of +<i>Melania</i>, <i>Melanopsis</i>, <i>Neritina</i>, <i>Corbicula</i> and <i>Unio</i> have been found.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—The principal sites of interest round the lake may +be enumerated from north to west and from south to east. +Kerazeh, the undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur +900 ft. above the lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and +scattered stones cover the slopes and the flat valley below. On +the west is a rugged gorge. In the middle of the ruins are the +scattered remains of a synagogue of richly ornamental style built +of black basalt. A small spring occurs on the north. Tell Ḥum +(as the name is generally spelt, though <i>Talḥūm</i> would probably be +preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin on the shore, +south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of foundations +and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic thistles) +extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations of +a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white +limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has +been erected close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell +Ḥum synagogue. Since the 4th century Tell Ḥum has been +pointed out by all the Christian writers of importance as the +site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers question this +identification, but without sufficient reason (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capernaum</a></span>). +Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of Gennesareth, +2½ m. from the last, and close to the shore. There +are extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and +foundations. Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here +discovered in course of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of +an old khān, which appears to have been built in the middle ages. +This is another suggested identification for Capernaum; but all +the remains belong to the Arab period. Between Tell Ḥum and +Minyeh is <i>Tell ‘Oreimeh</i>, the site of a forgotten Amorite city.</p> + +<p>South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly +supposed to represent the New Testament town of Magdala. +A few lotus trees and some rock-cut tombs are here found beside +a miserable mud hamlet on the hill slope, with a modern tombhouse +(<i>kubbeh</i>). Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills +is next reached, where stands Tubarīya, the ancient Tiberias or +Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are +Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly destroyed +by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Amīr, as was +the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were +erected by his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders’ church, +and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, +while Rabbi Aqība and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside. The +ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of +a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the +modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a +distance of 9 m. from the south.</p> + +<p>Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a +peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, +and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow +neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly +artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft. above the water. A ruined +citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge +over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured +stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the description +given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30 +stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities. +Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the +cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +plain (the Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at +the south end of the Sea of Galilee. <i>Sinn en-Nabreh</i>, a ruin on a +spur of the hills close to the last-mentioned site, represents the +ancient Sennabris, where Vespasian (Josephus, <i>B.J.</i> iii. 9, 7) +fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae +and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about +the distance of the ruin now existing.</p> + +<p>The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully +explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly +recovered. The site of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is +fixed by Clermont-Ganneau at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn +(“castle of the stronghold”) is a ruin on a rocky spur opposite +Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain, with traces of an +old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong wall once +surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east +where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the +site on the north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut +tombs are found beneath the ruin. This site is not identified; the +suggestion that it is Gamala is doubtful, and not borne out by +Josephus (<i>War</i>, iv. 1, 1), who says Gamala was over against +Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of the last, is +thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th century, +situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill south of +this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine “ran +violently down a steep place” (Matt. viii. 32).</p> +<div class="author">(C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALILEO GALILEI<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and +experimental philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of +February 1564. His father, Vincenzio, was an impoverished +descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged +the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in +1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de’ Bonajuti, to the college +of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen +times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier +to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. +Vincenzio Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was +a competent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on +the theory and practice of music, and was especially distinguished +amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance +upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he +had three sons and four daughters.</p> + +<p>From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family, +was remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical +invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original +and ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary +studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, +near Florence, where his education was principally conducted, +he not only made himself acquainted with the best +Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue, +thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and elegant style. +From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic; but +the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly distasteful +to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that +he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to +have joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs +for him, seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to +withdraw him permanently from the care of the monks. Having +had personal experience of the unremunerative character both of +music and of mathematics, he desired that his son should apply +himself to the cultivation of medicine, and, not without some +straining of his slender resources, placed him, before he had +completed his eighteenth year, at the university of Pisa. He +accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of November 1581, and +immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures of the +celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.</p> + +<p>The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time +equally ready to develop in any direction towards which choice +or hazard might incline them. In musical skill and invention he +already vied with the best professors of the art in Italy; his +personal taste would have led him to choose painting as his +profession, and one of the most eminent artists of his day, +Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he was +mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while +watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed +that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably +executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this +fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronism of the +pendulum. He at first applied the new principle to pulse-measurement, +and more than fifty years later turned it to account +in the construction of an astronomical clock. Up to this time he +was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his father having carefully +held him aloof from a study which he rightly apprehended would +lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. Accident, +however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given by +Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced, +tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his +attention was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he +threw all his energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly +presented to him. With Ricci’s assistance, he rapidly mastered +the elements of the science, and eventually extorted his father’s +reluctant permission to exchange Hippocrates and Galen for +Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was withdrawn from the +university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree, +and returned to Florence, where his family habitually resided. +We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy +on the site and dimensions of Dante’s <i>Inferno</i>; and he shortly +afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the +hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known +throughout Italy. His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo +del Monte of Pesaro, a man equally eminent in science, and +influential through family connexions. At the Marchese’s +request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of gravity in +solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of “the +Archimedes of his time,” the honourable though not lucrative +post of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During +the ensuing two years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable +series of experiments by which he established the first principles +of dynamics and earned the undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians. +From the leaning tower of Pisa he afforded to all the +professors and students of the university ocular demonstration +of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that heavy bodies fall +with velocities proportional to their weights, and with unanswerable +logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the schools +regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or +levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his +adversaries. The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not +calculated to soothe the susceptibilities of men already smarting +under the deprivation of their most cherished illusions. He seems, +in addition, to have compromised his position with the grand-ducal +family by the imprudent candour with which he condemned +a machine for clearing the port of Leghorn, invented by Giovanni +de’ Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo I. Princely favour +being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show itself. He +was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to resign +his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through +the death of his father in July of that year family cares and +responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to +the chair of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by +the influence of the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian +senate, was welcome both as affording a relief from pecuniary +embarrassment and as opening a field for scientific distinction.</p> + +<p>His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of +eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted +prosperity. His appointment was three times renewed, on each +occasion with the expressions of the highest esteem on the part of +the governing body, and his yearly salary was progressively raised +from 180 to 1000 florins. His lectures were attended by persons +of the highest distinction from all parts of Europe, and such was +the charm of his demonstrations that a hall capable of containing +2000 people had eventually to be assigned for the accommodation +of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His invention +of the proportional compass or sector—an implement still used in +geometrical drawing—dates from 1597; and about the same +time he constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +and tube filled with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of +water. In this instrument the results of varying atmospheric +pressure were not distinguishable from the expansive and contractive +effects of heat and cold, and it became an efficient +measure of temperature only when Rinieri, in 1646, introduced +the improvement of hermetically sealing the liquid in glass. The +substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water completed the modern +thermometer.</p> + +<p>Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the +Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from +avowing his opinions—as is proved by his letter to Kepler of +August 4, 1597—by the fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. +The appearance, in September 1604, of a new star in the +constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed an opportunity, +of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an onslaught upon +the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the heavens; +but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to +Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent +implement of research in the shape of the telescope (<i>q.v.</i>) placed +at his command startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as +to the constitution and mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. +Galileo was not the original inventor of the telescope.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> That +honour must be assigned to Johannes Lippershey, an obscure +optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October 1608, +petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive +rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the +apparent size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention, +which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the +track; and after one night’s profound meditation on the principles +of refraction, he succeeded in producing a telescope of threefold +magnifying power. Upon this first attempt he rapidly improved, +until he attained to a power of thirty-two, and his instruments, of +which he manufactured hundreds with his own hands, were soon +in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only—a plano-convex +and a plano-concave—were needed for the composition of +each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the construction +of opera-glasses. Galileo’s direction of his new instrument +to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy. +Discoveries followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in +bewildering variety. The <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>, published at Venice +early in 1610, contained the first-fruits of the new mode of +investigation, which were sufficient to excite learned amazement +on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous configuration of +the moon’s surface was there first described, and the so-called +“phosphorescence” of the dark portion of our satellite attributed +to its true cause—namely, illumination by sunlight reflected +from the earth.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> All the time-worn fables and conjectures +regarding the composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated +by the simple statement that to the eye, reinforced by +the telescope, it appeared as a congeries of lesser stars, while the +great nebulae were equally declared to be resolvable into similar +elements. But the discovery which was at once perceived to be +most important in itself, and most revolutionary in its effects, +was that of Jupiter’s satellites, first seen by Galileo on the 7th of +January 1610, and by him named <i>Sidera Medicea</i>, in honour of the +grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and +was about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the +general run of mankind, more powerful to convince than an +argument; and the cogency of the visible plea for the Copernican +theory offered by the miniature system, then first disclosed +to view, was recognizable in the triumph of its advocates as well +as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.</p> + +<p>In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for +Florence. His researches with the telescope had been rewarded +by the Venetian senate with the appointment for life to his +professorship, at an unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery +of the “Medicean Stars” was acknowledged by his nomination +(July 12, 1610) as philosopher and mathematician extraordinary +to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments of this office, +which involved no duties save that of continuing his scientific +labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of +increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, +which induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of +which had indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 +the memorable cycle of discoveries begun in the previous year +was completed by the observation of the ansated or, as it +appeared to Galileo, triple form of Saturn (the ring-formation was +first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in 1655), of the phases of +Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards sun-spots, +however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim +priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring +of 1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the +Quirinal Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most +eminent personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the +flattering reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his <i>Letters +on the Solar Spots</i>, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more +decided position towards that doctrine on the establishment of +which, as he avowed in a letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the +grand-duke, “all his life and being henceforward depended.” +Even in the time of Copernicus some well-meaning persons, +especially those of the reformed persuasion, had suspected a +discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and certain +passages of Scripture—a suspicion strengthened by the anti-Christian +inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the +question was never formally debated until Galileo’s brilliant +disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic +zeal, irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities. +Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be +admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself +into it with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to +precipitate a decision which it was his interest to avert. In +December 1613 a Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli, +at that time professor of mathematics at the university of Pisa, +wrote to inform Galileo of a recent discussion at the grand-ducal +table, in which he had been called upon to defend the +Copernican doctrine against theological objections. This task +Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan +astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation +and success. Galileo’s answer, written, as he said himself, +<i>currente calamo</i>, was an exposition of a formal theory as to the +relations of physical science to Holy Writ, still further developed +in an elaborate apology addressed by him in the following year +(1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager grand-duchess of +Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts, he met +his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and +endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system +which seemed to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to +the scientific few a beautiful but daring innovation. The rising +agitation on the subject, fomented for their own purposes by the +rabid Aristotelians of the schools, was heightened rather than +allayed by these manifestoes, and on the fourth Sunday of the +following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of Santa Maria +Novella. Padre Caccini’s denunciation of the new astronomy +was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors; +nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican +monk named Lorini laid Galileo’s letter to Castelli before the +Inquisition.</p> + +<p>Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most +influential member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast +learning and upright piety, but, although personally friendly to +Galileo, there is no doubt that he saw in his scientific teachings a +danger to religion. The year 1615 seems to have been a period of +suspense. Galileo received, as the result of a conference between +Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a semi-official warning to +avoid theology, and limit himself to physical reasoning. “Write +freely,” he was told by Monsignor Dini, “but keep outside the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +sacristy.” Unfortunately, he had already committed himself to +dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome, +full of confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity +of his eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical +court to his views. He was cordially received, and eagerly +listened to, but his imprudent ardour served but to injure his +cause. On the 24th of February 1616 the consulting theologians +of the Holy Office characterized the two propositions—that the +sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and that the earth has +a diurnal motion of rotation—the first as “absurd in philosophy, +and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy +Scripture,” and the second as “open to the same censure in +philosophy, and at least erroneous as to faith.” Two days later +Galileo was, by command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned +to the palace of Cardinal Bellarmin, and there officially admonished +not thenceforward to “hold, teach or defend” the +condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to obey. +On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree +reiterating, with the omission of the word “heretical,” the censure +of the theologians, suspending, <i>usque corrigatur</i>, the great work of +Copernicus, <i>De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</i>, and absolutely +prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini, +which treated the same subject from a theological point of view. +At the same time it was given to be understood that the new +theory of the solar system might be held <i>ex hypothesi</i>, and the +trivial verbal alterations introduced into the Polish astronomer’s +book in 1620, when the work of revision was completed by Cardinal +Gaetani, confirmed this interpretation. This edict, it is essential +to observe, the responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary +congregation in no sense representing the church, was never +confirmed by the pope, and was virtually repealed in 1757 under +Benedict XIV.</p> + +<p>Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased, +as his letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He +brought with him, for the refutation of calumnious reports +circulated by his enemies, a written certificate from Cardinal +Bellarmin, to the effect that no abjuration had been required of or +penance imposed upon him. During a prolonged audience he had +received from the pope assurances of private esteem and personal +protection; and he trusted to his dialectical ingenuity to find the +means of presenting his scientific convictions under the transparent +veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere Catholic, he +seems to have laid but little stress on the secret admonition of the +Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged him +gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written +memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according +to his own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin’s +certificate, in which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather +than expressly recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during +which he led a life of studious retirement in the Villa Segni at +Bellosguardo, near Florence, he maintained an almost unbroken +silence. At the end of that time he appeared in public with his +<i>Saggiatore</i>, a polemical treatise written in reply to the <i>Libra +astronomica</i> of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym of Lotario +Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The +subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous +appearance of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished +the occasion of the controversy. Galileo’s views, although +erroneous, since he held comets to be mere atmospheric emanations +reflecting sunlight after the evanescent fashion of a halo +or a rainbow, were expressed with such triumphant vigour, and +embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his opponent did not +venture upon a reply. The <i>Saggiatore</i> was printed at Rome in +October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was +a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and +notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of +Copernican opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical, +no less than by scientific authorities.</p> + +<p>Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken +prosperity to Galileo’s career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest +friend and admirer in the Sacred College, was, by the election of +the 8th of August 1623, seated on the pontifical throne; and the +marked distinction with which he was received on his visit of +congratulation to Rome in 1624 encouraged him to hope for the +realization of his utmost wishes. He received every mark of +private favour. The pope admitted him to six long audiences in +the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to the +grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his +distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and +granted a pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards +transferred to himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the +end of his life. But on the subject of the decree of 1616, the +revocation of which Galileo had hoped to obtain through his +personal influence, he found him inexorable. Yet there seemed +reason to expect that it would at least be interpreted in a liberal +spirit, and Galileo’s friends encouraged his imprudent confidence +by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance which it was +possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal Hohenzollern, +Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the +earth’s motion had not been and could not be condemned as +heretical, but only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican +monk Tommaso Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had +expressed to him in conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory +decree. Thus, in the full anticipation of added renown, +and without any misgiving as to ulterior consequences, Galileo +set himself, on his return to Florence, to complete his famous +but ill-starred work, the <i>Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del +mondo</i>. Finished in 1630, it was not until January 1632 that it +emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book +was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected +obstacles interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the +death of Prince Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an +outbreak of plague impeded communication between the various +Italian cities; and the <i>imprimatur</i> was finally extorted, rather +than accorded, under the pressure of private friendship and +powerful interest. A tumult of applause from every part of +Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult to find +in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style +are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific +exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati, +Sagredo, and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which +the work is composed. The first-named expounds the views of +the author; the second is an eager and intelligent listener; the +third represents a well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the +others treat at times with undisguised contempt. Salviati and +Sagredo took their names from two of Galileo’s early friends, the +former a learned Florentine, the latter a distinguished Venetian +gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from the Cilician +commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless instigated +by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word. There +were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to +depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party; +and the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by +certain imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted +to ignore.</p> + +<p>It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable +work was in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen +years before its publication, as well as with the author’s personal +pledge of conformity to it. The ironical submission with which it +opened, and the assumed indetermination with which it closed, +were hardly intended to mask the vigorous assertion of Copernican +principles which formed its substance. It is a singular +circumstance, however, that the argument upon which Galileo +mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the truth +of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow +of the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial +double movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the +absolute velocities through space of the various parts of the +earth’s surface, due to its rotation. To this notion, which took +its rise in a confusion of thought, he attached capital importance, +and he treated with scorn Kepler’s suggestion that a certain +occult attraction of the moon was in some way concerned in the +phenomenon. The theological censures which the book did not +fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt. Towards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of October +the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his +age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the +obstacles to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the +pope was sternly indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude +and insubordination, and no excuse was admitted. At length, +on the 13th of February 1633, he arrived at the residence of +Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the pontifical court, and +there abode in retirement for two months. From the 12th to the +30th of April he was detained in the palace of the Inquisition, +where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with +unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the +hospitality of Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation +against him was that he had written in contravention of the +decree of 1616, and in defiance of the command of the Holy Office +communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin; and his defence +consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an appeal to +his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally examined +under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his +assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the +Index, he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the +publication of the documents relating to this memorable trial, +there can no longer be any doubt, not only that the threat of +torture was not carried into execution, but that it was never +intended that it should be. On the 22nd of June, in the church of +Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his recantation, and +received his sentence. He was condemned, as “vehemently +suspected of heresy,” to incarceration at the pleasure of the +tribunal, and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a +week for three years the seven penitential psalms. This sentence +was signed by seven cardinals, but did not receive the customary +papal ratification. The legend according to which Galileo, +rising from his knees after repeating the formula of abjuration, +stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, “<i>Eppur si muove!</i>” is, +as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its earliest +ascertained appearance is in the Abbé Irailh’s <i>Querelles littéraires</i> +(vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).</p> + +<p>Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the +21st to the 24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the +Villa Medici on the Trinità de’ Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July, +he was permitted to depart for Siena, where he spent several +months in the house of the archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one +of his numerous and trusty friends. It was not until December +that his earnest desire of returning to Florence was realized, and +the remaining eight years of his life were spent in his villa at +Arcetri called “Il Giojello,” in the strict seclusion which was the +prescribed condition of his comparative freedom. Domestic +afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to +embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family, +who came to live with him on his return from Rome, perished +shortly afterwards of the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634 +died, to the inexpressible grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved +daughter, a nun in the convent of San Matteo at Arcetri. +Galileo was never married; but by a Venetian woman named +Marina Gamba he had three children—a son who married and +left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an early +age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to +the last. In 1636 he completed his <i>Dialoghi delle nuove scienze</i>, +in which he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and +mature meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in +many respects his most valuable work was printed by the +Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and excited admiration equally universal +and more lasting than that accorded to his astronomical +treatises. His last telescopic discovery—that of the moon’s +diurnal and monthly librations—was made in 1637, only a few +months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness. +It was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited +him at Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet +extinct. He continued his scientific correspondence with +unbroken interest and undiminished logical acumen; he thought +out the application of the pendulum to the regulation of clockwork, +which Huygens successfully realized fifteen years later; +and he was engaged in dictating to his disciples, Viviani and +Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of impact when he was +seized with the slow fever which in two months brought him to +the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long life of +triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval +between the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.</p> + +<p>The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are +virtually summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical +perfection of the science he contributed little or nothing. +He pointed out indeed that the so-called “third motion,” introduced +by Copernicus to account for the constant parallelism of +the earth’s axis, was a superfluous complication. But he substituted +the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a magnetic attraction, +and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be explained +was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the absence +of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously +detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the +discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his +contemporaries. Kepler’s first and second laws were published +in 1609, and his third ten years later. By these momentous +inductions the geometrical theory of the solar system was +perfected, and a hitherto unimagined symmetry was perceived to +regulate the mutual relations of its members. But by Galileo +they were passed over in silence. In his <i>Dialogo dei massimi +sistemi</i>, printed not less than thirteen years after the last of the +three laws had been given to the world, the epicycles by which +Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of uniform circular +motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the irregularities of +the planetary movements, were neither expressly adopted nor +expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that this +grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps +unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not +originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that +vast extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has +rendered modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his +telescopic observations are a standing monument to his sagacity +and acumen.</p> + +<p>With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic +features of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his +inferences, except when distorted by polemical exigencies, have +been strikingly confirmed by modern investigations. Of his two +capital errors, regarding respectively the theory of the tides and +the nature of comets, the first was insidiously recommended to +him by his passionate desire to find a physical confirmation of the +earth’s double motion; the second was adopted for the purpose +of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded on the planetary +analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within two years of +their first discovery, he had constructed approximately accurate +tables of the revolutions of Jupiter’s satellites, and he proposed +their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes, not +only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great +stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular +glass, and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was +offered by him in 1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards +to that of Tuscany, but in each case unsuccessfully; and the +close of his life was occupied with prolonged but fruitless negotiations +on the same subject with the states-general of Holland. +The idea, though ingenious, has been found of little practical +utility at sea.</p> + +<p>A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the +principal appearances revealed by modern instruments in the +solar spots. He pointed out that they were limited to a certain +defined zone on the sun’s surface; he noted the <i>faculae</i> with +which they are associated, the penumbra by which they are +bordered, their slight proper motions and their rapid changes of +form. He inferred from the regularity of their general movements +the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of little less than a +month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the paths +seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive, +argument in favour of the earth’s annual revolution. Twice in +the year, he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in +straight lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +referred with great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun’s +axis of rotation to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the +earth finds herself in the plane of the sun’s equator, which occurs +at two opposite points of her orbit, the spots, travelling in circles +parallel with that plane, necessarily appear to describe right lines; +but when the earth is above or below the equatorial level, the +paths of the spots open out into curves turned downwards or +upwards, according to the direction in which they are seen. But +the explanation of this phenomenon is equally consistent with the +geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the solar system. +The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have hovered +on the borders of this great man’s mind, without ever fully +entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which +holds the moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels +Jupiter’s satellites to circulate round their primary, and the +attraction exercised by the earth on bodies at its surface;<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> but +he failed to conceive the combination of central force with +tangential velocity, and was disposed to connect the revolutions +of the planets with the axial rotation of the sun. This notion, it +is plain, tended rather towards Descartes’s theory of vortices +than towards Newton’s theory of gravitation. More valid +instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found +in his prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be +found for some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets +would at some future time be ascertained to exist, and in his +conviction that light travels with a measurable, although, in +relation to terrestrial distances, infinite velocity.</p> + +<p>The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his +first biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to +him. Such an instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias +Jansen of Middleburg; and although Galileo discovered, in 1610, +a means of adapting his telescope to the examination of minute +objects, he did not become acquainted with the compound +microscope until 1624 when he saw one of Drebbel’s instruments +in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity, immediately +introduced some material improvements into its +construction.</p> + +<p>The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work +consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment +of mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts +and theorems had been previously discovered and proved, but +it was he who first clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical +agent, and extended to the external world the conception of the +invariability of the relation between cause and effect. From the +time of Archimedes there had existed a science of equilibrium, but +the science of motion began with Galileo. It is not too much to +say that the final triumph of the Copernican system was due in +larger measure to his labours in this department than to his +direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is +essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical +conceptions of the dependence of motion upon force which +Galileo familiarized to men’s minds, that problem might have +remained a sealed book even to the intelligence of Newton. The +interdependence of motion and force was not indeed formulated +into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on dynamics are +everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of +dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary +advances made by him in this branch of knowledge +were owing to his happy method of applying mathematical +analysis to physical problems. As a pure mathematician he was, +it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than one among his +pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative grasp +of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with +Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or +Leibnitz. Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his +powerful and original mind left notable traces of its working. +He studied the properties of the cycloid, and attempted the +problem of its quadrature; and in the “infinitesimals,” which he +was one of the first to introduce into geometrical demonstrations, +was contained the fruitful germ of the differential calculus. +But the method which was peculiarly his, and which still forms +the open road to discoveries in natural science, consisted in the +combination of experiment with calculation—in the transformation +of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous comparison +of results. The first-fruits of the new system of investigation +was his determination of the laws of falling bodies. Conceiving +that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he +assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth +descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence +that the velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces +traversed in the duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the +beginning of motion; finally, he proved, by observing the times +of descent of bodies falling down inclined planes, that the postulated +law was the true law. Even here, he was obliged to take for +granted that the velocities acquired in descending from the same +height along planes of every inclination are equal; and it was not +until shortly before his death that he found the mathematical +demonstration of this not very obvious principle.</p> + +<p>The first law of motion—that which expresses the principle +of inertia—is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly +accelerated velocity. The recognition of the second—that of the +independence of different motions—must be added to form the +true theory of projectiles. This was due to Galileo. Up to his +time it was universally held in the schools that the motion of a +body should cease with the impulse communicated to it, but +for the “reaction of the medium” helping it forward. Galileo +showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once impressed +is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that the +effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another +commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by +more than one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed +that a cannon ball, or other projectile, moves forward in a right +line until its first impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to +the ground. In the fourth of Galileo’s dialogues on mechanics, +he demonstrated that the path described by a projectile, being the +result of the combination of a uniform transverse motion with a +uniformly accelerated vertical motion, must, apart from the +resistance of the air, be a parabola. The establishment of the +principle of the composition of motions formed a conclusive +answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against the +rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly +brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the +systems of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a +body flung upward or cast downward would, if the earth were in +motion, be left behind by the rapid translation of the point from +which it started; Galileo proved on the contrary that the +reception of a fresh impulse in no way interfered with the movement +already impressed, and that the rotation of the earth was +insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its surface. +His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his satisfactory +definition of “momentum,” led him towards the third law of +motion. We find Newton’s theorem, that “action and reaction +are equal and opposite,” stated with approximate precision in his +treatise <i>Della scienza meccanica</i>, which contains the substance of +lectures delivered during his professorship at Padua; and the +same principle is involved in the axiom enunciated in the third +of his mechanical dialogues, that “the propensity of a body to +fall is equal to the least resistance which suffices to support it.” +The problems of percussion, however, received no definitive +solution until after his death.</p> + +<p>His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the +kinetical division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory +demonstration of equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to +the level by a sound and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by +establishing the theory of “virtual velocities,” he laid down the +fundamental principle which, in the opinion of Lagrange, contains +the general expression of the laws of equilibrium. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +studied with attention the still obscure subject of molecular +cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on the +question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first +brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his +<i>Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno su l’acqua</i>, published in 1612, +he used the principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more +important theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the +equilibrium of fluid in a siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians +that the floating of solid bodies in a liquid depends not +upon their form, but upon their specific gravities relative to such +liquid.</p> + +<p>In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by +Galileo in natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate +the confused and erroneous opinions prevailing on all such +subjects in his time. His best eulogium, it has been truly said, +consists in the fallacies which he exposed. The scholastic +distinctions between corruptible and incorruptible substances, +between absolute gravity and absolute levity, between natural +and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear from +scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place +of honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these +obscure and misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and +levity are relative terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even +those which, like the air, are invisible; that motion is the result +of force, instantaneous or continuous; that weight is a continuous +force, attracting towards the centre of the earth; that, in a +vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal velocities; that the +“inertia of matter” implies the continuance of motion, as well +as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the +heavenly bodies is equally “corruptible” with that of the earth. +These simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of +development and investigation, and were not only true but the +prelude to further truth; while those they superseded defied +inquiry by their vagueness and obscurity. Galileo was a man +born in due time. He was superior to his contemporaries, but not +isolated amongst them. He represented and intensified a growing +tendency of the age in which he lived. It was beginning to be +suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature, and some +were found who no longer treated the <i>ipse dixit</i> of the Stagirite +as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but +ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind +traditions of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and +Campanella, and the revolution which Galileo completed had been +prepared by his predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so +effectually accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality +of genius. He struck out for himself the happy middle path +between the <i>a priori</i> and the empirical systems, and exemplified +with brilliant success the method by which experimental science +has wrested from nature so many of her secrets. His mind was +eminently practical. He concerned himself above all with what +fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others the +larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to +the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty +generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work +has proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations. +His keen intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument, +his fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made +him irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs +of scornful controversy have given place to the sedate applause of +a long-lived posterity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first complete edition of Galileo’s writings was published at +Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of +Signor Eugenio Albèri. Besides the works already enumerated, it +contained the <i>Sermones de motu gravium</i> composed at Pisa between +1589 and 1591; his letters to his friends, with many of their replies, +as well as several of the essays of his scientific opponents; his +laudatory comments on the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, and depreciatory +notes on the <i>Gerusalemme Liberata</i>, some stanzas and sonnets of no +great merit, together with the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint +of Viviani’s <i>Life</i>, with valuable notes and corrections. The original +documents from the archives of the Inquisition, relating to the +events of 1616 and 1633, recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts +of Count Rossi, and now in the Vatican Library, were to a limited +extent made public by Monsignor Marino-Marini in 1850, and +more unreservedly by M. Henri de l’Épinois, in an essay entitled +<i>Galilée, son procès, sa condemnation</i>, published in 1867 in the <i>Revue +des questions historiques</i>. He was followed by M. Karl von Gebler, +who, in an able and exhaustive but somewhat prejudiced work, +<i>Galileo Galilei und die römische Curie</i> (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to +impeach the authenticity of a document of prime importance in +the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by Signor Domenico +Berti, in <i>Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei</i> (Rome, 1876), and by +M. de l’Épinois, with <i>Les pièces du procès de Galilée</i> (Rome, Paris, +1877). The touching letters of Galileo’s eldest daughter, Sister Maria +Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by Professor Carlo Arduini, +in a publication entitled <i>La Primogenita di Galileo Galilei</i>.</p> + +<p>The issue of a “national edition” of the Works of Galileo, in +20 large volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a +mass of previously inedited correspondence and other documents, +collected by the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro, +among whose numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be +mentioned: <i>Galileo e lo studio di Padova</i> (2 vols., 1883); <i>Scampoli +Galileani</i> (12 series, 1886-1897); <i>Nuovi Studii Galileani</i> (1891); +<i>Galileo Galilei e Suor Maria Celeste</i> (1891). See also Th. Henri +Martin’s <i>Galilée, les droits de la science et la méthode des sciences +physiques</i> (1868); <i>Private Life of Galileo</i> (by Mrs Olney, 1870); +J.J. Fahie’s <i>Galileo; his Life and Work</i> (1903); <i>Galilée et Marius</i>, +by J.A.C. Oudemans and J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of +Galileo to the Church are temperately and ably discussed by F.R. +Wegg-Prosser in <i>Galileo and his Judges</i> (1889), and in two articles +published in the <i>American Catholic Quarterly</i> for April and July +1901.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word <i>telescope</i>, from <span class="grk" title="têle">τῆλε</span>, far, <span class="grk" title="skopein">σκοπεῖν</span>, to view, was invented +by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at the request of Prince +Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was used by Galileo as +early as 1612, but was not introduced into England until much later. +In 1655 the word <i>telescope</i> was inserted and explained in Bagwell’s +<i>Mysteries of Astronomy</i>, <i>trunk</i> or <i>cylinder</i> being the terms until then +ordinarily employed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come +to the same conclusion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in the +original:—“Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro di +essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benchè lontane +dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero per tutto; +esempio di ciò sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee, ancorchè separate +continuamente da Giove. L’istesso si deve dire della Luna, obbligata +a seguir la Terra.”—<i>Dialogo dei massimi sistemi</i>, Giornata terza, +p. 351 of Albèri’s edition.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALION,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. +S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); +(1910) 7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, +Chicago & St Louis, and the Erie railways, and by an interurban +electric railway. The city is about 1165 ft. above sea level, and +has extensive railway shops (of the Erie railway) and manufactories +of brick and tile machinery, carriages and wagons, and +grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and operates +its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in 1831, +was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a +city in 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist, +and founder of phrenology (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Tiefenbrunn near +Pforzheim, Baden, on the 9th of March 1758. After completing +the usual literary course at Baden and Bruchsal, he began the +study of medicine under J. Hermann (1738-1800) at Strassburg, +whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van Swieten (1700-1772) +and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to Vienna +in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as +a physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted +to the scientific investigation of problems which had occupied +his attention from boyhood. At a comparatively early period +he formed the generalization that in the human subject at least +a powerful memory is invariably associated with prominent +eyes; and further observation enabled him, as he thought, also +to define the external characteristics indicative of special talents +for painting, music and the mechanical arts. Following out +these researches, he gradually reached the strong conviction, +not only that the talents and dispositions of men are dependent +upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be inferred +with perfect exactitude and precision from the external appearances +of the skull. Gall’s first appearance as an author was +made in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of +a (never completed) work entitled <i>Philosophisch-medicinische +Untersuchungen über Natur u. Kunst im kranken u. gesunden +Zustande des Menschen</i>. The first public notice of his inquiries +in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a letter addressed to +a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland’s <i>Deutscher Mercur</i> in +1798; but two years previously he had begun to give private +courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his doctrines +soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing success +until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being +dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities +had the effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing +Gall’s celebrity.</p> + +<p>In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his +friend and associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through +Germany, in the course of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, +Magdeburg and several of the university towns. His expositions, +which he knew how to make popular and attractive, were much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> +resorted to by the public, and excited considerable controversy in +the scientific world. He had almost reached the zenith of his +fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and established himself +there as a medical practitioner, at the same time continuing his +activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his <i>Introduction +au cours de physiologie du cerveau</i>, which was followed in +1809 by the <i>Recherches sur le système nerveux en général, et sur +celui du cerveau en particulier</i> (originally laid before the Institute +of France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment +of the <i>Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et +du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité +de reconnaître plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de +l’homme et des animaux par la configuration de leurs têtes.</i> The +<i>Recherches</i> and the first two volumes of the <i>Anatomie</i> bear the +conjoint names of Gall and Spurzheim. The latter work was +completed in 1819, and appeared in a second edition of six +volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a charge of +Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against +him, by a treatise entitled <i>Des dispositions innées de l’âme et +de l’esprit</i>, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater +work. In 1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his +efforts two years afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy +of Sciences, although supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, +were unsuccessful. In 1823 he visited London with the intention +of giving a series of phrenological lectures, but his reception was +not what he had anticipated, and he speedily abandoned his +plans. He continued to lecture and practise in Paris until the +beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic seizure. +His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of +August 1828.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. +Dutch <i>gal</i>, and Ger. <i>Galle</i>; the Indo-European root appears in +Gr. <span class="grk" title="cholê">χολή</span> and Lat. <i>fel</i>; possibly connected with “yellow,” +with reference to the colour of bile), the secretion of the liver +known as “bile,” the term being also used of the pear-shaped +<i>diverticulum</i> of the bile-duct, which forms a reservoir for the bile, +more generally known as the “gall-bladder” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>). From +the extreme bitterness of the secretion, “gall,” like the Lat. +<i>fel</i>, is used for anything extremely bitter, whether actually or +metaphorically. From the idea that the gall-bladder was the +dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament, “gall” was +formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one very +ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang, +with the meaning “impudence” or “assurance.”</p> + +<p>“Gall,” meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a +horse, may be the same word, derived from an early use of the +word as meaning “poison.” On the other hand, in Romanic +languages, the Fr. <i>galle</i>, Sp. <i>agalla</i>, a wind-gall or puffy distension +of the synovial bursa on the fetlock joint of a horse, is derived +from the Lat. <i>galla</i>, oak-apple, from which comes the English +“gall,” meaning an excrescence on trees caused by certain +insects. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galls</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLABAT,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Galabat</span>, called by the Abyssinians Matemma +(Metemma), a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13° N. +36° 12′ E. It is built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank +of a tributary of the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which +forms here the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m. +W. by N. of Gondar, the capital of Amhara, and being on the main +route from Sennar to Abyssinia, is a trade centre of some importance. +Pop. about 3000. The majority of the buildings are grass +<i>tukls</i>. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and hides were formerly +the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was closed +about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the town +was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later +the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other. +About 1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886 +was attacked by the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a +dervish raiding party penetrated to Gondar, which they looted. +In revenge an Abyssinian army under King John attacked the +dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. The dervishes +suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a stray +bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Military Operations</i>, +1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered +Gallabat. The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result +of frontier arrangement the town was definitely included in the +Sudan, though Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since +1899 the trade of the place has revived, coffee and live stock +being the most important items.</p> + +<p>The town and district form a small ethnographical island, +having been peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri +from Darfur, who, finding the spot a convenient resting-place +for their fellow-pilgrims on their way to Mecca and back, obtained +permission from the negus of Abyssinia to make a permanent +settlement. They are an industrious agricultural race, and +cultivate cotton with considerable success. They also collect +honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged throwing +knives, which are said to have been brought from their original +home in the Upper Congo regions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLAIT, LOUIS<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at +Tournay, in Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He +first studied in his native town under Hennequin. In 1832 his +first picture, “Tribute to Caesar,” won a prize at the exhibition +at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to prosecute his studies +under Mathieu Ignace Van Brée, and in the following year +exhibited at the Brussels Salon “Christ Healing the Blind.” +This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the +cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he +sent to the Belgian Salons “Job on the Dunghill,” “Montaigne +Visiting Tasso in Prison”; and, in 1841, “The Abdication of +Charles V.,” in the Brussels Gallery. This was hailed as a +triumph, and gained for the painter a European reputation. +Official invitations then caused him to settle at Brussels, where he +died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater works +may be named: “The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont +and Horn by the Corporations of the Town of Brussels,” now +at Tournay; “The Death of Egmont,” in the Berlin gallery; +the “Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of Constantinople,” +painted for Versailles; “The Temptation of St Anthony,” +in the palace at Brussels; “The Siege of Antioch,” “Art and +Liberty,” a “Portrait of M.B. Dumortier” and “The Plague at +Tournay,” all in the Brussels gallery. “A Gipsy Woman and +her Children” was painted in 1852. “M. Gallait has all the +gifts that may be acquired by work, taste, judgment and +determination,” wrote Théophile Gautier; his art is that of +a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment +but superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the +example of the Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment +of Belgian classical painters and the French Romantic school, +sincerely aimed at truth; unfortunately, misled by contemporary +taste, he could not conceive of it excepting as dressed in sentimentality. +As an artist employed by the State he exercised +considerable influence, and for a long period he was the leader of +public taste in Brussels.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Teichlin, <i>Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland</i> (1853); +J. Dujardin, <i>L’Art flamand</i> (1899); C. Lemonnier, <i>Histoire des +beaux-arts en Belgique</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLAND, ANTOINE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1646-1715), French Orientalist and +archaeologist, the first European translator of the <i>Arabian +Nights</i>, was born on the 4th of April 1646 at Rollot, in the +department of Somme. The completion of his school education +at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to a trade, +from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic +studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time +in making a catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, +he was, in 1670, attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; +and in 1673 he travelled in Syria and the Levant, +where he copied a great number of inscriptions, and sketched, +and in some cases removed historical monuments. After a brief +visit to France, where his collection of ancient coins attracted +some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1676; and in +1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the +French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert; +on the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the +government to continue his researches, and had the title of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +“antiquary to the king” conferred upon him. During his prolonged +residences abroad he acquired a thorough knowledge of the +Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and literatures, which, on +his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assistance +to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to +Barthélemy d’Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some +time at Caen under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721), +the intendant of Caen, himself no mean archaeologist; and there +he began the publication (12 vols., 1704-1717) of <i>Les mille et +une nuits</i>, which excited immense interest during the time of its +appearance, and is still the standard French translation. It had +no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the coarseness of the +language was modified to suit European taste, but the narrative +was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted +into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed +to the chair of Arabic in the Collège de France. He continued +to discharge the duties of this post until his death, which took +place on the 17th of February 1715.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department +of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic, +Persian and Turkish, entitled <i>Paroles remarquables, bons mots et +maximes des orientaux</i> (1694), and a translation from an Arabic +manuscript, <i>De l’origine et du progrès du café</i> (1699). The former of +these works appeared in an English translation in 1795. His <i>Contes +et fables indiennes de Bidpaï et de Lokman</i> was published (1724) after +his death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a +translation of the Koran and a <i>Histoire générale des empereurs turcs</i>. +His <i>Journal</i> was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLARATE,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of +Milan, from which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002. +The town is of medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its +textile factories. It is the junction of railways to Varese, +Laveno and Arona (for the Simplon). Six miles to the W. +are the electric works of Vizzola, the largest in Europe, where +23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLARS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> [in Lat. <span class="sc">Gallasius</span>], <b>NICOLAS DES</b> (<i>c.</i> 1520-<i>c.</i> +1580), Calvinistic divine, first appears as author of a <i>Defensio</i> +of William Farel, published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549) +by translations into French of three tracts by Calvin. +In 1551 he was admitted burgess of Geneva, and in 1553 made +pastor of a country church in the neighbourhood. In 1557 he +was sent to minister to the Protestants at Paris; his conductor, +Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in his possession, +was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing suspicious +about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the +Strangers’ church in London (1560), he, being then minister at +Geneva, came to London to organize the French branch; and +in 1561 he published <i>La Forme de police ecclésiastique instituée à +Londres en l’Église des François</i>. In the same year he assisted +Beza at the colloquy of Poissy. He became minister to the Protestants +at Orleans in 1564; presided at the synod of Paris in +1565; was driven out of Orleans with other Protestants in 1568; +and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d’Albret, queen of Navarre. +Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis, +and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical +and polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on +Exodus (1560); edited an annotated French Bible (1562) and +New Testament (1562); and published tracts against Arians +(1565-1566). His main work was his edition of Irenaeus (1570) +with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London, and +giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text. +His collaboration with Beza in the <i>Histoire des Églises Réformées +du royaume de France</i> (1580) is doubted by Bayle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bayle, <i>Dictionnaire hist. et crit.</i>; Jean Senebier, <i>Hist. +littéraire de Genève</i> (1786); <i>Nouvelle Biog. gén.</i> (1857).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLAS, MATTHIAS<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Count of Campo</span>, <span class="sc">Duke of Lucera</span> +(1584-1647), Austrian soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and +in Savoy with the Spaniards, and subsequently joined the forces +of the Catholic League as captain. On the general outbreak +of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an infantry +regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadtlohn +(1623). In 1630 he was serving as <i>General-Feldwachtmeister</i> +under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the +capture of Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service, +he returned to Germany for the campaign against Gustavus +Adolphus. In command of a corps of Wallenstein’s army, he +covered Bohemia against the Swedes in 1631-1632, and served +at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lützen. Further good +service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General +Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general +in his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators +against Wallenstein, and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed +to the command of the army which Wallenstein had formed and +led. At the great battle of Nördlingen (23rd of August 1634) +in which the army of Sweden was almost annihilated, Gallas +commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next command was +in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so much +from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still +more was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded +against the Swedish general Banér in 1637 and 1638. +At first driving the Swedes before him, in the end he made a +complete failure of the campaign, lost his command, and was +subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather the indiscipline +of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein’s methods) than his +own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat across +North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to +endeavour to stop Torstenson’s victorious advance, only to be +shut up in Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant +of his forces. Once more relieved of his command, he was again +recalled to make head against the Swedes in 1645 (after their +victory at Jankow). Before long, old and warworn, he resigned +his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army had earned +for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and rapacious +force even in the Thirty Years’ War, and his <i>Merode Brüder</i> have +survived in the word <i>marauder</i>. Like many other generals of +that period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial +possessions (the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein’s estates). +He was the founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which +furnished many distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLAS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or more correctly <span class="sc">Galla</span>, a powerful Hamitic +people of eastern Africa, scattered over the wide region which +extends for about 1000 m. from the central parts of Abyssinia to +the neighbourhood of the river Sabaki in British East Africa. +The name “Galla” or “Gala” appears to be an Abyssinian +nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves <i>Ilm’ +Orma</i>, “sons of men” or “sons of Orma,” an eponymous hero. +In Shoa (Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gála in +Guragie, on the banks of which a great battle is said to have +been fought between the Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud +d’Abbadie says that the Abyssinian Moslems recount that, +when summoned by the Prophet’s messenger to adopt Islam, the +chief of the Galla said “No,”—in Arabic <i>kāl</i> (or <i>gāl</i>) <i>la</i>,—and the +Prophet on hearing this said, “Then let their very name imply +their denial of the Faith.” Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla +are the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them +(<i>c.</i> 1860) at from six to eight millions; later authorities put them +at not much over three millions. Individual tribes are said to be +able to bring 20,000 to 30,000 horsemen into the field.</p> + +<p>Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early +home of the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern +part of its present territory since the 16th century. According to +Hiob Ludolf and James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the +Abyssinian frontiers in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a +district along the northern side of the river Abai) tell how their +savage forefathers came from the south-east from a country on +the other side of a bahr (lake or river), and the Yejju and Raia +Galla also point towards the east and commemorate the passage +of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be +mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the +country now occupied by the Somali. Their original home was +possibly in the district east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near +Mount Kenya are stated to go on periodical pilgrimages to the +mountain, making offerings to it as if to their mother. A theory +has been advanced that the great exodus which it seems certain +took place among the peoples throughout eastern Africa during +the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of Kenya +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical +term Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central +regions of the Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla +are numerically strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between +the territory occupied respectively by the Galla and by the +Somali.</p> + +<p>In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast +eastern Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the +Somali, the Afars (Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the +eastern Hamites, there is a perceptible strain of Negro blood in +the Galla, who are, however, described by Sir Frederick Lugard +as “a wonderfully handsome race, with high foreheads, brown +skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the wool of the +Bantus.” As a rule their features are quite European. Their +colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a +coffee and milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the +Limmu and Gudru on the river Abai.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral +stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements. +Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are +generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle +and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven +or eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child; +and among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever +thinks of going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very +large. The ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and +honey, the last being considered of so much importance by the +southern Galla that a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and +the husband who fails to furnish his wife with a sufficient supply +of honey may be excluded from all conjugal rights. In the south +monogamy is the rule, but in the north the number of a man’s wives +is limited only by his wishes and his wealth. Marriage-forms are +numerous, that of bride-capture being common. Each tribe has +its own chief, who enjoys the strange privilege of being the only +merchant for his people, but in all public concerns must take the +advice of the fathers of families assembled in council. The greater +proportion of the tribes are still pagan, worshipping a supreme god +Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess Oglieh and Atetieh, +whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and sheep. With a +strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a certain time of +the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the wants of their +enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some tribes, and +notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to Mahommedanism +and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the north, where +the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of superficial Christianization +has taken place, to the extent at least that the people are +familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary, Balawold or Jesus, +Girgis or St George, &c.; but to all practical intents paganism is +still in force. The serpent is a special object of worship, the northern +Galla believing that he is the author of the human race. There is a +belief in were-wolves (<i>buda</i>), and the northern Galla have sorcerers +who terrorize the people. Though cruel in war, all Galla respect their +pledged word. They are armed with a lance, a two-edged knife, and +a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. A considerable number find +employment in the Abyssinian armies.</p> + +<p>Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each +instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the +Kukatta, the Baōle, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and +the Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered +to mark the division between north and south; and in the +north we find the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the +Ambassil, the Aijjo, and the Azobo Galla.</p> + +<p>See C.T. Beke, “On the Origin of the Gallas,” in <i>Trans. of Brit. +Assoc.</i> (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, <i>Travels in Eastern Africa</i> (1860); +and <i>Vocabulary of the Galla Language</i> (London, 1842); Arnaud +d’Abbadie, <i>Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie</i> (1868); Ph. Paulitschke, +<i>Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas</i>; <i>Die geistige Kultur der Dan’akil, +Galla u. Somâl</i> (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, <i>Les Galla</i> (Paris, +1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLATIN, ALBERT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1761-1849), American statesman, was +born in Geneva (Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The +Gallatins were both an old and a noble family. They are first +heard of in Savoy in the year 1258, and more than two centuries +later they went to Geneva (1510), united with Calvin in his +opposition to Rome, and associated their fortunes with those of +the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and with one or two +other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth many +representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the +service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the +eve of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, +occupying the same position which they had held for two hundred +years. Albert Gallatin’s father died in 1765, his mother five +years later, and his only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan +at nine, he was by no means lonely or unprotected. His grandparents, +a large circle of near relatives and Mlle Catherine +Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his mother, cared for him +during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at the schools +of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or +academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to +enter the army of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve +“a tyrant,” and a year later slipped away from Geneva and +embarked for the United States. A competent fortune, good +prospects, social position, and a strong family connexion were +all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New World. His +relatives very properly opposed his course, but they nevertheless +did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to treat +him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their +opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the +established order of things, and some political enthusiasm +imbibed from the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons +which can now be assigned for Gallatin’s desertion of home and +friends.</p> + +<p>In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) +landed in Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope +and courage, as well as a little money, and at once entered into +business. The times, however, were unfavourable. The great +convulsion of the Revolution was drawing to a close, and everything +was in an unsettled condition. The young Genevans +failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds of Maine, +and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a +living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not +without success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New +England repelled him, and he made his way to the South. In the +backwoods of Pennsylvania and Virginia there seemed to be +better chances for a young adventurer. Gallatin engaged in land +speculations, and tried to lay the foundation of his fortune in a +frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allègre, and every +prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered +again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and +Gallatin was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier +life became now more dreary than ever; he flung himself into +politics, the only outside resource open to him, and his long, and +eventful public career began.</p> + +<p>The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and +Gallatin, with his dislike of strong government still upon him, +threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders +of the Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the +Republican party. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Constitutional +Convention of 1789-1790, and of the Pennsylvania +Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising +rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak +English with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by +his sound education; but the true cause of his success lay in his +strong sense, untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and +great intellectual force. In 1793 he was chosen United States +senator from Pennsylvania by the votes of both political parties. +No higher tribute was ever paid to character and ability than that +conveyed by this election. But the staunch Federalists of the +senate, who had begun to draw the party lines rather sharply, +found the presence of the young Genevan highly distasteful. +They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a man of +levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a +technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in +February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the +session, the senate annulled the election and sent him back to +Pennsylvania with all the glory of political martyrdom.</p> + +<p>The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the “Whisky +Insurrection” in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, +been an efficient cause in his rejection by the senate. He intended +fully to restrain within legal bounds the opposition +which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked, but he made +the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the character +of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed +into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the +29th of August 1794, before the “Committee of Sixty” who were +appointed to represent the disaffected people, he opposed with +vigorous eloquence the use of force against the government, and +refused to be intimidated by an excited band of riflemen who +happened to be in the vicinity and represented the radical element. +He effectively checked the excitement, and when a month later +an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon the western +counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of all +the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin +alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the +national house of representatives, and took his seat in December +1795. There, by sheer force of ability and industry, he wrested +from all competitors the leadership of the Republicans, and became +the most dangerous opponent whom the Federalists had +ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a hatred of France +just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, they found in +Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion peculiarly +obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in vain. +His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and +action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most +effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His +clear mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance. +He became the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his +cardinal doctrines of simplicity and economy, and was an effective +critic of the measures of government. Cool and temperate, +Gallatin, when following his own theories, was usually in the +right, although accused by his followers of trimming. Thus, in +regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the constitutional right of +the house to consider the treaty, but he did not urge rejection in +this specific case. On the other hand, when following a purely +party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the +mainspring of Washington’s foreign policy; he opposed commercial +treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion. +On these points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed +his views after a good deal of bitter experience.</p> + +<p>The greatest period of Gallatin’s career in congress was in +1798, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches. +The insults of Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort +bribes from the American commissioners, roused the deep anger +of the people against France. The Federalists swept all before +them, and the members of the opposition either retired from +Philadelphia or went over to the government. Alone and single-handed, +Gallatin carried on the fight in congress. The Federalists +bore down on him unmercifully, and even attempted (1798) a +constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship, partly, it +appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on, +making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying +very little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson +and Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong +measures of the Federalists shocked the country; the leaders +of the dominant party quarrelled fiercely among themselves; +and the Republicans carried the elections of 1800. In the +exciting contest for the presidency in the house of representatives +between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who led the +Republicans.</p> + +<p>When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801), +there were two men whose commanding abilities marked them +for the first places in the cabinet. James Madison became +secretary of state, and Albert Gallatin secretary of the treasury. +Wise, prudent and conservative, Gallatin made few changes in +Hamilton’s arrangements, and for twelve years administered +the national finances with the greatest skill. He and Jefferson +were both imbued with the idea that government could be carried +on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness of +human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory +fell upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity +of administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything +bent to these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary +pirates was a mere question of expense. It was cheaper to seize +Louisiana than to await the settlement of doubtful points. +Commercial warfare was to be avoided because of the cost. +All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded it was less +extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared. +Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself +in the matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six +years the public debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana +purchase) by $14,260,000, a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive +and beneficent scheme of internal improvements was +ready for execution, and the promised land seemed in sight. Then +came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched neutrality at home, +fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair structure of +government by a priori theories based on the goodness of unoppressed +humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown +helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government +according to circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets, +but the position was a trying one. The sworn foe of strong +government, he was compelled, in pursuance of Jefferson’s +policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other radical +and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain. +Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and +Jefferson, having entangled foreign relations and brought the +country to the verge of civil war, retired to private life, leaving +to his successor Madison, and to Gallatin, the task of extricating +the nation from its difficulties. From 1809 the new administration, +drifting steadily towards war, struggled on from one abortive +and exasperating negotiation to another. It was a period of sore +trial to Gallatin. The peace policy had failed, and nothing else +replaced it. He had lost his hold upon Pennsylvania and his +support in the house, while a cabal in the senate, bitterly and +personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the administration +and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At +last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison’s recommendation +declared war against England.</p> + +<p>Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished +schemes were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had +come, and he believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and +progress of America. He therefore put the finances in the best +order he could, and set himself to mitigate the evil effects of +the war by obtaining an early peace. With this end in view he +grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of Russia, and without +resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May 1813.</p> + +<p>Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, +catching at every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his +labours came the news that the senate had refused to confirm his +appointment as peace commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially +until, the objection of the senate having been met by the appointment +of a new secretary of the treasury, his second nomination was +approved, and he was able to proceed with direct negotiations. +The English and American commissioners finally met at Ghent, +and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued +Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing +his colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John +Quincy Adams, able men of strong wills and jarring tempers. +He succeeded in preserving harmony, and thus established his +own reputation as an able diplomatist. Peace was his reward; +on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was signed; and after +visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting +in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England by +which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July +1815 returned to America.</p> + +<p>While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become +minister to France; this appointment he accepted in January +1816, and adhered to his acceptance in spite of his being asked +in April 1816 to serve once more as secretary of the treasury. +He remained in France for the next seven years. He passed +his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing everybody of +note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of his +official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted +patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted +country with the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard +Rush, then United States minister in London, in negotiating +a commercial convention with Great Britain to take the place +of that negotiated in 1815.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span></p> + +<p>In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found +himself plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress +for the presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal +friend William H. Crawford, whom he regarded as the true +heir and representative of the old Jeffersonian principles. With +these feelings he consented in May 1824 to stand for the vice-presidency +on the Crawford ticket. But Gallatin had come home +to new scenes and new actors, and he did not fully appreciate +the situation. The contest was bitter, personal, factious and full +of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford interest, +came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second place, +by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October +Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the +popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the +choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from +his retirement and sent him as minister to England to conduct +another complicated and arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked +at his new task with his usual industry, tact and patience, but the +results were meagre, although an open breach on the delicate +question of the north-east boundary of the United States was +avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king of the +Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the +United States and bade farewell to public life.</p> + +<p>Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839 +president of the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) +of New York, but his duties were light, and he devoted himself +chiefly to the congenial pursuits of science and literature. In +both fields he displayed much talent, and by writing his <i>Synopsis +of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky +Mountains and in the British and Russian Possessions in North +America</i> (1836), and by founding the American Ethnological +Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of “Father +of American Ethnology.” He continued, of course, to interest +himself in public affairs, although no longer an active participant, +and in all financial questions, especially in regard to the bank +charter, the resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, +he exerted a powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question +touched him nearly. Gallatin had always been a consistent +opponent of slavery; he felt keenly, therefore, the attempts of +the South to extend the slave power and confirm its existence, +and the remnant of his strength was devoted in his last days to +writing and distributing two able pamphlets against the war +with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the +24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of +Texas; and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling +New York mob with the same cool, unflinching courage which he +had displayed half a century before when he faced the armed +frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During the winter of 1848-1849 +his health failed, and on the 12th of August 1849, at the +home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed peacefully +away.</p> + +<p>Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he +married in November 1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of +New York, the daughter of Com. James Nicholson (1737-1804), +an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of the navy from +1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the “Virginia,” +he was taken by the British “Iris” and “General Monk.” +By her he had three children, two sons and a daughter, who all +survived him. In personal appearance he was above middle +height, with strongly-marked features, indicating great strength +of intellect and character. He was reserved and very reticent, +cold in manner and not sympathetic. There was, too, a certain +Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much beloved by +his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have +a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood, +with Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won +his place by force of character, courage, application and intellectual +power. His eminent and manifold services to his +adopted country, his great abilities and upright character, assure +him a high position in the history of the United States.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Writings of Albert Gallatin</i>, edited by Henry Adams, were +published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these +volumes was published an excellent biography, <i>The Life of Albert +Gallatin</i>, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John +Austin Stevens’s <i>Albert Gallatin</i> (Boston, 1884) in the “American +Statesmen” series.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. C. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1787-1851), American +educator of the deaf and dumb, was born in Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot ancestry, on the 10th of +December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805, where he was +a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology +at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having +determined to abandon the ministry and devote his life to the +education of deaf mutes, he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and +studied the methods of the abbé Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas +Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor Joseph Watson +(1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United States +in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of +Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbé +Sicard, a school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress, +largely through the influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant, +and which Gallaudet presided over with great success until +ill-health compelled him to retire in 1830. It was the first +institution of the sort in the United States, and served as a model +for institutions which were subsequently established. He died +at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, <i>Life, +Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet</i> (Hartford, +1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a +third (and the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).</p> +</div> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Thomas Gallaudet</span> (1822-1902), after graduating +at Trinity College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal +ministry, settled in New York City, and there in 1852 organized +St Anne’s Episcopal church, where he conducted services for deaf +mutes. In 1872 he organized and became general manager of +the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885 founded the +Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at +Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.</p> + +<p>Another son, <span class="sc">Edward Miner Gallaudet</span> (b. 1837), was born +at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and +graduated at Trinity College in 1856. After teaching for a year +in the institution for deaf mutes founded by his father at Hartford, +he removed with his mother, Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877), +to Washington, D.C., where at the request of Amos Kendall +(1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took charge of the +Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received +support from the government, and of which he became president. +This institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education +for deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees), +and was successful from the start. The Gallaudet College +(founded in 1864 as the National Deaf Mute College and renamed +in 1893 in honour of Thomas H. Gallaudet) and the Kendall +School are separate departments of this institution, under +independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but under +the management of one board of directors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Point de Galle</span>, a town and port of Ceylon on the +south-west coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and +divided into the five districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde, +Hirimbure and Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile +in circumference, overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded +by a range of hills. Within its enclosure are not only several +government buildings, but an old church erected by the Dutch +East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan chapel, a hospital, +and a considerable number of houses occupied by Europeans. +The old Dutch building known as the queen’s house, or governor’s +residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated +state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in +1873. Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but +the general style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable, +though not pretentious. One of the most delightful +features of the place is the profusion of trees, even within the +town, and along the edge of the shore—suriyas, palms, coco-nut +trees and bread-fruit trees. The ramparts towards the sea furnish +fine promenades. In the harbour deep water is found close to the +shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but the south-west +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently drives +vessels from their moorings.</p> + +<p>The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of +a breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and +most of the commercial steamers to the capital of the island, +seriously diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few +steamers still call to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of +the Peninsular and Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced +the port to a subordinate position; nor has the extension of the +railway from Colombo, and beyond Galle to Matara, very much +improved matters. The tea-planting industry has, however, +spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in digging +plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella +oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil, +plumbago, coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade +cotton goods are the chief item. Both the export and import +trade for the district, however, now chiefly passes through +Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers, +unless the identification with Ptolemy’s Avium Promontorium or +Cape of Birds be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native +chronicles before 1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th +century, distinctly states that Kali—that is, Galle—was a <i>small</i> +town. It was not till the period of Portuguese occupation that it +rose to importance. When the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese +they strengthened the fortifications, which had been vigorously +defended against their admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the +place had the rank of a commandancy. In the marriage treaty of +the infanta of Portugal with Charles II. of England it was agreed +that if the Portuguese recovered Ceylon they were to hand over +Galle to the English; but as the Portuguese did not recover Ceylon +the town was left to fall into English hands at the conquest of the +island from the Dutch in 1796. The name Galle is derived from the +Sinhalese <i>galla</i>, equivalent to “rock”; but the Portuguese and +Dutch settlers, being better fighters than philologists, connected +it with the Latin <i>gallus</i>, a cock, and the image of a cock was +carved as a symbol of the town in the front of the old government +house.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1810-1895), +Italian author and patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of +November 1810, was the eldest son of a Piedmontese of good +family, who served for ten years in the French army under +Masséna and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the +university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused +a ferment in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and +within a few months was successively a conspirator, a state +prisoner, a combatant and a fugitive. For the next five years he +lived a wandering life in France, Spain and Africa. In August +1836 he embarked for New York, and three years later he +proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a translator +and teacher of languages. His first book, <i>Italy; General Views +of its History and Literature</i>, which appeared in 1841, was well +received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of +the Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication +with the insurgents. He filled the post of Chargé +d’Affaires for Piedmont at Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the +next few years he travelled incessantly between Italy and +England, working for the liberation of his country. In 1854, +through Cavour’s influence, he was elected a deputy to the Italian +parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the summer +in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in the +winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he +proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of <i>The Times</i>. +The campaign was so brief that the fighting was over before he +arrived, but his connexion with <i>The Times</i> endured for twenty +years. He was a forcible and picturesque writer, with a command +of English remarkable for an Italian. He materially +helped to establish that friendly feeling towards Italy which +became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased the +Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he +retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December +1895. He was twice married. Among his chief works are an +<i>Historical Memoir of Frà Dolcino and his Times</i> (1853); a <i>History +of Piedmont</i> (3 vols., 1855; Italian translation, 1856); <i>Country +Life in Piedmont</i> (1858); <i>The Invasion of Denmark</i> (2 vols., 1864); +<i>The Pearl of the Antilles</i> [travels in Cuba] (1873); <i>Italy Revisited</i> +(2 vols., 1875); <i>Two Years of the Eastern Question</i> (2 vols., 1877); +<i>The Pope</i> [Pius IX.] <i>and the King</i> [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols., +1879); <i>South America</i> (1880); <i>A Summer Tour in Russia</i> (1882); +<i>Iberian Reminiscences</i> (2 vols., 1883); <i>Episodes of my Second +Life</i> (1884); <i>Italy, Present and Future</i> (2 vols., 1887). Gallenga’s +earlier publications appeared under the pseudonym of Luigi +Mariotti.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLERY<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (through Ital. <i>galleria</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>galeria</i>, of +which the origin is unknown),<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a covered passage or space +outside a main wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the +ground floor, and as a balcony if on an upper floor and supported +by columns, piers or corbels; similarly the upper seats in a +theatre or a church, on either side as in many 17th-century +churches, or across the west end under the organ. The word is +also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place +various rooms in communication with one another; but if +of narrow width this is usually called a corridor or passage. +When of sufficient width the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures +and other art treasures. In the 16th century the picture gallery +formed the largest room or hall in English mansions, with +wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster ceiling; the +principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft. by +34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield, Hertfordshire +(163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham +(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17 +ft.); and Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.). +Hence the application of the term to art museums (the National +Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller rooms with top-light in which +temporary exhibitions are held.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.v.</i> “Galeria,” suggests an origin from +<i>galera</i>, a galley, on the analogy of “nave,” from <i>navis</i>, the galley +being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, <i>alii alia opinantur</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLEY<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (derived through the O. Fr. <i>galee</i>, <i>galie</i>, from the +Med. Lat. <i>galea</i>, Ital. <i>galea</i>, Port. <i>galé</i>, of uncertain origin; from +the Med. Lat. variant form <i>galera</i> are derived the Mod. Fr. +<i>galère</i>, Span. and Ital. <i>galera</i>), a long single or half decked vessel of +war, with low free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; +but also having masts for sails. The word is used generally of the +ancient war vessels of Greece and Rome of various types, whose +chief propelling power was the oar or sweep, but its more specific +application is to the medieval war vessel which survived in the +navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers after the general adoption +of the larger many-decked ship of war, propelled solely by sail-power. +Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval battle in which +the galley played the principal part. The “galleass” or +“galliass” (Med. Lat. <i>galeasea</i>, Ital. <i>galeazza</i>, an augmented form +of <i>galea</i>) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually +carried three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated +structure. The “galliot” (O. Fr. <i>galiot</i>, Span. and Port. <i>galeota</i>, +Ital. <i>galeotta</i>, a diminutive of <i>galea</i>) was a small light type of +galley. The “galleon” (formerly in English “galloon,” Fr. +<i>galion</i>, derived from the Med. Lat. <i>galio</i>, <i>galionis</i>, a derivative +of <i>galea</i>) was a sailing ship of war and trade, shorter than the +galley and standing high out of the water with several decks, +chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th century in the +carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or sweeps +varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the +galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. +This labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves +or prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers +to sentence condemned criminals to row in the +war galleys of the state. Traces of this in France can be found as +early as 1532, but the first legislative enactment is in the <i>Ordonnance +d’Orléans</i> of 1561. In 1564 Charles IX. forbade the +sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less than ten years. +The galley-slaves were branded with the letters <i>Gal.</i> At the end +of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war purposes +had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not +incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the +galleys and of the convict rowers (<i>galériens</i>) was at Marseilles. +The majority of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others +were sent to Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on +the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore +prisons were, however, provided for them, known as <i>bagnes</i>, +baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the +Italians (<i>bagno</i>), and said to have been derived from the prison at +Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths +there. The name <i>galérien</i> was still given to all convicts, though +the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French +Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed +to <i>forçat</i>. In Spain <i>galera</i> is still used for a criminal condemned +to penal servitude.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in +Jean Marteilhes’s <i>Memoirs of a Protestant</i>, translated by Oliver +Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of +one of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict +of Nantes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIA CISALPINA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Cis</i>, on this side, <i>i.e.</i> of the Alps), +in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of +Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited +by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in +continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on +the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar’s time by Liguria and +the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) these tribes +were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance +they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into +two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was +made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the +northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably +similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen, +<i>Hist. of Rome</i>, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the +district see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span> (ancient), and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History, Ancient.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIC ACID,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> trioxybenzoic acid (HO)<span class="su">3</span>(3.4.5.)C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>H·H<span class="su">2</span>O, +the <i>acidum gallicum</i> of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. +W. Scheele; it occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate +root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, +and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keeping +moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a +temperature of 20° to 25° C., a paste of powdered gall-nuts and +water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms +on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot +solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid drained, +and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization at +about 27° C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water. +The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in +the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by +boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol +and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced +by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with +excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid +with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in +white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles, +and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and +3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent +and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200° C., and +at 210º to 215° it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue +colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an insoluble, +blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali +metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except +in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown. +Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on +exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid, +gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids, +or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver +are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm +solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phosphorus +oxychloride at 120° C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and +with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100°, <i>rufigallic acid</i>, C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">8</span>, +an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic +acid, convert it into <i>ellagic acid</i>, C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">9</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, probably a +fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the +external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably +in many plants, and composes the “bezoar stones” found +in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid +has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and +haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not coagulate albumen +and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it +from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living +blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutralization +in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote +actions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLICANISM,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> the collective name for various theories +maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical +rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction +of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional +and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the +second serving as the logical basis of the first. And neither +is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Ultramontanism +(<i>q.v.</i>). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with +the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that +the church’s infallible authority was committed to pope and +bishops jointly. The pope decided in the first instance, but his +judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops +before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived +much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence +the name of Gallican is loosely given to all its modern upholders, +whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional +Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France. +It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the theocratic +pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as +vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns +of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they +disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power +directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether +outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the +Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to +become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance. +It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by +the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1559-1631), and finally +incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French +Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the +temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) +that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient +liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible +teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops +jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome, +and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines continued +to be largely held. They were asserted in an extreme +form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which almost +severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 +Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet’s declaration +textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue +had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope +should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs. +Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French governments +continued to uphold two of the ancient “Gallican Liberties.” +The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs whenever +the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and +papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave +of the state. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(St. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1849-  ), French soldier and +colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Béat, in the department +of Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military +academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the +Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He +saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and +1881 took an important part in the explorations and military +expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the +basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable +service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu, +almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce +on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the +Société de Géographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed +in Martinique. On the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +of lieutenant-colonel, and on the 20th of December was nominated +governor of Upper Senegal. He obtained several successes against +Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory to agree to a treaty by +which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>: +<i>History</i>). In connexion with his service in West Africa, Gallieni +published two works—<i>Mission d’exploration du Haut-Niger, +1879-1881</i> (Paris, 1885), and <i>Deux Campagnes au Sudan français</i> +(Paris, 1891)—which, besides possessing great narrative interest, +give information of considerable value in regard to the resources +and topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an +officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of +colonel, and from 1893 to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding +the second military division of the territory. In 1899 he +published his experiences in <i>Trois Colonnes au Tonkin</i>. In 1896 +Madagascar was made a French colony, and Gallieni was appointed +resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to governor-general) +and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration +of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out +against the French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni +succeeded in completing the subjugation of the island. He also +turned his attention to the destruction of the political supremacy +of the Hovas and the restoration of the autonomy of the other +tribes. The execution of the queen’s uncle, Ratsimamanga, +and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, in +October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in +1897, on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova +hegemony, and made an end of Hova intrigues against French +rule. The task of government was one of considerable difficulty. +The application of the French customs and other like measures, +disastrous to British and American trade, were matters for which +Gallieni was not wholly responsible. His policy was directed to +the development of the economic resources of the island and was +conciliatory towards the non-French European population. He +also secured for the Protestants religious liberty. In 1899 he +published a <i>Rapport d’ensemble sur la situation générale de Madagascar</i>. +In 1905, when he resigned the governorship, Madagascar +enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In +1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army +corps and military government of Lyons. He reviewed the +results of his Madagascar administration in a book entitled +<i>Neuf Ans à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> Roman emperor +from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 260 to 268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about +218. From 253 to 260 he reigned conjointly with his father, +during which time he gave proof of military ability and bravery. +But when his father was taken prisoner by Shapur I. of Persia, in +260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his release, or to withstand +the incursions of the invaders who threatened the empire +from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in +literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up +chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of +their military and provincial commands, which were transferred +to equites. During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful +pestilence; and the chief cities of Greece were sacked by the +Goths, who descended on the Greek coast with a fleet of five +hundred. His generals rebelled against him in almost every +province of the empire, and this period of Roman history came +to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless, +these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining +order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. +Gallienus was killed at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while +besieging Aureolus, who was proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian +legions. His sons Valerianus and Saloninus predeceased him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Life by Trebellius Pollio in <i>Script. Hist. Aug.</i>; on coins see articles +in <i>Numism. Zeit.</i> (1908) and <i>Riv. ital. d. num.</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis +de</span>, Prince de Martignes (1830-1909), French general, was born +in Paris on the 23rd of January 1830. He entered the army in +1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in 1853, and served +with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in the Italian +campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a time he +served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He +displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of +Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. +When he returned to France to recover from his wounds he was +entrusted with the task of presenting the captured standards and +colours to the emperor, and was promoted <i>chef d’escadrons</i>. He +went again to Algeria in 1864, took part in expeditions against +the Arabs, returned to Mexico as lieutenant-colonel, and, after +winning further distinction, became in 1867 colonel of the 3rd +Chasseurs d’Afrique. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71 +he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until +promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At +the battle of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d’Afrique in +the heroic charge of General Margueritte’s cavalry division, +which extorted the admiration of the old king of Prussia. Made +prisoner of war at the capitulation, he returned to France during +the siege of Paris by the French army of Versailles, and commanded +a brigade against the Communists. In the suppression +of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, and on +that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout +his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army, +made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the +chamber of deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna +subdivision of Algeria, and commanded an expedition against El +Golea, surmounting great difficulties in a rapid march across the +desert, and inflicting severe chastisement on the revolted tribes. +On the general reorganization of the army he commanded the +31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of division in 1875, he +successively commanded the 15th infantry division at Dijon, the +IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps at +Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Supérieur +de la Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manœuvres in successive +years, and attained a European reputation on all cavalry +questions, and, indeed, as an army commander. Decorated with +the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1887, he received the +military medal for his able conduct of the autumn manœuvres in +1891, and after again commanding at the manœuvres of 1894 he +retired from the active list. Afterwards he took an important +part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899 to +29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau’s cabinet, and +distinguished himself by the firmness with which he dealt with +cases of unrest in the army, but he then retired into private life, +and died on the 8th of July 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Lucius Annaeus +Novatus</span>), son of the rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the +elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher, was born +at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of the Christian era. +At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a rhetorician of +some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. His +brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises <i>De Ira</i> and +<i>De Vita Beata</i>, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded +to by the poet Statius (<i>Silvae</i>, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was +banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned +together to Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to +Nero. Towards the close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was +proconsul of the newly constituted senatorial province of Achaea, +but seems to have been compelled by ill-health to resign the post +within a few years. During his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed +the charge brought by the Jews against the apostle Paul +(Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion (“But Gallio +cared for none of these things”) shows the impartial attitude of +the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. He +survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death +by order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M. +Ramsay, <i>St Paul the Traveller</i>, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings’ +<i>Dict. of the Bible</i> (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given +by Anatole France in <i>Sur la pierre blanche</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLI<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (anc. <i>Callipolis</i>), a seaport town and episcopal see +of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by +rail, 46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, +13,459. It is situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of +Taranto, but is united to the mainland by a bridge, protected by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifications +have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from +1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil, +which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock. +This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine, +however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.</p> + +<p>The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its +name (“beautiful city”) shows. It is hardly mentioned in +ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as +Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, +but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked +by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins +of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have +been found.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLI<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Turk. <i>Gelibolu</i>, anc. <span class="grk" title="Kallipolis">Καλλίπολις</span>), a seaport and +city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the +north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula +132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in +40° 24′ N. and 26° 40′ 30″ E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly +opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is +here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; +its streets are narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are +built of wood, although there are a few better structures, occupied +by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens. +The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and +well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several +mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman +and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor +Justinian (483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to +Bayezid I. (1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly +called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built +on a cliff, has a fine appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. +Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, +and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its +position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the +allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few +miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with +strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on +the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications +were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the +Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople. +The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf +of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns +of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the strait +joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly +fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the +Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.</p> + +<p>The district (<i>sanjak</i>) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well +adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and +comprises four <i>kazas</i> (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its +excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, +noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and +canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi +(Peristeri) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and +petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood +formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely +exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however, +amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit +of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and +replanted their lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture +their occupation.</p> + +<p>There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli +itself, except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line +of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been +prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts +have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a +railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway +system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly. +In 1904 the total value of the exports was £80,000. Wheat and +maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on +the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary +seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina +and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally +sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and +Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats’ skins and sheepskins are also +exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from +Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from +Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through +Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Servia. Other +imports are fuel, iron and groceries.</p> + +<p>The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At an early date it became a Christian bishopric, +and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city, +with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the +East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position +and its valuable trade with Greece and Italy. In 1190 the +armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I. +(Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture +of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the +power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force +in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, +established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their +leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly +besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew +in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the +middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Gallipoli +was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians +under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLIS,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of +Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) +5560. It is served by the Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central +Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Gallipolis Ferry, +West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore & Ohio railway. +The city is built on a level site several feet above the river’s +high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a +state hospital for epileptics. Among the city’s manufactures are +lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The municipality +owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was +settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received +worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, +founded by Col. William Duer (1747-1799) and others in 1787 +and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in +Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his associates +abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen. +This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for +the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the +Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only. +The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the +unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and +his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company, +caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, and two +subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about +150,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and +in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained +for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of +Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land, +however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the +Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to +which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay. +In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States, +decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio +Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were +legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company +sold to the French settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they +occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States +government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of +what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still +known as the “French Grant”), however, was ever occupied by +them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was +first chartered as a city in 1865.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Theodore T. Belote, <i>The Scioto Speculation and the French +Settlement at Gallipolis</i> (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No. 3 +of the <i>University Studies</i> of the University of Cincinnati.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1770-1840), +American Roman Catholic priest, called “The Apostle of the +Alleghanies,” was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December +1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (<i>q.v.</i>), the Russian family +from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin +(1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate +friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many +years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau +(1748-1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the +Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the +age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His +father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in +1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian +troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of +Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the +service. He then set out to complete his education by travel, +and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland, +where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was +ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic +priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at +Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the +Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop +Carroll’s instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled +to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland, +and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such misdirected +zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved +by his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a +settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and +bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to +Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase +of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an +enterprise. In 1808, after his father’s death, he was disinherited +by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia “by reason of your +Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession”; and although +his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable +estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her +brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest, +who after his father’s death had in 1809 discarded the name of +Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had +taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was +a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for +the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection +Gallitzin’s “great load of debt rashly, though for excellent +and charitable purposes, contracted.” In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested +for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for +the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of +Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded +in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his +parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in +building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania +cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were +10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years +before he had found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded +bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: <i>A +Defence of Catholic Principles</i> (1816), <i>Letter to a Protestant Friend +on the Holy Scriptures</i> (1820), <i>Appeal to the Protestant Public</i> +(1834), and <i>Six Letters of Advice</i> (1834), in reply to attacks +on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sarah M. Brownson, <i>Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest</i> +(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing +in <i>American Catholic Records</i> (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October +1886, pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton +in <i>The Gallitzin Memorandum Book</i>, in <i>American Catholic Historical +Society of Philadelphia, Records</i>, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLIUM<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic +chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its +spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran +(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1875, 81, p. 493, and following years). The chief +chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted +many years before by D. Mendeléeff (<i>c.</i> 1869) from a consideration +of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>). +The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in +very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and +precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is +dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by +sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally +precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the +gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into +gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, +from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline +solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which +melt at 30.15° C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but +slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be +bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the +solid form is 5.956 (24.5° C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific +heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23° C.) +and for the liquid 0.082 (106-119°) [M. Berthelot, <i>Comptes +rendus</i>, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red +heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so +easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic +weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran +by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and +K. Seubert.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gallium oxide</i> Ga<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by +solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It +forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids. +On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish +mass which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium +forms colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are +converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are precipitated +by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not +by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium +ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In +neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By +heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the <i>dichloride</i> +GaCl<span class="su">2</span> is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164° C. and +readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride +GaCl<span class="su">3</span> is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream +of chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of +nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at +75.5° C. and boiling at 215-220° C. The bromide, iodide and sulphate +are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best +detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines +of wave length 4171 and 4031.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLON,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, +but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four +quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. <i>galon</i>, +Central Fr. <i>jalon</i>, and was Latinized as <i>galo</i> and <i>galona</i>. It +appears to be connected with the modern French <i>jale</i>, a bowl, but +the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without +much plausibility to Gr. <span class="grk" title="gaulos">γαυλός</span>, a milk pail. The British +imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub. in. The +old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard +gallon of the United States.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY, JOSEPH<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1731-1803), American lawyer and +politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in +West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1731. He early +removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a +lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the +most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over +which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with his +friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary +government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a +royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis +in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies +he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the +justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical +action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First +Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a +“Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the +Colonies,” and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It +provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who +should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies, +and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several provincial +assemblies, and to have such “rights, liberties and +privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of +Commons of Great Britain”; the president-general and grand +council were to be “an inferior distinct branch of the British +legislature, united and incorporated with it.” The assent of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +grand council and of the British parliament was to be “requisite +to the validity of all ... general acts or statutes,” except that +“in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared +by the grand council and approved by the president-general, +shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the +British parliament.” The individual colonies, however, were to +retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure +was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members +as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward +Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by +the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second +election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New +Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to +attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British +occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of +the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In +October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his +death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. +After he left America his life was attainted, and his property, +valued at £40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania +Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the +form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the +clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American +Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, “shared with Thomas +Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen +opposed to the Revolution.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his pamphlets are <i>A Candid Examination of the Mutual +Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies</i> (1775); <i>Historical and +Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion</i> +(1780); <i>Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of +American Independence</i> (1780); and <i>The Claim of the American +Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles +of Law and Justice</i> (1788).</p> + +<p>See Thomas Balch (Ed.), <i>The Examination of Joseph Galloway +by a Committee of the House of Commons</i> (Philadelphia, 1855); +Ernest H. Baldwin, <i>Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician</i> (New +Haven, 1903); and M.C. Tyler, <i>Literary History of the American +Revolution</i> (2 vols., New York, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY, THOMAS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, +was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February +1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he +distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was +appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military +college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the +Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind +in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the +1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for +the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting +paper is “On the Proper Motion of the Solar System,” and was +published in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1847. He contributed largely to +the seventh edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, and also +wrote several scientific papers for the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> and +various scientific journals. His <i>Encyclopaedia</i> article, “Probability,” +was published separately.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society</i> (1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising +the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was +the <i>Novantia</i> of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century +included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire. +Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use +historically and locally has been long established. Thus the +Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway +(created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway +also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless +cattle. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kirkcudbrightshire</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wigtownshire</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLOWS<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (a common Teutonic word—cf. Goth. <i>galga</i>, +O. H. Ger. <i>galgo</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>Galgen</i>, A.S. <i>galzan</i>, &c.—of uncertain +origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by +hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, +but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting +from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the +older translations of the Bible “gallows” was used for the cross +on which Christ suffered (so <i>galga</i> in Ulfilas’s Gothic Testament).<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the +famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This +was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected +in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, +into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the +weather.</p> + +<p>According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a +platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs +from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round +his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in +the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the +fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far +less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart, +which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to +mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. +Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by +being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other +end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At +the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private, +the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set +apart for the purpose inside the gaol.</p> + +<p>The word “gibbet,” the Fr. <i>gibet</i>, gallows, which appears in +the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> was originally +used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes +still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to +the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of +criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets +were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows +Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The +bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition, +hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome +custom comes the common use of the word “to gibbet” for any +holding up to public infamy or contempt.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word “gallows” is the plural of a word (<i>galwe</i>, <i>galowe</i>, <i>gallow</i>) +which, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, was occasionally +used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards +the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of “a +gallows,” and, in the older form, of “a pair of gallows,” this referring +probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards +“gallows” has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new +plural, “gallowses,” having come into use. “The latter, though +not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt +to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural +in commonly evaded” (<i>New Eng. Dict.</i> s.v. “Gallows”).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In Med. Lat. “gallows” was translated by <i>furia</i> and <i>patibulum</i>, +both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument +of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. <i>Furia</i>, +in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction +to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. Wace, <i>Roman de Rou</i>, iii. 8349:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Et il a le gibet saisi</p> +<p class="i05">Qui a son destre braz pendi.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLS.<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of +living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by +dipterous insects of the genus <i>Oestrus</i>. Signor Moriggia<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> has +described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, +from the back of the human hand, which was caused by <i>Acarus +domesticus</i>. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable +excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, +comprise “all abnormal vegetable productions developed on +plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects, +whatever may be their form, bulk or situation.” For the larvae +of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The +exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls, +appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus, +secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the +puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts +of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision +of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval +or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part +in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers +remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the “stimulus” +and the “supporter of the stimulus,” as evidenced by the limitation +in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some +one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part +of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the +gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of <i>Spathegaster +baccarum</i>, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the +flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition, +and not to the functions of the parts producing it; +the bright red galls of the saw-fly <i>Nematus gallicola</i> are found on +four different species of willow, <i>Salix fragilis</i>, <i>S. alba</i>, <i>S. caprea</i> +and <i>S. cinerea</i>;<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and the galls of a Cynipid, <i>Biorhiza aptera</i>, +usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured +also from the deodar.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Often the gall bears no visible resemblance +to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly, +however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving +to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or +less modified special organs of the plant. The gall of <i>Cecidomyia +strobilina</i>, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves +the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, +smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American <i>Cynips seminator</i>, +Harris, according to W.F. Bassett,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is the petiole, and its terminal +tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence +of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the “bedeguars” +of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, <i>Rhodites rosae</i>, represents +leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma +between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the “artichoke-galls” +or “oak-strobile,” produced by <i>Aphilothrix gemmae</i>, L., which +insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule +to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a +peduncular, oviform, inner gall.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> E. Newman held the view that +many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: “to produce +an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has +frustrated the attempt.” Their formation from buds which +normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by +Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by +oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from +injury by insect-agency or otherwise.<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Galls vary remarkably +in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The +polythalamous gall of <i>Aphilothrix radicis</i>, found on the roots of +old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man’s fist; the galls of +another Cynipid, <i>Andricus occultus</i>, Tschek,<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> which occurs on the +male flowers of <i>Quercus sessiliflora</i>, is 2 millimetres, or barely a +line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, +the oak-leaf hairy galls of <i>Spathegaster tricolor</i>, which are of a +crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. +The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns +or cups, others lenticular. The “knoppern” galls of <i>Cynips +polycera</i>, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex +upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese +galls, “some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in +bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected +by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long +cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs.”<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The characters +of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even +when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American +willow, <i>Salix humilis</i>, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown +insects that produce them from one another. In degree +of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. +Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, +whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. +The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls, +divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without +a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard, +or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority +distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a +subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing +the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a +complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective +layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central +mass inhabited by the growing larva.<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the +Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (<i>Cynips</i> and its allies), which +infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having +straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen +with the second or second and third segments greatly developed, +and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled +ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are +completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect +insect, tunnels its way,—usually in autumn, though sometimes, +as has been observed of some individuals of <i>Cynips Kollari</i>, +after hibernation.</p> + +<p>Among the commoner of the galls of the <i>Cynipidae</i> are the +“oak-apple” or “oak-sponge” of <i>Andricus terminalis</i>, Fab.; +the “currant” or “berry galls” of <i>Spathegaster baccarum</i>, +L., above mentioned; and the “oak-spangles” of <i>Neuroterus +lenticularis</i>,<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths, +until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith,<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and +the succulent “cherry-galls” of <i>Dryophanta scutellaris</i>, Oliv. +The “marble” or “Devonshire woody galls” of oak-buds, +which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced +by <i>Cynips Kollari</i>,<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> already alluded to. They were first +introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become +common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later +were observed in several parts of Scotland.<a name="fa13i" id="fa13i" href="#ft13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> They contain +about 17% of tannin.<a name="fa14i" id="fa14i" href="#ft14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> On account of their regular form they +have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets. +The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls,<a name="fa15i" id="fa15i" href="#ft15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a> produced on a +species of oak by <i>Cynips insana</i>, Westw., have been regarded by +many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (<i>mala insana</i>), +or apples of Sodom (<i>poma sodomitica</i>), alluded to by Josephus +and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (<i>Bibl. +Researches in Palestine</i>, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be +the singular fruit called by the Arabs <i>’Ösher</i>, produced by the +<i>Asclepias gigantea</i> or <i>procera</i> of botanists. What in California +are known as “flea seeds” are oak-galls made by a species of +<i>Cynips</i>; in August they become detached from the leaves that +bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements +of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.<a name="fa16i" id="fa16i" href="#ft16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, +or Levant galls of commerce (Ger. <i>Galläpfel</i>, <i>levantische +Gallen</i>; Fr. <i>noix de Galle</i>), are produced on <i>Quercus infectoria</i>, +a variety of <i>Q. Lusitanica</i>, Webb, by <i>Cynips</i> (<i>Diplolepis</i>, +Latr.) <i>tinctoria</i>, L., or <i>C. gallae tinctoriae</i> Oliv. Aleppo galls +(<i>gallae halepenses</i>) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>-<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> in. in +diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown +to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed “blue,” +“black,” or “green” galls contain the insect; the inferior “white” +galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or +astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. 1.). Less valued +are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name +“Tarablous galls”). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according +to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of +nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe +for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on +analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +Vinen, <i>loc. cit.</i>), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, +water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free +sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium +oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides +(i. 146), and other ancient writers, including Pliny <i>(Nat. Hist.</i> +xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced +“in a single night.” Their insect origin appears to have been +entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, +though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is +produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes +oak-apples as “an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction.” +Pomet<a name="fa17i" id="fa17i" href="#ft17i"><span class="sp">17</span></a> thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a +similar opinion obtains among the modern Chinese, who apply +to them the term <i>Mu-shih-tsze</i>, or “fruits for the foodless.”<a name="fa18i" id="fa18i" href="#ft18i"><span class="sp">18</span></a> +Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties, +and Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in +affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and +some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts +are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments +<i>unguentum gallae</i> and <i>unguentum gallae cum opio</i>, and of the +tinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid +(<i>q.v.</i>). They have from very early times been resorted to as a +means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the +base of the tattooing dye of the Somali women.<a name="fa19i" id="fa19i" href="#ft19i"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:331px" src="images/img424a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—<i>a</i>, Aleppo “blue” gall; <i>b</i>, ditto in section, showing +central cavity for grub; <i>c</i>, Aleppo “white” gall, perforated by +insect; <i>d</i>, the same in section (natural size).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the <i>Cynipidae</i> +proper, certain species of the genus <i>Eurytoma</i> (<i>Isosoma</i>, Walsh) +and family <i>Chalcididae</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>E. hordei</i>, the “joint-worm” of the +United States, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;<a name="fa20i" id="fa20i" href="#ft20i"><span class="sp">20</span></a> +also various members of the family <i>Tenthredinidae</i>, or saw-flies. +The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their +cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case of <i>Athalia abdominalis</i>, +Klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for +some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant.</p> + +<p>The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats +(<i>Cecidomyidae</i>), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies +usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the +back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others +descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls +are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be +met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera, +<i>e.g.</i> the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,<a name="fa21i" id="fa21i" href="#ft21i"><span class="sp">21</span></a> grape-vine,<a name="fa22i" id="fa22i" href="#ft22i"><span class="sp">22</span></a> alder, gooseberry, +blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet,<a name="fa23i" id="fa23i" href="#ft23i"><span class="sp">23</span></a> +common cabbage and cereals. In the northern United States, in +May, “legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight, +hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong north-west +wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the farmer.”<a name="fa24i" id="fa24i" href="#ft24i"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family +<i>Trypetidae</i>, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the +family <i>Mycetophilidae</i>, such as the species <i>Sciara tilicola</i>,<a name="fa25i" id="fa25i" href="#ft25i"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Löw, +the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of +the young shoots and leaves of the lime.</p> + +<p>Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects +of the families <i>Tingidae</i>, <i>Psyllidae</i>, <i>Coccidae</i> and <i>Aphidae</i>. +<i>Coccus pinicorticis</i> causes the growth of patches of white flocculent +and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the +white pine in America.<a name="fa26i" id="fa26i" href="#ft26i"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The galls of examples of the last +family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of +the poplar. An American Aphid of the genus <i>Pemphigus</i> produces +black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the +young branches of the hickory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Chinese galls of commerce (<i>Woo-pei-tsze</i>) are stated to be +produced by <i>Aphis Chinensis</i>, Bell, on <i>Rhus semialata</i>, Murr. (<i>R. +Bucki-amela</i>, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. +India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly +pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered +externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like +matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect +takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, +probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for +several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls +are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill +the insects.<a name="fa27i" id="fa27i" href="#ft27i"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p> + +<p>Chinese galls examined by Viedt<a name="fa28i" id="fa28i" href="#ft28i"><span class="sp">28</span></a> yielded 72% of tannin, and +less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls +are produced by Aphides on species of <i>Pistacia</i>.</p> + +<p>M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of +the Aphis of Pistachio galls, <i>Anopleura lentisci</i>, is hatched an +apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young +Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to +the roots of certain grasses (<i>Bromus sterilis</i> and <i>Hordeum vulgare</i>), +and by budding underground give rise to several generations of +apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). +These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and +on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed +sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive +of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle +(see <i>Compt. rend.</i>, Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in <i>Ann. and Mag. +Nat. Hist.</i>, 1879, p. 174).</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:286px" src="images/img424b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—<i>a</i>, Chinese gall (abt. ½ natural size); <i>b</i>, ditto broken, +showing thin-walled cavity; <i>c</i>, Japanese gall (natural size).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers +there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), +and species of the exotic <i>Sagridae</i> and <i>Lamiadae</i> and an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span> +American beetle, <i>Saperda inornata</i> (<i>Cerambycidae</i>), which forms +the pseudo-galls of <i>Salix longifolia</i> and <i>Populus angulata</i>, or +cottonwood. Among the Lepidoptera are gall-forming species +belonging to the <i>Tineidae</i>, <i>Aegeriidae</i>, <i>Tortricidae</i> and <i>Pterophoridae</i>. +The larva of a New Zealand moth, <i>Morova subfasciata</i>, +Walk. (<i>Cacoëcia gallicolens</i>), of the family <i>Drepanulidae</i>, causes +the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently +subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.<a name="fa29i" id="fa29i" href="#ft29i"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p> + +<p>Mite-galls, or <i>acarocecidia</i>, are abnormal growths of the leaves +of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus +<i>Phytoptus</i> (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of +thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on +the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, +producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, +pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants; +and formerly, <i>e.g.</i> the gall known as <i>Erineum quercinum</i>, on the +leaves of <i>Quercus Cerris</i>, were taken for cryptogamic structures. +The lime-leaf “nail-galls” of <i>Phytoptus tiliae</i> closely resemble the +“trumpet-galls” formed on American vines by a species of +<i>Cecidomyia</i>.<a name="fa30i" id="fa30i" href="#ft30i"><span class="sp">30</span></a> Certain minute Nematoid worms, as <i>Anguillula +scandens</i>, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.</p> + +<p>Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls +usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are +termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of <i>Cynips</i> and +its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera, +as <i>Synergus</i>, <i>Amblynotus</i> and <i>Synophrus</i>; and the pine-cone-like +gall of <i>Salix strobiloides</i>, as Walsh has shown,<a href="#ft30i"><span class="sp">30</span></a> is made by a large +species of <i>Cecidomyia</i>, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the +numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its outer part being +mere inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the +same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for +example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some +gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford +harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the +case of the Curculio beetle <i>Conotrachelius nenuphar</i>, Hbst., of +which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and +another lives in the “black knot” of the plum-tree, regarded +by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same +authority (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides +no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are +preyed upon by about eight others, so that <span class="correction" title="amended from alltogether">altogether</span> some +twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for +their existence on what to the common observer appears to be +nothing but “an unmeaning mass of leaves.” Among the +numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are +hymenopterous flies of the family <i>Proctotrypidae</i>, and of the +family <i>Chalcididae</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Callimome regius</i>, the larva of which +preys on the larvae of both <i>Cynips glutinosa</i> and its lodger +<i>Synergus facialis</i>. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of +<i>Braconidae</i> and <i>Ichneumonidae</i>, which Von Schlechtendal (<i>loc. sup. cit.</i> p. 33) +considers to be parasites not on the owner of the +gall, <i>Andricus terminalis</i>, but on inquilinous <i>Tortricidae</i>. Birds +are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls, +for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain +the grub within, and the “button-galls” of <i>Neuroterus numismatis</i>, +Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.</p> + +<p>A great variety of deformations and growths produced by +insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. They +are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably +large and definite structures. The whole are now included under +the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to +which the attacks are due, <i>e.g.</i> Phytoptocecidia are the galls +formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise +when only one member of a plant is involved; compound galls +are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remarkable +galls recently discovered we may mention those found on +Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. +They are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small +scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As +regards the mode of production of galls, the most important +distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of +an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those +that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter +case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose +its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result +of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been +known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be +produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or +prior to, the actual development of the tissue. Little more than +this is known. The power that gall-producers possess of influencing +by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant +that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears +to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one +of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adler as to the +alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully +confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that +the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation +are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also +been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate +generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is +supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually +been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating +generations. When two different generations are produced in +one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the +sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two generations +are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the +alternating generations are produced on different species of trees, +and even on different parts of the two species.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further—J.T.C. +Ratzeburg, <i>Die Forst-Insecten</i>, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844); +T.W. Harris, <i>Insects injurious to Vegetation</i> (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed., +1852); C.L. Koch, <i>Die Pflanzenläuse Aphiden</i> (Nuremberg, 1854); +T. Hartig, <i>Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen</i> (Berlin, +1860); Walsh, “On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and +Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow,” <i>Proc. +Ent. Soc. Philadelphia</i>, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), +pp. 223-288; T.A. Marshall, “On some British Cynipidae,” +<i>Ent. Month. Mag.</i> iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Müller, +“A List of Gall-bearing British Plants,” <i>ib.</i> v. pp. 118 and 216; +G.L. Mayr, <i>Die mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild</i> +(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in +the <i>Entomologist</i>, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, “Die +Einmiethler der mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen,” <i>Verhandl. d. +zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxii. pp. 669-726; and “Die europäischen +Torymiden,” <i>ib.</i> xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in <i>Cistula entomologica</i>, +i., London, 1869-1876); F. Löw, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der +Gallmücken,” <i>ib.</i> pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm +and P. Löw, “Synopsis Cecidomyidarum,” <i>ib.</i> xxvi. pp. 1-104; +Perris, <i>Ann. Soc. Entom. de France</i>, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; +R. Osten-Sacken, “On the North American Cecidomyidae,” <i>Smithsonian +Miscellaneous Collections</i>, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg, +<i>Entomologie für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde</i> (Leipzig, 1871); +J.W.H. Traill, “Scottish Galls,” <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, i. (1871), pp. +123, &c.; Albert Müller, “British Gall Insects,” <i>The Entomologist’s +Annual for 1872</i>, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, <i>Forstzoologie</i>, iii. “Insecten,” +pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, <i>Die Pflanzenfeinde aus +der Classe der Insecten</i> (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d’Arbois de Jubainville +and J. Vesque, <i>Les Maladies des plantes cultivées</i>, pp. 98-105 (Paris, +1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Quoted in <i>Zoological Record</i>, iv. (1867), p. 192.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> P. Cameron, <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, ii. pp. 11-15.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Entomologist</i>, vii. p. 47.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See in <i>Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873</i>, p. xvi.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See A. Müller, <i>Gardener’s Chronicle</i> (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518; +and E.A. Fitch, <i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 129.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Entomologist</i>, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxi. p. 799.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Darwin, <i>Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, +ii. p. 282.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> “Recherches pour servir à l’histoire des galles,” <i>Ann. des sci. +nat.</i> xix. pp. 293 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place +between <i>N. lenticularis</i> and <i>Spathegaster baccarum</i> (see E.A. Ormerod, +<i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 34).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Westwood, <i>Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects</i>, ii. (1840) +p. 130.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see <i>Entomologist</i>, +iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13i" id="ft13i" href="#fa13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14i" id="ft14i" href="#fa14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Vinen, <i>Journ. de pharm. et de chim.</i> xxx. (1856) p. 290; +“English Ink-Galls,” <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15i" id="ft15i" href="#fa15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See Pereira, <i>Materia Medica</i>, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> +1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16i" id="ft16i" href="#fa16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, <i>Proc. California Acad. +of Sciences</i>, iv. pp. 265 and 266.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17i" id="ft17i" href="#fa17i"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>A Complete History of Drugs</i> (translation), p. 169 (London, 1748).</p> + +<p><a name="ft18i" id="ft18i" href="#fa18i"><span class="fn">18</span></a> F. Porter Smith, <i>Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of China</i>, +p. 100 (1871).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19i" id="ft19i" href="#fa19i"><span class="fn">19</span></a> R.F. Burton, <i>First Footsteps in E. Africa</i>, p. 178 (1856).</p> + +<p><a name="ft20i" id="ft20i" href="#fa20i"><span class="fn">20</span></a> A.S. Packard, jun., <i>Guide to the Study of Insects</i>, p. 205 (Salem, +1870).</p> + +<p><a name="ft21i" id="ft21i" href="#fa21i"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the Cecidomyids of <i>Quercus Cerris</i>, see Fitch, <i>Entomologist</i>, +xi. p. 14.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22i" id="ft22i" href="#fa22i"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See, on <i>Cecidomyia oenephila</i>, Von Haimhoffen, <i>Verhandl. d. +zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxv. pp. 801-810.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23i" id="ft23i" href="#fa23i"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Entomologist’s Month. Mag.</i> iv. (1868) p. 233; and for +figure and description, <i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 13.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24i" id="ft24i" href="#fa24i"><span class="fn">24</span></a> A.S. Packard, jun., <i>Our Common Insects</i>, p. 203 (Salem, U.S. +1873). On the Hessian fly, <i>Cecidomyia destructor</i>, Say, the May +brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of +barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, <i>The Hessian Fly</i> (Albany, 1847), +reprinted from <i>Trans. New York State Agric. Soc.</i> vol. vi.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25i" id="ft25i" href="#fa25i"><span class="fn">25</span></a> J. Winnertz, <i>Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen</i>, p. 164 +(Vienna, 1867).</p> + +<p><a name="ft26i" id="ft26i" href="#fa26i"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Asa Fitch, <i>First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects +of the State of New York</i>, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="ft27i" id="ft27i" href="#fa27i"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See E. Doubleday, <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and +Pereira, <i>ib.</i> vol. iii. p. 377.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28i" id="ft28i" href="#fa28i"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Dingler’s Polyt. Journ.</i> ccxvi. p. 453.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29i" id="ft29i" href="#fa29i"><span class="fn">29</span></a> For figure and description see <i>Zoology of the “Erebus” and +“Terror,”</i> ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).</p> + +<p><a name="ft30i" id="ft30i" href="#fa30i"><span class="fn">30</span></a> On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Löw, “Beiträge zur +Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (<i>Phytoptus</i>, Duj.),” <i>Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. +Ges. in Wien</i>, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and “Über +Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend,” <i>ib.</i> pp. 495-508; +Andrew Murray, <i>Economic Entomology, Aptera</i>, pp. 331-374 (1876); +and F.A.W. Thomas, <i>Ältere und neue Beobachtungen über +Phytopto-Cecidien</i> (Halle, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLUPPI, PASQUALE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1770-1846), Italian philosopher, +was born on the 2nd of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He +was of good family, and after studying at the university of Naples +he entered the public service, and was for many years employed +in the office of the administration of finances. At the age of +sixty, having become widely known by his writings on philosophy, +he was called to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the university +of Naples, which he held till his death in November 1846. +His most important works are: <i>Lettere filosofiche</i> (1827), in which +he traces his philosophical development; <i>Elementi di filosofia</i> +(1832); <i>Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza</i> (1819-1832); +<i>Sull’ analisi e sulla sintesi</i> (1807); <i>Lezioni di logica e +di metafisica</i> (1832-1836); <i>Filosofia della volontà</i> (1832-1842, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +incomplete); <i>Storia della filosofia</i> (i., 1842); <i>Considerazioni +filosofiche sull’ idealismo trascendentale</i> (1841), a memoir on the +system of Fichte.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, <i>Essai sur l’histoire de la +philosophie en Italie au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueberweg’s +<i>Hist. of Philosophy</i>, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, “Philosophy +in Italy,” in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, <i>Pasquale Galluppi. +Studio critico</i> (Florence, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, CORNELIUS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 70-26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman poet, orator and +politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (<i>Fréjus</i>) +in Gaul. At an early age he removed to Rome, where he was +taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, +who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) to him, was in great +measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the restoration of +his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavianus, +and as a reward for his services was made praefect of Egypt +(Suetonius, <i>Augustus</i>, 66). His conduct in this position afterwards +brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having +been deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he +put an end to his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a +high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect, +and Ovid (<i>Tristia</i>, iv. 10) considered him the first of the elegiac +poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his +mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for Cytheris, a notorious +actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis +(<i>q.v.</i>); he also translated some of this author’s works into Latin. +Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems +attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 +and printed in A. Riese’s <i>Anthologia Latina</i>, 1869) are generally +regarded as a forgery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Völker, <i>De C. Galli vita et scriptis</i> (1840-1844); A. Nicolas, +<i>De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus</i> (1851), an exhaustive monograph. +An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian +exploits; see M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, and +Plessis, <i>Poésie latine</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span>, praefect of Egypt 26-24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By +order of Augustus he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, +with disastrous results. The troops suffered greatly from disease, +heat, want of water and the obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. +The treachery of a foreign guide also added to his +difficulties. After six months Gallus was obliged to return to +Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his force. He was a +friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of the +expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; +Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> vi. 32; C. Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under +the Empire</i>, ch. 34; H. Krüger, <i>Der Feldzug des A. G. nach +dem glücklichen Arabien</i>, 1862). He has been identified with the +Aelius Gallus frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are +stated to have been used with success in an Arabian expedition.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, governor of Syria during the reign +of Nero. When the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the +outrages of the Roman procurators, had seized the fortress of +Masada and treacherously murdered the garrison of the palace +of Herod, Gallus set out from Antioch to restore order. On the +17th of November <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66 he arrived before Jerusalem. Having +gained possession of the northern suburb, he attacked the temple +mount; but, after five days’ fighting, just when (according to +Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably withdrew +his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by +the Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in +making good his escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater +part of his army and a large amount of war material. Soon after +his return Gallus died (before the spring of 67), and was succeeded +in the governorship by Licinius Mucianus, the prosecution of the +war being entrusted to Vespasian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> v. 10, 13; Suetonius, <i>Vespasian</i>, 4; Josephus, +<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 14-20; E. Schürer, <i>Hist. of the Jewish People</i>, div. i. +vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, Roman general, statesman +and orator. Under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend, +he commanded the 2nd legion in the campaign against Perseus, +king of Macedonia, and gained great reputation for having predicted +an eclipse of the moon on the night before the battle of +Pydna (168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). On his return from Macedonia he was elected +consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to +submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and +Asia, where he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges +brought against Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives +of various cities of Asia Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning, +an excellent Greek scholar, and in his later years devoted +himself to the study of astronomy, on which subject he is quoted +as an authority by Pliny.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy xliv. 37, <i>Epit</i>. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, +20, <i>De officiis</i>, i. 6, <i>De senectute</i>, 14; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 9.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALOIS, EVARISTE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1811-1832), French mathematician, was +born on the 25th of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st +of May 1832. An obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier +appeared in the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i> (1832); and his collected +works are published, <i>Journal de Liouville</i> (1846), pp. 381-444, +about fifty of these pages being occupied by researches on the +resolubility of algebraic equations by radicals. This branch of +algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also due the notion +of a group of substitutions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equation</a></span>: <i>Theory of Equations</i>; +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groups, Theory of</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were +published in 1897 at Paris.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALSTON,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m. +E. by S. of Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western +railway. The manufactures include blankets, lace, +muslin, hosiery and paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the +vicinity. About 1 m. to the north, amid the “bonnie woods and +braes,” is Loudoun Castle, a seat of the earl of Loudoun.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1817-1893), Canadian +statesman, was the youngest son of John Galt the author. Born +in London on the 6th of September 1817, he emigrated to Canada +in 1835, and settled in Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec, +where he entered the service of the British American Land Company, +of which he rose to be chief commissioner. Later he was +one of the contractors for extending the Grand Trunk railway +westward from Toronto. He entered public life in 1849 as Liberal +member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the chief +measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same +year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States, +believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon +ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in +his native province be maintained. In the same year he retired +from parliament but re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the +chief representative of the English-speaking Protestants of +Quebec province. On the fall of the Brown-Dorion administration +in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry, but declined +the task, and became finance minister under Sir John Macdonald +and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the +British North American provinces should become a part of their +programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance +minister, and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances +of Canada into order. To him are due the introduction of the +decimal system of currency and the adoption of a system of +protection to Canadian manufactures. To his diplomacy was +due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and Cartier, +which carried the federation of the British North American +provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which +followed his was one of the chief influences. He became finance +minister in the first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and +mysteriously resigned on the 4th of November 1867. After his +retirement he gave to the administration of Sir John Macdonald +a support which grew more and more fitful, and advocated +independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was +again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning +these views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee +on the Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and +rendered brilliant service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian +high commissioner to Great Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour +of Sir Charles Tupper. During this period he advocated imperial +federation. He was Canadian delegate at the Paris Monetary +Conference of 1881, and to the International Exhibition of +Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the 19th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman +has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual +fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague +in political life.</p> +<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALT, JOHN<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at +Irvine, Ayrshire, on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early +education at Irvine and Greenock, and read largely from one of +the public libraries while serving as a clerk in a mercantile office. +In 1804 he went to settle in London, where he published anonymously +a poem on the <i>Battle of Largs</i>. After unsuccessful +attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at Lincoln’s Inn, +but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission from +a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and +Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John +Hobhouse at Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met +him again at Athens. He was afterwards employed by the +Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on similar business at +Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland. His early +works are the <i>Life and Administration of Wolsey</i>, <i>Voyages and +Travels</i>, <i>Letters from the Levant</i>, the <i>Life of Benjamin West</i>, +<i>Historical Pictures</i> and <i>The Wandering Jew</i>; and he induced +Colburn to publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces +rejected by London managers. These were afterwards edited +by Galt as the <i>New British Theatre</i>, which included some plays of +his own. He first showed his real power as a writer of fiction in +<i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i>, which appeared in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> +in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his masterpiece—<i>The +Annals of the Parish</i>; and, at short intervals, <i>Sir Andrew Wylie</i>, +<i>The Entail</i>, <i>The Steam-Boat</i> and <i>The Provost</i> were published. +These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his +happiest manner. His next works were <i>Ringan Gilhaize</i> (1823), +a story of the Covenanters; <i>The Spaewife</i> (1823), which relates +to the times of James I. of Scotland; <i>Rothelan</i> (1824), a novel +founded on the reign of Edward III.; <i>The Omen</i> (1825), which +was favourably criticized by Sir Walter Scott; and <i>The Last +of the Lairds</i>, another picture of Scottish life.</p> + +<p>In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land +Company. He carried out extensive schemes of colonization, +and opened up a road through what was then forest country +between Lakes Huron and Erie. In 1827 he founded Guelph in +upper Canada, passing on his way the township of Galt on the +Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon. But +all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829 +he returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted +himself with great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first +fruit was <i>Lawrie Todd</i>—one of his best novels. Then came +<i>Southennan</i>, a tale of Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary. +In 1830 he was appointed editor of the <i>Courier</i> newspaper—a +post he soon relinquished. His untiring industry was seen in the +publication, in rapid succession, of a <i>Life of Byron</i>, <i>Lives of the +Players</i>, <i>Bogle Corbet</i>, <i>Stanley Buxton</i>, <i>The Member</i>, <i>The Radical</i>, +<i>Eben Erskine</i>, <i>The Stolen Child</i>, his <i>Autobiography</i>, and a collection +of tales entitled <i>Stories of the Study</i>. In 1834 appeared +his <i>Literary Life and Miscellanies</i>, dedicated by permission to +William IV., who sent the author a present of £200. As soon as +this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where he +continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April +1839.</p> + +<p>Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly +unequal. His masterpieces are <i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i>, <i>The +Annals of the Parish</i>, <i>Sir Andrew Wylie</i>, <i>The Entail</i>, <i>The Provost</i> +and <i>Lawrie Todd</i>. <i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i> gives, in the form of +a number of exceedingly diverting letters, the adventures of the +Rev. Dr Pringle and his family in London. The letters are made +the excuse for endless tea-parties and meetings of kirk-session +in the rural parish of Garnock. <i>The Annals of the Parish</i> are +told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt’s finest character. This +work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before <i>Waverley</i> +was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned Scottish +pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour, +genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by +Scott. It is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish +dialect, and preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing +out of use even in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt +used, for the first time, the term “Utilitarian,” which afterwards +became so intimately associated with the doctrines of John +Stuart Mill and Bentham (see <i>Annals of the Parish</i>, chap. xxxv., +and a note by Mill in <i>Utilitarianism</i>, chap. ii.). In <i>Sir Andrew +Wylie</i> the hero entered London as a poor lad, but achieved remarkable +success by his shrewd business qualities. The character +is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. <i>The Entail</i> +was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt’s +longer novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was +considered by Byron equal to any female character in literature +since Shakespeare’s time. <i>The Provost</i>, in which Provost Pawkie +tells his own story, portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings +and self-seeking of municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish +burgh. In <i>Lawrie Todd</i> Galt, by giving us the Scot in America, +accomplished a feat which Sir Walter never attempted. This +novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater love of nature +than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted with unerring +pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much more +poetical than any of the author’s professed poems.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best of Galt’s novels were reprinted in Blackwood’s <i>Standard +Novels</i>, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALT,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m. +N.N.W. of Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk +and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866. +It is named after John Galt, the author. It has excellent water +privileges which furnish power for flour-mills and for manufactures +of edge tools, castings, machinery, paper and other +industries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALTON, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1822-  ), English anthropologist, +son of S.T. Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the +16th of February 1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist +Erasmus Darwin, and Charles Darwin was his cousin. After +attending King Edward VI.’s grammar school, Birmingham, he +studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at King’s +College, London, with the intention of making medicine his profession; +but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, +in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in +travelling in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with +Dr John Anderson, of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in +south-west Africa, starting from Walfisch Bay. These tracts had +practically never been traversed before, and on the appearance +of the published account of his journey and experiences under the +title of <i>Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa</i> (1853) +Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical +Society. His <i>Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in Wild +Countries</i> was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the +north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the +country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which +he edited, entitled <i>Vacation Tourists</i>. He then turned to meteorology, +the result of his investigations appearing in <i>Meteorographica</i>, +published in 1863. This work was the first serious +attempt to chart the weather on an extensive scale, and in it also +the author first established the existence and theory of anti-cyclones. +Galton was a member of the meteorological committee +(1868), and of the Meteorological Council which succeeded it, for +over thirty years. But his name is most closely associated with +studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In 1869 +appeared his <i>Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences</i>, a work +which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This +was followed by <i>English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture</i>, +published in 1874; <i>Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development</i>, +issued in 1883; <i>Life-History Album</i> (1884); <i>Record of +Family Faculties</i> (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering +data, with a preface); and <i>Natural Inheritance</i> (1889). The +idea that systematic efforts should be made to improve the breed +of mankind by checking the birth-rate of the unfit and furthering +the productivity of the fit was first put forward by him In 1865; +he mooted it again in 1884, using the term “eugenics” for the +first time in <i>Human Faculty</i>, and in 1904 he endowed a research +fellowship in the university of London for the promotion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +knowledge of that subject, which was defined as “the study of +agencies under social control that may improve or impair the +racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.” +Galton was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric +subjects; he originated the process of composite +portraiture, and paid much attention to finger-prints and their +employment for the identification of criminals, his publications +on this subject including <i>Finger Prints</i> (1892), <i>Decipherment of +Blurred Finger Prints</i> (1893) and <i>Finger Print Directories</i> (1895). +From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1860, +he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal in 1902, +and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894) +and Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published <i>Memories of My +Life</i>, and in 1909 he received a knighthood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALUPPI, BALDASSARE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1706-1785), Italian musical composer, +was born on the 18th of October 1706 on the island of +Burano near Venice, from which he was often known by the +nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber, and violinist at the +local theatre, was his first teacher. His first opera, composed at +the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he determined to +study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli Incurabili at +Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully producing +two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B. Pescetti, in +1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer of +operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five +in a year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a <i>pasticcio</i>, +<i>Alexander in Persia</i>, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his +influence on English music to have been very powerful. In 1740 +he became <i>vice-maestro di cappella</i> at St Mark’s and <i>maestro</i> in +1762. In 1749 he began writing comic operas to libretti by +Goldoni, which enjoyed an enormous popularity. He was invited +to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766, where his operas made a +favourable impression, and his influence was also felt in Russian +church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where he had held +the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili since +1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.</p> + +<p>Galuppi’s best works are his comic operas, of which <i>Il Filosofo +di Campagna</i> (1754), known in England as <i>The Guardian Trick’d</i> +(Dublin, 1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive +rather than original, but his workmanship in harmony and +orchestration is generally superior to that of his contemporaries. +He seems to have been the first to extend the concerted finales of +Leo and Logroscino into a chain of several separate movements, +working up to a climax, but in this respect he is much inferior to +Sarti and Mozart.</p> + +<p>Browning’s poem, “A Toccata of Galuppi,” does not refer to +any known composition, but more probably to an imaginary +extemporization on the harpsichord, such as was of frequent +occurrence in the musical gatherings of Galuppi’s day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Alfred Wotquerme, <i>Baldassare Galuppi, étude bibliographique +sur ses œuvres dramatiques</i> (Brussels, 1902). Many of his +autograph scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. J. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALVANI, LUIGI<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after +whom galvanism received its name, was born at Bologna on the +9th of September 1737. It was his wish in early life to enter the +church, but by his parents he was educated for a medical career. +At the university of Bologna, in which city he practised, he was +in 1762 appointed public lecturer in anatomy, and soon gained +repute as a skilled though not eloquent teacher, and, chiefly from +his researches on the organs of hearing and genito-urinary tract +of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His celebrated theory +of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, “De viribus +electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius,” published in the +7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna +in 1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and +elsewhere subsequently. The statement has frequently been +repeated that, in 1786, Galvani had noticed that the leg of a +skinned frog, on being accidentally touched by a scalpel which +had lain near an electrical machine, was thrown into violent +convulsions; and that it was thus that his attention was first +directed to the relations of animal functions to electricity. From +documents in the possession of the Institute of Bologna, however, +it appears that twenty years previous to the publication of his +<i>Commentary</i> Galvani was already engaged in investigations as +to the action of electricity upon the muscles of frogs. The +observation that the suspension of certain of these animals on an +iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of +their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first +experiment with which is described in the third part of the +<i>Commentary</i>, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he +constructed of two different metals, which, placed in contact +the one with a frog’s nerve and the other with a muscle, caused +contraction of the latter. In Galvani’s view the motions of the +muscle were the result of the union, by means of the metallic arc, +of its exterior or negative electrical charge with positive electricity +which proceeded along the nerve from its inner substance. Volta, +on the other hand, attributed them solely to the effect of +electricity having its source in the junction of the two dissimilar +metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply as +conductors. On Galvani’s refusal, from religious scruples, to +take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he +was removed from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means +of livelihood, he retired to the house of his brother Giacomo, +where he soon fell into a feverish decline. The republican +government, in consideration of his great scientific fame, eventually, +but too late, determined to reinstate him in his chair, and he +died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842, +by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under +the title <i>Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALVANIZED IRON<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, sheet iron having its surface covered +with a thin coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic +action has often no part in the production of galvanized iron, +which is prepared by dipping the iron, properly cleaned and +pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc. The hotter the zinc the +thinner the coating, but as a high temperature of the bath is +attended with certain objections, it is a common practice to use a +moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by passing +the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers’s process a +thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the +zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a +wooden tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride, +when tin is deposited on them by galvanic action. In “cold +galvanizing” the zinc is deposited electrolytically from a bath, +preferably kept neutral or slightly acid, containing a 10% +solution of crystallized zinc sulphate, ZnSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O. The resulting +surface is usually duller and less lustrous than that obtained by +the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming a coating of +zinc, known as “sherardizing,” was invented by Sherard Cowper-Coles, +who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product +obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed +with a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures +well below the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer +of that metal. In carrying out the process the articles are placed +in an air-tight vessel with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and +subjected to a heat of 250-330°C., the time for which the heating +is continued depending on the thickness of the deposit required +and varying from one-half to several hours. If an air-tight +receptacle is not available, a small percentage of powdered carbon +is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent increase in the amount of +oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to make the deposit dull.</p> + +<p>Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion +by the weather, though the protection is not very efficient in +the presence of acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it +is extensively employed for roofing, especially in the form of +corrugated sheets. The iron wire used for wire-netting, telegraphic +purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as also are bolts, +nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALVANOMETER<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, an instrument for detecting or measuring +electric currents. The term is generally applied to instruments +which indicate electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary +units, as opposed to instruments called amperemeters (<i>q.v.</i>), +which show directly on a dial the value of the current in amperes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +Galvanometers may be divided into direct current and alternating +current instruments, according as they are intended to measure +one or other of these two classes of currents (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrokinetics</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Direct Current Galvanometers</i>.—The principle on which one type +of direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer, +depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended +in the centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the +direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the +current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil +galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence +the coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force +of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some +way to take up and retain a definite position when no current is +passing by means which are called the “control.”</p> + +<p>In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer +consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil +of insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like +a compass needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled +<span class="sidenote">Movable needle galvanometer.</span> +by the direction of the terrestrial magnetic force +within the coil. If the needle is so placed that its axis is +parallel to the plane of the coil, then when an electric current +passes through the coil it is deflected and places itself at an angle +to the axis of the coil determined by the strength of the current +and of the controlling field. In the early forms of movable needle +galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively large magnet +several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was employed +carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees so as to +indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion by +means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F. +Gauss and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it, +and a telescope having cross wires in the focus was used to observe +the scale divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord +<span class="sidenote">Mirror galvanometers.</span> +Kelvin (Professor W. Thomson) made the important +improvement of reducing the size of the needle and attaching +it to the back of a very small mirror, the two being +suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The mirror +was made of silvered microscopic glass about ¼ in. in diameter, +and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short fragments of +watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being thrown on the +mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were observed by +watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from it upon a +fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first devised +in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became an +indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.</p> + +<p>In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer +and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the +astatic principle and weakening the external controlling +magnetic field. If two magnetic needles of equal size and +<span class="sidenote">Astatic galvanometers.</span> +moment are attached rigidly to one stem parallel to each +other but with poles placed in opposite directions an +astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so suspended as +to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are made exactly +equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no directive power. +If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the suspended +system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines of force +of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle galvanometer +devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of magnetized +needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other with +poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one +coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the +current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the +pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement +a greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more +perfect astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields. +The earth’s magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling +magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the galvanometer +coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In +instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the +current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same +direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal +position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the plane +of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with +a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument +(fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields +caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors, +and therefore is not suitable for use in many places.</p> + +<p>This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer +which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling +instrument but subsequently modified by A. d’Arsonval +and others into a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this +<span class="sidenote">Movable coil galvanometer.</span> +instrument a permanent magnet, generally of the horseshoe +shape, is employed to create a strong magnetic field, in +which a light movable coil is suspended. The suspension +is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are connected to the ends +of the coil and serve to lead the current in and out. If such a coil +is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of force of the permanent +magnet, then when a current is passing through it it displaces itself +in the field, so as to set with its axis more nearly parallel to the lines +of force of the field. The movable coil may carry a pointer or a +mirror; in the latter form it is well represented by several much +used laboratory instruments. The movable coil galvanometer has +the great advantage that it is not easily disturbed by the magnetic +fields caused by neighbouring magnets or electric currents, and thus +is especially useful in the electrical workshop and factory.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:359px" src="images/img429a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer. +Elliott square pattern.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil +galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the +wire of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered, +wound on a frame, the whole being thoroughly saturated +<span class="sidenote">Construction and use.</span> +with paraffin wax. In some cases two wires are wound +on in parallel, constituting a “differential galvanometer.” +When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for the exact +comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if an +electric current is passed +through one wire and creates +certain deflexions of the +needle, the current which +annuls this deflexion when +passed through the other +wire must be equal to the +first current. In the construction +of a movable coil +galvanometer, it is usual to +intensify the magnetic field +by inserting a fixed soft iron +core in the interior of the +movable coil. If the current +to be measured is too large +to be passed entirely through +the galvanometer, a portion +is allowed to flow through a +circuit connecting the two +terminals of the instrument. +This circuit is called a <i>shunt</i> +and is generally arranged so +as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999 +of the total current, leaving +0.1, 0.01 or 0.001 to flow +through the galvanometer. +W.E. Ayrton and T. Mather have designed a universal shunt box or +resistance which can be applied to any galvanometer and by which a +known fraction of any current can be sent through the galvanometer +when we know its resistance (see <i>Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond</i>., 1894, +23, p. 314). A galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its +deflexion determined, by passing through it an electric current of +known value and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The +known current can be provided in the following manner:—a single +secondary cell of any kind can have its electromotive force measured +by the potentiometer (<i>q.v.</i>), and compared with that of a standard +voltaic cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer +through a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is +shunted, that is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S, +then if the resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G, +the whole resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance +has a value represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current +through the galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of +the cell is represented by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>SE</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">R(G + S) + GS</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:316px" src="images/img429b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Movable Coil Galvanometer.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil +or spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the +value of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation +between the deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +galvanometer is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive +force put upon its terminals or a known current sent through +it. It is usual to specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer +by requiring a certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot +of light thrown on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror, +when an electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt) +is applied to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise +expressed by stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions +when a current of one microampere is passed through the +coil. In modern mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the +spot of light upon a scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a +current as small as one hundred millionth (10<span class="sp">−8</span>) or even one ten +thousand millionth (10<span class="sp">−10</span>) of an ampere. It is easy to produce +considerable sensitiveness in the galvanometer, but for practical +purposes it must always be controlled by the condition that the +zero remains fixed, that is to say, the galvanometer needle or coil +must come back to exactly the same position when no current is +passing through the instrument. Other important qualifications +of a galvanometer are its time-period and its dead-beatness. For +certain purposes the needle or coil should return as quickly as +possible to the zero position and with either no, or very few, oscillations. +If the latter condition is fulfilled the galvanometer is said +to be “dead-beat.” On the other hand, for some purposes the +galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that is to say, +there must be as little retardation as possible to the needle or coil +when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a galvanometer +is called “ballistic.” The quality of a galvanometer in this respect +is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of the oscillations +when the movable system is set swinging. This last term is +defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next succeeding +swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic decrement +is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes, such as +for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a galvanometer +which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by affixing +to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a movable needle +galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame when it is +a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the comparison +of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a galvanometer +is required which is as little damped as possible, and for this purpose +the coil must have the smallest possible frictional resistance to its +motion through the air. In this case the moment of inertia of the +movable system must be decreased or the control strengthened.</p> + +<p>The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive +instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists +of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic +field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across +the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:204px; height:241px" src="images/img430.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Helmholtz Tangent +Galvanometer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For the measurement of large currents a “tangent galvanometer” +is employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a +distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a +current passing through them creates in the central +<span class="sidenote">Tangent galvanometer.</span> +region between them a nearly uniform magnetic field. +At the centre of the coils is suspended a small magnetic +needle the length of which should not be greater than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> the radius +of either coil. The normal position of the needle is at right angles +to the line joining the centre of the +coils. If a current is passed through +the coils, the needle will be deflected, +and the tangent of the angle of its +deflexion will be nearly proportional to +the current passing through the coil, +provided that the controlling field is +uniform in strength and direction, and +that the length of the magnetic needle +is so short that the space in which it +rotates is a practically uniform magnetic +field.</p> + +<p><i>Alternating Current Galvanometers.</i>—For +the detection of small alternating +currents a magnetic needle or movable +coil galvanometer is of no utility. We +can, however, construct an instrument +suitable for the purpose by suspending +within a coil of insulated wire a small +needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45° to +the axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through +the coil the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the +axis of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic +wire so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument. +Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists +of a silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the +disk being held at 45° to that of the coil. When an alternating +current is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the +disk and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set +itself so that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer +has been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble +oscillatory electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless +telegraph apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another +very sensitive form of alternating current galvanometer. In it the +current to be detected or measured is passed through a high resistance +wire or strip of metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is +suspended a closed loop of bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric +couple. This loop is suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong +magnetic field, and one junction of the couple is held just over the +resistance wire and as near it as possible without touching. When +an alternating current passes through the resistance it creates heat +which in turn acts on the thermo-junction and generates a continuous +current in the loop, thus deflecting it in the magnetic field. +The sensitiveness of such a thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently +great to detect a current of a few microamperes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—J.A. Fleming, <i>A Handbook for the Electrical +Laboratory and Testing Room</i>, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton, +T. Mather and W.E. Sumpner, “On Galvanometers,” <i>Proc. Phys. +Soc. London</i> (1890), 10, 393; H.R. Kempe, <i>A Handbook of Electrical +Testing</i> (London, 1906); A. Gray, <i>Absolute Measurements in Electricity +and Magnetism</i>, vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful +information is also contained in the catalogues of all the principal +electrical instrument makers—Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The +Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and +Braun, Queen and others.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALVESTON<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span>, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of +Galveston county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the +N.E. extremity of Galveston Island and at the entrance to +Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m. S.E. of Houston and 310 m. +W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900) 37,789, +(6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land +area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston +& Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the +Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, +the International & Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas +& Texas railways, and by numerous steamship lines to Gulf +ports in the United States and Mexico, and to Cuba, South +America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States. +Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long +and 1½ to 3½ m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland. +The city, which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay, +faces and has its harbour on the latter. The island was connected +with the mainland before the 1900 storm by a road bridge and +several railway bridges, which, a short distance W. of the city, +crossed the narrow strip of water separating the West Bay from +Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least harmed (a single-track +railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was for a time the +city’s only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908 bonds were +issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four +railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for +vehicles and pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in +1904 at a cost of $2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and +Gulf sides of the city, about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide +(1.5 ft. above the high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft. +above the previous high-water mark, that of September 1875), +16 ft. wide at the base and 5 ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the +lineal foot, and with a granite rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft. +on the Gulf side. The entire grade of the city was raised from 1 to +15 ft. above the old level. Between the sea-wall and the sea there +is a splendid beach, the entire length of which is nearly 30 m. +Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the court-house, +the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and post-office, +the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United States +government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station, +an immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal +government separate quarantine stations. In addition to the +Ball public high school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary’s +University (1854), the Sacred Heart and Ursuline academies, and +the Cathedral school, all under Roman Catholic control.</p> + +<p>The government of the municipality was long vested in a +council of ward aldermen, controlled by a “machine,” which was +proved corrupt in 1894 by an investigation undertaken at the +personal expense of the mayor; it gave place in 1895 to a city +council of aldermen at large, which by 1901 had proved its +inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm of the +preceding year. Government then seemed a business question +and was practically undertaken by the city’s commercial experts, +the Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been +harbour improvement, and who now drew up a charter providing +for government by a board of five appointed by the governor of the +state. A compromise measure making three members appointees +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +of the governor and two elected by the voters of the city was +in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A third +charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by +the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president +and commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works +and sewerage, of streets and public property, and of police +and fire protection, each commissioner being held individually +responsible for the management of his department. These are +business departments carefully systematized by their heads. +The legislative power is vested in the commission as a whole, +over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote +like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The +success of this commission government has been remarkable: +in 1901-1908 the city, without issuing bonds except for grade +raising, paid off a large debt, raised the salaries of city employees, +paid its running expenses in cash, planned and began public +improvements and sanitary reforms, and did much for the +abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice. The +Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been +adopted in many other American cities.</p> + +<p>Galveston’s manufactories, the products of which in 1900 +were valued at $5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890 +(value of products under “factory system,” $3,675,323 in 1900; +$2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of 18.5%), include cotton-seed +oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber mills, wooden-ware +factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works, ship-yards +and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses, coal +and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The +Gulf Fisheries Company has its fleet’s headquarters and large +packing-houses at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that +Galveston is chiefly important. In 1907 it was the second port +in the United States in the value of its exports (domestic and +foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of the total), being surpassed +only by New York City; and was the first of the Gulf ports +(having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being second +with $164,998,540. Galveston’s imports in 1907 were valued at +$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port +in the Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at +$163,564,445. Other exports of great value are cotton seed products +(oil and cake, $10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279 +in 1907), wheat ($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The +electric lighting and water-supply systems are owned and +operated by the municipality.</p> + +<p>The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about +1782 by Spanish explorers in honour either of José de Galvez, +Marquis of Sonora, or his nephew Bernardo, governor of +Louisiana; and in the early days of the 19th century was the +principal rendezvous of a powerful band of buccaneers and pirates, +of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean Lafitte was chief. +After much difficulty these were finally dispersed about 1820 by +the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first settlement +from the United States was made on the site of the present city. +The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic +of Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken +by a Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw +(1816-1863). After a sharp engagement a Confederate force +under General John B. Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on +the 1st of January 1863, one of the Federal ships, the “Harriet +Lane,” falling into Confederate hands, and another, the “Westfield,” +being blown up with Commander Renshaw on board. +Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although +rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war. +On the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by +a West Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen +hours, reached a velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the +Gulf were piled up in enormous waves that swept across a large +part of the city, destroying or badly damaging more than 8000 +buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000 lives, and a property +loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal contributions +came from all over the country, and the state partially remitted +the city’s taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on a +more substantial plan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALWAY<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span>, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of +Connaught, bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by +Roscommon, King’s County and Tipperary; S. by Clare and +Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is +1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in +size to Cork among the Irish counties.</p> + +<p>The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two +great divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county +except the four western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and +is, generally speaking, a level champaign country, but contains +large quantities of wet bog. Its southern portion is partly a +continuation of the Golden Vale of Limerick, celebrated for its +fertility, and partly occupied by the Slievebaughty Mountains. +The northern portion of the division contains rich pasture and +tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and dale. Some +of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated, but +forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the +county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and +mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara, +Jar-Connaught and Joyce’s Country; the name of Connemara +is, however, often applied to the whole district. Its highest +mountains are the grand and picturesque group of Bunnabeola, +or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which occupy a space of about 25 sq. +m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft. Much of this district is a +gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft. above sea-level. Joyce’s +Country, farther north, is an elevated tract, with flat-topped +hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys lying between +them.</p> + +<p>Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of +sea-coast, indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are +rarely used except by a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the +boundary with the county Mayo in the north is Killary Harbour +which separates the two counties. The first bay on the western +coast capable of accommodating large ships is Ballynakill, +sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in succession +is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of Inishbofin and +Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet, within +which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot. +Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating +at the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the +southern inlet has also good anchorage within the bar, and has +a good salmon fishery. Mannin Bay, though large, is much +exposed and little frequented by shipping. From Slyne Head the +coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay, which has its entrance +protected by the islands of Inishnee and Inishlacken. Next in +order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and rocks, but +deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast, has +a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is +but 3 m. broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is +Greatman’s Bay and close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of +those in Connemara. The whole of the coast from Greatman’s +Bay eastward is comprehended in the Bay of Galway, the entrance +of which is protected by the three limestone islands of Aran, +Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.</p> + +<p>The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size. +The Suck, which forms the eastern boundary of the county, +rises in Roscommon, and passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the +Shannon at Shannonbridge. The Shannon forms the south-eastern +boundary of the county, and passing Shannon Harbour, Banagher, +Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great expanse of water +called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as the village of +Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through the +centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above +the town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the +best salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins, +passes through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid +course falls into Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough +Corrib extends from Galway town northwards over 30,000 acres, +with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The lake is studded with many +islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The district west of +Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about twenty-five of +them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent. +Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called +turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the +year. Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder, +and contain large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining +into Camus Bay, a branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess +and the Ballynahinch waters, are the best fishing centres. On +account of its scenic beauty, both coastal and inland, together +with its facilities for sport, county Galway is frequented by +summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were difficult +of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the western +counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted private +enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains, +broken by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as +by the innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts, +afford scenes varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded +along the water’s edge to wild, bare moorlands among the +heights, while the summits are usually bold and rocky cones. +Several small fishing villages have acquired the dignity of watering-places +from the erection of hotels, which have also been +planted in previously untenanted situations of high scenic +attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the +head of Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack +on Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel +on Bertraghboy Bay. Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare, +and Ballynahinch, on the lough of that name, both on the +railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous Limestone +plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore +and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock +appears freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over +almost level land. Its west branches, however, run up into “Dalradian” +hills, which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara. +A broad mass of ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough +Corrib and Galway Bay, cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest +the presence of an east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve +Bens owe their supremacy to the quartzites, which are here well +bedded and associated with limestone and mica-schist. Silurian +conglomerates and sandstones, with andesitic lavas, overlie the +Dalradians, with marked unconformity, south of Leenane and +round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard rocks admirably +record the action of ice throughout the county. There is black +Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the well-known +“Connemara Marble” is a banded serpentinous crystalline limestone +in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown. +Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west +of Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Industries</i>.—The climate is mild and healthy but +variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon. +Frost or snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle +of every description continue unhoused during the winter. The +eastern part of the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently +sown after potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat. +The flat shores of the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for +manure. Limestone, gravel and marl are to be had in most other +parts. When a sufficient quantity of manure for potatoes cannot +be had, the usual practice is to pare and burn the surface. In many +places on the seashore fine early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand +manured with seaweed, and the crop is succeeded by barley. Those +parts of the eastern district less fitted for grain are employed in +pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks occupy a very large tract between +Monivea and Galway. An extensive range from Athenry, stretching +to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also chiefly occupied by sheep. Over +half the total acreage of the county is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep, +pigs and poultry are extensively reared. The proportion of tillage to +pasturage is roughly as one to four; and owing to the nature of the +country fully one-third of the total area is quite barren.</p> + +<p>Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by +the domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels +and blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and +Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit +woollen stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle +linen, is also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving +factory at Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great +source of profit on the western shores, is still carried on to some +extent. Feathers and sea-fowls’ eggs are brought in great quantities +from the islands of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl +that frequent the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many +of the inhabitants, the industry having as its centres the ports of +Galway and Clifden.</p> + +<p>The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at +Ballinasloe, and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension +to Oughterard (Lough Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern & +Western line from Sligo to Limerick traverses the county from +N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry and Gort.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The population of county +Galway (211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more +than half in the last seventy years of the 19th century, and the +decrease continues, as emigration is heavy. About 97% of the +population are Roman Catholics, and a somewhat less percentage +are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained by many in this +remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426), +Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the +smaller towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford, +Oughterard and Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four +parliamentary divisions (returning one member each); north, +south, east and Connemara, while the town of Galway returns +one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes are held at +Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden, Gort, +Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county +comprises parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of +Killaloe; and of the Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway, +Clonfert and Killaloe.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure, +and nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its +legend with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for +mastery undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of +the Spanish Armada on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose +influence is still to be traced. The formation of Galway into a +county was effected about 1579 by Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy +of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim (<i>q.v.</i>) the decisive battle +of the English Revolution was fought in 1691. Among the +antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is at +Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably +out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are +numerous and several cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation. +The ruins of monastic buildings are also numerous. That +of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam, said to have been founded +in 1180 by Cathal O’Connor, was adorned with rude fresco +paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable as +being the best authentic representations existing of ancient +Irish costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman +settlers are frequently met with; some have been kept in +repair, but the greater number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam, +built in 1161 by Roderick O’Connor, king of Ireland, at the period +of the English invasion, is said to have been the first building of +this description of stone and mortar in Ireland. The remains of a +round castle, a form of building very uncommon in the military +architecture of the country, are to be seen between Gort and +Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and monastic +ruins on the Aran Islands (<i>q.v.</i>) must be mentioned; and the +town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe +all show interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the +south of the county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a +cathedral, the diocese of which was united with Kilfenora, +Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GALWAY,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county +town of county Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway +Bay, and on the main line of the Midland Great Western railway. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,426. Some of the streets are +very narrow, and contain curious specimens of old buildings, +chiefly in antique Spanish style, being square, with a central +court, and a gateway opening into the street. The most noteworthy +of these is the pile known as Lynch’s Castle. This +residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch +Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose +severity as a magistrate is exemplified in the story that he +executed his own son, and thus gave origin (according to one of +several theories) to the familiar term of Lynch law. The principal +streets are broad and contain good shops. St Nicholas church is a +fine cruciform building founded in 1320, and containing monuments, +and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to have been +brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not +known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward +VI. created the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +but the old college buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the +church ceased to be collegiate in 1840. There are remains of +a Franciscan friary founded in 1296. St Augustine’s church +(Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town is the seat of +a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and +industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College, +Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University +College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey +limestone. It was founded as Queen’s College, with other +colleges of the same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of +1845, and its name was changed when it was granted a new +charter pursuant to the Irish Universities Act 1908. The +harbour comprises an extensive line of quays, and is connected +for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping trade is +considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited +unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important. +The chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and +black marble, which is polished in local mills. Other industrial +establishments include corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and +brush and bag factories. The borough, which returned two +members to parliament until 1885, now returns one.</p> + +<p>Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb +known as the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a +curious collection of small cottages, where communal government +by a locally elected mayor long prevailed, together with +peculiar laws and customs, strictly exclusive inter-marriage, and a +high moral and religious standard. Specimens of the distinctive +Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and treasured +as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive +dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their +vestiges remain.</p> + +<p>The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome +residences. The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam, +with its round tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill, +with golf links, is a waterside residential suburb.</p> + +<p>Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival +of the English, at which time it was under the protection of +O’Flaherty, who possessed the adjoining district to the west. +On the extinction of the native dynasty of the O’Connors, the +town fell into the hands of the De Burgos, the head of a branch of +which, under the name of M’William Eighter, long governed it by +magistrates of his own appointment. After it had been secured +by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are still in part +traceable, it became the residence of a number of enterprising +settlers, through whom it attained a position of much commercial +celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen in +number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of +Norman, Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in +their relationships that dispensations were frequently requisite +for the canonical legality of marriages among them. The town +rapidly increased from this period in wealth and commercial +rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival city of Limerick. +Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with liberal +privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the +right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to +show that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in +1545, extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran, +permitted the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and +woollens, and confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers +of Cromwell’s soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and +there are many traces of Spanish blood among the population. +Its municipal privileges were extended by a charter from James I., +whereby the town, and a district of two miles round in every +direction, were formed into a distinct county, with exclusive +jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates. During +the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was +surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote; +after which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and +their property was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly +from England. On the accession of James II. the old inhabitants +entertained sanguine hopes of recovering their former rights. +But the successes of King William soon put an end to their expectations; +and the town, after undergoing another siege, again +capitulated to the force brought against it by General Ginkell.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMA, VASCO DA<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and +discoverer of the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small +seaport in the province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama’s early history +little is known. His descent, according to the <i>Nobiliario</i> of +Antonio de Lima, was derived from a noble family which is +mentioned in the year 1166; but the line cannot be traced +without interruption farther back than the year 1280, to one +Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevão da Gama, +civil governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably +about the year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the +Navigator, to whose intelligence and foresight must be traced +back all the fame that Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and +16th centuries. Explorers sent out at his instigation discovered +the Azores and unknown regions on the African coast, whence +continually came reports of a great monarch, “who lived east of +Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both temporal +and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings,” a story +which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of “Prester John” +which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests, +that John II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea +and by land the attempt should be made to reach the country +of this potentate. For this purpose Pedro de Covilham and +Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward by land; while +Bartholomeu Diaz (<i>q.v.</i>), in command of two vessels, was sent +westward by sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>, 14). That there was in truth +an ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned +in December 1488 with the report that when sailing southward +he was carried far to the east by a succession of fierce storms, +past—as he discovered only on his return voyage—what he +ascertained to be the southern extremity of the African continent. +The condition of John’s health and concerns of state, however, +prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition; and it was +not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to +the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were +completed—hastened, doubtless, by Columbus’s discovery of +America in the meanwhile.</p> + +<p>For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected +Vasco da Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against +Castile, and in his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid +mariner. The fleet, consisting of four vessels specially built for +this mission, sailed down the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after +prayers and confession made by the officers and crews in a small +chapel on the site where now stands the church of S. Maria de +Belem (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lisbon</a></span>), afterwards built to commemorate the event. +Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St Helena Bay, +South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the beginning +of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa. +Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained +from Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived +at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set +up, according to the custom of his country, a marble pillar as a +mark of conquest and a proof of his discovery of India. His +reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler of Calicut, would +have in all probability been favourable enough, had it not been +for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for +their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da +Gama was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having +seen enough of India to assure him of its great resources, he +returned to Portugal in September 1499. The king received him +with every mark of distinction, granted him the use of the prefix +<i>Dom</i>, thus elevating him to the rank of an untitled noble, and +conferred on him pensions and other property. In prosecution +of da Gama’s discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships was +immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who, +in sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on +reaching his destination established a factory at Calicut. The +natives, again instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose +up in arms and murdered all whom Cabral had left behind. To +avenge this outrage a powerful armament of ten ships was fitted +out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first given to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who received +the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later the +fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately +bombarded the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery +too horrible to describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November +to Cochin, “doing all the harm he could on the way to all that he +found at sea,” and having made favourable trading terms with it +and with other towns on the coast, he returned to Lisbon in +September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and his captains +were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received additional +privileges and revenues.</p> + +<p>Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora, +possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he +expected, but more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and +position which he had acquired; for he was now one of the +richest men in the kingdom. He had married, probably in 1500, +a lady of good family, named Catherina de Ataide, by whom he +had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to advise King +Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime policy +up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522 +which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour. +The most important of these is a grant dated December 1519 +by which Vasco da Gama was created count of Vidigueira, with +the extraordinary privileges of civil and criminal jurisdiction +and ecclesiastical patronage. During this time the Portuguese +conquests increased in the East, and were presided over by +successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so unfortunate that +da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel’s successor, +John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in +April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during +September of the same year, he immediately set himself to correct +with vigour the many abuses which had crept in under the rule +of his predecessors. He was not destined, however, to prosecute +far the reforms he had inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve +following his arrival, he died at Cochin after a short illness, and was +buried in the Franciscan monastery there. In 1538 his body was +conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the town of Vidigueira. +In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence to have been +his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria de +Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching +Portugal, and raising her to one of the foremost places among the +nations of Europe, and eventually the far greater one of bringing +to pass the colonization of the East by opening its commerce +to the Western world.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Vasco da Gama’s First Voyage</i>, by Dr E. Ravenstein +(London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes, +&c., of the anonymous <i>Roteiro</i> (Journal or Itinerary), written by +one of Vasco da Gama’s subordinates who sailed on board the +“S. Raphael,” which was commanded by the admiral’s brother Paulo +da Gama. This is the most important of the original authorities; +five accounts of the voyage in letters contemporary with it are +appended to the Hakluyt Society’s translation. See also J. de +Barros, <i>Decadas da India</i> (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written <i>c.</i> 1540); +F.L. de Castanheda, <i>Historia do descobrimento da India</i> (Coimbra, +1551, largely based on the <i>Roteiro</i>); <i>The Three Voyages of Vasco da +Gama and his Viceroyalty</i>, by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society, +1869), chiefly valuable for the events of 1524; <i>The Lusiads</i> of +Camoens, the central incident in which is Vasco da Gama’s first +voyage; <i>Calcoen</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>Calicut</i>), <i>a Dutch Narrative of the Second +Voyage of Vasco da Gama</i>, written by some unknown seaman of +the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504, reprinted in facsimile, +with introduction and translation, by J. Ph. Berjeau (London, +1874); Thomé Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of Ramusio.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMALIEL<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (<span title="Gamliel">גמליאל</span>). This name, which in Old Testament +times figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh +(<i>vide</i> Num. i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of +Hillel. Six persons bearing the name are known.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated +Ha-Zāqēn (the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that +he was numbered among the Sanhedrin, the high council of +Jerusalem. According to the tradition of the schools of Palestine +Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his father (of the latter +nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as <i>Nasi</i>, or president of +the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not correspond with +historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel took a leading +position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest repute as an +authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the +interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name +was prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in +the Acts of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted +in the Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were +threatened with death, and on this occasion he is designated +as a Pharisee and as being “had in reputation among all the +people” (<span class="grk" title="nomodidaskalos timios panti tô laô">νομοδιδάσκαλος τίμιος παντὶ τῷ λαῷ</span>). In the Mishna +(<i>Giṭṭin</i> iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the author of certain legal +ordinances affecting the welfare of the community (the expression +in the original is “<i>tiqqun ha-‘ōlām</i>,” <i>i.e.</i> improvement of the +world) and regulating certain questions as to conjugal rights. +In the tradition was also preserved the text of the epistles +regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent +to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (<i>i.e.</i> southern +Palestine) and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and +elsewhere). He figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser +of the king and queen, <i>i.e.</i> Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris +(Pesahim 88 <i>b</i>). His function as a teacher is proved by the fact +that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat at the feet of Gamaliel +(Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the saying preserved in +Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of scrupulousness +in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very +remarkable characterization of the different natures of the +scholars remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in +later days is summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Soṭah): +“When Rabban Gamaliel the Elder died, regard for the Torah +(the study of the Law) ceased, and purity and piety died.” As +Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose name is mentioned +in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian legend, +and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian) +relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel’s +commentary on the Old Testament, thereby most probably +meaning the Talmud.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of +Jerusalem’s foremost men in the war against the Romans (<i>vide</i> +Josephus, <i>Bellum Jud</i>. iv. 3, 9, <i>Vita</i> 38), and grandson of Gamaliel +I. To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel +of Jabneh. In Jabneh (Jamnia), where during the siege of +Jerusalem the scribes of the school of Hillel had taken refuge by +permission of Vespasian, a new centre of Judaism arose under the +leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose +members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem. +Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai’s successor, and +rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration +of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the +destruction of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political +autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen +between the spiritual leaders of Palestinian Judaism by the +separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively +after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to enforce his own +authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism +with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself +said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in order +that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel’s position +was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the +end of Domitian’s reign (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 95) he went to Rome in company +with the most prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in +order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of +the terrible emperor. Many interesting particulars have been +given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and +their sojourn there. The impression made by the capital of the +world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering +one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins. +In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend +Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with +professed Christians. In an anecdote regarding a suit which +Gamaliel was prosecuting before a Christian judge, a converted +Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the words of Jesus in +Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 <i>a, b</i>). Gamaliel devoted special +attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He +gave the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its +final revision, and declared it every Israelite’s duty to recite it +three times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were +not Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when +the latter died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his +own family. He loved discussing the sense of single portions of +the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of +the text. With the words of Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the +lesson: “So long as thou thyself art merciful, God will also be +merciful to thee.” Gamaliel died before the insurrections under +Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At his funeral +obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos), +reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value +of seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his +body was to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this +he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated +with arrangements for the disposal of the dead, and his end was +attained; for his example became the rule, and it also became the +custom to commemorate him in the words of consolation +addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 <i>b</i>). Gamaliel’s son, +Simon, long after his father’s death, and after the persecutions +under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his +descendants handed on from father to son.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna, +and his successor as <i>Nasi</i> (patriarch). The redaction of the +Mishna was completed under him, and some of his sayings are +incorporated therein (Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows: +“Beware of those in power, for they permit men to approach +them only for their own uses; they behave as friends when it is +for their advantage, but they do not stand by a man when he is in +need.” Evidently this was directed against the self-seeking of the +Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the first half of +the 3rd century.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter +half of the 3rd century: about him very little is known.</p> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.: +beyond his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the +latter half of the 4th century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel +whom Jerome mentions in his letter to Pamachius, written in 393.</p> + +<p>6. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> VI., grandson of the above, the last of the +patriarchs, died in 425. With him expired the office, which had +already been robbed of its privileges by a decree of the emperors +Honorius and Theodosius II. (dated the 17th of October 415). +Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and a celebrated remedy of his +is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus (<i>De Medicamentis</i>, +liber 21).</p> +<div class="author">(W. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBETTA, LÉON<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1838-1882), French statesman, was born +at Cahors on the 2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who +had established himself as a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman +named Massabie, is said to have been his son’s prototype +in vigour and fluency of speech. In his sixteenth year young +Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left eye, which +eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation, +he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors, +and in 1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern +vehemence gave him great influence among the students of the +Quartier Latin, and he was soon known as an inveterate enemy +of the imperial government. He was called to the bar in 1859, +but, although contributing to a Liberal review, edited by +Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the 17th +of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist +Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a +monument to the representative Baudin, who was killed in +resisting the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity +and assailed both the <i>coup d’état</i> and the government with an +eloquence of invective which made him immediately famous.</p> + +<p>In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first +circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte +Carnot for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for +the latter. He elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity +of attacking the Empire in the Assembly. He was at first +opposed to the war with Germany, but when satisfied that it had +been forced upon France he did not, like some of his colleagues, +refuse to vote supplies, but took the patriotic line of supporting +the flag. When the news of the disaster at Sedan reached Paris, +Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself proclaimed the +fall of the emperor at the <i>corps législatif</i>, and the establishment of +a republic at the hôtel de ville. He was one of the first members +of the new government of national defence, becoming minister +of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and +conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice +was rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a +delegation to organize resistance in the provinces was despatched +to Tours, but when this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta +himself (7th October) quitted Paris in a balloon, and upon +arriving at Tours took the supreme direction of affairs as minister +of the interior and of war. Aided by M. de Freycinet, then a +young officer of engineers, as his assistant secretary of war, he +displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He speedily +organized an army, which might possibly have effected the relief +of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine +brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success +was impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans +early in December the seat of government had to be transferred +to Bordeaux, and when Paris surrendered at the end of January, +Gambetta, though resisting and protesting, was compelled to +submit to the capitulation concluded with Prince Bismarck. +He immediately resigned his office. Elected by nine departments +to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the 1st of +March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of +the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification +was to be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he +resigned in protest and retired to Spain.</p> + +<p>He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments +in July, and commenced an agitation for the definitive +establishment of the Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he +established a journal, <i>La République française</i>, which soon +became the most influential in France. His orations at public +meetings were more effective than those delivered in the +Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and +that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he +spoke of political power having passed to les <i>nouvelles couches +sociales</i>. When Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873, +and a Royalist was placed at the head of the government in the +person of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta gave proof of his +statesmanship by unceasingly urging his friends to a moderate +course, and by his tact and parliamentary dexterity, no less than +by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in the voting of the +constitution in February 1875. This policy he continued during +the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and gave it +the appropriate name of “opportunism.” It was not until the +4th of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was +notorious, and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the +restoration of the temporal power of the pope, that he delivered +his famous speech denouncing “clericalism” as “the enemy.” +On the 16th of May Marshal MacMahon, in order to support the +clerical reactionaries, perpetrated his parliamentary <i>coup d’état</i>, +and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in a speech at Lille, gave +him the alternative se <i>soumettre ou se démettre</i>. He then undertook +a political campaign to rouse the republican party throughout +France, which culminated in a speech at Romans (September +18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally +unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to +dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry +under the premiership of Dufaure.</p> + +<p>When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about +the abdication of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to +become a candidate for the presidency, but gave his support to +Grévy; nor did he attempt to form a ministry, but accepted the +office of president of the chamber of deputies (January 1879). +This position, which he filled with much ability, did not prevent +his occasionally descending from the presidential chair to +make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +communards, was especially memorable. Although he really +directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought +that the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to +direct the policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe +a neutral attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on, +and early in 1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement +for restoring <i>scrutin de liste</i>, or the system by which deputies are +returned by the entire department which they represent, so that +each elector votes for several representatives at once, in place of +<i>scrutin d’arrondissement</i>, the system of small constituencies, +giving one member to each district and one vote to each elector. +A bill to re-establish <i>scrutin de liste</i> was passed by the Assembly +on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on the 19th of +June.</p> + +<p>But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the +country his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at +the election. His supporters were in a large majority, and on the +reassembling of the chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned. +Gambetta was unwillingly entrusted by Grévy on the 14th of +November 1881 with the formation of a ministry—known as +<i>Le Grand Ministère</i>. He now experienced the Nemesis of his +over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of compromising +his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at +a dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice, +were directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on +the 26th of January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six +days. Had he remained in office his declarations leave no doubt +that he would have cultivated the British alliance and cooperated +with Great Britain in Egypt; and when the Freycinet +administration, which succeeded, shrank from that enterprise +only to see it undertaken with signal success by England alone, +Gambetta’s foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were +presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of +December 1882, at his house in Ville d’Avray, near Sèvres, he +died by a shot from a revolver which accidentally went off. +Then all France awoke to a sense of her obligation to him, and +his public funeral on the 6th of January 1883 evoked one of the +most overwhelming displays of national sentiment ever witnessed +on a similar occasion.</p> + +<p>Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by +preserving her self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance +he organized during the German War, by his tact in persuading +extreme partisans to accept a moderate Republic, and by his +energy in overcoming the usurpation attempted by the advisers +of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early age of forty-four, +cut short a career which had given promise of still greater things, +for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the future of +his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been +potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his +life was his connexion with Léonie Léon (d. 1906), the full details +of which were not known to the public till her death. This lady, +with whom Gambetta fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a +French artillery officer. She became his mistress, and the <i>liaison</i> +lasted till he died. Gambetta himself constantly urged her to +marry him during this period, but she always refused, fearing to +compromise his career; she remained, however, his confidante +and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is understood +that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and the +date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which +caused his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory +accounts have indeed been given as to this fatal episode, but that +it was accidental, and not suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the +influence of Léonie was absorbing, both as lover and as politician, +and the correspondence which has been published shows how +much he depended upon her. But in various matters of detail the +serious student of political history must be cautious in accepting +her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in the +writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took +place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta +after 1875 felt strongly that the relations between France and +Germany might be improved, and that he made it his object, by +travelling incognito, to become better acquainted with Germany +and the adjoining states, may be accepted, but M. Laur appears +to have exaggerated the extent to which any actual negotiations +took place. On the other hand, the increased knowledge of +Gambetta’s attitude towards European politics which later +information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost +prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April +1905 a monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was +unveiled by President Loubet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gambetta’s <i>Discours et plaidoyers politiques</i> were published by J. +Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his <i>Dépêches, circulaires, +décrets</i> ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have +appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, <i>Léon Gambetta</i> (1884), +<i>Gambetta orateur</i> (1884) and <i>Le Ministère Gambetta, histoire et doctrine</i> +(1884); Neucastel, <i>Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idées politiques</i> (1885); +J. Hanlon, <i>Gambetta</i> (London, 1881); Dr Laborde, <i>Léon Gambetta +biographie psychologique</i> (1898); P.B. Gheusi, Gambetta, <i>Life and +Letters</i> (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See also G. Hanotaux, +<i>Histoire de la France contemporaine</i> (1903, &c.). F. Laur’s <i>Le Cœur +de Gambetta</i> (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains the correspondence +with Léonie Léon; see also his articles on “Gambetta and Bismarck” +in <i>The Times</i> of August 17 and 19, 1907, with the correspondence +arising from them.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBIA,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an important river of West Africa, and the only +river of Africa navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for +over 200 m. from its mouth. It rises in about 11° 25′ N. and +12° 15′ W., within 150 m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarpment +of the Futa Jallon highlands, the massif where also rise the +head-streams of the Senegal and some of the Niger tributaries, +besides the Rio Grande and many other rivers flowing direct to +the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in its lower course, is +very serpentine, and although the distance from the source to +the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct line, +the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first +N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12° 35′ N. +takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it +leaves the fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the +lower district is marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a +ledge of rock stretching across the river. Between 30 and 50 m. +above the falls the Gambia is joined by two considerable affluents, +the Nieriko from the north and the Kuluntu or Grey river from +the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the Atlantic the +Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this distance +the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year round +by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles +below Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry +season, of over 300 ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls +to McCarthy’s Island, a distance of 200 m., the river valley, which +here presents a park-like appearance, is enclosed by low rocky +hills of volcanic character. For 50 m. below the island, where the +stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks of the river are steep and +thickly wooded. They then become low and are fringed with +mangrove swamps. From Devil’s Point, a sharp promontory on +the north bank—up to which place the water is salt—the river +widens considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13½° N. +and 16½° W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river +on the south side is St Mary’s Island (3½ m. long by 1½ broad), +and opposite on the north bank is Barra Point, the river being +here contracted to 2½ m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance +from shore to shore is 27 m. There is a sand-bar at the entrance +to the river, but at the lowest state of the tide there are 26 ft. of +water over the bar. The Gambia is in flood from November to +June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable by small boats. +Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. Politically +the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and France—Britain +possessing both banks of the river up to, but not including, +Yarbatenda.</p> + +<p>The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the +Carthaginian in his famous voyage along the west coast of +Africa. It was known to Ptolemy and the Arabian geographers, +and was at one time supposed to be a mouth of the Nile, and, +later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was possibly +visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly discovered +by the Portuguese <i>c.</i> 1446, but was first explored for any +distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +(<i>q.v.</i>), who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507 +(<i>La Prima Navigazione per l’Oceano alle terre de’ Negri della +Bassa Ethiopia</i>). Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place +for explorers of the interior, among them Mungo Park, who began +both his journeys (1795 and 1805) from this river. It was not +until 1818 that the sources of the Gambia were reached, the +discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard Mollien, who had +travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle course +of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then +governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury +also navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind +was seen above Barraconda. The more correct name of the river +is Gambra, and it is so called in old books of travel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mungo Park’s <i>Travels</i> (London, 1799); G. Mollien, <i>Travels +... to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ...</i>, edited by T.E. +Bowdich (London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury’s journey in +the Blue Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBIA,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> the most northerly of the British West African +dependencies. It consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the +lower Gambia. The colony, with the protectorate dependent upon +it, has an area of about 4000 sq. m. and a population officially +estimated (1907) at 163,000. The colony proper (including +St Mary’s Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded Mile, McCarthy’s +Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m. The +protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres +(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about +200 m. in a direct line from the sea. The land outside these +limits is French. Within the protectorate are various petty +kingdoms, such as Barra, to the north of the Gambia, and +Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the colony near the coast +is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The greatest breadth +is 39 m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features, Fauna and Flora.</i>—The colony, as its name +implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (<i>q.v.</i>), +which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony, +while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth +and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river +banks, the country is largely “bush.” The region above McCarthy’s +Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The +fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys, +bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part +of the river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most +common are bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and +sand-grouse. Bees are very numerous in parts of the country. +The flora resembles that of West Africa generally, the mangrove +being common. Mahogany and rosewood (<i>Pterocarpus erinaceus</i>) +trees are found, though not in large numbers, and the rubber-vine +and oil-palm are also comparatively scarce. There are many varieties +of fern. The cassava (manioca) and indigo plants are indigenous.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate during the dry season (November-June) +is the best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is +then considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of +the malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean +temperature at Bathurst is 77° F., the shade minimum being 56° +and the solar maximum 165°. Upriver the variation in temperature +is even greater than at Bathurst, from 50° in the morning to 100°-104° +at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> being common at McCarthy’s Isle. The average +rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June +there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first +instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in +1906. The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows intermittently +from December to March.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>—The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and +industrious, are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the +chief tribes represented being the Mandingo (<i>q.v.</i>), the Jolof and +the Jola. Numbers of Fula (<i>q.v.</i>) are also settled in the country. +Fully four-fifths of the natives are Mahommedans. The few +European residents are officials, traders or missionaries.</p> + +<p><i>Towns and Trade.</i>—Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief +town of the colony, in 13° 24′ N., 16° 36′ W., is built on St Mary’s +Island, which lies at the mouth of the river near its south +bank and is connected with the mainland by a bridge across +Oyster Creek. It was founded in 1816 and is named after the +3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of state for the colonies from 1812 to +1827. Bathurst is a fairly well-built town, the chief material +employed being red sandstone. It lies about 12 to 14 ft. above +the level of the river. The principal buildings face the sea, and +include Government House, barracks, a well-appointed hospital, +founded by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator, 1847-1852), +and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine +avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no +other towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called +Georgetown is situated on McCarthy’s Island, so named after Sir +Charles McCarthy, the governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was +captured and beheaded by the Ashanti at the battle of Essamako. +Albreda, a small port on the north bank of the river, of some +historic interest (see below), is in the Barra district.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Products.</i>—Ground-nuts (<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), rubber, beeswax, +palm kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions. +Millet and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides, +the catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the +weaving of cotton into cloths called “pagns,” afford employment +to a considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports, +besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being +obtained from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between +1830 and 1840 from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually, +but shipments ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of +gold-dust can still be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export +of hides received a severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of +nearly all the cattle, but after an interval of seven or eight years +the industry gradually revived. The value of hides exported increased +from £520 in 1902 to £9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber +was started about 1880, but the trade has not assumed large proportions. +In 1907 the value of the rubber exported was £4602. +The export of wax, valued at £37,000 in 1843, had dwindled in +1907 to £2325. The cultivation of the ground-nut, first exported +in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by 1850 had become the +chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of the nuts was +£256,685, over <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> of the total exports (exclusive of specie). Nearly +the whole male population is engaged in the industry for eight months +of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains, the crop is +reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> to +Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as olive +oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the beginning of +the planting season of thousands of men from a distance, “strange +farmers,” as they are called, who are housed and fed and given +farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce +to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the “strange +farmer” goes off, often not returning for years.</p> + +<p>Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural +resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are +kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their +wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one +years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier +is unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical +station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and +Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment +proved discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting +farmers to grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly +scientific lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut. +The principal imports, of which over <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> come from Great Britain +or British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone), +tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the +average annual value of the exports was £301,000, of the imports +£316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent +mineral wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above +McCarthy’s Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with +Europe and the rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony, +but it is traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft. +The Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A +government steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy’s +Island, and a smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping +trade is chiefly British; French and German tonnage coming next.</p> + +<p>Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the +colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which +country most of the exports go. A considerable entrepôt trade is +also done with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of +French influence is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece, +locally known as a dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate, +and is accepted as legal tender, although the currency in +the colony proper is the English coinage.</p> + +<p><i>Administration, Revenue, &c.</i>—The Gambia is administered by a +governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On +the last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats. +The colony is self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue, +which in 1906 for the first time exceeded £60,000, is mainly derived +from customs. A company of the West African Frontier Force is +maintained. Travelling commissioners visit the five districts into +which, for administrative purposes, the protectorate is divided, and +in which the native form of government prevails. From the native +law-courts appeal can be made to the supreme court at Bathurst. +There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan court, established in 1906, +for the trial of cases involving the civil status of Moslems.</p> + +<p>Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations, +and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +also a secondary and a technical school. There is a privately +supported school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans, +Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have numerous converts.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Of the early history of the Gambia district there is +scant mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars +(apparently of a “Druidical” character), whose ruins are found at +several places along the upper Gambia, were erected is not known. +Those at Lamin Koto, on the right bank of the river opposite +McCarthy’s Island, are still in good preservation, and are an +object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see <i>Geog. Journ.</i> +vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed part, +successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The +relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with +the north and east; consequently no large town was founded on +the banks of the river, nor any trade carried on (before the +coming of the white man) by vessels sailing the ocean. About +the 11th century the district came under Mahommedan influence.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and +in the beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower +river. Embassies were sent from the Portuguese stations inland +to Melle to open up trade with the interior, but about the +middle of the century this trade—apparently mostly in gold and +slaves—declined. At the end of the century the river was known +as the resort of banished men and fugitives from Portugal and +Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living in England +that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to “certain +merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London +for a trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea.” This +company was granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its +operations led to no permanent settlement in the Gambia. In +1618 James I. granted a charter to another company named +“The Company of Adventurers of London trading into Africa,” +and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich, afterwards earl +of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold Coast. +This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then +believed to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower +Gambia in considerable quantities. With this object George +Thompson (a merchant who had traded with Barbary) was sent +out in the “Catherine,” and ascended the Gambia in his ship to +Kassan, a Portuguese trading town, thence continuing his journey +in small boats. In his absence the “Catherine” was seized and +the crew murdered by Portuguese and half-castes, and Thompson +himself was later on murdered by natives. Two years afterwards +Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of Adventurers, +advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was followed, +about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who +on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country +full of gold.</p> + +<p>The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth +of the Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by +Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small +island 20 m. from the mouth of the river and named Fort James, +in honour of the duke of York (James II.). This fort was built +expressly to defend the British trade against the Dutch, and from +that time the British remained in permanent occupation of one or +more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain Bartholomew Stibbs +was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had succeeded +the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden’s reports of gold. +He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not +found. The French now became rivals for the trade of the +Gambia, but the treaty of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in +the river to Britain, reserving, however, Albreda for French trade, +while it assigned the Senegal to France, with the reservation of +the right of the British to trade at Portendic for gum. This +arrangement remained in force till 1857, when an exchange of +possessions was effected and the lower Gambia became a purely +British river. In the period between the signing of the treaty of +Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the colony +proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings. +St Mary’s Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy’s Isle was bought +in 1823; the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in +1826; and British Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During +this period the colony had gone through an economic crisis by +the abolition of the slave trade (1807), which had been since 1662 +its chief financial support. The beginning of a return to prosperity +came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged to leave +Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the +Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary’s Isle. From +that year the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river, +dates. The Gambia witnessed many administrative changes. +When the slave trade was abolished, the settlement was placed +under the jurisdiction of the governor of Sierra Leone, and was +formally annexed to Sierra Leone on the dissolution of the Royal +African Company (1822). It so remained until 1843, when the +Gambia was made an independent colony, its first governor +being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia +became a portion of the officially styled “West African Settlements.” +In 1883 it was again made a separate government, +administered as a crown colony. Between the years last +mentioned—1866-1888—the colony had suffered from the retrograde +policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West +African Settlements (<i>vide</i> Report of the Select Committee of 1865).</p> + +<p>In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great +Britain on the basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West +Africa. Suspended owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian +War the negotiations were resumed in 1876. “Definite proposals +were at that time formulated by which the Gambia was to be +exchanged for all posts by France between the Rio Pongas +(Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have +been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong +a feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was +manifested in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies, +that the government of the day was unable to press the scheme.”<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Nothing was done, however, to secure for the Gambia a suitable +<i>hinterland</i>, and in 1877 the 4th earl of Carnarvon (then colonial +secretary) warned British traders that they proceeded beyond +McCarthy’s Isle at their own risk. Meantime the French from +Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British settlements, +so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement of +the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to +secure only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This +document fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at +a radius of 10 m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda; +which town is situated at the limit of navigability of the Gambia +from the sea. By Art. 5 of the Anglo-French convention of the +8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded to France, with the +object of giving that country a port on the river accessible to +sea-going merchantmen.</p> + +<p>Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the +acquirement of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance +increasing expenditure, to impose a “hut tax” on the natives. +This was done in 1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum +for a family, met with no opposition.</p> + +<p>In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be +forcibly expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider, +Fodi Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An +expedition under Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble +succeeded in routing him, and Fodi Silah took refuge in French +territory, where he died. During the expedition Captain Gamble +was led into an ambush, and in this engagement lost 15 killed and +47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the agency of +Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French +territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and +Mr Silva) were murdered in June of that year, at a place called +Suankandi, and a punitive expedition was sent out under +Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was captured and, the French +co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi Kabba being +killed on the 23rd of March 1901.</p> + +<p>The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and +contented, and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision +was moreover made by an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of +slavery itself throughout the protectorate, it being enacted that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +henceforth all children born of slaves were free from birth, and +that all slaves became free on the death of their master.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Annual Reports</i> on the colony published by the colonial +office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P. +Lucas’s <i>Historical Geography of the British Colonies</i>, vol. iii., <i>West +Africa</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable bibliographical +notes); and <i>The Gambia Colony and Protectorate</i>, an +official handbook (with map and considerable historical information), +by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early +accounts of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley’s +<i>New General Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> (London, 1745-1747). +See also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, <i>Travels in Western +Africa in 1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger</i> +(London, 1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study, +A. Rançon, <i>La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie</i> (Bordeaux, 1895). Most +of the books mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span> also deal with the Gambia.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British +ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1756-1833), English +admiral, was born on the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas, +of which his father, John Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor. +He entered the navy in 1767 as a midshipman on +board the “Yarmouth,” under the command of his uncle; and, +his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he was +raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the +“Raleigh,” a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was +placed on half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the +French Revolution, he was appointed to the command of the +74-gun ship “Defence,” under Lord Howe; and in her he had +an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of June 1794. In +recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain Gambier +received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines; +the following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, +and appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he +continued for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral +of 1799, hoisted his flag on board the “Neptune,” of 98 guns, +as third in command of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis, +where, however, he remained for but a year, when he was +appointed governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-chief +of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he returned to the +admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806, continued +there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his +uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805 +he was raised to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807, +whilst still a lord of the admiralty, he was appointed to the +command of the fleet ordered to the Baltic, which, in concert +with the army under Lord Cathcart, reduced Copenhagen, and +enforced the surrender of the Danish navy, consisting of nineteen +ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops, gunboats, and naval +stores. This service was considered by the government as worthy +of special acknowledgment; the naval and military commanders, +officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both Houses +of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.</p> + +<p>In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the +admiralty on being appointed to the command of the Channel +Fleet; and in that capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented +the total, destruction of the French fleet in Basque Roads, +on the 12th of April 1809. It is in connexion with this event, +which might have been as memorable in the history of the British +navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dundonald</a></span>), +that Lord Gambier’s name is now best known. A court-martial, +assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over +by a warm partisan, “most honourably acquitted” him on the +charge “that, on the 12th of April, the enemy’s ships being then +on fire, and the signal having been made that they could be +destroyed, he did, for a considerable time, neglect or delay taking +effectual measures for destroying them”; but this decision was +in reality nothing more than a party statement of the fact that a +commander-in-chief, a supporter of the government, is not to be +condemned or broken for not being a person of brilliant genius or +dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the French fleet +should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had +Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of +many of his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the +Channel Fleet for the full period of three years, at the end of which +time—in 1811—he was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil +capacity as chief commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace +with the United States; for his exertions in which business he +was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1830 he was +raised to the high rank of admiral of the fleet, and he died on the +19th of April 1833.</p> + +<p>Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious +principle, and of undoubted courage; but the administration of +the admiralty has seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as +during the time when he was a member of it; and through the +whole war the self-esteem of the navy suffered no such wound as +during Lord Gambier’s command in the Bay of Biscay.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The so-called <i>Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral +Lord Gambier</i>, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value. +The life of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall’s <i>Royal Naval +Biography</i>, in Ralfe’s <i>Naval Biography</i>, in Lord Dundonald’s <i>Autobiography +of a Seaman</i>, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in +the general history of the period.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBIER<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span>, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio, +U.S.A., on the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop. +(1900) 751; (1910) 537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron & +Columbus railway. The village is finely situated, and is the seat +of Kenyon College and its theological seminary, Bexley Hall +(Protestant Episcopal), and of Harcourt Place boarding school +for girls (1889), also Protestant Episcopal. The college was incorporated +in 1824 as the “Theological Seminary of the Protestant +Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio”; but in 1891 +“Kenyon College,” the name by which the institution has always +been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held +at Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852), +first Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west +Territory, by whose efforts the funds for its endowment had been +raised in England in 1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords +Kenyon and Gambier. The first permanent building, “Old +Kenyon” (still standing, and used as a dormitory), was erected +on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a forest. In 1907-1908 +the theological seminary had 18 students and the collegiate +department 119.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop +Chase’s <i>Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the +Principal Events in the Author’s Life to 1847</i> (2 vols., New York, 1848).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBOGE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is +obtained), a gum-resin procured from <i>Garcinia Hanburii</i>, a +dioecious tree with leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow +flowers, and usually square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a +member of the natural order Guttiferae, and indigenous to +Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the south of Cochin China, +formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The juice, which +when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark of +the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from +this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being +placed to receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce +in cylindrical pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also, +usually of inferior quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is +of a dirty orange externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a +conchoidal and reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a +brilliant yellow powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first +slight, but subsequently acrid; forms with water an emulsion; +and consists of from 20 to 25% of gum soluble in water, and from +70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest adulterants are rice-flour +and pulverized bark.</p> + +<p>Gamboge (<i>Cambogia</i>) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing +much griping and irritation of the intestine. A small +quantity is absorbed, adding a yellow ingredient to the urine +and acting as a mild diuretic. Its irritant action on the skin may +cause the formation of pustules. It is less active only than +croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in doses of half to two +grains, combined with some sedative such as hyoscyamus, in +apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used as a +pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to +have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East +at the close of the 16th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMBRINUS<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the +first brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of +Jan Primus, <i>i.e.</i> Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant, +from 1261 to 1294, who was president of the Brussels gild of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +brewers; his portrait with a foaming glass of ale in his hand had +the place of honour in the gild-hall, and this led in time, it is +suggested, to the myth of the beer-king who is usually represented +outside a barrel with a tankard in his hand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAME,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a word which in its primary and widest significance +means any amusement or sport, often combined in the early +examples with “glee,” “play,” “joy” or “solace.” It is a +common Teutonic word, in O. Eng. <i>gamen</i>, in O.H.G. <i>gaman</i>, but +only appears in modern usage outside English in Dan. <i>gammen</i> +and Swed. <i>gamman</i>. The ulterior derivation is obscure, but +philologists have identified it with the Goth. <i>gaman</i>, companion +or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the prefix +<i>ga</i>-, with, and the root seen in “man.” Apart from its primary +and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first +to a contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in +accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those +wild animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as +used for food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry, +and from the flesh of deer, to which the name “venison” is given. +For “game,” from the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its +pursuit and capture see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar150">Game Laws</a></span>. The athletic contests of the +ancient Greeks (<span class="grk" title="agônes">ἀγῶνες</span>) and the public shows (<i>ludi</i>) of the arena +and amphitheatre of the ancient Romans are treated below +(<span class="sc"><a href="#ar151">Games, Classical</a></span>); the various forms of modern games, +indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or chance, are +dealt with under their specific titles. A special use (“gaming” +or “gambling”) restricts the term to the playing of games for +money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in +horse-racing, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar152">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>). “Gamble,” +“gambler” and “gambling” appear very late in English. The +earliest quotations in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> for the three +words are dated 1775, 1747 and 1784 respectively. They were +first regarded as cant or slang words, and implied a reproach, +either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to those who played +recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the words is +obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation <i>gammle</i> of +the M.E. <i>gamenian</i>. From this word must, of course, be distinguished +“gambol,” to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms +(<i>gambald, gambaud</i>) show, is from the Fr. <i>gambade</i>, leap, jump, of +a horse, It. <i>gambado</i>, <i>gamba</i>, leg (Mod. Fr. <i>jambe</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAME LAWS.<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> This title in English law is applied to the +statutes which regulate the right to pursue and take or kill +certain kinds of wild animals (see above). The existence of +these statutes is due to the rules of the common law as to the +nature of property, and the interest of the Norman sovereigns +and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or the chase. +The substantial basis of the law of property is physical possession +of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By the +common law wild animals are regarded as <i>res nullius</i>, and as not +being the subject of private property until reduced into possession +by being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a +bird in the bush is not. Even bees do not become property until +hived. “Though a swarm lights in my tree,” says Bracton, +“I have no more property therein than I have in the birds which +make their nests thereon.” If reclaimed or confined they become +property. If they escape, the rights of the owner continue only +while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, <i>i.e.</i> no other person can in +the meantime establish a right of property against him by +capturing the animal. A swarm of bees “which fly out of my +hive are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have +power to pursue them.” But the right of recapture does not +entitle the owner to follow his animals on to the lands of another, +and the only case in which any right to follow wild animals on to +the lands of others is now expressly recognized is when deer or +hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds. This recognition +merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal game trespass, +and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags +are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the +consent of the occupier (<i>Paul</i> v. <i>Summerhayes</i>, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).</p> + +<p>It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one +can claim any property belong to the crown by its prerogative: +this rule has been applied to wild animals, and in particular to +deer and what is now called “game.” The crown rights may +pass to a subject by grant or equivalent prescription. In the +course of time the exclusive right to take game, &c., on lands +came to be regarded as incidental to the ownership or occupation +of the lands. This is described as the right to game <i>ratione soli</i>. +In certain districts of England which are crown forests or chases +or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren, the right to +take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the soil, but +is in the crown by prerogative, or <i>ratione privilegii</i> in the grantee +of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior to +and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over +which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these +special rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is +treated as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of +the land on which they are found, and there is no public right to +take them on private land or even on a highway; nor is there any +method known to the law by which the public at large or an +undefined body of persons can lawfully acquire the right to take +wild animals <i>in alieno solo</i>.</p> + +<p>In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is +valuable as to deer and the animals usually described as game, +and not as to those which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply +valueless, as small birds. Upon the rules of the common law +there has been grafted much legislation which up till the end of +the 18th century was framed for the preservation of deer and +game for the recreation and amusement of persons of fortune, +and to prevent persons of inferior rank from squandering in the +pursuit of game time which their station in life required to be +more profitably employed. These enactments included the +rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forest +Laws</a></span>), as well as what are usually called the Game Laws.</p> + +<p>In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed +early in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389) +to 1831, no person might kill game unless qualified by estate or +social standing, a qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389 +to an interest of £100 a year in freehold or £150 in long leaseholds +(1673). In 1831 this qualification by estate was abolished as to +England. But in Scotland the right to hunt is theoretically +reserved to persons who have in heritage that unknown quantity +a “plough-gate of land” (Scots Act 1621, c. 31); and in Ireland +qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing game and +keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In +England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts +of 1828 and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention +Act 1862, and the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From +the fact that the right of landowners over wild animals on their +land does not amount to ownership it follows that they cannot +prosecute any one for stealing live wild animals: and that apart +from the game laws the only remedy against poachers is by civil +action for trespass. As between trespasser and landowner the +law is peculiar (<i>Blades</i> v. <i>Higgs</i>, 1865, 11 H.L.C. 621). If A +starts and kills a hare on B’s land the dead hare belongs to B +(<i>ratione soli</i>) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own +efforts (<i>per industriam</i>). But if A hunts the hare from B’s land +on to C’s land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and +not to B or C. It is not B’s because it was not taken on his land, +and it is not C’s because it was not started on his land. In other +words the right of each owner is limited to animals both started +and killed on his own land, and in the case of conflicting claims +to the animal taken (made <i>ratione soli</i>) the captor can make title +(<i>per industriam</i>) against both landowners. If he is a trespasser +he is liable to civil or criminal proceedings by both landowners, +but the game is his unless forfeited under a statute. Another +peculiar result of the law is that where trespassers (<i>e.g.</i> poachers) +kill and carry off game or rabbits as part of one continuous +transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of game trespass +(<i>R</i>. v. <i>Townley</i>, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is theft for a +trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the owner +of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an +independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals +belong (<i>propter impotentiam</i>) to the owner of the land until they +are able to fly or run away. This right does not extend to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +eggs of wild birds. But the owner can reduce the eggs into +possession by taking them up and setting them under hens or in +enclosures. And if this is done persons who take them are +thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for +wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game +preserve in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to +the ordinary incidents of the law as to animals <i>ferae naturae</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England +is as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all +beasts of venery.</p> + +<p>2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox, +marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.</p> + +<p>3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant, +woodcock, quail, rail and heron.</p> + +<p>4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the +Game Act of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse, +bustard and hare. In France game (<i>gibier</i>) includes everything +eatable that runs or flies.</p> + +<p>5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless +prized for sport, <i>e.g.</i> duck, snipe, plovers, &c.</p> + +<p>6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected +against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were, +however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.</p> + +<p>As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the +crown may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways, +rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does +not depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative +as to the animals, <i>i.e.</i> it exists not <i>ratione soli</i> but <i>ratione privilegii</i>: +and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831. +A chase is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which +is an enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription +founded on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance +the same as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on +ownership of the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee +usually but not necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which +the right of warren runs. The right of free warren depends on +crown grant or prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a +right of property over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within +the franchise. As will appear from the list above, some game birds +are not fowl of warren, <i>e.g.</i> black game and red grouse (<i>Duke of +Devonshire</i> v. <i>Lodge</i>, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite +different from ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred +by the owner of the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such +warrens is protected under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by +the game laws. In manors, of which none have been created since +1290, the lord by his franchise had the sporting rights over the +manor, but at the present time this right is restricted to the commons +and wastes of the manor, the freehold whereof is in him, and does not +extend to enclosed freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, +unless at the time of enclosure the sporting rights were +reserved to him by the Enclosure Act or award (<i>Sowerby</i> v. <i>Smith</i>, +1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514). In other words his rights exist ratione +<i>soli</i> and not <i>ratione privilegii</i>. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of +manors and privileged persons certain rights as to appointing +gamekeepers with special powers to protect game within the district +over which their rights extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws +in no way cut down the special privileges as to forest, park, chase or +free warren (1831, s. 9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of +manors on the wastes of the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not +affected by these rights, the right to kill or take game on the land is +presumably in the occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject +to the qualifications hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right +to kill or take “game” or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently +with or in exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in +the landlord the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for +breaches of covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on +summary conviction if without the lessor’s authority he pursues, +kills or takes any “game” upon the land or gives permission to +others to do so (1831, s. 12). In effect he is +made criminally liable for game trespass on lands +in his own occupation, so far as relates to game, +but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe, +woodcock, quails or rails.</p> + +<p>The net effect of the common law and the +game laws is to give the occupier of lands and the +owner of sporting rights over them the following +remedies against persons who infringe their right +to kill or take wild animals on the land. A +stranger who enters on the land of another to +take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for +trespass on the land and for the animals started +and killed on the land by the trespasser. He is +also criminally liable for game trespass if he has +entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of +“game” or woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or +rabbits. If the trespass is in the daytime (whether on lands of the +subject or in royal forests, &c.), the penalty on conviction may not +exceed 40s., unless five or more persons go together, in which case +the maximum penalty is £5. If a single offender refuses his name +or address or gives a false address to the occupier or to the owner +of the sporting rights or his representatives, or refuses to leave the +land, he may be arrested by them, and is liable to a penalty not +exceeding £5, and if five or more concerned together in game trespass +have a gun with them and use violence, intimidation or menace, to +prevent the approach of persons entitled to take their names or +order them off the land, they incur a further penalty up to £5.</p> + +<p>If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game <i>or rabbits</i> in the nighttime, +the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment with +hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment, +&c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under +sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or for +two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence +the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions, +but for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is +liable to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard +labour (2 years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or +occupier of the land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or +offer violence by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be +indicted and on conviction punished to the same extent as in the last +offence. In 1844 the above penalties were extended to persons found +by night on highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more +trespass together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, +and any of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive +weapon, they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced +to penal servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour +(2 years). By “day” time is meant from the beginning of the first +hour before sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by +“night” from the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning +of the first hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34). +The time is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.</p> + +<p>The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters +between the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers +have often been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is +illegal and severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns +for poachers (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby +any grievous bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a +trespasser, so that the incursions of poachers can be prevented only +by personal attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to +be observed also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated +are, so far as concerns private land, left to be enforced by private +enterprise without the interference of the police, with the result +that in some districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war. +Even in the Night Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways, +the arrest of offenders is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers. +The police were not given any direct authority as to +poachers until the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, under which a +constable is empowered “on any highway, street or public place, +to search any person whom he may have good cause to suspect of +coming from any land where he shall have been unlawfully in search +or pursuit of ‘game,’ or any persons aiding or abetting such person, +and having in his possession any game unlawfully obtained, or any +gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the killing or taking +game; and also to stop and search any cart or other conveyance in +or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have good cause +to suspect that any such game, or any such article or thing, is being +carried by such person.” If any such thing be found the constable +is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the offender, summoning +him to appear before a petty sessional court, on conviction +before which he may be fined not more than £5, and forfeits the +game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act “game” +includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds +other than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night +or by day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal +lies to quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c., +taken may be forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.</p> + +<p><i>Close Time.</i>—On certain days, and within periods known as +“close time,” it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close +times are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">England.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ireland.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Scotland.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hare</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">April 21 to Aug. 11*</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red deer (male)</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Jan. 1 to June 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fallow deer</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sept. 29 to June 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Roe deer</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pheasant</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Sept. 30</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Sept. 30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Partridge</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Black game</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red grouse</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ptarmigan</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Bustard (wild turkey)</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">March 1 to Sept. 1</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Jan. 10 to Sept. 1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">None</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">  * Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">  ** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p> + +<p class="noind">In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares +may not be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to +sell or expose for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June +and July. It is illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or +sell winged game birds after ten days from the beginning of the +close season as fixed by the English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13). +This prohibition applies to the sale of live game, British or foreign, +and to the sale of British dead game. It is illegal to lay poison for +game or rabbits except in rabbit holes, and it is illegal to kill game by +firearms at night. Wild birds not within the list above given but of +interest for sport are protected by close times fixed under the Wild +Birds Protection Acts, which may vary in each county of each +kingdom.</p> + +<p><i>Licences</i>.—Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill game +which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the lands +on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by the +laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the +right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the +lord of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social +rank of the person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which +ranged from a 40s. freehold (in 1389) to £100 a year (1671). These +restrictions were abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was +made conditional on the possession of a game certificate, now called +a game licence in Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the +Game Licences Act 1860 “any person, before he shall in Great Britain +take, kill or pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking, +killing or pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun, +net or other engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any +game, or any woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any +deer, shall take out a proper licence to kill game under this act”—subject +to a penalty of £20. There are certain exceptions and +exemptions as to royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with +reference to taking woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing +or hunting hares or deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares +Acts 1848, Game Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by +the owners or occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and +assistants who go out with holders of a game licence. The licence +is granted by the Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated +by the Game Licences Act 1860 as amended by the Customs +and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The licences now in use are of four +kinds:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out after 31st July—</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">   To expire on the next 31st July</td> <td class="tcr">£3   0   0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">   To expire on the next 31st October</td> <td class="tcr">2   0   0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out after 1st November—</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">   To expire on the next 31st July</td> <td class="tcr">2   0   0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out for any continuous period of fourteen days specified in the licence</td> <td class="tcr">1   0   0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer +pays the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is £2, +but the licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a +right to kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right +and not as gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United +Kingdom. The game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands +of others in search of game nor the shooting of game, &c., at night, +and is forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860, +s. 11). Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence, +but the possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill +game or even rabbits.</p> + +<p>The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation. +Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their +employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence +may sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game. +These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), and are granted +in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England by +the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the +dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27), +and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the +licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop. +The following persons are disqualified for holding the licence: innkeepers, +persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners, guards +or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances, carriers +and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with the grant +of game licences to large stores which also have licences to sell beer. +The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons who +are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under the +Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must +also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of £2 is +charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game +killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning +of close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated +under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860 +extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893 +applied to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect +of the system of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by +poachers rather than to benefit the revenue.</p> + +<p><i>Deer</i>.—Deer are not included within the definition of game in +any of the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously +punished by the old law, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22, +known as the Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations +of disguised deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain +circumstances made a capital offence. At present offences with +reference to deer are included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony +to hunt or kill deer in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in +enclosed land where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction +to hunt or kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &c., and +certain minor provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture +of venison unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for +deer. These enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his +own land deer which have strayed there (<i>Threlkeld</i> v. <i>Smith</i>, 1901, +2 K.B. 531). In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as +theft.</p> + +<p><i>Eggs</i>.—The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs +of wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under +s. 24 of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 5s. per egg is incurred by +persons who unlawfully (<i>i.e.</i> without being, or having licence from, +the person entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest +or destroy in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild +duck, teal or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an +act of 1698, and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United +Kingdom) power is given to constables to search persons suspected +of poaching and to take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges, +grouse or black game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with +the eggs of all wild birds except game and swans.</p> + +<p><i>Damage to Crops by Game</i>.—Where an occupier of lands has not +the right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage +by the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill +without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach +of the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the +owner of land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights, +and his sporting tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably. +They are liable for any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to +the crops, &c., of the occupier, such as trampling down standing +crops or breaking hedges or fences. They are not directly liable to +the occupier for damage done to the crops by game bred on the land +or frequenting it in the ordinary course of nature; but are not entitled +to turn down game or rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits +are for the purposes of sport imported or artificially raised on land, +the person who breeds or brings them there is liable for the damage +done to the crops of adjoining owners or occupiers (<i>Farrer</i> v. <i>Nelson</i>, +1885, 15 Q.B.D. 258; <i>Birkbeck</i> v. <i>Paget</i>, 31 Beav. 403; <i>Hilton</i> v. +<i>Green</i>, 1862, 2 F. & F. 821).</p> + +<p>Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers +of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards +hares and rabbits the occupier’s rights are regulated by the Ground +Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made “in the interests of +good husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour +invested in the cultivation of the soil”). By that act the occupier +of land as incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the +right to kill and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is +indefeasible and cannot be divested by contract with the owner or +landlord or even by letting the occupier’s sporting rights to another. +But where apart from the act the right to kill game on the land is +vested in a person other than the occupier, such person has a right +concurrent with the statutory right of the occupier to take hares +and rabbits on the land. The act does not extend to common lands +nor to lands over which rights of grazing or pasturage for not more +than nine months in the year exist. Consequently over such lands +exclusive rights of killing ground game still continue, and the law +appears not to apply in cases where a special right of killing or taking +ground game vested before the 7th of September 1880 in any person +(other than the landlord) by statute, charter or franchise (s. 5). +The mode of exercise of the occupier’s right is subject to certain +limitations. The ground game is only to be taken by him or by +persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who must be +members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by him +for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be +produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and +kill the ground game (s. 1 (1) (c)). Firearms may not be used by +night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except +in rabbit holes (s. 6); nor may ground game be killed on days or +seasons or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10).</p> + +<p>In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not +arable and do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25 +acres) the occupier may between the 1st of September and the 31st +of March kill and take ground game; but between the 1st of +September and the 10th of December firearms may not be used +(1880, s. 1 (3); 1906, s. 2). In the case of such lands the occupiers +and the owners of the sporting rights may between the 1st of September +and the 10th of December make and enforce for their joint +benefit agreements for taking the ground game. The Agricultural +Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, <i>inter alia</i>, with damage +to crops by deer and winged game, but does not apply to damage +by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land is entitled to +compensation for damage to his crops exceeding 1s. per acre over the +area affected if caused by game, “the right to kill or take which is +vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him other than +the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in writing to +kill” (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible and cannot be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by +arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing +crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops before +carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before the 1st +of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms compensation +for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of +an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing +the rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to +his right to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not +vested in him.</p> + +<p><i>Sporting Rights</i>.—Sporting rights (<i>i.e.</i> rights of fowling or of +shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing), when +severed from the occupation of land, are subject to income or property +tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating Act +1874); and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of the +sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of value +in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights are +the landlord’s, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by the +tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is +reserved and let, the rating authority may rate either the landlord +or the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game +Acts have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights +of killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent +right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The ownership +of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of +the land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land +giving the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land +is taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.</p> + +<p><i>Scotland</i>.—By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege +of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which +does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or +in the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is +liable to the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in +exercise of his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage +by over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was +liable for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or +retained under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or +reserved by presumption of common law; this act from 1909 onwards +is superseded by the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings +Act 1906. Night poaching is punished by the same act as in England, +and day poaching by an act of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887 +poaching by night under arms was a capital offence. The definition +of game in Scotland for purposes of night poaching is the same as +in England. The provisions of the act of 1832 as to game trespass +by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits, woodcock, snipe, rails and +wild duck; but in other respects closely resemble those of the +English act of 1831.</p> + +<p>Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the +peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in +Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is +concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be +killed between the 10th of December and the 25th of August, nor +ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August. +There is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an +old Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of +such acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not +own a plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland</i>.—The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as +for England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts +passed prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts +limited to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole +United Kingdom.</p> + +<p>Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not +a freehold worth £40 a year or £1000 net personality, and elaborate +provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of +sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British +officers and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted +to poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of +1698 and 1707.</p> + +<p>Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass +on lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by +reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act +of 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe, +quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act +1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement +of the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the +exclusive right of taking “game” as above defined.</p> + +<p>A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But +in other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences +to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.</p> + +<p><i>British Possessions Abroad</i>.—The English game laws have not +been carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists, +nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial legislation. +But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to +preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of +these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These +statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting rights, +and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts +than on the English game laws, but in some possessions, <i>e.g.</i> Quebec, +sporting leases by the crown are recognized. The acts since 1895 +are indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished +in the <i>Journal</i> of the Society of Comparative Legislation.</p> + +<p>See also Oke’s <i>Game Laws</i>, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897); Warry, +<i>Game Laws of England</i> (1897); Marchant and Watkins, <i>Wild Birds +Protection Act</i> (1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMES, CLASSICAL.<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> 1. <i>Public Games</i>.—The public games of +Greece (<span class="grk" title="agônes">ἀγῶνες</span>) and Rome (<i>Ludi</i>) consisted in athletic contests +and spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and +forming part of a religious observance. Probably no institution +exercised a greater influence in moulding the national character, +and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual +beauty which we see reflected in Greek art and literature, than the +public contests of Greece (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athlete</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athletic Sports</a></span>). +For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they were +the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought +his wares, and the common ground of union for every member of +the Hellenic race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the +earliest form and the fullest development of ancient games. The +shows of the Roman circus and amphitheatre were at best a +shadow, and in the later days of the empire a travesty, of the +Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory notice.</p> + +<p>The earliest games of which we have any record are those at +the funeral of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-third +Iliad. They are noteworthy as showing that +Greek games were in their origin clearly connected with +<span class="sidenote">Greek.</span> +religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, or else +instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a victory +gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime. +Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred +place and is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was +not before the 4th century that this honour was paid to a living +man (see Plutarch, <i>Lysander</i>, 18). The games of the <i>Iliad</i> and +those of the <i>Odyssey</i> at the court of Alcinous are also of interest +as showing at what an early date the distinctive forms of Greek +athletics—boxing, wrestling, putting the weight, the foot and +the chariot race—were determined.</p> + +<p>The <i>Olympian</i> games were the earliest, and to the last they +remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals. +Olympia was a naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis, +bounded on the N. by the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S. +and W. by the Alpheus and its tributary the Cladeus. There was +the grove of Altis, in which were ranged the statues of the +victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus with the +chryselephantine statue of the god, the masterpiece of Pheidias. +There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar has introduced +in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis and slain its +king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in +honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies +historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and +ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help, +and was bidden restore the games which had fallen into +desuetude; and there was in the time of Pausanias, suspended +in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a bronze disk whereon were +inscribed, with the regulations of the games, the names of +Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that the +games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and +first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of +Sparta. The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities, +during the month in which the games were held, is also credited +to Iphitus.</p> + +<p>In 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman +Coroebus as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have +an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad +or fourth recurrent year. For the next fifty years no names +occur but those of Eleians or their next neighbours. After 720 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> we find Corinthians and Megareans, and later still Athenians +and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first was nothing more +than a village feast became a bond of union for all the branches of +the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to which +every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly +to the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived +even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed +twelve centuries when it was abolished by the decree of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +Christian emperor Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. +The last Olympian victor was a Romanized Armenian named +Varastad.</p> + +<p>Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy +days must have presented as the great festival approached. +Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the “truce of God.” +So religiously was this observed that the Spartans chose to risk +the liberties of Greece, when the Persians were at the gates of +Pylae, rather than march during the holy days. Those white +tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the olive groves +belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games, chosen +one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already +ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or +most of the athletes must have arrived, for they have been +undergoing the indispensable training in the gymnasium of the +Altis. But along the “holy road” from the town of Elis there +are crowding a motley throng. Conspicuous in the long train of +pleasure-seekers are the <span class="grk" title="theôroi">θεωροί</span> or sacred deputies, clad in their +robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state +offerings to the shrine of the god. Nor is there any lack of +distinguished visitors. It may be Alcibiades, who, they say, has +entered no less than seven chariots; or Gorgias, who has written +a famous <span class="grk" title="epideixis">ἐπίδειξις</span> for the occasion; or the sophist Hippias, +who boasts that all he bears about him, from the sandals on his +feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his own manufacture; +or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage +of Alexander and Roxana—the picture which gained him no less +a prize than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in +an earlier age, the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar himself. +One feature of the medieval tournament and the modern +racecourse is wanting. Women might indeed compete and win +prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the priestesses of +Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to enter the +enclosure.</p> + +<p>At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium, +where the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses +that they were of pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain, +religious or civil, on their character. Laying their hands on the +bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified themselves +by ten months’ continuous training in the gymnasium, and +that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests. +Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to +the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, “Let +the runners put their feet to the line,” and called on the spectators +to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no +objection was made, they were started by the note of the +trumpet, running in heats of four, ranged in the places assigned +them by lot. The presidents seated near the goal adjudged the +victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four Olympian +contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not +suppose that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the +77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the +feast was extended to five.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture, +but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was +followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.</p> + +<p>(1) The <i>Foot-race</i>.—For the first 13 Olympiads the <span class="grk" title="dromos">δρόμος</span>, or +single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only +contest. The <span class="grk" title="diaulos">δίαυλος</span>, in which the course was traversed twice, +was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the <span class="grk" title="dolichos">δόλιχος</span>, or +long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest computation, 24 laps, +about 2<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. in length. We are told that the Spartan Ladas, after +winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. There was also, +for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato highly commends +as a preparation for active service. (2) <i>Wrestling</i> was introduced +in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this +exercise is shown by the very word <i>palaestra</i>, and Plutarch calls it +the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice +differed little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler’s +limbs were anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third +throw, which decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling +on the ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence, +was not allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was +introduced the <span class="grk" title="pentathlon">πένταθλον</span> (pentathlon), a combination of the five games +enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:—</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="grk" title="halma, podôkeiên, diskon, hakonta, palên">ἄλμα, ποδωκείην, δίσκον, ἄκοντα, πάλην</span>.</p> + +<p class="noind">Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised +seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their +momentum by means of <span class="grk" title="haltêres">ἁλτῆρες</span> or dumb-bells, which they swung +in the act of leaping and dropped as they “took off.” The take-off +may have been slightly raised, and some commentators with very +little warrant have stated that spring-boards were used. The record +jump with which Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible +with or without a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in +all five contests, or in three at least, was required to win the <span class="grk" title="pentathlon">πένταθλον</span>. +(4) The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>), and the chief difference was in the use of the <i>caestus</i>. +This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the +boxer’s fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal +studs, which made the caestus more like a “knuckle-duster” than +a boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an +antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for a +prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic +allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer +did not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill +fashion, like the modern rustic. In the <i>pancratium</i>, a combination of +wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched +fist, was disallowed. (5) The <i>chariot-race</i> had its origin in the 23rd +Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain, +but from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions +were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there +ran a bank of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post +round which the chariots had to pass. “To shun the goal with rapid +wheels” required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a +more important part in the race than even the modern jockey. +Pausanias tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots. +The places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were +elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of +chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain. +Pindar (<i>Pyth.</i> v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought +off his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took +part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors, +and even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in +the list of victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant +of Athens, Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon +and Hiero of Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot-races +with mules, with mares, with two horses in place of four, were +successively introduced, but none of these present any special +interest. Races on horseback date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the +course was the same, success must have depended on skill as much +as on swiftness. Lastly, there were athletic contests of the same +description for boys, and a competition of heralds and trumpeters, +introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.</p> + +<p>The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic +value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest +was a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from +the kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules “from the +dark fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a +shelter common to all men and a crown of noble deeds” (Pindar, +<i>Ol.</i> iii. 18). Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with +complacency on the magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing +but honour and were content to struggle for a corruptible crown. +But though the Greek games present in this respect a favourable +contrast to the greed and gambling of the modern racecourse, yet +to represent men like Milon and Damoxenus as actuated by pure love +of glory is a pleasing fiction of the moralists. The successful athlete +received in addition to the immediate honours very substantial +rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his parentage and his +country; the Hellanodicae took from a table of ivory and gold the +olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch of +palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his +friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts, +singing the old song of Archilochus, <span class="grk" title="tênella kallinike">τήνελλα καλλίνικε</span>, and his name +was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh honours and rewards +awaited him on his return home. If he was an Athenian he received, +according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and free rations for +life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his prerogative the +post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides and Euripides +sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and Praxiteles were +engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read of a breach +in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the common road +were not good enough for such a hero; and there are well-attested +instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered to a successful +athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was regarded +as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman’s contempt +for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian victor +receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and tells +the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the +prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, +was addressed by a Laconian in these words:—“Die, Diagoras, +for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire.” Alcibiades, +when setting forth his services to the state, puts first his victory at +Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent +display. But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated +value which the Greeks attached to athletic prowess is a +casual expression which Thucydides employs when describing the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at Scione. The state, he says, +voted him a crown of gold, and the multitude flocked round him and +decked him with garlands, <i>as though he were an athlete</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Pythian</i> games originated in a local festival held at +Delphi, anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, +and were limited to musical competitions. The date at which +they became a Panhellenic <span class="grk" title="agôn">ἀγών</span> (so Demosthenes calls them) +cannot be determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era +date from 527 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by which time music had been added to all the +Panhellenic contests. Now, too, these were held at the end of +every fourth year; previously there had been an interval of +eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the prize was a +chaplet of laurel.</p> + +<p>The <i>Nemean</i> games were biennial and date from 516 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +They were by origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean +Zeus, but in historical times were open to all Greece and +provided the established round of contests, except that no +mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of wild celery was +the prize.</p> + +<p>The <i>Isthmian</i> games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the +first and third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius, +from 523 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They are variously reported to have been founded +by Poseidon or Sisyphus in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus +to celebrate his victory over the robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their +early importance is attested by the law of Solon which bestowed +a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who gained a +victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and +after the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the presidency +passed to the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth +(46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). They probably continued to exist till Christianity +became the religion of the Roman empire. The Athenians were +closely connected with the festival, and had the privilege of +<i>proedria</i>, the foremost seat at the games, while the Eleans were +absolutely excluded from participation. The games included +gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little from +those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made +at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later +period of pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later +times is shown by the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion +for proclaiming the liberation of Greece, 196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> That at a +later anniversary (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67) Nero repeated the proclamation of +Flamininus, and coupled with it the announcement of his own +infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the hollowness of +the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the Greek +games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.</p> + +<p>The <i>Ludi Publici</i> of the Romans included feasts and +theatrical exhibitions as well as the public games with +which alone we are concerned. As in Greece, they +were intimately connected with religion. At the +<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span> +beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls +to vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth, +and the expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus, +at no cost to themselves, the Roman public were enabled to +indulge at the same time their religious feelings and their love of +amusement. Their taste for games naturally grew till it became +a passion, and under the empire games were looked upon by +the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The aediles who +succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to supplement +the state allowance from their private purse. Political adventurers +were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and +what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon +men of wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian +horde or the death of a relation served as the pretext for a +magnificent display. But the worst extravagance of private +citizens was eclipsed by the reckless prodigality of the Caesars, +who squandered the revenues of whole provinces in catering for +the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour their throne depended. +But though public games played as important a part in +Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman +historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet, +regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of +interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how +any man of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary +round of fights and races.</p> + +<p>It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games +of Greece and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were +actors, the Romans from first to last were spectators. It is true +that even in Greek games the professional element played a large +and ever-increasing part. As early as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Xenophanes complains that the wrestler’s strength is preferred to +the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, in a well-known +fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering athlete. +But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be +such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal. +No Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in +person for the Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior +in gymnastic exercises, kept strictly to the privacy of the +palaestra; and for a patrician to appear in public as a charioteer +is stigmatized by the satirist as a mark of shameless effrontery.</p> + +<p>Roman games are generally classified as <i>fixed</i>, <i>extraordinary</i> +and <i>votive</i>; but they may be more conveniently grouped according +to the place where they were held, viz. the circus or the +amphitheatre.</p> + +<p>For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a +fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring, +and a playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says +that in his day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason +to doubt the precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus +Maximus there were seats for 350,000 spectators.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the various <i>Ludi Circenses</i> it may be enough here to give a +short account of the most important, the <i>Ludi Magni</i> or <i>Maximi</i>.</p> + +<p>Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the <i>Ludi +Magni</i> were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised +by the general when he took the field, and performed on his return +from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of +a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force, +which marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum +and thence to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine. +First came the sons of patricians mounted on horseback, +next the rest of the burghers ranged according to their military +classes, after them the athletes, naked save for the girdle round +their loins, then the company of dancers with the harp and flute +players, next the priestly colleges bearing censers and other sacred +instruments, and lastly the simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on +their shoulders or drawn in cars. The games themselves were fourfold:—(1) +the chariot race; (2) the <i>ludus Troiae</i>; (3) the military +review; and (4) gymnastic contests. Of these only the first two call +for any comment. (1) The chariot employed in the circus was the +two-wheeled war car, at first drawn by two, afterwards by four, and +more rarely by three horses. Originally only two chariots started +for the prize, but under Caligula we read of as many as twenty-four +heats run in the day, each of four chariots. The distance traversed +was fourteen times the length of the circus or nearly 5 m. The +charioteers were apparently from the first professionals, though +the stigma under which the gladiator lay never attached to their +calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in popularity and +fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided into +companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence arose +the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under the +later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the +white and the red; two more, the green and the blue, were added +under the empire, and for a short time in Domitian’s reign there +were also the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal’s day party +spirit ran so high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a +second Cannae. After the seat of empire had been transferred to +Constantinople these factions of the circus were made the basis of +political cabals, and frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults, +such as the famous Nika revolt (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 532), in which 30,000 citizens +lost their lives. (2) The Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback +in which the actors were patrician youths. A spirited description of +it will be found in the 5th Aeneid. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circus</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally +given in the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre. +<i>Venatio</i> was the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with +one another or with men—captives, criminals or trained hunters +called <i>bestiarii</i>. The first certain instance on record of this amusement +is in 186 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in +the arena. The taste for these brutalizing spectacles grew apace, +and the most distant provinces were ransacked by generals and +proconsuls to supply the arena with rare animals—giraffes, tigers +and crocodiles. Sulla provided for a single show 100 lions, and +Pompey 600 lions, besides elephants, which were matched with +Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar enjoys the doubtful honour of +inventing the bull-fight. At the inauguration of the Colosseum +5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were killed, and to commemorate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +Trajan’s Dacian victories there was a butchery of 11,000 beasts. +The <i>naumachia</i> was a sea-fight, either in the arena, which was +flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and sluices, or on an +artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by prisoners of war +or criminals, who often fought till one side was exterminated. In +the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the emperor Claudius, +100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.</p> + +<p>But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the <i>munus +gladiatorium</i>, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and +Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was +probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common +savage custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a +warrior or chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein +of coarseness and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise +noble character of the Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows. +We can fancy how Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed +a spectacle that Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only +after the conquest of Greece we hear of their introduction into +Athens, and they were then admitted rather out of compliment to +the conquerors than from any love of the sport. In spite of numerous +prohibitions from Constantine downwards, they continued to +flourish even as late as St Augustine. To a Christian martyr, if we +may credit the story told by Theodoret and Cassiodorus, belongs the +honour of their final abolition. In the year 404 Telemachus, a +monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred mission, +rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the combatants. +He was instantly despatched by the praetor’s orders; but Honorius, +on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games, which +were never afterwards revived. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gladiators</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice. +The <i>Ludi Apollinares</i> were established in 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and were annual +after 211 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; mainly theatrical performances. The <i>Megalenses</i> +were in honour of the great goddess, Cybele: instituted 204 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and from 191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or +priests of Cybele, was a leading feature. Under the empire the +festival assumed a more orgiastic character. Four of Terence’s +plays were produced at these games. The <i>Ludi Saeculares</i> were +celebrated at the beginning or end of each <i>saeculum</i>, a period variously +interpreted by the Romans themselves as 100 or 110 years. The +celebration by Augustus in 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is famous by reason of the Ode +composed by Horace for the occasion. They were solemnized by +the emperor Philip <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248 to commemorate the millennium of the +city.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Private Games.</i>—These may be classified as outdoor and +indoor games. There is naturally all the world over a much +closer resemblance between the pursuits and amusements of +children than of adults. Homer’s children built castles in the +sand, and Greek and Roman children alike had their dolls, their +hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, their kites, +their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the tug-of-war, +pitch and toss, blind-man’s buff, hide and seek, and kiss in +the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were +popular in Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there +were five distinct kinds of ball and more ways of playing with +them. For particulars the dictionary of antiquities must be +consulted. It is strange that we can find in classical literature no +analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or polo, and though the <i>follis</i> +resembled our football, it was played with the hand and arm, not +with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at Athens and +Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove +their pluck.</p> + +<p>Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and +games of skill, though in some of them the two elements are +combined. <i>Tesserae</i>, shaped and marked with pips like modern +dice, were evolved from the <i>tali</i>, knuckle-bones with only four +flat sides. The old Roman threw a hazard and called a main, +just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of gambling was lashed by +Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The Latin name for a +dice-box has survived in the <i>fritillary</i> butterfly and flower.</p> + +<p>The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simultaneously +held up by the player and his opponent is still popular +in Italy where it is known as “morra.” The proverbial phrase +for an honest man was <i>quicum in tenebris mices</i>, one you +would trust to play at morra in the dark.</p> + +<p>Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and +playing at <span class="grk" title="pessoi">πεσσοί</span>, some kind of draughts. The invention of the +game was ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was +played on a board with five lines and with five pieces. Later we +find eleven lines, and a further development was the division of +the board into squares, as in the game of <span class="grk" title="poleis">πόλεις</span> (cities). In the +Roman <i>latrunculi</i> (soldiers), the men were distinguished as +common soldiers and “rovers,” the equivalent of crowned pieces.</p> + +<p><i>Duodecim scripta</i>, as the name implies, was played on a board +with twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our +backgammon. There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the +moves were determined by a throw of the dice; “blots” might be +taken, and the object of the player was to clear off all his own men. +Lastly must be mentioned the <i>Cottabus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), a game peculiar to +the Greeks, and with them the usual accompaniment of a wine +party. In its simplest form each guest threw what was left in his +cup into a metal basin, and the success of the throw, determined +partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was reckoned a divination +of love. For the various elaborations of the game (in Sicily +we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be consulted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Daremberg et Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités +grecques et romaines</i>, articles “Agon,” “Athleta,” “Circus,” +“Ludi,” “Olympia,” “Spiele”; Curtius and Adler, <i>Olympia</i> (5 +vols., 1890, &c.); Hachtmann, <i>Olympia und seine Festspiele</i>; +Blümner, <i>Home Life of the Ancient Greeks</i>; J.P. Mahaffy, <i>Old +Greek Education</i>; P. Gardner and F.B. Jevons, <i>Manual of Greek +Antiquities</i>; E.N. Gardiner, <i>Greek Athletic Sports</i> (1910); Becker-Marquardt, +<i>Handbuch der römischen Altertümer</i> (5 vols.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMING AND WAGERING.<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> It is somewhat difficult exactly +to define or adequately to distinguish these terms of allied +meaning. The word “game” (<i>q.v.</i>) is applicable to most pastimes +and many sports, irrespective of their lawful or unlawful +character. “Gaming” is now always associated with the +staking of money or money’s worth on the result of a game of +pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and “gambling” has +the same meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive +or the practice otherwise reprehensible, while “wager” and +“wagering” are applied to money hazarded on any contingency +in which the person wagering has no interest at risk other than +the amount at stake. “Betting” is usually restricted to wagers +on events connected with sports or games, and “lottery” applies +to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.</p> + +<p>At English common law no games were unlawful and no +penalties were incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-houses, +unless by reason of disorder they became a public +nuisance. From very early times, however, the English statute +law has attempted to exercise control over the sports, pastimes +and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view have been +taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and training; +(2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them +from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of +Sunday; (4) their combination with betting or gambling as +causing impoverishment and dishonesty in children, servants and +other unwary persons; (5) the use of fraud or deceit in connexion +with them. The legislation has assumed several forms: (1) +declaring certain games unlawful either absolutely or if accompanied +by staking or betting money or money’s worth on the event +of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of establishments for +betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting the use of +streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting the +enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the +interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to +render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute +of Richard II. (1388) directed servants and labourers +<span class="sidenote">Games, lawful and unlawful.</span> +to have bows and arrows and to use them on Sundays +and holidays, and to cease from playing football, quoits, +dice, putting the stone, kails and other such importune games. +A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (11 Hen. IV. c. +4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. c. 3) on +persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises. +These acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute +passed on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (<i>fléchiers</i>), stringers +and arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force) +is entitled an “act for maintenance of archery and debarring of +unlawful games”; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of +3 & 6 Hen. VIII.) “divers and many subtil inventative and crafty +persons have found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty +games and plays, as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise +called shove-groat, as well within the city of London as elsewhere +in many other and divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays +and alleys for the maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is +sore decayed, and daily is like to be more minished, and divers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +bowyers and fletchers, for lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves +in Scotland and other places out of this realm, there working and +teaching their science, to the puissance of the same, to the great comfort +of strangers and detriment of this realm.” Accordingly penalties +are imposed on all persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and +all persons resorting thereto (s. 8). The games specified are dicing, +table (backgammon) or carding, or any game prohibited by any +statute theretofore made or any unlawful new game then or thereafter +invented or to be invented. It is further provided that “no manner +of artificer or craftsman of any handicraft or occupation, husbandman, +apprentice, labourer, servant at husbandry, journeyman or +servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen, watermen, or any serving +man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice, cards, bowls, clash, +coyting, logating or any other unlawful game out of Christmas +under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and in Christmas +to play at any of the said games in their masters’ houses or in their +masters’ presence; and also that no manner of person shall at any +time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden or +orchard” (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment, +crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the +preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the statute—the +maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between +games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to playing +for money or money’s worth. The <i>Book of Sports</i> of James I. +(1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging +certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of +Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act +1625 prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the +Lord’s Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been +attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act +goes on to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes, +common plays or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by +parishioners within their own parishes. According to Blackstone +(iv. <i>Comm.</i> c. 13) the principal ground of complaint leading to +legislation in the 18th century was “gambling in high life.” He +collects the statutes made with this view, but only those still in +force need have been mentioned.</p> + +<p>The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing +games was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) “against deceitful, disorderly +and excessive gaming” which deals with games both of +skill and chance at which people cheat, or play otherwise than with +ready money, or lose more than £100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will. +III. c. 23) legislation was passed against lotteries, therein described +as “mischievous and unlawful games.” This act was amended in +1710 (9 Anne c. 6), and in the same year was passed a statute which +is the beginning of the modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne +c. 19). It includes within its scope money won by “gaming or +playing” at cards, &c., and money won by “betting” on the sides +or hands of those who game at any of the forbidden games. But it +refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games with cards and dice.</p> + +<p>The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in +<i>Oliphant on Horses, &c.</i> (6th ed.): horse-races, steeplechases, trotting +matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas, rowing +matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives, rackets, +bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone, football, and +presumably every bona-fide variety, <i>e.g.</i> croquet, knurr and spell, +hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have been +unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting animals +to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals +Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other lawful +games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess, draughts +and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these +games or at skittles or “skittle pool” or “puff and dart” on +licensed premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The +earlier acts declared unlawful the following games of skill: football, +quoits, putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or +cloyshcayls, logating, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and +backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with +backgammon tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-racing, +long under restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665 +and many 18th-century acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 & 4 +Vict. c. 35). The act of 1541, so far as it declared any game of mere +skill unlawful, was repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is +legal in private houses or clubs and in public places duly licensed. +The following games have been declared by the statutes or the judges +to be unlawful, whether played in public or in private, unless played +in a royal palace where the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts, +pharaoh (faro), basset and hazard (1738), passage, and every game +then invented or to be invented with dice or with any other instrument, +engine or device in the nature of dice having one or more +figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet or roly-poly (1744), and all +lotteries (except Art Union lotteries), <i>rouge et noir</i>, <i>baccarat-banque</i> +(1884), <i>chemin de fer</i> (1895), and all games at cards which are not +games of mere skill. The definition of unlawful game does not include +whist played for a prize not subscribed to by the players, +but it does include playing cards for money in licensed premises; +even in the private room of the licensee or with private friends +during closing hours.</p> + +<p>The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries “by +dice, lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other +way whatsoever.” An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under +the name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land, +jewels, &c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733 +and 1823 prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers +in foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as unlawful +were in 1738 declared to be “games or lotteries by cards or +dice,” and in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include +“little-goes and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament, +drawn by dice, lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any +other way, contrivance or device whatsoever.” This wide definition +reaches raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of +foreign or illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844. +In 1846 art unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery +Acts. Attempts have been made to suppress the sale in England +of foreign lottery tickets, but the task is difficult, as the post-office +distributes the advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act +1898, the Customs treat as prohibited goods advertisements or +notices as to foreign lotteries. More success has been obtained in +putting down various devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to +attract customers by instituting “missing word competitions” +and “racing coupon competitions”; by automatic machines which +give speculative chances in addition to the article obtained for the +coin inserted; by distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers; +by holding sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweetmeats +to tempt street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by +gratuitous distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a +newspaper. An absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems +not to be within the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if +individuals who benefit do not pay for their chance.</p> + +<p>As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common +law punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of +1541 imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful +games. Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but +these were abolished in 1555 (2 & 3 Phil. and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries +were declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was +meted out to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are +provided for those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with +cards or dice, &c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a +parish were enabled to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses. +The act of 1802 imposed severe penalties on persons publicly or +privately keeping places for any lottery. This statute hits at the +deliberate or habitual use of a place for the prohibited purpose, and +does not touch isolated or incidental uses on a single occasion, <i>e.g.</i> +at a bazaar or show; but under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery +tickets is in itself an offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the +search of suspected gaming-houses and the proof that they are such. +It provides that, to prove any house to be a common gaming-house, +it “shall be sufficient to show that it is kept or used for playing +therein at any unlawful game, and that a bank is kept there by one +or more of the players exclusively of the others, or that the chances +of any game played therein are not alike favourable to all the +players, including among the players the banker or other person by +whom the game is managed, or against whom the other players +stake, play or bet.” Gambling, it will be noticed, is still in this +definition connected with some kind of game. The act also provides +that proof that the gaming was for money shall not be required, +and that the presence of cards, dice and other instruments of gaming +shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was used as a common +gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with gaming-houses +is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the +keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It +may be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by +cheating at any game or wager punishable in the same way as +obtaining money by false pretences. At the present time proceedings +for keeping gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is commonly +understood are comparatively rare, and are usually against +foreigners. The statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses +(see the Park Club case, <i>Jenks</i> v. <i>Turpin</i>, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505, +the leading case on unlawful games). The proprietor and the person +who keeps the bank at an unlawful game are both within the statute: +the players are not, but the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that +they can be put under recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses. +Under the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed +victuallers who suffer any gaming or unlawful game to be played +on their premises. A single instance of playing an unlawful game +for money in a private house is not within the statutes (<i>R</i>. v. <i>Davies</i>, +1897, 2 Q.B. 199).</p> + +<p>In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at +cards is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pastimes, +or speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The +legislation against betting <i>eo nomine</i> began in 1853. In the Betting +Act 1853 it is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the +injury and demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of +places called betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money +<i>in advance</i> by the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises +to pay money on events or horse races and like contingencies. This +act strikes at ready money betting as distinguished from betting on +credit (“on the nod”). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open +to all and sundry as distinguished from private betting clubs such as +Tattersall’s. The act seeks to punish persons who keep a house, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +office, room or other place for the purpose (<i>inter alia</i>) of any person +betting with persons “resorting thereto” or of receiving deposits +in consideration of bets on contingencies relating to horse-races or +other races, fights, games, sports or exercises. The act especially +excepts persons who receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to +the winner of a race or lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner +of a horse engaged in a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by +keeping such places, the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the +sums deposited (s. 5).</p> + +<p>By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons +who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting +Act 1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning +and scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police +and the Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the +matter) and the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity +has been shown by the votaries of sport in devising means for evading +the terms of the enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions +shows a considerable divergence of judicial opinion. The House +of Lords has held that the Tattersall’s enclosure or betting ring on a +racecourse is not a “place” within the statute; and members of a +bona-fide club who bet with each other in the club are not subject +to the penalties of the act. But the word “place” has been held +to include a public-house bar, an archway, a small plot of waste +ground, and a bookmaker’s stand, and even a bookmaker’s big +umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from the judges any clear +indication of the nature of the “places” to which the act applies. +The act is construed as applying only to ready-money betting, <i>i.e.</i> +when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only to places +used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto; so that +bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its penalties. +The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as thieves +“welshers,” who receive and make off with deposits on bets which +they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an +offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for +betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties +on persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as +applying to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not +prohibit the publication of betting news or sporting tips in newspapers. +A few newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in +some public libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts +crowds of undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great +extent effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of +them to Holland and other places. But it has been deemed expedient +to legislate against betting in the streets, which has been +found too attractive to the British workman.</p> + +<p>By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons +assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London +or county of London for the purpose of betting and +deemed to be obstructing the street, may be arrested +<span class="sidenote">Street betting.</span> +without warrant by a constable and fined a sum not exceeding +£5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict. c. 38) provides +that “Every person playing or betting by way of wagering or gaming +on any street, road, highway or other open and public place, or in +any open place to which the public have, or are permitted to have, +access, at or with any table or instrument of gaming, or any coin, card, +token or other article used as an instrument or means of gaming, +at any game or pretended game of chance, shall be deemed a rogue +and vagabond.” This act amended a prior act of 1868, passed to +repress the practice of playing pitch and toss in the streets, which +had become a public nuisance in the colliery districts. The powers +of making by-laws for the peace, order and good government of +their districts, possessed by municipal boroughs—and since 1888 +by county councils—and extended in 1899 to the new London +boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by making by-laws +forbidding any person to “frequent or use any street or other public +place, on behalf either of himself or any other person, for the purpose +of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to bet or wager +with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling bets.” This and +similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found inadequate, +and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43), passed by the +efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence for any person +to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on behalf of himself +or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking or betting or +wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or receiving or settling +bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine up to £10, for a second +fine up to £20, and the punishment is still higher in the case of a third +or subsequent offence, or where the accused while committing the +offence has any betting transaction with a person under the age of +sixteen. The act does not apply to ground used for a course for +horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on which races take place; +but the expression public place includes a public park, garden or +sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which the public for the +time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places other than public +parks or gardens to which the public have a restricted right of +access with or without payment, if the owners or persons controlling +the place exhibit conspicuously a notice prohibiting betting therein. +A constable may arrest without warrant persons offending and seize +all books, papers, cards and other articles relating to betting found +in their possession, and these articles may be forfeited on conviction. +Besides the above provision against betting with infants the Betting +and Loans (Infants) Act 1892, passed at the instance of the late +Lord Herschell, makes it a misdemeanour to send, with a view to +profit, to any one known by the sender to be an infant, a document +inviting him to enter into a betting or wagering transaction. The +act is intended to protect lads at school and college from temptation +by bookmakers.</p> +</div> + +<p>We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming +to the treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of +their obligation on the individuals who lose them. A +wager may be defined as “a promise to give money or +<span class="sidenote">Wagering.</span> +money’s worth upon the determination or ascertainment of an +uncertain event” (Anson, <i>Law of Contract</i>, 11th ed., p. 206). The +event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because +its happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a +wager the determination of the event must be the sole condition +of the bargain. According to the view taken in England of the +common law, bets or wagers were legally enforceable, subject to +certain rules dictated by considerations of public policy, <i>e.g.</i> +that they did not lead to immorality or breach of the peace, or +expose a third person to ridicule.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The courts were constantly +called upon to enforce wagers and constantly exercised their +ingenuity to discover excuses for refusing. A writer on the law of +contracts<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> discovers here the origin of that principle of “public +policy” which plays so important a part in English law. Wagering +contracts were rejected because the contingencies on which +they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common +weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared +void because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the +king’s enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest +in compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the +amount of the hop-duty was held to be against public policy, +because it tended to expose the condition of the king’s revenue to +all the world. A bet between two hackney coachmen, as to which +of them should be selected by a gentleman for a particular +journey, was void because it tended to expose the customer to +their importunities. When no such subtlety could be invented, +the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the +fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by +the judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an +action, he could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision +of more important cases.</p> + +<p>Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law +within narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial +wagers, and both by general and temporary enactments. An +example of the latter was 7 Anne c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers +and securities relating to the then war with France. The earliest +general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7 (1665), prohibiting the +recovery of a sum exceeding £100 lost in games or pastimes, or in +betting on the sides or hands of the players, and avoiding securities +for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities for such wagers +for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders for value +without notice, and enabled the loser of £10 or upwards to sue for +and recover the money he had lost within three months of the +loss. Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering +were declared void, in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the +case of other risks in 1774. It was not until 1845 that a general +rule was made excluding wagers from the courts. Section 18 of +the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after a parliamentary inquiry in +1844 as to gaming) enacted “that all contracts or agreements, +whether by parole or in writing, by way of gaming or wagering +shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be brought or maintained +in any court of law or equity for recovering any sum of +money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or +which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to +abide the event on which any wager shall have been made; +provided always that this enactment shall not be deemed to apply +to any subscription or contribution, or agreement to subscribe or +contribute, for or towards any plate, prize or sum of money to be +awarded to the winner or winners of any lawful game, sport, +pastime or exercise.”</p> + +<p>The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +agents to recover from their principals bets made and paid for +them. But the Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any +promise, express or implied, to repay to any person any sum of +money paid by him under, or in respect of, any contract or agreement +rendered null and void by the Gaming Act 1845, or to pay +any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or otherwise +in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any +services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and +provided that no action should be brought or maintained to +recover any such sum. By the combined effect of these two +enactments the recovery by the winner from the loser or stakeholder +of bets or of stakes on games falling within s. 18 of the +Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but persons who have +deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not debarred +from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is +decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the +stake is paid over to the winner;<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and a man who pays a bet for a +friend, or a turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet +for a principal, has now no legal means of recovering the money, +unless some actual deceit was used to induce him to pay in ignorance +that it was a bet. But a person who has received a bet on +account of another can still, it would seem, be compelled to pay +it over, and the business of a betting man is treated as so far +lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and actions +between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership +accounts have been entertained.</p> + +<p>The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares +or other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to +be correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two +persons, having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event +(past or future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that +on the determination of the event one shall win, and the other +shall pay over a sum of money, or other stake, neither party +having any other interest in the event than the sum or stake to +be won or lost. This definition does not strike at contracts in +“futures,” under which the contractors are bound to give or take +delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in existence at the date +of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered void because +they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact, their +legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893. +Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or +wagering on events in which the assured has no interest present +or prospective whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774) +or maritime risks (Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act +known as Sir John Barnard’s Act (7 Geo. II. c. 8, entitled +“An act to prevent the infamous practice of stock jobbing”) +prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any public +stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but +this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks +and shares are not now void because entered into by way of +speculation and not for purposes of investment. The only limitation +on such contracts is that contained in Leeman’s Act (30 & +31 Vict. c. 29) as to contracts for the sale of shares in joint-stock +banking companies. But a transaction in any commodity, +though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming Acts if in +substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the +commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter +whether the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is +entered into on the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange, +or elsewhere; nor is it conclusive in favour of the validity of the +bargain that it purports to bind the parties to take or deliver the +article dealt in. The courts are entitled to examine into the true +nature of the transaction; and where the substantial intention of +the parties is merely to gamble in differences, to make what is +called “a time bargain,” the fact that it is carried out by a series +of contracts, regular and valid in form, will not be sufficient to +exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.</p> + +<p>In very many cases transactions with “outside stockbrokers” or +“bucket shops” have been held to be mere wagers, although the +contracts purported to give “put” or “call” options to demand +delivery or acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover +deposited by the “client” has been treated as a mere security for +performance of the bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time, +<i>i.e.</i> before it is used for the purpose for which it is deposited. +There was not up to 1909 any authoritative decision as to the +application of the Gaming Act 1892 to transactions on the London +Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a member of +“the House”; but the same principle appears to be applicable +where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the +intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive +differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the +Stock Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people +from setting up a gaming act defence: as each contract entitles +the holder to call for delivery or acceptance of the stock named +therein. In the event of the bankruptcy of a person involved in +speculations, the bankruptcy officials exclude from proof against +the estate all claims founded on any dealing in the nature of a +wager; and on the same principle the bankrupt’s trustee cannot +recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming transactions, +but unexhausted “cover” on uncompleted transactions may be +recovered back.</p> + +<p>Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or +wagers by action there has also been a good deal of legislation +dealing with securities given in respect of “gambling +debts.” The earliest (1665) dealt with persons playing +<span class="sidenote">Gambling debts.</span> +at games otherwise than for ready money and losing +£100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from +recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning +it. An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes, +bills, bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the +consideration is for money or valuable security won by gaming +at cards, stocks or other games, or by betting on the sides or +hands of the gamesters, or for reimbursing money knowingly +advanced for such gaming or betting. This act draws a distinction +between gaming and other bets or wagers. Under this act +the securities were void even in the hands of innocent transferees. +In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not void +but made upon an “illegal” consideration. The effect of the +change is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note +or cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the +original taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to +put on him the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder +for value. In the case of a negotiable security given for a wager +not within the acts of 1710 or 1841 (<i>e.g.</i> a bet on a contested +election), but within the act of 1845, a third person holding it +would be presumed to be a holder for value and on the person +prima facie liable under the security falls the burden of proving +that no consideration was given for it. It has been decided after +considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action will not +lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a +cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at +baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the +game. The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming +Acts of 1845 and 1892 as the <i>lex fori</i> prohibit the English courts +from enforcing gaming debts wherever incurred (<i>Moulis</i> v. +<i>Owen</i>, 1907, 1 K.B. 746).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Scotland.</i>—A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force) +forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry, +and directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding +or dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the +treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698, +apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended +to Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scotland, +and gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police +Act 1892, and street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.</p> + +<p>The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being <i>sponsiones +ludicrae</i>, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19 +and 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of +judicial opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland.</i>—The British Acts against lotteries were extended to +Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in +both countries.</p> + +<p><i>British Possessions.</i>—Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in +force in British possessions, <i>e.g.</i> the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is in +force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the +Straits Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordinances +directed against gambling and lotteries, and particularly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +against forms of gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these +ordinances the money paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law. +In the Transvaal betting houses were suppressed by proclamation +(No. 33) soon after the annexation. An invention known in France +as the <i>pari mutuel</i>, and in Australia as the totalizator, is allowed +to be used on race-courses in most of the states (but not in New +South Wales). In Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and +Western Australia the state levies a duty on the takings of the +machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money retained by the +stewards of the course less the tax must be applied solely for improving +the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria under an +act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly posted +make betting on the ground illegal.</p> + +<p><i>Egypt.</i>—By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with +certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or offer +them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the notice +of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for charitable +purposes, <i>e.g.</i> those of the benevolent societies of the various foreign +communities.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—In the United States many of the states make +gaming a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse +race, or a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given +upon a bet are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note +in the hands of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies +outside of the province of the federal government. By the legislation +of some states the loser may recover his money if he sue within a +limited time, as he might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Brandt on <i>Games</i> (1872); Oliphant, <i>Law of +Horses, &c.</i> (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the <i>Stock Exchange</i> +(1905); Melsheimer on the <i>Stock Exchange</i> (4th ed., 1905); +Coldridge and Hawksford, <i>The Law of Gambling</i> (1895); Stutfield, +<i>Betting</i> (3rd ed., 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Leake on <i>Contracts</i> (4th ed.), p. 529.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Pollock, <i>Contracts</i> (7th ed.), p. 313.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Burge</i> v. <i>Ashby</i>, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAMUT<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (from the Greek letter <i>gamma</i>, used as a musical +symbol, and <i>ut</i>, the first syllable of the medieval hymn <i>Sanctus +Johannes</i>), a term in music used to mean generally the whole +compass or range of notes possessed by an instrument or voice. +Historically, however, the sense has developed from its stricter +musical meaning of a scale (the recognized musical scale of any +period), originating in the medieval “great scale,” of which the +invention has usually been ascribed to Guido of Arezzo (<i>q.v.</i>) in +the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat obscure, but, +in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical alphabetical +system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more +properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales +the semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord, +as G, A, ♭ B, C, so the ♮ B and ♯ F of the second octave were in +false relation to the ♭ B and ♮F of the first two tetrachords. To +this scale of four notes, G, A, ♭ B, C, were subsequently added a +note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with +the semitone between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as +F, G, A, ♭ B, C, D. It was at a much later date that the 7th, our +leading note, was admitted into a key, and for this the first two +letters of the last line of the above-named hymn, “Sanctus +Johannes,” would have been used, save for the notion +that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel +should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the +syllable Si was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable +Ut was replaced by Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France; +and in these two countries, with whatever others employ their +nomenclature, the original Ut and the substituted Do stand for +the sound defined by the letter C in English and German terminology. +The literal musical alphabet thus accords with the +syllabic:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">A</td> <td class="tcc">B</td> <td class="tcc">C</td> <td class="tcc">D</td> <td class="tcc">E</td> <td class="tcc">F</td> <td class="tcc">G</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">La,</td> <td class="tcc">Si,</td> <td class="tcc">Ut or Do,</td> <td class="tcc">Re,</td> <td class="tcc">Mi,</td> <td class="tcc">Fa,</td> <td class="tcc">Sol.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In Germany +a remnant of Greek use survives. A was originally followed +in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical Mesē was +followed by Paramesē, and this note, namely ♭ B, is still called +B in German, English ♮ B (French and Italian Si) being represented +by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted, +did not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the +hexachord and not the octachord, employed both letters and +syllables, made the former invariable while changing the latter +according to key relationship, and acknowledged only the three +keys of G, C and F; it took its name from having the Greek +letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the Latin +letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the +other notes.</p> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDAK,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal-Himalayas, +flows south-west until it reaches British territory, +where it forms the boundary between the United Provinces and +Bengal for a considerable portion of its course, and falls into the +Ganges opposite Patna. It is a snow-fed stream, and the +surrounding country in the plains, lying at a lower level than its +banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is accordingly +enclosed by protective embankments.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Little Gandak</span> rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur +district about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just +within the Saran district of Bengal.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Burhi</span> (or old) <span class="sc">Gandak</span> also rises in the Nepal hills, and +follows a course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak, +of which it represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and +joining the Ganges nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal +tributary is the Baghmati, which rises in the hills N. of Kathmandu, +flows in a southerly direction through Tirhut, and joins +the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDAMAK,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad +on the road to Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General +Elphinstone’s army in 1842, a hill near Gandamak was the scene +of the massacre of the last survivors of the force, twenty officers +and forty-five British soldiers. It is also notable for the treaty of +Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879 with Yakub Khan. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Afghanistan.</a></span>)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDERSHEIM,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town of Germany in the duchy of Brunswick, +in the deep valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on +the railway Böissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two +Protestant churches of which the convent church (<i>Stiftskirche</i>) +contains the tombs of famous abbesses, a palace (now used as law +courts) and the famous abbey (now occupied by provincial +government offices). There are manufactures of linen, cigars, +beet-root sugar and beer.</p> + +<p>The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of +Saxony, who removed here in 856 the nuns who had been +shortly before established at Brunshausen. His own daughter +Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was succeeded on her death +by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga’s government Louis III. +granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess was to continue +in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was found +competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the +abbey a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop +of Hildesheim and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested +with each other about its supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared +it altogether independent of both. The abbey was ultimately +recognized as holding directly of the Empire, and the abbess had +a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual estates were of great +extent, and among the feudatories who could be summoned to +the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the king +of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1568, and Magdalena, +the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant +abbesses were appointed to the foundation, and continued to +enjoy their imperial privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim +was incorporated with Brunswick. The last abbess, Augusta +Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the ducal house, and +kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim will +long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the +famous Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th +century; and the rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim +ranks as in all probability the earliest historical work composed in +low German.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the +monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the <i>Monumenta Germ. historica</i> +(1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse +(Göttingen, 1872). See also “Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae +Gandershemensis primae,” in J.G. von Eckhart’s <i>Veterum monumentorum +quaternio</i> (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, <i>Mittelalterliche +Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens</i> (1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDHARVA,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote +(1) in the Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings +a class of divine beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special +attributes but many duties, and is in close relation with the great +gods. Thus he is director of the sun’s horses; he is guardian of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore is regarded as the heavenly +physician, soma being a panacea. He is servant of Agni the god +of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is omnipresent: in +the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the keeper of +heaven’s secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men. +He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife +he has the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her +became father of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the +tutelary deity of women and presides over marriage ceremonies. +In their collective capacity the Gandharva share the duties +allotted to the single deity. They live in the house of Indra and +with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time by singing, acting +and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as numbering +twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In +Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual +consent and without formality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDÍA,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of +Valencia; on the Gandía-Alcóy and Alcira-Denia railways. +Pop. (1900) 10,026. Gandía is on the left bank of the river +Alcóy or Sérpis, which waters one of the richest and most populous +plains of Valencia and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the small +harbour of Gandía (<i>El Grao</i>), 3 m. N.E. The chief ancient +buildings of Gandía are the Gothic church, the college, founded by +San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the order of Jesus +(1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandía—a title held +in the 15th and 16th centuries by members of the princely house +of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and +the palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manufactures +of leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandía has a thriving +export trade in fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour. +In 1904, 400 vessels, of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANDO,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the +protectorate of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger +above Borgu. The sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death +of Othman Dan Fodio, the founder of the Fula empire, and its +area and importance varied considerably during the 19th century, +several of the Fula emirates being regarded as tributaries, while +Gando itself was more or less dependent on Sokoto. Gando in +the middle of the century included both banks of the Niger +at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British +protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been +in treaty relations with the British, and in 1903 the part assigned +to the British sphere by agreement with France came definitely +under the control of the administration in Nigeria. Gando now +forms the sub-province of the double province of Sokoto. The +emir was appointed under British authority after the conquest of +Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the province has been organized +for administration on the same system as the rest of the protectorate +of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native courts of +justice have been established, roads have been opened, the slave +trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new +scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga +and Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto, +the first considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about +60 m. S.W. of the town of Sokoto.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANESA,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ganesh</span>, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom +and prudence, always represented with an elephant’s head possibly +to indicate his sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He is +among the most popular of Indian deities, and almost every act, +religious or social, in a Hindu’s life begins with an invocation to +him, as do most books. He typifies not the wisdom of knowledge +but that worldly wisdom which results in financial success, and +thus he is particularly the god of the Hindu shopkeeper. In his +divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of heaven, the spirits +which come and go to do Indra’s will.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANGES<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ganga</span>), a great river of northern India, formed by +the drainage of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This +mighty stream, which in its lower course supplies the river +system of Bengal, rises in the Garhwal state, and falls into the +Bay of Bengal after a course of 1500 m. It issues, under the name +of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan +snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level of the sea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it +receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the +Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the +Ganges. Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place +of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream. +At Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to +Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous +course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, +Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it +receives the Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more +than a series of broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of +course, during the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy +season. At Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty +sister stream, which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west +of the sources of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards +by south-east through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti +and the Gogra. The point of junction with both the Gumti and the +Gogra has more or less pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of +land at Allahabad, where the Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true +Prayag, <i>the</i> place of pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of +devout Hindus repair to wash away their sins in the sacred river. +It is here that the great festival called the Magh mela is held.</p> + +<p>Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters +Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from +the south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume +from the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it +receives the Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply +to the southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur. +By this time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies, +from the sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over +the level country, and this spot marks the commencement of the +delta, 220 m. in a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river, +from the Bay of Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the +Padma or Padda, and proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past +Pabna to Goalanda, above which it is joined by the Jamuna or +main stream of the Brahmaputra. The vast confluence of waters +rushes towards the sea, receiving further additions from the hill +country on the east, and forming a broad estuary known under the +name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali. +This estuary, however, is only the largest and most easterly of a great +number of mouths or channels. The most westerly is the Hugli, +which receives the waters of a number of distributary channels that +start from the parent Ganges above Murshidabad. Between the +Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east lies the delta. The +upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile districts, such as Murshidabad, +Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas. But towards its southern +base, resting on the sea, the country sinks into a series of great +swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable channels. This +wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the <i>sundari</i> tree, +which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.</p> + +<p>The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the +Hugli, on which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. +Beyond this city the navigation is conducted by native craft,—the +modern facilities for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the +river having put an end to the previous steamer communication, +which plied until about 1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below +Calcutta important boat routes through the delta connect the Hugli +with the eastern branches of the river, for both native craft and +steamers.</p> + +<p>The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr, +Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction +with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are +on the Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is +bounded on the N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan +range, on the S. by the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the +ranges which separate Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin +thus enclosed embraces 432,480 sq. m. According to the latest +calculations, the length of the main stream of the Ganges is 1540 m., +or with its longest affluent, 1680; breadth at true entrance into the +sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in dry season, 1¼ to 2¼ m.; depth in +dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second; +ordinary discharge, 207,000 cub. ft.; longest duration of flood, +about 40 days. The average fall from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in. +per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, between 4 and 5 in.; from +Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great changes take place from time +to time in the river-bed, which alter the face of the country. Extensive +islands are thrown up, and attach themselves to the mainland, +while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel, it may be +many miles off. Such changes are so rapid and on so vast a scale, and +the corroding power of the current on the bank so irresistible, that +in Lower Bengal it is considered perilous to build any structure of a +large or permanent character on its margin. Many decayed or ruined +cities attest the changes in the river-bed in ancient times; and +within our own times the main channel which formerly passed +Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the town high and dry, +7 m. from the bank.</p> + +<p>The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as +far as Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been +sanctioned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Upper Ganges Canal</span> and the <span class="sc">Lower Ganges Canal</span> are the +two principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces. +The Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and +irrigates 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of +the original canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates +830,000 acres. The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna, +command the greater portion of the Doab lying between the +Ganges and the Jumna, above Allahabad. Navigation in either is +insignificant.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANGOTRI,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among +the Himalaya Mountains. It is situated in the native state of +Garhwal in the United Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief +head-stream of the Ganges, which is here not above 15 or 20 yds. +broad, with a moderate current, and not in general above 3 ft. +deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and on the bank +near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in which +are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of +mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century. +The bed of the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the +Brahmans into three basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of +these portions is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu and +the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered +efficacious in washing away the sins of the devotee, and ensuring +him eternal happiness in the world to come. The water taken +from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and sold +at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is +10,319 ft.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANGPUR,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until +1905 among the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by +Ranchi district, E. by the Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur +and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the Central Provinces. The +country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by +detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range, +possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from +the plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with +two flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani, +formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both +navigable by canoes. The Ib was formerly famous on account of +diamonds found in its bed, and its sands are still washed for gold. +One of the largest coalfields in India extends into the state, +and iron ore is also found. Jungle products—lac, silk cocoons, +catechu and resin, which are exported; wild animals—bisons, +buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, wild dogs and +many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 238,896; +estimated revenue, £16,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANGRENE<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gangraina">γάγγραινα</span>, an eating sore, from +<span class="grk" title="grainein">γραίνειν</span>, to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (<i>q.v.</i>), +or a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the +circulation by various causes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANILH, CHARLES<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1758-1836), French economist and +politician, was born at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January +1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised +as <i>avocat</i>. During the troubled period which culminated in the +taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July 1789, he came prominently +forward in public affairs, and was one of the seven +members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat +at the hôtel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of +Terror, and was only released by the counter-revolution of the +9th Thermidor. During the first consulate he was called to the +tribunate, but was excluded in 1802. In 1815 he was elected +deputy for Cantal, and finally left the Chamber on its dissolution +in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the most +vigorous defender of the mercantile school in opposition to the +views of Adam Smith and the English economists.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision +with which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess +much value for the student of political economy. He wrote <i>Essai +politique sur le revenue des peuples de l’antiquité, du moyen âge, &c.</i> +(1808); <i>Des systèmes d’économie politique</i> (1809); <i>Théorie d’économie +politique</i> (1815); <i>Dictionnaire analytique de l’économie politique</i> +(1826).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANJAM,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a district of British India, in the extreme north-east +of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much +of the district is exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is +interspersed with open valleys and fertile plains. Pleasant +groves of trees in the plains give to the scenery a greener appearance +than is usually met with in the districts to the south. The +mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern +Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.—its principal +peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and +Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam, +with an area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114, +mostly wild backward tribes, incapable of being governed under +ordinary conditions and therefore ruled by an agent of the +governor with special powers. The chief rivers are the Rushikulya, +the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The sea and river fisheries +afford a livelihood to a considerable section of the population. +The hilly region abounds in forests consisting principally of <i>sal</i>, +with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller quantities.</p> + +<p>Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its +early history is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the +Gajapati dynasty ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract +became even nominally a part of their dominions. Owing to the +nature of the country the rising Mahommedan power was long +kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a century after the first +invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor was sent to +govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present district of +Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were made +over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his +French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an +English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to +abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1765 +the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the +English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English +factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The present +district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the earlier years of +British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in the administration +of the district; and on more than one occasion the refractory +large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular +troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in +1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came +into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose +practice of human sacrifice was successfully accomplished. A +petty rising of a section of the Kondhs occurred in 1865, which +was, however, suppressed without the aid of regular troops.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an +increase of 20% in the decade. There are two systems of government +irrigation: (1) the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam +minor rivers system. The principal crops are rice, other food +grains, pulse, oil seeds and a little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is +evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar +is refined, according to German methods, at Aska, where rum also +is produced. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of +Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads. +The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway +(Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to +Madras in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi. +The headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of +Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found +unhealthy, and its importance has since declined.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1791-1852), French chemist, was +born at Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered +the medical department of the French army, and witnessed the +retreat from Moscow in 1812. After the downfall of the empire he +worked at the École Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at +the Faculty of Sciences as assistant to L.J. Thénard. His +contributions to technical chemistry included a method of +refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers formed of +gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for manufacturing +glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute +awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of +chlorine as a remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for +his discovery of the efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and +chloride for preserving anatomical preparations. In the latter +part of his life he turned his attention to embalmment, his +method depending on the injection of solutions of aluminium salts +into the arteries. He died at Paris in January 1852. His son +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +<span class="sc">Felix</span>, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the question of the +disposal of the dead, among his publications being <i>Mort réelle et +mort apparente</i> (1868), <i>Inhumation et crémation</i> (1876), and <i>Les +Cimetières</i> (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of +which only one volume appeared.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANNET<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (O.E. <i>ganot</i>) or <span class="sc">Solan Goose</span>,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the <i>Pelecanus bassanus</i> +of Linnaeus and the <i>Sula bassana</i> of modern ornithologists, a +large sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose +of breeding, to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of +Forth, and to certain other islands off the coast of Britain, of +which four are in Scottish waters—namely, Ailsa Craig, at the +mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the group known collectively as +St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east of the Butt of Lewis; +and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance westward of +Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the coast of +Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and it +resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel—its only +English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements +are Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and +various small islands off the coast of Iceland, of which the +Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes Fuglaskér and Grimsey are the +chief. On the western side of the Atlantic it appears to have but +five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four rocks in the +Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird +arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn +when its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season +many of the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions +at a vast distance from their home, while at other times of the +year their range is greater still, for they not only frequent the +North Sea and the English Channel, but stray to the Baltic, and, +in winter, extend their flight to the Madeiras, while the members +of the species of American birth traverse the ocean from the shores +of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:632px" src="images/img453.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Gannet, or Solan Goose.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail, +the gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is +white, tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer +edge and principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare +spaces round the eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin. +The first plumage of the young is of a deep brown above, but +paler beneath, and each feather is tipped with a triangular white +spot. The nest is a shallow depression, either on the ground +itself or on a pile of turf, grass and seaweed—which last is often +conveyed from a great distance. The single egg it contains has a +white shell of the same chalky character as a cormorant’s. The +young are hatched blind and naked, but the slate-coloured skin +with which their body is covered is soon clothed with white +down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark colour +already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be +attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the +majority of gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood +of their breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea, +follow the shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of +which they are most useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great +distance from land. Their prey is almost invariably captured by +plunging upon it from a height, and a company of gannets fishing +presents a curious and interesting spectacle. Flying in a line, +each bird, when it comes over the shoal, closes its wings and +dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it emerges after a +few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, mounts in a +wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the string, to +repeat <span class="correction" title="amended from is">its</span> headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself above its +prey.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note, +such as its closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all +connected by a web—characters which it possesses in common +with most of the other members of the group of birds (<i>Steganopodes</i>) +to which it belongs. But more remarkable still is the +system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of large size, pervading +almost the whole surface of the body, communicating with the +lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied at the will of the +bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of several +writers—Montagu, Sir R. Owen (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1831, p. 90), +and Macgillivray.</p> + +<p>In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two +nearly allied but somewhat smaller forms—one, <i>Sula capensis</i>, +inhabiting the coast of South Africa, and the other, <i>S. serrator</i>, +the Australian seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +the former seems to have a permanently black tail, and the latter +a tail the four middle feathers of which are blackish-brown with +white shafts.</p> + +<p>Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the +smaller birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary +stupidity they commonly display. They differ, however, +in having no median stripe of bare skin down the front of +the throat; they almost invariably breed upon trees and are +inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, <i>S. cyanops</i>, when +adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but <i>S. piscator</i> is readily +distinguishable by its red legs, and <i>S. leucogaster</i> by its upper +plumage and neck of deep brown. These three are widely +distributed within the tropics, and are in some places exceedingly +abundant. The fourth, <i>S. variegata</i>, which seems to preserve +throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the immature +<i>S. bassana</i>, has a much more limited range, being as yet only +known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which +contribute to the formation of guano.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The phrase <i>ganotes bæð</i> (gannet’s bath), a periphrasis for the sea, +occurs in the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, in reference to events which +took place <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose +learned treatise on this bird (<i>Ibis</i>, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts all +that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further on +(p. 13) this writer remarks:—“The name gannet is intimately connected +with our modern English gander, both words being modifications +of the ancient British ‘gan’ or ‘gans,’ which is the same word +as the modern German ‘Gans,’ which in its turn corresponds with +the old High German ‘Kans,’ the Greek <span class="grk" title="chên">χήν</span>, the Latin <i>anser</i>, and +the Sanskrit ‘hansa,’ all of which possess the same signification, viz. +a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland, sulan, sula and +haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is not so obvious. +Martin [<i>Voy. St Kilda</i>] informs us that ‘some imagine that the word +solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted and adapted to the +Scottish language, <i>qui oculis irretortis e longinquo respiciat praedam</i>.’ +The earlier writers in general derive the word from the Latin <i>solea</i>, in +consequence of the bird’s supposed habit of hatching its egg with its +foot; and in a note intercalated into Ray’s description of the solan +goose in the edition of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society, +and edited by Dr Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the +statement is given, that ‘the gannet, <i>Sula alba</i>, should be written +solent goose, <i>i.e.</i> a channel goose.’” Hereon an editorial note +remarks that this last statement appears to have been a suggestion of +Yarrell’s, and that it seems at least as possible that the “Solent” +took its name from the bird.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they +take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations +on this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that +in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as +plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were +more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by +Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at +12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in +1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their +number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (<i>Report on the Herring +Fisheries of Scotland</i>, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),—being a diminution of +one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANODONTA<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (so named from the presence of bands of enamel +on the teeth), a group of specialized North American Lower and +Middle Eocene mammals of uncertain affinity. The group +includes <i>Hemiganus</i>, <i>Psittacotherium</i> and <i>Conoryctes</i> from the +Puerco, <i>Calamodon</i> and <i>Hemiganus</i> from the Wasatch, and +<i>Stylinodon</i> from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of +<i>Conoryctes</i>, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests +affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones. +The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be +considered ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the +molars when first developed have tritubercular summits, but +these soon become worn away, leaving tall columnar crowns, +with a subcircular surface of dentine exposed at the summit of +each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a comparatively +full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested with +enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth +never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. +These and other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard +the Ganodonta as an ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this +view is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally +assigned to <i>Calamodon</i> have been obtained from the Lower +Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.L. Wortman, “The Ganodonta and their Relationship to +the Edentata,” <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott, +“Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata,” <i>Rep. Princeton +Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903-1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANS, EDUARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at +Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. +He studied law first at Berlin, then at Göttingen, and finally at +Heidelberg, where he attended Hegel’s lectures, and became +thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Hegelian philosophy. +In 1820, after taking his doctor’s degree, he returned to Berlin +as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and the following +year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, professor +in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical school +of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed +owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied +the method to one special branch—the right of succession. His +great work, <i>Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung</i> (1824, +1825, 1829 and 1835), is of permanent value, not only for its +extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which +the general theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is +presented. In 1830, and again in 1835, Gans visited Paris, and +formed an intimate acquaintance with the leaders of literary +culture and criticism there. The liberality of his views, especially +on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure of the +Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of +the last fifty years (published as <i>Vorlesungen über d. Geschichte +d. letzten fünfzig Jahre</i>, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He +died at Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works +above mentioned, there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental +laws of property (<i>Über die Grundlage des Besitzes</i>, Berlin, +1829), a portion of a systematic work on the Roman civil law +(<i>System des römischen Civil-Rechts</i>, 1827), and a collection of his +miscellaneous writings (<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, 1832). Gans edited +the <i>Philosophie der Geschichte</i> in Hegel’s <i>Werke</i>, and contributed +an admirable preface.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (Dec. 1839).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1778-1844), Austrian +musical composer, was born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His +father, a schoolmaster and teacher of music, undertook his son’s +early education, which the boy continued under various masters +till 1802, when he became the pupil of the celebrated Abbé G.J. +Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and with his fellow-pupils, +more perhaps than to his own merits, Gänsbacher’s +permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was during +his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt, +that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the +close friendship which sprang up among the three young +musicians, and was dissolved by death only, has become celebrated +in the history of their art. But Gänsbacher was himself +by no means without merit. He creditably filled the responsible +and difficult post of director of the music at St Stephen’s +cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); and +his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They +consist chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, +motets, offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also +wrote several sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions +of a dramatic kind.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANTÉ,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. +It is largely used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has +the appearance of a fine hessian cloth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GANYMEDE,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of +Dardania, and Callirrhoë. He was the most beautiful of mortals, +and was carried off by the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, +or by Zeus in the form of an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer +(Apollodorus iii. 12; Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, v. 254; Ovid, +<i>Metam.</i> x. 255). By way of compensation, Zeus presented his +father with a team of immortal horses (or a golden vine). +Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of the fountains +of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and identified by +astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the divinity +that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius +who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When +pederasty became common in Greece, an attempt was made to +justify it and invest it with dignity by referring to the rape of the +beautiful boy by Zeus; in Crete, where the love of boys was +reduced to a system, Minos, the primitive ruler and law-giver, +was said to have been the ravisher of Ganymede. Thus the name +which once denoted the good genius who bestowed the precious +gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar Latin +under the form <i>Catamitus</i>. Ganymede being carried off by the +eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor +Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. +Veckenstedt (<i>Ganymedes</i>, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that +Ganymede is the genius of intoxicating drink (<span class="grk" title="methu">μέθυ</span>, mead, for +which he postulates a form <span class="grk" title="mêdos">μῆδος</span>), whose original home was +Phrygia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See article by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>. +In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 53 (Pl. I.) gives an illustration of +Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAO,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> <span class="sc">Gao-Gao</span>, or <span class="sc">Garo</span>, a town of French West Africa, in the +Upper Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, +400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The +present town dates from the French occupation in 1900; of the +ancient city there are scanty ruins, the chief being a truncated +pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) of Mahommed +Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque. +According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient +times and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with +the Egyptians. It is known, however, that the city of which the +French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi, +probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became the capital of +their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears to have been the correct +name of the Songhoi city, though it was also known as Gogo and +Kuku (Kaougha)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>. In the 12th century Idrisi describes Kuku as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and industry; +it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao but to +another town somewhat to the south—at that period the middle +course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. +In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and +its great mosque was built (<i>c.</i> 1325) by the Melle sovereign +Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the +15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its +greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia. It did not enjoy the +commercial importance of Jenné nor the intellectual supremacy +of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the western Sudan +for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power the +city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the +<i>Ruma</i> of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the +Tuareg, the last named surrendering possession to the French. +The first European to reach Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was +followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth, and in 1896 by the French +naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the headquarters of a military +district. A caravan route leads from it to Kano and Bornu. +From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timbuktu</a></span>. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article +by F. Dubois in <i>L’Afrique française</i> (January 1909).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake +Chad in the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the +Bulala dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose +rule in the 15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The +existence of the state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the +Bornuese it was known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which +persists as that of a district in French Congo (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bornu</a></span>). The +similarity of the name Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given +rise to much confusion.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAOL,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Jail</span>, a prison (<i>q.v.</i>). The two forms of the word are +due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French +respectively, <i>jaiole</i> or <i>jaole</i>, and <i>gaiole</i> or <i>gayolle</i>. The common +origin is the med. Lat. <i>gabiola</i>, a diminutive formed from <i>cavea</i>, +a hollow, a den, from which the English “cave” is derived. +The form “gaol” still commonly survives in English, and is in +official usage, <i>e.g.</i> “gaol-delivery,” but the common pronunciation +of both words, “jail,” shows the real surviving word.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAON<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Heb. for “Excellency,” plural <i>Geonim</i>), the title +given to the heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, +Sura and Pumbeditha. Though the name is far older, it is +chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived between the close of the +Talmud and the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia +to Europe—<i>i.e.</i> from the end of the 6th to the middle of the 11th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Geonim were required to do homage to the +Exilarchs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exilarch</a></span>) but were otherwise independent. +They exercised wide authority and were appealed to in settlement +of the social and religious affairs of the diaspora. To them +must be assigned the arrangement of the main lines of the present +Synagogue liturgy. Their chief literary activity took the form of +Answers to Questions—a form which was extensively used in +later centuries. The most noted of the Geonim, who will be +found treated under their respective names, were Aḥai, Amram, +Ṣemach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038, +closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a +half centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the <i>Jewish +Encyclopaedia</i>, vol. v. p. 571.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAP,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> the capital of the French department of the Hautes +Alpes. Pop. (1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built +at a height of 2418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent +of the Durance), in an agreeable position, and is dominated afar +by snowy peaks on the N.E. The little city has the look of a +Provençal town, being white. The 17th-century cathedral +church has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). In the +prefecture is the tomb of the constable de Lesdiguières (1543-1626), +dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine sculptor, +Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific +and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, +which include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. +There are a few small manufactories of purely local importance. +Gap is connected by railway with Briançon (51½ m.) and with +Grenoble (85½ m.), while from the railway junction of Veynes +(16½ m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m. by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal +see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence, +is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was +enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun (then suppressed).</p> + +<p>Gap is the <i>Vapincum</i> of the Romans, and was founded by +Augustus about 14 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It long formed part of Provence, but in +1232 most of the region passed by marriage to the dauphins of +Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of +the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of +France. The bishops continued to bear the title of count of +Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the +Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. +It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), +who first preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, +but then took refuge in Switzerland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Roman, <i>Histoire de la ville de Gap</i> (Gap, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAPAN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, 3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. +(1903) 11,278. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and +extensive forests in its vicinity contain fine hardwoods. Its +climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The principal native +dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is the oldest +town of the province.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARARISH<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kararish</span>), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic +origin, dwelling along the right bank of the Nile from Wādi +Halfa to Merawi. Many members of the tribe are agriculturists, +others act as guides or transport drivers. They declare themselves +kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are more Arab than Beja.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARASHANIN, ILIYA<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was +the son of a Servian peasant, who made money by exporting +cattle and pigs to Austria and by his intelligence and wealth +attained to a certain influence in the country. He wanted to +give his son as good an education as possible, and therefore sent +him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in a German +school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular +although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very +quickly came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him +a colonel and commander of the then just organized regular army +of Servia. In 1842 he was called to the position of assistant to +the home minister, and from that time until his retirement from +public life in 1867 he was repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing +himself by the energy and justice of his administration. +But he rendered far greater services to his country as minister +for foreign affairs. He was the first Servian statesman who had a +political programme, and who worked to replace the Russian protectorate +over Servia by the joint protectorate of all the great +powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in 1853 he was +decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against Turkey +and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in +Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, +peremptorily demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander +Karageorgevich) his dismissal. But although dismissed, his +personal influence in the country secured the neutrality of Servia +during the Crimean War. He enjoyed esteem in France, and it +was due to him that France proposed to the peace conference of +Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Servia by +Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be +replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a +European international commission. But the agreement of the +powers was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander +Karageorgevich to convoke a national assembly, which had not +been called to meet for ten years. The assembly was convoked +for St Andrew’s Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince +Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh Obrenovich. When +after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince Michael +ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign +affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that +Servia was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, +and that she obtained, without war, the evacuation +of all the fortresses garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the +Servian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867). +Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential +arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians, +Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. +But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden +resignation (at the end of 1867), and more especially by the +assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (the 10th of +June 1868). Although he was a Conservative in politics, and as +such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement, +Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the ablest statesmen +whom Servia had in the 19th century.</p> +<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1740-1833), French writer +and politician, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of September +1749. After receiving a good education under the direction of a +relation who was a curé, and having been an advocate at Bordeaux, +he came to Paris, where he obtained introductions to the +most distinguished writers of the time, and became a contributor +to the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> and the <i>Mercure de France</i>. He +gained considerable reputation by an éloge on Michel de L’Hôpital +in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy +for éloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was +named professor of history at the <i>Lycée</i>, where his lectures +enjoyed an equal popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on +literature. Being chosen a deputy to the states-general in 1789, +he rendered important service to the popular cause by his +narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the +<i>Journal de Paris</i>. Possessing strongly optimist views, a mild +and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable convictions, +he played a somewhat undignified part in the great +political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying +out the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of +justice in 1792, and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he +called the <i>commission affreuse</i> of communicating to Louis XVI. +his sentence of death. In 1793 he became minister of the interior. +In this capacity he proved himself quite inefficient. Though +himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most scandalous corruption +in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably organized +detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every +movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, +which might easily have been done by a moderate display of +firmness. At last, disgusted with the excesses which he had been +unable to control, he resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of +October he was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon +released, and he escaped further molestation owing to the +friendship of Barras and, more especially, of Robespierre, whose +literary <i>amour-propre</i> he had been careful to flatter. On the 9th +Thermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on +the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the Convention as a +member of the executive committee of public instruction. In +1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following +year he became a member, then president, of the Council of the +Ancients. Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was +chosen a senator by Napoleon and created a count. During the +Hundred Days he was a member of the chamber of representatives. +In 1803 he was chosen a member of the Institute of France, +but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name was, in 1816, +deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of 1830 +he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and +Political Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, +1833. His writings are characterized by elegance, grace and +variety of style, and by the highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; +but his grasp of his subject is superficial, and as his criticisms +have no root in fixed and philosophical principles they are not +unfrequently whimsical and inconsistent. He must not be +confounded with his elder brother Dominique (1735-1799), who +was also a deputy to the states-general.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned, +<i>Considérations sur la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1792); <i>Mémoires +sur la Révolution, ou exposé de ma conduite</i> (1795); <i>Mémoires sur +la vie de M. Suard, sur ses écrits, et sur le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1820); +éloges on Joubert, Kléber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished +persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. +Valuable materials for the history of Garat’s tenure of the ministry, +notably the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt’s +<i>Tableaux de la Révolution Française</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1764-1823), French singer, nephew +of Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th +of April 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and +compass he devoted himself, from an early age, to the cultivation +of his musical talents. On account of his manifesting a distaste +for the legal profession, for which his father wished him to study, +he was deprived of his allowance, but through the patronage of a +friend he obtained the office of secretary to Comte d’Artois, and +was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to the queen of +France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied +Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in +concerts. He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he +became a professional singer, and on account of a song which he +had composed in reference to the misfortunes of the royal family +he was thrown into prison. On regaining his liberty he went to +Hamburg, where he at once achieved extraordinary success; and +by his subsequent appearances in Paris, and his visits to Italy, +Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for himself a reputation as +a singer unequalled by any other of his own time. He was a keen +partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the institution of +the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of singing. +He also composed a number of songs, many of which have +considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARAY, JÁNOS<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, +was born on the 10th of October 1812, at Szegszárd, in the +county of Tolna. From 1823 to 1828 he studied at Fünfkirchen, +and subsequently, in 1829, at the university of Pest. In 1834 he +brought out an heroic poem, in hexameters, under the title +<i>Csatár</i>. After this he issued in quick succession various historical +dramas, among which the most successful were <i>Arbócz, Országh +Ilona</i> and <i>Báthori Erzsébet</i>,—the first two published at Pest in +1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic journalist, +and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the political +journal <i>Hirnök</i> (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when he +was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy +of Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, +of which he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian +literature with numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The +first collection of his poems was published at Pest in 1843; and +his prose tales appeared in 1845, under the title of <i>Tollrajzok</i> +(Sketches with the Pen). His historical ballads and legends, +styled <i>Arpádok</i> (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed. 1848), showed him to be a +master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of his lyrical poems +also are excellent, as, for example, <i>Balatoni Kagylók</i> (Shells from +the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend <i>Bosnyák Zsófia</i> +(Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance <i>Frangepán Kristófné</i> +(Christopher Frangepan’s Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize of +the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an +historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title <i>Szent László</i> +(Saint Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). +Garay was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the +university of Pest in 1848-1849. After about four years’ illness +he died on the 5th of November 1853, in great want. A collective +edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after his +death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and several of his poems were +translated by Kertbeny.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Garay János Összes költeményei</i> (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and +<i>Dichtungen von Johann Garay</i> (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARBLE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (a word derived from the Arab. <i>gharbala</i>, to sift, and +related to <i>ghirbal</i>, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, +probably from the Lat. <i>cribrum</i>, a sieve), originally a medieval +commercial term in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort +out, or to sift merchandize, such as corn, spices, &c., in order +to separate what was good from the refuse or waste; hence to +select the best of anything for retention. Similarly a “garbler” +was an official who was appointed to sort out, or test the work of +those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale +in the London markets. In this original sense the word is now +obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, “garble” now +means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary +works, or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, +or renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1724-1772), +Portuguese lyric poet, was the son of Philippe Corrêa da +Serra, a <i>fidalgo</i> of the royal house who held an important post in +the foreign office; his mother was of French descent. The poet’s +health was frail, and after going through a Jesuit school in Lisbon +and learning English, French and Italian at home, he proceeded in +1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a legal career. +He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was created +a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with +D. Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him +to live in ease and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit +reduced him to poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the +<i>Lisbon Gazette</i>. In 1756, in conjunction with Cruz e Silva and +others, Garção founded the <i>Arcadia Lusitana</i> to reform the +prevailing bad taste in literature, identified with <i>Seicentismo</i>, +which delighted in conceits, windy words and rhetorical phrases. +The <i>Arcadia</i> fulfilled its mission to some extent, but it lacked +creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of inanition. +Garção was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing the +name of “Corydon Erimantheo,” and his orations and dissertations, +with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at +its meetings. He lived much in the society of the English +residents in Lisbon, and he is supposed to have conceived a +passion for an English married lady which completely absorbed +him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his literary +activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the +9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose +displeasure he had incurred by his independence of character. +The immediate cause of his incarceration would appear to have +been his connexion with a love intrigue between a young friend of +his and the daughter of a Colonel Elsden, but he was never +brought to trial, and the matter must remain in doubt. After +much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order for her +husband’s release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too +late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, +Garção expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of +forty-seven.</p> + +<p>Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, +scholarship and wide reading, Garção set out to raise and purify +the standard of poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by +a classical simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets <i>ad +sodales</i> show a charming personality; his vigorous and elegant +odes and epistles are sententious in tone and reveal an inspired +poet and a man chastened by suffering. His two comedies in +hendecasyllables, the <i>Theatro Novo</i> (played in January 1766) +and the <i>Assemblêa</i>, are excellent satires on the social life of the +capital; and in the <i>Cantata de Dido</i>, included in the latter piece, +the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of form, making this +composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century poetry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Garção wrote little and spent much time on the <i>labor limae</i>. +His works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete +and accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, +1888). An English version of the <i>Cantata de Dido</i> appeared in the +Academy (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario +bibliographico Portuguez</i>, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp. 182-184; +also Dr Theophilo Braga, <i>A Arcadia Lusitana</i> (Oporto, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1775-1832), +Spanish singer and composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of +January 1775. He became a chorister at the cathedral of Seville, +and studied music under the best masters of that city. At +seventeen he made his début on the stage at Cadiz, in an operetta, +in which were included songs of his own composition. Soon afterwards +he appeared at Madrid in the twofold capacity of singer and +composer. His reputation being established, he proceeded to +Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in Paer’s +opera <i>Griselda</i>. Here also he was received with great applause, +his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further +improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, +where he continued his successes. His opera <i>Il Califo di Bagdad</i> +was favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes +were again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera <i>La +Morte di Tasso</i> was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was +followed in 1823 by his <i>Il Fazzoletto</i>. In 1824 he went to London, +and thence proceeded to America (1825) with a company of +artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and his daughter +Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran. +In New York was produced his opera <i>La Figlia dell’ aria</i> in 1827. +He extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the +point of returning to Europe in order to retire from public life +when he was robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his +way to Vera Cruz. Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired +from the stage, and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He +died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1832. His method of teaching +was famous, and some of the most celebrated singers of the early +part of the century were amongst his pupils. He also wrote an +excellent book on the art of singing called <i>Metodo di canto</i>, of +which the essence was subsequently incorporated by his son +Manoel in his admirable <i>Traité complet de l’art du chant</i> (1847). +His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in +all, but with the exception of those quoted, and <i>El Poeta calculista</i>, +produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the +children already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame +Viardot (1821-1910), worthily continued the tradition for the +best singing with which his name had become associated.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Manoel Garcia</span> (1805-1906), who celebrated his +hundredth birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was +born at Madrid, and after his father’s death devoted himself to +teaching. He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from +1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was a professor at the +Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous for his +invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his position +as the greatest representative of the old “<i>bel canto</i>” style of +singing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1734-1787), +Spanish dramatist, was born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, +and was educated at Salamanca. At Madrid he soon attracted +attention by his literary arrogance and handsome person; and +at an early age became chief of the National Library, a post from +which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of his numerous +enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection of +Spanish plays entitled <i>Theatro Hespanol</i> (1785-1786) exposed him +to severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. +He died at Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying +into effect his avowed intention of reviving the national drama. +His <i>Agamemnón vengado</i> derives from Sophocles, his <i>Jaire</i> is +translated from Voltaire, and even his once famous <i>Raquel</i>, +though Spanish in subject, is classic in form.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1466-1534), Spanish soldier +and duellist, was a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. +He never commanded an army or rose to the position of a general, +but he was a notable figure in the wars of the end of the 15th and +beginning of the 16th century, when personal prowess had still a +considerable share in deciding the result of actions. His native +town and its district, which lie between Talavera and Madrid, +produced many of the most noted <i>conquistadores</i> of America, +including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth +in the war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted +him to shine in operations largely composed of night marches, +escalades, surprises and hand-to-hand combats. The main +scene of his achievements was in Italy, and he betook himself to +it—on his own showing—not in search of glory, but because he +had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, in a street +fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to Rome, +then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation +to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope +Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the +Romagna and took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier +of the pope till he killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it +necessary to pass over to the enemy. Now he became acquainted +with the Colonnas, who appreciated his services. The wars +between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the Catholic king) and Louis +XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The Spanish general +Gonsalvo de Córdoba, who knew his value, employed him and +trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, +till 1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many +Münchausen-like stories of personal prowess. It was said that he +held a bridge single-handed against 200 Frenchmen, that he +stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so forth. In the “Brief +Summary” of his life and deeds attributed to him, and printed at +the end of the <i>Chronicle of the Great Captain</i>, published in 1584 at +Alcalá de Henares, he lays no claim to having done more than +was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in +1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of +the younger officers of the army. His body was carried to his +native town Trujillo, and buried in the church of Santa Maria +Mayor in 1545.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1812-1884), Spanish +dramatist, was born at Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, +and studied medicine in his native town. In 1832 he removed +to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by translating plays of +Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, he was on the +point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author +of <i>El Trovador</i>, which was played for the first time on the 1st of +March 1836. García Gutiérrez never surpassed this first effort, +which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement +in Spain, and which became known all over Europe through +Verdi’s music. His next great success was <i>Simón Bocanegra</i> +(1843), but, as his plays were not lucrative, he emigrated to +Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico till +1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of his later +period are a <i>zarzuela</i> entitled <i>El Grumete</i> (1853), <i>La Venganza +catalana</i> (1864) and <i>Juan Lorenzo</i> (1865). He became head of +the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th +of August 1884. His <i>Poesías</i> (1840) and another volume of +lyrics, entitled <i>Luz y tinieblas</i> (1842), are unimportant; but the +brilliant versification of his plays, and his power of analysing +feminine emotions, give him a foremost place among the Spanish +dramatists of the 19th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARD<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, a department in the south of France, consisting of part +of the old province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area +2270 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozère and +Ardèche, E. by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and +Bouches-du-Rhône, S. by the Mediterranean, S.W. by Hérault +and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into three sharply-defined +regions. Its north-western districts are occupied by the range of +the Cévennes, which on the frontier of Lozère attain a height of +5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its fruitful +valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and the +chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the +mountains are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a +dry, hilly region of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation +of cereals, the vine and olive, stretches from the foot of the +Cévennes over the centre of the department, covering about half +its area. The southern portion, which extends to the sea, and was +probably at one time covered by it, is a low plain with numerous +lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is prosperous, and +comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.</p> + +<p>Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., +and the Ardèche, the lower course of which forms part of its +boundary on the N., the principal rivers are the Cèze, Gard, +Vidourle and Hérault. The most northern of these is the Cèze, +which rises in the Cévennes, and after a course of about 50 m. in +an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above Roquemaure. +The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its name, +is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cévennes from +several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a +length of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows +through a succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the +melting of the snows on the Cévennes is subject to inundations, +which often cause great damage. Its waters not infrequently +rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its bed is sometimes increased +in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it is crossed by a +celebrated Roman aqueduct—the Pont du Gard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>). +The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near Le +Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below +Sommières it forms the western boundary of the department. +The Hérault has its source and part of its course in the west of +Gard. The Canal de Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at +Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the +Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the Grand-Roubine +canal.</p> + +<p>The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; +it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The +cold and violent north-west wind known as the mistral is its +worst drawback. Les Fumades (near Allègre) and Euzet have +mineral springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats. +Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its +cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of which is +of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks first +among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the +olive, mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated +and yields excellent red and white wines. The department is +rich in minerals, and the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, +zinc, lead and copper, which are for the most part situated in the +neighbourhoods of Alais and La Grand’-Combe, constitute one of +the chief sources of its wealth. Great quantities of salt are +obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. The quarries of +building and other stone employ a considerable number of workmen. +The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive, +and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, +cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), +liquorice, gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There +are also breweries and distilleries, and important metallurgical +works, the chief of which are those of Bessèges. The exports of +Gard include coal, lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron, +steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, grapes and truffles.</p> + +<p>The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is +divided into the arrondissements of Nîmes, Alais, Uzès and Le +Vigan, with 40 cantons and 351 communes. The chief town is +Nîmes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon +and of a court of appeal. Gard belongs to the 15th military +region, which has its headquarters at Marseilles, and to the +académie (educational division) of Montpellier. Nîmes, Alais, +Uzès, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Bessèges, La Grand’-Combe +and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon are the principal places. +Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone +is crossed by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long +built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with +several old houses, carries on silk-spinning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDA, LAKE OF<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (the <i>Lacus Benacus</i> of the Romans), the +most easterly and the most extensive of the great Lombard +lakes, being only surpassed in the Alpine region by those of +Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme northern extremity +(Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in 1517), the +whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of +Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents +the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river +now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from the +lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). +Nowadays the lake is fed by the Sarca, that flows in at its north +end from the glaciers of the Adamello, while at the southern +extremity of the lake the Mincio flows out, on its way to join the +Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. m., its length is 32¼ m., +its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the height of its surface above +sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth yet measured is 1916 ft. +Its upper or northern end is narrow, but between Garda (E.) and +Salò (W.) the lake expands gradually into a nearly circular basin, +which at the southern extremity is divided into two parts by the +long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the southern +shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this conformation +the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, +which Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (<i>Georg</i>. ii. line 160): +<i>fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino</i>. The most +dangerous of these winds is the <i>Borea</i> or <i>Suer</i>, that sweeps down +from the north as through a funnel. In the southern portion of +the lake the <i>Vinessa</i>, an E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The <i>Ora</i> +is a regular wind coming from the east which, on reaching the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +lake, blows from S. to N. The steep grey limestone crags of +Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, contrast strongly +with the rich vegetation on the western and southern shores. +The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to +Salò is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that +not merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing +lemons, figs, mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, +and has been given the name of the <i>Riviera Benacense</i>. The +lovely promontory of Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, +has also an extremely luxuriant vegetation, while it contains +many remains of buildings of Roman and later date, having been +the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided here and celebrated its beauties +in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat with paddles set in motion +by horses was put on the lake, but the first steamer dates only +from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. respectively +of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera +(14¼ m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17½ m. +by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8¾ m. distant from +each other. On the west shore of the lake are Salò, Toscolano, +Gargnano and Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast +only of Bardolino and Garda. At the northern tip of the lake, +and in Tirol, is Riva, the most considerable town on the lake, +and 15½ m. by rail from the Mori station on the main Brenner +line.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1766-1818), +French general and diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January +1766. He entered the army and rose rapidly during the revolutionary +wars, becoming captain in 1793. In May 1799 he +distinguished himself by saving a division of the French army +which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of +Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. +He incurred Napoleon’s displeasure for an omission of duty +shortly before the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in +1805 was appointed to be aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief +distinction, however, was to be won in the diplomatic sphere. +In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with +France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged +in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a mission to +the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east +of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian +alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; +and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing +of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up +for Gardane, and signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as +showing the strong oriental trend of the emperor’s policy. France +was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that +Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the +shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that +territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, +officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount +demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to +declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her +territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans +with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India. +Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long +and dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at +Teheran in December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian +treaty at Tilsit in July 1807 rendered the mission +abortive. Persia longed only for help against Russia and had +no desire, when all hope of that was past, to attack India. The +shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant to France +a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely +replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir +John Malcolm to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, +however, Gardane saw that nothing much was to be hoped for in +the changed situation of European affairs, and abruptly left the +country (April 1809). This conduct was not wholly approved by +Napoleon, but he named him count and in 1810 attached him +to Masséna’s army in Portugal. There, during the disastrous +retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which +brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no +notice. He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny +(dated April 23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the +prospects of a successful invasion of India is of great interest. +He admitted the difficulties of this enterprise, but thought that +a force of picked French troops, aided by Persians and Afghans, +might under favourable conditions penetrate into India by way of +Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were distracted +by maritime attacks from Mauritius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Count Alfred de Gardane, <i>Mission du général Gardane en Perse</i> +(Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, <i>La Politique orientale de +Napoléon: Sébastiani et Gardane</i> (Paris, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDELEGEN,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on +the right bank of the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main +line of railway Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a +Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, a hospital, +founded in 1285, and a high-grade school. There are considerable +manufactures, notably agricultural machinery and buttons, and +its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was founded in the 10th +century, and was for a long time the seat of a line of counts. It +suffered considerably in the Thirty Years’ War, and in 1775 was +burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave +Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the +Mild of Brunswick.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDEN<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>gardin</i>, mod. Fr. <i>jardin</i>; this, like +our words “garth,” a paddock attached to a building, and +“yard,” comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which +appears in Gothic as <i>gards</i> and O.H. Ger. <i>gart</i>, cf. Dutch <i>gaarde</i> +and Ger. <i>garten</i>), the ground enclosed and cultivated for the +growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>). +The word is also used for grounds laid out ornamentally, used as +places of public entertainment. Such were the famous Ranelagh +and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in zoological +gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or +streets. From the fact that Epicurus (<i>q.v.</i>) taught in the gardens +at Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as +<span class="grk" title="hoi apo tôn kêpôn">οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν κήπων</span> (so Diog. Laërtius x. 10); and Cicero (<i>De +finibus</i> v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the <i>Horti Epicuri</i>. +Thus as the “Academy” refers to the Platonic and the “Porch” +(<span class="grk" title="stoa">στοά</span>) to the Stoic school, so the “Garden” is the name given to +the Epicurean school of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as +<span class="grk" title="kêpotyrannos">κηποτύραννος</span>, the tyrant of the garden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDENIA,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, +containing about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, +natives of the warmer parts of the old world. Several are +grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented +white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a +branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salver-shaped with +a long tube. The double forms of <i>Gardenia florida</i> (a native of +China) and <i>G. radicans</i> (a native of Japan) are amongst the most +beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias +are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by +cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing +season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy +bug, green fly, red spider and scale-insect.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, JAMES<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at +Carriden in Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the +age of fourteen he entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch +service, and was afterwards present at the battle of Ramillies, +where he was wounded. He subsequently served in different +cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was advanced to the rank of +lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of colonel. He fell at the +battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September 1745. The +circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott’s +<i>Waverley</i>. In his early years he was distinguished for his +recklessness and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, +as he regarded it, led to his conversion, and from that time he +lived a life of great devoutness and of thorough consistency with +his Christian profession. Dr Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, +author of an autobiography, says that he was “very ostentatious” +about his conversion—speaks of him as weak, and +plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. +Gardiner’s account of his sins.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often +reprinted.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1829-1902), English +historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near +Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March 1829. He was educated at +Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first +class in <i>literae humaniores</i>. He was subsequently elected to +fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some +years he was professor of modern history at King’s College, +London, and devoted his life to historical work. He is the +historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in +a series of volumes, originally published under different titles, +beginning with the accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the +third volume of the <i>History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>) +appeared in 1901. This was completed in two volumes by C.H. +Firth as <i>The Last Years of the Protectorate</i> (1909). The series is +<i>History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak +of the Civil War</i>, 1603-1642 (10 vols.); <i>History of the Great Civil +War</i>, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and <i>History of the Commonwealth and +Protectorate, 1649-1660</i>. His treatment is exhaustive and +philosophical, taking in, along with political and constitutional +history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment during his +period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original +authorities on which his work is founded many of great value +exist only in manuscript, and his researches in public and +private collections of manuscripts at home, and in the archives +of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable +and fruitful. His accuracy is universally acknowledged. +He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by the fact of his +descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly written of +it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his +judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his +appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of +perception and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these +qualities it will be enough to refer to what he says of the characters +of James I., Bacon, Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional +matters he writes with an insight to be attained only by +the study of political philosophy, discussing in a masterly +fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes of government +proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a prominent +place to everything which illustrates human progress in +moral and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially +to the rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, +finding his authorities not only in the words and actions of men of +mark, but in the writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, +whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion. +His record of the relations between England and other states +proves his thorough knowledge of contemporary European +history, and is rendered specially valuable by his researches +among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound +for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.</p> + +<p>Gardiner’s work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years +which it covers are a period of exceptional importance in many +directions, and the actions and characters of the principal persons +in it demand careful analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an +exaggerated importance to some of the authorities which he was +the first to bring to light, to see a general tendency in what may +only be the expression of an individual eccentricity, to rely too +much on ambassadors’ reports which may have been written for +some special end, to enter too fully into the details of diplomatic +correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not the +result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely +unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly +to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom +picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the +execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. The +minuteness of his narrative detracts from its interest; though +his arrangement is generally good, here and there the reader +finds the thread of a subject broken by the intrusion of incidents +not immediately connected with it, and does not pick it up again +without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his supreme +qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of character; +his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and unmoved. +Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without +beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity +and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other +books, mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by +which his name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting +labour, a splendid monument of historical scholarship. +His position as an historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 +he was given a civil list pension of £150 per annum, “in recognition +of his valuable contributions to the history of England”; +he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Edinburgh, and +Ph.D. of Göttingen, and honorary student of Christ Church, +Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius +professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should +interfere with the accomplishment of his history. He died on +the 24th of February 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner’s separate works are: +<i>Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage</i> (2 vols., London, 1869); +<i>Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660</i> (1st +ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (London, +1901); <i>What Gunpowder Plot was</i> (London, 1897); <i>Outline of +English History</i> (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); +and <i>Student’s History of England</i> (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891; +2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of +papers for the Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the +<i>English Historical Review</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Hu.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, STEPHEN<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1493-1555), English bishop and +lord chancellor, was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of +his birth as commonly given, 1483, seems to be about ten years +too early, and surmises which have passed current that he was +some one’s illegitimate child are of no authority. His father is +now known to have been John Gardiner, a substantial cloth +merchant of the town where he was born (see his will, printed in +<i>Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute</i>, i. 329), who +took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then +a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols’s <i>Epistles of Erasmus</i>, +ii. 12, 13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, +where he studied at Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself +in the classics, especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted +himself to the canon and civil law, in which subjects he attained +so great a proficiency that no one could dispute his pre-eminence. +He received the degree of doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon +law in the following year.</p> + +<p>Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, +who made him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have +been with him at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion +of the celebrated treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and +the French ambassadors thither. It is stated, and with great +probability, that this was the occasion on which he was first +introduced to the king’s notice, but he does not appear to have +been actively engaged in Henry’s service till three years later. In +that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very intimate knowledge +of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas More +were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging +a treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army +in Italy against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey +on his important diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and +magnificence of which are so graphically described by Cavendish. +Among the imposing train who went with the cardinal—including, +as it did, several noblemen and privy councillors—Gardiner +alone seems to have been acquainted with the real heart of the +matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar moment. +Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with +Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the +object on which he had secretly set his heart—a divorce from +Catherine of Aragon. In the course of his progress through +France he received orders from Henry to send back his secretary +Gardiner, or, as he was called at court, Master Stevens, for fresh +instructions; to which he was obliged to reply that he positively +could not spare him as he was the only instrument he had in +advancing the king’s “secret matter.” Next year Gardiner, still +in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along with +Edward Fox, provost of King’s College, Cambridge, to promote +the same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion +are still extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which +he was engaged, they certainly give a wonderful impression of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +zeal and ability with which he discharged his functions. Here his +perfect familiarity with the canon law gave him a great advantage. +He was instructed to procure from the pope a decretal commission, +laying down principles of law by which Wolsey and +Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal. +The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not +only unusual but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at +Orvieto, and had just recently escaped from captivity at St +Angelo at the hands of the imperialists. But fear of offending +the emperor could not have induced him to refuse a really +legitimate request from a king like Henry. He naturally referred +the question to the cardinals about him; with whom Gardiner +held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little +browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of +a spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the +wanderer his way? The king and lords of England would be +driven to think that God had taken away from the Holy See the +key of knowledge, and that pontifical laws which were not clear +to the pope himself might as well be committed to the flames.</p> + +<p>This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was +obliged to be content with a general commission for Campeggio +and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, +was quite inadequate for the purpose in view; and he again +instructed Gardiner, while thanking the pope for the commission +actually granted, to press him once more by very urgent pleas, +to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be +shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise, +he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even +be tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At +last the pope—to his own bitter regret afterwards—gave what +was desired on the express conditions named, that Campeggio +was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then +destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general +commission. After obtaining this Gardiner returned home; +but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings were +delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once +more to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. +The pope would make no further concessions, and would not +even promise not to revoke the cause to Rome, as he did very +shortly after.</p> + +<p>Gardiner’s services, however, were fully appreciated. He was +appointed the king’s secretary. He had been already some years +archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was +added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for +that of Leicester. In 1530 he was sent to Cambridge to procure +the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage +with a deceased brother’s wife, in accordance with the new plan +devised for settling the question without the pope’s intervention. +In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice, +more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In November +1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric +of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey’s death. The promotion was +unexpected, and was accompanied by expressions from the king +which made it still more honourable, as showing that if he had +been in some things too subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking +policy of his own. Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated +boldly with his sovereign on some points, and Henry +now reminded him of the fact. “I have often <i>squared</i> with you, +Gardiner,” he said familiarly, “but I love you never the worse, +as the bishopric I give will convince you.” In 1532, nevertheless, +he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he took in the +preparation of the famous “Answer of the Ordinaries” to the +complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. +On this subject he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own +defence.</p> + +<p>His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, +not exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer’s assessors, but, +according to Cranmer’s own expression, “assistant” to him as +counsel for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of +Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and +void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was +sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and +Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry +stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most +cordial ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause +in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner +intimated the appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case +the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him. +This appeal, and also one on behalf of Cranmer presented with it, +were of Gardiner’s drawing up. In 1535 he and other bishops +were called upon to vindicate the king’s new title of “Supreme +Head of the Church of England.” The result was his celebrated +treatise <i>De vera obedientia</i>, the ablest, certainly, of all the +vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an +unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his +diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope’s brief +threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.</p> + +<p>During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies +in France and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that +he had little influence upon the king’s councils. But in 1539 he +took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles, +which led to the resignation of Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and +the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the death of +Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected chancellor of the university +of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with +others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in +connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and but for the +personal intervention of the king he would probably have +succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal +supremacy, a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a +doctrinal point of view, and it was suspected that he even +repented his advocacy of the royal supremacy. He certainly +had not approved of Henry’s general treatment of the church, +especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was +frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he +schooled himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of +his own, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his +secretary, was put to death for treason in reference to the king’s +supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he +himself was of his secretary’s way of thinking. But in truth the +king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for it +was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious +to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, +while Cranmer’s authority as primate was necessary to upholding +that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained +opposite sides of the king’s church policy; and though Gardiner +was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the archbishop +himself for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the +king’s protection in the end. Heresy was gaining ground in high +places, especially after the king’s marriage with Catherine Parr; +and there seems to be some truth in the story that the queen +herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner, +with the king’s approbation, censured some of her expressions +in conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men +of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them +were burned. The fourth, who was the musician Marbeck, was +pardoned by Gardiner’s procurement.</p> + +<p>Great as Gardiner’s influence had been with Henry VIII., his +name was omitted at the last in the king’s will, though Henry +was believed to have intended making him one of his executors. +Under Edward VI. he was completely opposed to the policy of the +dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The +religious changes he objected to both on principle and on the +ground of their being moved during the king’s minority, and +he resisted Cranmer’s project of a general visitation. His remonstrances, +however, were met by his own committal to the +Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his +imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long +before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give +them satisfaction on some points, was thrown into the Tower, +where he continued during the whole remainder of the reign, a +period slightly over five years. During this time he in vain +demanded his liberty, and to be called before parliament as a peer +of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and given to Dr +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer’s who had not long before been +made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the +duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the +Tower along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into +London, set them all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his +bishopric and appointed lord chancellor, and he set the crown on +the queen’s head at her coronation. He also opened her first +parliament and for some time was her leading councillor.</p> + +<p>He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of +the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years—to +vindicate the legitimacy of the queen’s birth and the lawfulness +of her mother’s marriage, to restore the old religion, and to +recant what he himself had written touching the royal supremacy. +It is said that he wrote a formal <i>Palinodia</i> or retractation of his +book <i>De vera obedientia</i>, but it does not seem to be now extant; +and the reference is probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday +1554, after Cardinal Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism. +As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the queen’s +marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general +repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it, +however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for +England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards +should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the +country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation +of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high +favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which +afterwards arose is a debated question. He no doubt approved +of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided +there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither +is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper, +and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not exactly +to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The +natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, +even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were +handed over to the secular power to be burned. Gardiner, +however, undoubtedly did his best to persuade them to save +themselves by a course which he conscientiously followed himself; +nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission along with +a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he could +very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese +no victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after +his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, +there are strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane +and generous. In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the +English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their +efforts were ineffectual. In October 1555 he again opened parliament +as lord chancellor, but towards the end of the month he +fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of November, when +he died over sixty years of age.</p> + +<p>Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the +subject of so much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular +historians. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be +admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrow-minded +bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing +whatever to show. He has been called ambitious, turbulent, +crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a good many other +things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in addition +to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was +despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of +him as a tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted +to remain five years in prison rather than change his principles is +not very clearly explained; and as to his being despised, we have +seen already that neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any +means despicable. The truth is, there is not a single divine or +statesman of that day whose course throughout was so thoroughly +consistent. He was no friend to the Reformation, it is true, but +he was at least a conscientious opponent. In doctrine he adhered +to the old faith from first to last, while as a question of church +policy, the only matter for consideration with him was whether +the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally justifiable.</p> + +<p>His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as +a statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his +learning even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part +that he was allowed to take in the drawing up of doctrinal +formularies in Henry VIII.’s time is not clear; but at a later +date he was the author of various tracts in defence of the Real +Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being written in prison, +were published abroad under a feigned name. Controversial +writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he had +several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry +VIII.’s ambassador.</p> + +<p>He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great +interest especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. +He was, however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing +the language introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to +him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according +to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics, +but he the superior genius. In his own household he loved to +take in young university men of promise; and many whom he +thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as bishops, +ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was +spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special +abode of the muses.</p> + +<p>He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his +effigy is still to be seen.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Ga.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDINER,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the +confluence of Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. +below Augusta. Pop. (1890) 5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); +(1910) 5311. It is served by the Maine Central railway. +The site of the city is only a few feet above sea-level, and the +Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this point; the water +of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a mile, furnishes +the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly paper, +machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable +quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by +Dr Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement +was called Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a +town, the founder being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. +But in 1803, when that part of Pittston which lay on the W. +bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as a separate town and +new life was given to it by the grandson of the founder, the present +name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city in 1849. +The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a +population of 1177 in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDNER, PERCY<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1846-  ), English classical archaeologist, +was born in London, and was educated at the City +of London school and Christ’s College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). +He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 +to 1887, and was then appointed professor of classical archaeology +at Oxford, where he had a stimulating influence on the study +of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also became prominent +as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his works +are: <i>Types of Greek Coins</i> (1883); <i>A Numismatic Commentary +on Pausanias</i> (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); <i>New Chapters in +Greek History</i> (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and +<span class="correction" title="amended from Aisa">Asia</span> Minor; <i>Manual of Greek Antiquities</i> (with F.B. Jevons, +2nd ed. 1898); <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i> (1905); <i>Exploratio +Evangelica</i> (1899), on the origin of Christian belief; <i>A Historic +View of the New Testament</i> (1901); <i>Growth of Christianity</i> (1907).</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Ernest Arthur Gardner</span> (1862-  ), educated +at the City of London school and Caius College, Cambridge +(fellow, 1885), is also well known as an archaeologist. From +1887 to 1895 he was director of the British School of Archaeology +at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University +College, London. His publications include: <i>Introduction to +Greek Epigraphy</i> (1887); <i>Ancient Athens</i> (1902); <i>Handbook of +Greek Sculpture</i> (1905); <i>Six Greek Sculptors</i> (1910). He was +elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARDNER,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,699. The township is traversed +by the Boston & Maine railway. It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of +hill country, well watered with streams and ponds, and includes +the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of Fitchburg), South +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the state +colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, +and the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a +memorial to Levi Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local +manufacturer of chairs, who invented various kinds of chair-making +machinery. By far the principal industry of the township +(dating from 1805) is the manufacture of chairs, the township +having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the world; among the +other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, silver-ware and +oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the township +was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting +to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from +parts of Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, +was incorporated in 1785, and was named in honour of Col. +Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a patriot leader of Massachusetts, +who was mortally wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.D. Herrick, <i>History of the Town of Gardner</i> (Gardner, +1878), covering the years 1785-1878.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARE-FOWL<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span><a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Icelandic, <i>Geirfugl</i>; Gaelic, <i>Gearbhul</i>), the +anglicized form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now +considered extinct, formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish +islands, the Great Auk of most English book-writers, and the +<i>Alca impennis</i> of Linnaeus. In size it was hardly less than a tame +goose, and in appearance it much resembled its smaller and +surviving relative the razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>); but the glossy +black of its head was varied by a large patch of white occupying +nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in place of the +razor-bill’s thin white line, while the bill itself bore eight or more +deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and the +ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise +the coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory +evidence that the gare-fowl’s winter-plumage differed from that +of the breeding-season just as is ordinarily the case in other +members of the family <i>Alcidae</i> to which it belongs. The most +striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, however, was the comparatively +abortive condition of its wings, the distal portions of +which, though the bird was just about twice the linear dimensions +of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same size as in that +species—proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, its +inability to fly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:545px" src="images/img463.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is +one which has been repeated so often, and in books of such +generally good repute and wide dispersal, that a successful +refutation seems almost hopeless. This is the notion that it was +a bird possessing a very high northern range, and consequently +to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this error arose would +take too long to tell, but the fact remains indisputable that, +setting aside general assertions resting on no evidence worthy of +attention, there is but a single record deserving any credit at all +of a single example of the species having been observed within the +Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who had the +best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It +is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the +better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements +have been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another +error which, if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since +Sir R. Owen unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird +“has not been specially hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, +but by degrees has become more scarce.” If any reliance can be +placed upon the testimony of former observers, the first part of +this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the dodo all we know is +that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at the time the +island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had ceased +to exist—the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, and +a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man’s +acts it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, +1869, p. 354). The extinction of the <i>Dinornis</i> lies beyond the +range of recorded history. Supposing it even to have taken +place at the very latest period as yet suggested—and there is +much to be urged in favour of such a supposition—little but oral +tradition remains to tell us how its extirpation was effected. +That it existed after New Zealand was inhabited by man is indeed +certain, and there is nothing extraordinary in the proved fact that +the early settlers (of whatever race they were) killed and ate +moas. But evidence that the whole population of those birds +was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is +wholly wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In +Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down +from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists who ever +lived, John Wolley, that the latest survivors of the species were +caught and killed by expeditions expressly organized with the +view of supplying the demands of caterers to the various museums +of Europe. In like manner the fact is incontestable that its +breeding-stations in the western part of the Atlantic were for +three centuries regularly visited and devastated with the combined +objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from very early +days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard Bonnycastle +(<i>Newfoundland in 1842</i>, i. p. 232), was owing to “the ruthless +trade in its eggs and skin.” There is no doubt that one of the +chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared +through volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old +Geirfuglaskér drove some at least of the birds which frequented it +to a rock nearer the mainland, where they were exposed to danger +from which they had in their former abode been comparatively +free; yet on this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were “specially +hunted down” whenever opportunity offered, until the stock +there was wholly extirpated in 1844.</p> + +<p>A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould +in his <i>Birds of Great Britain</i>, where he says that “formerly this +bird was plentiful in all the northern parts of the British Islands, +particularly the Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement +of the 19th century, however, its fate appears to have been +sealed; for though it doubtless existed, and probably bred, up to +the year 1830, its numbers annually diminished until they became +so few that the species could not hold its own.” Now of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, says in his +posthumously-published <i>Fauna Orcadensis</i> that he could not find +it was ever seen there; and on Bullock’s visit in 1812 he was told, +says Montagu (<i>Orn. Dict. App.</i>), that one male only had made its +appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully +hunted, but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate +had been killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen +there since. As to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality +recorded for it, and the last example known to have been obtained +there, or in its neighbourhood, was that given to Fleming (<i>Edinb. +Phil. Journ.</i> x. p. 96) in 1821 or 1822, having been some time +before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. That the gare-fowl +was not plentiful in either group of islands is sufficiently obvious, +as also is the impossibility of its continuing to breed “up to the +year 1830.”</p> + +<p>But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. +As on the death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his +memory as quickly as clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, +probable as well as impossible, accumulated over the true history of +this species, and it behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise +more than common caution in sifting the truth from the large +mass of error. Americans have asserted that the specimen which +belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar College) was obtained by +him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there is Macgillivray’s +distinct statement (<i>Brit. Birds</i>, v. p. 359) that Audubon procured +it in London. The account given by Degland (<i>Orn. Europ.</i> +ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his work by +M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd that +it deserves to be quoted in full: “Il se trouvait en assez grand +nombre il y a une quinzaine d’années aux Orcades; mais le +ministre presbytérien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime +aux personnes qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a été cause de sa +destruction sur ces îles.” The same author claims the species as a +visitor to the shores of France on the testimony of Hardy +(<i>Annuaire normand</i>, 1841, p. 298), which he grievously misquotes +both in his own work and in another place (<i>Naumannia</i>, 1855, +p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English writer (<i>Nat. +Hist. Rev.</i>, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.</p> + +<p>John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former +resorts of the gare-fowl, or “penguin,” as it was there called, in +the Newfoundland seas, a place where bones had before been +obtained by Stuvitz, and natural mummies so lately as 1863 and +1864. Landing on this rock at the risk of his life, he brought off +a rich cargo of its remains, belonging to no fewer than fifty birds, +some of them in size exceeding any that had before been known. +His collection was subsequently dispersed, most of the specimens +finding their way into various public museums.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting +the gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which +are without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be +especially mentioned:—J.J.S. Steenstrup, “Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens +Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere +Udbredningskreds,” <i>Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser</i> (Copenhagen, +1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, “On the Great Auk,” <i>Trans. +Tyneside Nat. Field Club</i>, iv. p. 111; “Abstract of Mr J. Wolley’s +Researches in Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl,” <i>Ibis</i> (1861), p. 374; +W. Preyer, “<i>Über Plautus impennis</i>,” <i>Journ. für Orn.</i> (1862), pp. +110, 337; K.E. von Baer, “Über das Aussterben der Tierarten in +physiologischer und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht,” <i>Bull. de +l’Acad. Imp. de St-Pétersb.</i> vi. p. 513; R. Owen, “Description of +the Skeleton of the Great Auk,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> v. p. 317; “The +Gare-fowl and its Historians,” <i>Nat. Hist. Rev.</i> v. p. 467; J.H. +Gurney, jun., “On the Great Auk,” <i>Zoologist</i> (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, +1639; H. Reeks, “Great Auk in Newfoundland,” &c., <i>op. cit.</i> +p. 1854; V. Fatio, “Sur l’Alca impennis,” <i>Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse</i>, +ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; “On existing Remains of the Gare-fowl,” <i>Ibis</i> +(1870), p. 256; J. Milne, “Relics of the Great Auk,” <i>Field</i> (27th of +March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875). Lastly, reference cannot be +omitted to the happy exercise of poetic fancy with which Charles +Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief facts of the gare-fowl’s +extinction (derived from one of the above-named papers) into his +charming <i>Water Babies</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name first appears, and in this form, in the <i>Account of Hirta</i> +(St Kilda) <i>and Rona, &c.</i>, by the lord register, Sir George M‘Kenzie, +of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his <i>Collection of Voyages and +Travels</i> (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald’s <i>Scotia illustrata</i> (1684). +Martin soon after, in his <i>Voyage to St Kilda</i>, spelt it “Gairfowl.” +Sir R. Owen adopted the form “garfowl,” without, as would seem, +any precedent authority.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as +to the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is +within, or at the Fiskernäs, which is without, the Arctic Circle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1831-1881), twentieth president +of the United States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 +in a log cabin in the little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga +county, Ohio. His early years were spent in the performance +of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer’s son in the new +states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had +in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life +on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he left home and +set off to make a living in some other way. A book of stories +of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when +a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He +decided, therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping +across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment +from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him +from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in +with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months +young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a +canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on +recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself +to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard +struggle with poverty and in an earnest effort to secure an education, +studying for a short time in the Geauga Seminary at Chester, +Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer; +studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute +at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and +finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, +Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature +in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen +to the presidency of the institution.</p> + +<p>Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days +of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas +struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns +of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective +speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services +was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the member from +Portage and Summit counties. When the “cotton states” +seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous +measures. He was one of the six Ohio senators who voted +against the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution +(Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any constitutional amendment +which should give Congress the power to abolish or interfere +with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the government +to coerce seceded states; defended the “Million War Bill” +appropriating a million dollars for the state’s military expenses; +and when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio +furnish 20,000 soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. +He had just been admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of +war he at once offered his services to the governor, and became +lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, +recruited largely from among his former students. He served +in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general +of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second day’s +fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under +Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at +Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for +gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of +Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his +military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives +in December 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of +the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of Confederate +property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto +denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized +as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought +him places on important committees—he was chairman successively +of the committee on military affairs, the committee on +banking and currency, and the committee on appropriations,—and +his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction +on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. Between +1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of importance on +“The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery,” “The +Freedman’s Bureau,” “The Reconstruction of the Rebel States,” +“The Public Debt and Specie Payments,” “Reconstruction,” +“The Currency,” “Taxation of United States Bonds,” “Enforcing +the 14th Amendment,” “National Aid to Education,” +and “the Right to Originate Revenue Bills.” The year 1874 +was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, +the Crédit Mobilier and the “Salary Grab,” disgusted thousands +of independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the +country. Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion +with the Crédit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was +never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded +his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he +defended himself in two pamphlets, “Increase of Salaries” +and “Review of the Transactions of the Crédit Mobilier Company,” +made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. +In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his +district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of +the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral +Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential +election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made +a senator from Maine, the leadership of the House of Representatives +passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican +candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in +the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, +having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, +an effort was made to send Garfield to the United States Senate +in Sherman’s place. But the president needed his services +in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until +1880.</p> + +<p>The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party +must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant +had served two terms (1869-1877), and the unwritten law of +custom condemned his being given another. But the “bosses” +of the Republican party in three great States—New York, +Pennsylvania and Illinois—were determined that he should be +renominated. These men and their followers were known as +the “stalwarts.” Opposed to them were two other factions, +one supporting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John +Sherman, of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting +began, the contest along these factional lines started in earnest. +For eight-and-twenty ballots no change of any consequence was +noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there +were but two real candidates before the convention, Grant and +Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of +the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the +supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the +cry “Anything to beat Grant!” an effort was made to find +some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man +was Garfield. His long term of service in the House, his leadership +of his party on its floor, his candidacy for the speakership, +and his recent election to the United States Senate, marked him +out as the available man. Between the casting of the first and +the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader of Sherman’s +adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two +votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received +seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire +vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared +nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to +violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have +received $329 from the Crédit Mobilier as a dividend on stock +led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of “329,” and this +number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed +in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged “Morey +letter,” in which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion +of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his +candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were +not generally credited, however, is shown by the fact that he +received 214 electoral votes to his opponent’s 155. He was +inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of +composing the differences in his party. For his secretary of state +he chose James G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator +Roscoe Conkling (<i>q.v.</i>), the leader of the New York “stalwarts.” +Without consulting the New York senators, Garfield appointed +William H. Robertson, another political enemy of Conkling’s, to +the desirable post of Collector of the Port of New York, and +thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. On the 2nd of +July, while on his way to attend the commencement exercises at +Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington +railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles +J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced +by the abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; +and on the 19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New +Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried +in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890 a monument was erected by +popular subscription to his memory.</p> + +<p>In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom +he had seven children. His son, <span class="sc">Harry Augustus Garfield</span> +(b. 1863) graduated at Williams College in 1885, practised law in +Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888-1903, was professor of politics at +Princeton University in 1903-1908, and in 1908 became president +of Williams College. Another son, <span class="sc">James Rudolph Garfield</span> +(b. 1865), also graduated at Williams College in 1885 and practised +law in Cleveland; he was a Republican member of the Ohio +Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of corporations, Department +of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, attracting wide +attention by his reports on certain large industrial organizations, +and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the cabinet of +President Roosevelt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>President Garfield’s writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were +published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. B. McM.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAR-FISH,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> the name given to a genus of fishes (<i>Belone</i>) found +in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized +by their long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by +their jaws being produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed +beak. About fifty species are known from different +parts of the globe, some attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One +species is common on the British coasts, and is well known by the +names of “long-nose,” “green-bone,” &c. The last name is +given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green colour of +their bones, which deters many people from eating them, although +their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The +skipper (<i>Scomberesox</i>) and half-beak (<i>Hemirhamphus</i>), in which +the lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the +gar-pikes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARGANEY<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span><a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (North-Italian, <i>Garganello</i>), or <span class="sc">Summer-Teal</span>, +the <i>Anas querquedula</i> and <i>A. circia</i> of Linnaeus (who made, as +did Willughby and Ray, two species out of one), and the type of +Stephens’s genus <i>Querquedula</i>. This bird is one of the smallest of +the <i>Anatidae</i>, and has gained its common English name from +being almost exclusively a summer-visitant to England where +nowadays it only regularly resorts to breed in some of the East-Norfolk +Broads, though possibly at one time it was found at the +same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly larger +than the common teal (<i>A. crecca</i>), the male is readily distinguished +therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of which are +nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, while +a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the +eyes. The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars +black with a white shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (<i>speculum</i>) +greyish green bordered above and below by white. The female +closely resembles the hen teal, but possesses no wing-spot. In +Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very rare, and though it +is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence of its +occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, +and its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it +breeds in many parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be +common; but it ranges far to the eastward in Asia—even to +Formosa, according to Swinhoe—and yearly visits India in +winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in Norfolk +arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast +reed-beds which border the Broads—a situation rarely or never +chosen by the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the +trachea in the male garganey differs in form from that described +in any other drake, being more oval and placed nearly in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +median line of the windpipe, instead of on one side, as is usually +the case.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (<i>Orn.</i>, lib. +iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never to +have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being invariably +known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous as +“summer-teal.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARGANO, MONTE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (anc. <i>Garganus Mons</i>), a massive +mountainous peninsula projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, +Italy, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalmatian +coast; it was indeed separated from the rest of Italy by an arm +of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. The highest point +(Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The oak forests +for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely +disappeared.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARGOYLE,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gurgoyle</span> (from the Fr. <i>gargouille</i>, originally +the throat or gullet, cf. Lat. <i>gurgulio</i>, <i>gula</i>, and similar words +derived from root <i>gar</i>, to swallow, the word representing the +gurgling sound of water; Ital. <i>doccia di grande</i>; Ger. <i>Ausguss</i>), +in architecture, the carved termination to a spout which conveys +away the water from the gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque +figures. The term is applied more especially to medieval work, +but throughout all ages some means of throwing the water off the +roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been adopted, and in +Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the washing +of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the +flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the +roof passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved +or modelled in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. +At Pompeii large numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been +found which were modelled in the shape of various animals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARHWAL,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gurwal</span>. 1. A district of British India, in the +Kumaon division of the United Provinces. It has an area of +5629 sq. m., and consists almost entirely of rugged mountain +ranges running in all directions, and separated by narrow valleys +which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only +level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest +between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains +of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, the +principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413), +Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and +Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of +the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the +district. At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, +and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the +Ganges. Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate +vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irrigation. +Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftainships, +each chief with his own independent fortress (<i>garh</i>). Nearly +500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pál, reduced all the minor +principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal +kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the +adjacent state of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when +the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal +chief into the plains. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the +country with a rod of iron, until a series of encroachments by +them on British territory led to the war with Nepal in 1814. +At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were +converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality +was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, +Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. +(1901) 429,900. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th +Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains +the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth +are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and wool are imported, +the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative +headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is the +largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, +the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway +from Najibabad.</p> + +<p>2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area +4180 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district +mentioned above, and its topographical features are similar. +It contains the sources of both the Ganges and the Jumna, +which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims. The gross +revenue is about £28,000, of which nearly half is derived from +forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was +born at Nice on the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from +home to escape a clerical education, but afterwards joined his +father in the coasting trade. After joining the “Giovine Italia” +he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of companions +on board the frigate “Euridice,” plotted to seize the vessel and +occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini’s +Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being +discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by +default on the 3rd of June 1834. Escaping to South America +in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio +Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil. After a series +of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and subjected to +severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining liberty, he +renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. During +the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable +companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and +Menotti. Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to +Corrientes with a small flotilla to oppose Rosas’s forces, but +was overtaken by Admiral Brown, against whose fleet he fought +for three days. When his ammunition was exhausted he burned +his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, he formed the +Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant’ +Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of +Uruguay. Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to +return to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary +movement. In October 1847 he wrote to Pius IX., offering his +services to the Church, whose cause he for a moment believed to +be that of national liberty.</p> + +<p>Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword +at the disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties +with the Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 +strong, but shortly after taking the field was obliged, by the +defeat of Custozza, to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to +Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence +of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory +of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the saddle, although +wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From the 3rd +of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged +against the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, +dispersing an army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After +the fall of Rome he left the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, +with the idea of joining the defenders of Venice, and started on +that wonderful retreat through central Italy pursued by the +armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. By his consummate +generalship and the matchless endurance of his men the pursuers +were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly +diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his +devoted wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, +where the tricolor still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of +Ravenna; the Austrians were seeking him in all directions, and +most of his legionaries were captured and shot. Anita died near +Comacchio, and he himself fled across the peninsula, being assisted +by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, whence he escaped to +Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in order to +earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a trading +skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and +purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house +thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was +placed in command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the +Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the +23rd of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating +Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. When about to +enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, however, +checked by the armistice of Villafranca.</p> + +<p>Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom +he had been aided during the campaign, he was apprised, +immediately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which +caused him at once to abandon that lady and to start for central +Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, he returned indignantly +to Caprera, where with Crispi and Bertani he planned +the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the +expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but +Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the +5th of May 1860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of +1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money, +he reached Marsala on the 11th of May, and landed under the +protection of the British vessels “Intrepid” and “Argus.” +On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed +at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed +at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the +6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine +frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. +Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to +liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the +emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of +Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving +out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the +Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on the +20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria, +secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was +fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, +however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning +to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II. +dissuading him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi +replied asking “permission to disobey.” Next day he crossed +the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August, +accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San +Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon +Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco +II. were powerless to arrest. On the 7th of September Garibaldi +entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the 1st +of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000 +strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had +occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of +Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the +battle. Their presence put an end to the plan for the invasion +of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for +the <i>plébiscite</i> which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two +Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th of November Garibaldi +accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into +Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding +his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular +army.</p> + +<p>Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect +of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return +to political life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against +Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile +them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi +provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king, +would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning +to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour’s successor, +Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi, +who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an expedition +in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his +followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms +against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo +and gathered an army under the banner “Roma o morte.” +Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome, +proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and +instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the +Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with +3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and +wounded by Cialdini’s forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of +August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once +more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded +an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. +From England he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of +war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after +the defeat of the Italian troops at Custozza, took the offensive +in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the +Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the 10th at +Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on the +21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he +was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous +reply “Obbedisco” (“I obey”) has often been cited as a classical +example of military obedience to a command destructive of a +successful leader’s hopes, but documents now published (cf. +<i>Corriere della sera</i>, 9th of August 1906) prove beyond doubt that +Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate +the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the +9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th +of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, +Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the +evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi’s laconic reply. +From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs +against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in +pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of +September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, +he prepared to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga +by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding +the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, +and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered +Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two +days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November +his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal troops. +Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and +taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by +writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer +corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops +at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the +Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French +insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected +deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative +Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of £40,000 with an +annual pension of £2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense +for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament +(27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the +advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and +pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber +embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time +he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the +countess Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted +another marriage with the mother of his children, Clelia and +Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the +Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo, +but was prevented by illness from being present at the 600th +anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882 +his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Garibaldi, <i>Epistolario</i>, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885), +and <i>Memorie autografiche</i> (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation +by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 +ed.); Giuseppe Guerzoni, <i>Garibaldi</i> (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie +White Mario, <i>Garibaldi e i suoi tempi</i> (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan, +<i>Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic</i> (London, 1907), which +contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi’s early career, of the events +leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a +picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of +Rome and of Garibaldi’s flight, with a very full bibliography; also +Trevelyan’s <i>Garibaldi and the Thousand</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARIN LE LOHERAIN,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> French epic hero. The 12th century +<i>chanson de geste</i> of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and +most sanguinary narratives left by the <i>trouvères</i>. This local +cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers +de Metz, Anséis, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on +history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded +does not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the +savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries. The episodes +are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the +<i>trouvères</i> to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless +no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet +been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. +Settegast, <i>Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik</i>, 1904) that +these poems resume historical traditions going back to the +Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans +and the West Goths against the Huns in 451. The cycle relates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. In the first of +these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of Metz fight +by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have +destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in +a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in +Metz by the “Hongres.” He sends first for help to Pippin, who +defers his assistance by the advice of the traitor Hardré. Hervis +then transfers his allegiance to Anséis of Cologne, by whose help +the invaders are repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the +third Thierry, king of Moriane<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> sends to Pippin for help against +four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Frankish host, but +falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz was the son of a citizen to +whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis, and +his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the <i>chanson</i> which +gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired +that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when +Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux +puts himself forward as his rival and Hardré, Fromont’s father, is +slain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war +that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. +They finally submit their differences to the king, only to begin +their disputes once more. Blanchefleur becomes the wife of +Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. One of the +most famous passages of the poem is the assassination of Begue +by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying waste his +enemy’s territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs continue +the feud between the two families. According to Paulin +Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of +Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed +and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the +<i>trouvères</i> had in mind no doubt the wars which marked the end of +the Carolingian dynasty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Li Romans de Garin le Loherain</i>, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833); +<i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, <i>Popular +Epics of the Middle Ages</i> (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot, +<i>Études d’histoire du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast, <i>Quellenstudien +zur gallo-romanischen Epik</i> (Leipzig, 1904). A complete +edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first volume of +which, <i>Hervis de Mes</i> (Gesellschaft für roman. Lit., Dresden), appeared +in 1903.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne) +of Savoy.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARLAND, JOHN<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known +as Johannes Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de +Garlandia, was born in England, though most of his life was +spent in France. John Bale in his <i>Catalogus</i>, and John Pits, +following Bale, placed him among the writers of the 11th century. +The main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem <i>De +triumphis ecclesiae</i> contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A x in the +British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe +Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the +point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics +at home and infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a +certain John of London, whom it is difficult to distinguish from +others of the same name; but he must have been in Paris in or +before 1202, for he mentions as one of his teachers Alain de Lisle, +who died in that year or the next. Garland was one of the professors +chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, and +remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which +he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the +hatred of the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe +for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the +Catholic party. Garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest +of his life was spent in Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. +Garland’s grammatical works were much used in England, and +were often printed by Richard Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde. +He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on mathematics +and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may +have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, +a canon of Besançon in the 12th century. The treatise on +alchemy, <i>Compendium alchimiae</i>, often printed under his name, +was by a 14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.</p> + +<p>The best known of his poems beside the “De Triumphis +Ecclesiae” is “Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis,” contained +in the same MS. Among his other works are his “Dictionarius,” +a Latin vocabulary, printed by T. Wright in the <i>Library of National +Antiquities</i> (vol. i., 1857); <i>Compendium totius grammatices ...</i>, +printed at Deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled +<i>Synonyma</i> and <i>Equivoca</i>, frequently printed at the close of the +15th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further bibliographical information see the British Museum +catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae +aetatis ...</i>, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire, &c.</i> +See also <i>Histoire litt. de la France</i>, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and xxx.; +the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P. +Meyer, <i>La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois</i>, vol. ii. pp. +xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, <i>Lexicographie latine du XII<span class="sp">e</span> +et du XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L. Kingsford in +the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, giving a list also of the works on alchemy, +mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; J.E. +Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906) 549.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARLIC<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>gárleác</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “spear-leek”; Gr. <span class="grk" title="skorodon">σκόροδον</span>; +Lat. <i>allium</i>; Ital. <i>aglio</i>; Fr. <i>ail</i>; Ger. <i>Knoblauch</i>), <i>Allium +sativum</i>, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae, +indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, +narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a +globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. +The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales, +in the axils of which are 10 or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From +these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or +March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. If of +fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 ℔. To prevent the plant +from running to leaf, Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xix. 34) advises to bend +the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he observes, +may be prevented by twisting the stalk.</p> + +<p>Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (<i>q.v.</i>). +It is stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. +The percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly +(<i>Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond.</i>, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, +organic matter 13.38, and inorganic matter 1.53—that of the +leaves being water 87.14, organic matter 11.27 and inorganic +matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour +and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence +of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>S (see Hofmann +and Cahours, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i> x. p. 320). This, when garlic +has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity +of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been +used as an article of diet. It formed part of the food of the +Israelites in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed +by Cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in +Egypt, where, however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed +(see Rawlinson’s <i>Herodotus</i>, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by +the ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes +(cf. Virg. <i>Ecl</i>. ii. 11), and, as Pliny tells us (<i>N.H.</i> xix. 32), by +the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the rustic’s <i>theriac</i> +(see F. Adams’s <i>Paulus Aegineta</i>, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, +a writer of the 12th century (see Wright’s edition of his works, +p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the sun +in field labour. “The people in places where the simoon is +frequent,” says Mountstuart Elphinstone (<i>An Account of the +Kingdom of Caubul</i>, p. 140, 1815), “eat garlic, and rub their lips +and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, +to prevent their suffering by the simoon.” “O dura messorum +ilia,” exclaims Horace (<i>Epod</i>. iii.), as he records his detestation +of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign +of vulgarity (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Coriol</i>. iv. 6, and <i>Meas. for Meas.</i> +iii. 2). In England garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, +but in the southern countries of Europe it is a common ingredient +in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population. +Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at +cross-roads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, <i>Characters</i>, +<span class="grk" title="Deisidaimonias">Δεισιδαιμονίας</span>); and according to Pliny garlic and onions +were invocated as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. +The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower Egypt, who worshipped the +onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food. +Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of +old, as still sometimes now, employed as a medicinal remedy. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints +in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham valued +it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen +(<i>Mat. Med.</i> ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it +alone. In the United States the bulb is given in doses of ½-2 +drachms in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. +Garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the +inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the <i>syrupus +allii aceticus</i>, in doses of 1-4 drachms. This last preparation has +recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary +tuberculosis or phthisis.</p> + +<p>The wild “crow garlic” and “field garlic” of Britain are the +species <i>Allium vineale</i> and <i>A. oleraceum</i> respectively.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNET,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Garnett</span>, <b>HENRY</b> (1555-1606), English Jesuit, +son of Brian Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated +at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London. +Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Italy, joined the +Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under Bellarmine and +others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he joined the +mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the +imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the +dispute between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the +“Wisbech Stirs” (1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston +in his resistance to any compromise with the civil government. +His antagonism to the secular clergy was also shown later, when +in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was the means of betraying to +the government the “Bye Plot,” contrived by William Watson, +a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four vows.</p> + +<p>Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with +conspicuous success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; +a price was put on his head; but he was fearless and +indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering +to the scattered Catholics, even in their prisons. The result was +that he gained many converts, while the number of Jesuits in +England increased during his tenure of office from three to forty. +It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he is +best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, +needs discussion in greater detail.</p> + +<p>In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. +directing that no person unfavourable to the Catholic religion +should be allowed to succeed to the throne. About the same time +he was consulted by Catesby, Tresham and Winter, all afterwards +involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on the subject of the mission to +be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to invade England. According +to his own statement he disapproved, but he gave Winter a +recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person at +Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy +Fawkes when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham +when he went to Rome (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gunpowder Plot</a></span>). The preparations +for the plot had now been actively going forward since the +beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of June 1605 Garnet was +asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter upon any +undertaking which should involve the destruction of the innocent +together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the +affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged +in a town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according +to his own accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the +death of “not only innocents but friends and necessary persons +for a commonwealth,” and showed him a letter from the pope +forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, however, +Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied “that they +were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or procure stirs, but +yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope’s mind +they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good.... +This answer, with Mr Catesby’s proceedings with him and me, +gave me absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, +though every particular was not known.” Both men were endeavouring +to exculpate themselves, and therefore both statements +are subject to suspicion. A few days later, according to +Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known as Greenway, +informed him of the whole plot “by way of confession,” when, +as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged Greenway +to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, +after his trial, Garnet said he “could not certainly affirm” that +Greenway intended to relate the matter to him in confession.</p> + +<p>Garnet’s conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a +matter of considerable controversy not only between Roman +Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers +themselves. Father Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, +discusses the exact case of the revelation of a plot in confession. +Almost all the learned doctors, he says, declare that the confessor +may reveal it, but he adds, “the contrary opinion is the safer and +better doctrine, and more consistent with religion and with the +reverence due to the holy rite of confession.” According to +Bellarmine, Garnet’s zealous friend and defender, “If the person +confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a priest to break the seal +of confession in order to avert a great calamity”; but he justifies +Garnet’s silence by insisting that it was not lawful to disclose a +treasonable secret to a heretical king. According to Garnet’s own +opinion a priest cognizant of treason against the state “is bound +to find all lawful means to discover it <i>salvo sigillo confessionis</i>.” +In this connexion it is worth pointing out that Garnet had not +thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue with the +king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this case +that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his inactivity +now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that he +was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway’s +information, he had still Catesby’s earlier revelations to +act upon. He appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent +the crime, beyond writing to Rome in vague terms that “he +feared some particular desperate courses,” which aroused no +suspicions in that quarter. At the same time he wrote to Father +Parsons on the 4th of September that “as far as he could now see +the minds of the Catholics were quieted.”</p> + +<p>His movements immediately prior to the attempt were +certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected +meeting of parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a +pilgrimage to St Winifred’s Well in Flintshire, which started +from Gothurst (now Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby’s house in +Buckinghamshire, included Rokewood, and stopped at the +houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, three others of the +conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for the +prayers of the company “for some good success for the Catholic +cause at the beginning of parliament.” After his return he went +on the 29th of October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which +place it had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after +the explosion. On the 6th of November, Bates, Catesby’s +servant and one of the conspirators, brought him a letter with the +news of the failure of the plot and desiring advice. On the 30th +Garnet addressed a letter to the government in which he protested +his innocence with the most solemn oaths, “as one who +hopeth for everlasting salvation.”</p> + +<p>It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and +Greenway were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the +plot; and on the same day Garnet removed from Coughton to +Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a house furnished with cleverly-contrived +hiding-places for the use of the proscribed priests. +Here he remained some time in concealment in company with +another priest, Oldcorne <i>alias</i> Hall, but at last on the 30th of +January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, +they surrendered and were taken up to London, being well +treated during the journey by Salisbury’s express orders. He was +examined by the council on the 13th of February and frequently +questioned during the following days, but refused to incriminate +himself, and a threat to inflict torture had no effect upon his +resolution. Subsequently Garnet and Oldcorne having been +placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one +another, their conversations were overheard on several separate +occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at +first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th +of March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at +the Guildhall on the 28th.</p> + +<p>Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, <i>i.e.</i> of having +concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; +for the law of England took no account of religious scruples or +professional etiquette when they permit the execution of a +preventable crime. Strangely enough, however, the government +passed over the incriminating conversation with Greenway, and +relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to support +the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was +not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more +modern days. The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure +in criminal cases did not then exist, and Garnet’s trial, +like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the +case against him being supported by general political accusations +against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their complicity +in former plots against the government. The prisoner +himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false statements, +and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of equivocation. +Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of +equivocation to cases “of necessary defence from injustice and +wrong or of the obtaining some good of great importance when +there is no danger of harm to others,” and he could justify his +conduct in lying to the council by their own conduct towards him, +which included treacherous eavesdropping and fraud, and also +threats of torture. Moreover, the attempt of the counsel for the +crown to force the prisoner to incriminate himself was opposed to +the whole spirit and tradition of the law of England. He was +declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of the irregularity and +unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial justice was +done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd of +May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for +his concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he +had never approved it. The king, who had shown him favour +throughout and who had forbidden his being tortured, directed +that he should be hanged till he was quite dead and that the +usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.</p> + +<p>Soon after his death the story of the miracle of “Garnet’s Straw” +was circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained +straw from the scene of execution which came into the hands of +one John Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who +was present, developed Garnet’s likeness. In consequence of the +credence which the story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was +commissioned by the privy council to discover and punish the +impostors. Garnet’s name was included in the list of the 353 +Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880, and +in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales +compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of +the province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is +styled “a martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation.” +The passage in <i>Macbeth</i> (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no +doubt refers especially to Garnet. His <i>aliases</i> were Farmer, +Marchant, Whalley, Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, +Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was the author of a letter on the +Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, <i>alias</i> John Jones, in Diego +Yepres’s <i>Historia particular de la persecucion de Inglaterra</i> (1599); +a <i>Treatise of Schism</i>, a MS. treatise in reply to <i>A Protestant +Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician</i>; a translation of +the <i>Stemma Christi</i> with supplements (1622); a treatise on the +Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Of the great number of works embodying the +controversy on the question of Garnet’s guilt the following may be +mentioned, in order of date: <i>A True and Perfect Relation of the +whole Proceedings against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates</i> +(1606, repr. 1679), the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; +<i>Apologia pro Henrico Garneto</i> (1610), by the Jesuit L’Heureux, +under the pseudonym <span class="correction" title="amended from Endaemon">Eudaemon</span>-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot’s +reply, <i>Antilogia versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes</i>, in which the +whole subject is well treated; Henry More, <i>Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae +Societatis</i> (1660); D. Jardine, <i>Gunpowder Plot</i> (1857); J. +Morris, S.J., <i>Condition of the Catholics under James I.</i> (1872), containing +Father Gerard’s narrative; J.H. Pollen, <i>Father Henry +Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot</i> (1888); S.R. Gardiner, <i>What Gunpowder +Plot was</i> (1897), in reply to John Gerard, S.J., <i>What was the +Gunpowder Plot?</i> (1897); J. Gerard, <i>Contributions towards a Life of +Father Henry Garnet</i> (1898). See also <i>State Trials II.</i>, and <i>Cal. of +State Papers Dom.</i>, (1603-1610). The original documents are preserved +in the <i>Gunpowder Plot Book</i> at the Record Office.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNET<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span>, a name applied to a group of closely-related +minerals, many of which are used as gem-stones. The name +probably comes from the Lat. <i>granaticus</i>, a stone so named from +its resemblance to the pulp of the pomegranate in colour, or to its +seeds in shape; or possibly from <i>granum</i>, “cochineal,” in allusion +to the colour of the stone. The garnet was included, with other +red stones, by Theophrastus, under the name of <span class="grk" title="anthrax">ἄνθραξ</span>, while +the common garnet seems to have been his <span class="grk" title="anthrakion">ἀνθράκιον</span>. Pliny +groups several stones, including garnet, under the term <i>carbunculus</i>. +The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet (almandine) +cut <i>en cabochon</i>, or with a smooth convex surface, frequently +hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of colour, +and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almandine</a></span>). The +Hebrew word <i>nophek</i>, translated <span class="grk" title="anthrax">ἄνθραξ</span> in the Septuagint, seems +to have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst <i>bareketh</i> (<span class="grk" title="smaragdos">σμάραγδος</span> +of the Septuagint), though also rendered “carbuncle,” was probably +either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie, +rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. +Though not extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for +engraved gems, it was much used for this purpose by the Romans +of the Empire. Flat polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid +in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewelry, the +material used being almandine, or “precious garnet.”</p> + +<p>Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the +variation is limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, +conformable to the general formula R″<span class="su">3</span>R″′<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, where R″ = +Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R″′ = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many +kinds of garnet they may be reduced to the following six types, +which may occur intermixed isomorphously:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (<i>Grossularite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> +<p>2. Calcium-ferric garnet (<i>Andradite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> +<p>3. Calcium-chromium garnet (<i>Uvarovite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Cr<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> +<p>4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (<i>Pyrope</i>), Mg<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> +<p>5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (<i>Almandine</i>), Fe<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> +<p>6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (<i>Spessartine</i>), Mn<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p> + +<p>These are frequently called respectively:—(1) Lime-alumina garnet; +(2) lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina +garnet; (5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of +some of their elements.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:205px" src="images/img470.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic +dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two +forms (see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced +octahedron occurs in some of the combinations. +Cleavage obtains parallel +to the dodecahedron, but is imperfect. +The hardness varies according to composition +from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific +gravity in like manner has a wide +range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium +garnets to 4.3 in the ferrous-aluminium +species. Sir Arthur H. +Church found that many garnets when +fused yielded a product of lower +density than the original mineral. The +colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or even +black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets +are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, +leading some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really +cubic. The refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic +sections, viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands +out in relief.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline +schists, gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and +occasionally in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, +garnet forms the peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for +industrial purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, +weathered from the parent rock, though in some important workings +the rock is quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are +described under their respective headings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almandine</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cinnamon +Stone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demantoid</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyrope</a></span>). Most of the minerals noticed +in this article are of scientific rather than commercial interest.</p> + +<p>Grossularite or “gooseberry-stone,” is typically a brownish-green +garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to +vesuvianite, <i>q.v.</i>), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is related +to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in rose-pink +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of +grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov. Andradite +was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d’Andrada e Silva, who +described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian +garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes +most of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact +masses, sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be +referred melanite, a black garnet well known from the volcanic +tuffs near Rome, used occasionally in the 18th century for mourning +jewelry. Another black garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, +is called pyreneite. Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, +a honey-yellow garnet, rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, +a brown resin-like garnet, with which certain kinds of +idocrase have been confused; aplome, a green garnet from Saxony +and Siberia; and jelletite, a green Swiss garnet named after the +Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed the green Siberian +mineral termed demantoid (<i>q.v.</i>), sometimes improperly called +olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a Russian minister, +Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from Siberia and Canada, +but though of fine colour is never found in crystals large enough for +gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine, named after Spessart, a +German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet, cut for jewelry when +sufficiently clear, and rather resembling cinnamon-stone. It is +found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines in Amelia county, +Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red garnet, forming a +fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, N.C., and has +been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under the name +of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, and +shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets +largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of +pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes. +Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of sandpaper +for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the boot-trade. +As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in the +United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of +the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much +of the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common +garnet, where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent +in metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, +and is known as a furnace-product.</p> + +<p>It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to +the mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in icositetrahedra.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNETT, RICHARD<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1835-1906), English librarian and +author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett +(1789-1850), priest-vicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwards +keeper of printed books at the British Museum, who came of a +Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on the 27th of February +1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern philological +research in England; his articles in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (1835, +1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic +question, and his essays in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Philological +Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of +the English language. The son, who thus owed much to his +parentage, was educated at home and at a private school, and in +1851, just after his father’s death, entered the British Museum as +an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent +of the reading-room, and from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he +was keeper of the printed books. In 1883 he was given the +degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour repeated by other +universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.</p> + +<p>His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the +value of his services there, made him a well-known figure in the +literary world, and he published much original work in both +prose and verse. His chief publications in book-form were: +in verse, <i>Primula</i> (1858), <i>Io in Egypt</i> (1859), <i>Idylls and Epigrams</i> +(1869, republished in 1892 as <i>A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology</i>), +<i>The Queen and other Poems</i> (1902), <i>Collected Poems</i> (1893); in +prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton +(1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume of remarkably +original and fanciful tales, <i>The Twilight of the Gods</i> +(1888); a tragedy, <i>Iphigenia in Delphi</i> (1890); <i>A Short History +of Italian Literature</i> (1898); <i>Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily</i> +(1899); <i>Essays of an Ex-librarian</i> (1901). He was an +extensive contributor to the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> and the +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, editor of the <i>International +Library of Famous Literature</i>, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the +elaborate <i>English Literature: an illustrated Record</i>. So multifarious +was his output, however, in contributions to reviews, &c., +and as translator or editor, that this list represents only a small +part of his published work. He was a member of numerous +learned literary societies, British and foreign. His facility as an +expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute generalization, together +with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his work an authority +which was universally recognized, though it sometimes suffered +from his relying too much on his memory and his power of +generalizing—remarkable as both usually were—in cases +requiring greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But +as an interpreter, whether of biography or <i>belles lettres</i>, who +brought an unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best +sense, interestingly and comprehensibly before a large public, and +at the same time acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, +Dr Garnett’s writing was always characterized by clearness, +common sense and sympathetic appreciation. His official +career at the British Museum marked an epoch in the management +of the library, in the history of which his place is second +only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the “sliding press” +in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the +general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was +resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes +of a Dryasdust, his human interest in books made him an +ideal librarian, and his courtesy and helpfulness were outstanding +features in a personality of singular charm. The whole bookish +world looked on him as a friend. Among his “hobbies” was a +study of astrology, to which, without associating his name with +it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the pseudonym +of “A.G. Trent” he published in 1880 an article (in the <i>University +Magazine</i>) on “The Soul and the Stars”—quoted in +Wilde and Dodson’s <i>Natal Astrology</i>. He satisfied himself that +there was more truth in the old astrology than modern criticism +supposed, and he had intended to publish a further monograph +on the subject, but the intention was frustrated by the ill-health +which led up to his death on the 13th of April 1906. He married +(1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1903), and had a +family of six children; his son Edward (b. 1868) being a well-known +literary man, whose wife translated Turgeneff’s works +into English.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (1813-1881), French economist, +was born at Beuil (Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October +1813. Coming to Paris he studied at the École de Commerce, of +which he eventually became secretary and finally a professor. +In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin (1801-1864) +the Société d’Économie politique, becoming its secretary, a post +which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the +Association pour la Liberté des Échanges. He also helped to +establish and edited for many years the <i>Journal des économistes</i> +and the <i>Annuaire de l’économie politique</i>. Of the school of +<i>laissez faire</i>, he was engaged during his whole life in the advancement +of the science of political economy, and in the improvement +of French commercial education. In 1873 he became a +member of the Institute, and in 1876 a senator for the department +in which he was born. He died at Paris on the 25th of +September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more +important: <i>Traité d’économie politique</i> (1845), <i>Richard Cobden +et la Ligue</i> (1846), <i>Traité des finances</i> (1862), and <i>Principes du +population</i> (1857).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, GERMAIN,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1754-1821), French politician +and economist, was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November +1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained when young +the office of <i>procureur</i> to the Châtelet in Paris. On the calling of +the states-general he was elected as one of the <i>députés suppléants</i> +of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator of the department +of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to the +Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public +life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In +1797 he was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 +he was prefect of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator +and in 1808 a count. After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, +and on the return of Louis XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he +became minister of state and member of privy council, and in +1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on the 4th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his facile +power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation depends +rather on his later works on political economy, especially his +admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith’s +<i>Wealth of Nations</i> (1805) and his <i>Histoire de la monnaie</i> (2 vols., +1819), which contains much sound and well-arranged material. +His <i>Abrégé des principes de l’écon. polit.</i> (1796) is a very clear and +instructive manual. The valuable <i>Description géographique, +physique, et politique du département de Seine-et-Oise</i> (1802) was +drawn up from his instructions. Other works are <i>De la propriété</i> +(1792) and <i>Histoire des banques d’escompte</i> (1806).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1825-1898), French +architect, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He +was educated in a primary school, and it was intended that he +should pursue his father’s craft, that of a wheelwright. His +mother, however, having heard that with a little previous study +he might enter an architect’s office and eventually become a +measuring surveyor (<i>vérificateur</i>), and earn as much as six francs +a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health +he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing +and mathematics at the Petite École de Dessin, in the rue de +Médecine, the cradle of so many of the great artists of France. +His progress was such as to justify his being sent first into an +architect’s office and then to the well-known atelier of Lebas, +where he began his studies in preparation for the examination of +the École des Beaux Arts, which he passed in 1842, at the age of +seventeen. Shortly after his admission it became necessary that +he should support himself, and accordingly he worked during the +day in various architects’ offices, among them in that of M. +Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the École to the +evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, +the Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, +engraving and music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His +principal works were the measured drawings of the Forum of +Trajan and the temple of Vesta in Rome, and the temple of +Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his travelling studentship +he went to Athens and measured the temple at Aegina, +subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its +polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph +in 1877. The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned +by the duc de Luynes to make of the tombs of the +house of Anjou were not published, owing to the death of his +patron; and since Garnier’s death they have been given to the +library of the École des Beaux Arts, along with other drawings he +made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was appointed +surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very +moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor +Baltard to make two water-colour drawings of the Hôtel de +Ville, to be placed in the album presented to Queen Victoria in +1855, on the occasion of her visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. +These two drawings are now in the library at Windsor.</p> + +<p>In 1860 came, at last, Garnier’s chance: a competition was +announced for a design for a new imperial academy of music, and +out of 163 competitors Garnier was one of five selected for a +second competition, in which, by unanimous vote, he carried off +the first prize, and the execution of the design was placed in his +hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its completion by the +Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the structure of the +present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a cost of +about 35,000,000 francs (£1,420,000). During the war the building +was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The +staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the +interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been +approached. Of Garnier’s other works, the most remarkable are +the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, +the Hôtel du Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, +those of the musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Massé and Duprato. In +1874 he was elected a member of the Institute of France, and +after passing through the grades of chevalier, officer and commander +of the Legion of Honour, received in 1895 the rank of +grand officer, a high distinction that had never before been +granted to an architect. Charles Garnier’s reputation was not +confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of +Europe, and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal +of the Royal Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. +Besides his monograph on the temple of Aegina, he wrote +several works, of which <i>Le Nouvel Opéra de Paris</i> is the most +valuable. For the International Exhibition of 1889 he designed +the buildings illustrating the “History of the House” in all +periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards published by +him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his +claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he +rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the +Institute of France, and the École des Beaux-Arts, services which +in France are rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died +on the 3rd of August 1898.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Francis</span>] (1839-1873), +French officer and explorer, was born at St Étienne on the +25th of July 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging +in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the +staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 was campaigning +in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he +returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of +the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration +of Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion +that the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a +mission to explore the valley of the Mekong, but as Garnier was +not considered old enough to be put in command, the chief +authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagrée. In the +course of the expedition—to quote the words of Sir Roderick +Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he +was presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical +Society of London—from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai +5392 m. were traversed, and of these 3625 m., chiefly of country +unknown to European geography, were surveyed with care, and +the positions fixed by astronomical observations, nearly the whole +of the observations being taken by Garnier himself. Volunteering +to lead a detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman, +the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in Yunnan, he successfully +carried out the more than adventurous enterprise. When +shortly afterwards Lagrée died, Garnier naturally assumed the +command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to the +Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return +to France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of +his narrative was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and +during the siege of Paris he served as principal staff officer to the +admiral in command of the eighth “sector.” His experiences +during the siege were published anonymously in the feuilleton of +<i>Le Temps</i>, and appeared separately as <i>Le Siège de Paris, journal +d’un officier de marine</i> (1871). Returning to Cochin-China he +found the political circumstances of the country unfavourable +to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, and in +1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the +waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupré, +governor of Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a +new colony in Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took +Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 21st of December he +was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests on +the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong, and +carried out the larger portion of the work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as +<i>Voyage d’exploration en Indo-Chine effectué pendant les années 1866, +1867 et 1868, publié sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec +le concours de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel</i> (2 vols.). +An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier’s pen is given in +the <i>Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog.</i> (1874). His <i>Chronique royale du +Cambodje</i>, was reprinted from the <i>Journal Asiatique</i> in 1872. See +<i>Ocean Highways</i> (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh +Clifford, <i>Further India</i>, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, ROBERT<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1545-<i>c.</i> 1600), French tragic poet, was +born at Ferté Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his +first work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a +prize (1565) in the <i>jeux floraux</i>. It was a collection of lyrical +pieces, now lost, entitled <i>Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier</i> +(1565). After some practice at the Parisian bar, he became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +conseiller du roi au siège présidial et sénéchaussée of Le Maine, +his native district, and later lieutenant-général criminel. His +friend Lacroix du Maine says that he enjoyed a great reputation +as an orator. He was a distinguished magistrate, of considerable +weight in his native province, who gave his leisure to literature, +and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized by his own +generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.</p> + +<p>In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of +dramatists who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these +productions there is little that is strictly dramatic except the +form. A tragedy was a series of rhetorical speeches relieved by a +lyric chorus. His pieces in this manner are <i>Porcie</i> (published +1568, acted at the hôtel de Bourgogne in 1573), <i>Cornélie</i> and +<i>Hippolyte</i> (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574). In <i>Porcie</i> +the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the subject of +an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death of the +nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group +of tragedies—<i>Marc-Antoine</i> (1578), <i>La Troade</i> (1579), <i>Antigone</i> +(acted and printed 1580)—shows an advance on the theatre of +Étienne Jodelle and Jacques Grévin, and on his own early plays, +in so much that the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance +of action, though this is accomplished by the plan of joining +together two virtually independent pieces in the same way.</p> + +<p>In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces <i>Bradamante</i> +and <i>Les Juives</i>. In <i>Bradamante</i>, which alone of his plays +has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and +sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be +known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic +story becomes a real drama in Garnier’s hands, though even +there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage. +The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic +interest in the manner of Corneille. <i>Les Juives</i> is the pathetic +story of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the +Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. The Jewish women +lamenting the fate of their children take a principal part in this +tragedy, which, although almost entirely elegiac in conception, +is singularly well designed, and gains unity by the personality of +the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the +16th and 17th centuries it is, with <i>Athalie</i>, the best constructed +with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representation +is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in +fact, visually conceived.</p> + +<p>Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of +his century and the precursor of the great achievements of the +next.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, +4 vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found +in Émile Faguet, <i>La Tragédie française au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1883, pp. +183-307).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1801-1841), +French politician, was born at Marseilles on the 27th of December +1801. Soon after his birth his father Jean François Garnier, a +naval surgeon, died, and his mother married Simon Pagès, a +college professor, by whom she had a son. The boys were brought +up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pagès. Étienne +found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and +then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study +law, and made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of +the Restoration, he joined various democratic societies, notably +the <i>Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera</i>, an organization for purifying the +elections. He took part in the revolution of July 1830; became +secretary of the <i>Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera</i>, whose propaganda he +brought into line with his anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 +was sent from Isère to the chamber of deputies. He was concerned +in the preparation of the <i>Compte rendu</i> of 1832, and +advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, and +his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked +influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on +the 23rd of June 1841.</p> + +<p>His half-brother, <span class="sc">Louis Antoine Garnier-Pagès</span> (1803-1878), +fought on the barricades during the revolution of July +1830, and after Étienne’s death was elected to the chamber of +deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter of reform, and was a +leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for the +22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional +government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the +5th of March 1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred +great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He +was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive +Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the +republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and +after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the Government +of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the +National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into +private life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He +wrote <i>Histoire de la révolution de 1848</i> (1860-1862); <i>Histoire de +la commission exécutive</i> (1869-1872); and <i>L’Opposition et l’empire</i> +(1872).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARNISH,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now +particularly used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from +the O. Fr. <i>garnisant</i> or <i>guarnissant</i>, participle of <i>garnir</i>, <i>guarnir</i>, +to furnish, equip. This is of Teutonic origin, the base being +represented in O. Eng. <i>warnian</i>, to take warning, beware, and +Ger. <i>warnen</i>, to warn, Eng. <i>warn</i>; the original sense would be to +guard against, fortify, hence equip or fit out. The meaning of +“warn” is seen in the law term “garnishee,” a person who owes +money to or holds money belonging to another and is “warned” +by order of the court not to pay it to his immediate creditor but +to a third person who has obtained final judgment against that +creditor. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Attachment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARO HILLS,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a district of British India, in the hills division of +Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a +tribe of doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom +it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section +of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of +Assam. According to the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. +In the 18th century they are mentioned as being frequently in +conflict with the inhabitants of the plains below their hills, and in +1790 the British government first tried to reduce them. No +permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the Garos +were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were +again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in +1861, but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was +now posted among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the +district was constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was +committed against a native on the survey staff, there was little +opposition when an expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the +whole district into submission, and there were thereafter no +further disturbances.</p> + +<p>The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which +here run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that +river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great +sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at +Tura. The area of the district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 138,274, showing an increase of 14% in the +decade. The American missionaries maintain a small training +school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were entirely +destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in +the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. +Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. +The chief exports are cotton, timber and forest products. Trade +is small, though the natives, according to their own standard, +are prosperous. They are fair agriculturists. Communications +within the district are by cart-roads, bridle-paths and native +tracks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARONNE<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Garumna</i>), a river of south-western France, +rising in the Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a +wide curve to the Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, +one of which has a subterranean course of 2½ m., disappearing in +the sink known as the Trou du Taureau (“bull’s hole”) and +reappearing at the Goueil de Jouéou. After a course of 30 m. in +Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge +called the Vallée d’Aran, the Garonne enters France in the +department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At +Montréjeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at +this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn +abruptly east, flowing in a wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint +Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this +point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive +power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various +streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at +whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize +and the Ariège (both names signifying “river”). From Toulouse +the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern +border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the +principal streams being the Save, the Gers and the Baïse. On its +right hand the Garonne is swelled by its two chief tributaries, the +Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; farther down it is +joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron. +Between Toulouse and Castets, 33½ m. above Bordeaux, and the +highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, the river is +accompanied at a distance of from a ½ to 3 m. by the so-called +“lateral canal” of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. +This canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, +one of which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. +From Toulouse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of +the Garonne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while +another magnificent aqueduct of twenty-three arches carries it at +Agen from the right to the left bank of the river. It has a fall of +420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is navigable for vessels having the +maximum dimensions of 98½ ft. length, 19 ft. breadth and 6½ ft. +draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural +produce and provisions, building materials, wood and industrial +products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du +Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the +Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 +yds. broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its +great commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing +width between two flat shores to the Bec d’Ambès (15½ m.), +where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to +form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The triangular +peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is called +Entre-deux-mers (“between two seas”) and is famous for its +wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m. +Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. +The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the +flood level at Castets attained the record height of 42½ ft. above +low-water mark.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRET<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>garite</i>, modern <i>guérite</i>, a watch-tower, +connected ultimately with “guard” and “ward”), +properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, and hence the +name given to a room on the top storey of a building, the sloping +ceiling of which is formed by the roof.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITÃO DE +ALMEIDA,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> <span class="sc">Visconde de Almeida-Garrett</span> (1799-1854), +perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was of +Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the Quinta +do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French +invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett +made his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early +age under the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of +Bocage. Going to the university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon +earned notoriety by the precocity of his talents and his fervent +Liberalism, and there he gained his first oratorical and literary +successes. His tragedy <i>Lucrecia</i> was played there in February +1819, and during this period he also wrote <i>Merope</i> as well as a +great part of <i>Cato</i>, all these plays belonging to the so-called +classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he proceeded +to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married +D. Luiza Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal +separation took place in 1839.</p> + +<p>The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of +1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal +by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went +to England. He became acquainted with the masterpieces of +the English and German romantic movements during his stay +abroad.</p> + +<p>Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at +Havre the poem “Camões,” which destroyed the influence of the +worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following +year composed the patriotic poem “D. Branca,” or “The +Conquest of the Algarve.” He was permitted to return to +Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism. +With the publication of <i>O Portuguez</i>, he raised the tone of the +press, exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language +then unknown in political controversy, and he introduced the +“feuilleton.” But his defence of Liberal principles brought him +three months’ imprisonment, and when D. Miguel was proclaimed +absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, Garrett had again to leave +the country. In London, where he sought refuge, he continued +his adhesion to romanticism by publishing <i>Adozinda</i> and <i>Bernal-Francez</i>, +expansions of old folk-poems, which met with the +warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. +He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, +Warwick and London, engaged in writing poetry and political +pamphlets, and by these and by his periodicals he did much to +unite the Portuguese <i>émigrés</i> and to keep up their spirit amid +their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning that an expedition +was being organized in France for the liberation of Portugal, +Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a +volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, +whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal +government. Here he became a co-operator with the statesman +Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting those laws +which were to revolutionize the whole framework of Portuguese +society, this important work being done far from books and +without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote some of +the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into <i>Flores sem Fructo</i>. +He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on the +8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the +siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the +historical romance <i>Arco de Sant’ Anna</i>, descriptive of the city in +the reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the +Home and Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted +many important royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and +commercial codes. In the following November he was despatched +as secretary to the marquis on a diplomatic mission to +foreign courts, which involved him in much personal hardship. +In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to return +home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of +public instruction.</p> + +<p>In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and chargé d’affaires +at Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most +difficult circumstances, for which he received no thanks and +little pay. When he got back, the government employed him to +draw up a proposal for the construction of a national theatre and +for a conservatoire of dramatic art, of which he became the +head. He instituted prizes for the best plays, himself revising +nearly all that were produced, and a school of dramatists and +actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he +proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects +from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the <i>Auto de +Gil Vicente</i>, considering that the first step towards the recreation +of the Portuguese drama was to revive the memory of its +founder, and he followed this up in 1842 by the <i>Alfageme de +Santarem</i>, dealing with the Holy Constable, and in 1843 by +<i>Frei Luiz de Sousa</i>, one of the few great tragedies of the 19th +century, a work as intensely national as <i>The Lusiads</i>. The story, +which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being +simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. João de Portugal, +who was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, +years afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and +the mother of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the +pair separate and enter religion, and Manoel becomes the famous +chronicler, Frei Luiz de Sousa (<i>q.v.</i>). The characters live and +move, especially Telmo, the old servant, who would never believe +in the death of his former master D. João, and the consumptive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere of impending +disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the return +of D. João and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the +language is Portuguese of the best.</p> + +<p>Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as +an orator. In that year he delivered many notable discourses in +defence of liberal ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright +bill, which, when it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for +similar legislation in England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his +famous speech known as <i>Porto Pyreu</i>, in which he skilfully turned +the well-known anecdote of the “mad Athenian” against his +opponents. While attending with assiduity to his duties as a +deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama <i>D. Filippa de +Vilhena</i>, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for +representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the +session of 1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his +speech against the law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to +Santarem resulted in his prose masterpiece <i>Viagens na minha +terra</i>, at once a novel and a miscellany of literary, political and +philosophic criticism, written without plan or method, easy, +jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part in the civil war that +followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but continued his +literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy <i>A Sobrinha do +Marquez</i>, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an +historical memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of +the year 1850 in finishing his <i>Romanceiro</i>, a collection of folk-poetry +of which he was the first to perceive the value; and in +June 1851 he was created a viscount. In the following December +he drew up the additional act to the constitutional charter, and +his draft was approved by the ministers at a cabinet meeting in +his house. Further, he initiated the <i>Conselho Ultramarino</i>; and +the <i>Law of the Misericordias</i>, with its preamble, published in 1852, +was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became for a +short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out +<i>Folhas Cahidas</i>, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion +and exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: +“if Camoens had written love verses at Garrett’s age, he could +not have equalled him.” His final literary work was a novel, +<i>Helena</i>, which he left unfinished, and on the 10th of February +1854 he made his last notable speech in the House. He died on +the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903 his remains +were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos +at Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, +novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark +of Rebello da Silva: “Garrett was not a man of letters only but +an entire literature in himself.”</p> + +<p>Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a +deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular +capacity for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able +jurist, he was bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic +temperament explains his many-sided activity, his expansive +kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, +his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, +and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many faults in an +irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang his profound, +sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety and perfection +of his scenic creations, the splendour of his eloquence, the truth of +his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter compositions. Two +books stand out in bold relief from among his writings: <i>Folhas +Cahidas</i>, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, <i>Frei Luiz de +Sousa</i>, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the truest +realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection +of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several +editions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Gomes de Amorim, <i>Garrett, memorias biographicas</i> +(3 vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, <i>La Litteratura +Portuguesa en el siglo XIX</i> (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr +Theophilo Braga, <i>Garrett e o romantismo</i> (Oporto, 1904), and <i>Garrett +e os dramas romanticos</i> (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; +Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez</i>, vol. iii. +pp. 309-316, and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See <i>Revue encyclopédique +Larousse</i>, No. 284, for a bibliography of the foreign translations of +Garrett. <i>Frei Luiz de Sousa</i> was translated by Edgar Prestage under +the title <i>Brother Luiz de Sousa</i> (London, 1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRETTING,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> properly Galletting, a term in architecture +for the process in which the “gallets” or small splinters of stone +are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the +mortar joints; they are stuck in while the mortar is wet.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRICK, DAVID<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical +manager, was descended from a good French Protestant family +named Garric or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled in +England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, +Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella Clough, the +daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a recruiting +expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford +on the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had +made his home at Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 +rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept him absent from +home for many years, during which letters were written to him +by “little Davy,” acquainting him with the doings at Lichfield. +When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a short visit +to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine merchant. +On his father’s return from Gibraltar, David, who had previously +been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, largely by +the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical +court, sent with his brother George to the “academy” at Edial, just +opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by +seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary +was, however, closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of +March 1736/7 both Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for +London—Johnson, as he afterwards said, “with twopence +halfpenny in his pocket,” and Garrick “with three-halfpence in +his.” Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy of <i>Irene</i>, +was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, before the +end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John +Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain +Garrick died about a month after David’s arrival in London. +Soon afterwards, his uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having +left David a sum of £1000, he and his brother entered into +partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichfield, David +taking up the London business. The concern was not prosperous—though +Samuel Foote’s assertion that he had known Garrick +with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine +merchant need not be taken literally—and before the end of 1741 +he had spent nearly half of his capital.</p> + +<p>His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried +his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. +His first dramatic piece, <i>Lethe</i>, or <i>Aesop in the Shades</i>, which he +was thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound +transcript to King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played +at Drury Lane on the 15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known +frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on +the stage was made in March 1741, <i>incognito</i>, as harlequin at +Goodman’s Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take +his place during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled <i>Harlequin +Student</i>, or <i>The Fall of Pantomime with the Restoration of the +Drama</i>. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players +from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part +as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan +(in Southerne’s <i>Oroonoko</i>). His success in this and other parts +determined his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he +made his appearance at Goodman’s Fields as Richard III. and +gained the most enthusiastic applause. Among the audience +was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, early in the same +year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so rapidly to +pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his brother +at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal +from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on +the part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, +were ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had +added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, +like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the <i>furore</i>) declared, +was “horn-mad” about him. Before his Richard had exhausted +its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon +afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway’s <i>Venice Preserved</i>, +as well as in several comic characters (including that of Bayes). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +Glover (“Leonidas”) attended every performance; the duke of +Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other +members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the +first six months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen +characters of all kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared +in his own name. Pope went to see him three times during his +first performances, and pronounced that “that young man +never had his equal as an actor, and he will never have a rival.” +Before next spring he had supped with “the great Mr Murray, +counsellor,” and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope through +Murray’s introduction, while he was dining with Halifax, Sandwich +and Chesterfield. “There was a dozen dukes of a night at +Goodman’s Fields,” writes Horace Walpole. Garrick’s farce of +<i>The Lying Valet</i>, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at +this time brought out with so much success that he ventured to +send a copy to his brother.</p> + +<p>His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent +Garden and Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the +manager of Goodman’s Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick +was engaged by Fleetwood for Drury Lane for the season of 1742. +In June of that year he went over to Dublin, where he found the +same homage paid to his talents as he had received from his own +countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg) Woffington, +of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. +(His claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is +still <i>sub judice</i>. There remains some obscurity as to the end of +their liaison.) From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at +Drury Lane, after which he again went over to Dublin. Here +he remained during the whole season, as joint-manager with +Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the Theatre Royal in +Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short engagement with +Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances under a +management not his own. With the close of that season Fleetwood’s +patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and +Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the +theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing +£8000 as two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 +it was opened with a strong company of actors, Johnson’s +prologue being spoken by Garrick, while the epilogue, written by +him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The negotiations involved +Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who appears to have had +a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part himself till +his performance of Archer in the <i>Beaux’ Stratagem</i>, a month after +the opening. For a time at least “the drama’s patrons” were +content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the +end Garrick had to “please” them, like most other managers, by +gratifying their love of show. Garrick was surrounded by many +players of eminence, and he had the art, as he was told by Mrs +Clive, “of contradicting the proverb that one cannot make +bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more difficult, +making actors and actresses without genius.” He had to encounter +very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had +distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was +involved in frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their +fellows did he, so far as it appears, show that jealousy of real +merit from which so many great actors have been unable to remain +free. For the present he was able to hold his own against all +competition. The naturalness of his acting fascinated those who, +like Partridge in <i>Tom Jones</i>, listened to nature’s voice, and +justified the preference of more conscious critics. To be “pleased +with nature” was, as Churchill wrote, in the <i>Rosciad</i> (1761),<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the +sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his +fellows, Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour +in both voice and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. +“It seemed,” wrote Richard Cumberland, “as if a whole century +had been stepped over in the passage of a single scene; old +things were done away, and a new order at once brought forward, +bright and luminous, and clearly destined to dispel the barbarisms +of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously devoted to the illusions +of imposing declamation.” Garrick’s French descent and his +education may have contributed to give him the vivacity and +versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had +given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic +power of wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, +comedy and farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a +modern actor of high rank; it includes not less than seventeen +Shakespearian parts. As a manager, though he committed some +grievous blunders, he did good service to the theatre and signally +advanced the popularity of Shakespeare’s plays, of which not +less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane under his +management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and +he is credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of +<i>Macbeth</i>. On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick’s +production of <i>Hamlet</i> in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane +even by the galleries, “though without their favourite acquaintances +the gravediggers.” Among his published adaptations are +an opera, <i>The Fairies</i> (from <i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>) (1755); +an opera <i>The Tempest</i> (1756); <i>Catherine and Petruchio</i> (1758); +<i>Florizel and Perdita</i> (1762). But not every generation has the +same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best honoured. +Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a +manager, but he refused Home’s <i>Douglas</i>, and made the wrong +choice between <i>False Delicacy</i> and <i>The Good Natur’d Man</i>. +For the rest, he purified the stage of much of its grossness, and +introduced a relative correctness of costume and decoration +unknown before. To the study of English dramatic literature he +rendered an important service by bequeathing his then unrivalled +collection of plays to the British Museum.</p> + +<p>After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful +but reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married +Mademoiselle Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who +had attracted admiration at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, +and had come to England early in 1746, where her modest grace +and the rumours which surrounded her created a <i>furore</i>, and where +she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl and countess of Burlington. +Garrick, who called her “the best of women and wives,” +lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton, acquired by +him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in +Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick’s quarrel +with Barry, the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in +the favour of the public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited +Paris, where they were cordially received and made the acquaintance +of Diderot and others at the house of the baron d’Holbach. +It was about this time that Grimm extolled Garrick as the first +and only actor who came up to the demands of his imagination; +and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by Garrick’s visit +that Diderot first gave expression to the views expounded in his +<i>Paradoxe sur le comédien</i>. After some months spent in Italy, +where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the +autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April +1765. Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her +husband until 1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor +Castle.</p> + +<p>Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the +management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare +celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which +ended in dismal failure, though he composed an “Ode upon +dedicating a building and erecting a Statue to Shakespeare” on +the occasion. (See, <i>inter alia, Garrick’s Vagary, or England Run +Mad; with particulars of the Stratford Jubilee</i>, 1769.) Of his best +supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with whom he had been +reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired in 1769; +but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre. +He sold his share in the property in 1776 for £35,000, and took +leave of the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters—Hamlet, +Lear, Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian +parts; Lusignan in <i>Zara</i>, Aaron Hill’s adaptation of Voltaire’s +<i>Zaire</i>; and Kitely in his own adaptation of Ben Jonson’s <i>Every +Man in his Humour</i>; Archer in Farquhar’s <i>Beaux’ Stratagem</i>; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson’s <i>Alchemist</i>; Sir John Brute in +Vanbrugh’s <i>Provoked Wife</i>; Leon in Fletcher’s <i>Rule a Wife and +have a Wife</i>. He ended the series, as Tate Wilkinson says, +“in full glory” with “the youthful Don Felix” in Mrs Centlivre’s +<i>Wonder</i> on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the +20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at +the foot of Shakespeare’s statue with imposing solemnities. An +elegy on his death was published by William Tasker, poet and +physiognomist, in the same year.</p> + +<p>In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his +later years he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary +mobility of his whole person, and his power of as it were +transforming himself at will, are attested by many anecdotes and +descriptions, but the piercing power of his eye must have been his +most irresistible feature.</p> + +<p>Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks +on Garrick and his doings many are scattered through the pages +of Boswell, spoke warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his +friend’s conversation, as well as of his liberality and kindness of +heart; while to the great actor’s art he paid the exquisite tribute +of describing Garrick’s sudden death as having “eclipsed the +gaiety of nations, and impoverished the public stock of harmless +pleasure.” But the most discriminating character of Garrick, +slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by Goldsmith in his +poem of <i>Retaliation</i>. Beyond a doubt he was not without a +certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager +temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not +cast in a heroic mould, he must have been one of the most +amiable of men. Garrick was often happy in his epigrams and +occasional verse, including his numerous prologues and epilogues. +He had the good taste to recognize, and the spirit to make +public his recognition of, the excellence of Gray’s odes at a time +when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His dramatic +pieces, <i>The Lying Valet</i>, adapted from Motteux’s <i>Novelty Lethe</i> +(1740), <i>The Guardian</i>, <i>Linco’s Travels</i> (1767), <i>Miss in her Teens</i> +(1747), <i>Irish Widow</i>, &c., and his alterations and adaptations of +old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge +of stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; +but he cannot be said to have added one new or original character +to the drama. He was joint author with Colman of <i>The Clandestine +Marriage</i> (1766), in which he is said to have written his +famous part of Lord Ogleby. The excellent farce, <i>High Life +below Stairs</i>, appears to have been wrongly attributed to Garrick, +and to be by James Townley. His <i>Dramatic Works</i> (1798) fill +three, his <i>Poetic</i> (1735) two volumes.</p> + +<p>Garrick’s <i>Private Correspondence</i> (published in 1831-1832 +with a short memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes +his extensive <i>Foreign Correspondence</i> with distinguished French +men and women, and the notices of him in the memoirs of +Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D’Arblay, and above +all in Boswell’s <i>Life of Johnson</i>, bear testimony to his many +attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in +the Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of +all kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe’s <i>Bibliographical +History of English Theatrical Literature</i> (1887). The earlier +biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) and by +the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter a work +of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to dates; +and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his verses +is furnished by Joseph Knight’s valuable Life (1894). A memoir of +Garrick is included in a volume of French <i>Memoirs of Mlle Clairon +and others</i>, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and +an Italian <i>Biografia di Davide Garrick</i> was published by C. Blasis at +Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald’s <i>Life</i> (2 vols., 1868; new edition, +1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with additions, +among Sir Theodore Martin’s <i>Monographs</i> (1906). A delightful +essay on Garrick appeared in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (July 1868), +directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick’s acting +in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (<i>Verm. Schriften</i>, iii., +Göttingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of Garrick’s +labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, <i>David Garrick +als Shakespeare-Darsteller</i>, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons’ <i>Garrick, +and his Circle</i> and <i>Some unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick</i>, +ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting additions to +the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by James Smyth, +<i>David Garrick</i> (1887). T.W. Robertson’s play <i>David Garrick</i>, first +acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir Charles Wyndham, +is of course mere fiction.</p> + +<p>As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The +<i>Connoisseur</i> (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon +was preferred by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain +from the hand of Hogarth, including the famous picture of Garrick +as Richard III. The portraits by Reynolds include the celebrated +“Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy.” Zoffany’s are portraits +in character. Roubiliac’s statue of Shakespeare, for which Garrick +sat, and for which he paid the sculptor three hundred guineas, was +originally placed in a small temple at Hampton, and is now in the +entrance hall at the British Museum.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ca.; A. W. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the subsequent <i>Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers</i>, +Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick +to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, +Garrick requited by good-humoured kindness.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOY<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span>D (1805-1879), the American +anti-slavery leader, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., on the 10th of December 1805. His parents were from +the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a +sea-captain, went away from home when William was a child, +and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The +mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a +woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for +piety. She died in 1823. William had a taste for books, and +made the most of his limited opportunities. His mother first set +him to learn the trade of a shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and +then, after 1815, at Baltimore, Maryland, and, when she found +that this did not suit him, let him try his hand at cabinet-making +(at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him no better. In +October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was made +more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, +proprietor of the Newburyport <i>Herald</i>, to learn the trade of a +printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time +began to write anonymously for the <i>Herald</i>. His communications +won the commendation of the editor, who had not at first the +slightest suspicion that he was the author. He also wrote for +other papers with equal success. A series of political essays, +written by him for the Salem <i>Gazette</i>, was copied by a prominent +Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to the +Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts. +His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, +while his ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of +the <i>Herald</i>, when temporarily called away from his post, left the +paper in his charge.</p> + +<p>The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many +another poor boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the +college. He was full of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of +the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest +sympathy, and at one time he seriously thought of entering the +West Point Academy and fitting himself for a soldier’s career. +His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the publication +of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the <i>Free +Press</i>, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was “Our +Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country,” was +full of spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy +place and the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, +where, after working for a time as a journeyman printer, he +became the editor of the <i>National Philanthropist</i>, the first journal +established in America to promote the cause of total abstinence +from intoxicating liquors. His work in this paper was highly +appreciated by the friends of temperance, but a change in the +proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year. +In 1828 he was induced to establish the <i>Journal of the Times</i> at +Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy +Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, +though attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was +too far ahead of public sentiment on moral questions to win a +large support. In Boston he had met Benjamin Lundy (<i>q.v.</i>), who +had for years been preaching the abolition of slavery. Garrison +had been deeply moved by Lundy’s appeals, and after going to +Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question. +Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper, +entitled <i>The Genius of Universal Emancipation</i>, and he resolved +to go to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. +With this object in view he walked from Boston to +Bennington, through the frost and snow of a New England winter, +a distance of 125 m. His mission was successful. Garrison was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +deeply impressed by the good Quaker’s zeal and devotion, and he +resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter to the work of +abolishing slavery.</p> + +<p>In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn +of 1829, and thenceforth the <i>Genius</i> was published weekly, +under the joint editorship of the two men. It was understood, +however, that Garrison would do most of the editorial work, +while Lundy would spend most of his time in lecturing and +procuring subscribers. On one point the two editors differed +radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and Garrison of +immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the +idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized +somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; the latter +held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country, +with all the rights of freemen. In view of this difference it was +agreed that each should speak on his own individual responsibility +in the paper, appending his initial to each of his articles for the +information of the reader. It deserves mention here that Garrison +was then in utter ignorance of the change previously wrought in +the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth Heyrick’s +pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual +emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the +duty of immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was +perfectly manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and +denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system +was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing +it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate +emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders. +For general talk about the evils of slavery they cared little, but +this assertion that every slave was entitled to instant freedom +filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for they saw +that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the +proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The <i>Genius</i>, now +that it had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a +paper to be feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one +of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic +Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in +Newburyport having taken a cargo of slaves from Baltimore to +New Orleans, he characterized the transaction as an act of +“domestic piracy,” and avowed his purpose to “cover with +thick infamy” those engaged therein. He was thereupon +prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted +in costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His +imprisonment created much excitement, and in some quarters, +in spite of the pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of +indignant comment in public as well as private. The excitement +was fed by the publication of two or three striking sonnets, +instinct with the spirit of liberty, which Garrison inscribed on the +walls of his cell. One of these, <i>Freedom of Mind</i>, is remarkable +for freshness of thought and terseness of expression.</p> + +<p>John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry +Clay to pay Garrison’s fine and thus release him from prison. +To the credit of the slaveholding statesman it must be said that +he responded favourably, but before he had time for the requisite +preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New +York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free +after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between +Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and +the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which, +upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of +immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African +colonization. He was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore, +that a movement against slavery resting upon any less radical +foundation than this would be ineffectual. He first proposed to +establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on +returning to New England and observing the state of public +opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done +at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her +influence, through political, commercial, religious and social +channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, +to publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus, +set himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by +means of lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the +North. It was an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and +indifference to his wrongs were almost universal. In Boston, +then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or +vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and thereupon announced in +one of the daily journals that if some suitable place was not +promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of +infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), +who had previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor +of a Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small +hall; and, no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully, +and delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which +he unfolded his principles and plans. He visited privately many +of the leading citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and +merchants, and besought them to take the lead in a national +movement against slavery; but they all with one consent made +excuse, some of them listening to his plea with manifest impatience. +He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His +conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and +dangers of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated +movement, was intensified by opposition, and he resolved +to go forward, trusting in God for success.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and +without a single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp +(1804-1843) issued the first number of the <i>Liberator</i>, avowing their +“determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread +and water, or their hands obtain employment.” Its motto was, +“Our country is the world—our countrymen are mankind”; and +the editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which +have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and +spirit of his life: “I am in earnest—I will not equivocate—I will +not excuse—I will not retreat a single inch—and I will be +heard.” Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison +and his brave partner, who died long before the end of the +conflict, made their bed on the floor of the room, “dark, unfurnished +and mean,” in which they printed their paper, and +where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in compliance with +the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina, +“ferreted them out” in “an obscure hole,” “their only visible +auxiliary a negro boy.” But the paper founded under such +inauspicious circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived +to record not only President Lincoln’s proclamation of emancipation, +but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the +United States for ever prohibiting slavery. It was the beginning +and the nucleus of an agitation that eventually pervaded and +filled every part of the country. Other newspapers were afterwards +established upon the same principles; anti-slavery +societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation, +sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into political +parties, into the press, and into legislative and ecclesiastical +assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking alarm from +the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to +slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards +of the system, seceded from the Union and set up a +separate government.</p> + +<p>Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. +He knew that the national government had no power over the +system in any state, though it could abolish it at the national +capital, and prohibit it in the territories. He thought it should +bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition; but +neither he nor his associates ever asked Congress to exercise any +unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine the moral +influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel +upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern +churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of +Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the +rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom. +He was a man of peace, hating war not less than he did slavery; +but he warned his countrymen that if they refused to abolish +slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner or later +ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be overthrown, +if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +organized under Garrison’s auspices, and in accordance with his +principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which +adopted its constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this +year Garrison issued his <i>Thoughts on African Colonization</i>, in +which he showed by ample citations from official documents that +the American Colonization Society was organized in the interest of +slavery, and that in offering itself to the people of the North as a +practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception. +His book, aided by others taking substantially the same view, +smote the society with a paralysis from which it never recovered. +Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having +succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its +character and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New +England Anti-Slavery Society to visit England for the purpose of +counteracting their influence. He went in the spring of 1833, +when he was but twenty-seven years of age, and was received +with great cordiality by British Abolitionists, some of whom had +heard of his bold assaults upon American slavery, and had seen a +few numbers of the <i>Liberator</i>. The struggle for emancipation in +the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; the leaders +of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled in +London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and +treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with +him a “protest” against the American Colonization Society, +signed by Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, +William Evans, S. Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, +Daniel O’Connell and others, in which they declared their deliberate +judgment that “its precepts were delusive,” and “its +real effects of the most dangerous nature.” He also received +assurances of the cordial sympathy of British Abolitionists with +him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He gained a +hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the +confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness, +sincerity and ability.</p> + +<p>Garrison’s visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people +and press of the United States at the outset, and when he returned +home in September with the “protest” against the +Colonization Society, and announced that he had engaged the +services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American +slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The +American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of +that year (1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its +principles and purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added +fresh fuel to the public excitement, and when Thompson came +over in the next spring, the hostility to the cause began to manifest +itself in mobs organized to suppress the discussion of the +slavery question. Now began what Harriet Martineau called +“the martyr age in America.” In the autumn of 1835 Thompson +was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly for +England. Just before his departure the announcement that +he would address the Woman’s Anti-Slavery Society of Boston +created “a mob of gentlemen of property and standing,” from +which, if he had been present, he could hardly have escaped with +his life. The whole city was in an uproar. Garrison, almost +denuded of his clothing, was dragged through the streets with a +rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great difficulty, +and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be secretly +removed from the city.</p> + +<p>Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the +North, and many men of influence, both in the church and in +the state, were won to the cause. Garrison, true to his original +purpose, never faltered or turned back. The Abolitionists of +the United States were a united body until 1839-1840, when +divisions sprang up among them. Garrison countenanced the +activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of allowing them +to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and +appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed +in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was +opposed upon social and religious grounds. Then there were +some who thought Garrison dealt too severely with the churches +and pulpits for their complicity with slavery, and who accused +him of a want of religious orthodoxy; indeed, according to the +standards of his time he was decidedly heterodox, though he had +an intensely religious nature and was far from being an infidel, +as he was often charged with being. He was, moreover, not only +a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political systems +based on force. “As to the governments of this world,” he +said, “whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove +that in their essential elements, as at present administered, +they are all anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom +be brought into conformity with the will of God; that they +cannot be maintained except by naval and military power to +carry them into effect; that all their penal enactments, being +a dead letter without any army to carry them into effect, are +virtually written in human blood; and that the followers of +Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, power, +and emolument—at the same time ‘submitting to every +ordinance of man for the Lord’s sake’ and offering no physical +resistance to any of their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical.” +These views were very distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt +that Garrison greatly injured abolitionism by causing it to be +associated in men’s minds with these unpopular views on other +subjects. The dissentients from his opinions determined to +form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in working +by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These +differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery +Society in 1840, and to the formation of the “Liberty +Party” (<i>q.v.</i>) in politics. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Birney, James G.</a></span>) The two +societies sent their delegates to the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention +in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat +in that body, because the women delegates from the United +States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years +served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the +constitution of the United States as a shield and support of +slavery; and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came +to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and +that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The +Southern states had greatly enlarged representation in Congress +on account of their slaves, and the national government was +constitutionally bound to assist in the capture of fugitive slaves, +and to suppress every attempt on their part to gain their freedom +by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, adopting a +bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution as +“a covenant with death and an agreement with hell,” and chose +as his motto, “No union with slaveholders.”</p> + +<p>One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by +strained interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others, +admitting that they were immoral, felt themselves obliged, +notwithstanding, to support the constitution in order to avoid +what they thought would be still greater evils. The American +Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the president +from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this period +the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which +was greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the +field of politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his +convictions. On the other hand, he always had the highest +respect for every earnest and faithful opponent of slavery, +however far their special views might differ. When in 1861 the +Southern states seceded from the Union and took up arms against +it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle, that +the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses, and +that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure foundations +of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore ceased +from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to +the task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable +event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured +by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole +country knew that the agitation which made the abolition of +slavery feasible and necessary was largely due to his uncompromising +spirit and indomitable courage.</p> + +<p>In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being +abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled +a dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting +that it had become <i>functus officiis</i>, and that whatever needed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be +accomplished by new associations formed for that purpose. The +<i>Liberator</i> was discontinued at the end of the same year, after an +existence of thirty-five years. He visited England for the second +time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he was received with +distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1877, when +he was there for the last time, he declined every form of public +recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in +the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston, +after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In +1843 a small volume of his <i>Sonnets and other Poems</i> was published, +and in 1852 appeared a volume of <i>Selections from his Writings +and Speeches</i>. His wife, Helen Eliza Benson, died in 1876. +Four sons and one daughter survived them.</p> + +<p>Garrison’s son, <span class="sc">William Lloyd Garrison</span> (1838-1909), was a +prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman’s +suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an +opponent of imperialism; another son, <span class="sc">Wendell Phillips +Garrison</span> (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York +<i>Nation</i> from 1865 to 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the +account given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson +(reprinted from his <i>Garrison: an Outline of his Life</i>, New York, +1879). The writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist, +editor, and an intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the <i>Liberator</i> +during Garrison’s absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor +or an associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil +War, the New York <i>Tribune</i> and the New York <i>Evening Post</i>. He +also published an excellent brief biography in <i>William Lloyd Garrison +and his Times</i> (Boston, 1880).</p> + +<p>The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and +candid work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, <i>William Lloyd +Garrison 1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children</i> (4 +vols., New York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student +of the anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith’s <i>The Moral +Crusader: a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison</i> (New +York, 1892) is a brilliant sketch.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRISON,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> originally a term for stores or supplies, also a +defence or protection, now confined in meaning to a body of +troops stationed in a town or fortress for the purpose of defence. +In form the word is derived from O. Fr. <i>garison</i>, modern +<i>guérison</i>, from <i>guérir</i>, to furnish with stores, to preserve, but in +its later meaning it has been confused with the Fr. <i>garnison</i>, the +regular word for troops stationed for purposes of defence. In +English “garnison” was used till the 16th century, when “garrison” +took its place. In the British army “garrison troops,” +especially “garrison artillery,” are troops trained and employed +for garrison work as distinct from field operations.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARROTE<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (Spanish for “cudgel”), an appliance used in +Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals condemned +to death. The criminal is conducted to the place of execution +(which is public) on horseback or in a cart, wearing a black +tunic, and is attended by a procession of priests, &c. He is +seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by an iron collar +(the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever dislocates +his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column at +the base of the brain. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital Punishment</a></span>.) Originally a +stout cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal, +who was seated in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and +the neck a stick was inserted (hence the name) and twisted till +strangulation ensued.</p> + +<p>“Garrotting” is the name given in England to a form of +robbery with violence which became rather common in the +winter of 1862-1863. The thief came up behind his victim, +threw a cord over his head, and tightened it nearly to strangulation +point, while robbing him. An act of 1863, imposing the +penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence, +had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely. At any +rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of +any sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the +penalty, that view has always been taken by the English judges +who had experience of such cases.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARRUCHA,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province +of Almeria; on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of +the river Antas. Pop. (1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha, +which is defended by an ancient castle, affords shelter to large +ships, and is the natural outlet for the commerce of a thriving +agricultural and mining district. Despite its small size and the +want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a considerable +trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, &c. +Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and +clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons +entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and +in the same year the value of the exports reached £478,000, and +that of the imports £128,000. Both imports and exports trebled +their value in the ten years 1892-1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARSTON,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool. +Pop. (1891) 13,444; (1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the +London & North Western railway company, employ most of the +working population. There is about a mile of quayage, with +special machinery for the shipping of coal, which forms the chief +article of export.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARTH, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1661-1719), English physician and +poet, was born of a good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered +Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and +M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the +College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he delivered the Harveian +oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some ten +years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the sick +poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In +1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, <i>The Dispensary</i>, in six +cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three +editions within a year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and +their allies among the physicians. The poem has little interest at +the present day, except as a proof that the heroic couplet was +written with smoothness and polish before the days of Pope. +Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and became the leading +physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the Tories. In 1714 +he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of January +1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work <i>The Dispensary</i> +and <i>Claremont</i>, a moral <span class="correction" title="amended from espistle">epistle</span> in verse. He made a Latin +oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the <i>Life of +Otho</i> in the fifth volume of Dryden’s Plutarch. In 1717 he edited +a translation of Ovid’s <i>Metamorphoses</i>, himself supplying the +fourteenth and part of the fifteenth book.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARTOK,<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the +Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. +In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together +with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade. +On the return of the column from Lhasa in that year Gartok was +visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who found only a few +dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in the midst +of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between +Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GARY,<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern +end of Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop. +(1910 census) 16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore & +Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, +the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, and (for freight only) the +Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the Indiana Harbor Belt +railways, and by several steamship lines plying the Great Lakes. +There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but the +city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the +time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected +from east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little +Calumet rivers, small streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S. +of the lake shore. In 1906 the United States Steel Corporation +bought this tract to establish on it a great industrial community, +as direct water connexion with the Lake Superior ore region was +possible, and it was comparatively accessible to West Virginia +coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad facilities. +The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town in +June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate +system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution +of water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the +lake at a point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about +500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small +patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the +beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of +the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel +Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to +prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improvement +of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating +drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been +dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel +Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in +this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose +motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the +blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the +electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by +three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power +capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in +honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of +directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United +States Steel Corporation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAS,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a general term for one of the three states of aggregation +of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous +product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other +carbonaceous matter (see below, section <i>Gas Manufacture</i>; for +gas engines see the separate heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas Engine</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>The Gaseous State.</i>—Matter is studied under three physical +phases—solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes +grouped as “fluids.” The study of the physical properties of +fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and +their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special +science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named +pneumatics.</p> + +<p>The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our +atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its +properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its +presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind, +and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver +of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to +the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and +transforming their energy—as is betrayed to our hearing in the +whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.</p> + +<p>The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids +may be stated in dynamical language thus:—solids can sustain +a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral +pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed +by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then +takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But +here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases +or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however +small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the remainder +will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the +other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the +region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be +left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then +otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding +surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in contact +with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the +liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an +open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of +Sir Oliver Lodge: “A solid has volume and shape; a liquid +has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape.”</p> + +<p>It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a “vapour.” +The latter possesses the physical property stated above which +distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being +readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature +or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects +of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction +of the term “permanent gases” to denote gases which were +apparently not liquefiable. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen +and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been +liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term meaningless +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>). The term “perfect gas” is applied to an +imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation +of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which +any molecule is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally +small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean +free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly +in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced +being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in +order to co-ordinate actual experiences.</p> + +<p>The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, +in Greek cosmology, “air” (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">πνεῦμα</span>) was one of the fundamental +elements. The alchemists used such terms as <i>spiritus</i>, +<i>flatus</i>, <i>halitus</i>, <i>aura</i>, <i>emanatio nubila</i>, &c., words implying a +“wind” or “breath.” The word “gas” was invented by +J.B. van Helmont in his <i>Ortus medicinae</i>, posthumously published +in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known +as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded +a “spirit,” which he named <i>spiritus sylvestris</i> on account of its +supposed untamable nature (“Gas sylvestre sive incoërcibile, +quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile”); and he invented +the word “gas” in the expression: “... this spirit, hitherto +unknown, ... I call by a new name <i>gas</i>” (“hunc spiritum, +incognitum hactenus, novo nomine <i>gas</i> voco”). The word was +suggested by the Gr. <span class="grk" title="chaos">χάος</span>, chaos, for he also writes: “I have +called this spirit <i>gas</i>, it being scarcely distinguishable from the +Chaos of the ancients” (“halitum illum <i>Gas</i> vocavi, non longe +a Chao veterum secretum”). The view that the word was +suggested by the Dutch <i>geest</i>, spirit, is consequently erroneous. +Until the end of the 18th century the word “air,” qualified by +certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known—a +custom due in considerable measure to the important part +which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.</p> + +<p>The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: +the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essentially +general properties, such as the weight and density, the +relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric +and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, +viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally +properties independent of composition. These subjects are +discussed in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Density</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction of Heat</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation +of Gases</a></span>. The latter has for its province the preparation, +collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations +in which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. +The historical development of the chemistry of gases—pneumatic +chemistry—is treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>; the +technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under +<i>Gas Analysis</i>. Connecting the experimental study of the physical +and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice +termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is discussed +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molecule</a></span>, has for its purpose (1) the derivation +of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the +experimental observations of the diverse physical properties, +and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical +composition.</p> + +<p><i>Gas Analysis.</i>—The term “gas analysis” is given to that +branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the +quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous +mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue +gases (in which much information is gained as to the completeness +and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is +necessary to have a product of a definite composition within +certain limits). There are, in addition, many other branches +of chemical technology in which the methods are employed. +In general, volumetric methods are used, <i>i.e.</i> a component is +absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume +noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined +by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult +and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not +employed in technology, where time is an important factor and +moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an +outline of the technical practice will be given.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span> +series of absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring +vessel is that devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two +vertical tubes provided with feet and connected at the bottom +by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, called the “measuring +tube,” is provided with a capillary stopcock at the top and +graduated downwards; the other tube, called the “level tube,” +is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube +is completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes, +raising the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock, +which is then turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock, +by means of a fine tube which has been previously filled with +water or in which the air has been displaced by running the gas +through. By opening the stopcock and lowering the level tube +any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated over. In cases +where a large quantity of gas, <i>i.e.</i> sufficient for several tests, is +to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a large bottle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:295px" src="images/img482a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="2">(By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by +bringing the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading +the graduation on the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors +associated with recording the coincidence of a graduation with a +meniscus. The temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously +noted. If the tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature +and pressure may be assumed to be constant, and any +diminution in volume due to the absorption of a constituent may +be readily expressed as a percentage. If, however, the temperature +and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced to 0° and +760 mm. by means of the formula V<span class="su">0</span> = V(P − p)/(1 + .00366t)760, +in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p +the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the experiment. +This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.</p> + +<p>Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs. +1 and 2. The simpler form consists of two bulbs connected +at the bottom by a wide tube. The lower bulb is provided with +a smaller bulb bearing a capillary through which the gas is led to +the apparatus, the higher bulb has a wider outlet tube. The +arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. Sometimes the +small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette varies +with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which +remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other +cases a composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the +absorbent is protected by a second pipette containing water. In +the case of solid reagents, <i>e.g.</i> phosphorus, the absorbing bulb +has a tubulure at the bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing +liquid is brought to the outlet of the capillary by tilting or by +squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the wide end, and the liquid is +maintained there by closing with a clip. The capillary is connected +with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously filled +with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the +level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas +passes into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the +pipette being shaken from time to time. It is then run back into +the measuring tube by lowering the level tube, the stopcock is +closed, and the volume noted. The operation is repeated until +there is no further absorption.</p> + +<p>The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are +to be estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases +where titration methods are not employed, the general order is +as follows: carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide, +hydrogen, methane and nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is +particularly applicable to coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed +by a potash solution containing one part of potash to between +two and three of water; the stronger solution absorbs about 40 +volumes of the gas. The olefines—ethylene, &c.—are generally +absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding +sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which +solidifies when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed. +Oxygen is absorbed by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated +pipette filled with water. The temperature must be above 18°; +and the absorption is prevented by ammonia, olefines, alcohol, +and some other substances. An alkaline solution of pyrogallol +is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs oxygen, becoming +black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the solution +immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a +solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in +ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as +carbon dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash; +when large in amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal +cuprous chloride and the residue burned. Hydrogen may be +estimated by absorption by heated palladium contained in a +capillary through which the gas is passed, or by exploding (under +reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and measuring the +diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of +hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas +is contained over water, and is improved by using mercury. +Methane cannot be burnt in this way even when there is much +hydrogen present, and several other methods have been proposed, +such as mixing with air and aspirating over copper oxide +heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen and burning in a +platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide formed +being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water, +such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, +sulphur dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume of +the gas through water and titrating the solution with a standard +solution. Many types of absorption vessel are in use, and the +standard solutions are generally such that 1 c.c. of the solution +corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under normal conditions.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:227px; height:322px" src="images/img482b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(By permission of Messrs Baird & +Tatlock.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the +commonest is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in +the graduated cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a +water jacket and provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is +connected by a capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of +absorbing vessels, the connexion +being effected by stopcocks. These +vessels consist of two vertical +cylinders joined at the bottom +by a short tube. The cylinder +in direct communication with the +capillary is filled with glass tubes so +as to expose a larger surface of the +absorbing solution to the gas. The +other cylinder is open to the air +and serves to hold the liquid +ejected from the absorbing cylinder. +Any number of bulbs can be +attached to the horizontal capillary; +in the form illustrated there are +four, the last being a hydrogen +pipette in which the palladium is +heated in a horizontal tube by +a spirit lamp. At the end of the +horizontal tube there is a three-way +cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To use +the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with +water by raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels +are then about half filled with the absorbents, and, by +opening the cocks and aspirating, the liquid is brought so as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +completely to fill the bulbs nearer the capillary. The cocks +are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to the supply of +the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any desired amount +can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is effected +by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the levelling +bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions +pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by +Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and +others, the methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who +began his researches in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical +<i>Gasometrische Methoden</i> (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated +into English by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed +two works, <i>Anleitung zur chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase</i> +(1876-1877) and <i>Lehrbuch der technischen Gasanalyse</i> (2nd ed., 1892), +both of which are very valuable for the commercial applications of +the methods. W. Hempel’s researches are given in his <i>Neue Methode +zur Analyse der Gase</i> (1880) and <i>Gasanalytische Methoden</i> (1890, 3rd +ed. 1900).</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Gas Manufacture</p> + +<p>1. <i>Illuminating Gas.</i>—The first practical application of gas +distilled from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed +to William Murdoch, who between the years +of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the possibility of +<span class="sidenote">Historical.</span> +making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on +a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton, +dean of Kildare, filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained +by the distillation of coal, and showed that on pricking the +bladders and applying a light to the escaping gas it burnt +with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen Hales published +the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of Newcastle +coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean +Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the +university of Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at +Maestricht, made experiments on distilling gas from coal with +the view of obtaining a permanent gas sufficiently light for +filling balloons, and in 1785 experimentally lighted his lecture +room with gas so obtained as a demonstration to his students, +but no commercial application was made of the fact. Lord Dundonald, +in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the production of tar and +oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and even used it +for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from these +facts that, prior to Murdoch’s experiments, it was known that +illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation +of coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792, +and which culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt & +Co.’s engine works at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly +demonstrated the practical possibility of making the +gas on a large scale, and burning it in such a way as to make +coal-gas the most important of the artificial illuminants. An impression +exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch’s early experiments +were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who +first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as +has been shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained +from coal by distillation was known a century before Murdoch +made his experiments, +and the most that can +be claimed for him is +that he made the first +successful application of +it on a practical scale.</p> + +<p>In 1799 a Frenchman +named Philippe Lebon +took out a patent in Paris for making an illuminating gas from +wood, and gave an exhibition of it in 1802, which excited a considerable +amount of attention on the European continent. It was +seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer for his +secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined, +and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how +the gas could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering +this, he in 1803 exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick +a series of experiments with lighting gas made from wood and +from coal. Looking upon London as a promising field for +enterprise, he came over to England, and at the commencement +of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave demonstrations +of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, and in +1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall Mall, +whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the National +Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million sterling. +This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of +his priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming +to parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in +getting it passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter +being granted later in 1812, the company was called the Chartered +Gas Light and Coke Company, and was the direct forerunner of +the present London Gas Light and Coke Company. During this +period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr W. Henry and +S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the improvements +they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and burning of +coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected +with the subject.</p> + +<p>In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the +streets of Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it +became common in London. After this so rapid was +the progress of this new mode of illumination that in +<span class="sidenote">The growth of gas lighting.</span> +the course of a few years it was adopted by all the +principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting +streets as well as shops and public edifices. In private houses it +found its way more slowly, partly from an apprehension of +danger attending its use, and partly from the discomfort which +was experienced in many cases through the gas being distributed +without purification, and to the careless and imperfect manner +in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was during the +last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest advance +was made, this period having been marked not only by many +improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a +complete revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production +of light. In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of +3.2 candles illuminating power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle +gas, was looked upon as the most perfect burner of the day, +and little hope was entertained that any burner capable of +universal adoption would surpass it in its power of developing +light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the +century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric +burner yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand +for the consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day, +by supplying gas at an increased pressure, a light of ten times +the power may be obtained. Since the advent of the incandescent +mantle, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the heating +power of the gas more than on its illuminating power, the manufacture +of coal gas has undergone considerable modifications.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a +process of destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal</a></span>), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, +<span class="sidenote">Coals used for gas-making.</span> +known as bituminous coal, that can with advantage be +utilized in gas manufacture. Coals of this character are +obtained in England from the Newcastle and Durham field, +South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley districts, and an idea of +their ultimate composition may be derived from the following table:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Carbon.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sulphur.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oxygen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ash.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Moisture.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Newcastle gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.76</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Durham gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">84.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Yorkshire silkstone</td> <td class="tcc rb">80.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Derbyshire silkstone</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Barnsley gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.64</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.94</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.84</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.40</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total +amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials +which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of +the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the +ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value +for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily +arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal, +however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple +hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin +series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen, +nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.</p> + +<p>On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive +distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the products +will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in the +retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its distribution +<span class="sidenote">Destructive distillation of coal.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +in the retort, with the length of time the distillation has been going +on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or less complex +nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low temperature, +the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of +light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin +hydrocarbons are present in the original coal. These +paraffins, under the influence of heat, split up into simpler +members of the same series and into olefines; and if we imagine the +action in its simplest form, we should have the gases, as they were +evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and ethylene. These have now +to pass down the heated retort on their way to the ascension pipe, +and the contact with the heated sides of the retort, and the baking +from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an infinity of changes. +Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up into ethylene and +hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and acetylene, +and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, styrolene, retene, +&c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time loses some +hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed +by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the +hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances +containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation +of the phenols in the tar.</p> + +<p>There is very little doubt that the general course of the decompositions +follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of +the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that, +instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed +in the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort, +in practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the +vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these +to such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the +retort at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already +formed into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the +former into higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon +of definite composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose +it entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane, +and, by rapidly removing these from the heating zone before any +secondary actions took place, to prevent formation of tar. But any +such ideal is hopeless in practice, as the coal is not a definite compound, +and it is impossible to subject it to a fixed temperature.</p> + +<p>If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000° C. when the charge of +coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from about +800° C. close to the walls, to about 400° C. in the centre of +the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal, +<span class="sidenote">Effect of temperature in the retort.</span> +the products which come in contact with the sides of the +retort are heated to 1000° C., whilst the gas near the coal +is probably heated to only 600° C. Moreover, the gases +and vapours in the retort are subjected to a period of heating which +varies widely with the distance from the mouth of the retort of the +coal that is undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the +coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly washed out into the +ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and the period for +which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the walls of the +retort is practically nil; whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the +retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution +to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest run possible in +the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to radiant heat +and to contact with the highly heated surface of the retort itself. +Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct sets of products, +the first due to incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary +reactions due to the products of the decomposition being kept too +long in the zone of heat.</p> + +<p>Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as +examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent +the second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great +loss to the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of +benzene carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only +useless in the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble, +because any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden +changes of temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes, +whilst their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion +of the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these +secondary products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating, +to simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and +such bodies as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability +that, when once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose +them by heat, short of the temperature which breaks them up into +methane, carbon and hydrogen.</p> + +<p>The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal +combining with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen +becoming distributed amongst all three classes of products. The +following table will give an approximate idea of the proportions +which go to each:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen as ammonia</td> <td class="tcr">14.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen as cyanogen</td> <td class="tcr">1.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen free in gas and combined in tar</td> <td class="tcr">35.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen remaining in coke</td> <td class="tcr">48.68</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort +upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the +temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal +increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease +in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found, +in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal +were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the +highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the +following results as to yield and illuminating power:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Temperature.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cubic ft. of<br />Gas per ton.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Illuminating<br />Power,<br />Candles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Candles<br />per ton.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. Dull red</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. Hotter</td> <td class="tcc rb">9,693</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.510</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3.   ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,821</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.140</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4. Bright orange</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12,006</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">37.460</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center"><i>Composition of the Gas.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.<br />Per cent.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.02</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Marsh gas</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olefines</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.51</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.96</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.81</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power +shows that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4. +From this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the +hydrocarbons—the olefines and marsh gas series—gradually break +up, depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating +hydrogen, the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of +temperature.</p> + +<p>The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by +alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation +takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the +volume of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the +tar, whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly +rises, and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a +caking coal Wright obtained the following results:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Yield of Gas<br />per ton,<br />Cub. ft.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Specific Gravity<br />of Tar.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 6,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.086</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 7,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.120</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> 8,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.140</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10,162</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.154</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">11,700</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.206</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity +was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from +28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha +and light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene +oils doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also +begins to show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches +10,000 cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.</p> + +<p>In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main +characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into—(<i>a</i>) +Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (<i>b</i>) liquids, consisting +of the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (<i>c</i>) gases, consisting of the +unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are +approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as +follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">10,000 cub. ft. of gas</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">380</td> <td class="tcc">℔ =</td> <td class="tcr">17.0</td> <td class="tcc">per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">10 gallons of tar</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">115</td> <td class="tcc">” =</td> <td class="tcr">5.1</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gas liquor<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">177</td> <td class="tcc">” =</td> <td class="tcr">7.9</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Coke</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">1568</td> <td class="tcc">” =</td> <td class="tcr">70.0</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr">2240</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it +contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind +as ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a +<span class="sidenote">Solid products.</span> +great extent, existed in the sap that filled the cells of the +plant from which the coal was formed. The retort carbon +formed as a dense deposit on the crown of the retort by the action +of the high temperature on the hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in +a very pure form, and, on account of its density, is largely used +for electrical purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span></p> + +<p>The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar +and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous +<span class="sidenote">Liquid products.</span> +coal is a black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific +gravity from 1.1 to 1.2. The ultimate composition of +tar made in the London Gas Works is approximately +as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon</td> <td class="tcr">77.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr">6.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr">1.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">0.61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr">14.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of +compounds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal Tar</a></span>), and its value as a by-product may be +gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields—(1) +benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most +of the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which +picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the bitter +flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable +disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the +“Albo-carbon” employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch, +extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene +and saccharin can be extracted.</p> + +<p>The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal +is the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing +ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and +partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its +principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic +acid and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are +decomposed on boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly +combined with stronger acids to form compounds which require to +be acted upon by a strong alkali before the ammonia contained in +them can be liberated. The ammonia in the first class of compounds +is technically spoken of as “free”; that present in the latter as +“fixed.” The following analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea +of the relative quantities in which these compounds exist in the +liquor:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">Grammes per litre.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm cl" rowspan="3">Free</td> <td class="tcl">Ammonium sulphide</td> <td class="tcr">3.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium carbonate</td> <td class="tcr">39.16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">14.23</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm cl tb" rowspan="4">Fixed</td> <td class="tcl tb">Ammonium thiocyanate</td> <td class="tcr tb">1.80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium sulphate</td> <td class="tcr">0.19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium thiosulphate</td> <td class="tcr">2.80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium ferrocyanide</td> <td class="tcr">0.41</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">From a scientific point of view, the term “free” is absolutely incorrect, +and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that +in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on +simply boiling the liquor.</p> + +<p>The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, +and which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound, +but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some +<span class="sidenote">Gaseous products.</span> +of which are reduced to the lowest limit, in order to +develop as fully as possible the light-giving properties +of the most important constituents of the gas. The following analysis +gives a fair idea of the composition of an average sample of gas made +from coal, purified but without enrichment:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr">52.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Unsaturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr">3.47</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Saturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr">34.76</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr">0.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr">0.49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These constituents may be divided into—(<i>a</i>) light-yielding hydrocarbons, +(<i>b</i>) combustible diluents and (<i>c</i>) impurities. The hydrocarbons, +upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends, +are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and unsaturated, +according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine in +potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed +“unsaturated,” but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous +members of the “saturated” series of hydrocarbons. They may be +separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has +the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The +chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene, +C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>, butylene, C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">8</span>, acetylene, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>, benzene, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>, and naphthalene, +C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">8</span>, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane, +CH<span class="su">4</span>, and ethane, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>.</p> + +<p>The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to +the hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the +illuminating value depended upon the amount of ethylene present. +This, however, is manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of +ethylene mixed with 96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen +should give 16- to 17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of +ethylene and 90% of hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876 +M.P.E. Berthelot came to the conclusion that the illuminating value of +the Paris coal gas was almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But +here again another mistaken idea arose, owing to a faulty method of +estimating the benzene, and there is no doubt that methane is one +of the most important of the hydrocarbons present, when the gas +is burnt in such a way as to evolve from it the proper illuminating +power, whilst the benzene vapour, small as the quantity is, comes +next in importance and the ethylene last. It is the combined action +of the hydrocarbons which gives the effect, not any one of them +acting alone.</p> + +<p>The series of operations connected with the manufacture and +distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, condensation, +exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing, +dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains +whence the consumer’s supply is drawn.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="tcc pt2"><i>River.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:290px" src="images/img485a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Plan of Works.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local +circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready +means of transport available, and for this reason the works +should be built upon the banks of a navigable river or +<span class="sidenote">Site of gas works.</span> +canal, and should have a convenient railway siding. By +this means coal may be delivered direct to the store or retort-house, +and in the same way residual products may be removed. +The fact that considerable area is required and that the works do +not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, and +although economy of space should be considered, arrangements +should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works +whose daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is +usual to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit +to the size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas +is dealt with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is +reached. From the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4) +it will be possible to gain an idea of the order in which the operations +in gas manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:195px" src="images/img485b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Cross Section of Retorts.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally +made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old single-ended +retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given +way to a more economical construction known as doubles, +<span class="sidenote">Retorts.</span> +double-ended, or “through” retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft. +long, and as it is found inconvenient to produce this length in one +piece, they are manufactured in three sections, the jointing together +of which demands great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at +one end to take an iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally +employed for retorts are known as “D-shaped,” “oval” and +“round” (fig. 5). The “D” form is mostly adopted owing to its +power of retaining its shape after long exposure to heat, and the +large amount of heating surface it presents at its base. The life of +this retort is about thirty working months. A cast iron mouthpiece +and lid is bolted to the +exterior end of each retort, +the mouthpiece carrying a +socket end to receive the +ascension pipe, through +which the gas passes on +leaving the retort. The +retorts are heated externally +and are set in an arch, +the construction depending +upon the number of retorts, +which varies from three to +twelve. The arch and its +retorts is termed a bed or +setting, and a row of beds +constitutes a bench. It is +usual to have a separate furnace for each setting, the retorts resting +upon walls built transversely in the furnace.</p> + +<p>The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the “direct +firing” or by the “regenerative” system, the latter affording +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +marked advantages over the former method, which is now becoming +extinct. In the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon +monoxide and nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent +gas coke in a generator placed below the bench of retorts, +and the heating value of the gases so produced is increased in most +cases by the admixture of a small proportion of steam with the +primary air supply, the steam being decomposed by contact with +the red-hot coke in the generator into water gas, a mixture of carbon +monoxide and hydrogen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fuel</a></span>: <i>Gaseous</i>). The gases so formed +vary in proportion with the temperature of the generator and the +amount of steam, but generally contain 32 to 38% of combustible +gas, the remainder being the residual nitrogen of the air and carbon +dioxide. These gases enter the combustion chamber around the retorts +at a high temperature, and are there supplied with sufficient air to +complete their combustion, this secondary air supply being heated by +the hot products of combustion on their way to the exit flue. This +method of firing results in the saving of about one-third the weight +of coke used in the old form of furnace per ton of coal carbonized, +and enables higher temperatures to be obtained, the heat being also +more equally distributed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:268px" src="images/img486a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—Regenerative Setting.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative +principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the general +arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is charged +at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are placed +fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air necessary for +the partial combustion of the coke to “producer” gas enters between +these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to the combustion +chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary air is +admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been already +heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes place +at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on rising +are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round the +retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are conducted +down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and shaft. +The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the circulation +of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is regulated +by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the “producer” +and “spent” gases this amount can be readily gauged.</p> + +<p>Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical position, +and the advantages of the one over the other is a question upon which +almost every gas engineer has his own views.</p> + +<p>The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has +rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal +retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the +practice to carry out such operations entirely by hand, +<span class="sidenote">Charging and drawing.</span> +men charging the retorts either by means of shovel or +hand-scoop, and the coke produced being withdrawn with +hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works adhere to +this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by either +compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two cases a +scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the +travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over; +the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over +in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that +as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side +of the retort. With “through” retorts charging machines feed the +retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1½ cwt., +entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that the +total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six hours +to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The +machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the +retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging +machines travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power +is transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of +more recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine, +in which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high +speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is +sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft. +retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed +throughout the length of the retort.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either +compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being +made to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With +this method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge +several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a telescopic +ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before it +and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as +one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of +machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original +cost of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the +retorts brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the +fact that the coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is +clear that the suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order +to facilitate the work presented great inducements to the gas manager. +The object aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to +play the part of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the +retorts being inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal +used; this angle is between 28° and 34°. The coal, previously +elevated to hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are +so arranged that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house +and feed the coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be +charged, an iron stop or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece, +and the door closed. The shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece, +and the stop or door, which retains the coal in the chamber, is released; +the coal is then discharged into the retort, and rushing down +the incline, is arrested by the barrier, and banks up, forming a +continuous backing to the coal following. By experience with +the class of coal used and the adjustment of the stops in the shoot, +the charge can be run into the retort to form an even layer of any +desired depth. For the withdrawal of the residual coke at the end +of the carbonization, the lower mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier +removed and the coke in the lower part of the retort is “tickled” +or gently stirred with an iron rod to overcome a slight adhesion to +the retort; the entire mass then readily discharges itself. Guides +are placed in front of the retort to direct its course to the coke +hoppers or conveyer below, and to prevent scattering of the hot +material. This system shows a greater economy in the cost of +carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and the wear and tear of +the mechanical appliances involved have so far prevented its very +general adoption.</p> + +<p>The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with +by Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke, +the low illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage +to the retort itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation, +it was quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th +century, however, the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at +Exeter, Messrs Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr +Bueb in Germany showed such encouraging results that the idea +of the vertical retort again came to the front, and several systems +were proposed and tried. The cause of the failure of Murdoch’s +original vertical retort was undoubtedly that it was completely +filled with coal during charging, with the result that the gas liberated +from the lower portions of the retort had to pass through a deep +bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the gas, destroyed the +illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that the question of +rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly formed, from the +influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort and residual coke, +is one of the most important in gas manufacture.</p> + +<p>In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the +coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit the +introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free +channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly +heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In +the case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced, +but with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly +approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the +gas per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives +the following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the +same coal but by different methods of carbonization:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vertical</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Inclined</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 584 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Horizontal</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 570 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be +decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort +or whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular +and short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature +of the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process +of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact +with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume +and value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 175px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:366px" src="images/img487a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Hydraulic Main.</td></tr></table> + +<p>From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic +main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal +position and supported by columns upon the top of the +retort stack, and through it is maintained a slow but +<span class="sidenote">Hydraulic main.</span> +constant flow of water, the level of which is kept uniform. +The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. into the liquid, and so makes a +seal that allows of any retort being charged singly without the risk +of the gas produced from the other retorts in the bench escaping +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span> +through the open retort. Coal gas, being a mixture of gases and +vapours of liquids having very varying boiling points, must necessarily +undergo physical changes when the temperature is lowered. +Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will be condensed more +quickly than those having lower boiling +points, but condensation of each vapour will +take place in a definite ratio with the decrease +of temperature, the rate being dependent upon +the boiling point of the liquid from which it is +formed. The result is that from the time the +gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to +deposit condensation products owing to the +decrease in temperature. Condensation takes +place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece +leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still +greater extent in the hydraulic main itself +where the gas has to pass through water.</p> + +<p>Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are +frequently cleared by an instrument called an +“auger,” whilst the arch pipe is fitted with +hand holes through which it may be easily +cleared in case of stoppage. The most soluble +of the constituents of crude coal gas is +ammonia, 780 volumes of which are soluble +in one volume of water at normal temperature +and pressure, and the water in the +hydraulic main absorbs a considerable quantity +of this compound from the gas and +helps to form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst, +although the liquor is well agitated by the gas +bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar +from liquor is effected by gravitation. The +liquor is run off at a constant rate from the hydraulic main to the +store tank, and the gas passes from the top of the hydraulic main to +the foul main.</p> + +<p>The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature +of from 130° to 150° F., and should now be reduced as nearly as +possible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. +The operation of efficient condensing is not by any means as +<span class="sidenote">Condensation.</span> +simple as might be supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed +have a dissolving action on various valuable light-giving constituents +of the gas, which in the ordinary way would not be deposited +by the lowering of temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar, +and especially that produced in the hydraulic main, should come in +contact with the gas as little as possible, and condensation should +take place slowly.</p> + +<p>The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and +upon which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene: +this compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on +cooling to a solid which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes, +and the trouble caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in +the district supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of +carbonization the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and +gas managers of to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the +gas a difficult problem to solve. It was for some time debated as +to whether naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value +of the gas, and whether an endeavour should be made to carry it +to the point of combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a +troublesome impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better. +Gas leaves the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity +for holding that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence +of water vapour. The condenser, by effecting the condensation of +water vapour, also brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene, +apart from that which naturally condenses owing to reduction of +temperature.</p> + +<p>Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the +former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and +so placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected +at the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than +air, owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be +more easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is +usual to arrange that the water passes through a large number of +small pipes contained in a larger one through which the gas flows, +and as it constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked +by naphthalene, the so-called reversible condenser, in which the +stream of gas may be altered from time to time and the walls of the +pipes cleaned by pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.</p> + +<p>The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers +to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact +with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the latter +being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to replace +in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves out; +and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene +and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.</p> + +<p>The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the +purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the +condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying +<span class="sidenote">Exhauster.</span> +vessels to the holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts +under a slight vacuum, the amount of gas produced is increased +by about 12%, and is of better quality, owing to its leaving the +heated retort more quickly. A horizontal compound steam-engine +is usually employed to drive the exhauster.</p> + +<p>At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already +undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet +remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia, +sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide. +Ammonia is of considerable marketable value, and even in places +where the local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed, +it is extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and +its complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament. +As nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted, +but most gas companies are now exempt from having to purify the +gas from sulphur compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen. +Cyanogen compounds also are present in the gas, and in large works, +where the total quantity is sufficient, their extraction is effected +for the production of either prussiate or cyanide of soda.</p> + +<p>Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this +point to be about</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc" colspan="4">per cent. by vol.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">from</td> <td class="tcl">42</td> <td class="tcc">to</td> <td class="tcl">53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Methane</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">32</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">39</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 3</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrocarbons—</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   Gases</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 2.5</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 4.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   Light condensable vapours</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.5</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 1.1</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 1.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 1.0</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 5.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 1.0</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 2.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonia</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.5</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cyanogen</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.05</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon disulphide</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.02</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.035</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Naphthalene</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.005</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl"> 0.015</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the extraction +of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted +hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the +gas is now washed with water and ammoniacal liquor. +<span class="sidenote">Washers.</span> +The process is termed washing or scrubbing, and is carried out in +various forms of apparatus, the efficiency of which is dependent +upon the amount of contact the apparatus allows between the finely +divided gas and water in a unit area and the facility with which +it may be cleared out. The “Livesey” washer, a well-known type, +is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas enters in the centre, and +to make its escape again it has to pass into long wrought iron +inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth of an inch in +diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through the washer, +and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations, drives the +liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to agitation +by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into close contact +with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in series +according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.</p> + +<p>The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed +a “scrubber,” which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards ¼ in. +thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; +<span class="sidenote">Scrubbers.</span> +water is caused to flow down over the surface of these +boards, the object being to break up the gas as much as possible +and bring it into close contact with the water. In this wet purifying +apparatus the gas is almost wholly freed from ammonia and from +part of the sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon +disulphide are also partially extracted.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:171px" src="images/img487b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Purifier.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known +as “dry purifiers” (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with +ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of +grids (fig. 9), and covered with the purifying material B +<span class="sidenote">Purifiers.</span> +to a depth of about 6 in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes +being proportional to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas +enters at the bottom by the pipe C, the inlet being protected from +any falling material by the cover D; it forces its way upwards +through all the trays until, reaching the lid or cover E, it descends +by the exit tube F, which leads to the next purifier. The edges of the +lid dip into an external water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is +prevented from escaping.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:253px; height:113px" src="images/img488a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Purifier Grid.</td></tr></table> + +<p>When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as +from sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal +of carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur +compounds, whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to +remove the last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than +four lime purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first +in the series became exhausted, <i>i.e.</i> +began to show signs of allowing +carbon dioxide to pass through it +unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh +slaked lime and made the last of +the series, the one which was +second becoming first, and this +procedure went on continuously. +This operation was necessitated by +the fact that carbon dioxide has the +power of breaking up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime, +so that until all carbon dioxide is absorbed with the formation of +calcium carbonate, the withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot +proceed, whilst since it is calcium sulphide formed by the absorption +of sulphuretted hydrogen by the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour +of carbon disulphide, purification from the latter can only be accomplished +after the necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The +foul gas leaving the scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30 +grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide +and 200 grains of carbon dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the +first purifier, which contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations +of calcium and sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted +hydrogen and disulphide vapour have practically no action upon the +material, but the carbon dioxide immediately attacks the calcium +thiocarbonate, forming calcium carbonate with the production of +carbon disulphide vapour, which is carried over with the gas into the +second box. In the connexion between the first and the second box +the gas is found to contain 500 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen +and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., but no trace of +carbon dioxide. In the second box the formation of calcium thiocarbonate +takes place by the action of carbon disulphide upon the +calcium sulphide with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen, +which is carried over to the third purifier. The gas in the connecting +pipe between the second and third purifier will be found to contain +400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20 grains of carbon disulphide. +The contents of the third box, being mostly composed of +slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming calcium sulphide, +and practically remove the remaining impurities, the outlet gas showing +20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of carbon disulphide +per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of iron then +removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be noticed +that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities is +actually increased between the purifiers—in fact, the greater amount +of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon disulphide,—but +it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the disturbing element, +inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of sulphur and calcium; +consequently it is a paramount object in this system to prevent this +latter impurity finding its way through the first box of the series. +The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide in the gas between the +first two boxes is generally the signal for a new clean purifier being +put into action, and the first one shut off, emptied and recharged with +fresh lime, the impregnated material being sometimes sold for +dressing certain soils.</p> + +<p>The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the +lime purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted +hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide +for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of +free sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing +the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere +the sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen +of the air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur, +and with moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron. +This revivification can be carried on a number of times until the +material when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even +occasionally 60% and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of +sulphuric acid to be used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sulphuric Acid</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort +carbon, which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases +preparing from their spent purifying material pure chemical products +which are in great demand. The most important of these is +sulphate of ammonia, which is used for agricultural purposes as a +manure, and is obtained by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid +and crystallizing out the ammonium sulphate produced. To do this, +saturated ammoniacal liquor is decomposed by lime in the presence +of steam, and the freed ammonia is passed into strong sulphuric acid, +the saturated solution of ammonium sulphate being carefully +crystallized. The market value of the salt varies, but an average +figure is £12 per ton, whilst the average yield is about 24 ℔ of salt +per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the sulphuric acid is +usually manufactured on the spot from the spent oxide, so that the +sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is considered an undesirable +impurity, plays a valuable part in the manufacture of an important +by-product.</p> + +<p>Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas, +from the spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas +works now produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest +developments in the gas chemical industry.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:486px" src="images/img488b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.—Gasholder.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:377px" src="images/img488c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.—Cup and Grip.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as +a gasometer), which may be either single lift, <i>i.e.</i> a simple bell inverted +in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the +telescopic principle, in which case much ground space is +<span class="sidenote">Gasholder.</span> +saved, as a holder of much greater capacity can be contained in the +same-sized tank. The tank for the gasholder is usually made by +excavating a circular reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than +the proposed holder. A banking is allowed to remain in the centre, +as shown in fig. 10, which is known as the “dumpling,” this arrangement +not only saving work and water, but acting as a support for +the king post of a trussed holder when the holder is empty. The +tank must be water-tight, and the precaution necessary to be taken +in order to ensure this is dependent upon the nature of the soil; +it is usual, however, for the tanks to be lined with concrete. Where +the conditions of soil are very bad, steel tanks are built above ground, +but the cost of these is much greater. The holder is made of sheet +iron riveted together, the thickness depending upon the size of the +holder. The telescopic form consists of two or more lifts which slide +in one another, and may be described as a single lift holder encircled +by other cylinders of slightly larger diameter, +but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows +the general construction. Gas on entering +at A causes the top lift to rise; the bottom of +this lift being turned up all round to form a +cup, whilst the top of the next lift is turned +down to form a so-called grip, the two interlock +(see fig. 11), forming what is known as the +hydraulic cup. Under these conditions the +cup will necessarily be filled with water, and +a seal will be formed, preventing the escape +of gas. A guide framing is built round the +holder, and guide rollers are fixed at various +intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at +the bottom of the cup guide rollers are also +fixed (fig. 11). In the year 1892 the largest +existing gasholder was built at the East +Greenwich works of the South Metropolitan +Gas Company; it has six lifts, its diameter is +293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft. +high. The capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.</p> + +<p>The governor consists usually of a bell floating +in a cast iron tank partially filled with +water, and is in fact a small gasholder, +<span class="sidenote">Governor.</span> +from the centre of which is +suspended a conical valve controlling the gas +inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any +deviation in pressure will cause the floating +bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the inlet will be +decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.</p> + +<p>The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16 +candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate, +while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an +enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +<span class="sidenote">Enrichment.</span> +the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to +the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for +producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the +ordinary gas, thereby enriching it, but as the supply +became limited and the price prohibitive, other methods +were from time to time advocated to replace its use in the enrichment +of illuminating gas. These may be classified as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained +by decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.</p> + +<p>2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing +crude oils by heat.</p> + +<p>3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with +the vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.</p> + +<p>4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly +carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons +through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon +gases.</p> + +<p>Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for +the production and enrichment of gas, and to do this +<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by tar.</span> +two methods may be adopted:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards +using the whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the +gas and vapours through superheaters.</p> + +<p>If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself +is that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends +rapidly to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful +attempt to make use of certain portions of the liquid products of +distillation of coal before condensation by the second method was +the Dinsmore process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, +if allowed to cool, would form tar, were made to pass through a +heated chamber, and a certain proportion of otherwise condensible +hydrocarbons was thus converted into permanent gases. Even with +a poor class of coal it was claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle +gas could be made by this process, whereas by the ordinary process +9000 cub. ft. of 15-candle gas would have been produced. This +process, although strongly advocated by the gas engineer who +experimented with it, was never a commercial success. The final +solution of the question of enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived +from tar may be arrived at by a process which prevents the +formation of part of the tar during the carbonization of the coal, +or by the process devised by C.B. Tully and now in use at Truro, in +which tar is injected into the incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator +and enriches the water gas with methane and other hydrocarbons, +the resulting pitch and carbon being filtered off by the +column of coke through which the gas passes.</p> + +<p>The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying +oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; +but experience soon showed that this was not an economical +method of working, and that it was far better to +<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by oil gas.</span> +decompose the liquid hydrocarbon in the presence of the +diluents which are to mingle with it and act as its carrier, +since, if this were done, a higher temperature could be employed +and more of the heavier portions of the oil converted into gas, without +at the same time breaking down the gaseous hydrocarbons +too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with hydrocarbons from +mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal is undergoing +distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier stages, but towards +the end of the operation the gas is very poor in illuminants, the +methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and the increase +in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a coal +requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the gas +at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the +following results:—</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Time after beginning Distillation.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">10<br />minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1 hour<br />30 minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3 hours<br />25 minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 hours<br />35 minutes.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.30</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.42</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">52.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">67.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr rb">57.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unsaturated   ”</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.20</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.47</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.55</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.78</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take +place in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal. +In carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort, +many of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours, +it would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas +is being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension +a much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being +supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any +further quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would +have to be completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the +temperature necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality +of the gas given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation +has gone on for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled +off and the temperature of the retort has reached its highest point, +and this is the best time to feed in the oil.</p> + +<p>Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the +production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the +“Young” or “Peebles” process, which depends on the principle +of washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means +of oil which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this +way it is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent +gases are allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this +treatment considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed +gases are also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again +driven out by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained +by the Young process, when tested by itself in the burners +most suited for its combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating +value averaging from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed, +and quite correctly, that the enriching power of the gas is considerably +greater. This is accounted for by the fact that it is impossible +to construct a burner which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating +power.</p> + +<p>The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal +gas are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as +much plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that +although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal +gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the +large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of +such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect +mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in +the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide variations +in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.</p> + +<p>The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known, +a large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being +due to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried +in suspension. For many years the price of benzol has +<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons.</span> +been falling, owing to the large quantities produced in +the coke ovens, and at its present price it is by far the +cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. Hence +at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so +it is used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized +and its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite +illuminating power.</p> + +<p>One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now +is by means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas. +When steam acts upon carbon at a high temperature the +resultant action may be looked upon as giving a mixture +<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by carburetted water gas.</span> +of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both +of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases. This +water gas is then carburetted, <i>i.e.</i> rendered luminous by +passing it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat, +the mixture being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22 +to 25 candles. This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its +illuminating value to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is +heated to incandescence by an air blast in a generator lined with +fire-brick, and the heated products of combustion as they leave the +generator and enter the superheaters are supplied with more air, +which causes the combustion of carbon monoxide present in the +producer gas and heats up the fire-brick baffles with which the superheater +is filled. When the necessary temperature of the fuel and +superheater has been reached, the air blast is cut off, and steam is +blown through the generator, forming water gas, which meets the +enriching oil at the top of the first superheater, called the carburettor, +and carries the vapours with it through the main superheaters, +where the fixing of the hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage +of this apparatus is that a low temperature can be used for +fixing owing to the enormous surface for superheating, +and thus to a great extent the deposition +of carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has +been very generally adopted in Great Britain as +well as in America, and practically all carburetted +water-gas plants are founded upon the same set +of actions. Important factors in the use of carburetted +water gas for enrichment are that it can +be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum +of labour; and not only is the requisite +increase in illuminating power secured, but the +volume of the enriched gas is increased by the +bulk of carburetted water gas added, which in +ordinary English practice amounts to from 25 to +50%. The public at first strongly opposed its introduction on +the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon monoxide, +which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%. Still +when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal gas, +containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the percentage +of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%, +which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.</p> + +<p>A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the +gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas +obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or non-luminous +water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works, +non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span> +the retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas +and coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol +vapour, a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is +distinctly more economical than the use of carburetted water gas. +In 1896 Karl Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of +making water gas which entirely altered the whole aspect of the +industry. In all the attempts to make water +gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the +fuel had been obtained by “blowing” so +deep a bed of fuel that carbon monoxide and +the residual nitrogen of the air formed the +chief products, this mixture being known as +“producer” gas. In the Dellwik process, +however, the main point is the adjustment of +the air supplied to the fuel in the generator +in such a way that carbon dioxide is formed +instead of carbon monoxide. Under these +conditions producer gas ceases to exist as a +by-product, and the gases of the blow consist +merely of the incombustible products of complete +combustion, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, +the result being that more than three times +the heat is developed for the combustion of +the same amount of fuel, and nearly double +the quantity of water gas can be made per +pound of fuel than was before possible. The +runs or times of steaming can also be continued +for longer periods. The possibility of +making from 60,000 to 70,000 cub. ft. of water +gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik +generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft. +per ton made by previous processes reduces +the price of water gas to about 3½d. per +thousand, so that the economic value of using +it in admixture with coal gas and then enriching the mixture by +any cheap carburetting process is manifest. The universal adoption +of the incandescent mantle for lighting purposes has made it evident +that the illuminating value of the gas is a secondary consideration, +and the whole tendency now is to do away with enrichment and +produce a gas of low-candle power but good heating power at a +cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent lighting. (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>: <i>Gas.</i>)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(V. B. L.)</div> + +<p>2. <i>Gas for Fuel and Power</i>—The first gas-producers, which +were built by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and +by C.G.C. Bischof at Mägdesprung (both in Germany), consisted +of simple perpendicular shafts of masonry contracted +at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate for the +coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought +iron casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes +the purpose of a gas-producer is attained in a very +simple manner by lowering the grate of an ordinary fireplace +so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is maintained in the +fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great body of +coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace, +and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed +immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper +part of the furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide +which later on, on the spot where the greatest heat is required, +is burned into dioxide by admitting fresh air, preferably +pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive arrangement has the +further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized immediately +after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But it +is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to +those cases where all the space round the furnace is required +for manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar +purposes. In these cases the producers are arranged outside the +iron-works, glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the +manipulations of feeding them with coal, of stoking, and of removing +the ashes are performed without interfering with the +work inside. But care must always be taken to place the +producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward tendency, +in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is to be +burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various +means. The gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens +Brothers, from 1856 onwards, were provided with a kind of brick +chimney; on the top of this there was a horizontal iron tube, +continued into an iron down-draught, and only from this the +underground flues were started which sent the gas into the single +furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down +by the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the +gas out of the producer, but it has various drawbacks and +has been abandoned in all modern constructions. Where the +“natural draught” is not sufficient, it is aided either by blowing +air under the grate or else by suction at the other end.</p> + +<p>We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers +producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied +in practice.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:691px; height:411px" src="images/img490a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 12<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a>—Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:304px; height:274px" src="images/img490b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 13.—Lürmann’s Producer.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:298px" src="images/img490c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 14 and 15.—Liegel’s Producer.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds +have been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in +fig. 12. A is the charging-hole; +B, the inclined front +wall, consisting of a cast +iron plate with fire-brick +lining; C, the equally inclined +“step-grate”; D, a +damper by which the producer +may be isolated in +case of repairs; E, a water-pipe, +by which the cinders +at the bottom may be +quenched before taking +away; the steam here +formed rises into the producer +where it forms some +“semi-water gas” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fuel</a></span>: <i>Gaseous</i>). Openings +like that shown at G serve +for introducing a poker in +order to clean the brickwork +from adhering slags. +H is the gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft. +high; JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned +above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means +of the gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much +of the tar and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance +where bituminous coal is employed for firing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:308px; height:599px" src="images/img491a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Taylor’s Producer.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:735px; height:534px" src="images/img491b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Dowson Gas Plant.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:452px" src="images/img491c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Mond Gas Plant.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:629px; height:687px" src="images/img491d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Mond Gas Plant.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not +adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and +forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking +of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be +non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so +much of these materials should be mixed with ordinary +coal that no semi-solid cakes of the kind just described +are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work with coal +softening in the fire, Lürmann’s producer may be +employed, which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer +of the ordinary kind, which during regular +work is filled with the coke formed in the horizontal +retort E. The door <i>b</i> serves for removing the slags +and ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not +fall through the grate. The hot producer-gas formed +in V is passed round the retort E in the flues n<span class="su">2</span> n<span class="su">2</span>, +and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace +where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary +bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation +by the heat communicated through the flues n<span class="su">2</span> n<span class="su">2</span> and is thus +converted into coke. The gases formed during this process pass +into the upper portion of V and get mixed with the producer-gas +formed in the lower portion. From time to time, as the level +of the coke in V goes down, some of the freshly formed coke in E is +pushed into V, whereby the level of the coke in V should assume +the shape shown by the dotted line <i>l ... m</i>. If the level became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +too low, such as is shown by the dotted line <i>x ... y</i>, the working +of the producer would be wrong, as in this case the layer of coke +at the front side would be too low, and carbon dioxide would be +formed in lieu of monoxide.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:712px; height:1048px" src="images/img492.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Blass’ Gas Plant.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel’s producer, the special object of +which is to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty +slag on combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding +the up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they +be removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes. +To obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat +than is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer +being pre-heated in the channels <i>e, e</i>. The inside shape of the producer +is such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped, +as it widens out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion, +where the ashes are already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through +which the air ascends. The grate <i>b</i> retains any small pieces of fuel, +but allows the liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues <i>c, c</i> +prevent the brickwork from being melted.</p> + +<p>One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed +air from below is Taylor’s, shown in fig. 16. A is the +feeding-hopper, on the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces. +L is the producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes +B<span class="su">1</span> to B<span class="su">4</span>, passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted +part, leading to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the +doors D. An injector I, worked by means of the steam-pipe J, +forces air through K into F. The circular grate G can be turned +round K by means of the crank E from the outside. This is done, +without interfering with the blast, in order to keep the fuel at the +proper level in L, according to the indications of the burning zone, +as shown through the peep-holes B<span class="su">1</span> to B<span class="su">4</span>. The ashes collecting at +the bottom are from time to time removed +by the doors D. As the steam, introduced +by J, is decomposed in the producer, we +here obtain a “semi-water gas,” with about +27% CO and 12% H<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer, +together with the arrangements for purifying +the gas for the purpose of working a gas +engine. <i>a</i> is a vertical steam boiler, heated +by a central shaft filled with coke, with +superheating tubes <i>b</i> passing through the +central shaft. <i>c</i> is the steam-pipe, carrying +the dry steam into the air-injector <i>d</i>. This +mixture of steam and air enters into the +gas-producer <i>e</i> below the fire-grate <i>f</i>. <i>g</i> is +the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which +is usually employed in this kind of producer. +<i>h</i>, <i>h</i> are cooling-pipes for the gas +where most of the undecomposed steam +(say 10% of the whole employed in <i>d</i>) is +condensed. <i>i</i> is a hydraulic box with water +seal; <i>j</i>, a coke-scrubber; <i>k</i>, a filter; <i>l</i>, a sawdust-scrubber; +<i>m</i>, inlet of gas-holder; <i>n</i>, gas-holder; +<i>o</i>, outlet of same; <i>p</i>, a valve with +weighted lever to regulate the admission of +steam to the gas-producer; <i>q</i>, the weight +which actuates the lever automatically by +the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder. +In practical work about ¾ ℔ of steam is +decomposed for each pound of anthracite +consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon +dioxide is found in the resulting gas. The +latter has an average calorific power of +1732 calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U. +per cubic foot, at 0° and 760 mm.</p> + +<p>The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and +19. The gases produced in the generators +G are passed through pipes <i>r</i> into washers +W, in which water is kept in violent motion +by means of paddle-wheels. The spray of +water removes the dust and part of the tar +and ammonia from the gases, much steam +being produced at the same time. This +water is withdrawn from time to time and +worked for the ammonia it contains. The +gases, escaping from W at a temperature of +about 100° C., and containing much steam, +pass though <i>g</i> and <i>a</i> into a tower, fed with +an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the +tank <i>s</i>, which is spread into many drops +by the brick filling of the tower. This +liquid is a strong solution of ammonium +sulphate, containing about 2.5% free sulphuric +acid which absorbs nearly all the +ammonia from the gases, without dissolving +much of the tarry substances. Most of the +liquor arriving at the bottom, after mechanically +separating the tar, is pumped back +into <i>s</i>, but a portion is always withdrawn +and worked for ammonium sulphate. When +escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains +about 0.013% NH<span class="su">3</span>, and has a temperature +of about 80° C. and is saturated +with aqueous vapour. It is passed through +<i>c</i> into a second tower B, filled with blocks +of wood, where it meets with a stream of +comparatively cold water. At the bottom +of this the water runs away, its temperature +being 78° C.; at the top the gas passes away through <i>d</i> into the distributing +main. The hot water from B, freed from tar, is pumped +into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by means of a +Root’s blower by the pipe <i>w</i>. This air, after being heated to 76° C., +and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through <i>l</i> into the +generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to be +used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally +employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only one-third +to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. The +gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 × 12 ft., several of +them being erected in series. The introduction of the air and the +removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom +is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The +air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +Mond gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10% +monoxide, 23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen. +The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75 ℔ from a ton of coal (slack +with 11.5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:416px" src="images/img493.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Dellwik-Fleischer +Producer.</td></tr></table> + +<p>One of the best plants for the generation of <i>water-gas</i> is that +constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the +valve V at D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes +away at the bottom through A. The pressure of the gas should +not be such that it could get into the pipe conveying the air-blast, +by which an explosive mixture would be formed. This is +prevented by the water-cooled damper S, which always closes the +air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and vice versa. Below the entry +W of the air-blast there is a throttle valve d which is closed as soon +as the damper S opens the gas canal; thus a second security against +the production of a mixture of air and gas is afforded. The water-cooled +ring channel K protects the bottom outlet of the generator +and causes the cinders to solidify, so that they can be easily removed. +But sometimes no such cooling is effected, in which case the cinders +run away in the liquid form. Below K the fuel is lying in a conical +heap, leaving the ring channel A free. During the period of hot-blowing +(heating-up) S is turned so that the air-blast communicates +with the generator; <i>d</i> and G are open; <i>g</i> (the damper connected +with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the period of gas-making +G and <i>d</i> are closed, S now closes the air-blast and connects +the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas passes +from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet <i>w</i> being under a +pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the +valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order +by means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards <i>t</i> +and shaft <i>v</i>. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for +starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to +open and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible +on the part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged +that, when the cone e<span class="su">2</span> opens, e<span class="su">1</span> is shut, and vice versa, thus no more +gas can escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that +which is contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up +gas (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it +is at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some +place where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for +10 or 11 minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7 +to 1.5% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64 +to 66% nitrogen, and has a heating value of 950 calories per +cub. metre. The water-gas itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an +average composition of 3.3% carbon +dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide, +0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen, +3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value +of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1 +kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre +water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas. +100 parts coke (of 7000 calories) +furnish 42% of their heat value as +water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas.</p> + +<p>Lastly we give a section of the +Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig. +21). The feeding-hoppers A are +alternately charged every half-hour, +so that the layer of fuel in the +generator always remains 4 ft. deep. +B is the chimney-damper, C the +grate, D the door for removing the +slags, E the ash-door, F the inlet of +the air-blast, G the upper, G<span class="su">1</span> the +lower outlet for the water-gas which +is removed alternately at top and +bottom by means of an outside +valve, steam being always admitted +at the opposite end. The blowing-up +generally lasts 1¾ minutes, the +gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The +air-blast works under a pressure of +8 or 9 in. below the grate, or 4 +to 4½ in. above the coke. The +blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5% +oxygen, with mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas +shows 4 to 5% carbon dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8% +methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or 5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub. +metres is obtained per kilogram of best coke.</p> + +<p>See Mills and Rowan, <i>Fuel and its Application</i> (London, 1889); +Samuel S. Wyer, <i>Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers</i>, published by the +<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> (New York); F. Fischer, <i>Chemische +Technologie der Brennstoffe</i> (1897-1901); <i>Gasförmige Heizstoffe</i>, in +Stohmann and Kerl’s <i>Handbuch der technischen Chemie</i>, 4th edition, +iii. 642 et seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from +Lunge’s <i>Coal-tar and Ammonia</i>, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u. +Sohn.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASCOIGNE, GEORGE<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1535-1577), English poet, eldest +son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born +probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity +College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to +have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray’s +Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of +evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in +1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt +that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned +for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne +disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own +account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts +contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558 +and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election +at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being “a defamed +person and noted for manslaughter,” “a common Rymer and +a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles,” “a notorious ruffianne,” +an atheist and constantly in debt. His poems, with the exception +of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572, +but they were probably circulated in MS. before that date. He +tells us that his friends at Gray’s Inn importuned him to write +on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were +acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow +of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, +Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of +William Breton’s property with a view to the protection of the +children’s rights was instituted before the lord mayor, but the +matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne +continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had from +his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the +Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to +Brill, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the +Dutch. He obtained a captain’s commission, and took an active +part in the campaigns of the next two years, during which he +acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration +for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his +behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against +the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the +Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg +by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn +of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his +adventures, “The Fruites of Warres” (printed in the edition +of 1575) and “Gascoigne’s Voyage into Hollande.” In 1575 +he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next +year as <i>The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kenelworth</i>, which +celebrated the queen’s visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock +in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and +presented her with the <i>Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the Heremite</i><a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +in four languages. Most of his works were actually published +during the last years of his life, after his return from the wars. +He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of +George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone +wrote a long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled “A +Remembrance of the wel-imployed life and godly end of George +Gaskoigne, Esquire.”</p> + +<p>His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short +critical treatise, “Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the +making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of +Master Edouardo Donati,”<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> prefixed to his <i>Posies</i> (1575). He +acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the +earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the +added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems were +published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, surreptitiously, +according to his own account, but it seems probable that the +“editor” who supplied the running comment was none other +than Gascoigne himself. <i>A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up +in one small Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne +outlandish Gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and +others; and partely by Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes +in Englande, Yelding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and +moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +<i>noses of learned Readers</i>, was followed in 1575 by an authorized +edition, <i>The Posies of G.G. Esquire</i> ... (not dated).</p> + +<p>Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a +pioneer in more than one direction. In 1576 he published <i>The +Steele Glas</i>, sometimes called the earliest regular English satire. +Although this poem is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is +written in the spirit of <i>Piers Plowman</i>. Gascoigne begins with +a comparison between the sister arts of Satire and Poetry, and +under a comparison between the old-fashioned “glas of trustie +steele,” and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he takes as a +symbol of the “Italianate” corruption of the time, he attacks +the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee +landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the +restoration of the feudal ideal.<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at +Gray’s Inn, both <i>Jocasta</i> (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed +by Francis Kinwelmersh) and <i>Supposes</i> being played there in +1566. <i>Jocasta</i> was said by J.P. Collier (<i>Hist. of Dram. Poetry</i> +iii. 8) to be the “first known attempt to introduce a Greek +play upon the English stage,” but it turns out that Gascoigne +was only very indirectly acquainted with Euripides. His play is +a literal version of Lodovico Dolce’s <i>Giocasta</i>, which was derived +probably from the <i>Phoenissae</i> in the Latin translation of R. +Winter. <i>Supposes</i>,<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> a version of Ariosto’s <i>I Suppositi</i>, is notable +as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian comedy, and +moreover, as “the earliest play in English prose acted in public +or private.” Udal’s <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i> had been inspired +directly by Latin comedy; <i>Gammer Gurton’s Needle</i> was a purely +native product; but <i>Supposes</i> is the first example of the acclimatization +of the Italian models that were to exercise so +prolonged an influence on the English stage. A third play of +Gascoigne’s, <i>The Glasse of Government</i> (published in 1575), is +a school drama of the “Prodigal Son” type, familiar on the +continent at the time, but rare in England. It is defined by Mr +C.H. Herford as an attempt “to connect <i>Terentian situation</i> +with a <i>Christian moral</i> in a picture of <i>school life</i>,” and it may +be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama +of university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at +Antwerp, and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva +and Heidelberg respectively.</p> + +<p><i>The Spoyle of Antwerpe</i>, written by an eyewitness of the sack +of the city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne, +but although a George Gascoigne was employed in that year +to carry letters for Walsingham, internal evidence is against +Gascoigne’s authorship. A curious editorial preface by Gascoigne +to Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s <i>Discourse of a Discoverie for a new +Passage to Cataia</i> (1576) has led to the assertion that Gascoigne +printed the tract against its author’s wish, but it is likely that +he was really serving Gilbert, who desired the publication, but +dared not avow it. The <i>Wyll of the Devill</i> ... (reprinted for +private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an anti-popish +tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne, is +almost certainly by another hand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gascoigne’s works not already mentioned include: “G. G. in +commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie,” prefixed to <i>The Noble +Art of Venerie or Hunting</i> (1575); <i>The Complaynte of Phylomene, +bound up with The Steele Glas</i> (1576); <i>The Droomme of Doomes-day</i> +(1576), a prose compilation from various authors, especially from +the <i>De contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis</i> of +Pope Innocent III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); +<i>A Delicate Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ...</i> (1576), a free +version of St Augustine’s <i>De ebrietate. The Posies</i> (1572) included +<i>Supposes, Jocasta, A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F</i>[<i>erdinando</i>] +<i>J</i>[<i>eronimi</i>], in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly autobiographical +<i>Don Bartholomew of Bath</i>, and miscellaneous poems. +Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed +to be concealed under fictitious names in <i>The Adventures of +Master F. J.</i>, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the +names are disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive +collection, <i>The Whole Workes of G. G.</i> ... appeared in 1587. In +1868-1870 <i>The Complete Poems of G. G.</i> ... were edited for the +Roxburghe Library by Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his <i>English Reprints</i> +Prof. E. Arber included <i>Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele +Glas</i> and the <i>Complaynt of Philomene</i>. <i>The Steele Glas</i> was also +edited for the <i>Library of English Literature</i>, by Henry Morley, vol. i. +p. 184 (1889). A new edition, <i>The Works of George Gascoigne</i> (The +Cambridge English Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe. +See also <i>The Life and Writings of George Gascoigne</i>, by Prof. Felix +E. Schelling (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in +Philology, vol. ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, <i>Studies in the Literary +Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century</i>, pp. 149-164 +(1886); C.H. Herford, “Gascoigne’s Glasse of Government,” +in <i>Englische Studien</i>, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called <i>The Paradoxe</i>, the +author of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne’s +name.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood’s <i>Ancient Critical Essays</i> +(1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith’s <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i> +(1904).</p> + + +<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a></p> +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele</p> + <p class="i05">But foure estates, to serve each country soyle,</p> + <p class="i05">The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest.</p> + <p class="i05">The King should care for al the subjects still,</p> + <p class="i05">The Knight should fight, for to defend the same,</p> + <p class="i05">The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease,</p> + <p class="i05">And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves.”—</p> + <p class="i14">(Arber’s ed. p. 57.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The influence of this play on the Shakespearian <i>Taming of the +Shrew</i> is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in <i>Shakespeare’s Part in +the Taming of the Shrew</i> (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v. +No. 4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1350-1419), chief justice of +England in the reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition +testify to the fact that he was one of the great lawyers who in +times of doubt and danger have asserted the principle that the +head of the state is subject to law, and that the traditional +practice of public officers, or the expressed voice of the nation in +parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part of the +legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a +descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his +birth is uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he +practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard +II. On the banishment of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was +appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry’s accession +to the throne was made chief justice of the court of king’s bench. +After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1405, Henry +eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon +Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas +Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he +absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be +tried by their peers. Although both were afterwards executed, +the chief justice had no part in the transaction. It has been very +much doubted, however, whether Gascoigne could have displayed +such independence of action without prompt punishment or +removal from office following. The oft-told tale of his committing +the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as unauthentic, +though it is both picturesque and characteristic. +The judge had directed the punishment of one of the prince’s +riotous companions, and the prince, who was present and enraged +at the sentence, struck or grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne +immediately committed him to prison, using firm and forcible +language, which brought him to a more reasonable mood, and +secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence. The king is said +to have approved of the act, but there appears to be good ground +for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post or +resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, +and was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. +Some biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412, +but this is clearly disproved by Foss in his <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; +and although it is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long +under Henry V., it is not absolutely impossible that the scene in the +fifth act of the second part of Shakespeare’s <i>Henry IV.</i> has some +historical basis, and that the judge’s resignation was voluntary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASCONY<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (<i>Wasconia</i>), an old province in the S.W. of France. +It takes its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in +580 and 587 crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the district known +to the Romans as Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, +the national language of the Vascones, took root only in a few of +the high valleys of the Pyrenees, such as Soule and Labourd; in +the plains Latin dialects prevailed, Gascon being a Romance +language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia was substituted +for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily +recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602 +they consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but +in reality they remained independent. They even appointed +national dukes, against whom Charlemagne had to fight at +the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke Lupus II. made his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to establish +Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known: +Séguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus). +They were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed +to the Normans. After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of +Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. The lists of the +10th-century dukes prepared by ancient and modern historians +can only be established by means of hypotheses based in many +cases on spurious documents (<i>e.g.</i> the charter of Alaon), and little +confidence can be placed in them. During this troubled period +Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other of the other +Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope of the +Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as +forming part of France, from which it has never been separated. +Disputed in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were +also dukes of Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the +duchy finally passed to the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the +title of duke of Gascony was merged in that of duke of Aquitaine +and disappeared. In the feudal period Gascony comprised +a great number of countships (including Armagnac, Bigorre, +Fézensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships (including Béarn, +Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd and +Maremne), and seigneuries (<i>e.g.</i> Albret, &c.). From the ecclesiastical +point of view, it corresponded nearly to the archbishopric +of Auch.</p> + +<p>From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of +Aquitaine and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave +the first charter of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the +duchy was weakened by the increasing independence of its great +feudatories, especially the viscounts of Béarn and the counts of +Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her father’s death, Eleanor, +the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., married the king of +France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine Gascony +passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage was +annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou, +who three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus +was the house of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh +bone of contention was thrown between the kings of England and +of France. Having established himself in the duchy by force of +arms, Henry handed it over to his son Richard, against whom +many of the great Gascon lords revolted, and from Richard it +passed to his brother John. The crusade against the Albigenses +was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a new impetus +to the process of disintegration which was already at work in the +duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the +neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive; +and the house of Béarn was growing in strength. Gascony +served Henry III. as headquarters during his two short and +disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) with Louis IX., and in 1259 he +did homage for it to this king; his son, Edward I., lost and then +regained the duchy.</p> + +<p>During the Hundred Years’ War Gascony was obviously a +battle-field for the forces of England and of France. The French +seized the duchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful +houses of Foix and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it, +and by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John II. recognized the +absolute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a +principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used +by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in +which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles. +The renewal of the war between England and France, which took +place in 1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of +Gascony, and during its course the position of the English was +seriously weakened, the whole of the duchy save a few towns and +fortresses being lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern +France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner. +This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result +of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing the capture +of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from the +duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered +severely from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or +misruled without restraint.</p> + +<p>The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the +royal authority in the duchy, although this was not really +accomplished until the close of the 15th century when the house of +Armagnac was overthrown. It was by means of administrative +measures that these kings attained their object. Gascony was +governed on the same lines as other parts of France and from the +time of Henry IV., who was prince of Béarn, and who united his +hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very slightly +from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired +the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation +was largely accepted in Béarn, but not in other parts of Gascony. +The wars of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of +some of the military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made +some slight changes in its government. As may be surmised the +boundaries of Gascony varied from time to time, but just before +the outbreak of the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean, +Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from east to west the +duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.</p> + +<p>At the end of the <i>ancien régime</i> Gascony was united with +Guienne to form a great military government. After the division +of France into departments, Gascony, together with Béarn, +French Navarre and the Basque country, formed the departments +of Basses-Pyrénées, Landes, Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers. +Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements and cantons of +the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariège and +Tarn-et-Garonne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Arnaud Oïhénart, <i>Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae +quam Aquitanicae</i> (1637); L’Abbé Monlezun, <i>Histoire de la Gascogne</i> +(1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited +documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, <i>La Vasconie, étude historique et +critique sur les origines ... du duché de Gascogne ... et des grands +fiefs du duché de Gascogne</i> (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious +work, but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last +work was rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his <i>Études sur le règne +de Hugues Capet</i> (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also +Barrau-Dihigo, “La Gascogne,” a bibliography of manuscript sources +and of printed works published in the <i>Revue de synthèse historique</i> +(1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GAS ENGINE.<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working +fluid is atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It +differs from a hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given +to the working fluid by combustion within the motive power +cylinder. In most gas engines—in fact, in all those at present on +the market—the working fluid and the fuel that supplies it with +heat are mixed with each other before the combustion of the +fuel. The fuel—which in the steam and in most hot-air engines +is burned in a separate furnace—is, in the gas engine, introduced +directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is, indeed, +part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an internal +combustion engine using gaseous fuel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when +Dr N.A. Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive +use, but long before that year inventors had been at work, attempting +to utilize gas for producing motive power. The first proposal made +in Great Britain is found in Street’s Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where +an explosion engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by +vaporizing spirits of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing +the vapour with air in a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a +piston by the explosion produced. Most of the early engines were +suggested by the fact that a mixture of an inflammable gas and +atmospheric air gives an explosion when ignited—that is, produces +pressure which can be applied in a cylinder to propel a piston. +Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine in which the gas and air +were raised to a pressure above that of the atmosphere before use +in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be clear in his ideas.</p> + +<p>Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a +paper read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled, +“On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power +in Machinery, with a description of an Engine which is moved by +the pressure of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions +of Hydrogen Gas and Atmospheric Air.” In that paper +the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine of his invention constructed +to operate on the explosion vacuum method. This engine was stated +to run with perfect regularity at 60 revolutions per minute, consuming +17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per hour. The hydrogen explosion, +however, does not seem to have been noiseless, because Mr Cecil +states that in building a larger engine “... to remedy the noise +which is occasioned by the explosion, the lower end of the cylinder +A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may be enclosed in a large +air-tight vessel.” Mr Cecil also mentions previous experiments at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at his lectures on +mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a mixture of gas +and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place from atmospheric +pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have operated an +engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil appear +to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.</p> + +<p>Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill +a closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he +condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine +by exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was +evidently suggested by Watt’s condensing steam engine, flame being +employed instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown’s engine is +said to have been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat +on the Thames, and propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833 +described an explosion engine working at atmospheric pressure +and exploding on both sides of the piston. The cylinder is shown +as water-jacketed. In William Barnett’s engine of 1838 two great +advances were made. The engine was so constructed that the mixture +of gas and air was compressed to a considerable extent in the +motor cylinder before ignition. The method of igniting the compressed +charge was also effective. The problem of transferring a +flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure is much in excess +of that of the external air was solved by means of a hollow plug cock +having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one position the +hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet issuing within +it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned within the hollow. +The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it closed to the external +air and opened to the engine cylinder; the flame continued to burn +with the air contained in the cock, until the compressed inflammable +mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder and ignited at the +flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the one adopted by Otto +about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the credit of being the +first to realize clearly the great idea of compression before explosion in +gas engines, and to show one way of carrying out the idea in practice. +Barnett appears to have constructed an engine, but he attained no +commercial success. Several attempts to produce gas engines were +made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all failures. Several +valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an American, described +a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture by raising +a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 Barsanti +and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the explosion +propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work was +done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial +vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never +came into commercial use, although the fundamental idea was +good.</p> + +<p>Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental +stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was +attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor +of the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The +piston, moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy +stored in the fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and +air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke +the valves closed, and an explosion, caused by an electric spark, +propelled the piston to the end of its stroke. On the return stroke +the burnt gases were discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts. +These operations were repeated on both sides of the piston, and +the engine was thus double-acting. Four hundred of these engines +were said to be at work in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works +Company Limited built and sold one hundred of them in Great +Britain. They were quiet, and smooth in running; the gas consumption, +however, was excessive, amounting to about 100 cub. +ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical ignition +also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by the +introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success +was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their free-piston +engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine +was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but +Otto succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the +engine in a very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed +a practical clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one +direction but engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the +other; it consisted of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets—the same +clutch, in fact, as has since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles. +This engine consumed about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power +per hour—less than half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands +were made and sold, but its strange appearance and unmechanical +operation raised many objections. Several inventors meanwhile +again advocated compression of the gaseous mixture before ignition, +among them being Schmidt, a German, and Million, a Frenchman, +both in 1861.</p> + +<p>To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of +proposing, with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now +widely used in compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published +in Paris in 1862, he stated that to obtain economy with an explosion +engine four conditions are requisite: (1) The greatest possible +cylinder volume with the least possible cooling surface; (2) the +greatest possible rapidity of explosion; (3) the greatest possible +expansion; and (4) the greatest possible pressure at the beginning +of the expansion. The sole arrangement capable of satisfying +these conditions he stated would be found in an engine operating +as follows: (1) Suction during an entire out-stroke of the piston; +(2) compression during the following in-stroke; (3) ignition at the +dead point, and expansion during the third stroke; (4) forcing out +of the burnt gases from the cylinder on the fourth and last return +stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly contemplated, in theory at +least, the engine produced by Dr Otto fourteen years later. He did +not, however, put his engine into practice, and probably had no +idea of the practical difficulties to be overcome before realizing his +conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto belongs the honour of +independently inventing the same cycle, now correctly known as +the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all practical difficulties +and making the gas engine of world-wide application. This +he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly surpassed all +others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is manufactured over the +whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr Otto used low +compression, only about 30 ℔ per sq. in. above atmosphere. Year +by year compression was increased and greater power and economy +were obtained, and at present compressions of more than 100 ℔ +per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.</p> +</div> + +<p>The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement +in detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to +be used with safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in +dimensions and power. In the same period light and heavy oil +engines have been developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oil Engine</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working +process, into three well-defined types:—</p> + +<p>(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous +compression.</p> + +<p>(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous +compression.</p> + +<p>(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous +compression.</p> + +<p>For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded. +Gas engines without compression are now considered +to be much too wasteful of gas to be of commercial importance. +Those of the second type have never reached the stage of extended +commercial application; they are scientifically interesting, +however, and may take an important place in the future development +of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir William Siemens +with regard to them have not been realized, although he spent +many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also +devoted much thought and work to this second type may be +mentioned Brayton (1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883); +Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889); and Diesel (1892). Diesel’s +engines are proving successful as oil engines but have not been +introduced as gas engines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The working cycles of the three types are as follows:—</p> + +<p><i>First Type.</i>—Four operations.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric + pressure.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Exploding the charge.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Expanding after explosion.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Second Type.</i>—Five operations.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at + atmospheric pressure.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of + flame, at the pressure of compression.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Expanding after admission.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Third Type.</i>—Five operations.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric + pressure.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Exploding the charge.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Expanding after explosion.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p> +</div> + +<p>In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished +by the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for +the cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete +rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its replacement +by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at atmospheric +temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be +repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air +engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working +fluid to heat or cool through metal surfaces.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:654px; height:367px" src="images/img497a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Four-cycle Engines.</i>—Otto-cycle engines belong to the third +type, being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +is compressed previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, +fig. 2 is a sectional plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine +built about 1892 by Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were +the original makers of Otto engines in Great Britain. In external +appearance it somewhat resembles a modern high-pressure +steam engine, of which the working parts are exceedingly strong. +In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal and open-ended, +works a long trunk piston, the front end of which carries +the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel +large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the +piston through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is +considerably longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full +in leaves a space into which it does not enter. This is the combustion +space, in which the charge is first compressed and then +burned. On the forward stroke, the piston A (fig. 2) takes into +the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air at atmospheric +pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into the space +Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then +ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a +high pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under +the pressure of the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust +valve is opened, discharges the products of combustion. The +engine is then ready to go through the same cycle of operations. +It thus takes four strokes or two revolutions of the shaft to +complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used alternately +as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at full +load, thus gives one impulse for every two +revolutions. The valves, which are all of the +conical-seated lift type, are four in number—charge +inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting +valve, and exhaust valve. The igniting valve +is usually termed the timing valve, because it +determines the time of the explosion. Since +the valves have each to act once in every two +revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams +or eccentrics placed directly on the crank +shaft. The valve shaft D is driven at half +the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by +means of the skew or worm gear E, one wheel +of which is mounted on the crank shaft and the +other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished +by means of a metal tube heated to +incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the +proper moment the ignition or timing valve is +opened, and the mixed gas and air under pressure being admitted +to the interior of the tube, the inflammable gases come into contact +with the incandescent metal surface and ignite; the flame +at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its contents, thus +producing the motive explosion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The working parts are as follows:—A the piston, B the connecting +rod, C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing, +F the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve +cam, I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the +charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N +lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P +timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube, +S governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating +ignition tube. On the first forward or charging +stroke the charge of gas and air is admitted by +the inlet valve I, which is operated by the lever J +from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas +supply is admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift +valve L, which is also operated by the lever and +link N from the cam M, controlled, however, by +the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates +either to admit gas wholly, or to cut it off completely, +so that the variation in power is obtained +by varying the number of the explosions.</p> + +<p>Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built +further modifications have been made, principally +in the direction of dispensing with or diminishing +port space, that is, so arranging the ports that +the compression space is not broken up into +several separate chambers. In this way the cooling +surface in contact with the intensely hot gases is +reduced to a minimum. This is especially important +when high compressions are used, as then +the compression space being small, the port spaces +form a large proportion of the total space. For +maximum economy it is necessary to get rid of +port space altogether; this is done by making the +lift valves open directly into the compression +space. This arrangement can be readily made +in small- and medium-sized engines, but in the larger engines it +becomes necessary to provide ports, so as to allow the valves to be +more easily removed for cleaning.</p> +</div> + +<p>The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson +for the production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke +by the action of air mixed with steam, soon led to the development +of larger and larger Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained +consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and +some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having a lower heating value +of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. With this gas +these engines used about 1 ℔ of anthracite per b.h.p. per hour.</p> + +<p>From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first +placed on the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in +1894, but then presenting many difficulties which were not removed +till about nine years later when Dowson and others +placed effective suction plants in use in considerable numbers. +Such suction plants are now built by all the leading gas engine +constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500 i.h.p.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:669px; height:316px" src="images/img497b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem +of the bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are +now at work for powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H. +Thwaite demonstrated that the so-called waste gas from blast +furnaces could be used in gas engines, and this undoubtedly +led to the design and construction of the very large gas engines +now becoming common both in Europe and in America. It +appears from Thwaite’s experiments that the surplus gas from +the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at +least three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +and night, and it is calculated that in America nearly three +million horse-power is available from this source. Thwaite’s +system was put into operation in 1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works, +and it was also successfully applied near Barrow-in-Furness. +For many reasons the system did not take immediate root in +England, but in 1898 the Société Cockerill of Seraing near Liège +applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to utilize +blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at +105 revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an +engine giving 600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for +driving a blowing cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single +cylinder of 51.2 in. diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in. +About 1900 the Gasmotoren Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle +engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four cylinders each 33 in. diameter +and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135 revolutions per minute. It was +coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley Bros. Ltd. took up the +large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. engine by them +was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.’s works, Winnington, in +1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke, +and it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:667px; height:607px" src="images/img498.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single +acting open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the +larger engines closed cylinders of the double acting type are used. +The engine then closely resembles a double acting steam engine. +It has a cylinder cover with packing box of a special type, and, +in addition to the water jacket surrounding the cylinder and +combustion spaces, the piston and piston rod are hollow and +cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such a double +acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then +two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft +is occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding +revolution gets two power impulses. For still larger engines +two such double acting cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that +one piston rod runs through two pistons and connects to a slide +in front and to one crank pin by a connecting rod. Such an +engine gives two power impulses for every revolution of the crank +shaft. The greatest power developed in one double acting +cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder of +45¼ in. diameter by 51¼ in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per +minute gives 1100 i.h.p.</p> + +<p><i>Two-Cycle Engine.</i>—While the Otto or four-cycle engine was +developing as above described, inventors were hard at work on +the two-cycle engine. In Britain this work fell mostly upon +Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while on the continent of Europe +the most persevering and determined worker was Koerting.</p> + +<p>Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876. +His first patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the +air pressure vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of +1878, and the engine there described was exhibited at the Royal +Agricultural Show at Kilburn, London, 1879. In it a pump +compressed a mixture of air and gas into a reservoir, from which +it entered the motor cylinder during the first part of its stroke. +After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum igniter, the piston +was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on the +return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first +compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for +each revolution of the crank shaft. It had +difficulties, however, which prevented it from +reaching the market.</p> + +<p>The particular type of engine now widely +known as operating on the Clerk cycle was +patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One +of the earliest of these engines was set up at +Lord Kelvin’s laboratory at the Glasgow +university and used for the purpose of driving +a Siemens dynamo and supplying his house +with electric light. The engine was first exhibited +in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of +1881 and the London Smoke Abatement Exhibition +of the same year. In this engine the +charge was not compressed by a separate +pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was +used, but its function was to act merely as a +displacer to take in a mixture of gas and air +and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low +a pressure as possible, in such a way that the +entering charge displaced the exhaust gases +through ports which were opened by the overrunning +of the piston. The motor piston thus +timed and controlled the exhaust discharge, and +gave a power impulse for every revolution of +the crank. Engines of the Clerk type were +built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of Glasgow, +the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia, +U.S.A., the Campbell Gas Engine Co., and a +modification was made and sold in considerable +numbers by the Stockport Company. +The lapsing of the Otto patent, however, in +1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time, +although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an +ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine. +This two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for +motor launch work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for +large gas engines up to about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs +Koerting of Hanover.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan +at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders—a power cylinder A +and a displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder +is to take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it +to the power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of +the previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end +of the motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates +with the displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift +valve which opens into the compression space from a chamber +communicating by a pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end +of the motor cylinder are placed <b>V</b>-shaped ports E which open +to the atmosphere by an exhaust pipe. The outward travel of the +motor piston C causes it to overrun these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and +allows the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action +of the engine is as follows:—The displacer piston D on its forward +movement draws in its charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with +reference to the motor piston C that it has returned a small portion +of its stroke just when the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports. +The overrunning of the exhaust ports at once causes the pressure +in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere, and then the pressure in the +displacer overcomes the pressure in the motor cylinder and opens +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +the lift valve, when the charge flows in to the motor cylinder through +the conical compression space and displaces the exhaust gases +through the ports E, while it fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable +charge. The exhaust gases are sufficiently displaced +and the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder by the time the +motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E on the out-stroke and +closed them on the return stroke. The two cylinders are so proportioned +that the exhaust gases are expelled as completely as possible +and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without any material part +of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless the proportions +are carefully made such an escape is possible. The relative operations +of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D are secured by +advancing the crank of the displacer about a right angle compared +to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke compresses +the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when compression +is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. This +produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward +until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations +one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank. +The motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual +manner, but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the +gases are never hot.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:304px" src="images/img499a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was +taken out in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents +of 1879-1880 were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second +cylinder was used. The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed +by a cover and packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas +and air into a reservoir at a few ℔ above atmosphere. The motor +piston was arranged to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but +the exhaust discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift +valve controlled the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust +should be discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at +the end of the stroke the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was +admitted by a lift valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining +exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with charge. This mixture was +compressed into a space at the end of the cylinder and ignited by +means of a flame ignition device. Robson’s engine was built in +considerable numbers by Messrs Tangye of Birmingham, the first +exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at the end of 1880. The modern +Day engine closely resembles the Robson engine +so far as its broad operations are concerned.</p> + +<p>Atkinson’s work on the gas engine was begun +in 1878, his first patent being No. 3212 of 1879. +The engine described in that patent somewhat +resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at +Kilburn. Atkinson was ingenious and persevering +in the invention of two-cycle engines. Two +of his engines were made in considerable numbers. +The first was known as the “Differential” +engine, exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition, +London, in 1885. A later engine produced by +him was called the “Cycle” engine, and it +proved to be the most economical of all the +motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of +motors for electric lighting in 1888-1889. +Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his +ingenious contrivances are now at work on the +well-known engines of that firm.</p> +</div> + +<p>Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize +the field of the smaller internal combustion +engines, and very large engines are also constructed +on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however, +compete strongly with the four-cycle for large gas +engines using blast furnace gas. Koerting engines on the +Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 i.h.p. per double acting +motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this method gives +two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a +Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of +their construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and +40½ in. stroke gives 700 b.h.p.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders +of a Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power +cylinder section is shown above that of the +pump cylinders, but it is to be understood that +both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane +as in the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The +Koerting engine, however, is double acting, +whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The +power cylinder A has a power piston A¹ and +compression spaces A²A³. At the centre of the +cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the +atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A¹ +at both ends of the stroke. A<span class="sp">4</span> and A<span class="sp">5</span> are inlet +valves for gas and air. The single acting pump +cylinders BB¹ supply the air required for the +charge, and the double acting gas cylinder CC¹ +supplies the gas. Both gas and air are led from +these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet +valves A<span class="sp">4</span>A<span class="sp">5</span>. The air pump pistons are lettered +B²B³ and the gas pump piston C². The main +crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of +the power piston A¹, and the pump crank F +to the trunk air pump piston B² which drives +the other air pump piston B³ and the gas +pump piston C² by a piston rod passing through all three. The +gas mixture is not made until the inlet valves A<span class="sp">4</span>A<span class="sp">5</span> are reached, so +that no explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder +A. The air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge +some of the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents +of the cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the +engine is exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and +the arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each +other is also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports +E, and the incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in +the Clerk engine.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:665px; height:268px" src="images/img499b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by +Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhäuser, +operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan +at fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A¹A², A¹ being +operated by a centre and A² by two outside cranks, side rods, and +cross head; the pistons A¹A² thus move in opposite directions and +give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the +air and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas +on the other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from +the pump and to the power cylinder by ports C¹; a similar chamber +D opens to a gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power +cylinder by ports D¹. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other +end of the cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust +ports E the pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere; +the back piston then opens the air ports C¹ and air under slight +pressure flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight +pressure from the gas ports D¹. In this way the power cylinder A +is charged with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the +pistons A¹A² approach each other the charge is compressed into the +space between and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons +are then forced apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechelhäuser +engine, which is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore +of Glasgow, has attained considerable success in driving blowing +pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light, and in driving +iron rolling mills.</p> + +<p>Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be +seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr +R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large +gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:677px; height:240px" src="images/img500.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Arrangement of Oechelhäuser Gas Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate +of 23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790 +h.p.; the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebrüder +Koerting, 198, total 165,760 h.p.; Société Alsacienne, 55, total +23,410 h.p.; Société John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Société +Suisse, Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken, +Augsburg and Nürnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean +power of each gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and +the Augsburg and Nürnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p. +It is stated that in one factory there are gas engines representing +a total output of 35,000 h.p. These European large gas engines thus +give nearly 575,000 h.p. between them.</p> + +<p>The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress +in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p. +was at work or in construction in the United States in 1908. The +first large engines were installed at the works of the Lackawanna +Steel Co., Buffalo, New York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk +type, and were built by the De La Vergne Co. of New York. They +included 16 blowing engines, each of 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of +1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce electric light. This +large power plant was started in 1902. The Westinghouse Co. of +<span class="correction" title="amended from Pittsburg">Pittsburgh</span> have also built large engines, several of which are in +operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel Co. These +Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, having +two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the +cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow +Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with +cylinders of 42 in. diameter and +54 in. stroke. The English Westinghouse +Co. have also designed +large gas engines, and they exhibited +a very interesting vertical +multiple cylinder gas engine having +four cranks and eight single-acting +cylinders, four pairs, in +tandem, at the Franco-British +Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750 +h.p., and the pistons were not +watered.</p> + +<p>Over two million horse-power +of the smaller gas engines are +now at work in the world, and +certainly above one million horse-power +of petrol motors.</p> +</div> + +<p>The application of large gas +engines to marine work, the +compounding of the gas engine, +and many other matters are being strenuously pursued. +Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels +used for towing purposes in which the vessel is driven by +gas engines operated by means of suction gas-producers consuming +anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and Messrs Beardmore +in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs, and +both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft +to a gas launch which has been tested in the Solent, +and Beardmore to an old gunboat, the “Rattler.” The +“Rattler” was fitted with five-cylinder Otto cycle engines and +suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has sailed some +1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to +be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas +engines can be installed on board ship, but progress is being +made, and without doubt all difficulties will be ultimately +surmounted and gas power successfully applied to ships for +both large and small power.</p> + +<p>The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have +been displaced by electrical ignition of both high and low tension +types; all large gas engines are ignited electrically and generally +by more than one igniter per cylinder.</p> + +<p>The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as +to keep up continuity of impulses by the method either of +throttling the charge inlet or by varying the +point of admission of gas alone or air and gas +mixed.</p> + +<p>It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration, +that the whole world is now alive to +the possibilities of the internal-combustion +motor, and that progress will be more and +more rapid. This motor has almost fulfilled +the expectations of those engineers who +have devoted a large part of their lives to +its study and advancement. They are looking +forward now to the completion of the +work begun so many years ago, and expect, +at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion +motor competing with the steam +engine even in its latest form, the steam turbine, on sea as +vigorously as it does at present on land.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines.</i>—The Otto and Clerk +type engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and +two-cycle, because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to +complete the power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk +engine two strokes complete the cycle.</p> + +<p>Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of +the total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the +explosion and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency +may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion +which appears as work given out by the engine available for overcoming +external resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the +effective efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas +engines the indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by +tests of Otto engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated +thermal efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some +experimenters claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher +than ordinary best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared +to show this advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal +efficiency, the brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency, +together with other particulars such as engine dimensions, types +and names of experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal +efficiency has also increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically +one-third of the whole heat of combustion is obtained by these +engines in effective work available for all motive power purposes.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>—<i>Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines from 1882 to 1908.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mechanical<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Names of<br />Experimenters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dimensions<br />of Engine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Indicated<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Brake<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Type of<br />Engine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc">Diam.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Stroke.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Slaby</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl"> 6.75″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 13.7″</td> <td class="tcl rb">16</td> <td class="tcl rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Deutz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">84.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Thurston</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl"> 8.5″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 14″</td> <td class="tcl rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">86.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Society of Arts</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl"> 9.5″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18″</td> <td class="tcl rb">22</td> <td class="tcl rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">80.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Society of Arts</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl"> 9.02″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 14″</td> <td class="tcl rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">Griffin (6-cycle)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kennedy</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl"> 7.5″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 15″</td> <td class="tcl rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">18.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Beck (6-cycle)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Capper</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcl"> 8.5″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18″</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">17.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Robinson</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcl">10″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18″</td> <td class="tcl rb">28.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb">National</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">83  </td> <td class="tcl rb">Humphrey</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcl">26″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 36″</td> <td class="tcl rb">31</td> <td class="tcl rb">25.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">81.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Witz</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcl">51.2″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 55.13″</td> <td class="tcl rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cockerill</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">85.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Inst. Civil. Eng.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl">14″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 22″</td> <td class="tcl rb">35<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">National</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">77.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Burstall</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> <td class="tcl">16″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 24″</td> <td class="tcl rb">41.5<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">32</td> <td class="tcl rb">Premier</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">87.5</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Hopkinson</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcl bb">11.5″</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">× 21″</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">36.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">32.2</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Crossley</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines.</i>—It has been found that +two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to +obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the +thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical +difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in +indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in +1884 to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the +same period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not +so well established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have +been so far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests +than those of the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +that the mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%, +while in the later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%.</p> + +<p><i>Standards of Thermal Efficiency</i>.—To set up an absolute standard +of thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner +the physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous +explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous +explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of +Europe, and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of +Mallard and Le Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and +Bairstow and Alexander. From these and other experiments it is +possible to measure approximately the internal energy or the specific +heats of the gases of combustion at very high temperatures, such +as 2000° C.; and to advance the knowledge on the subject a committee +of the British Association was formed at Leicester in 1907. +Recognizing, in 1882, that it was impossible to base any standard +cycle of efficiency upon the then existing knowledge of gaseous +explosions Dugald Clerk proposed what is called the air standard. +This standard has been used for many years, and it was officially +adopted by a committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers appointed +in 1903, this committee’s two reports, dated March 1905 +and December 1905, definitely adopting the air-standard cycle as +the standard of efficiency for internal combustion engines. This +standard assumes that the working fluid is air, that its specific heat +is constant throughout the range of temperature, and that the +value of the ratio between the specific heat at constant volume and +constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard efficiency for different +cycles will be found fully discussed in the report of that committee, +but space here only allows of a short discussion of the various cycles +using compression previous to ignition.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table II</span>.—<i>Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle Engines from 1884 to 1908</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mechanical<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Name of<br />Experimenter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dimensions<br />of Motor<br />Cylinders.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Indicated<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Brake<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Type of Engine.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc">Diam.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Stroke.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">84</td> <td class="tcl rb">Garrett</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl"> 9″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 20″</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk-Sterne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stockport Co.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Andrews & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">83</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcl"> 9″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 15″</td> <td class="tcl rb">20.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk-Tangye</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atkinson</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcl"> 7½″</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atkinson</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">75</td> <td class="tcl rb">Meyer</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcl">26<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>″</td> <td class="tcl rb">× (2″×37½″)</td> <td class="tcl rb">38</td> <td class="tcl rb">29</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oechelhäuser</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Mather & Platt</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">30.6</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">23</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Koerting</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic +cycles, and each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible +for the conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as +cycles of (1) constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3) +constant volume.</p> + +<p>The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat +is added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression +is assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from +the lowest to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant +temperature, so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant +temperature, which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The +heat supply is stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically +expands until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature. +A compression operation then takes place at the lowest +temperature, so that the necessary heat is discharged by isothermal +compression at the lower temperature. It will be recognized that +this is the Carnot cycle, and the efficiency E is the maximum possible +between the temperature limits in accordance with the well-known +second law of thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T − T<span class="sp">1</span>)/T = +1 − T<span class="sp">1</span>/T, where T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied +and T<span class="sp">1</span> the absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression +are here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that +if t be the temperature before compression and t<span class="su">c</span> the temperature +after compression, then E = 1 − t/t<span class="su">c</span>. This equation in effect says that +thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the +temperatures before and after compression.</p> + +<p>The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to +the working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic +compression raises the pressure—not the temperature—from the +lower to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is +added while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure. +The temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume. +When the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and +reduces the pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower +point. Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature. +The heat in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower +pressure but at diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this +case also that E = 1 − t/t<span class="su">c</span>, that is, that although the maximum +temperature of the working fluid is higher than the temperature of +compression and the temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion +is higher than the lower temperature, yet the proportion of heat +convertible into work is determined here also by the ratio of the +temperatures before and after compression.</p> + +<p>The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required +is added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle +adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the +working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added +while the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which +the fluid is diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces +the pressure and temperature of the working fluid until the +volume is the same as the original volume before compression, and +the necessary heat is discharged from the cycle at constant volume +during falling temperature. Here also it can be shown that the +thermal efficiency depends on the ratio between the temperature +before compression and the temperature after compression. It +is as before E = 1 − t/t<span class="su">c</span>. Where t is the temperature and v the volume +before compression, and t<span class="su">c</span> the temperature and v<span class="su">c</span> the volume after +adiabatic compression, it can be shown that (v<span class="su">c</span>/v)<span class="sp">γ<span class="sp">−1</span></span> = t/t<span class="su">c</span>, so that E +may be written</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">E = 1 − <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>v<span class="su">c</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">γ<span class="sp">−1</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">v</td> <td> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and if v<span class="su">c</span>/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">E = 1 − <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">γ<span class="sp">−1</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">r</td> <td> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>—<i>Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical +Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">1/r</td> <td class="tcc rb">E</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.026</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.61</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.85</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, +constant pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency +depends only on the ratio of the +maximum volume before compression +to the volume after compression; +and, given this ratio, +called 1/r, which does not depend +in any way upon temperature +determinations but only upon the +construction and valve-setting of +the engine, we have a means of +settling the ideal efficiency proper +for the particular engine. Any +desired ideal efficiency may be +obtained from any of the cycles +by selecting a suitable compression +ratio. Table III., giving the +theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of +constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a +compression ratio of ½ to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>th. Such compression ratios as +100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value +in constant volume engines ranges from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span>th. In the +Diesel engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is +usually <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits, +the effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes, +because the temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the +maximum temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression +of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>th raises the temperature of air from 17° C. to about 1600° C, +and as 2000º C. is the highest available explosion temperature for +ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work +would be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart +from other mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized +that constant pressure and constant volume engines have the same +thermal efficiency for similar range of compression temperature, +but Prof. H.L. Callendar first pointed out the interesting fact that +a Carnot cycle engine is equally dependent upon the ratio of the +temperature before and after compression, and that its efficiency for +a given compression ratio is the same as the efficiencies proper for +constant pressure and constant volume engines. Prof. Callendar +demonstrated this at a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers +Committee on thermal standards in 1904. The work of this committee, +together with Clerk’s investigations, prove that in modern +gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that the best result +possible in practice is given by multiplying the air-standard value +by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression ratio of one-third +has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the actual indicated +efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36 multiplied by .7 = +0.25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised to one-fifth, then +the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives .336. The ideal +efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to be about 20% +short of the air-standard values given.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E. +Committee’s values.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This value is, in the author’s view, too high; probably due to +indicator error.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (1810-1865), English +novelist and biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810 +in Lindsay Row, Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way +for Cheyne Walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), +came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and had been successively Unitarian +minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper for students at +Edinburgh, editor of the <i>Scots Magazine</i>, and contributor to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, before he received the post of Keeper of the +Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first +wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell’s mother. She was a +Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county +the family name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs +Stevenson died a month after her daughter was born, and the +babe was carried into Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her +aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her childhood was spent in the pleasant +environment that she has idealized in <i>Cranford</i>. At fifteen years +of age she went to a boarding-school at Stratford-on-Avon, kept +by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her seventeenth year. +Then came occasional visits to London to see her father and his +second wife, and after her father’s death in 1829 to her uncle, +Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in +Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian +minister, and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832 +she was married in the parish church of Knutsford to William +Gaskell, minister of the Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester, +and the author of many treatises and sermons in support +of his own religious denomination. Mr Gaskell held the chair of +English history and literature in Manchester New College.</p> + +<p>Henceforth Mrs Gaskell’s life belonged to Manchester. She and +her husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street, +and finally in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life +began with poetry. She and her husband aspired to emulate +George Crabbe and write the annals of the Manchester poor. One +poetic “Sketch,” which appeared in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> for +January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this +ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband +and wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to +become a successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side +with those of greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished +Unitarian divine, whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all +but forgotten. In her earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly +occupied with domestic duties—she had seven children—and +philanthropic work among the poor. Her first published prose +effort was probably a letter that she addressed to William +Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume entitled +<i>Visits to Remarkable Places</i>. She then told the legend of Clopton +Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and +Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published +in 1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been +commenced until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs +Gaskell visited North Wales, where their only son “Willie” +died of scarlet fever at the age of ten months, and it was, it is +said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her sorrow that her husband +suggested a long work of fiction, and <i>Mary Barton</i> was begun. +There were earlier short stories in <i>Howitt’s Journal</i>, where +“Libbie Marsh’s Three Eras” and “The Sexton’s Hero” appeared +in 1847. But it was <i>Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life</i> that +laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell’s literary career. It was +completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it +unread. It was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the +manuscript for a year without reading it or communicating with +the author. A reminder, however, led to its being sought for, +considered and accepted, the publishers agreeing to pay the +author £100 for the copyright. It was published anonymously +in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide popularity, and +its author secured first the praise and then the friendship of +Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in 1850 +to become a contributor to his new magazine <i>Household Words</i>, +and here the whole of <i>Cranford</i> appeared at intervals from +December 1851 to May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted +in the “World’s Classics” edition (1907), that was published in +<i>All the Year Round</i> for November 1863. Earlier than this, +indeed, for the very first number of <i>Household Words</i> she had +written “Lizzie Leigh.” Mrs Gaskell’s second book, however, was +<i>The Moorland Cottage</i>, a dainty little volume that appeared at +Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the +Christmas number of <i>Household Words</i> for 1853 appeared “The +Squire’s Story,” reprinted in <i>Lizzie Leigh and other Tales</i> in 1865. +In 1853 appeared another long novel, <i>Ruth</i>, and the incomparable +<i>Cranford</i>. This last—now the most popular of her books—is an +idyll of village life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford +and its people. In <i>Ruth</i>, which first appeared in three +volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to a delicate treatment of a girl’s +betrayal and her subsequent rescue. Once more we are introduced +to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the little Unitarian +chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in early +years. In 1855 <i>North and South</i> was published. It had previously +appeared serially in <i>Household Words</i>. Then came—in 1857—the +<i>Life of Charlotte Brontë</i>, in two volumes. Miss Brontë, who +had enjoyed the friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged +visits, died in March 1855. Two years earlier she had begged her +publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel <i>Villette</i> in order +that her friend’s <i>Ruth</i> should not suffer. This biography, by its +vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy and indeed tragic +story of the three Brontë sisters, greatly widened the interest in +their writings and gave its author a considerable place among +English biographers. But much matter was contained in the +first and second editions that was withdrawn from the third. +Certain statements made by the writer as to the school of +Charlotte Brontë’s infancy, an identification of the “Lowood” of +<i>Jane Eyre</i> with the existing school, and the acceptance of the +story of Bramwell Brontë’s ruin having been caused by the +woman in whose house he had lived as tutor, brought threats of +libel actions. Apologies were published, and the third edition of +the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by “another +hand.” The book in any case remains one of the best biographies +in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then +popular novel, <i>Mabel Vaughan</i>, was also included in her work of +this year 1857, but no further book was published by her until +1859, when, under the title of <i>Round the Sofa</i>, she collected many of +her contributions to periodical literature. <i>Round the Sofa</i> appeared +in two volumes, the first containing only “My Lady Ludlow,” +the second five short stories. These stories reappeared the same +year in one volume as <i>My Lady Ludlow and other Tales</i>. In the +next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of short stories, +entitled <i>Right at Last and other Tales</i>. The title story had +appeared two years earlier in <i>Household Words</i> as “The Sin of a +Father.” In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by +Colonel Vecchj, translated from the Italian—<i>Garibaldi and +Caprera</i>, and in 1863 she published her last long novel, <i>Sylvia’s +Lovers</i>, dedicated “to My dear Husband by her who best knows +his Value.” After this we have—in 1863—a one-volume story, +<i>A Dark Night’s Work</i>, and in the same year <i>Cousin Phyllis and +other Tales</i> appeared. Reprinted short stories from <i>All the +Year Round</i>, <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, and other publications, tend to +lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during +her lifetime. <i>The Grey Woman and other Tales</i> appeared in 1865.</p> + +<p>Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn, +Alton, Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the +profits of her writings as a present for her husband. She was +buried in the little graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. +Her unfinished novel <i>Wives and Daughters</i> was published in two +volumes in 1866.</p> + +<p>Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her +death. <i>Cranford</i> has been published in a hundred forms and +with many illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic. +Scarcely less recognition is awarded to the <i>Life of Charlotte +Brontë</i>, which is in every library. The many volumes of novels and +stories seemed of less secure permanence until the falling in of their +copyrights revealed the fact that a dozen publishers thought them +worth reprinting. The most complete editions, however, are the +“Knutsford Edition,” edited with introductions by A.W. Ward, in +eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the “World’s Classics” edition, +edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes (Henry Froude, 1908).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the +publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical +introduction to the “Knutsford” <i>Mary Barton</i> by A.W. Ward; +the <i>Letters of Charles Dickens</i>; <i>Women Writers</i>, by C.J. Hamilton, +second series; <i>H.B. Stowe’s Life and Letters</i>, edited by Annie Fields; +<i>Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher</i>; <i>Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford</i>, by +G.A. Payne; <i>Cranford</i>, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie; +<i>Écrivains modernes de l’Angleterre</i>, by Émile Montégut.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 37160-h.htm or 37160-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/1/6/37160/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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